Assessment and Management of Foot Ulcers For People With Diabetes Second Edition1

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Clinical Best

Practice Guidelines
MARCH 2013

Assessment and Management of


Foot Ulcers for People with Diabetes
Second Edition

Disclaimer
These guidelines are not binding on nurses or the organizations that employ them. The use of these guidelines
should be flexible, and based on individual needs and local circumstances. They neither constitute a liability nor
discharge from liability. While every effort has been made to ensure the accuracy of the contents at the time of
publication, neither the authors nor the Registered Nurses Association of Ontario (RNAO) give any guarantee as
to the accuracy of the information contained in them nor accept any liability, with respect to loss, damage, injury
or expense arising from any such errors or omission in the contents of this work.

Copyright
With the exception of those portions of this document for which a specific prohibition or limitation against
copying appears, the balance of this document may be produced, reproduced and published in its entirety,
without modification, in any form, including in electronic form, for educational or non-commercial purposes.
Should any adaptation of the material be required for any reason, written permission must be obtained from
the Registered Nurses Association of Ontario. Appropriate credit or citation must appear on all copied materials
as follows:
Registered Nurses Association of Ontario (2013). Assessment and Management of Foot Ulcers for People with
Diabetes (2nd ed.). Toronto, ON: Registered Nurses Association of Ontario.
This work is funded by the Ontario Ministry of Health and Long-Term Care.

Contact Information
Registered Nurses Association of Ontario
158 Pearl Street, Toronto, Ontario M5H 1L3
Website: www.rnao.ca/bestpractices

Assessment and Management of


Foot Ulcers for People with Diabetes
Second Edition

Assessment and Management of Foot Ulcers for People with Diabetes, Second Edition

Greetings from Doris Grinspun,


Chief Executive Officer, Registered Nurses Association of Ontario
The Registered Nurses Association of Ontario (RNAO) is delighted to present the
second edition of the clinical best practice guideline, Assessment and Management
of Foot Ulcers for People with Diabetes. Evidence-based practice supports the
excellence in service that health professionals are committed to delivering every
day. RNAO is pleased to provide you with this key resource, selected by the Council
of the Federation for national implementation.
We offer our heartfelt thanks to the many stakeholders that are making our vision
for Best Practice Guidelines (BPG) a reality: the Government of Ontario, for
recognizing RNAOs ability to lead the program and for providing multi-year
funding; Drs. Irmajean Bajnok and Monique Lloyd, Director and Associate Director
(respectively) of the RNAO International Affairs and Best Practice Guidelines
(IABPG) Centre, for their expertise and leadership in advancing the development of BPGs; and Expert Panel Chair
Laura Teague, Wound Specialist at Saint Michaels Hospital in Toronto, Canada, for her exquisite expertise and
stewardship of this guideline. Thanks also to RNAO staff Rishma Nazarali, Sarah Xiao, Anastasia Harripaul and
Andrea Stubbs, for their intense work in the production of this second edition. Special thanks to the entire BPG
Expert Panel for generously providing time and expertise to deliver a rigorous and robust clinical resource.
We couldnt have done it without you!
The nursing and health-care community, with their unwavering commitment and passion for excellence in patient
care, have provided the expertise and countless hours of volunteer work essential to the development and revision of
each guideline. Employers have responded enthusiastically by nominating best practice Champions, implementing
guidelines, and evaluating their impact on patients and organizations. Governments at home and abroad have joined
in this journey. Together, we are building a culture of evidence-based practice.
Successful uptake of BPGs requires a concerted effort from educators, clinicians, employers, policy makers and
researchers. After lodging the evidence into their minds and hearts, knowledgeable and skillful health professionals
and students need healthy work environments to enable guideline use and practice changes.
We ask that you share this guideline with members of the interprofessional team, as there is much to learn from one
another. Together, we must ensure that the public receives the best possible care every time they come in contact with
us making them the real winners in this important effort!

Doris Grinspun, RN, MSN, PhD, LLD (Hon), O. ONT.


Chief Executive Officer
Registered Nurses Association of Ontario

R E G I S T E R E D N U R S E S A S S O C I AT I O N O F O N TA R I O

Assessment and Management of Foot Ulcers for People with Diabetes, Second Edition

Greetings from Vasanthi Srinivasan and Susan Williams,


Lead ADMs, Council of the Federation, Clinical Practice Guidelines Working Group
At their Council of the Federation meeting in
January 2012, provincial and territorial Premiers
launched a series of new initiatives designed
to encourage collaboration and cooperation
on health care innovations across the country.
Premiers received the first report from the Health
Care Innovation Working Group co-chaired by PEI
Premier Ghiz and Saskatchewan Premier Brad, and
directed their Ministers of Health to come together
and work closely with national and regional
health professional organizations to ensure that
Vasanthi Srinivasan
Susan Williams
Canadians have access to the best quality health
care in the world. While Premiers acknowledged that Canadas provinces and territories are pursuing innovation in
their own jurisdictions, they recognized that more transformative, lasting change can be achieved together.
As part of this new initiative, Premiers asked Ontario and Alberta to co-lead work on accelerating the adoption of key
clinical best practice guidelines across the country. Premiers want to ensure that all Canadians benefit from up to date,
evidence-based guidance, regardless of where in Canada it is developed. So, after consulting with government health
officials, major health professional groups including CMA, CNA/RNAO, HEAL, and many other relevant experts,
provincial and territorial Ministers of Health recommended to their Premiers the wide adoption of two guidelines for
the initial phase of this pan-Canadian work. One of these two guidelines was the Registered Nurses Association of
Ontario (RNAO) Assessment and Management of Foot Ulcers for People with Diabetes.
Ensuring quality health care requires access to high-quality, regularly updated advice for patient care. The RNAOs
Nursing Best Practice Guidelines Program provides Premiers with exactly the level of scientific rigour they are looking
for, combined with the accessibility and usability needed to quickly spread the guideline to nursing practitioners and
other health professionals across the country.
Given Canadas aging population and rising rates of diabetes, our health systems will increasingly depend on resources
like the RNAOs Assessment and Management of Foot Ulcers for People with Diabetes guideline to manage demands for
these important health care services. We would like to thank RNAO for their hard work and leadership in transforming
evidence into action. This ongoing commitment is helping to ensure quality health care for all Canadians.
Co-Leads
Clinical Practice Guidelines Working Group,
Health Care Innovation Working Group

Vasanthi Srinivasan
Assistant Deputy Minister
Ontario Ministry of Health and Long-Term Care

Susan Williams
Assistant Deputy Minister
Alberta Health

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Assessment and Management of Foot Ulcers for People with Diabetes, Second Edition

Table of Contents
How to use this Document . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Purpose and Scope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

BACKGROUND

Summary of Recommendations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Interpretation of Evidence. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Panel Members . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
RNAO Best Practice Guideline Program Team . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Stakeholder Acknowledgement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Background Content . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

R E C O M M E N D AT I O N S

Practice Recommendations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Education Recommendations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Organization and Policy Recommendations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
Research Gaps and Future Implications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Evaluation/Monitoring of Guideline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
Implementation Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59

REFERENCES

Process for Guideline Update/Review of Guideline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61

Reference List . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75

R E G I S T E R E D N U R S E S A S S O C I AT I O N O F O N TA R I O

Assessment and Management of Foot Ulcers for People with Diabetes, Second Edition

Appendix A: Glossary of Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100


Appendix B: Guideline Development Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
Appendix C: Process for Systematic Review/Search Strategy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
Appendix D: University of Texas Foot Classification System Categories 4-6: Risk Factors for Amputation. . . . . . . . 109
Appendix E: University of Texas Foot Classification System Categories 0-3: Risk Factors for Ulceration . . . . . . . . . 110
Appendix F: University of Texas Health Science Center San Antonio Diabetic Wound Classification System . . . . . . . 112
Appendix G: PEDIS: Diabetic Foot Ulcer Classification System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
Appendix H: Description of Foot Deformities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
Appendix I: Diagnostic Tests to Determine Vascular Supply . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
Appendix J: Wound Swabbing Technique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127

Appendix L: Suggestions for Assessing and Selecting Shoes and Socks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129

APPENDICES

Appendix K: Use of the Semmes-Weinstein Monofilament . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128

Appendix M: Offloading Devices. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130


Appendix N: Clinic Assessment Tool . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
Appendix O: Optional Treatment Modalities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
Appendix P: Debridement Decision-Making Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
Appendix Q: Topical Antimicrobial Agents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
Appendix R: A Guide to Dressing Foot Wounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
Appendix S: Diabetes, Healthy Feet and You Brochure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
Appendix T: Pressure Ulcer Scale for Healing (PUSH) Tool 3.0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
Appendix U: Resources for Diabetic Foot Ulcer Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
Appendix V: Description of the Toolkit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156

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BACKGROUND

How to Use this Document


This nursing best practice guidelineG is a comprehensive document that provides resources necessary for the support
of evidence-based nursing practice. The document needs to be reviewed and applied, based on the specific needs of
the organization or practice setting/environment, as well as the needs and wishes of the clientG. This guideline should
be applied as a tool or template that is intended to enhance decision making in the provision of individualized care.
In addition, the guideline provides an overview of appropriate structures and supports necessary for the provision
of the best possible evidence-based care.
Nurses, other health-care professionals and administrators who lead and facilitate practice changes will find
this document invaluable for the development of policies, procedures, protocols, educational programs and
assessments, interventions and documentation tools. Nurses providing direct care will benefit from reviewing the
recommendations, the evidenceG in support of the recommendations and the process that was used to develop
this edition of the guideline. However, it is highly recommended that practice settings/environments adapt these
guidelines in formats that would be user-friendly for daily use. This guideline has some suggested formats for
local adaptation and tailoring.
Organizations adopting the guideline are advised to carry out the following processes:
a) Assess current nursing and health-care practices using the recommendations in the guideline.
b) Identify recommendations that will address needs or gaps in services.
c) Develop a plan to implement the recommendations systematically using associated tools and resources, with
particular attention to the RNAO Implementation Toolkit (2012b).
The Registered Nurses Association of Ontario is interested in hearing how you have implemented this guideline.
Please contact us to share your story. Implementation resources are available through the RNAO website
(www.RNAO.ca) to assist individuals and organizations to implement best practice guidelines.
* Throughout this document, terms marked with the superscript symbol G (G) can be found in the
Glossary of Terms (Appendix A).

R E G I S T E R E D N U R S E S A S S O C I AT I O N O F O N TA R I O

Assessment and Management of Foot Ulcers for People with Diabetes, Second Edition

Purpose and Scope


BACKGROUND

Best practice guidelines are systematically developed statements designed to assist nurses and clients in decision
making about appropriate health care (Field & Lohr, 1990). This guideline has been developed to address the question
of how to assess and manage people with established diagnosis of diabetic foot ulcer(s)G. It provides evidencebased recommendations to all nurses and the interprofessional teamG who provide care in all health-care settings to
people (>15 years of age) with type 1 and/or type 2 diabetes and who have established diabetic foot ulcers.
Caring for people with diabetic foot ulcers is an interprofessional endeavour. Effective care depends on a coordinated
interprofessional approach incorporating ongoing communication between health-care professionals and people
with diabetic foot ulcers. It is, however, acknowledged that personal preferences and unique needs as well as the
personal and environmental resources available to each client must always be considered in the delivery of care.
The intent of this document is to assist all nurses and the interprofessional team to focus on evidence-based
strategies, within the context of the health-care professional-client relationship. It is further acknowledged that
individual competencies of nurses may vary among nurses and across categories of nursing professionals. These
competencies are based on knowledge, skills, attitudes and judgment enhanced over time by experience and
education. It is expected that individual nurses will perform only those aspects of care for which they have received
appropriate education and experience. All nurses should seek consultation in instances where the clients care needs
surpass the individual nurses ability to act independently.
See Appendix A for a glossary of terms. See Appendices B and C for the guideline development process and process
for systematic reviewG/search of the literature.

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Assessment and Management of Foot Ulcers for People with Diabetes, Second Edition

BACKGROUND

Summary of Recommendations
This guideline is a new edition of, and replaces, the 2005 publication of the RNAO Nursing Best Practice Guideline:
Assessment and Management of Foot Ulcers for People with Diabetes. Recommendations are marked as , ,
or NEW according to the following:

No change was made to the recommendation as a result of the systematic review evidence.

The recommendation and/or supporting evidence were updated as a result of the systematic review evidence.

NEW A new recommendation was developed as a result of the systematic review evidence*.

PRACTICE RECOMMENDATIONSG
Assessment

1.0 Obtain a comprehensive health history and perform physical


examination of affected limb(s).

Ib IV

1.1 Identify the location and classification of foot ulcer(s) and measure
length, width and depth of wound bed.

Ia IV

1.2 Assess bed of foot ulcer(s) for exudate, odour, condition of peri-ulcer
skin and pain.

IV

1.3 Assess affected limb(s) for vascular supply and facilitate appropriate
diagnostic testing, as indicated.

III IV

1.4 Assess foot ulcer(s) for infectionG using clinical assessment


techniques, based on signs and symptoms, and facilitate appropriate
diagnostic testing, if indicated.

Ia

1.5 Assess affected limb(s) for sensory, autonomic and motor changes.

IIa

Ia IV

IV

1.6 Assess affected limb(s) for elevated foot pressure, structural


deformities, ability to exercise, gait abnormality, and ill-fitting
footwear and offloading devices.
1.7 Document characteristics of foot ulcer(s) after each assessment
including location, classification and any abnormal findings.

LEVEL OF
EVIDENCE

R E G I S T E R E D N U R S E S A S S O C I AT I O N O F O N TA R I O

Assessment and Management of Foot Ulcers for People with Diabetes, Second Edition

Planning

Implementation

2.0 Determine the potential of the foot ulcer(s) to heal and ensure
interventions to optimize healing have been explored.

IV

2.1 Develop a plan of care incorporating goals mutually agreed upon


by the client and health-care professionals to manage diabetic
foot ulcer(s).

IV

2.2 Collaborate with the client/family and interprofessional team to


explore other treatment options if healing has not occurred at the
expected rate.

IV

2.3 Collaborate with client/family and the interprofessional team to


establish mutually agreed upon goals to improve qualityG of life if
factors affecting poor healing have been addressed and complete
wound closure is unlikely.

IV

3.0 Implement a plan of care to mitigate risk factors that can influence
wound healing.

IV

Ia IV

3.2 Redistribute pressure applied to foot ulcer(s) by the use of


offloading devices.

Ia

3.3 Provide health education to optimize diabetes management, foot


care and ulcer care.

Ia

3.4 Facilitate client-centred learning based on individual needs to


prevent or reduce complications.

III

4.0 Monitor the progress of wound healing on an ongoing basis using


a consistent tool, and evaluate the percentage of wound closure
at 4 weeks.

Ib

4.1 Reassess for additional correctable factors if healing does not occur
at the expected rate.

IV

3.1 Provide wound care consisting of debridement, infection control


and moisture balance where appropriate.

Evaluation

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BACKGROUND

LEVEL OF
EVIDENCE

PRACTICE RECOMMENDATIONS

Assessment and Management of Foot Ulcers for People with Diabetes, Second Edition

BACKGROUND

EDUCATION RECOMMENDATIONSG
5.0 Health-care professionals participate in continuing education
opportunities to enhance specific knowledge and skills to
competently assess and manage clients with diabetic foot ulcers,
based on the RNAO Nursing Best Practice Guideline, Assessment
and Management of Foot Ulcers for People with Diabetes (2nd ed.).

IV

5.1 Educational institutions incorporate the RNAO Nursing Best Practice


Guideline, Assessment and Management of Foot Ulcers for People
with Diabetes (2nd ed.), into basic registered nurse, registered
practical nurse, doctor of medicine and interprofessional curricula
to promote a cultureG of evidence-based practice.

IV

ORGANIZATION AND POLICY RECOMMENDATIONSG

LEVEL OF
EVIDENCE

6.0 Use a systematic approach to implement the Assessment and


Management of Foot Ulcers for People with Diabetes (2nd ed.)
clinical practice guideline and provide resources and organizational
and administrative supports to facilitate clinician uptake.

IV

6.1 Develop policies that acknowledge and designate human, material


and fiscal resources to support the interprofessional team in diabetic
foot ulcer management.

IV

6.2 Establish and support an interprofessional, inter-agency team


comprised of knowledgeable and interested persons to address
and monitor quality improvement in the management of diabetic
foot ulcers.

IV

6.3 Develop processes to facilitate the referral of clients with diabetic


foot ulcers to local diabetes resources and health-care professionals.

IV

6.4 Advocate for strategies and ongoing funding to assist clients in


obtaining appropriate pressure redistribution devices during and
after ulcer closure.

IV

* Note that no new recommendations were developed as a result of the updated systematic review evidence.

10

LEVEL OF
EVIDENCE

R E G I S T E R E D N U R S E S A S S O C I AT I O N O F O N TA R I O

Assessment and Management of Foot Ulcers for People with Diabetes, Second Edition

Interpretation of Evidence
BACKGROUND

Levels of Evidence

Ia

Evidence obtained from meta-analysis or systematic reviews of randomized controlled trialsG.

Ib

Evidence obtained from at least one randomized controlled trial.

IIa

Evidence obtained from at least one well-designed controlled study without randomization.

IIb

Evidence obtained from at least one other type of well-designed quasi- experimental study,
without randomization.

III

Evidence obtained from well-designed non-experimental descriptive studies, such as


comparative studies, correlation studies and case studies.

IV

Evidence obtained from expert committee reports or opinions and/or clinical experiences of
respected authorities.

Adapted from Annex B: Key to evidence statements and grades of recommendations, by the
Scottish Intercollegiate Guidelines Network (SIGN), 2012, in SIGN 50: A Guideline Developers Handbook.
Available from http://www.sign.ac.uk/guidelines/fulltext/50/annexb.html

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BACKGROUND

Panel Members
Laura M. Teague, RN, MN, NP

Christine A. Murphy,

Panel Chair
Nurse Practitioner, St. Michaels Hospital,
Lecturer, University of Toronto, Faculty of Nursing
Adjunct Faculty, Western University
Faculty of Physical Therapy
(Master of Clinical Science, Wound Healing)
Toronto, Ontario

RN, CETN(C), BSc (Hons), MClScWH, PhD (cand).

Karen Bruton, RN, BScN, CETN(C)

Diabetes Educator
Trillium Health Centre Diabetes Centre,
Toronto, Ontario

Professional Practice Leader,


Northumberland Hills Hospital
Cobourg, Ontario

Patricia Coutts, RN
Wound Care Specialist and Clinical Trials Coordinator,
Dermatology Office of Dr. R. Gary Sibbald
Mississauga, Ontario

Laurie Goodman, RN, BA, MHScN


Advanced Practice Nurse/Educator
Toronto Regional Wound Healing Clinic
CoDirector & Course Coordinator IIWCC-CAN
Mississauga, Ontario

Enterostomal Therapist,
The Ottawa Hospital
Adjunct Faculty, Western University
(Master of Clinical Sciences, Wound Healing)
Ottawa, Ontario

Heather Nesbeth, RN, BSN, CDE

Deirdre OSullivan-Drombolis,
BScPT, MClSc PT (Wound Healing)

Physical Therapist, Wound Resource,


Riverside Health Care Facilities
Adjunct Faculty, Western University
(Master of Clinical Sciences, Wound Healing)
Adjunct Faculty, Northern Ontario School of Medicine
Fort Frances, Ontario

Ruth Thompson, DCh, MCISC-WH


Chiropodist,
The Ottawa Hospital
Ottawa, Ontario

Declarations of interest and confidentiality were made by all members of the guideline development panel.
Further details are available from the Registered Nurses Association of Ontario.

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Assessment and Management of Foot Ulcers for People with Diabetes, Second Edition

RNAO Best Practice Guideline Program Team


Rishma Nazarali, RN, MN

Research Assistant,
Registered Nurses Association of Ontario
Toronto, Ontario

Program Manager,
Registered Nurses Association of Ontario
Toronto, Ontario

Erica DSouza, BSc, GC

Andrea Stubbs, BA

Project Coordinator (June - September 2012),


Registered Nurses Association of Ontario
Toronto, Ontario

Project Coordinator (January - March 2013),


Registered Nurses Association of Ontario
Toronto, Ontario

Kim English, RN, BScN, MN

Sarah Xiao, RN, MSc, BNSc (Hons)

Research Assistant,
Registered Nurses Association of Ontario
Toronto, Ontario

Nursing Research Associate (July 2012 - March 2013),


Registered Nurses Association of Ontario
Toronto, Ontario

Anastasia Harripaul, RN, BScN (Hons)

Rita Wilson, RN, MEd, MN

Nursing Research Associate (February - March 2013),


Registered Nurses Association of Ontario
Toronto, Ontario

eHealth Program Manager


Registered Nurses Assocation of Ontario
Toronto, Ontario

Monique Lloyd, RN, PhD

Alice Yang, BBA

Associate Director, Guideline Development,


Research and Evaluation
Registered Nurses Association of Ontario
Toronto, Ontario

Project Coordinator (September - December 2012),


Registered Nurses Association of Ontario
Toronto, Ontario

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BACKGROUND

Kateryna Aksenchuk, RN, BScN

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Assessment and Management of Foot Ulcers for People with Diabetes, Second Edition

BACKGROUND

Stakeholder Acknowledgement
StakeholdersG representing diverse perspectives were solicited for their feedback, and the Registered Nurses
Association of Ontario wishes to acknowledge the following individuals for their contribution in reviewing this
Nursing Best Practice Guideline.

Afsaneh Alavi, MD, FRCPC

Janet L. Kuhnke,

Womens College Hospital


Toronto, Ontario

RN, BA, BSN, MS, ET, PhD (cand.)

David G. Armstrong, DPM, MD, PhD


Professor of Surgery,
Southern Arizona Limb Salvage Alliance
Department of Surgery
University of Arizona College of Medicine
Tucson, Arizona

Mariam Botros, D.CH, CDE, IIWCC


Director of Diabetic Foot Canada
CAWC, Womens College Hospital
Wound Healing Clinic
Toronto, Ontario

Keith Bowering, MD, FRCPC, FACP


Director, Diabetic Foot Complications
Member, Expert Committee, Canadian Diabetes
Association Clinical Practice Guidelines, 2008, 2013,
Foot Care Chapter
Edmonton, Alberta

Faculty/Enterostomal Therapist
St. Lawrence College/Laurentian University BSN
Collaborative Program and
St. Elizabeth Health Care Clinic
Cornwall, Ontario

Ann-Marie McLaren,
DCh, BSc Pod Med, MClSc WH

Chiropodist/Professional Practice Leader


St. Michaels Hospital
Toronto, Ontario

Stephan Mostowy, MD, FRCS(C)


Vascular and Endovascular Surgeon
Kelowna General Hospital
Kelowna, British Columbia

Lyndsay Orr, BScPT, MClSc (Wound Healing)


Physiotherapist, Wound Care Consultant
Cambridge Memorial Hospital
Cambridge, Ontario

Tim Brandys, MD, Med, FRCSC, FACS

Cynthia Payne, RD, CDE

Vascular Surgeon, Program Director


The Ottawa Hospital, University of Ottawa
Ottawa, Ontario

Registered Dietitian, Certified Diabetes Educator


Northumberland Hills Hospital
Cobourg, Ontario

Connie Harris, RN, ET, IIWCC, MSc

Gregory W. Rose, MD, MSc(Epi), FRCPC

Senior Clinical Specialist Wound & Ostomy


Red Cross Care Partners
Waterloo, Ontario

Assistant Professor of Medicine


University of Ottawa, The Ottawa Hospital, Bruyere
Continuing Care and Queensway Carleton Hospital
Ottawa, Ontario

Jenny St. Jean, BScN, WCC


Wound Care Champion
Bayshore Home Health
Ottawa, Ontario

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Assessment and Management of Foot Ulcers for People with Diabetes, Second Edition

Background Context
BACKGROUND

Diabetes mellitus is a serious and complex life-long condition affecting 8.3% of the worlds population and
2.7 million Canadians (Canadian Diabetes Association (CDA), 2010; International Working Group on the Diabetic Foot (IWGDF), 2011;
Lipscomb & Hux, 2007). The prevalence of diabetes has increased 70% since the 1998 publication of the CDA clinical
practice guidelinesG, and the rate continues to increase across all age groups. Between 1995 and 2005, the prevalence
of diabetes in Ontario increased steadily by an average of 6.2% per year (Lipscomb & Hux, 2007). The rate of diabetes is
increasing the greatest among Aboriginal Canadians, who have a three to five times higher rate of diabetes than the
general population (Doucet & Beatty, 2010). Diabetes seriously burdens individuals, their families and society. With the
increasing prevalence of diabetes in Canada, the annual economic cost attributable to the condition is estimated to
rise from $5.2 billion in 1998 to $16.9 billion by 2020 (Lau, 2010).
There are two major classifications of diabetes: type 1 and type 2. Type 1 diabetes, also known as insulin-dependent
diabetes mellitus (IDDM), affects 10 to 15% of all people with diabetes and is primarily the result of an inability to
produce insulin due to beta cell destruction in the pancreas. While type 1 diabetes accounts for fewer individuals
with diabetes, it results in a disproportionately higher frequency of diabetes-related complications. Type 2 diabetes,
also known as noninsulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (NIDDM), accounts for 90% of those diagnosed with diabetes
and results from a combination of insufficient insulin production and resistance of the bodys cells to the actions of
insulin (CDA, 2010).
Control of blood glucose levels is paramount to minimizing complications related to diabetes (Diabetes Control and
Complication Trial (DCCT) Research Group, 1993; United Kingdom Prospective Diabetes Study (UKPDS) Group 33, 1998). This is achieved
through lowering of serum glucose levels using oral hypoglycemic agents, subcutaneous injections of insulin,
dietary restriction and regular exercise. Other factors contributing to delayed onset of complications include control
of hypertension, hyperlipidemia and hyperinsulinemia. Unfortunately, these treatments may not completely control
the progression of diabetes-related changes, such as neuropathy (Canadian Diabetes Association (CDA) Clinical Practice Guidelines
(CPG) Expert Committee, 2008).
Diabetic foot ulceration and amputation are a result of complications of diabetes such as peripheral arterial disease
(PAD) and neuropathy (see Figure 1). Worldwide, the number of lower limb amputations has increased as a result
of diabetes. According to the IWGDF, over one million amputations are performed on people with diabetes each year
(2011). PAD, also known as peripheral vascular disease, is a circulatory problem in which narrowed arteries reduce
blood flow to the lower limbs. This can result in poor oxygen circulation and medication delivery thereby impacting
the ability to heal and increasing the risk for ulceration. Neuropathy occurs when the nerves of the peripheral
nervous system are damaged (by diabetes) and can result in loss of sensation, skin changes, deformities and limited
joint mobility of the foot. When combined with other factors, such as inadequate self care, poor glucose control,
improper footwear, obesity and lack of timely resources, these neuropathic changes may lead to foot ulceration.
While the majority of ulcers eventually heal, approximately one third may result in some form of amputation
(IWGDF, 2011). Moreover, there is a possibility of infection occurring in any foot ulcer in a person with diabetes.
Diabetic foot infections require medical attention ranging from minor (e.g., debridement, antibiotics) to major
(resection, amputation) intervention (Lipsky et al, 2012).

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Assessment and Management of Foot Ulcers for People with Diabetes, Second Edition

BACKGROUND

Figure 1: Pathway to Diabetic Foot Ulcers

Diabetes Mellitus

Peripheral
arterial disease

O2 and
medication
delivery

Neuropathy

Sensory loss
of protective
sensation

Autonomic
skin changes

Poor healing

Motor foot
deformity

Ulceration

Infection

Amputation

Autonomic/
Motor limited
joint mobility

Self-care deficit
Poor glucose control
Improper footwear
Obesity
Lack of timely
resources

Note. Adapted with permission from Pathogenesis and general management of foot lesions in the diabetic patient, by M. E. Levin, 2001, in J. H. Bowker &
M. A. Pfeifer (eds.), Levin and ONeals The Diabetic Foot (6th ed.), p. 222. St. Louis, MO: Mosby, Inc. Copyright Elsevier (2001).

Ulcers and amputations result in enormous societal costs, including lost wages, job loss, prolonged hospitalization,
lengthy rehabilitation and an increased need for home care and social services. Given the data on the burden of illness
and the significant long-term health impact, care of persons with diabetic foot ulcers demands a systematic, team
approach from health-care professionals (IWGDF, 2011).
The panel recognizes the complexity of the treatment of persons with diabetic foot ulcers and acknowledges
the realities of practice settings that may influence resources available to identify the highest quality evidence to
direct care.
To this end, the recommendations serve as an evidence-based guide for nurses and other health-care professionals
to identify and assess people in high-risk groups who would benefit from specialized wound care. Interprofessional
health-care teams should work closely with clients and their families to address the complex lifestyle, self care and
multiple treatment demands of people with diabetes diagnosed with diabetic foot ulcer(s). It is acknowledged that
this level of care is not yet fully accessible to or accessed by all people with diabetes. Moreover, few people with foot
ulcerations receive optimal wound management (Boulton, Kirsner, & Vileikyte, 2004). Nurses can facilitate and positively
influence wound healing outcomes by promoting, collaborating and participating in interprofessional health-care
teams that follow best practice guidelines as presented in this document.

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Assessment and Management of Foot Ulcers for People with Diabetes, Second Edition

BACKGROUND

The management of persons with foot ulcers is complex. According to Weir (2010), diabetic foot ulcers should be
regarded a medical emergency. Principles of clinical management of the person with diabetic foot ulcers involve
assessing for: vascular supply (V); infection (I); structural or bony deformities, foot wear and sensation to determine
pressure related issues (P); and, sharp debridement of non-viable tissue (s). These principles are often termed by their
acronym, VIPs (Inlow, Orsted, & Sibbald, 2000).
The Canadian Association of Wound Care Wound Bed Preparation framework is helpful in outlining the key clinical
symptoms and issues related to diabetic foot ulcers and approaches to management utilizing the above principles of
VIPs (Botros et al., 2010). This framework is presented in Figure 2.

Prevention
Strategies

Wound
Etiology

Figure 2: Pathway to the Prevention and Management of Diabetic Foot Ulcers

Diabetic foot ulcer

Treat the cause


Vascular-infection-pressure
Manage comorbidities
Assess risk based on health status

Patient-centred concerns
Provide individualized patient education
Engage patient and family in care planning
Explore potential barriers to adherence

Infection/inflammation control
Rule out or treat localized/
spreading infection

Evaluation
Strategies

Debridement
Remove necrotic tissue,
if healable

Treat the cause


Vascular-infection-pressure
Explore barriers to adherence

Treatment
Strategies

Treatment
Strategies

Local wound care

Treat
Biological agents and adjunctive therapies

Moisture balance
Provide a moist, interactive
wound environment, if healable

Note. From Best Practice Recommendations for the Prevention, Diagnosis and Treatment of Diabetic Foot Ulcers: Update 2010, by M. Botros,
K. Goettl, L. Parsons, S. Menzildzic, C. Morin, T. Smith, et al., 2010, Wound Care Canada 8(4), 6-40.
Reprinted with permission.

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Assessment and Management of Foot Ulcers for People with Diabetes, Second Edition

Practice Recommendations
ASSESSMENT

RECOMMENDATION 1.0:
Obtain a comprehensive health history and perform physical examination of affected limb(s).
RECOMMENDATIONS

Level of Evidence = Ib IV

Discussion of Evidence:
A comprehensive health history is required for all clients who present with diabetic foot ulceration. This health
history must include a history of presenting illness, past medical history, glycemic control, nutritional status,
allergies, medications, family history and psychological well-being.
History of Presenting Illness (Level of Evidence = IV)
Assessment of the person with a diabetic foot ulcer requires a detailed history of the presenting illness, including:

Initiating event;
Duration of ulceration;
Treatments undertaken; and
Outcome of the treatments.
Past Medical History (Level of Evidence = III)
A history of diabetic foot ulcers and several diabetes-related complications are associated with lower limb
amputations. Therefore, a thorough past medical history is important to identify individuals at high risk for
amputation, and it should include: A) An assessment of co-morbidities and complications associated with
diabetes; B) Previous ulcers related to diabetes; and C) A history of smoking.

CAUTION

18

People with diabetic foot ulcers should be identified as high risk for amputation
(Australian Centre for Diabetes Strategies (ACDS), 2001; Falanga & Sabolinski, 2000; IWGDF, 2011).
See Appendix D for risk factors for amputation.

R E G I S T E R E D N U R S E S A S S O C I AT I O N O F O N TA R I O

Assessment and Management of Foot Ulcers for People with Diabetes, Second Edition

A. Co-morbidities and Complications Associated with Diabetes


There are multiple co-morbidities and complications associated with diabetes (CDA CPG Expert Committee, 2008).
The following discussion will focus on co-morbidities of renal impairment, hypertension and retinopathy.
Early identification of co-morbidities and complications allows the health-care professional to initiate appropriate
referrals and develop a comprehensive interprofessional plan of care.
Renal Impairment
RECOMMENDATIONS

Renal impairment is a prevalent microvascular complication. Fifty percent of people with diabetes have renal
impairment (CDA CPG Expert Committee, 2008). In a retrospective observational study, Eggers, Gohdes and Pugh (1999)
identified that amputation rates for people with diabetes and end-stage renal disease increased 10-fold compared to
people with diabetes alone. Furthermore, the post-amputation survival rate for clients with diabetes and end-stage
renal disease was approximately 33% (Eggers et al., 1999).
Hypertension
The majority of people with diabetes will develop hypertension, a treatable risk factor (CDA CPG Expert Committee, 2008).
Adler and colleagues (2000) identified that elevated blood pressure is strongly linked to macrovascular
(e.g., peripheral vascular disease) and microvascular (e.g., retinopathy and nephropathy) complications. Peripheral
vascular disease places individuals at a significantly increased risk for amputation (Royal Melbourne Hospital, 2002).
Improved control of hypertension results in clinically significant reductions in microvascular and macrovascular
complications and diabetes-related death (CDA CPG Expert Committee, 2008).
Retinopathy
Diabetic retinopathy may be the most common microvascular complication of diabetes, affecting 23% of people
with type 1 diabetes and 14% of people with type 2 diabetes (CDA CPG Expert Committee, 2008). A multi-national study by
Chaturvedi and colleagues (2001) demonstrated that vascular complications, including retinopathy, are a significant
risk factor for amputation in both type 1 and type 2 diabetes. A descriptive-analytic study by Shojaiefard, Khorgami,
and Larijani (2008) also suggests that the presence of retinopathy increases a clients risk for amputation.
B. Previous Ulcers
A history of previous ulcers is a strong predictor of future ulcers. Up to 34% of people develop another ulcer
within 1 year after healing from the previous ulcer. The 5-year rate of re-ulceration has been shown to be 70%
(Frykberg et al., 2000). While two thirds of ulcers heal, one third may result in some form of amputation (IWGDF, 2011).
C. Smoking
Smoking is an independent risk factor for cardiovascular disease and a significant risk factor for chronic kidney
disease for people with diabetes (Scottish Intercollegiate Guidelines Network [SIGN], 2010). It may also be a risk factor for
retinopathy in type 1 diabetes. Smoking cessation reduces these risks and may optimize conditions for wound
healing (SIGN, 2010).

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Assessment and Management of Foot Ulcers for People with Diabetes, Second Edition

Glycemic Control (Level of Evidence = Ib)

RECOMMENDATIONS

Improved glycemic control reduces complications and optimizes wound healing (Marston & Dermagraft Diabetic Foot Ulcer
Study Group, 2006). In a cohort study by Moss, Klein and Klein (1996), elevated blood glucose levels were highly
correlated with complications of diabetes. In a randomized controlled trial, pharmacological control of blood
glucose was shown to reduce diabetes-related complications in overweight clients with type 2 diabetes (UKPDS, 1998).
Similarly, a study examining glycemic control and microvascular complications in Japanese people with type 2
diabetes concluded that intensive glycemic control may delay onset and progression of diabetic retinopathy,
nephropathy and neuropathy (Ohkubo et al., 1995). Results of a prospective observational study suggested that each
one percent reduction in mean hemoglobin A1cG (HbA1c; a measure of glycemic control) produced significant
decreases in the rate of complications and deaths related to diabetes (Stratton et al., 2000). Furthermore, HbA1c values
in the normal range (<6.0%) comprised the lowest risk of complications (Stratton et al., 2000).
From a wound healing perspective, a secondary analysis of data from a prospective, randomized controlled trial
by Marston and Dermagraft Diabetic Foot Ulcer Study Group (2006) found that people treated with a human
fibroblast-derived dermal substitute had better wound healing rates when A1c levels were controlled or reduced
over a 12-week period. Similarly, in a retrospective cohort study by Markuson et al. (2009), patients with higher
A1c levels did experience wound healing, but over a significantly longer period than those with lower A1c.
The Canadian Diabetes Association (CDA) Clinical Practice Guidelines (CDA CPG Expert Committee, 2008) recommends
the following targets for glycemic control for most people with type 1 and type 2 diabetes:
7.0% to reduce the risk of microvascular and macrovascular complications;
Fasting plasma glucose of 4.0 to 7.0 mmol/L; and
2-hour postprandial plasma glucose targets of 5.0 to l0.0 mmol/L (5.0 to 8.0 mmol/L if A1c targets not being met).
A1c

Nutritional Status (Level of Evidence = IV)


The overall nutritional health of a person with diabetes will have an effect on wound healing. Macronutrients and
micronutrients play an important role in the different stages of wound healing. A person with diabetes should ensure
adequate intake of calories, protein, fat, fluids, vitamins and minerals to achieve positive outcomes. A nutritional
assessment by a registered dietician is indicated if nutritional deficits are identified.
Allergies (Level of Evidence = IV)
A comprehensive health history should include a record of any allergies. Allergies pertinent to foot ulcers may
consist of medication allergies and sensitivities to dressing adhesives and debridement materials. Being aware of
allergies allows the health-care professional to make appropriate choices with regards to medications for treatment
of infections, wound dressings and solutions used for debridement.
Medications (Level of Evidence = IV)
A record of current medications should be included as part of the health history. Medication records provide healthcare professionals with the necessary information for proper pharmacological diabetes management, such as drug
contraindications, potential drug interactions and identification of medications that may impair wound healing.

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Assessment and Management of Foot Ulcers for People with Diabetes, Second Edition

Family History (Level of Evidence = III)


It is important that people with diabetes are asked about their family health history. Family health history reflects
inherited genetic susceptibility and shared environment, behaviours and habits (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2004).
People with a family history for certain diseases (e.g., heart disease, diabetes and osteoporosis) are more likely to
develop those diseases themselves (Bennett, 1999).
Psychological Well Being (Level of Evidence = IV)
RECOMMENDATIONS

It is important to determine the psychological well being of individuals with diabetes as it can impact on their ability
to manage their condition. Clinical depression, anxiety and eating disorders are known factors associated with poor
control of type 1 diabetes (SIGN, 2010). More specifically, depression, affecting approximately 15% of people with
diabetes, is associated with, but not limited to, poor self-care behaviours and decreased quality of life (CDA, 2012; CDA
CPG Expert Committee, 2008; SIGN, 2010). Therefore, health professionals should explore psychological well being as part
of a comprehensive health history as it may impede self-management strategies to prevent and manage diabetic
foot ulcers.

RECOMMENDATION 1.1:
Identify the location and classification of foot ulcer(s) and measure length, width and depth of
wound bed.
Level of Evidence = Ia IV

Discussion of Evidence:
Identification of Ulcer Location (Level of Evidence = III)
The location of the foot ulcer is important to identify as this information may have an impact on care planning and
the use of appropriate pressure redistribution devices. According to a prospective observational study by Reiber et al.
(1999), the plantar region of the toes, forefoot and midfoot were the most frequent sites of ulceration followed by the
dorsal region of the toes and heels.
Classification (Level of Evidence = 1a)
Diabetic foot ulcer stratification systems are essential tools for predicting a clients risk of developing a foot ulcer
(Monteiro-Soares, Boyko, Rebeiro, Rebeiro, & Dinis-Rebeiro, 2011). In addition, using a stratification system facilitates effective
communication between health-care professionals regarding the clients risk for amputation, and can facilitate data
collection related to disease severity.

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Assessment and Management of Foot Ulcers for People with Diabetes, Second Edition

The following five stratification systems were identified by a systematic review:


1. University of Texas (Armstrong, Lavery, & Harkless, 1998a; Lavery, Armstrong, Vela, Quebedeaux & Fleischli, 1998; see Appendices D, E, F);
2. International Working Group on the Diabetic Foot (Diabetic foot ulcer classification system for research purposes; see Appendix G);
3. Scottish Intercollegiate Guideline Network (SIGN);
4. American Diabetes Association; and

RECOMMENDATIONS

5. Boyko and colleagues.


(Monteiro-Soares, 2011)
Five core factors to assess for were identified in all scales: diabetic neuropathyG, peripheral vascular disease, foot
deformity, previous foot ulcer and previous amputation (Monteriro-Soares et al., 2011). The authors concluded that while
classification of foot ulcers in itself was important, the best system to use for specific health-care settings could not
be determined (Monteiro-Soares et al., 2011).
Measuring the Length and Width (Level of Evidence = Ia)
Standardizing the procedure for measurement of diabetic foot ulcers is crucial to evaluate whether the wound
is moving towards desired outcomes. Consistent and accurate measurements of length and width aid in reliable
tracking of wound closure progress. Wound measurements should be completed using a consistent method such
as tracings (Krasner & Sibbald, 2001). A systematic review evaluating treatments for diabetic foot ulcers classified wounds
as healing when the wound length and width decreased (Margolis, Kantor, & Berlin, 1999). Furthermore, a prospective trial
conducted by Sheehan, Jones, Caselli, Giurini and Veves (2003) demonstrated that a 50% reduction in wound
surface area (length and width) at 4 weeks is a good predictor of complete wound healing at 12 weeks.
Measuring the Depth (Level of Evidence = IV)
Measuring wound depth should accompany the measurement of wound length and width as together they provide
quantifiable data to accurately determine wound healing. Wound depth is most commonly measured by gently
inserting a sterile swab stick or probe into the wound. The presence of undermining and tunneling can also be
determined in this manner by probing a space between the surrounding skin and wound bed. The RNAO expert
panel recommends using the clock system to document the location of tunneling or undermining (e.g., area of
the tunneling or undermining closest to the head is the 12 oclock position).

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Assessment and Management of Foot Ulcers for People with Diabetes, Second Edition

RECOMMENDATION 1.2:
Assess bed of foot ulcer(s) for exudate, odour, condition of peri-ulcer skin and pain.
Level of Evidence = IV

Discussion of Evidence:
RECOMMENDATIONS

Exudate (Level of Evidence = IV)


Wound exudate characteristics (e.g., amount and type of drainage) provide important information about the status
of the wound. The RNAO expert panel recommends rating the amount of exudate observed using the following terms:
AMOUNT OF WOUND EXUDATE OBSERVED

RATING OF EXUDATE

Dry

No exudate

Moist

Scant or small

Wet/saturated

Heavy

In addition to amount, the RNAO expert panel recommends describing the type of exudate observed from the ulcer
using common terminology as follows:
EXUDATE OBSERVED

TYPE OF WOUND EXUDATE

Clear yellow fluid without blood, pus or debris

Serous

Thin, watery, pale red to pink fluid

Serosanguinous

Bloody, bright red

Sanguinous

Thick, cloudy, mustard yellow or tan

Purulent

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Assessment and Management of Foot Ulcers for People with Diabetes, Second Edition

Odour (Level of Evidence = IV)


All wounds, especially those treated with moisture retentive dressings, can emit an odour, and it is important to
assess the foot ulcer bed for the characteristics of this odour. A change in odour may be indicative of an alteration
in bacterial balance. A healthy wound has a faint but not unpleasant odour; infections often result in a distinctive
and slightly unpleasant odour (Butalia, Palda, Sargeant, Detsky, & Mourad, 2008; Cutting & Harding, 1994). Necrotic wounds tend
to have more offensive odours than clean wounds. Wounds infected with anaerobes, suggestive of gangrene, tend
to produce a distinct acrid or putrid odour.
RECOMMENDATIONS

Condition of Peri-Ulcer Skin (Level of Evidence = IV)


The condition of the peri-ulcer skin provides important information about the status of the wound and can
influence choice of intervention and treatment. The RNAO expert panel recommends a surrounding skin
assessment that includes an evaluation of:
Skin

colour and temperature: Redness may be indicative of unrelieved pressure or prolonged inflammation
(Boulton, 1991). Pale, white or grey tissue may be indicative of prolonged exposure to moisture. Increased temperature
(erythema) in the ulcer area may also indicate infection in the wound (Sibbald, Goodman, Woo, Krasner, & Smart, 2012).
CallusG formation: Callus formation is indicative of ongoing pressure to the affected area. Debridement of callus
may be indicated to facilitate accurate assessment; and
Induration and edema: Induration (an abnormal firmness of the tissue) and edema (swelling) are indicative of
infection. They are assessed by gently pressing the skin within 4 cm of the wound. Firmness may be observed.
Pain (Level of Evidence = III)
Although pain may be uncommon in diabetic foot disorders, evidence of increasing pain accompanied by wound
breakdown are strong indicators (100% specificityG) of chronic wound infection (Gardner, Frantz, & Doebbeling, 2001). Pain
in a previously insensateG foot may also indicate active charcot arthropathyG (see Appendix H for a description).
Charcot arthropathy can be difficult to distinguish from wound infection or cellulitisG. Left untreated, charcot
arthopathy may lead to serious foot structure damage and injury. X-rays should be done to differentiate an active
charcot foot from infection.
Persons with diabetes may suffer from neuropathic foot pain. This pain is often described as burning and stabbing in
nature, and its presence is generally independent of foot position or movements. Neuropathic pain can be difficult to
manage and requires careful assessment and monitoring.
As demonstrated in Figure 1, diabetic neuropathy increases the risk of foot ulceration and subsequent amputation
(Frykberg, 1991). In the presence of diabetic neuropathy and amputation, clients may suffer from phantom limb pain
in the absent leg. Referral to physiotherapy for pain relieving modalities such as transcutaneous electrical nerve
stimulation may be necessary to treat both neuropathic and phantom limb pain (CDA CPG Expert Committee, 2008).

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Assessment and Management of Foot Ulcers for People with Diabetes, Second Edition

RECOMMENDATION 1.3:
Assess affected limb(s) for vascular supply and facilitate appropriate diagnostic testing,
as indicated.
Level of Evidence = III IV

Discussion of Evidence:
RECOMMENDATIONS

The assessment of vascular supply can be achieved through a health history, physical examination and diagnostic
testing. The RNAO expert panel recommends the following physical assessment considerations and appropriate
diagnostic tests for vascular supply, outlined in Table 1. See Appendix I for further detail about these specialized
diagnostic tests.
Table 1: Appropriate Assessment and Diagnostic Tests to Determine Vascular Supply
PHYSICAL ASSESSMENT
OF THE LOWER EXTREMITIES

DIAGNOSTIC TESTS*

Intermittent claudicationG (calf pain)

Ankle

Peripheral pulses

Toe

Colour

(pallorG on limb elevation, ruborG


on limb dependency, mottling)

Cool temperature

Ischemic

pain (pain causing frequent waking


at night, or needing to dangle limb for
pain relief)

Dry

brachial pressure index (ABPI)G

pressuresG and toe brachial index

Arterial

duplex scan

Transcutaneous

oxygen

Angiography

(including CT angiogram
and MR angiogram)

gangrene

Hair

loss, dystrophic nails


(damaged or misshaped nail plates)

Shiny,

taut, thin, dry skin

*Accessibility of these diagnostic tests may be limited to centres specializing in vascular surgery and wound care.

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Peripheral arterial disease (PAD), also known as peripheral vascular disease, is a narrowing of the peripheral arteries
resulting in insufficient vascular supply to the lower extremities. PAD can prolong wound healing and increase the
risk of amputation (Apelqvist, 1998; Birke, Patout, & Foto, 2000; Crane & Branch, 1998; Sinacore & Mueller, 2000). The risk of people
with diabetes developing PAD increases as the disease progresses (Calhoun, Overgaard, Stevens, Dowling, & Mader, 2002). This
risk increases 10-fold in those with diabetes and concurrent renal failure (Apelqvist, 1998; Eggers et al., 1999). In the younger
client population, PAD often presents bilaterally. Therefore, adequate blood flow to the affected extremities is
essential to support wound healing (Birke et al., 2000; Reiber et al., 1999). Positive findings should be discussed with a
vascular surgeon in order to determine potential for intervention.
RECOMMENDATIONS

Bilateral lower extremity assessment should include, at minimum, the assessment of:

Intermittent claudication;
Peripheral pedal pulses; and
Colour.
Intermittent Claudication (Level of Evidence = III)
One of the first presenting symptoms of vascular insufficiency is intermittent claudication, or calf pain. A history of
intermittent lower limb claudication combined with non-palpable pedal pulses in both feet increases the probability
of vascular insufficiency in clients with diabetes (Boyko et al., 1997).
Peripheral Pedal Pulses (Level of Evidence = IV)
Palpating for the presence of a plantar pulse, such as the dorsalis pedis or posterior tibial, is essential during
assessment. The presence of peripheral pulses is represented by a minimum systolic pressure of 80 mmHg and
may suggest adequate vascular supply to support wound healing (Lavery & Gazewood, 2000). The National Evidence
Based Guidelines for the Management of Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus states that the absence of peripheral pulses
has prognostic significance for future amputation in people with or without foot ulceration (ACDS, 2001).
Some regions of the foot with palpable pulses, however, may not be well-perfused. According to the angiosome
model, the foot is delineated into five angiosomes, each consisting of skin, subcutaneaous tissue, fascia, muscle
and bone, fed by a source artery. The presence of a peripheral pulse may not necessarily indicate that all of the
components within a particular angiosome are well-perfused. Although a foot pulse might be palpable, the foot
ulcer might be situated in a different angiosome (Sibbald et al., 2011). This concept may help the clinician determine
appropriate measures to support successful ischemic ulcer treatment (Attinger, Evans, & Mesbahi, 2006).
Colour (Level of Evidence = IV)
The colour of the foot should be assessed for rubor on dependency, pallor on elevation, mottling and dry gangrene,
all of which are signs of ischemia (Bowker & Pfeifer, 2001). A comprehensive vascular assessment is recommended for
clients with these signs of arterial insufficiency.

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Assessment and Management of Foot Ulcers for People with Diabetes, Second Edition

RECOMMENDATION 1.4:
Assess foot ulcer(s) for infection using clinical assessment techniques, based on signs and
symptoms, and facilitate appropriate diagnostic testing, if indicated.
Level of Evidence = Ia

Discussion of Evidence:
RECOMMENDATIONS

The diagnosis of foot ulcer infection is based on a clinical examination (IWGDF, 2011). Infection is a destructive process
that occurs when bacteria in a wound overcomes the natural defenses of the hosts immune system. The likelihood
of a wound becoming infected is related to the type of micro-organism and the microbial load. However, equally
important factors to consider are the characteristics of the wound (location, classification, length, width and depth),
level of blood perfusion and ability of the host to resist infection.
While emphasis is frequently placed on microbial load, the hosts resistance is often the critical factor in determining
whether infection will develop. Diabetes increases susceptibility to infection. People with diabetes may not be able to
mount an effective inflammatory response due to impaired immunodefenses, decreased peripheral circulation and
decreased metabolic control (Armstrong, Lavery, Sariaya, & Ashry, 1996; Eneroth, Apelqvist, & Stenstrom, 1997). Increased occurrence of
co-morbidities may place older people with diabetes at higher risk for infection than younger people with the disease
as the severity of the infection may be masked by the co-morbidities. Use of an assessment tool, such as the Diabetic
Foot Infection (DFI) scoring system, validated by Lipsky, Polis, Lantz, Norquist and Abramson (2009), may aid in
predicting foot ulcer healing outcomes.
The microbial load in a wound advances over time in a predictable fashion (see Table 2). Most chronic wounds
contain more than three species of micro-organisms, increasing the risk for infection as these organisms may develop
synergies. In wounds that are infected with a number of species, distinguishing the causative organism is unlikely
(Dow, Brown, & Sibbald, 1999). Correct wound swabbingG technique should be followed when collecting a culture swab to
ensure accurate measure of wound microbial load. See Appendix J for wound swabbing technique.

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RECOMMENDATIONS

Table 2: Microbial Load and Associated Findings.


CLINICAL AND
LABORATORY FINDINGS

TIME

TYPE OF MICRO-ORGANISM

First few days

Cutaneous flora

1 to 4 weeks

Cutaneous flora accompanied


by Gram-positive aerobic
cocci, often beta-haemolytic
Streptococci, S. aureus

Purulent discharge

Gram-positive

Single species

Cutaneous flora accompanied


by Gram-negative facultative
anaerobic bacteria,
particularly coliforms,
followed by anaerobic
bacteria and Pseudomonas

Tissue necrosis

Undermining

Deep involvement

4 weeks onwards


Poly-microbial

mixture
of aerobic and anaerobic
pathogens

Note. From Infection in chronic wounds: Controversies in diagnosis and treatment, by G. Dow, A. Brown and R.G. Sibbald, 1999, Ostomy Wound
Management, 45(8), p. 23-40. Reprinted with permission.

The RNAO expert panel recommends using clinical assessment with diagnostic testing in the assessment of foot
ulcer infection.
Signs and Symptoms of Infection
The presence of infection should be assessed based on the presentation of two or more of the following signs and
symptoms of inflammation or purulence (Lipsky et al., 2012):
Erythema;
Warmth;
Tenderness;
Pain;
Induration; and
Purulent

exudates.

The signs and symptoms of non-limb-threatening or superficial infection, and limb-threatening or deep wound
and systemic infectionG are summarized in Table 3.

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Table 3: Clinical Signs and Symptoms of Infection.


NON-LIMB-THREATENING
INFECTION

LIMB-THREATENING INFECTION

SUPERFICIAL INFECTION

DEEP WOUND INFECTION

SYSTEMIC INFECTION

Pain

Swelling, induration

In addition to deep wound


infection:

Erythema (> 2 cm)

Wound breakdown

Non-healing


Bright

red granulation


Friable

and exuberant
granulation


New

areas of breakdown
or necrosis


Increased

exudates


Bridging

of soft tissue
and the epithelium

Foul odour


Fever

Rigour

Chills


Increased

size or
satellite areas


Undermining

Probing

RECOMMENDATIONS

tissue


Hypotension

or tunneling


Multi-organ

failure

to bone


Anorexia

Flu-like

Erratic

symptoms

glucose control

(Falanga, 2000; Gardner et al., 2001; Lipsky et al., 2012; Schultz et al., 2003; Sibbald, Orsted, Schultz, Coutts, & Keast, 2003; Sibbald et al., 2000)

Identifying infection in a chronic wound can be a challenge as the clinical assessment for infection in chronic wounds
differs from acute wounds. Gardner, Hillis and Frantz (2009) identified the following signs and symptoms of soft
tissue infection in a cross-sectional study of 64 subjects with diabetic foot ulcers:
Increased

pain;
Wound breakdown;
Friable granulation tissueG; and
Foul odour.
Deep foot infections have been identified as the immediate cause of 25 to 51% of amputations in persons with
diabetes (Tennvall, Apelqvist, & Eneroth, 2000). Deep infections often present with erythema and warmth extending two
centimeters or more beyond the wound margin (Woo & Sibbald, 2009). This increased inflammatory response may be
painful and cause the wound to increase in size or lead to satellite areas of tissue breakdown, known as adjacent
ulceration (Woo & Sibbald, 2009).

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RECOMMENDATIONS

Deep infections, especially in chronic ulcers, can often lead to osteomyelitis, or bone infection, in the diabetic
foot (Lipsky et al., 2012). Probing to bone is a simple technique for rapid identification of osteomyelitis and should be
included in the initial assessment of all people with infected pedal ulcers (Grayson, Balaugh, Levin, & Karchmer, 1995). Other
methods to diagnose the presence of osteomyelitis in clients with foot ulcers include laboratory and radiographic
testing. A systematic review by Butalia et al. (2008) assessed evidence related to using historical features, physical
examination and laboratory and basic radiographic testing in the diagnosis of lower extremity osteomyelitis in
people with diabetes. The study concluded that, on physical examination, predictors of osteomyelitis included
an ulcer area greater than 2cm2 and a positive probe-to-bone test. Through laboratory testing, an erthrocyte
sedimentation rate of more than 70 mm/h was also indicative of osteomyelitis (Butalia et al., 2008).

CAUTION

Signs of deep wound and systemic signs of infection are potentially limb and/or life
threatening. These clinical signs and symptoms require urgent medical attention.

Diagnostic Testing of Infection


The timely diagnosis and treatment of infection is vital to the healing of diabetic foot ulcers. Diagnostic tests may
be performed in conjunction with the clinical assessment when infection is suspected.
Lipsky et al. (2012) recommend that persons with new diabetic foot infections have plain radiographs to identify
bony abnormalities such as bone deformity or destruction, foreign bodies or soft tissue gas. An abnormal plain
radiograph finding can be helpful in the diagnosis of osteomyelitis (Butalia et al., 2008).
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is recommended for clients who require additional imaging, especially if soft
tissue abscessG or osteomyelitis is suspected (Lipsky et al., 2012). In a meta-analysis conducted by Dinh, Abad and Safdar
(2008), MRI was determined to be the most accurate imaging test for diagnosis of osteomyelitis. Furthermore,
osteomyelitis was found to be highly unlikely in a client with a normal MRI result (Butalia et al., 2008). If MRI is
unavailable or contraindicated, a labeled white blood cell scan is the best alternative (Lipsky et al., 2012). It is important
to note that accessibility to and interpretation of these tests may be limited to specific geographic locations and
medical specialists.

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Assessment and Management of Foot Ulcers for People with Diabetes, Second Edition

RECOMMENDATION 1.5:
Assess affected limb(s) for sensory, autonomic and motor changes.
Level of Evidence = IIa

Discussion of Evidence:
RECOMMENDATIONS

The presence of peripheral neuropathy, or nerve damage, is determined by assessing for specific changes in sensory,
autonomic and motor function. Identifying peripheral neuropathy is particularly important, as it will enable the
health-care professional to identify associated potential risk factors for ulcer development. In a case-controlled
study, Lavery et al. (1998) noted that clients with peripheral neuropathy and no other risk factors were 1.7 times
more likely to develop foot ulceration. Table 4 illustrates the associated pathophysiological involvement, assessment
considerations, and clinical indications specific to each of the three components of peripheral neuropathy.
Table 4: Components of Peripheral Neuropathy, Associated Pathophysiological Involvement,
Assessment Considerations and Clinical Indications.

COMPONENT

ASSOCIATED
PATHOPHYSIOLOGICAL
INVOLVEMENT

ASSESSMENT
CONSIDERATIONS

CLINICAL
INDICATIONS

Sensory

Myelin

Pressure

Loss

sheath
is disrupted by
hyperglycemia

Disruption

leads
to the segmental
demyelinization
process accompanied
by a slowing of motor
nerve conduction and
an impairment of
sensory perception

perception
testing using
a 10-gr* (5.07
Semmes-Weinstein)
monofilament,
is recommended

Vibration

perception
(using a tuning fork)

Tactile

sensation
(using a cotton ball)

of protective
sensation

Sensory

ataxiaG

Falls

(15-fold
increase compared
to those without
diabetes)

Callus

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COMPONENT

ASSOCIATED
PATHOPHYSIOLOGICAL
INVOLVEMENT

ASSESSMENT
CONSIDERATIONS

CLINICAL
INDICATIONS

Autonomic

Sympathetic Denervation

Inspect for:

AnhydrosisG

Loss

Dry

Callus

of vasomotor
control

RECOMMENDATIONS

Peripheral

blood flow

Arteriovenous

shunting
Bone

blood flow
hyperemia

Glycosylation

of

collagen

Motor

Non-enzymatic

glycosylation
Atrophy

of intrinsic
muscles of the foot
(toe plantar flexors)

Subluxation

of
metatarsophalangeal
joints

scaly skin caused


by lack of hydration

Inspect

between
the toes especially
between the fourth
and fifth toes for
fissuresG

Maceration
Loss

of hair growth
and thickened
toenails

Fissure

OnychomycosisG

(fungal nails)
Peripheral

skin (sign
of altered joint
mobility)

Callus

Gait

Claw

Range

of motion

Muscle
Absent

testing

deep tendon
reflexes

edema

Waxy

Inspect for:
assessment

cracks

toesG

Hammer
Charcot
Muscle
Ankle

toesG

arthropathy

weakness

equinus

Pes

cavusG

Pes

planusG

Contracture

of
Achilles Tendon

*Using 10 or 4 points on the foot is acceptable.


(CDA CPG Expert Committee, 2008; IWGDF, 2011; RNAO, 2007; Zangaro & Hull, 1999)

Appendix K provides a more detailed description of the monofilament assessment technique for sensory perception
in the foot.

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Assessment and Management of Foot Ulcers for People with Diabetes, Second Edition

RECOMMENDATION 1.6:
Assess affected limb(s) for elevated foot pressure, structural deformities, ability to exercise,
gait abnormality, and ill-fitting footwear and offloading devices.
Level of Evidence = Ia IV

Discussion of Evidence:
RECOMMENDATIONS

Foot ulcers frequently occur as a result of repeated minor trauma, such as from ill-fitting footwear or elevated
pressure on the sole of the foot. People with foot ulcers should be assessed regularly for potential causes of such
trauma and be provided with interventions to reduce trauma and ulcer risk (IWGDF, 2011; Jeffcoate & Rayman, 2011;
Rizzo et al., 2012; Royal Melbourne Hospital, 2002).
Elevated Foot Pressure (Level of Evidence = IIb)
Elevated plantar pressure is a significant risk factor for foot complications (Lavery, Armstrong, Wunderlich, Tredwell, & Boulton,
2003). The plantar surface of the forefoot is the most common location for foot ulcer development (CDA CPG Expert
Committee, 2008; IWGDF, 2011). People with severe neuropathy may exhibit increased forefoot-to-rearfoot plantar pressure
ratios, suggesting an imbalance in pressure distribution, which may predispose them to foot ulceration.
Pressure mapping is a technique that measures foot pressures in standing and walking positions. A cohort study by
Giacomozzi and Martelli (2006) found that screening a persons peak pressure curve may be an effective method to
detect risk of foot ulceration in diabetic clients. Similarly, using an F-Scan matG system, Pham et al. (2000) found
that foot pressures greater than 6 kg/cm placed people at an increased risk for foot ulceration. Lavery et al. (1998)
also identified a significant association between high plantar pressure (65 N/cm2) and presence of foot ulceration.
Pressure over bony prominences can lead to callus formation and predispose the skin to break down (ACDS, 2001;
Boyko et al., 1999; Frykberg et al., 1998; Hutchinson et al., 2000). Calluses may act as a foreign body, elevating plantar pressures;

therefore, callus removal or reduction often results in a significant reduction in foot pressure (Boulton, Meneses, & Ennis,
1999; Murray, Young, Hollis, & Boulton, 1996; Pataky et al., 2002; Young et al., 1992).

It is also important to ensure that dressings and offloading devices are used effectively, and that they are not
contributing to increased pressure either around the ulcer or on other parts of the foot and leg.
Structural Deformities (Level of Evidence = III)
Physical examination of a person with diabetes should include an assessment for foot deformities (IWGDF, 2011;
Royal Melbourne Hospital, 2002). Foot deformities include hammer toe, claw toe, hallux deformityG, pes planus, pes
cavus and charcot arthropathy. These structural foot deformities alter the gait or mechanics of walking, and
can result in abnormal forces on the foot, poor shock absorption, and shearing and stress to soft tissues
(RNAO, 2007; Shaw & Boulton, 1997). Furthermore, the risk for elevated plantar pressure is directly associated with
the number of foot deformities (Lavery et al., 2003).
See Appendix H for descriptions of each type of foot deformity.

CAUTION

Any deformity of the foot should be referred to a specialist (podiatrist/chiropodist)


for further evaluation.

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Ability to Exercise (Level of Evidence = IV)


Exercise may help people with diabetes to achieve a variety of health goals, including improved glycemic control
(CDA CPG Expert Committee, 2008; SIGN, 2010). Limited joint mobility as a result of peri-articular limitations (e.g., muscle,
tendon, joint capsule, ligament and skin) can be effectively treated with exercise-based interventions, including
stretching and strength training (Allet et al., 2010).

RECOMMENDATIONS

It is important to note that people with diabetes-associated complications, including ulceration, should be carefully
assessed and supervised when undertaking an exercise program. Referral to an exercise specialist, such as a physical
therapist, may be indicated to address health and safety concerns.
Gait Abnormality (Level of Evidence = III)
Gait is the manner or style of walking. Neurodegenerative processes are accelerated in diabetes, often resulting in
abnormal weight bearing, unstable posture and a decline in motor control (Mason et al., 1999b; Meier, Desrosiers, Bourassa,
& Blaszczyk, 2001). Alterations in gait, balance and mobility in a client may also be caused by sensory ataxia, poor
vision, debilitation and/or neuropathy secondary to the diabetes disease process (Sinacore & Mueller, 2000).
Assessment of gait is important in order to establish a persons risk of falling and injury. Sinacore and Mueller (2000)
found that the risk of falling was 15 times greater in people with diabetic neuropathy than in people with diabetes
without neuropathy. Abnormal gait patterns that may be observed in a person with diabetes include: ataxic (unsteady,
uncoordinated, employing a wide base of support), steppage (lifting the foot higher to accommodate for foot drop
and/or poor ankle-joint mobility) and antalgic (limping, usually signifying discomfort).
Referral to a physical therapist may be indicated if gait abnormalities are noted.
Ill-fitting Footwear and Offloading Devices (Level of Evidence = Ia)
Clients should be assessed for knowledge and understanding of the importance of proper footwear and offloading
device use to reduce plantar pressures. Education regarding proper fit and use of footwear and devices should be
provided if knowledge gaps or learning needs are identified.
Footwear
In a large prospective study, Abbott and colleagues (2002) found that 55% of ulcerations assessed were attributed
to pressure from footwear. Foot ulceration has been associated with constant or repetitive pressure from tight shoes
over bony prominences on the dorsum of the lesser toes, at the medial aspect of the first metatarsal headG and the
lateral aspect of the fifth metatarsal (Lavery et al., 1998).

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Assessment and Management of Foot Ulcers for People with Diabetes, Second Edition

It is imperative that people with diabetic foot ulcers see a foot- or health-care specialist regularly for the assessment of
their feet, footwear and other devices associated with ambulation (American Diabetes Association (ADA), 2001; Campbell et al., 2000;
CDA CPG Expert Committee, 2008; Frykberg et al., 2000; Hunt, 2001; Hutchinson et al., 2000; Institute for Clinical Systems Improvement (ICSI), 2000;
Lavery & Gazewood, 2000; Maciejewski et al., 2004; McCabe, Stevenson & Dolan, 1998; New Zealand Guidelines Group (NZGG), 2000; Rizzo et al., 2012;
Smieja et al., 1999; Zangaro & Hull, 1999).

See Appendix L for suggestions in assessing and selecting shoes and socks.
Offloading Devices
RECOMMENDATIONS

Offloading devices, such as foot orthoses, aid in reducing plantar pressure in the diabetic foot. Foot orthoses are
custom-made shoe inserts that serve to correct or relieve misalignment and/or pressure areas of the foot. A systematic
review by Spencer (2004) found that in-shoe custom orthoses were effective at relieving foot pressure and resolving
calluses in people with diabetes.
See Appendix M for selection of offloading devices.

RECOMMENDATION 1.7:
Document characteristics of foot ulcer(s) after each assessment including location, classification
and any abnormal findings.
Level of Evidence = IV

Discussion of Evidence:
Documentation is used to monitor a clients progress and communicate with other health-care providers (College of
Nurses of Ontario (CNO), 2009a). Good record-keeping using common language and objective descriptors such as wound
measurements and ulcer grading can increase clarity and improve outcomes. Careful monitoring of wound healing
through consistent and thorough documentation is as important as initial assessment and treatment in influencing
healing outcomes (Krasner, 1998).
The RNAO expert panel recommends using an interprofessional assessment tool to document assessment results.
See Appendix N for an example of an assessment tool that may be used by an interprofessional team.

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PLANNING

RECOMMENDATION 2.0:
Determine the potential of the foot ulcer(s) to heal and ensure interventions to optimize
healing have been explored.

RECOMMENDATIONS

Level of Evidence = IV

Discussion of Evidence:
The healing potential of a wound must be taken into consideration when developing a plan of care. Factors affecting
the healing potential of a diabetic foot ulcer may be grouped into three categories: local, host and environment. The
RNAO expert panel has summarized these factors in Table 5: Factors Affecting Healing Potential. Implementing
interventions addressing these factors should optimize the healing conditions of the foot ulcer.
Table 5: Factors Affecting Healing Potential
LOCAL

HOST

ENVIRONMENT

Necrosis

Co-morbidities:

Access

Infection

End-stage renal disease


Immunosuppression
Inflammatory condition
Visual impairments
Glycemic control
Nutrition
Peripheral arterial disease
Venous insufficiency
Lymphedema
Coronary artery disease
Obesity
Systemic cytotoxic drugs
Smoking
Alcohol and substance use
Adherence to plan of care
Cultural/personal beliefs
Mental illness
(schizophrenia, depression)
Cognitive impairment
Low socioeconomic status
Concordance to plan of care

Pressure

injury
on the ulcer area
Micro-vascular supply
Foreign body
Iatrogenic/cytotoxic agents
Local trauma to ulcer area

(Falanga, 2005; Jeffcoate et al., 2008; Pecoraro, Reiber, & Burgess, 1990)

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to care
Access to appropriate
offloading
Family support
Health-care sector
Geographic surroundings
Socioeconomic status

Assessment and Management of Foot Ulcers for People with Diabetes, Second Edition

Moist wound care is not recommended in wounds where complete healing is not the goal.
Use a dry dressing to keep the wound bed dry.
CAUTION

If infection is present and the client cannot fight infection, the moist wound will become a
breeding ground for infection. Using a topical, cost-effective antisepticG such as povidone
iodine should be considered when the risk of infection outweighs the healing potential.

RECOMMENDATIONS

RECOMMENDATION 2.1:
Develop a plan of care incorporating goals mutually agreed upon by the client and health-care
professionals to manage diabetic foot ulcer(s).
Level of Evidence = IV

Discussion of Evidence:
Proper goal-setting enables the team to closely monitor the effectiveness of interventions, continuing those that
are successful and discontinuing those that are unsuccessful.
Ideally, the primary goal in the treatment of diabetic foot ulcers is to obtain wound closure as expeditiously as
possible. The resolution of foot ulcers and decreasing the rate of re-occurrence can lower the probability of lower
extremity amputation for clients with diabetes. However, it should not be expected that all diabetic foot ulcers will
have wound closure as a primary outcome. Wounds that are unlikely to heal should have alternative goals such as:
Wound

stabilization;
pain;
Reduced bacterial load; and
Decreased dressing changes.
Reduced

Beyond tracking progress, goals can also motivate the client, ensure the team is working toward a common end and
ensure important actions are not overlooked. Frequent re-evaluation of goals and the overall plan of care is essential
as the circumstances affecting wound care may change (Sibbald et al., 2011).
The plan of care should be developed by the client and the interprofessional team, based on client-centred care
approaches (RNAO, 2006a; Sibbald et al., 2011). Client-centred care involves collaborative care-planning and an
interprofessional team approach to assessing, planning, implementing, monitoring and evaluating care with
the client taking a key role (Hayes, 2009). The plan of care for all clients with diabetic foot ulcers should include
improving function and quality of life, maintaining health status and controlling costs (Hayes, 2009). The plan of
care should also include strategies to prevent deconditioning, which has many detrimental side effects, including
psychosocial dysfunction (Hayes, 2009).
In a client-centred model of care, diabetic foot ulcers are managed through a holistic approach where interprofessional
team members synchronize activities to ensure the client receives the appropriate treatment from experts of each
discipline (Schoen, Balchin & Thompson, 2010). Team members should advocate, collaborate and facilitate the process of
goal-directed care to manage foot ulcers for people with diabetes. Fragmentation of care may lead to conflicting advice
for the client, wasted time and unnecessary effort, and subsequent protracted wound healing.

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RECOMMENDATION 2.2:
Collaborate with the client/family and interprofessional team to explore other treatment
options if healing has not occurred at the expected rate.
Level of Evidence = IV

RECOMMENDATIONS

Discussion of Evidence:
Diabetic foot ulcers that have not healed at the expected rate, where potential causative factors have been addressed,
may require the use of alternative treatment modalities, such as biological agents, adjunctive therapies or surgery.
See Appendix O for specific treatment options. These treatment methods often involve the cooperation and
coordination of various members of the interprofessional team. Nurses should collaborate with the client
and interprofessional team to explore treatment options, determine the best course of action for treatment
and implement a revised plan of care.

RECOMMENDATION 2.3:
Collaborate with client/family and the interprofessional team to establish mutually agreed
upon goals to improve quality of life if factors affecting poor healing have been addressed
and complete wound closure is unlikely.
Level of Evidence = IV

Discussion of Evidence:
The RNAO expert panel has summarized various factors that can contribute to poor healing of chronic wounds:

Inadequate blood supply;


Poor glycemic control;
Non-adherence with treatment plan due
to differing goals regarding the plan of care;
End-stage renal disease;
Transplant recipients;
MalnutritionG;

Connective tissue disorders;


Systemic conditions, such as sickle cell disease;
Osteomyelitis;
Immobility;
Heart disease;
Dementia;
Cancer; and
Advancing age.

If factors affecting poor healing of chronic wounds have been addressed and complete wound closure is unlikely, the
client and the health-care team should mutually agree upon a plan of care to improve the quality of life for the client
(Enoch & Price, 2004). To improve quality of life, the significance of managing exudate, controlling infection, relieving pain
and minimizing odour in a non-healing wound must be established and accepted as legitimate goals by the client and
the health-care team (Enoch & Price, 2004).
Major or minor amputation may be the most reasonable intervention for clients with complex or life-threatening
situations. However, amputation should be a mutual decision between the client and the health-care team.

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IMPLEMENTATION

RECOMMENDATION 3.0:
Implement a plan of care to mitigate risk factors that can influence wound healing.
Level of Evidence = IV
RECOMMENDATIONS

Discussion of Evidence:
People with diabetes often have a combination of risk factors that may influence the condition of their skin and
wounds. Based on a review of the literature, the RNAO expert panel identified risk factors that may affect wound
healing. See Table 5 for a summary of these risk factors.

RECOMMENDATION 3.1:
Provide wound care consisting of debridement, infection control and moisture balance
where appropriate.
Level of Evidence = Ia IV

Discussion of Evidence:
Local wound care is a significant component of the pathway to prevent and manage diabetic foot ulcers
(refer to Figure 2). Wounds have the greatest potential for healing with care that includes:
1. Debridement;
2. Infection control; and
3. Moisture balance.

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CAUTION

If healing potential is not established, aggressive debridement and moist interactive


healing is not recommended.

Debridement (Level of Evidence = Ia)

RECOMMENDATIONS

Debridement is the process of removing necrotic or foreign tissue from a wound to promote healing. Studies have
shown that debridement of diabetic foot ulcers increases the rate of healing (Edwards & Stapley, 2010; Inlow et al., 2000;
Rodeheaver, 2001). In an extensive review of clinical evidence to determine the utility of debridement, Cardinal et al.
(2009) found that frequent or serial debridement of diabetic foot ulcers promoted wound healing and increased
wound closure rates. Moreover, Steed, Donohoe, Webster and Lindsley (1996) found that lower rates of healing
were correlated with less frequent debridement practices. Frequency of debridement should be based on clinical
judgment and correspond to the clients care plan (Inlow et al., 2000). See Appendix P for a decision-making algorithm
for debridement.
Several methods of debridement are available for varying stages of ulcers. The clinical use of enzymatic and biologic
methods of debridement was not included as part of the literature base used for this BPG. This guideline will focus
on the three most common methods of debridement for diabetic foot ulcers:
Autolytic;
Mechanical; and
Surgical/Sharp.

Autolytic
Autolytic debridement uses the bodys own natural enzymes to break down and digest necrotic tissue. Autolytic
debridement also involves the use of moisture in semi-occlusive or occlusive dressings to aid in the efficiency of
liquefying devitalized tissue. Dressings for autolytic debridement include hydrocolloids, hydrogels and films
(Inlow et al., 2000). In a Cochrane review to determine the effectiveness of debridement methods for diabetic foot
ulcers, Edwards and Stapely (2010) found that hydrogels were significantly more effective than gauze dressings
or standard care in healing diabetic foot ulcers.
Mechanical
Mechanical debridement involves manually removing necrotic tissue and debris from a wound bed, using wet-to-dry
dressings, saline irrigation or pulsed lavage. Mechanical debridement may be indicated in wounds with moderate
levels of necrotic tissue (Enoch & Harding, 2003).
Surgical/Sharp
Surgical or sharp debridementG involves the use of a medical instrument such as a scalpel to excise necrotic
tissue. Surgical debridement is often performed in wounds with large volumes of necrotic and infected tissue.
In a prospective trial, sharp debridement was associated with greater wound closure in people with diabetic
foot ulcers (Saap & Falanga, 2002).

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Assessment and Management of Foot Ulcers for People with Diabetes, Second Edition

It should be noted, however, that clinical trials on surgical debridement are inadequately powered. More research
is needed to evaluate the methods and effects of all types of debridement (Edwards & Stapley, 2010; Shannon et al., 2010).
Sharp debridement is a high-risk procedure and should be undertaken with caution.
It is a procedure that must only be performed by trained and experienced health-care
professionals, within the policies of the organization.
CAUTION

RECOMMENDATIONS

Performing a procedure below the dermis is a controlled act that must be carried out
by an authorized health-care professional. Health-care professionals should be aware
of their professional scope of practice as well as the policies and procedures within
their organization.

Callus Reduction
In addition to wound debridement, callus debridement may also assist in the prevention and management of foot
ulcers. Reducing a callus often involves surgical or sharp debridement, and has been demonstrated to significantly
reduce pressure at the callus site by approximately 30% (Armstrong, Lavery, Vazquez, Nixon, & Boulton, 2002; Pitei, Foster & Edmonds,
1999; Young et al., 1992). Callus debridement is within the scope of practice for certain health-care professionals, and
may be performed by those with the appropriate knowledge, skills and judgment about the procedure.
Infection Control (Level of Evidence = III)
Preventing or controlling infection in diabetic foot ulcers is essential to prevent complications such as osteomyelitis
(bone infection) or amputation. Infection often results when the number of bacterial organisms exceeds the capacity
of local tissue defenses (Peacock & Van Winkle, 1976). Polymicrobial infection should be anticipated in people with diabetic
foot ulcers, with a variety of grampositive cocci, gram-negative rods and anaerobic organisms predominating.
AntibioticG therapy typically involves broad-spectrum coverage for these organisms and should be initiated based
on properly acquired wound cultures (Anti-infective Review Panel, 2010; Lipsky et al., 2012). Appendix J provides details of
proper swabbing for wound cultures. Table 6 illustrates treatment options recommended by the RNAO expert
panel for superficial infection, deep wound infection and systemic infection.
Once wound culture results are obtained, antimicrobialG therapy may be tailored to provide specific coverage or
therapy against resistant organisms. Antibiotic-resistant organisms, such as methicillin-resistant staphylococcus
aureus (MRSA)G, are an increasing issue with infections in diabetic foot ulcers (Lipsky et al., 2012). Specifically, the
prevalence of MRSA in diabetic foot ulcers ranges from 5 to 30% (Lipsky et al., 2012). Infections involving antibioticresistant organisms require targeted antibiotic therapy. If infection persists while the client is on antibiotic therapy,
surgical assessment and wound culture should be considered.
Moreover, methods to enhance the clients immunity to infections should be considered, which may involve
examining co-morbidities, glycemic control, nutritional needs and sleep-wake cycles.

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Table 6: Treatment Options for Wound Infections Recommended by the RNAO Expert Panel
NON-LIMB-THREATENING
INFECTIONS
Superficial infection

Deep wound infection

Systemic infection

HOSPITALIZATION:

IN ADDITION TO
SUPERFICIAL INFECTION:

IN ADDITION TO DEEP
WOUND INFECTION:

HOSPITALIZATION:

HOSPITALIZATION:

Consider

Will

May

not be required;
support host defenses

RECOMMENDATIONS

LIMB-THREATENING INFECTIONS

Team

approach

Re-evaluate

based on
clinical findings

Facilitate

client education

admission to
hospital (based on host risk)

Consider

Infectious Disease
consultation

INFECTION:
Will

require IV antibiotics

WOUND CARE:

WOUND CARE:

PRESSURE DISTRIBUTION:

Cleanse

May

Provide

and debride wound

require surgical
debridement

INFECTION:
Use

topical antimicrobials
(may be monomicrobial)

May

require
oral/IV antibiotics

PRESSURE DISTRIBUTION:
Provide

42

require hospitalization

offloading devices

INFECTION:
Will

require
oral/IV antibiotics
(may be polymicrobial)

PRESSURE DISTRIBUTION:
Provide

offloading
device for non-weight
bearing status

R E G I S T E R E D N U R S E S A S S O C I AT I O N O F O N TA R I O

offloading device
for complete non-weight
bearing on affected limb

Assessment and Management of Foot Ulcers for People with Diabetes, Second Edition

Non-limb-threatening Infections
A non-limb-threatening infection is a superficial infection that can result from scratches, nail trauma, or heel fissures.
These mild-to-moderate infections may be managed on an outpatient basis with close supervision by the health-care
professional. Topical antimicrobial medicine may be used to reduce bacterial burden in superficial infections. See
Appendix Q for a list of Topical Antimicrobial Agents.

RECOMMENDATIONS

There is, however, mixed evidence on the use of antimicrobial agents, specifically, when used with silver-based
dressings. In a systematic review of 26 trials comparing silver-containing dressings, creams compared to dressings
and creams that did not contain silver, Storm-Versloot, Vos, Ubbink and Vermeulen (2010) concluded that there
was insufficient evidence to establish whether silver-containing dressings or topical agents promoted wound healing
or prevented wound infections. More research is required, specifically related to diabetic foot ulcers.
If topical antimicrobial agents are used, and increased superficial bacterial burden or delayed healing are noted,
treatment should be supplemented with debridement and moisture balance. If deep infection is present, or if the
wound fails to heal within 2 weeks of topical antimicrobials, systemic antibiotic therapy should be considered.
Systemic antibiotic medication may be prescribed by the appropriate health-care professional according to the
Anti-Infective Guidelines for Community-acquired Infections (Anti-infective Review Panel, 2010).
Limb-Threatening Infections
Inappropriately managed infections in diabetic foot ulcers can lead to life- or limb-threatening consequences.
These infections may present with cellulitis extending greater than 2 cm beyond the wound border and cardinal
signs of infection, such as fever, edema, lymphangitis, hyperglycemia, leukocytosis and/or ischemia (Frykberg et al., 2000).
A diabetic foot ulcer presenting with wet gangrene, deep abscesses and advancing cellulitis must be transferred to
a medical facility for urgent care.
Hospitalization is required to treat the deep infection and associated systemic effects. Limb-threatening infections
require immediate surgical attention, which should not be delayed while waiting for radiologic or medical workup
of other co-morbid conditions (Frykberg et al., 2000; Weir, 2010). Although many wound care procedures can be done at
the bedside for people with diabetic foot ulcers, limb-threatening infections will require thorough debridement in
the operating room (Frykberg et al., 2000). Individuals presenting with limb-threatening infections should be considered
for emergent incision, drainage and debridement procedures.
Osteomyelitis
An ulcer that probes to the bone or joint is indicative of osteomyelitis and may require a bone biopsy for microbiological
and histopathological evaluation (Frykberg et al., 2000; Grayson et al., 1995). If the affected bone is resected or amputated, the
infection may be treated as a soft-tissue infection. If residual bone is in the wound, however, the client will require
4 to 8 weeks of antibiotic therapy, based on wound culture results (Frykberg et al., 2000; IWGDF, 2011). Intravenous or oral
agents may also be used, depending on the microbial isolates and infection severity.

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Moisture Balance (Level of Evidence = III)


The type of dressing selected for the foot ulcer should promote a moist wound environment that minimizes trauma
and risk of infection. Specifically, dressing selection should be based on its ability to provide local moisture balance
for the wound to heal. Modern, moisture-promoting dressings used for diabetic foot ulcers include foams (high
absorbency), calcium alginates (absorbent, hemostasis), hydrogels (moisture balance), hydrocolloids (occlusion) and
adhesive membranes (protection) (Inlow et al., 2000). Consideration should be given to the following when choosing
a moist wound dressing for a diabetic foot ulcer (Sibbald et al., 2000):
the wound bed for bacterial balance, exudate level and the need for debridement;
a dressing or combination of dressings that can manage and/or control the environment above the wound;
Use a dressing that will keep the wound bed continuously moist and the peri-wound skin dry;
Choose a dressing that controls exudate but does not dry the ulcer bed;
Consider the amount of professional caregiver time needed to apply and change dressing(s);
Eliminate wound dead space by loosely filling all cavities with dressing material;
Ensure that the dressing does not become a source of increased pressure to the affected area;
Confirm that the person with a diabetic foot ulcer is aware of the need to reduce pressure to the affected area; and
Evaluate the wound as prescribed to determine effectiveness of the treatment plan.

RECOMMENDATIONS

Assess
Select

CAUTION

Application of moisture retentive dressings in the presence of ischemia and/or dry


gangrene can result in a serious limb-threatening infection. In the presence of ischemia
and/or dry gangrene, apply a drying antimicrobial, such as povidone iodine, a protective
dry dressing and ensure proper off-loading.

There is mixed comparative evidence on the effectiveness of any particular dressing type to heal diabetic foot ulcers
(Hinchcliffe et al. 2008). For a list of common products and more information on their use, see Appendix R.

RECOMMENDATION 3.2:
Redistribute pressure applied to foot ulcer(s) by the use of offloading devices.
Level of Evidence = Ia

Discussion of Evidence:
Ninety-four percent of diabetic foot ulcers occur at areas of increased pressure (Fleischli, Lavery, Vela, Ashry, & Lavery, 1997).
Calluses from repeated friction and contact due to increased plantar pressures can predispose the skin to ulceration.
Thus, pressure alleviation is integral to prevent the formation of calluses and to promote ulcer wound healing.
Pressure alleviation can be accomplished by redistributing pressure over a larger surface area through the application
of external pressure offloading devices. A health-care professional skilled in the fabrication and modification of
offloading devices, such as a chiropodist or podiatrist, should be consulted when providing pressure redistribution.
See Appendix M for a list of offloading devices and selection considerations.

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Various effective footwear and offloading devices are available that redistribute foot pressures. A systematic review
by Bus et al. (2008) evaluating the effectiveness of footwear and offloading interventions in preventing or healing
foot ulcers or reducing plantar foot pressure in diabetic clients reported that 73 to 100% of wounds healed when a
total contact cast (TCC) was applied. The healing period ranged between 30 to 63 days. All other casting modalities,
such as fiberglass cast shoes, Scotch-cast boots, window casts and custom splints, also reported positive healing rates
between 70 to 91%, within a period of 34 to 300 days (Bus et al., 2008).

RECOMMENDATIONS

Surgery may be considered if pressure redistributing devices are ineffective or not a viable option. Several surgical
procedures were identified for wounds that have not healed at the expected rate (refer to Recommendation 2.2 and
Appendix O for specific treatment options).

RECOMMENDATION 3.3:
Provide health education to optimize diabetes management, foot care and ulcer care.
Level of Evidence = Ia

Discussion of Evidence:
Health education and its reinforcement is an essential intervention for clients with diabetic foot ulcers. Nurses, as the
single largest group of health-care professionals working in a range of settings, are in a pivotal position to provide
and reinforce health education related to diabetes management and foot and ulcer care. They may act as the primary
diabetes foot care educator, as a link between clients and their primary care providers, or within specialized diabetes
care teams (RNAO, 2007). Historically, diabetes education was didactic, but in recent years it has become more
participative to address individual variables in the learning process (Whittemore, 2000).
Clients with diabetes who are at a high risk for foot ulceration benefit from diabetes health education and its regular
reinforcement (ADA, 2001; CDA CPG Expert Committee, 2008; Mason et al., 1999a; NZGG, 2000; The University of York NHS Centre for Reviews
and Dissemination, 1999; Valk, Kriegsman, & Assendelft, 2004). Health education interventions result in short-term improvement
in the knowledge and self-care behaviours of people with diabetes (Hutchinson et al., 2000; Valk, Kriegsman, & Assendelft, 2002).
Diabetes self-care behaviours influence blood glucose control which, when improved, facilitate healing of foot ulcers.
These behaviours also prevent or delay diabetes-related complications such as peripheral neuropathies and reduced
circulation in lower extremities (IWGDF, 2011; RNAO, 2007; UKPDS Group 33, 1998). Furthermore, health education in a group
setting and sustained long-term follow-up have both been shown to enhance knowledge and produce positive
outcomes, such as improved glycemic control in type 2 diabetes (CDA CPG Expert Committee, 2008).
Although health education seems to have a positive impact on clients foot and ulcer care knowledge and behaviours,
it is uncertain whether it can prevent foot ulceration and amputation. In a Cochrane review of randomized controlled
trials evaluating the impact of client education on diabetic foot ulceration, Dorresteijn, Kriegsman, Assendelft and
Valk (2010) concluded that there is insufficient evidence to ascertain whether client education, without additional
preventative measures, reduces ulcer incidence. It should be noted, however, that the methodology of inquiry must
be in keeping with the research question and that randomized controlled trials may not always be the appropriate
design for every question.
See Appendix S for a client handout on diabetic foot care.

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RECOMMENDATION 3.4:
Facilitate client-centred learning based on individual needs to prevent or reduce complications.
Level of Evidence = III

Discussion of Evidence:
RECOMMENDATIONS

Diabetic foot care education may support health promotionG strategies when presented in a way that is meaningful
and easily understood by the client (Schoen et al., 2010). Conducting a learning needs assessment prior to delivering
diabetic foot care education helps tailor the learning session to help the client receive and understand the information
presented to him/her (RNAO, 2012a). This assessment should include the clients learning preferences, individual
characteristics and relevant social determinants of health.
Learning Preferences
Clients have diverse learning preferences that may or may not align with the health-care professionals personal
teaching style. Every client should be given the opportunity to learn in his/her preferred manner (RNAO, 2012a).
The health-care professional should adapt the learning session to meet the clients learning needs and preferences.
Individual Characteristics
Personal attitudes, cultural beliefs, level of literacy, age and physical condition all influence an individuals ability to
carry out the recommended regimen (American Association of Diabetes Educators, 1999; Canadian Diabetes Association Diabetes Educator
Section, 2000). Accounting for these individual characteristics prior to the learning session may optimize the diabetic
foot care education plan.
Social Determinants of Health
Key factors related to the conditions in which people live and that affect their general health are known as social
determinants of health. These factors include:

Income and social status;


Social support networks;
Education and literacy;
Employment and working conditions;

Social environments;
Physical environment;
Gender;
Culture;

Personal health practices and coping skills;


Healthy child development;
Health services and biology; and
Genetic endowment.
(Public Health Agency of Canada, 2012)

Assessing the relevant social determinants of health as part of the learning needs assessment may identify key issues
that could impact on the clients ability to implement strategies to prevent or reduce complications.
For further discussion and more detailed information about client centred learning strategies, the reader is
encouraged to consult the RNAO Nursing Best Practice Guideline Facilitating Client Centred Learning (2012).

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Assessment and Management of Foot Ulcers for People with Diabetes, Second Edition

EVALUATION

RECOMMENDATION 4.0:
Monitor the progress of wound healing on an ongoing basis using a consistent tool, and
evaluate the percentage of wound closure at 4 weeks.
Level of Evidence = Ib
RECOMMENDATIONS

Discussion of Evidence:
Wound management is a comprehensive process and should therefore include an evaluation of the care plan.
The RNAO expert panel suggests posing the questions below when evaluating outcomes of the treatment plan:
1. How is wound healing evaluated?
2. Is wound healing progressing at the expected rate?
3. Is the treatment plan effective?
Wound healing progress should be evaluated on an on-going and systematic basis. In a prospective, randomized
controlled trial, Sheehan et al. (2003) found that a 50% reduction in wound surface area at 4 weeks was a good
predictor of wound healing at 12 weeks. This finding was further supported by other research evidence, which
showed that poor wound healing at 4 weeks was a strong predictor for non-healing at 12 weeks (Flanagan, 2003; Warriner,
Snyder, & Cardinal, 2011). Furthermore, in a recent retrospective analysis of two randomized controlled trials of diabetic
foot ulcer healing, Warriner et al. (2011) identified that wound healing at 12 weeks was substantially greater in
wounds demonstrating more than 90% wound closure at 8 weeks. Therefore, progress of wound healing at 4 and
8 weeks may be correlated with wound closure at 12 weeks.
Assessment tools should be consistently used when monitoring and evaluating the progress of foot ulcer healing.
The Pressure Ulcer Scale for Healing tool (PUSH tool) measures wound size, exudates and tissue type, and has
recently been validated for assessing diabetic foot ulcer healing (Gardner, Frantz, Bergquist, & Shin, 2005; Hon et al., 2010).
A lower PUSH score indicates greater wound closure, less exudate and healthier epithelial tissue. See Appendix T
for the PUSH Tool.
Furthermore, if a diabetic foot ulcer does not achieve a 50% reduction in surface area at 4 weeks, a comprehensive
re-assessment of the treatment plan should be conducted before advanced healing technologies are considered.

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RECOMMENDATION 4.1:
Reassess for additional correctable factors if healing does not occur at the expected rate.
Level of Evidence = IV

Discussion of Evidence:
RECOMMENDATIONS

Reassessing correctable factors for a wound that has not healed according to the care plan is integral to wound
management. These correctable factors may include infection, poor glycemic control and inadequate pressure
redistribution from prescribed devices. Revisiting the clients health history and co-morbidities may also provide
useful information to identify potential barriers to wound healing (Collins & Toiba, 2010).
The most common reason for delayed wound healing in a diabetic foot ulcer is inadequate pressure offloading.
Inadequate pressure offloading can be due to poor client adherence to offloading devices or a lack of prescription
for offloading devices (Armstrong et al., 2001). Poor client adherence to prescribed offloading devices may be due to
a variety of reasons. Nurses should assess the clients knowledge about the benefits of pressure-reducing devices,
encourage the communication of concerns and engage in health teaching. Identifying strategies that promote
informed and engaged clients may be the most critical aspect of care-planning and to ensure adherence to offloading
and pressure redistribution devices. If appropriate offloading is not prescribed, however, the person with the diabetic
foot ulcer should be referred to a centre specializing in diabetic foot ulcer care.
Appropriate follow-up measures may be indicated for non-healing wounds where all possible correctable factors
have been addressed. Several adjunctive approaches can be considered for persistent non-healing wounds (refer to
Recommendation 2.2 and Appendix O for specific treatment options).

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Education Recommendations
RECOMMENDATION 5.0:

RECOMMENDATIONS

5.0 Health-care professionals participate in continuing education opportunities to enhance


specific knowledge and skills to competently assess and manage clients with diabetic foot
ulcers, based on the RNAO Nursing Best Practice Guideline Assessment and Management of
Foot Ulcers for People with Diabetes (2nd ed.).
Level of Evidence = IV

Discussion of Evidence:
Assessment and treatment of people with diabetic foot ulcers is a complex and dynamic process that requires a team
of health-care professionals with specialized knowledge and skills. The knowledge and skills necessary to assess and
treat a person with a diabetic foot ulcer are not taught in an entry level program. Therefore, team members should
participate in accredited continuing education opportunities to receive specific wound care training with appropriate
provisions of time, access and funding from their health-care organization. The team should adopt a client-centred
approachG and have a sound knowledge base enabling them to problem solve and ensure interventions are evidence
based according to organizational policies and procedures (Benbow, 2011).
Refer to Appendix U for a list of resources for diabetic foot ulcer information.

RECOMMENDATION 5.1:
Educational institutions incorporate the RNAO Nursing Best Practice Guideline, Assessment
and Management of Foot Ulcers for People with Diabetes (2nd ed.), into basic registered nurse,
registered practical nurse, doctor of medicine and interprofessional curricula to promote a
culture of evidence-based practice.
Level of Evidence = IV

Discussion of Evidence:
Members of the interprofessional team play a vital role in the early detection and ongoing assessment of diabetic foot
ulcers. They are also in a pivotal position to facilitate an evidence-based team approach to treatment (Hayes, 2009; IWGDF, 2011).
The RNAO expert panel suggests incorporating the RNAO Nursing Best Practice Guideline, Assessment and Management
of Foot Ulcers for People with Diabetes (2nd ed.), into interprofessional curricula to ensure health-care professionals
are exposed to and provided with evidence-based knowledge, skills and tools that are needed to assist in assessing
and managing people with diabetic foot ulcers.

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Organization and Policy Recommendations


RECOMMENDATION 6.0:
Use a systematic approach to implement the Assessment and Management of Foot Ulcers
for People with Diabetes (2nd ed.) clinical practice guideline and provide resources and
organizational and administrative supports to facilitate clinician uptake.
RECOMMENDATIONS

Level of Evidence = IV

Discussion of Evidence:
Through a panel of nurses, researchers and administrators, RNAO developed the Toolkit: Implementation of
Best Practice Guidelines (2nd ed.) (RNAO, 2012b), founded on available evidence, theoretical perspectives and expert
consensusG. The Toolkit is designed to facilitate the successful uptake and implementation of guidelines by
nurses and other health-care professionals. RNAO strongly recommends the use of this Toolkit for guiding the
implementation of the RNAO Nursing Best Practice Guideline, Assessment and Management of Foot Ulcers for
People with Diabetes (2nd ed.).
An effective organizational plan for guideline implementation includes:
An assessment of

organizational readiness and barriers to implementation, taking into account local circumstances;
of all members (whether in a direct or indirect supportive function) in the implementation process;
Ongoing educational opportunities to reinforce the importance of best practices;
One or more qualified individual(s) to provide the support needed for the education and implementation process;
and
Opportunities for reflection on personal and organizational experience in implementing guidelines.
Involvement

Successful implementation of best practice guidelines requires the use of a structured, systematic planning
process and strong leadership from nurses who are able to transform the evidence-based recommendations
into policies, procedures and nursing-related practices that impact on care within the organization. The RNAO
Toolkit: Implementation of Best Practice Guidelines (2nd ed.) (2012b) provides a structured model for implementing
practice change.
Refer to the Implementation Strategies section of this guideline and Appendix V for a description of the RNAO
Toolkit: Implementation of Best Practice Guidelines (2nd ed.) (2012b).

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Assessment and Management of Foot Ulcers for People with Diabetes, Second Edition

RECOMMENDATION 6.1:
Develop policies that acknowledge and designate human, material and fiscal resources to
support the interprofessional team in diabetic foot ulcer management.
Level of Evidence = IV

RECOMMENDATIONS

RECOMMENDATION 6.2:
Establish and support an interprofessional, inter-agency team comprised of knowledgeable and
interested persons to address and monitor quality improvement in the management of diabetic
foot ulcers.
Level of Evidence = IV

RECOMMENDATION 6.3:
Develop processes to facilitate the referral of clients with diabetic foot ulcers to local diabetes
resources and health-care professionals.
Level of Evidence = IV

Discussion of Evidence:
Organizations play a pivotal role in advocating and facilitating access to diabetic foot ulcer care services. This role
includes advocating for increased availability of and accessibility to diabetic foot ulcer care. To achieve optimal
outcomes for people with diabetic foot ulcers, emphasis should be placed on an interprofessional health-care
team that can establish and sustain an effective communication network between the client and their immediate
health-care system. Teams may collaborate virtually to coordinate efforts and ensure goals are consistently met
(Inlow et al., 2000). Furthermore, interprofessional diabetes foot ulcer care should be community-based and considerate
of age, gender, cultural beliefs and socioeconomic dispositions. Through a retrospective review of the literature,
Frykberg (1998) reported a reduction in non-traumatic amputation rates ranging from 58 to 100% after the
implementation of an interprofessional approach to foot care.

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Key members of the team, along with the client and their family, may include:
Diabetologists/endocrinologists;

surgeons;
Plastic surgeons;
Dermatologists;
Chiropodists/podiatrists;
Infectious disease specialists;
Family physicians;
Nurses specializing in diabetes and wound care;
Occupational therapists;
Physiotherapists; and
Dietitians.

RECOMMENDATIONS

Vascular

Diabetes foot care services should be accessible, comprehensive and supported by evidence-based clinical practice
guidelines. Within this mandate, the interprofessional team should be dedicated to both maintaining the overall
well being of the person with diabetes and preserving the integrity of lower extremities affected by foot ulcer(s)
(Inlow et al., 2000).

RECOMMENDATION 6.4:
Advocate for strategies and ongoing funding to assist clients in obtaining appropriate pressure
redistribution devices during and after ulcer closure.
Level of Evidence = IV

Discussion of Evidence:
An organizational commitment to provide care and make available pressure redistribution devices is required
to ensure quality health outcomes in foot ulcer management. As offloading devices may vary greatly in cost, the
selection and effectiveness of appropriate devices should be continually assessed on an individual basis to optimize
quality care. While the costs of pressure redistribution devices are substantial, it is important that such costs are
viewed in relation to the total cost of care for foot ulcer and increased risk of amputation (Bus et al., 2008). Nurses
may advocate for strategies and ongoing funding that increase the accessibility of pressure redistribution devices
for clients with foot ulcers in the hospital and community setting.

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Research Gaps and Future Implications


The RNAO expert panel, in reviewing the evidence for this edition of the guideline, identified the following priority
research areas, many of which were identified in the first edition. These areas have been broadly categorized into
practice, outcomes and health system research (see Table 7).
Table 7: Priority Practice, Outcomes and Health System Research Areas
PRIORITY RESEARCH AREA

PRACTICE RESEARCH

Establishment of a standardized assessment and documentation tool for diabetic


foot ulcers

RECOMMENDATIONS

CATEGORY

Dressing choices for local wound care


Impact of education on health-care professional and specific patient outcomes
(ulcer healing/re-occurrence)
OUTCOMES RESEARCH

The effectiveness of debridement and the methods of debridement


Effectiveness of sharp/surgical debridement on wound healing in diabetic foot ulcers
Dressing and device options to promote healing
Effectiveness of adjunctive therapies to promote wound healing in diabetic foot ulcers
Effectiveness of various devices utilized for pressure redistribution/offloading in
diabetic foot ulcers
Perceptions of and meaning for persons living with diabetic foot ulcers
Impact of education on health-care professional outcomes and specific patient
outcomes (ulcer healing/re-occurrence)

HEALTH SYSTEM
RESEARCH

Health delivery issues (government support and funding of programs and treatment
for diabetic foot ulcer management, cultural beliefs, high-risk patient populations)
Health economic evaluations of secondary and tertiary prevention strategies

The above table, although in no way exhaustive, is an attempt to identify and prioritize the critical amount of
research that is needed in this area. Many of the recommendations in the guideline are based on quantitative and
qualitative research evidence. Other recommendations are based on consensus or expert opinion. Further substantive
research is required to validate the expert opinion. Increasing the research evidence can impact knowledge that will
lead to improved practice and outcomes for people who experience diabetic foot ulcers.

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Evaluation/Monitoring of Guideline
Organizations implementing the recommendations in this nursing BPG are advised to consider how their
implementation, and their impact, will be monitored and evaluated. The impact of BPG implementation and
sustained use of evidence-based practice can be evaluated objectively through regular review of the utilization
of the Nursing Order SetsG and their effect on client health outcomes. Nursing Order Sets embedded within
clinical information systems simplify this process by providing a mechanism for electronic data capture.

RECOMMENDATIONS

Table 8 is based on a framework outlined in the Toolkit: Implementation of best practice guidelines (2nd ed.) (RNAO, 2012b)
and illustrates some specific indicators for monitoring and evaluation of the RNAO guideline, Assessment and
Management of Foot Ulcers for People with Diabetes (2nd ed.).

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Table 8: Structure, Process and Outcome Indicators for Monitoring and Evaluating this Guideline.
LEVEL OF
INDICATOR

STRUCTURE

PROCESS

OUTCOME

OBJECTIVES

To

To

To

ORGANIZATION/
UNIT

Review

Development

Incorporation

of
best practice
recommendations
by organizational
committee(s)
responsible for
policies and
procedures.

Availability

of
patient education
resources that
are consistent
with best practice
recommendations.

evaluate the
changes in practice
that lead towards
improved assessment
and management of
diabetic foot ulcers.

of forms or
documentation
systems that
encourage
documentation
of assessment and
management of
diabetic foot ulcers.

evaluate
the impact of
implementation
of the
recommendations.

RECOMMENDATIONS

evaluate the
supports available in
the organization that
allow for nurses and
the interprofessional
team to integrate
in their practice
the assessment and
management of
diabetic foot ulcers.

of
Assessment and
Management of
Foot Ulcers for
People with Diabetes
in staff orientation
program.

Referrals

internally
and externally.

Concrete

procedures
for making referrals
to internal and
external resources
and services.

Provision

of
accessible resource
people for
nurses and the
interprofessional
team to consult
for ongoing
support during
and after initial
implementation
period.

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RECOMMENDATIONS

Assessment and Management of Foot Ulcers for People with Diabetes, Second Edition

LEVEL OF
INDICATOR

STRUCTURE

PROCESS

OUTCOME

PROVIDER

Percentage

Self-assessed

Evidence

of
health-care providers
attending the best
practice guideline
education sessions
on assessment and
management of
diabetic foot ulcers.

knowledge of
assessment and
management of
diabetic foot ulcers.
Average

selfreported awareness
levels of community
referral sources for
people with diabetic
foot ulcers.

of
documentation in
the clients record
consistent with
the guideline
recommendations.

Referral

to the
following services or
resources within the
community or within
the organization
as necessary
chiropodist/
podiatrist, wound
care clinic, diabetes
education centre,
nurses specializing in
wound and diabetes
care, dermatologist,
infectious
disease specialist,
vascular surgeon,
plastic surgeon,
family physician,
endocrinologist/
diabetologist,
dietitian,
occupational
therapist,
physiotherapist.

Provision

of
education and
support to client
and family members.

Client/family

satisfaction.

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LEVEL OF
INDICATOR
CLIENT (NEW
OR RECURRENT
DIABETIC FOOT
ULCER)

PROCESS

OUTCOME

Percentage

*

*

Percentage of
diabetic foot ulcers
that have shown
a 50% reduction
in wound surface
area at 4 weeks.

*

Percentage of
clients with
diabetic foot
ulcerations that
have closed at
12 weeks and that
had healed 50%
at 4 weeks.

*

Percentage of
clients with
diabetic foot
ulcerations who
have offloading
devices prescribed.

of
people admitted to
unit/facility or seen
at the clinic with
diabetic foot ulcers.

*

*

Percentage of
clients who present
with diabetic foot
ulcerations with
documented
evidence of
bilateral lower
extremity
assessment.
Percentage of
clients who present
with diabetic foot
ulceration with
documented
evidence of a
complete foot
ulcer assessment.
Percentage of
clients with a
diagnosis of
diabetes and foot
ulceration with
documentation
of education
and educational
materials provided
to client, family,
or caregivers
addressing
diabetes
management and
ulcer care.

RECOMMENDATIONS

STRUCTURE

Improvement

in
quality of life and
satisfaction.

Percentage

of
people adhering
to treatment
plan at 3 months
post-discharge.

Percentage

of
clients who regularly
examine their feet.

Percentage

of
clients accessing
referral sources
in community.

Percentage

of clients
seen or to be seen
for referral.

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LEVEL OF
INDICATOR

RECOMMENDATIONS

FINANCIAL
COSTS

STRUCTURE

PROCESS

OUTCOME

Provision

Cost related to
implementing
guideline:

Cost

Education

Overall

of
adequate financial
resources for the
level of staffing
necessary to
implement guideline
recommendations.

and
access to on-the-job
supports.

New

documentation
systems.

Support
Cost

systems.

related to
diagnostic services,
equipment, devices
and products
(e.g., monofilaments,
client resource
materials, biological
agents, surgical
interventions,
adjunctive
therapies, pressure
redistribution/
offloading).

efficiency and
effectiveness of
treatment.
resource
utilization.

Length

of stay in
health system.

Hospital

readmission

rates.
Reintegration

into

community.

* These process and outcome indicators have been taken from the NQuIRE Data Dictionary for the best practice guideline Assessment and Management of
Foot Ulcers for People with Diabetes (Registered Nurses Association of Ontario (RNAO) & Nursing and Healthcare Research Unit (Investn-isciii), 2012).
NQuIRE is the acronym for Nursing Quality Indicators for Reporting and Evaluation. NQuIRE was designed for RNAO Best Practice Spotlight
Organizations (BPSO) to systematically monitor the progress and evaluate the outcomes of implementing the RNAO Best Practice Guidelines in their
organizations. Please visit http://rnao.ca/bpg/initiatives/nquire for more information.

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Implementation Strategies
Guideline implementation at the point of care is multifaceted and challenging at all levels. The uptake of knowledge
in any practice setting requires more than the awareness and distribution of guidelines. Application of the guideline in
any practice setting requires adaptation for the local context. Adaptation must be systematic and participatory to ensure
recommendations are customized to fit the local context (Straus, Tetroe, & Graham 2009). The Registered Nurses Association
of Ontario recommends the use of the Toolkit: Implementation of Best Practice Guidelines (2nd ed.) (RNAO, 2012b), which
provides an evidenced-informed process for a systematic, well-planned implementation.
RECOMMENDATIONS

The Toolkit is based on emerging evidence that the likelihood of achieving successful uptake of best practice in health
care increases when:
Leaders

at all levels are committed to support facilitation of guideline implementation


are selected for implementation through a systematic, participatory process
Stakeholders relevant to the focus of the guideline are identified, and engaged in the implementation process
An environmental readiness assessment for implementation is conducted for its impact on guideline uptake
The guideline is tailored to the local context
Barriers and facilitators to use of the guideline are assessed and addressed
Interventions are selected that promote guideline use
Guideline use is systematically monitored and sustained
Evaluation of the impacts of guideline use is embedded into the process
There are adequate resources to complete the activities related to all aspects of guideline implementation
Guidelines

The Toolkit uses the knowledge-to-action model that depicts the process of choosing a guideline in the centre
triangle, and follows a detailed step-by-step direction for implementing guideline recommendations at the local
level. These steps are illustrated in Figure 3: Knowledge to Action framework (RNAO, 2012b; Straus et al., 2009).

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Assessment and Management of Foot Ulcers for People with Diabetes, Second Edition

Figure 3: Revised Knowledge-to-Action Framework


Monitor Knowledge Use
& Evaluate Outcomes
Chapter 5:
Identify key Indicators
Concepts of knowledge
Evaluating patient and
related outcomes

Knowledge Inquiry

Knowledge
Tools/
Products
(BPGs)

Adapt Knowledge to Local Context


Chapter 2, Part A:
Setting up infrastructure for
implementation of BPG
Initial identification of stakeholders
Use of Adapted Process

Kn
ow
led
ge

Knowledge
Synthesis

ori
ng

RECOMMENDATIONS

Chapter 3:
Identification of barriers and facilitators
How to maximize and overcome

Tai
l

Assess Facilitators and Barriers


to Knowledge Use

Sustain Knowledge Use


Chapter 6

Stakeholders
Chapter 2, Part B:
Define stakeholders and vested interest
Thread stakeholders throughout document
Stakeholder analysis process
Stakeholder tools
Resources
Chapter 2, Part C:
RNAO Resources

Identify Problem
Chapter 1:
Identify, Review, Select Knowledge
Chapter 1:
Identify gaps using quality
improvement process and data
Identification of key knowledge tools (BPGs)

INTRODUCTION

Note. Adapted from Knowledge Translation in Health Care: moving from Evidence to Practice, S. Straus, J. Tetroe, and I. Graham, 2009. Copyright 2009
by the Blackwell Publishing Ltd.

A full version of the Toolkit: Implementation of Best Practice Guidelines (2nd ed.) is available in PDF format at the
RNAO website, http://rnao.ca/bpg.
In addition, RNAO is committed to widespread deployment and implementation of the guidelines and utilizes
a coordinated approach to dissemination incorporating a variety of strategies. Guideline implementation is
facilitated through RNAO specific initiatives that include the Nursing Best Practice Champion Network, which
serves to develop the capacity of individual nurses and foster awareness, engagement and adoption of BPGs;
and the Best Practice Spotlight Organization (BPSO) Designation that supports BPG implementation at the
organizational and system levels. BPSOs focus on developing evidence-based cultures with the specific mandate to
implement, evaluate and sustain multiple RNAO clinical practice BPGs. In addition to these strategies, capacitybuilding learning institutes related to specific BPGs and their implementation are held annually. (RNAO, 2012b, p. 19-20).
Further information about each of these implementation strategies can be found at:
RNAO

Best Practice Champions Network: http://rnao.ca/bpg/get-involved/champions


Best Practice Spotlight Organizations: http://rnao.ca/bpg/bpso
RNAO capacity-building learning institutes and other professional development opportunities: http://rnao.ca/events
RNAO

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Process For Guideline Update/


Review of Guideline
The Registered Nurses Association of Ontario (RNAO) commits to update its best practice guidelines (BPG) as follows:
1. Each nursing BPG will be reviewed by a team of specialists (RNAO Expert Panel) in the topic area to be
completed every 5 years following publication of the last edition.
RECOMMENDATIONS

Best Practice Guideline (IaBPG) Centre staff will regularly monitor for new systematic reviews, randomized
controlled trials, and other relevant literature in the field.
3. Based on the results of this monitoring, RNAO IaBPG Centre staff may recommend an earlier revision period.
Appropriate consultation with a team of members comprised of original RNAO Expert Panel members and
other specialists and experts in the field will help inform the decision to review and revise the guidelines earlier
than the targeted milestone.
4. Three months prior to the review milestone, the RNAO IaBPG Centre staff will commence the planning of the
review process by:
a) I nviting specialists in the field to participate on the RNAO Expert Panel. The RNAO Expert Panel will be
comprised of members from the original panel as well as other recommended specialists and experts.
b) Compiling feedback received and questions encountered during the implementation, including comments
and experiences of Best Practice Spotlight Organizations (BPSO) and other organization implementation
sites regarding their experience.
c) Compiling new clinical practice guidelines in the field and conducting a systematic review of the evidence.
d) Developing a detailed work plan with target dates and deliverables for developing a new edition of the BPG.
5. New editions of guidelines developed will undergo dissemination based on established structures and processes.

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Sharp, A. (2004). Alginate dressings and the healing of diabetic foot ulcers Wound Care. Retrieved from http://
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Young, M. (2007). Managing infection in the diabetic foot. Diabetic Foot Journal, 10(1), 10-16.
Zhou, L. H., Nahm, W. K., Badiavas, E., Yufit, T., & Falanga, V. (2002). Slow release iodine preparation and wound
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Appendix A: Glossary of Terms


A1c (also known as Glycated Hemoglobin or HbA1c): The A1c test measures average blood glucose level
over the preceding 2 to 3 months and, thus, assesses glycemic control. When the A1c is done every 3 months, it
can detect whether glycemic control has been reached and maintained within the target range and also reflects
departures from the target range.

Abscess: A circumscribed collection of pus that forms in tissue as a result of acute or chronic localized
infection. It is associated with tissue destruction and frequently swelling.

Anhydrosis: Failure of the sweat glands to produce sweat, resulting in dryness in the skin, often a result of
damaged nerves or neuropathy.

Ankle Brachial Pressure Index (ABPI): A comparison between the brachial systolic pressure and ankle
systolic pressure. It gives an indication of arterial perfusion. The normal resting pressure is 1.0.
Antibiotic: An agent that is synthesized from a living organism (e.g., penicillin from mold) and can kill or halt
the growth of microbes or bacteria.

Antimicrobial: An agent that is used to kill bacteria or microbes, that is not synthesized from a living
organism (e.g., iodine or silver).

Antiseptic (Topical): Product with antimicrobial activity designed for use on skin or other superficial tissues;
may damage cells.

Best Practice Guidelines: Systematically developed statements to assist practitioner and client decisions
about appropriate health care for specific clinical (practice) circumstances (Field & Lohr, 1990).

Callus: An area of skin that is abnormally thick or hard, usually from continual pressure or friction, sometimes
over a bony prominence.

Cellulitis: An infection of the skin characterized most commonly by local heat, redness (erythema), pain
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and swelling.

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Charcot Arthropathy (also known as Charcot Joint or Charcot Foot): A Charcot joint or foot is a
form of peripheral neuropathy that often occurs in people with diabetes. Nerve damage from diabetes causes
decreased sensation, muscle and ligamental atrophy, and subsequent joint instability. Continuous use and
walking on an insensitive and weakened joint causes further damage to the foot structure. In the acute phase,
inflammation and bone reabsorption in the foot causes damage to the bone. In the later stages, the foot arch
falls and may develop a "rocker bottom" appearance. Weight distribution of the sole is altered in Charcot
arthropathy, causing deformities and pressure points that enhance ulcer development. Signs of Charcot
arthropathy include increased skin temperature, pain, erythema, swelling, rigid deformities, and callus
formation (ADA, 2001; Bowerkey & Pfeifer, 2001).
Claw Toes: The joint at base of toe is bent up and middle joint is bent down, which may cause severe pressure
and pain. The ligaments and tendons that have tightened cause the toes joints to curl downwards and may
occur in any toe except the great toe.

Client: A client may be an individual (patient, resident, consumer), family, substitute decision-maker (SDM),
group or community (CNO, 2009b; Mental Health Commission of Canada, 2009).

Client-Centred Approach: An approach in which clients are viewed as whole; it is not merely about
delivering services where the client is located. The client-centred care approach involves advocacy,
empowerment, and respecting the clients autonomy, voice, self-determination and participation in
decision-making (RNAO, 2006a).

Clinical Practice Guidelines: See Best Practice Guidelines.


Consensus: A process for making policy decisions, not a scientific method for creating new knowledge.
Consensus development makes the best use of available information, be that scientific data or the collective
wisdom of the participants (Black et al., 1999).
Culture: Culture refers to the shared and learned values, beliefs, norms and ways of life of an individual or
a group. It influences thinking, decisions and actions (CNO, 2009b).
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Diabetic Neuropathy: Peripheral, somatic or autonomic nerve damage attributable solely to diabetes mellitus.
Education Recommendations: Statements of educational requirements and educational approaches/
strategies for the introduction, implementation and sustainability of the best practice guideline.

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Evidence: Evidence is information that comes closest to the facts of a matter. The form it takes depends
on context. The findings of high-quality, methodologically appropriate research provides the most accurate
evidence. As research is often incomplete and sometimes contradictory or unavailable, other kinds of
information are necessary supplements to, or stand-ins for research. The evidence base for a decision involves
combining the multiple forms of evidence and balancing rigor with expedience, privileging the former over
the latter (Canadian Health Services Research Foundation, 2006).
Fissures: A long, narrow opening or gap that can extend into other cavities or areas of the body.
Foot Ulcer: A full thickness wound below the ankle in a diabetic patient, irrespective of duration.
Skin necrosis and gangrene are also included as ulcers (IWGDF, 2011).
Friable Granulation Tissue: Granulation tissue that bleeds easily with minimal stimulation. Normal healthy
tissue is not friable.

F-Scan Mat: Measures dynamic plantar pressures (foot pressure in standing and walking positions).
This device measures peak pressures under the forefoot and the rear foot and is used to assist health-care
professionals in reducing pressure areas to the foot.
Hallux Deformity: A deformity of the great toe.
Hammer Toes: Middle joint is bent down, which may cause severe pressure and pain. The ligaments
and tendons that have tightened cause the toes joints to curl downwards and may occur in any toe except
the great toe.

Health Promotion: A process of enabling people to increase control over and improve their health
(WHO, 1986).

Infection: The presence of bacteria or other micro-organisms in sufficient quantity to damage tissue or

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impair healing. Clinical experience has indicated that wounds can be classified as infected when the wound
tissue contains 105 or greater micro-organisms per gram of tissue. Clinical signs of infection may not be
present, especially in the immuno-compromised client or the client with a chronic wound.

Insensate: A word that describes a region of the body where the person cannot feel a stimulus. As an example,
if a monofilament is applied using proper technique, and the person does not feel the filament, that area of the
foot is described as insensate.

Intermittent claudication: The reproducible cramping, aching, fatigue, weakness and/or frank pain in
the buttock, thigh or calf muscles (rarely the foot) occurring after exercise and quickly relieved with 10 minutes
of rest (Bonham & Flemister, 2008).

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Interprofessional Team: Refers to multiple health caregivers who work collaboratively to deliver quality
care within and across settings to provide comprehensive health services to clients (Interprofessional Care Steering
Committee, 2007).
Malnutrition: State of nutritional insufficiency due to either inadequate dietary intake or defective
assimilation or utilization of food ingested.

Metatarsal Heads: The metatarsal region of the foot is the area on the bottom of a foot just before the toes,
more commonly referred to as the ball-of-the-foot.

Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus Aureus (MRSA): MRSA is a strain of the staphylococcus


bacterium that is resistant to the main groups of antibiotics.

Nursing Order Set: A nursingorder setis a group of evidence-based interventions that are specific to the
domain of nursing; it is ordered independently by nurses (i.e., without a physicians signature) to standardize
the care provided for a specific clinical condition (e.g. pressure ulcers).

Onychomycosis: Fungal infection in the toe nails. Nails may appear dry, thickened, white or yellow and flaky.
Organization and Policy Recommendations: Statements of conditions required for a practice setting that
enables the successful implementation of the best practice guideline. The conditions for success are largely the
responsibility of the organization, although they may have implications for policy at a broader government or
societal level.

Pallor: White, pale, blanched colour of a limb when in the upright position.
Pes Cavus: A foot characterized by an abnormally high arch. Hyperextension of the toes may be present which
can give the foot the appearance of a claw.

Pes Planus: A foot that has a fallen arch and appears abnormally flat or spread out.
Photoplethysmography: Photoplethysmography uses infrared light to assess changes in the blood volume
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in the micro-circulation.

Practice Recommendations: Statements of best practice directed at the practice of health-care professionals
that are ideally evidence-based.

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Quality: The degrees to which health-care services for individuals and populations increase the
likelihood of desired health outcomes and are consistent with current professional knowledge
(World Health Organization, 2009).
Randomized Controlled Trials: Clinical trials that involve at least one test treatment and one control
treatment, concurrent enrollment and follow-up of the test- and control-treated groups, and in which the
treatments to be administered are selected by a random process.

Rubor: Dark purple to bright red colour of a limb when in a dependent position.
Sensory Ataxia: An impairment of ones sense of body position. It may be characterized by striking the
ground forcibly with the bottom of the foot as well as a stiff fling of the leg with walking.

Specificity: The chance of having a negative test result given that one does not have a disease.
Sensitivity: The chance of having positive test result given that one does have a disease.
Sharp Debridement (also known as Conservative Sharp Debridement): The removal of dead or
devitalised tissue from healthy tissue using a scalpel, scissors and forceps (Gray et al., 2011).

Stakeholder: An individual, group or organization with a vested interest in the decisions and actions of
organizations and who may attempt to influence decisions and actions (Baker et al., 1999). Stakeholders include
all individuals or groups who will be directly or indirectly affected by the change or solution to the problem.

Swabbing: Technique involving the use of a swab to remove bacteria from a wound and place them in a
growth medium for propagation and identification.

Systemic Infection: A clinical infection that extends beyond the margins of the wound. Some systemic
infectious complications of pressure ulcers include cellulitis, advancing cellulitis, osteomyelitis, meningitis,
endocarditis, septic arthritis, bacteremia and sepsis.

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Systematic Review: The Cochrane Collaboration (2011) states that, a systematic review attempts to collate
all empirical evidence that fits pre-specified eligibility criteria in order to answer a specific research question.
A systematic review uses systematic, explicit and reproducible methods to identify, select, and critically
appraise relevant research, and to collect and analyze data from the studies that are included in the review
(The Cochrane Collaboration, 2011).

Toe Pressure: See Photoplethysmography.

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Appendix B: Guideline Development Process


The Registered Nurses Association of Ontario (RNAO) has made a commitment to ensure that this nursing best
practice guideline is based on best available evidence. In order to meet this commitment, a monitoring and revision
process has been established for each guideline every 5 years.
For this edition of the guideline, RNAO assembled an expert panel of health-care professionals comprised of
members from the previous development panel as well as other recommended individuals with particular expertise
in this practice area. A systematic review of the evidence based on the scope of the original guideline and supported
by four clinical questions was conducted to capture the relevant literature and guidelines published between 2004
and 2012. The following research questions were established to guide the systematic review:
1. What are the most effective methods for the assessment of foot ulcer in clients with diabetes?
2. What are the most effective interventions to manage foot ulcers and prevent re-ulceration in clients with diabetes?
3. What health-care professional education and training is required to ensure the provision of effective diabetic
foot ulcer care?
4. How do health-care organizations support and promote optimal assessment and management of foot ulcers in
clients with diabetes?
The RNAO expert panel members were given a mandate to review the original guideline (March 2005) in light of
the new evidence, specifically to ensure the validity, appropriateness and safety of the guideline recommendations.
Where necessary, sections of the guideline have been updated based on new evidence. This current edition (2013)
is the culmination of the RNAO expert panels work in integrating the most current and best evidence to update
the guideline recommendations and supporting evidence from the first edition.

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Appendix C:
Process for Systematic Review/Search Strategy
Guideline Review
A member of the RNAO guideline development team (project coordinator) searched an established list of websites
for guidelines and other relevant content published between 2004 and 2012. This list was compiled based on existing
knowledge of evidence-based practice websites and recommendations from the literature. Detailed information
about the search strategy for existing guidelines, including the list of websites searched and inclusion criteria, is
available online at www.RNAO.ca. Guidelines were also identified by members of the RNAO expert panel.
Members of the panel critically appraised nine international guidelines using the Appraisal of Guidelines for Research
and Evaluation Instrument II (Brouwers et al., 2010). From this review, the following four guidelines were selected to
inform the review process:
Canadian Diabetes Association Clinical Practice Guidelines Expert Committee. (2008). Clinical practice guidelines
for the prevention and management of diabetes in Canada. Canadian Journal of Diabetes, 32(suppl 1), S1-S201.
International Working Group on the Diabetic Foot [IWGDF] (2011). International consensus on the diabetic foot and
practical and specific guidelines on the management and prevention of the diabetic foot 2011. International Working
Group on the Diabetic Foot. Retrieved from http://www.iwgdf.org/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=
33&Itemid=48
Scottish Intercollegiate Guidelines Network (SIGN). (2010). Management of diabetes: A national clinical guideline.
Edinburgh, Scotland: Scottish Intercollegiate Guidelines Network.
Lipskey, B. A., Berendt, A. R., Cornia, P. B., Pile, J. C., Peters, E. J. G., Armstrong, D. G., et al. (2012). 2012 Infectious
Disease Society of America clinical practical guideline for the diagnosis and treatment of diabetic foot infections.
Clinical Infectious Diseases, 54(1), 132-173.
Systematic Review

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Concurrent with the review of existing guidelines, a search for recent literature relevant to the scope of the guideline
was conducted with guidance from the RNAO expert panel chair. The systematic literature search was facilitated
by a health sciences librarian. The search, limited to English-language articles published between 2004 and 2012,
was applied to CINAHL, Embase, DARE, Medline, Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials and Cochrane
Database of Systematic Reviews. Detailed information about the search strategy for the systematic review, including
the inclusion and exclusion criteria as well as search terms, is available online at www.RNAO.ca. Two Research
Assistants (Masters prepared nurses) independently assessed the eligibility of studies according to established
inclusion/exclusion criteria. The RNAO Best Practice Guideline (BPG) Program Manager involved in supporting
the RNAO expert panel, resolved disagreements.
Quality appraisal scores for 17 articles (a random sample of 10% of articles eligible for data extraction and quality
appraisal) were independently assessed by the RNAO BPG Program Research Assistants. Strong inter-rater agreement
(kappa statistic, K=0.67) justified proceeding with quality appraisal and data extraction by dividing the remaining

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studies equally between the two RNAO BPG Program Research Associates (Fleiss, 2003). A final summary of literature
findings was completed. The comprehensive data tables and summary were provided to all panel members. In
September 2012, the RNAO expert panel convened to achieve consensus on the need to update the original guideline
recommendations and discussion of evidence.
A review of the most recent literature and relevant guidelines published between 2004 and 2012 resulted in
refinements to existing recommendations, as well as inclusion of stronger evidence for the recommendations.
This second edition of the guideline is a culmination of the original work and the new literature. The following flow
diagrams of the review process for guidelines and articles are presented according to PRISMA (Preferred Reporting
Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses) guidelines (Moher, Liberati, Ttzlaff, Altman & The PRISMA Group, 2009).

Guidelines indentified through


website searching
(n=7)

Additional guidelines identified


by panel
(n=2)

Guidelines excluded
(n=0)

Guidelines assessed
for quality
(n=9)

Guidelines excluded
(n=5)

Guidelines included
(n=4)

APPENDICES

Guidelines screened
(n=9)

ELIGIBILITY

Guidelines after duplicates removed


(n=9)

INCLUDED

SCREENING

IDENTIFICATION

Guideline Review Process Flow Diagram

Flow diagram adapted from D. Moher, A. Liberati, J. Tetzlaff, D.G. Altman, & The PRISMA Group (2009). Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews
and Meta-Analyses: The PRISMA Statement. BMJ 339, b2535, doi: 10.1136/bmj.b2535

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IDENTIFICATION

Article Review Process Flow Diagram

Articles identified through


database searching
(n=6782)

Additional articles identified


by panel
(n=9)

INCLUDED

ELIGIBILITY

SCREENING

Articles after duplicates removed


(n=5793)

Articles screened
(title and abstract)
(n=5793)

Articles excluded
(n=5424)

Full-text articles
assessed for relevance
(n=369)

Full-text articles
excluded
(n=197)

Full-text articles
assessed for quality
(n=172)

Full-text articles
excluded
(n=138)

Studies included
(n=34)

APPENDICES

Flow diagram adapted from D. Moher, A. Liberati, J. Tetzlaff, D.G. Altman, & The PRISMA Group (2009). Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews
and Meta-Analyses: The PRISMA Statement. BMJ 339, b2535, doi: 10.1136/bmj.b2535

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Appendix D:
University of Texas Foot Classification System
Categories 4-6: Risk Factors for Amputation
CATEGORY 4A: NEUROPATHIC WOUND

CATEGORY 4B: ACUTE CHARCOTS JOINT

Protective

Protective

sensation absent

Brachial Pressure Index (ABPI) > 0.80


and toe systolic pressure >45 mmHg

sensation absent

Ankle

Ankle

Foot

Non-infected

deformity normally present

neuropathic ulceration
(ALL UT* STAGE A wounds)

Brachial Pressure Index (ABPI) > 0.80


and toe systolic pressure >45 mmHg

Non-infected

acute diabetic neuropathic


osteoarthorpathy (Charcots joint) present

neuropathic ulceration may

be present
Diabetic

neuropathic osteoarthropathy
(Charcots joint) present

No

POSSIBLE TREATMENT FOR CATEGORY 4B

POSSIBLE TREATMENT FOR CATEGORY 4A

Pressure

Same as Category 3 plus:

Thermometric

Pressure

If

Wound

reduction program instituted

reduction program instituted


and radiographic monitoring

ulcer is present, treatment same as


Category 4A

care program instituted

CATEGORY 5: THE INFECTED DIABETIC FOOT

CATEGORY 6: THE ISCHEMIC LIMB

Protective

Protective

sensation may or may not

be present
Infected

wound

Charcots

ALL

POSSIBLE TREATMENT FOR CATEGORY 5


Debridement

Ankle

Brachial Pressure Index (ABPI) <0.80


and toe systolic pressure <45 mmHg or Pedal
Transcutaneous Oxygen Tension < 40 mmHg

Possible

hospitalization, antibiotic
treatment regimen
management

Ulceration

may be present

ALL UT* STAGE C AND D wounds

POSSIBLE TREATMENT OF CATEGORY 6


Vascular

APPENDICES

of infected, necrotic tissue


and/or bone, as indicated

Medical

present

Joint may be present

UT* STAGE B wounds

sensation may or may not be

consult, possible revascularization

If

infection present, treatment same as for


Category 5. Vascular consultation concomitant
with control of sepsis.

Legend: *UT = University of Texas


** See Appendix E UT Foot Classification System Categories 0-3: Risk Factors for Ulceration
Note. From Practical criteria for screening patients at high risk for diabetic foot ulceration, by L.A. Lavery, D.G. Armstrong, S.A. Vela, T.L. Quebedeau and
J.G. Fleishchli, 1998, Archives of Internal Medicine,158(2), p. 157-162. Reprinted with permission of Dr. D.G. Armstrong.

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Appendix E:
University of Texas Foot Classification System
Categories 0-3: Risk Factors for Ulceration
CATEGORY 0: NO PATHOLOGY

CATEGORY 1: NEUROPATHY, NO DEFORMITY

Patient

Protective

diagnosed with diabetes mellitus

Protective

sensation intact

Ankle

Brachial Pressure Index (ABPI) > 0.80


and toe systolic pressure >45 mmHg

Foot
No

deformity may be present

history of ulceration

sensation absent

Ankle

Brachial Pressure Index (ABPI) > 0.80


and toe systolic pressure >45 mmHg

No

history of ulceration

No

history of diabetic neuropathic


osteoarthropathy (Charcots joint)

No

foot deformity

POSSIBLE TREATMENT FOR CATEGORY 0


Two

to three visits a year to assess


neurovascular status, dermal thermometry,
and foci of stress

Possible

education

APPENDICES

Patient

shoe accommodations

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POSSIBLE TREATMENT FOR CATEGORY 1


Same as Category 0 plus:
Possible

shoe gear accommodation


(pedorthic/orthotist consultation)

Quarterly

visits to assess shoe gear and


monitor for signs of irritation

Assessment and Management of Foot Ulcers for People with Diabetes, Second Edition

CATEGORY 2: NEUROPATHY WITH DEFORMITY

CATEGORY 3: HISTORY OF PATHOLOGY

Protective

Protective

sensation absent

Brachial Pressure Index (ABPI) >0.80


and toe systolic pressure >45 mmHg

sensation absent

Ankle

Ankle

No

history of neuropathic ulceration

History

of neuropathic ulceration

No

history of Charcots joint

History

of Charcots joint

Foot

deformity present (focus of stress)

Brachial Pressure Index (ABPI) >0.80


and toe systolic pressure >45 mmHg

Foot

deformity present (focus of stress)

POSSIBLE TREATMENT FOR CATEGORY 2

POSSIBLE TREATMENT OF CATEGORY 3

Same as Category 1 plus:

Same as Category 2 plus:

Pedorthic/orthotist

Pedorthic/orthotist

consultation for
possible custom molded/extra depth shoe
accommodation

Possible

prophylactic surgery to alleviate focus


of stress (e.g., correction of hammer toe or
bunion deformity)

consultation for custom


molded/extra depth shoe accommodation

Possible

prophylactic surgery to alleviate the


focus of stress (e.g., correction of bunion or
hammer toe)

More

frequent visits may be indicated for


monitoring

Note. From Practical criteria for screening patients at high risk for diabetic foot ulceration, by L.A. Lavery, D.G. Armstrong, S.A. Vela, T.L. Quebedeau and
J.G. Fleishchli, 1998, Archives of Internal Medicine,158(2), p. 157-162. Reprinted with permission of Dr. D.G. Armstrong.

APPENDICES

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Appendix F:
University of Texas Health Science Center
San Antonio Diabetic Wound
Classification System
GRADES

APPENDICES

II

III

Pre- or
post-ulcerative
lesion

Superficial wound,
not involving
tendon, capsule
or bone

Wound penetrating
to tendon or
capsule

Wound penetrating
to bone or joint

Pre- or postulcerative lesion,


completely
epithelialized
with infection

Superficial wound,
not involving
tendon, capsule or
bone with infection

Wound penetrating
to tendon or
capsule with
infection

Wound penetrating
to bone or joint
with infection

Pre- or postulcerative lesion,


completely
epithelialized
with ischemia

Superficial wound,
not involving
tendon, capsule or
bone with ischemia

Wound penetrating
to tendon or
capsule with
ischemia

Wound penetrating
to bone or joint
with ischemia

Pre- or postulcerative lesion,


completely
epithelialized
with infection
and ischemia

Superficial wound,
not involving
tendon, capsule or
bone with infection
and ischemia

Wound penetrating
to tendon or
capsule with
infection and
ischemia

Wound penetrating
to bone or joint
with infection and
ischemia

Note. From Validation of a diabetic wound classification system: The contribution of depth, infection and ischemia to risk of amputation,
by D.G. Armstrong, L.A. Lavery and L.B. Harkless, 1998, Diabetes Care, 21(5), p. 855-859. Reprinted with permission.

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Appendix G:
PEDIS: Diabetic Foot Ulcer Classification System
In 2003, the International Working Group of the Diabetic Foot (IWGDF) introduced its classification system
(PEDIS) for research purposes. On the basis of the scientific literature and expert opinion, five categories were
identified:
Perfusion
Extent/Size
Depth/Tissue Loss
Infection
Sensation
The 2011 International Consensus on the Diabetic Foot & Practical and Specific Guidelines on the Management and
Prevention of the Diabetic Foot continues to support the use of the PEDIS system as a diabetic foot ulcer
classification system. For each category within this system, a grading system is provided, describing the severity
within each category.
Perfusion
GRADE 1 No symptoms or signs of PAD in the affected foot, in combination with:
dorsal pedal and posterior tibial artery or
Ankle Brachial Index 0.9 to 1.10 or
Toe Brachial Index > 0.6 or
Transcutaneous oxygen pressure (TcPo2) > 60 mmHg
Palpable

GRADE 2 Symptoms or signs of PAD, but not of critical limb ischemia (CLI)
Presence

of intermittent claudication*, as defined in the document of the International Consensus on the


Diabetic Foot or
Ankle Brachial Index < 0.9, but with ankle pressure > 50 mmHg or
Toe Brachial Index < 0.6, but systolic toe blood pressure > 30 mmHg or
TcPo2 30 - 60 mmHg or
Other abnormalities on non-invasive testing, compatible with PAD (but not with CLI).
APPENDICES

Note: If tests other than ankle or toe pressure or TcPo2 are performed, they should be specified in each study.
GRADE 3 Critical limb ischemia, as defined by:
ankle blood pressure < 50 mmHg or
toe blood pressure < 30 mmHg or
TcPo2 < 30 mmHg
Systolic
Systolic

* In case of claudication, additional non-invasive assessment should be performed

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Extent/Size
Wound size (measured in square centimetres) should be determined after debridement, if possible. The outer border
of the ulcer should be measured from the intact skin surrounding the ulcer. If wound healing is one of the end-points
in a study, tracing of the wound, planimetry or the grid technique should be used for sequential measurements of
the wound area. If, on the other hand, wound size is measured only at the time of recruitment into a study and
intact skin is the primary end-point, the surface area can also be estimated by multiplying the largest diameter by
the second largest diameter measured perpendicular to the first diameter. However, this technique is clearly less
precise. The frequency distribution of the size of the ulcers should be reported in each study as quartiles.
Depth/Tissue Loss
Depth is difficult to determine and relative; an ulcer which is only a few millimeters deep on a toe can penetrate into
bone or a joint, but, in other regions, ulcers can be several centimeters deep without involvement of deeper structures.
Therefore, ulcers are divided into lesions confined to the skin and those deeper than the skin. Even if an ulcer does
not seem to penetrate below the skin, clinical infection in subcutaneous tissues (e.g., an abscess or osteomyelitis)
means it is a deep ulcer. The extent of tissue loss should be evaluated after initial debridement, but this should be
performed judiciously when critical limb ischemia (Grade 3) is suspected.

GRADE 1

Superficial full thickness ulcer, not penetrating any structure deeper than the dermis.

GRADE 2

Deep ulcer, penetrating below the dermis to subcutaneous structures, involving fascia,
muscle, or tendon.

GRADE 3

All subsequent layers of the foot involved, including bone and/or joint (exposed bone,
probing to bone).

Infection
Infection of a diabetic foot ulcer is defined as invasion and multiplication of microorganisms in body tissues
associated with tissue destruction or a host inflammatory response. Infection is defined clinically, by the symptoms
and signs of inflammation as described below, regardless of the results of any wound culture.
APPENDICES

Studies on accuracy and validity of different tests for diagnosing infection in diabetic foot disease are scarce.
Therefore, the scheme described below is based mainly on expert opinion.
In grading infection, three parameters, in particular, are relevant to clinical management and possibly to outcome:
the involvement of skin only; the involvement of deeper structures and the systemic inflammatory response of the
patient. In daily practise the term a limb-threatening infection is also frequently used. However, this category is
very difficult to define and overlaps with the other categories.

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GRADE 1

No symptoms or signs of infection

GRADE 2

Infection involving the skin and the subcutaneous tissue only (without involvement
of deeper tissues and without systemic signs as described below). At least 2 of the
following items are present:

local

swelling or induration;


erythema

> 0.5 to 2 cm around the ulcer;


local

tenderness or pain;


local

warmth; and/or


purulent

discharge (thick, opaque to white or sanguineous secretion).

Other causes of an inflammatory response of the skin should be excluded


(e.g., trauma, gout, acute Charcot neuro-osteoarthropathy, fracture, thrombosis,
venous stasis).

GRADE 3

Erythema > 2 cm plus one of the items described above (swelling, tenderness, warmth,
discharge) or
Infection involving structures deeper than skin and subcutaneous tissues such as
abscess, osteomyelitis, septic arthritis, fasciitis.
No systemic inflammatory response signs, as described below.

GRADE 4

Any foot infection with the following signs of a systemic inflammatory response
syndrome (SIRS). This response is manifested by two or more of the following conditions:

Temperature

Heart

> 38 or < 36 Celsius;

rate > 90 beats/min;


Respiratory

rate > 20 breaths/min;


PaCO2

< 32 mmHg;


White

blood cell count > 12.000 or < 4.000/cu mm; and/or

10% immature (band) forms.

APPENDICES

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Sensation
The system categorizes patients as having present or absent protective sensation in the affected foot. The system does
not categorise patients as having (diabetic) polyneuropathy, and additional information is needed for this diagnosis.
Moreover, it does not provide information on the cause of the loss of protective sensation, nor is the severity of the
sensory loss graded. Both pressure and vibration sensation should be determined in each patient.

GRADE 1

No loss of protective sensation on the affected foot detected, defined as the presence
of sensory modalities described below.

GRADE 2

Loss of protective sensation on the affected foot is defined as the absence of


perception of the one of the following tests in the affected foot:

Absent

pressure sensation, determined with a 10 gram Monofilament, on 2 out of 3


sites on the plantar side of the foot, as described in the International Consensus on
the Diabetic Foot; and/or


Absent

vibration sensation, (determined with a 128 Hz tuning fork) or vibration


threshold > 25 V, (using semi-quantitative techniques), both tested on the hallux.

APPENDICES

Note. From Classification of diabetic foot ulcers for research purposes, by N.C. Schaper, 2004, Diabetes/Metabolism Research and Reviews, 20(Suppl 1),
S90-S95. Reprinted with permission.

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Appendix H: Description of Foot Deformities


The following table provides the description for several foot deformities: hammer toe, claw toe, hallux deformity,
pes planus, pes cavus and charcot arthropathy.

DEFORMITY

DESCRIPTION

*Hammer Toe bent middle joint

With atrophy of the intrinsic muscles of the foot,


especially the toe plantar flexors, the flexor/
extensor balance at the metatarso-phalangeal
joints is altered. This causes clawing at the toe
and possible subluxation of the metatarsophalangeal joints. As a result, the submetatarsal
fat pads are displaced and there is reduced
pressure absorbing subcutaneous tissue at the
metatarsal heads. In addition, glycosalation
of collagen from hyperglycemia results in
thickened, waxy skin that affects joint mobility.
All these factors contribute to foot deformity
and ulcer risk (Bennett, Stocks & Whittam, 1996; Shaw &
Boulton, 1997).

*Claw Toe joint at base of toe is bent up and


middle joint is bent down

APPENDICES

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DEFORMITY
* Halgus Valgus or Small Bunion (Mild/
Moderate) joint at the base of big toe
is pushed to the side

APPENDICES

** Hallus Valgus or Large Bunion (Severe)


big toe may move under second toe

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DESCRIPTION

Assessment and Management of Foot Ulcers for People with Diabetes, Second Edition

DEFORMITY

DESCRIPTION

Pes Planus (vs normal arch):

Pes planus produces flattening of the foot. Pes


planus feet have increased lateral talometatarsal
angle and increased second metatarsal length
(Ledoux et al., 2003). There are many reasons for
this condition, the first of which is heredity.
Many have this condition and never experience
problems of any kind.
However, others will have this condition created
through years in soft, unsupportive shoes on
hard surfaces, injury, pregnancy, or other factors.
A broad band of fibrous connective tissue,
called the longitudinal ligament, causes the
arch in the foot. A ligament is nothing more
than connective tissue that connects bone to
bone. The longitudinal ligament connects the
metatarsal phalangeal joints to the os calcis or
heel bone. Like a string on a bow, they hold
the two ends together and create an arch. This
arch is a shock absorption structure and it also
helps to maintain all the tarsals in proper erect
anatomic position. As this arch decreases, impact
from the concrete becomes worse.

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APPENDICES

When the arch ligament stretches or tears, the


arch falls. If it falls far enough, the tarsals may
begin to shift to the inside or create pronation
or a valgus (greater than 90 degree erect)
position at the ankle. This can cause problems in
the origin area (the metatarsals) or in the heel.
It also may cause pressure on the medial (inner)
knee and perhaps the hip and back. It is like
pulling the string on a marionette too tight, the
result is a kinked mass on one side. The human
body is much the same; place too much tension
on major muscle groups and the joints kink and
yell back.

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Assessment and Management of Foot Ulcers for People with Diabetes, Second Edition

DEFORMITY

DESCRIPTION

Pes Cavus (vs normal arch):

In pes cavus, the arch is abnormally high on


weight bearing. The heel is often tilted inwards
at the ankle (but not always). In many, the toes
will appear clawed. When not standing, the
front half of the foot (forefoot) will appear to
be dropped below the level of the rear foot.

APPENDICES

Ledoux et al. (2003) identified biomechanical


differences among pes planus and pes cavus feet
in persons with diabetes. They found pes cavus
feet had more prominent metatarsal heads,
bony prominences, hammer/claw toes, increased
hallux dorsiflexion and pes cavus decreased
hallux plantarflexion.

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DEFORMITY

DESCRIPTION

*Charcot Arthropathy (vs normal arch):

One in 680 people with diabetes develop Charcot


joint with an incidence of 9 to 12% individuals
with documented diabetic peripheral neuropathy
(Royal Melbourne Hospital, 2002). Charcot joint is a form
of neuroarthropathy that occurs most often in
the foot. Nerve damage from diabetes causes
decreased sensation, muscle and ligamental
atrophy and subsequent joint instability. The
charcot joint process can affect many areas of the
foot. Most commonly it affects the Lisfranc joint
(tarsometatarsal) region. The deformity in this
area manifests as the typical rocker bottom type
foot. The second most commonly affected area is
the rear foot, or the talar-navicular region. The
ankle joint and forefoot are more rarely involved.
It is also important to note that charcot may affect
more than one region of the foot, and these
different areas may each be at a different stage
of the progression of the deformity. Walking on
this insensitive and weakened joint can cause
even more damage to the foot structure.

APPENDICES

In the acute stage there is inflammation and


bone reabsorption that destroys the bone. In
later stages, the arch falls and the foot may
develop a rocker bottom appearance. Weight
distribution of the sole is altered causing
deformities leading to pressure points that
enhance ulcer development. Signs of charcot
arthopathy include swelling of the foot and
leg, changes in the shape of the foot or ankle,
feeling of instability, crunching feelings or
sounds, and marked increase in temperature of
the foot. Symptoms include pain or discomfort,
pain at rest and burning sensations. It is
important that the charcot foot is recognized
early so that appropriate treatment of the foot
can be provided to prevent further injury and
promote a stable foot (Lavery et al., 1998).
For patient information on charcot arthropathy,
visit http://rnao.ca/bpg/guidelines/assessmentand-management-foot-ulcers-people-diabetes

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DEFORMITY

DESCRIPTION

Limited Joint Mobility

Progressive stiffening of collagen-containing


tissues leads to thickening of the skin, loss
of joint mobility, and potential fixed flexor
deformity. Up to 30% of people with diabetes
may have limited joint mobility. Reduction in
mobility of the ankle joint may cause increased
plantar pressure when walking and be a major
risk factor in the pathogenesis of diabetic foot
ulcers (Fernando, Masson, Veves & Boulton, 1991; Zimny, Schatz
& Pfohl, 2004). Achilles tendon contracture is a
common cause of limited joint mobility causing
increased pressure on the forefoot during
ambulation (Armstrong, Lavery & Bushman, 1998; Mueller,
Sinacore, Hastings, Strube & Johnson, 2004).

APPENDICES

Above illustrations provided by Nancy A. Bauer, BA, Bus Admin, RN, ET.
* Reference: Diabetes Nursing Interest Group & RNAO, (2004). Diabetes foot: Risk assessment education program. Images of the diabetic foot. Toronto:
Registered Nurses Association of Ontario. Retrieved from: http://rnao.ca/bpg/guidelines/resources/diabetes-foot-risk-assessment-education-program

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Appendix I:
Diagnostic Tests to Determine Vascular Supply
DIAGNOSTIC
TEST

DESCRIPTION

Arterial Duplex
Scan

Non-invasive

ultrasound test that can identify macro- and microvascular


changes in the arterial tree.

Used

to diagnose aneurysm and large vessel stenosis >50%.

Patients

with suspected superficial artery stenosis and claudication


may undergo duplex scanning to identify a lesion that is amenable
to angioplasty, before subjected to angiogram (Sales, Goldsmith & Veith 1994;
Cao et al., 2011).

Non-invasive

arterial duplex scan as having sensitivityG and specificity rates


greater than 90% (Kravitz, McGuire & Shanahan, 2003).

Continuous
Wave Doppler

Old

technology. It is highly recommended to use in conjunction with duplex


imaging to visualize the arteries (Cao et al., 2011).

Plethysmography

Records

the pulse volume recording another old tool that can establish
diagnosis with limited accuracy (Cao et al., 2011).

May

be a initial diagnostic tool for persons with diabetes that do not have
compressible arteries but should be used in conjuction with duplex scan
(Cao et al., 2011).

APPENDICES

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DIAGNOSTIC
TEST

DESCRIPTION

Transcutaneous
Oxygen (TcpO2)

Measures

absolute oxygen partial pressure in the dermis. According to


Goldman and Salcido (2002), TcpO2 less than 20 mmHg gives a guarded
prognosis for healing.

40

mmHg is a good indication for healing (Goldman & Salcido, 2002).

T

pO2 should be measured on upper leg and dorsum of the foot for
c
best results.

Areas

of callus, edema or bony prominences produce inaccurate results.

Valuable

for evaluating perfusion and is a good predictor of amputation


in the lower limbs (Adler, Boyko, Ahroni & Smith, 1999; Ballard, Eke, Bunt & Killeen, 1995; Lehto,
Ronnemaa, Pyorala & Laakso, 1996; Mayfield, Reiber, Sanders, Janisse & Pogach, 1998; Pecoraro, Ahroni,
Boyko & Stensel, 1991; Reiber, Pecoraro & Koepsell, 1992).

T

pO2 < 30 mmHg was an independent predictor of diabetic foot ulceration

(McNeely et al., 1995).

Toe and Ankle


Pressures

Systolic

toe and ankle pressures are measured with a fitted occluding cuff
placed most often around the base of the first toe and around both ankles.

Toe

pressure of > 45 mmHg is necessary for optimal healing (Apelqvist, Castenfors,

Larsson, Stenstrom & Agardh, 1989; Frykberg et al., 2000).


Most

patients with toe blood pressures > 30mmHg healed with conservative
management (Apelqvist et al., 1989; Kalani, Brismar, Fagrell, Ostergren & Jorneskog, 1999; Royal
Melbourne Hospital, 2002).

With

ankle pressures < 80mmHg, most patients had an amputation or died


before healing occurred (Apelqvist et al., 1989).

Kalani

et al. (1999) suggests a cut-off of 25mmHg for TcpO2 and 30mmHg


for toe blood pressure as predictors of wound healing, with TcpO2 being
the better predictor in patients with diabetes and chronic foot ulcers. Toe
pressures, however, may be more technically and economically feasible.
pressures for persons with diabetes were more reliable than persons
with false negative ABPIs and lower limb neuropathy (Cao et al., 2011).

APPENDICES

Toe

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DIAGNOSTIC
TEST

DESCRIPTION

Ankle-Brachial
Pressure Index
(ABPI)

ABPI

or ratio of systolic blood pressure in the lower extremity to blood


pressure in the arm is a common clinical measure of reduced circulation
(Boyko et al., 1999; Cao et al., 2011).

First

line of assessment for diagnosing vascular status though insensitive


to determine the extent of occlusive disease compared to angiography
(Cao et al., 2011).

This

should not be the sole diagnostic test performed (Cao et al., 2011).

In

the diabetic population, ABPI results can be unreliable (falsely negative;


for example ABPI > 1.2) due to calcification of the arterial vessels (Apelqvist
et al., 1989; Cao et al., 2011).

CAUTION:
This should not be the sole diagnostic test performed.
In

persons with diabetes, ABPI results can be unreliable (falsely negative) due
to calcification of the arterial vessels (Apelqvist et al., 1989; Cao et al., 2011). Sensitivity
(63-100%) and specificity (85-97%) were reported for persons with diabetes
(Cao et al., 2011).

Angiography

Sensitivity

(92-98%) and specificity (88-98%) is high for all 3 types


of angiography (Cao et al., 2011).


Diagnosing

magnetic resonance angiography (MRA)


Contraindicated for persons with metal foreign implants
(ie. pacemaker, aneurism clips, orthopedic screws, pin, etc.)


Computed

tomography, angiography (CTA)


Exposure to nephrotoxic contrast medium (Cao et al., 2011).

Digital subtraction angiography (DSA)


Gold standard and traditional diagnostic tool. Potential for catheter
puncture complications though risk is low 0.7% risk (Cao et al., 2011).

APPENDICES

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References:
Adler, A. I., Boyko, E. J., Ahroni, J. H., & Smith, D. G. (1999). Lower-extremity amputation in diabetes:
The Independent effects of peripheral vascular disease, sensory neuropathy, and foot ulcers. Diabetes Care, 22(7),
1029-1037.
Apelqvist, J., Castenfors, J., Larsson, J., Stenstrm, A., & Agardh, C.-D. (1989). Prognostic value of systolic ankle and
toe blood pressure levels in outcome of diabetic foot ulcer. Diabetes Care, 12(6), 373-378.
Ballard, J., Eke, C., Bunt, T. J., & Killeen, J. D. (1995). A prospective evaluation of transcutaneous oxygen
measurements in the management of diabetic foot problems. Journal of Vascular Surgery, 22(4), 485-492.
Boyko, E. J., Ahroni, J. H., Stensel, V., Forsberg, R. C., Davignon, D. R., & Smith, D. G. (1999). A prospective study
of risk factors for diabetic foot ulcers: The Seattle diabetic foot study. Diabetes Care, 22(7), 1036-1042.
Cao, P., Ecksteinb, H., De Rangoc, P., Setaccid, C., Riccoe, J., de Donatof, G., et al. (2011). Chapter II: Diagnostic
Methods. European Journal of Vascular and Endovascular Surgery, 42(S2), S13S32.
Frykberg, R. G., Armstrong, D. G., Giurini, J., Edwards, A., Kravette, M., Kravitz, S. et al. (2000). Diabetic foot
disorders: A clinical practice guideline. American College of Foot and Ankle Surgeons [Electronic version].
Available: http://www.acfas.org/diabeticcpg.html
Goldman, R. J. & Salcido, R. (2002). More than one way to measure a wound: An overview of tools and techniques.
Advances in Skin and Wound Care, 15(5), 236-245.
Kalani, M., Brismar, K., Fagrell, B., Ostergren, J., & Jorneskog, G. (1999). Transcutaneous oxygen tension and toe
blood pressure as predictors for outcome of diabetic foot ulcers. Diabetes Care, 22(1), 147-151.
Kravitz, S., McGuire, J., & Shanahan, S. D. (2003). Phsyical assessment of the diabetic foot. Advances in Skin and
Wound Care, 16(2), 68-75.
Lehto, S., Ronnemaa, T., Pyorala, K., & Laakso, M. (1996). Risk factors predicting lower extremity amputations in
patients with NIDDM. Diabetes Care, 19(6), 607-612.
Mayfield, J. A., Reiber, G. E., Sanders, L. J., Janisse, D., & Pogach, L. M. (1998). Preventive foot care in people with
diabetes. Diabetes Care, 21(12), 2161-2177.
McNeely, M., Boyko, E., Ahroni, J., Stensel, V., Reiber, G., Smith, D. et al. (1995). The independent contributions of
diabetic neuropathy and vasculopathy in foot ulceration: How great are the risks? Diabetes Care, 18(2), 216-219.

APPENDICES

Pecoraro, R. E., Ahroni, J. H., Boyko, E. J., & Stensel, V. L. (1991). Chronology and determinants of tissue repair in
diabetic lower-extremity ulcers. Diabetes, 40(10), 1305-1313.
Reiber, G. E., Pecoraro, R. E., & Koepsell, T. D. (1992). Risk factors for amputation in patients with diabetes mellitus:
A case-control study. Annals of Internal Medicine, 117(2), 97-105.
Royal Melbourne Hospital. (2002). Evidence based guidelines for the inpatient management of acute diabetes
related foot complications. Melbourne Health [Electronic version]. Available: http://www.mh.org.au/
ClinicalEpidemiology/new_files/Foot%20guideline%20supporting.pdf
Sales, C., Goldsmith, J., & Veith, F. J. (1994). Handbook of Vascular Surgery. St. Louis, MO: Quality Medical Publishing.

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Appendix J: Wound Swabbing Technique


Collecting swab specimens using Levines technique provides a reasonably accurate measure of wound bioburden
(Gardner et al., 2006). Obtain a wound culture when clinical signs and symptoms of infection are present.
Technique:
Use

sterile cotton-tipped swab and culture medium in a pre-packaged collection and transport system.
Community nurses should not allow transport medium to freeze or become overheated in the car before using it.

Thoroughly
Do

rinse wound with normal saline (non-bacteristatic).

not swab pus, exudate, hard eschar or necrotic tissue.

Rotate

the swab tip in a 1cm2 area of clean granulation tissue for a period of 5 seconds, using enough pressure
to release tissue exudate. This may be painful so warn the patient of the possibility of pain and pre-medicate with
analgesia if possible.

Remove protective cap from culture medium and insert cotton-tipped applicator into the culture medium without

contaminating the applicator.


Transport

to the laboratory at room temperature within 24 hours.

Note: In Ontario, the Ontario Medical Laboratories Technologies Act, 1991 requires a health-care practitioners order to process the culture.
Note. From Clinical Practice Policy and Procedure 16.2.3. Semi Quantitative Wound Swab Sample Culturing Technique,
by C. Harris and Care Partners/ET NOW, 2000. Reprinted with permission.

Bibliography:
Dow, G., Browne, A. & Sibbald, G. (1999). Infection in chronic wounds: Controversies in diagnosis and treatment.
Ostomy/Wound Management, 45(8), 23-40.
Herruzo-Cabrera, R., Vizcaino-Alcaide, M. J., Pinedo-Castillo, C. & Rey-Calero, J. (1992). Diagnosis of local
infection of a burn by semiquantitative culture of the eschar surface. Journal of Burn Care and Rehabilitation, 13(6),
639-641.
Stotts, N. (1995). Determination of bacterial bioburden in wounds. Advances in Wound Care, 8(4), 28-46.
APPENDICES

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Appendix K:
Use of the Semmes-Weinstein Monofilament
Directions for use of Semmes-Weinstein Monofilament
1. Assess integrity of monofilament (no bends/breaks).
2. Show the monofilament to the client. Place the end of the monofilament on his/her hand or arm to show that
the testing procedure will not hurt.
3. Ask the client to turn his/her head and close his/her eyes or look at the ceiling.
4. Hold the monofilament perpendicular to the skin
.

skin
monofilament

Place tip on sole of foot...

...bend...

...and release.

5. Place the end of the monofilament on the sole of the foot. Ask the client to say yes when he/she feels you
touching his/her foot with the monofilament. DO NOT ASK THE CLIENT did you feel that? If the client
does not say yes when you touch a given testing site, continue on to another site. When you have completed
the sequence, RETEST the area(s) where the client did not feel monofilament.
6. Push the monofilament until it bends, then hold for 1 to 3 seconds.
7. Lift the monofilament from the skin. Do not brush or slide along the skin.
8. Repeat the sequence randomly at each testing site on the foot (see pictures below).
Sites on the sole of the foot for monofilament testing
Loss of protective sensation = absent sensation at one or more sites

APPENDICES

Right
Foot

Left
Foot

Notes
Apply only to intact skin. Avoid calluses, ulcerated or scarred areas. DO NOT use a rapid or tapping movement.
If

the monofilament accidentally slides along the skin, retest that area later in the testing sequence.
the monofilament according to the manufacturers instructions.
Clean the monofilament according to agency infection control protocols.
Store

Registered Nurses Association of Ontario (RNAO). (2007). Reducing foot complications for people with diabetes.
Toronto, Canada: Registered Nurses Association of Ontario.

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Assessment and Management of Foot Ulcers for People with Diabetes, Second Edition

Appendix L:
Suggestions for Assessing and Selecting Shoes
and Socks
Shoes
Shoes

should be comfortable and should match the shape of your foot.


both feet measured each time shoes are bought. Feet will get longer and wider with age.
Buy new shoes late in the day since feet often swell or enlarge during the day. Buy shoes to fit the larger foot
if there is a difference.
Shoes should fit 10 to 12 mm beyond the longest toe.
Choose shoes with a wide and deep toe box.
When buying shoes, wear the type of socks that you will be wearing with those shoes.
Buy shoes with laces or velcro closures. These provide more support, distribute pressure around the sides
and top, and allow adjustment for swelling.
Shoes should have good non-skid soles, closed toes and heels, with no ridges, wrinkles or seams in the linings
(good running shoes or walking shoes are recommended).
Avoid slip-on shoes, shoes with pointed toes and sandals, especially sandals with thongs between the toes.
Do not wear shoes with heels higher than 1 inch (2.5 cm) as they increase pressure on the metatarsal heads.
Begin wearing new shoes gradually. Inspect the feet after each hour of wearing time for areas of redness that
indicate potential problems.
Do not wear any shoes longer than 6 hours without removing. Each pair of shoes fits differently and distributes
pressure differently.
Check shoes before wearing for small stones or puckered or bunched up areas.
If shoes have caused a foot problem, they should no longer be worn.
Have

Socks
Wear

APPENDICES

clean socks everyday. Cotton or wool is best to absorb perspiration.


Socks should fit well. Avoid tight elastic at the top.
If wearing knee-high hosiery, ensure it has a wide band at the top.
Check socks for irritation or bunching. Avoid seams if possible.
Do not wear mended socks as they may cause an area of pressure.
Do not wear socks with holes as they may cause an area of friction.
Adapted from:
International Diabetes Federation (2005). Diabetes and Foot Care A Time to Act. Retrieved from http://www.idf.org/webdata/docs/T2A_Introduction.pdf
International Diabetes Group & International Working Group on the Diabetic Foot. In Lorimer, D. L., French, G. J., ODonnell, M., Burrow, J. G., & Wall, B.
(2006). Neales Disorder of the Foot. Edinburgh: Churchill Livingstone Elsevier.
Zangaro, G. A. & Hull, M. M. (1999). Diabetic neuropathy: Pathophysiology and prevention of foot ulcers. Clinical Nurse Specialist, 13(2), 57-65.

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Appendix M: Offloading Devices


The selection of the appropriate offloading device is based on the following considerations:
The

ability to effectively remove all pressures from the ulcer site;


of the device;
Ease and skill required for the application of the device;
Characteristics of the diabetic ulceration; and
The ability to encourage client adherence.
Cost-effectiveness

All offloading devices will alter the clients gait. This may place them at high risk for falling. It is very important to
provide the client with an appropriate gait aid and proper gait training to ensure this risk is minimized. There are also
devices available to place on the opposite shoe in order to correct any leg length discrepancy that often occurs with
the application of a Total Contact Cast, Air Cast or other offloading shoes.
OFFLOADING DEVICE

ADVANTAGES

DISADVANTAGES

TOTAL CONTACT CAST (TCC)

Highest

Requires

A well-molded minimally
padded cast that maintains
contact with the entire aspect
of the foot and lower leg

healing rates
(gold standard)

Distributes

pressure over
the entire plantar surface

Completely

offloads

Protects

foot from infection

Controls

edema

Maintains

patient
adherence as it is
non-removable

trained technician

Cannot

assess foot on a
daily basis

Affects

sleeping and
bathing

Exacerbates

postural
instability or causes
poor balance

Cannot

use if wound
infected
be used in the
neuro-ischemic limb

APPENDICES

Cannot

SCOTCHCAST BOOT

Lighter

with high integral


strength

A fiberglass boot that reduces


pressure over the wound

Removable

for examination

Can

be non-removable for
poorly adherent patients

Promotes

continued
ambulation

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R E G I S T E R E D N U R S E S A S S O C I AT I O N O F O N TA R I O

If

removable poor
adherence

Has

not yet been compared


in studies to other forms of
offloading for efficacy

Assessment and Management of Foot Ulcers for People with Diabetes, Second Edition

OFFLOADING DEVICE

ADVANTAGES

DISADVANTAGES

REMOVABLE WALKER

Easily

Removable

A commercially available
removable boot that reduces
plantar pressures

Allows

removable allowing
wound inspection and
treatment
more comfortable
bathing and sleeping

nature of cast
reduces adherence

No

clinical data to support


its efficacy compared to TCC

Can

be used for infected


wounds and superficial
ulcers

Can

be made irremovable

HALFSHOES

Inexpensive

Less

Offer support only under the


rear and mid-foot

Easy

Hampers

HEALING SANDALS

Limit

to apply

dorsiflexion, therefore
distributes pressure of
metatarsal heads

Lightweight

effective than TCC


gait

Not

as efficient compared
to other methods of
offloading

and stable

Reusable

MABAL SHOE

Removable

Cross between healing sandal


and TCC

Better

(inspection)

contact with foot


than healing sandal

Comparative

rates of
healing with TCC

Inexpensive

Bilayered felted foam over the


plantar surface with opening
for the wound

Accessible

(reduces

adherence)
Expertise

required
to make and apply

Requires

skilled health
professional

Can

increase pressure and


shear at wound edges if
not properly applied and
monitored

Frequent

APPENDICES

FELTED FOAM

Removable

changes

No

studies to suggest its


efficacy in offloading

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OFFLOADING DEVICE

ADVANTAGES

DISADVANTAGES

CRUTCHES, WALKERS,
AND WHEELCHAIRS

If

Requires

Rentable

May

used consistently
will offload pressure

upper body
strength and endurance

not be used all


the time

Difficulty

in navigating

indoors
Can

increase pressures
on contralateral side

THERAPEUTIC FOOTWEAR
DEPTH INLAY SHOES

Beneficial

in preventing
ulcerations, NOT healing

No

proof of efficacy in
healing ulcers

Allow

up to 900% more
pressure in forefoot than
TCC and removable walker

Can

be used in feet with


severe Charcot deformity
to accommodate rocker
bottom foot

APPENDICES

CROW CHARCOT RESTRAINT


ORTHOTIC WALKER

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R E G I S T E R E D N U R S E S A S S O C I AT I O N O F O N TA R I O

Costly
Removable
Requires

physician/specialist
to prescribe

Assessment and Management of Foot Ulcers for People with Diabetes, Second Edition

Bibliography:
Armstrong, D. G. & Lavery, L. A. (1998). Evidence-based options for off-loading diabetic wounds. Clinics in Podiatric
Medicine and Surgery, 15(1), 95-105.
Armstrong, D. G, Lavery, L. A., Kimbriel, H. R., Nixon, B. P., & Boulton, A. J. M. (2003). Activity patterns of patients
with diabetic foot ulceration. Diabetes Care, 26(9), 2595-2597.
Armstrong, D. G., Nguyen, H. C., Lavery, L. A., Van Schie, C. H. M., Boulton, A. J. M., &Harkless, L. B. (2001).
Off-Loading the diabetic foot wound: A randomized clinical trial. Diabetes Care, 24(6), 1019-1022.
Armstrong, D. G., Van Schie, C. H. M., & Boulton, A. J. M. (2001). Offloading foot wounds in people with diabetes.
In D. L. Krasner, G. T. Rodehaver, & R. G. Sibbald (Eds.), Chronic wound care: A clinical resource book for healthcare
professionals, (pp. 599-615). Wayne, PA: HMP Communications.
Birke, J. A., Pavich, M. A., Patout Jr., C. A., & Horswell, R. (2002). Comparison of forefoot ulcer healing using
alternative off-loading methods in patients with diabetes mellitus. Advances in Skin & Wound Care, 15(5), 210-215.
Fleischli, J. G., Lavery, L. A., Vela, S. A., Ashry, H., & Lavery, D. C. (1997). Comparison of strategies for reducing
pressure at the site of neuropathic ulcers. Journal of the American Podiatric Medical Association, 87(10), 466-472.
Inlow, S., Kalla, T. P., & Rahman, J. (1999). Downloading plantar foot pressures in the diabetic patient. Ostomy/
Wound Management, 45(10), 28-38.
Knowles, E. A., Armstrong, D. G., Hayat, S. A., Khawaja, K. I., Malik, R. A., & Boulton, A. J. M. (2002). Offloading
diabetic foot wounds using the scotchcast boot: A retrospective study. Ostomy/Wound Management, 48(9), 50-53.
Zimny, S., Schatz, H., & Pfoh, U. (2003). The effects of applied felted foam on wound healing and healing times
in the therapy of neuropathic diabetic foot ulcers. Diabetes Medicine, 20(8), 622-625.

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Appendix N: Clinic Assessment Tool


The following is an example of an interprofessional assessment tool that may be used within a clinic setting.

Interprofessional Diabetes Foot Ulcer Team


310 Wellington Road, London N6C 4P4

Initial Assessment Form - Clinic


PRESENTING PROBLEM

Site: ______________________________________ _______

Duration (weeks):_______________________________________

PERIPHERAL VASCULAR SUPPLY


History of vascular symptoms: None
Intermittent claudication
Rest pain
Insufficient activity to elicit symptoms
Edema
Previous hospitalizations for vascular specific issues
Colour:
Normal
Cyanosis
Erythema
Pallor on limb elevation
Rubor on limb dependency
Mottling
Temperature gradient:
Normal
R/prox distal _______________________________________
L/prox distal _______________________________________
Pulses palpable (tick if yes) :
Left foot: DP PT
Right foot: DP PT
Vascular risk/PAD
PT
DP PPG Brachial
ABI
TBI
R/F
L/F

Date: ___________________
Patient name:______________________________________
Date of birth:_________________
Cause: __________________________________________
____________________________________________________

Capillary refill:
R/great toe <1sec 1-3 sec >3 sec
L/great toe <1sec 1-3 sec >3 sec
Integumentary changes:
Normal
Skin atrophy
Abnormal wrinkling
Absence of hair growth Nail growth abnormal:______
Dry gangrene
Skin examination:
Appearance (colour, texture, turgor, quality, dryness):
________________________ Normal
Presence of callus (discoloration/sub callus bleeding):
________________________
Interdigital lesions
Tinea pedis
Other____________________________
REFERRAL CRITERIA FOR VASCULAR SURGERY CONSULT:
Foot ulcer
Pulses impalpable
ABI< 0.9; TBI< 0.6
Date contacted Dr. De Rose:_________________________
Next step: ________________________________________

APPENDICES

Collected by Clinician: _________________________________________ Signed:_____________________________________


NEUROLOGICAL ASSESSMENT
FOOTWEAR EXAMINATION:
Sensory:
Type of shoe (athletic, oxford, comfort etc..): ____________________
Monofilament(10g, /4): L:
R: ___________
Fit:___________________________________________________
Graduated Tuning Fork: L:
R:___________
Depth of toe box:
Neurological risk/LOPS
Enough room for toes Not enough depth
Autonomic:
Normal
___________________________________________________
Dry scaly skin
Shoewear:__________________________________________
Lining wear: ________________________________________
Maceration between toes
Foreign bodies inside shoe:____________________________
Loss of hair growth
Devices eg. orthotics:_________________________________
Thickened toenails
Motor:
Normal
MUSCULOSKELETAL EXAMINATION:
Range of motion: tick if abnormal
Biomechanical assessment:
st
Ankle Sub talar joint R/ 1 ray
Clinician:_______________________ Signed:_______________
L/ 1st ray
Heel Contact:
R/Big toe L/Big toe
Mid Stance:
Other_____________________
Deep tendon reflexes: tick if absent
Normal
Heel lift:
Patellar
Achilles
Toe off:
Description:

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Assessment and Management of Foot Ulcers for People with Diabetes, Second Edition

PATIENT NAME

Date:

FOOT FUNCTION: High foot pressures (>6kg/cm)

Limited joint mobility


Normal
Foot deformity:
None
Muscle Group strength testing (Passive, active, weight bearing
Nail:_______________________________________
and non-weight bearing) Abnormalities: _____________
Joint:______________________________________
_______________________________________________
Prior amputation
Tendo-achilles contractures/equinus
Foot drop
Intrinsic muscle atrophy
Other________________________________________________________________________
ULCER CLASSIFICATION: Neuropathic

Neuroischemic

Ischemic

Other __________________

Comments:
MENTAL/PSYCHOSOCIAL STATUS:

Capable of Consent?

Yes No

Are you currently experiencing any difficulties in your personal or family life (e.g., relationship problems, depression, eating disorder, or other
health problems) that might interfere with your ability to manage your foot care?
During the past month. Have you been often been bothered by feeling down, depressed or hopeless? YES NO
Have you often been bothered by little interest or pleasure in doing things? (note: often means almost every day) YES NO
If yes to either question refer to psychology
ULCER ASSESSMENT:
Location:___________________________________________
Length ________cm Width__________cm Depth________ cm
Wound base:
Granulation Tissue ____ %; Necrotic (Slough/eschar) ______ % Epithelium _____ %
Necrotic tissue type (hard black, soft grey eschar, yellow slough):__________________________
Integrity of Granulation tissue (bright red, pale, friable, dull dusky red):______________________
Edges (advancing, attached, not attached, rolled, fibrotic, callus): ___________________________
Exudate: None Light Moderate Heavy
PAIN: Numerical Rating Scale (0 10): RF

/10 LF

/10

What triggers pain________________________________________________________


What soothes pain: _______________________________________________________
Location:________________________________________________________________
Describe: Sharp shooting dull, aching

_____C
_____C
_____C
_____C

Other ______________

R _____ C
R _____ C
R _____ C
R _____ C

Diff:_____ C
Diff:_____ C
Diff:_____ C
Diff:_____ C

APPENDICES

TEMPERATURES:
Location:_______________________ L
Location:_______________________ L
Location:_______________________ L
Location:_______________________ L

burning

WOUND TRACING

Clinician:__________________________________________________ Signed:_______________________________________

Created on 1/11/2011 6:31:00 PM

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PATIENT NAME

Date:
PEDIS WOUND
CLASSIFICATION:

SOFT TISSUE INFECTION:


No clinical signs or symptoms

P: Grade: 1

Clinical signs and symptoms of mild (PEDIS level 2) infection:


Clinical signs and symptoms of moderate (PEDIS level 3) infection.
Severe (PEDIS level 4) infection
POTENTIAL FOR ULCER TO HEAL:

2 3

E: Area: _______cm2
D: Grade: 1 2 3
I: Grade: 1

2 3 4

S: Grade: 1

TREATMENTS:

Cut and filed nails: _______________________________________________________________________________


Debridement: ____________________________________________________________________________________________
Other: __________________________________________________________________________________________
Clinician: ___________________________________________________________ Signed:_________________________________________

Physiotherapist notes:

Orthotist notes:

Print name:______________________Signed:______________

Print name:______________________Signed:______________

DRESSINGS:

FREQUENCY OF DRESSING CHANGES:

Primary: ___________________________________________

daily every 2nd day twice a week once a week

Secondary: _________________________________________

DRESSINGS TO BE CHANGED BY:

Fixation: ___________________________________________

patient family member ___________ nurse

PRESSURE REDISTRIBUTION:

Walker. Type ______________________________

Felt to foot: describe: _______________________________

TCC

Post op rocker sole slipper

Other ________________________________________

Clinician: ___________________________________________________________ Signed:_________________________________________

APPENDICES

Notes:

Clinician: ___________________________________________________________ Signed:_________________________________________

INSTRUCTIONS GIVEN RE: WOUNDCARE

Dressing changes
Keeping wound dry

Patient information brochure provided

Reducing weight bearing activity


How to identify if infection develops & what to do
Other________________________________________________________________

Created on 1/11/2011 6:31:00 PM

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PATIENT NAME

Date:

REFERRALS: Orthopaedic surgeon


CCAC for wound care

Vascular Surgeon

Social Work

Psychology

Other __________________________________

EDUCATION: ____________________________________________________________________________________________
CORRESPONDENCE:

FOLLOW-UP: Next Available

Family Physician:_______________________________________
Wound Nurse:_________________________________________

________months

Other: ______________________________________________

____ weeks

PRN

D/C

Notes:

By clinician_______________________Signed____________________
Clinician: ___________________________________________________________ Signed:_________________________________________

APPENDICES

Created on 1/11/2011 6:31:00 PM

Page 4 of 4

Note. From Interprofessional Diabetes Foot Ulcer Team Foot specific Initial Assessment Form, by R. Ogrin and Interprofessional Diabetes Foot Ulcer Team,
2009. Reprinted with permission.

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Appendix O: Optional Treatment Modalities


The RNAO expert panel has identified biological agents, adjunctive therapies and surgery as treatment options for
foot ulcers that do not heal at the expected rate. While many of the suggested treatment options are beyond of scope
of nursing, the RNAO expert panel was inclusive of potential treatment options available in an interprofessional
environment.

Biologic Agents and Associated Evidence


BIOLOGIC AGENTS

DESCRIPTION AND EVIDENCE

Growth Factors

RECOMBINANT HUMAN PLATELET DERIVED GROWTH FACTOR


(BB/PDGF) REGRANEX
Becaplermin

gel, also known as Regranex, is a type of growth factor.

The

biological activity of becaplermin is similar to that of naturallyoccurring PDGF, which promotes chemotaxis and the proliferation
of cells involved in the wound repair process (Smiell, 1998).

Topical

application of becaplermin gel promotes wound bed


vascularization.

EVIDENCE:
Four multicentre, randomized group studies found that one topical
application of becaplermin gel daily in conjunction with appropriate
ulcer care was effective and well-tolerated in clients with full-thickness,
lower extremity diabetic ulcers (Smiell et al., 1999).
Bioactive Agents/
Emerging
Pharmacotherapeutics
(not publicly available
at the time of guideline
publication)

CHRYSALIN (RUSALATIDE ACETATE OR TP508)


Chrysalin,

or TP508, is a 23-amino acid peptide similar to the sequence


of amino acids in human thrombin, a clotting factor (Fife et al., 2007).

Unlike

thrombin, Chrysalin does not have enzymatic properties and is


not involved with blood coagulation (Fife et al., 2007).
may improve the rate of wound healing and closure in
chronic ulcers (Fife et al., 2007).

APPENDICES

Chrysalin

EVIDENCE:
In a phase I and phase II placebo-controlled trial of 60 people with
diabetic foot ulcers, 10 g of Chrysalin applied topically, twice weekly,
improved tissue repair and increased wound closure (Fife et al., 2007).

138

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Assessment and Management of Foot Ulcers for People with Diabetes, Second Edition

BIOLOGIC AGENTS

DESCRIPTION AND EVIDENCE


IMMUNOKINE (WF10)
Immunokine,

or WF10, is an aqueous solution of the chlorite drug


OXO-K993 given intravenously to treat chronic inflammatory disorders
(Yingsakmongkol, Maraprygsavan & Sukosit, 2011).

Topical

application of WF10 has been shown to improve wound


healing and enhance granulation tissue formation in various types
of wounds (Yingsakmongkol et al., 2011).

EVIDENCE:
Yingsakmongkol et al. (2011) conducted a randomized controlled trial
to evaluate the effect of WF10 as an adjunct to the standard treatment
of diabetic foot ulcers. The addition of WF10 to standard wound care
significantly enhanced the formation of granulation tissue, and reduced
infection, inflammation, necrotic tissue, and overall wound severity score
(Yingsakmongkol et al., 2011).

APPENDICES

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Assessment and Management of Foot Ulcers for People with Diabetes, Second Edition

Adjunctive Therapies and Associated Evidence


TYPE OF
ADJUNCTIVE THERAPY

DESCRIPTION AND EVIDENCE

Electric Stimulation

Electrical

stimulation involves applying a low level electrical current


to the base of the wound or peri-wound using conductive electrodes.

This

procedure should be performed by trained health-care


professionals.

EVIDENCE:
A meta-analysis by Foster, Smith, Taylor, Zinkie and Houghton (2004) of
17 randomized controlled trials showed that electrical stimulation was
effective in treating chronic wounds. Included in this analysis were three
trials with clients with diabetic foot ulcers.
Extracorporeal Shock
Wave Treatment (ESWT)

ESWT

is a new technology using shockwaves to treat chronic, painful


conditions of the musculoskeletal system.

A

shockwave is an intense and short energy wave traveling faster


than the speed of sound.

EVIDENCE:
Wang et al. (2009) conducted a prospective randomized controlled trial
to evaluate the efficacy of ESWT in chronic diabetic foot ulcers compared
to hyperbaric oxygen therapy. The ESWT group showed 31% healing
versus 22% in the hyperbaric oxygen therapy group.
Hyperbaric Oxygen
Therapy (HBOT)

Subatmospheric

oxygen is delivered through a hyperbaric chamber


and inhaled by the client.

HBOT

increases oxygen tension in the tissues.

EVIDENCE:

APPENDICES

The routine management of diabetic foot ulcers with HBOT is not


justified by the evidence found in the systematic review conducted
by Kranke, Bennett and Roeckl-Wiedmann (2004). Although HBOT
significantly reduced the risk of major amputation and may improve
the probability of wound healing at 1 year, economic evaluations should
be undertaken. With methodological shortcomings and poor reporting
of the studies that were reviewed, Kranke et al. (2004) caution that any
benefit from HBOT will need to be examined further using rigorous
randomized trials.

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Assessment and Management of Foot Ulcers for People with Diabetes, Second Edition

TYPE OF
ADJUNCTIVE THERAPY
Negative Pressure
Wound Therapy (NPWT)

DESCRIPTION AND EVIDENCE


Subatmospheric

pressure is delivered to the wound by a dressing


covered with a clear membrane.

The

dressing is attached to a pump that delivers intermittent or


continuous suction within a prescribed range of settings.

EVIDENCE:
The RNAO expert panel reached consensus to support the Health
Quality Ontario: Ontario Health Technology Advisory Committee
(OHTAC, 2010) in recommending NPWT as an effective treatment
option in the management of diabetic foot ulcers. The OHTAC (2010)
review of randomized controlled trials found evidence that:

The

proportion of clients who achieved complete wound closure


was significantly higher in the NPWT group than the control group.


The

duration of therapy and median time to complete ulcer closure


was shorter in the NPWT group than the control group.


The

decrease in wound area from baseline was significantly greater


in the NPWT group than the control group.

APPENDICES

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Assessment and Management of Foot Ulcers for People with Diabetes, Second Edition

Surgeries and Associated Evidence


SURGERY

DESCRIPTION AND EVIDENCE

Achilles Tendon
Lengthening

Achilles

Tendon Lengthening is a surgical procedure that involves


lengthening the tendon or attached calf muscle to reduce stress on
the foot.

This

procedure is effective at reducing ulcer recurrence in people with


diabetes, peripheral neuropathy and a plantar ulcer (Mueller et al., 2004).

EVIDENCE:
In a randomized clinical trial, Mueller et al. (2004) compared the effect
of total contact casting alone to total contact casting combined with
Achilles tendon lengthening in clients with diabetic foot ulcers. Outcome
measures included healing rates and ulcer re-occurrence at the 7-month
and 2-year follow-up. Although initial wound healing outcomes were
similar, a significant reduction in ulcer re-occurrence was noted in the
group with Achilles tendon lengthening at subsequent follow-up visits.
Other surgical
procedures

Surgery

for foot deformities in clients with diabetes can be beneficial


in preventing the re-occurrence of ulcers.

Options

include: arthroplasty, digital amputation, bunionectomy,


metatarsal osteotomy, ray resection, tendon tenotomy or
skin grafting.

Surgery

may not be a viable option for select populations with


impaired vascular supply.

EVIDENCE:

APPENDICES

To date, only anecdotal results are available.

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Assessment and Management of Foot Ulcers for People with Diabetes, Second Edition

Appendix P:
Debridement Decision-Making Algorithm
YES

SURGICAL /SHARP & MECHANICAL

NO

AUTOLYTIC

FAST

SURGICAL /SHARP

SLOW

AUTOLYTIC

LARGE

SURGICAL /SHARP

SMALL

AUTOLYTIC

THICK

SURGICAL /SHARP & MECHANICAL

THIN

AUTOLYTIC

LARGE

SURGICAL /SHARP & MECHANICAL

SMALL

AUTOLYTIC

DEMARCATED

SURGICAL /SHARP

NOT
DIFFERENTIATED

AUTOLYTIC

YES

SURGICAL /SHARP & MECHANICAL

NO

AUTOLYTIC

INFECTED WOUND

TIME TO ACCOMPLISH
DEBRIDEMENT

SIZE OF WOUND

TYPE OF EXUDATE

AMOUNT OF DEBRIS

TYPE OF DEBRIS

APPENDICES

POTENTIAL PROBLEM
TRAUMA TO WOUND BED

Rodd-Nielsen, E., Brown, J., Brooke, J., Fatum, H., Hill, M., Morin, J., St-Cyr, L., in Association with the Canadian Association for Enterostomal Therapy
(CAET). Evidence-Based Recommendations for Conservative Sharp Debridement (2011).

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Appendix Q: Topical Antimicrobial Agents


TOPICAL ANTIMICROBIAL AGENTS
AGENT

SAFE AND
EFFECTIVE

A. Cadexomer
iodine paste/
ointment

SPECTRUM

COMMENT

SA

MRSA

Strep

PS

Anaerobic

VRE


Broad

spectrum,
lower cytotoxicity


Effective

for fungi,
virus, bacteria*

B. Iodine in
polyethylene
glycol base
Tulle


Widely

available*


Requires

wound

contact*

Caution

if thyroid
medication*

Ionized Silver
(NB. Silver
dressings are
antiinflammatory)


Broad

spectrum,
lower cytotoxicity


Effective

for fungi,
virus, bacteria


Widely

available


Requires

wound

contact
Silver
Sulphadiazine
cream


Limited

potential
for resistance


Pseudo-eschar

may

delay healing
(re-epithelialization)

Requires

wound

APPENDICES

contact

Do

not use if sulfa


sensitive

Polymyxin B

Bacitracin cream/
ointment

144

R E G I S T E R E D N U R S E S A S S O C I AT I O N O F O N TA R I O


Requires

wound

contact

Either

antibiotic
may be an allergen

Assessment and Management of Foot Ulcers for People with Diabetes, Second Edition

TOPICAL ANTIMICROBIAL AGENTS


AGENT

SPECTRUM
SA

SELECTIVE USE

MRSA

Strep

PS

Metronidazole
Gel/lotion/cream
(antiinflammatory)
Benzyl Peroxide
gel/lotion

COMMENT
Anaerobic

VRE


Reserve


Reserve

for
anaerobes and
odour control

for MRSA/
other resistant Gram
positive organisms


May

Acetic Acid

be allergen


Use

0.5% /1% short


contact (5-10min)


Especially

pseudomonas/other
Gram negative
Mupuricin
cream/ointment

Povidine Iodine
solution


Should

be reserved
for MRSA


Use

with caution.
This agent has
moderate cytotoxic
activity


Use

Chlorhexidine
solution

BEST PRACTICE GUIDELINES

APPENDICES

for maintenance
non healable wounds
*see other properties
above*


Use

for maintenance,
non healable wounds

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Assessment and Management of Foot Ulcers for People with Diabetes, Second Edition

AGENT

CAUTION

SPECTRUM
SA

MRSA

Strep

PS

Anaerobic

VRE

PolyHexaMethalen
Biguanide (PHMB)
foam, gauze,
ribbon

Gentamycin
cream/ointment

Fucidic Acid
cream/ointment

Polymixin B

Bacitracin
Neomycin
ointment

NOT
RECOMMENDED

COMMENT


Safer

than
chlohexadine


Caution

resistance:
Reserve for IV use


May

sensitize,
especially the
ointment
(lanolin base)


Potential

sensitizer,
especially neomycin


Cream

formulations
contain gramicidin
instead of bacitracin

Alcohol


Cytotoxic

Hydrogen
Peroxide


Weaker

Hypochlorite
solution
(Dakins/Hygeol)

with
antimicrobial action
than other
product choices

APPENDICES

Legend: (SA=Staphlococcus Aureus), (MRSA=Methicillin Resistant Staph Aureus), (Strep=Streptococci), (PS=Pseudomonas), (F=Fungi Mucor, Aspergillus,
Candida Albicans, Candida Topicalis, Candida Glabrata, & Saccharomyces), (VRE=Vancomycin- Resistant Enterococci).
Reprinted with permission from Dr. R. G. Sibbald2013

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Assessment and Management of Foot Ulcers for People with Diabetes, Second Edition

Appendix R: A Guide to Dressing Foot Wounds


There is limited evidence demonstrating that any specific dressing type enhances the rate of wound healing for diabetic
foot ulcers. It is known, however, that a moist wound environment encourages rapid wound healing. Dressing
selection depends on a variety of factors, and may change as the wound and skin at the ulcer site changes. Factors
influencing dressing selection include wound type, wound depth, presence and volume of exudates, presence of
infection, surrounding skin conditions, likelihood of re-injury and cost. Dressings should not be applied in isolation,
but should be a part of a care plan consisting of debridement, pressure off-loading and when indicated, antibiotic
medications. It is important to note that dressings themselves can be a source of pressure. Care and caution should
be taken to ensure that the selected dressing does not increase pressure at the ulcer site. Furthermore, big and bulky
dressings, and donut-type devices should be avoided as they can decrease circulation to the area.
The following list of dressings is not exhaustive and are products commonly used in Ontario.
Note: Read the product monographs for specific details.

CLASS

DESCRIPTION

1. 
Films/
membranes


Semipermeable

2.
Nonadherent

adhesive sheet;
impermeable
to water molecules
and bacteria


Sheets

of low
adherence to tissue


Nonmedicated

TISSUE
DEBRIDEMENT

INFECTION

MOISTURE
BALANCE

INDICATIONS/
CONTRAINDICATIONS

Moisture

vapour transmission
rate varies from film to film


Should

not be used on
draining or infected wounds*


Create

an occlusive barrier
against infection

tulles


Allow

drainage to seep
through pores to secondary
dressings


Facilitate

application of
topical medications

3. 
Hydrogels


Polymers

with high
water content


Available

in gels,
solid sheets or
impregnated gauze

++

/+

++


Should

not be used on
draining wounds


Solid

sheets should not be


used on infected wounds

APPENDICES

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Assessment and Management of Foot Ulcers for People with Diabetes, Second Edition

CLASS

DESCRIPTION

4. 
Hydrocolloids


May

contain
gelatine, sodium
carboxymethylcellulose,
polysaccharides
and/or pectin; sheet
dressings are occlusive
with a polyurethane
film outer layer

TISSUE
DEBRIDEMENT

INFECTION

MOISTURE
BALANCE

+++

/+

++

INDICATIONS/
CONTRAINDICATIONS

Use with care on fragile skin

Should

stay in place for


several days


Should

not be used on heavily


draining or infected wounds*


Create

an occlusive barrier
to protect the wound from
outside contamination


Odour

may accompany
dressing change and should
not be confused with infection

5. 
Acrylics


Clear

acrylic pad
enclosed between
2 layers of transparent
adhesive film

+++

/+

++


Use

on low- to moderately
draining wounds where the
dressing may stay in place
for an extended time


May

observe wound without


changing

6. 
Calcium
alginates


Sheets

or fibrous ropes
of calcium sodium
alginate (seaweed
derivative); have
hemostatic capabilities

++

+++


Should

not be used on dry


wounds


Low

tensile strength avoid


packing into narrow, deep
sinuses

APPENDICES


Bioreabsorbable

7. 
Composite


Multilayered,

8. 
Foams


Nonadhesive

or
adhesive polyurethane
foam; may have
occlusive backing;
sheets or cavity
packing; some have
fluid lock

9. 
Charcoal

148

combination dressings
to increase absorbency
and autolysis


Contains

odourabsorbing charcoal
within product

+++


Use

+++


Use

on wounds where
dressings may stay in place
for several days*
on moderately to heavily
draining wounds


Occlusive

foams should not be


used on heavily draining
or infected wounds*

R E G I S T E R E D N U R S E S A S S O C I AT I O N O F O N TA R I O


Some

charcoal products
are inactivated by moisture


Ensure

dressing edges
are sealed

Assessment and Management of Foot Ulcers for People with Diabetes, Second Edition

CLASS

DESCRIPTION

10. 
Hypertonic


Sheet, ribbon

or gel
impregnated with
sodium concentrate

TISSUE
DEBRIDEMENT

INFECTION

MOISTURE
BALANCE

++

INDICATIONS/
CONTRAINDICATIONS

Gauze

ribbon should not


be used on dry wounds


May

be painful on
sensitive tissue


Gel may be used on dry wounds

11. 
Hydrophilic
fibres

12.
Antimicrobials

13. 
Other devices


Sheet

or packing
strip of sodium
carboxymethylcellulose;
converts to a solid gel
when activated by
moisture (fluid lock)


Silver, iodides, PHMB,

honey aniline dyes


with vehicle for
delivery: sheets, gels,
alginates, foams or
paste

Negative-pressure

wound therapy applies


localized negative
pressure to the surface
and margins of wound

+++


Best

for moderate amount


of exudates


Should

not be used on dry


wounds


Low

tensile strength avoid


packing into the narrow,
deep sinus

+++


Broad

spectrum against
bacteria


Should

not to be used
on patients with known
hypersensitivities to any
product component

+++


This

negative pressuredistributing dressing actively


removes fluid from wound
and promotes wound edge
approximation


Advanced

skill required for


patient selection

14. 
Biologics


Living

human
fibroblasts provided in
sheets at ambient or
frozen temperature;
extracellular matrix


Collagen-containing


Should

not be used on
wounds with infection, sinus
tracts or excessive exudate
or with patients known to
have hypersensitivity to any
of the product components


Cultural

issues related to

APPENDICES

preparations;
hyaluronic acid,
platelet-derived
growth factor

source

Advanced

skill required
for patient selection

Adapted from the CAWC.


* Use with caution if critical colonization is suspected.
no activity. + minimal activity. ++ moderate activity. +++ strong activity.
Note. From Special considerations in wound bed preparation 2011: An update (Part 2), by R.G. Sibbald, L. Goodman, K.Y. Woo, D. Krassner and H. Smart, 2012,
Wound Care Canada, 10(3), p. 25-33. Reprinted with permission.

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Assessment and Management of Foot Ulcers for People with Diabetes, Second Edition

Appendix S:
Diabetes, Healthy Feet and You Brochure
People with diabetes should take care of their feet and be aware of any changes. The Canadian Association of Wound
Care has developed the following tool (available in 16 languages) for people with diabetes to use.

Steps for Healthy Feet


General Health

1
2
3

Control your blood glucose levels.


If you smoke, quit.
Exercise daily as directed by your
healthcare professional.

Caring for Your Feet

2
3
4

Look for signs of redness or blisters


on your feet. This shows your shoe
may not fit properly.
Wash your feet daily. Dry well, especially
between your toes. Apply a moisturizer
to your feet but not between your toes.
Do not soak your feet.
If you are unable to reach your toes or
do not have feeling in your feet, have
a healthcare professional trim your
toenails for you.

Footwear

2
3
4
5
6

Shake out your shoes before you put


them on.
Wear shoes at all times, indoors and out.
Buy shoes with closed toes as they
protect your feet from injury.
Change your socks every day.
Buy shoes late in the day as feet tend
to swell.
Have your shoes professionally fitted by
a footwear specialist.

I will take care of my feet and make the


changes needed to help keep my feet healthy!

Date

SIGNatURe

1. What is my main problem?


2. What do I need to do?
3. Why is it important for me to do this?
National Patient Safety Foundation

Sign up online at
www.cawc.net/diabetesandhealthyfeet
to receive your FREE monthly tip.

150

Diabetes,
Healthy Feet
and You

Visit us to read personal stories about


foot care for people with diabetes, find a
foot care professional, find the answers to
frequently asked questions and more!

Canadian Association of Wound Care


642 King St., West Suite 200
Toronto, ON M5V 1M7
Tel: 416-485-2292 Toll-Free: 1-866-474-0125
Email: [email protected]
Web site: www.cawc.net/diabetesandhealthyfeet

Production of materials has been made possible


through a financial contribution from the Public
Health Agency of Canada. The views expressed
herein do not necessarily represent the views of
the Public Health Agency of Canada.
This brochure is a guide only and should not be
used for any diagnostic or therapeutic decisions.
Specific medical concerns should be directly
handled by a qualified healthcare professional.

APPENDICES

This section is perforated for your


personal reference.

Make the most out


of your visit with your
healthcare professional by
asking these 3 questions:

R E G I S T E R E D N U R S E S A S S O C I AT I O N O F O N TA R I O

How healthy are


YOUR feet?

Assessment and Management of Foot Ulcers for People with Diabetes, Second Edition

Know the signs.

Are your feet


Numb, painful
or tingling?
Do your feet
feel like blocks
of wood?
Changing shape?
Is one foot
different than
the other?
Any change
is important.
Dry, callused
or cracked?
Do they
have sores
or blisters?

Please continue to check your


feet every day for any changes
or signs of injury.
If you have answered YES to any of
these questions, please see a healthcare
professional as soon as possible. Be
sure to tell him/her that you have
diabetes. Avoid using over-the-counter
treatments unless directed to by
a healthcare professional.

Have your healthcare professional


check your feet AT lEAST 1-2 times
per year or more if required.

What can I do?

If yes

If yes

If yes

Your Healthcare Professional Team


Chiropodists or Podiatrists: specialize
in treating foot diseases, disorders and
dysfunctions
Diabetes Educators: provide education
on diabetes, including foot care
Doctors: assist in diabetes management,
and some have specialized training in
foot care
Nurses: some have specialized training
in foot care
Orthotists / Prosthetists: specialize
in orthotic and prosthetic devices
Pedorthists: specialize in orthotics,
footwear and footwear modifications

Control your blood glucose levels.


Have a healthcare professional trim
your toenails and care for the skin
on your feet.
Have your shoes professionally
fitted.
Avoid too much walking.
Visit your healthcare professional
as soon as possible.
Have your shoes professionally
fitted.
Changes to your skin should be seen
by a healthcare professional.
Wash a sore or blister with warm water;
dry well, and cover with a bandage.
See a healthcare professional today.
Avoid walking on your foot as it heals.

Key Phone Numbers:


Chiropodist or Podiatrist
Diabetes educator
Doctor
Nurse
Orthotist / Prosthetist
Pedorthist

For more information, visit

www.cawc.net/diabetesandhealthyfeet

Note. From Diabetes, Healthy Feet and You, by the Canadian Association of Wound Care, 2012, [Brochure]. Copyright 2012 by Canadian Association of
Wound Care. Reprinted with permission.

APPENDICES

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Appendix T:
Pressure Ulcer Scale for Healing (PUSH) Tool 3.0
The Pressure Ulcer Scale for Healing tool (PUSH tool), which measures wound size, exudate and tissue type, has recently
been validated for diabetic foot ulcer healing by Gardner et al. (2009) and Hon et al. (2010). Gardner et al. (2009)
demonstrated that a person with a PUSH score of 10 would be expected to heal in 8.8 weeks versus a PUSH score
of four where healing was noted at 2.6 weeks. The tool is provided below.
Directions: Observe and measure the pressure ulcer. Categorize the ulcer with respect to surface area, exudate and
type of wound tissue. Record a sub-score for each of these ulcer characteristics. Add the sub-scores to obtain the total
score. A comparison of total scores measured over time provides an indication of the improvement or deterioration
in pressure ulcer healing.
LENGTH
X
WIDTH

0
0

(in cm2)

1
< 0.3

2
0.3 0.6

3
0.7 1.0

4
1.1 2.0

5
2.1 3.0

6
3.1 4.0

7
4.1 8.0

8
8.1 12.0

9
12.1 24.0

10
> 24.0

EXUDATE
AMOUNT

0
None

1
Light

2
Moderate

3
Heavy

TISSUE
TYPE

0
Closed

1
Epithelial
Tissue

2
Granulation
Tissue

3
Slough

Sub-score

Sub-score

4
Necrotic
Tissue

Sub-score

TOTAL SCORE

Length x Width: Measure the greatest length (head to toe) and the greatest width (side to side) using a centimeter ruler.
Multiply these two measurements (length x width) to obtain an estimate of surface area in square centimeters (cm2).
Caveat: Do not guess! Always use a centimeter ruler and always use the same method each time the ulcer is measured.
Exudate Amount: Estimate the amount of exudate (drainage) present after removal of the dressing and before
applying any topical agent to the ulcer. Estimate the exudate (drainage) as none, light, moderate or heavy.

APPENDICES

Tissue Type: This refers to the types of tissue that are present in the wound (ulcer) bed. Score as a 4 if there is any
necrotic tissue present. Score as a 3 if there is any amount of slough present and necrotic tissue is absent. Score as
a 2 if the wound is clean and contains granulation tissue. A superficial wound that is reepithelializing is scored as a
1. When the wound is closed, score as a 0.
4 Necrotic Tissue (Eschar): black, brown or tan tissue that adheres firmly to the wound bed or ulcer edges and
may be either firmer or softer than surrounding skin.
3 Slough: yellow or white tissue that adheres to the ulcer bed in strings or thick clumps, or is mucinous.
2 Granulation Tissue: pink or beefy red tissue with a shiny, moist, granular appearance.
1 Epithelial Tissue: for superficial ulcers, new pink or shiny tissue (skin) that grows in from the edges or as islands
on the ulcer surface.
0 Closed/Resurfaced: the wound is completely covered with epithelium (new skin).

152

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Directions: Observe and measure pressure ulcers at regular intervals using the PUSH Tool. Date and record PUSH
Sub-scores and Total Scores on the Pressure Ulcer Healing Record below.
PRESSURE ULCER HEALING RECORD
DATE
LENGTH x WIDTH
EXUDATE AMOUNT
TISSUE TYPE
PUSH TOTAL SCORE

Graph the PUSH Total Scores on the Pressure Ulcer Healing Graph below.
PUSH TOTAL SCORE

PRESSURE ULCER HEALING GRAPH

17
16
15
14
13
12
11
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3

APPENDICES

2
1
HEALED = 0
DATE
Note. From Pressure Ulcer Scale for Healing tool (PUSH tool) 3.0, by National Pressure Ulcer Advisory Panel, 2012. Retrieved from http://www.npuap.org/
wp-content/uploads/2012/02/push3.pdf. Reprinted with permission

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Appendix U:
Resources for Diabetic Foot Ulcer Information
The following websites provide information on diabetic foot ulcer. These are examples only and are not intended
to be a comprehensive listing.

Organizations
American Academy of Wound Management www.aawm.org
American Physical Therapy Association www.apta.org
Association for the Advancement of Wound Care http://aawconline.org/
Australian Wound Management Association www.awma.com.au
Canadian Association of Enterostomanal Therapy www.caet.ca
Canadian Association of Wound Care www.cawc.net
Canadian Diabetes Association http://www.diabetes.ca/
Canadian Federation of Podiatric Medicine http://www.podiatryinfocanada.ca/Public/Home.aspx
Canadian Nurses Association http://www.cna-aiic.ca/en/
Canadian Podiatric Medical Association http://www.podiatrycanada.org/
Centres for Disease Control and Prevention www.cdc.gov/
IDF Consultative Section on the Diabetic Foot/IWGDF http://www.iwgdf.org/
Journal of Wound Care www.journalofwoundcare.com
National Coalition of Wound Care see Association for the Advancement of Wound Care
Tissue Viability Society www.tvs.org.uk
Wound Care Information Network www.medicaledu.com/wndguide.htm

APPENDICES

Wound Healing Society www.woundheal.org


Wound, Ostomy and Continence Nurses Society www.wocn.org

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Service Providers

Chiropodists/Podiatrists

Sharp debridement, gait assessment, orthoses, shoes,


shoe modifications soft tissue management, wound healing modalities
Ontario: www.cocoo.on.ca
http://www.ontariochiropodist.com/
Canada: www.podiatrycanada.org
http://www.podiatryinfocanada.ca/

Occupational Therapists

Assistive devices, orthoses, activities of daily living and cognition.


Canada: www.caot.ca
U.S.: www.aota.org

Orthotists

Othoses, braces, total contact casting and shoe modifications.


Canada: www.pando.ca
U.S.: www.oandp.org

Pedorthists

Orthoses, shoes and shoe modifications.


Canada: www.pedorthic.ca
U.S: www.pedorthics.org

Physical Therapists

Sharp debridement, gait assessment, orthoses, assistive devices,


wound healing modalities, exercise prescription, mobility and offloading.
Canada: http://www.physiotherapy.ca/Home
U.S.: http://www.apta.org/

APPENDICES

BEST PRACTICE GUIDELINES

w w w. R N A O . c a

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Assessment and Management of Foot Ulcers for People with Diabetes, Second Edition

Appendix V: Description of the Toolkit


BPGs can only be successfully implemented if there are adequate planning, resources, organizational and
administrative supports, as well as appropriate facilitation. In this light, the Registered Nurses Association of
Ontario, through a panel of nurses, researchers and administrators, has developed the Toolkit: Implementation
of Best Practice Guidelines (2nd ed.) (2012b). The Toolkit is based on available evidence, theoretical perspectives
and consensus. The Toolkit is recommended for guiding the implementation of any clinical practice guideline
in a health-care organization.
The Toolkit provides step-by-step directions to individuals and groups involved in planning, coordinating and
facilitating the guideline implementation. These steps reflect a process that is dynamic and iterative rather than
linear. Therefore, at each phase, preparation for the next phases and reflection on the previous phase is essential.
Specifically, the Toolkit addresses the following key steps, as illustrated in the Knowledge to Action framework
(RNAO, 2012b; Straus et al., 2009) when implementing a guideline:
1. Identify problem: identify, review, select knowledge (Best Practice Guideline).
2. Adapt knowledge to local context:
Assess barriers and facilitators to knowledge use; and
Identify resources.
3. Select, tailor and implement interventions.
4. Monitor knowledge use.
5. Evaluate outcomes.
6. Sustain knowledge use.

APPENDICES

Implementing guidelines that result in successful practice changes and positive clinical impact is a complex
undertaking. The Toolkit is a key resource for managing this process and can be downloaded at http://rnao.ca/bpg.

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Clinical Best
Practice Guidelines
MARCH 2013

Assessment and Management of


Facilitating
Foot Ulcers for People with Diabetes
Second
Edition
Client
Centred Learning

ISBN 978-1-926944-53-1

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