Educational Research (ISSN: 2141-5161) Vol. 5(5) pp.

166-178, June, 2014

DOI: http:/dx.doi.org/10.14303/er.2014.105
Available online@ http://www.interesjournals.org/ER
Copyright 2014 International Research Journals

Full Length Research Paper

Impact of Cultural Factors on Girl Students Academic

Achievement in Secondary Schools in Kenya: A Case
Study of Kisumu East District
1

Lucy Stella Atieno Juma and *2Enose M.W. Simatwa

*1

Department of Education, Rongo University College

Department of Educational Management and Foundations, Maseno University

*2

*Corresponding Authors Email: [email protected].

ABSTRACT
Traditions and customs affect childrens education. It has been noted that the girl child is performs
poorly in Kisumu East District when compared to the boy child in Kenya Certificate of Secondary
Education Examinations. For instance in 2008, in Nyanza Province only 5 girls compared to 25 boys
were ranked among the top 100 nationally. Among the 5 girls there was only one girl from Kisumu
East District. In 2009, only 6 girls compared to 26 boys were ranked among the top 100 position
nationally from Nyanza Province; and there was no girl while there were 4 boys from Kisumu East
District. To date girls lag behind boys in academic achievement in secondary education. Many
factors are believed to be responsible for this trend. Cultural factors are believed to be among them.
It is this dimension that prompted the study. The study established that cultural factors indeed
influenced girl students academic achievement. Weekend funeral based disco dances, prior to burial
ceremonies were found to negatively affect girls academic achievement, particularly in day
secondary schools. Domestic chores and practices by parents of marrying off daughters were other
cultural factors that negatively affected the girl childs academic performance. Positive community
attitudes enhanced girl students academic achievement while domestic chores negatively impacted
on girl students academic achievement. The study concluded that cultural factors influenced
academic achievement of girls in secondary schools in Kenya. The study recommended that the
government should sensitize parents on the need and importance of supporting girl child education
for better performance, parents should also be sensitized by the school on the importance of
providing for the needs of the girl student. The findings of this study are significant to stakeholders
in education on issues of gender equity in education and family socio cultural factors that influence
academic achievement of the girl student in secondary education.
Keywords: Impact, cultural factors, Girl Students Achievement, Secondary Schools, Kisumu East District,
Kenya.
INTRODUCTION
Education is valued because it contributes to national
development through provision of an appropriate human
resource that helps to spur productivity and eliminate
poverty, disease and ignorance (Republic of Kenya,
2005). Education of girls, in particular, contributes to the
various aspects of their lives such as increased
productivity, family health and nutrition, reduced fertility

rates and related child mortality rates (Psacharopoulos

and Patrinos, 2004). Parental influence has been
identified as an important factor affecting girl student
academic achievement; parents education and
encouragement are strongly related to improved student
achievement (Wang et al., 1996). Parental education and
social economic status have an influence on student

Juma and Simatwa 167

Table 1. Students who attained Grade C+ (Plus) and above

Year

Entry

Number of Candidates

2003

39,213

9,482

24.18

2004

43,506

11,410

26.22

2005
2006

50,293
41,117

13,098
10,19

26.04
24.8

2007

48,341

15,021

31,.07

2008

54,756

13,526

24.7

2009

59,912

14,695

24.52

achievement. Students with parents who were both

college educated tended to achieve at the highest
levels. Children whose parents are of high educational
status have a better statistical chance of participating in
secondary Education (Oloo, 2003). Important factors
include parental involvement in their children education,
how much Television children are allowed to watch and
how often students change schools (Hammer, 2003).
Post primary education for a girl has important individual
benefits in terms of her options and resources over her
lifetime. These benefits extend beyond the girl in affecting
her family and the society as a whole, the benefits to
society include enhanced economic development,
education for the next generation, healthier young girls
and families and fewer maternal deaths (UNICEF, 2004).
The benefit of education for a girl and society can be
explained by the effect that education has on
empowering girls to acquire and use new personal, social
and economic behavior that in turn, affect societal
change (Moulton, 1997). Ayodo (2010) observes that the
quest for the provision of quality education continues to
be a matter of leading concern to both consumers and
providers of the education service in Kenya and other
developing countries. This is supported by the UNESCO
(1992) report that reveals that concerns for quality
education has dominated the education debate from the
early eighties and has remained a central issue in the
twenty first century. Therefore the girls should not be left
out in the quest for this education. From the reviewed
literature the influence of cultural factors was unknown,
the gap in knowledge this study fought to fill.
Cultural factors in Nyanza Province believed to have a
big influence on girl student academic achievement than
boy students (Provincial Director of Education, 2009).
Thus the girl child is subjected to domestic chores daily in
case of day schools. As for boarding schools, the girl
student is affected mostly during school holidays.
Furthermore, the boy child is given preference where
financial resources are scarce. Hence, the girl student
does not attend school regularly as desired. The girl child
is also affected more by incidents of HIV and AIDS
pandemic as the girl student is compelled to take care of
the sick siblings and parents as the case may be in
serious cases of loss of income, they are forced to drop

Percentage

out of school temporarily to look for food, clothing and at

times shelter. When they are readmitted back to schools
their performance in class work is generally below
average.
The Kenya Government Sessional paper
number 1 of 2005 (Republic of Kenya, 2005a) calls for
affirmative action to enhance women participation in
education and other areas of employment; it was
entrenched in the country through the affirmative action
bill in 2007. It is also included in the constitution of Kenya
(2010), chapter 8 article 100 (a) and 197(a). The current
study investigated how applicable the affirmative action
was to girl student academic achievement whose status
indicates that academic excellence is the panacea for
advancement. International reports, for example the
Education For All Global Monitoring Report (UNESCO,
2003a), indicate that at the national level, Kenya has
virtually attained gender parity in enrolment at both the
primary and secondary education levels. However, close
scrutiny reveals that serious gender disparities in
enrolment exist between regions in favor of males with
regard to access, retention, completion, performance and
transition. Nevertheless, the boy child is also affected in
one way or the other. Thus, all this has led to low
academic achievement in Nyanza Province as shown in
Tables 1 and 2.
From Table 1 it can be revealed that performance in
Nyanza Province was low as in 2003 only 9,482(24.38%)
attained the mean grade of C+ and above, in 2009,
14,695 (24.52%) scored C+ and above.
From Table 2 it can be observed that girls who scored
grade A in 2003 were 2(4.5%) compared to boys who
were 42(9.5%) whereas in 2009 girls who scored grade
A were 8(7.3%) compared to boys who were
102(92.7%). Kisumu East being in Nyanza Province is
not exceptional and the girls perform poorly compared to
the boys. Kisumu East District which houses Kisumu
municipality is expected to perform better than
neighbouring districts, yet analysis of 2008 and 2009
revealed that only one girl was ranked among the top 100
students nationally in 2008 and in 2009 the district did not
have any girls among the top 100 nationally. According to
the Republic of Kenya (2005b), the high expectations for
better academic achievement in Kisumu East District
were due to the fact that it has better infrastructure and

168 Educ. Res.

Table 2. Grade A Distribution in Nyanza Province 2003-2009

Year
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009

Total KCSE A in the Province

44
36
65
104
122
93
110

Boys
42
35
63
96
116
84
102

Girls
2
1
2
8
6
9
8

Table 3. Kisumu Countys Districts KCSE Results, 2009

DISTRICT

Kisumu East
Kisumu West
Nyando
County Total

Gender

Boys
2073
1043
2664
5780

Girls
1439
595
1330
3364

Total

3512
1638
3994
9144

KCSE GRADES

MEAN
SCORES

A-

B+

B-

C+

C-

D+

D-

1
29
3
33

50
80
46
176

102
69
143
314

175
88
222
485

299
127
359
785

398
185
451
1034

527
289
581
1397

620
307
767
1694

610
251
699
1560

447
156
481
1084

240
42
205
38

28
0
10
28

11
8
16
29

0
7
11
0

generally affluent society with high level of literacy and

availability of electricity. However it provides labour
market for children particularly girls who serve as house
girls, kiosk vendors to generate income for their parents.
Since most secondary schools are mixed day schools the
girl student is highly vulnerable to motor bike and bicycle
operators, this in the end affects their performance in
secondary school examinations. There was therefore a
need to conduct a study to establish the influence cultural
factors on girl student academic achievement. The study
sought to establish the performance of Kisumu East vis a
vis neighbouring Districts as shown in Table 3.
Table 3 shows that the mean score for Kisumu East
was 5.234 which was lower than Nyando Districts 5.541
and Kisumu West Districts 5.290. Based on data in this
background it was conceived that there was a need for a
study to establish the influence of cultural factors on girl
student academic achievement in Kisumu East District.
Synthesis of Literature Review
Parents have different attitudes towards their sons and
daughters. Daughters are brought up for female roles
such as child rearing while sons have a whole working
life to devote to career building. Parents believe that
females do not have qualities of independence, initiative
and assertiveness (Mampele, 1994). Siegel (1987)
argues that parents react differently whenever things go
wrong for boys and girls in school performance. With this
in view, the current research sought to find out whether
the difference in reaction by parents is because of
parental attitudinal differences due to culture. Eshiwani

5.234
5.290
5.541
5.355

(1986) noted that girls had not been encouraged to enter

those academic disciplines that were historically
dominated by men since cultural influence is still strong in
many parts of Kenya. Girls education is seen as a mere
waste of time since girls will leave home and go to
another family. Accordingly, Ademola (1989) noted that
among the Sisala tribe of Ghana, girls are given powerful
skills of being housewives yet denied that part of
education that will make them compete favourably in
other sectors as opposed to their counter parts. In that
way, girls shy off and hence develop some dependent
attitudes. On the other hand, Kihumba (1997) noted that
in Lesotho, girls who would otherwise remain at home to
be well fed and learn duties of good housewifery are
taken to schools rather than boys who go to look after
cattle. This is a totally different trend compared to what
happens in most cultures where girls are left behind to
take care of the children as maids while boys are sent to
school. This situation in Lesotho depicts a disparity in the
provision of education on the boy child. Some tribes in
Kenya believe that the boy child education should be
developed since they are going to be heads of families.
He rightly concludes that the gender of a child should not
be a fundamental issue when dealing with the provision
of education. From the foregoing, the present study
investigated whether cultural factors contribute to the
inequality in the provision of education to boys and girls.
The Gachathi report (1976) concluded that the
education of women is much less developed than that of
men due to traditional believes and prejudices held by
people in society. There is need to ensure that career
prospects for women and men are made similar through
guidance and counseling, increasing girls opportunities

Juma and Simatwa 169

and promoting compensatory enrolment for women at

secondary and university levels. Karugu (1987) says that
whether in school or not, girls of primary school age
spend significantly more time on household chores than
boys. Culturally prescribed roles for girls and women
especially in the domestic sphere socialize girls to take
the roles of deputy mothers. Owing to the cultural division
of labour and allocation of duties between sexes, which in
many societies start early, the opportunity cost of sending
girls to primary school tends to be higher than that of
boys. Psacharopoulos and Woodhall (1985) noted that
parents, particularly mothers favored boys education
because they depend on the sons for old age insurance.
Investment in a sons education is seen as security in old
age. They also rely on the daughters labour before
marriage. Bernard (2002) observes that lack of positive
policy environment and structure for girls education,
including a lack of co-ordination between the education
sector and other social sectors, inhibits girls achievement
in education. Chapman (2004) concurs with Bernard
(2002); he observes that the absence of policy to
promote education for adolescent girls is a hidden
obstacle to achieving in academics gender equality. For
example, data collected on attendance, completion and
achievement that are not desecrated by sex prohibits the
formulation of policies for gender equality. Other policies
act as specific barriers to girls education. For example,
policies limit the access and placement of girls in
secondary schools (Wolf and Kainja, 1999).
African countries largely have a male preference
attitude. The boy child is expected to be able to do
wonders in the world of knowledge and technology
whereas a womans place is at home, keep up with the
livelihood of the family (Mischi, 2002). Family
development efforts, including schooling are invested on
the boys because they are makers of clans while the girls
are expected to be married to husbands who will speak
for them. As a result few efforts and resources are spent
on girls education (World Bank, 2002). This may lead to
low academic achievement among girls in examination.
Ballara (1992) observes that households, fathers and
men in general have a negative attitude towards womens
education, especially when it results in the possibility of
learning new skills that give women a new role in the
family, and in the society. These in turn impede the
schooling of girls and hence cause low academic
achievement in national examinations. In most African
countries many poor and large families preferred to
educate boys for family continuity, headship of household
and property inheritance since girls marry and go away
from their homes (UNESCO-UNICEF, 1990). Further
more, the inability to pay fees and purchase books, large
equipment and clothes compel parents to invest in
education of their sons, whom they see as a source of
future family support in preference to their daughters
whose economic contribution could as well be to a
different household (UNESCO-UNICEF, 1990).

Chege and Sifuna (2006) noted that parents tend to

discourage too much education for their daughters.
There is always the fear that if a girl is highly educated
she may find it difficult to get a husband or be a good
wife. They argue that women stay away from too much
education in order to remain manageable and to avoid
entering fields, which would make it difficult to follow their
husbands incase of transfer of residence.
Patriarchal societies are affected by patriarchal
systems, which give preferences for investment in
schooling to boys who are believed to retain responsibility
for their parents when they grow older, compared to girls,
who are incorporated into their husbands families
(Eshiwani, 1993). This is why boys were expected to
receive maximum training in order to attain the higher
status as heads of the families and as successful heads
of their respective families. Boys were also expected to
inherit their parents property and hence maintain their
familys status quo. Girls on the other hand, believed that
their success and future depended on the success of
their husbands and therefore it was used as an excuse
for girls not to be taken to school (Maritim, 1990). Lack of
vision and prospects for future life reduces girls interest
to participate, achieve and perform in education. Special
efforts, therefore, need to be employed to cultivate girls
interest to education and provide an environment that will
ensure their full participation and achievement in
education. Several authorities have discussed at varying
lengths the cultural constraints as they operate to limit
education for girls. Maleche (1972) argues that the
cultural inhibitions include male prejudice. This is the
belief that education will make girls discontented and
immoral, less willing to engage in the heavy labour. The
general attitude shows that education is undesirable for
the women because it interferes with her cultural
authenticity and to the dismay of men. This attitude
therefore does not encourage education for women, let
alone aspirations for a better place in society. This in the
end may affect the performance of the girls.
Abdulahi (2005) reported cases affecting girls in
Maasai land. He noted that fathers do not wish to pay
fees for their daughters; instead they would rather have
them married. This has forced several of them to run
away from home to seek refuge elsewhere. Otunga
(1994) argues that the more popular theory advanced for
the high dropout rates among girls is that parents still see
boys as fetching greater financial gain upon successful
completion of school and that culturally they are entitled
to family land as they remain in their birth homes.
Additionally, boys are also given preference by parents
when it comes to purchasing core textbooks. According
to Campbell (2004), people still continue to value
activities traditionally done by men more than they value
those done by women. He further asserts that adults and
children alike know that society is going to be more
supportive of the girl who wants to be assertive and
athletic or become a childcare work. You act like a girl is

170 Educ. Res.

still one of the premier insults that can be hurled at a

good student who is too closely identified with girls.
Many boys want to be good students.
Wangechi (1996) observed that since women stayed
at home while men went hunting, women indulged in idle
chatter than men. She argues that colonization of Kenya
provided an opportunity for traditional roles and rights of
women to be eroded. Gender had for a long time muted a
category with a male dominated and patriarchal character
right through the colonial era. Rubin (1974) asserts that
Boys will be boys, as a fact of human nature, and girls
will grow up to become mothers. Besides, he notes that
for working class girls, the domestic curriculum was their
only option. For most middle class girls, private education
provided the academic opportunities for a few, but also
created the social class solidarity and enabled them to
get the right husband. Some middle class girls,
however,
had
the
opportunity
of
attending
uncompromising secondary school education.
Konchora (2004) observes that gender violence has
provided a grim picture of the rigid cultural practices that
make the main concern of the pastoral communities. This
is especially rampant within the family, where complete
violation against women rights are not adhered to.
Kanyuka (1990) noted that girls were enshrined as
homemakers and this provided the rationale for post war
girls education by the middle of the 20th Century. The
education of the girls included a lengthy chapter on
domestic subjects, like needlework, cookery, laundry and
housekeeping. This was due to the fact that, ones
knowledge of such subjects is a necessary equipment
for all girls as potential house makers. Two, domestic
subjects had advantage of (offering) a practical approach
to theoretical work; and finally, domestic subjects could
be a qualification requirement for girls likely to go on to
domestic science colleges. For girls, domestic subjects
provide a centre of interest natural and congenial to
them. This study differs from Abdullahi (2005), Bernard
(2002), Chapman (2004) Ballara (1992) Chege (1983),
Sifuna (2006) who observe that lack of positive policy
environment, structure for girls education and patriarchal
societies are affected by patriarchal systems, which gives
preferences for investment in schooling to boys who are
believed to retain responsibility for their parents when
they grow older, compared to girls who are cooperated
into their husbands families. Besides, Sifuna (2006),
Eshiwani (1993) observed that cultural factors affect the
academic achievement of girls student. These studies
did not cover girl students and academic achievement vis
avis cultural factors in Kisumu East which is inhabited by
mostly by Luo or Luhyas and have different cultural
practices from the ones reviewed.
Research Question
The research question that was addressed in this study
was:

What is the influence of Cultural Factors on Girl Student

Academic Achievement in Secondary School Education
in Kisumu East District?
METHODOLOGY
The research designs used were correlation and
descriptive survey designs. The study population
consisted of 1560 form four girls, 33 head teachers and
33 class teachers. Simple random sampling technique
was used to select 300 form four girls. Saturated
sampling technique was used to select 30 head teachers
and 30 class teachers. Data collection instruments
included questionnaire, interview schedule and document
analysis guide. To ensure face and content validity of the
research
instruments,
experts
in
educational
administration were consulted and their input included in
the final draft of the instruments. Pilot study was
conducted in three (10%) schools and the weaknesses,
inconsistencies and ambiguity noted were corrected to
make them reliable. Quantitative data was analyzed
using descriptive statistics in form of percentages, means
and frequency counts. Inferential statistics, Pearsons Chi
Square Statistics was used to establish the relationship
cultural factors and academic achievement of girls.
Qualitative data was analyzed for content and reported in
emergent and sub themes.
Theoretical Framework
This study was based on Pearsons gender relations
theory, this theory was developed by Pearson (1995).
This is where the society views all activities that are
carried out to be based on social roles and interactions of
men and women. The society seems to have ultimate
authority on the precise nature of what women and men
actually do, and their real contribution to production and
reproduction which turns out to be culturally biased
against women. Pearsons gender relations theory was
appropriate for this study because it emphasizes the
various social, cultural and economic norms and
standards which must be considered for women to take
the opportunities to participate in social activities such as
education. These cultural and economic norms
emphasized in the theory are the factors that affect Girl
Students academic achievement in school. This theory
is relevant for this study because it captures the
variables. In the traditional set up the family is headed by
a house head, a position held by the male parent. The
patriarchal ideology is thus dominant. The roles assigned
to women are narrowly defined. They are expected to be
good wives and mothers, girls and women are seen as
subordinates and education for them is less important.
Studies on the situation of girls education shows that,
disadvantage and discrimination starts even before birth

Juma and Simatwa 171

with parental and societal negative attitudes which stress

the value of sons against daughters (Wamahiu, 1995;
Heneveld, 1995). The benefits of education for girls can
be explained by the effect that education has on girls
achievement. Educated girls acquire and use new
personal, social and economic behaviours that in turn
affect societal change (Moulton, 1997). As such gender
becomes a crucial factor in deciding who goes to school
and for how long (Psacharopoulous and Woodhall, 1985)
before parents make the decision, considerations are
taken concerning family priorities. In most cases, girls are
more disadvantaged by cultural factors operating within
the home and school than boys. They also include sociocultural and economic considerations for example,
parental level of education, occupation, family size,
traditional division of labour, early marriages and
negative perception by parents regarding girls education,
and hence this hampers Girl Students academic
achievement. From the studies and the literature, various
factors either independently or dependently influence
pupils learning.
RESULTS
Research Question
The research questions responded to was: What is the
influence of cultural factors on girl student academic
achievement in secondary school education in Kisumu
East District? The response was as in Table 4.
Classification of cultural factors influence
4.1 -5.0 Very high influence 3.1 4.0 High influence
2.1 -3.0 Low influence
1.0 -2.0 Very low influence
Table 4 reveals that most value girl student education
with mean rating of 3.359 and that most members are
strict on girl student studies with mean rating of 3.33. The
cultural factor that my community value girls who are
educated more than those who are not educated
influenced girl student academic achievement was rated
at 3.35 by head teachers.
The study employed the key as listed below for the
Table 5.
X1- My community value girls who are educated more
than those who are not educated.
X2 - Members of my community are strict on girls and
want them to concentrate on studies.
X3- Girls do more domestic chores like fetching firewood,
water grinding maize, taking care of siblings while boys
are free to do studies and school work.
X4 - My community wants their daughters to get married
at an early age.
X5 - My community do not care whether girls indulge in
night dances or not.
The study sought to establish the influence of cultural

factors on girl student academic achievement. Pearson

Product Moment Correlation Coefficient test was used to
find out if there were significant relationships between
cultural factors and girl student academic achievement in
examination in secondary education. The results were as
shown in Table 5.
The Pearson Product Moment Correlation Coefficient
for cultural factor X1 on girl student academic
achievement was .0.664. This was a strong positive
relationship and was statistically significant as the p
value of 0.001 was less than the set significance level of
0.05 for the analysis. This means that increase in value of
the girls who are educated by the community the girl
student performance increased. The Pearson Product
Moment Correlation Coefficient for cultural factor X2 on
girl student academic achievement was 0.831. This was
a strong positive relationship and was statistically
significant as the p value of 0.000 was less than the set
significance level of 0.05 for the analysis. This also
implied that concentration on studies by girls under the
influence of the community increased the girls academic
achievement. The Pearson Product Moment Correlation
Coefficient for cultural factor X3 on girl student academic
achievement was -0.401. This was a moderate negative
relationship and was statistically significant as the p
value of 0.001 was less than the set significance level of
0.05 for the analysis. This meant that domestic chores
negatively impacted on girls academic achievement as it
reduced the girls academic performance. The Pearson
Product Moment Correlation Coefficient for cultural factor
X4 on girl student academic achievement was -0.342.
This was a weak negative relationship and was
statistically significant as the p value of 0.004 was less
than the set significance level of 0.05 for the analysis.
This implied that early marriages negatively impacted on
girls academic achievement.
The Pearson Product
Moment Correlation Coefficient for cultural factor X5 on
girl student academic achievement was -0.742. This was
a strong negative relationship and was statistically
significant as the p value of 0.000 was less than the set
significance level of 0.05 for the analysis. In this case
indulgence in weekend in disco dances caused a
reduction in girl student academic achievement. This
indicates that some cultural factors enhanced academic
achievement of the girls while others militate against girl
academic achievement. Coefficient of Determination was
computed to establish the actual contribution of cultural
factors to girls academic achievement (Table 6)
From Table 6 it can be observed that cultural factors
had minimal contributions to girl student academic
achievement in secondary education. These factors
accounted for 1.1% of variation in girls academic
achievement as was signified by a coefficient of 0.011.
This means that 98.9% of girls students academic
performance was influenced by other factors other
than cultural factors. These factors could be; teacher

172 Educ. Res.

Table 4. Influence of Cultural Factors on Girls Academic Achievement (n=300)

Cultural Factors
My community value girls who are educated more than those who are not educated
Members of my community are strict on girls and want them to concentrate on studies.

Mean Rating
3.35
3.33

Girls domestic chores like fetching firewood, water grinding maize, taking care of siblings while boys are
free to do studies and school work.

2.99

My community wants their daughters to get married at an early age.

2.48

My community do not care whether girls indulge in night dances or not.

2.51

Table 5. Results of the Pearson Product Moment Correlation Coefficient showing the Relationship between
Cultural factors and Girl student Academic Achievement

Pearson Correlation
Sig. (2-tailed)
N

x1
1
.
300

X2

Pearson Correlation

-.115(**)

.009

Sig. (2-tailed)
N
3

300

X3

X4

X5

300

Pearson Correlation
Sig. (2-tailed)
N

-.127(**)
.003

.249(**)
.000

1
.

300

300

300

Pearson Correlation

-.144(**)

.276(**)

.397(**)

.008
299

.000
299

.000
299

.
299

.296(**)
.000
300

-.246(**)
.000
300

-.447(**)
.000
300

-.479(**)
.000
299

1
.
300

.664**

..831**

.-401**

-.342**

-.742**

.000
300

.001
300

.004
300

.000
300

.
300

Sig. (2-tailed)
N
5

Pearson Correlation
Sig. (2-tailed)
N

KCSE
score

Pearson Correlation

Sig. (2-tailed)
.001
N
300
**Correlation significant at the 0.01 level (2 tailed)
*Correlation significant at the 0.05 level (2 tailed)

Table 6. Coefficient of Determination

Model
1

KCSE score

R Square

.103a

.011

Adjusted R Square
-.006

Std. Error of the Estimate

15.92978

a. Predictors: (Constant), Members of my community are strict on girls and want them to
concentrate on studies., Girls do more domestic chores like fetching firewood, water, grinding
maize, taking care of siblings while boys are free to do studies and school work., My
community value girls who are educated more than those who are not educated, My
community wants their daughters to get married at an early age., My community does not care
whether girls indulge in night dances or not.

**

Juma and Simatwa 173

Table 7. Analysis of Variance

Model
Regression
1
Residual
Total

Sum of Squares
800.340
74351.038
75151.378

ANOVAa
df
5
293
298

Mean Square
160.068
253.758

F
.631

Sig.
.676b

a. Dependent Variable: Kenya Certificate of Secondary Education examination score

Predictors: (Constant), Members of my community are strict on girls and want them to concentrate on
studies., Girls do more domestic chores like fetching firewood, water, grinding maize, taking care of siblings
while boys are free to do studies and school work., My community value girls who are educated more than
those who are not educated, My community wants their daughters to get married at an early age., My
community does not care whether girls indulge in night dances or not.

Table 8. Regression Analysis

(Constant)
My community value girls who are educated more than
those who are not educated
Domestic chores like fetching firewood, water, grinding
maize, taking care of siblings while boys are free to do
studies and school work.
My community wants their daughters to get married at an
early age.
My community does not care whether girls indulge in night
dances or not.
Members of my community are strict on girls and want them
to concentrate on studies.

Unstandardized
Coefficients
B
Std. Error
36.165
5.637

Standardized
Coefficients

Sig.

6.416

.000

Beta

.141

.681

-.013

-.207

.836

-.467

.632

-.046

-.740

.460

-.345

.832

.028

.414

.679

-1.087

.752

.100

1.445

.149

.230

.863

.019

.267

.790

a. Dependent Variable: Kenya Certificate of Secondary Education examination score

qualifications, experience, age, commitment, gender and

other factors such as school ethos, girls attitude towards
academics, entry behavior among others.
Analysis of variance was computed to establish
whether cultural factors were statistically significant in
determining the girls students academic performance
(Table 7)
From Table 7, it can be observed that cultural factors
were not statistically significant predictors of girl student
academic achievement as signified by a coefficient of
0.676 which is greater than the set significant level of
0.05. Further, regression analysis was performed and the
results were as shown in Table 8
Table 8 indicates that community value for girls
education contributed positively to girls academic
achievement by .141 as was signified by the coefficient
of .141. The relationship was not significant. This means
that communities value for girls who are educated cannot
be used as a predictor of girls academic achievement.
Domestic chores contributed negatively to girls academic
achievement by .467 as was signified by the coefficient of
-.467. The relationship was not significant. This means
that domestic chores cannot be used as a predictor of
girls academic achievement. Early marriages contributed

negatively to girls academic achievement by .345 as was

signified by the coefficient of -.345. The relationship was
not significant. This means that early marriages cannot
be used as a predictor of girls academic achievement.
Indulgence in night weekend disco dances contributed
negatively to girls academic achievement by 1.087 as
was signified by the coefficient of -1.087. The relationship
was not significant. This means that indulgence in night
weekend disco dances cannot be used as a predictor of
girls academic achievement. Strictness of members of
the community on girls to concentrate on their studies
contributed positively to girls academic achievement by
.230 as was signified by the coefficient of .230. The
relationship was not significant. This means that
strictness by members of the community on girls to
concentrate on their studies cannot be used as a
predictor of girls academic achievement.
DISCUSSION
It was however revealed that domestic chores do hinder
girl student academic performance especially in day
schools. Some communities did not care whether girls

174 Educ. Res.

indulge in night dances or not. The cultural factors that

my community value girls who are educated more than
those who are not educated influenced girl student
academic achievement was because the community tried
to empower the girl child by motivating them through
mass media, they provide physical facilities like
laboratories, libraries, boarding facilities and classrooms
through Constituency Development Fund, so that the girl
student feel secure and concentrate on studies. Taking
into consideration that municipality schools are mostly
day schools, girl students have more household chores to
attend to before and after school thus a setback to their
academic achievement. At home girl students are
involved in duties such as fetching firewood, cleaning the
house, cleaning dishes and taking care of the younger
siblings. Girls often become victims of circumstances
when they fall pregnant. Eshiwani (1986) observes that
10% of female drop-out is due to pregnancy. The findings
from the study revealed great interference from cultural
values on the girl student academic performance which
concurred with UNESCO (1992), in their studies that
there was a general trend across all countries which
reported on the matter that girl student performance
weakens relatively to the performance of boys at some
point in the school cycle for example in Botswana
performance by female starts to decline at the age of ten
years. However, in Madagascar and Rwanda girls
performance weakens at the age of thirteen years and
nine years respectively. The hypothesis which stated that
there is no relationship between cultural factors and girl
student academic achievement was rejected as the
results showed that there is a positive relationship. This
means that the positive attitude of the community on
education enhances girl student academic achievement.
The communitys concerns on girls and wanting them to
concentrate on studies enhanced girl student academic
achievement. The domestic chores impacted negatively
on girl student academic achievement. Early marriages
impacted negatively on the girl student academic
achievement. the communitys permissiveness impacted
negatively on girl student academic achievement.
The findings concur with those of Egbuna (2006) who
noted that traditionally, a womans role was basically to
be a good mother and wife and her primary responsibility
was the nurturing task of training and bringing up
children. Girls were seen as inferior in their homes since
they would later be married to other households, where
their husbands would be expected to speak for them
even if they did not perform well in school. Parents
believed that once married, girls became part of another
family and their parents investment on them, in the forms
of education was lost. The study established a great
influence of cultural factors on the girl student academic
performance which is in agreement with Eshiwani (1993)
that the environment in which the individual student lives
influence her/his aspirations, self-esteem and motivation.
Eventually the environment can either enhance or hinder

a girl student learning and educational attainment.

According to all (100%) head teachers, there are those
girl student that are asked by their parents to quit school
and help them with household chores, and there are
those that go to school but due to the large number of
idle young men preying on them and lack of guidance by
parents and teachers, end up being pregnant and
consequently drop out of school. This finding concurs
with various studies conducted by other researchers;
Oloo, (2003), indicate that involvement in domestic
chores by the girls was found to be affecting their
academic achievement negatively. Forum for African
Women Educationist (2000) noted that cultural division of
labour where girls are expected to participate more in
farm work, marketing, domestic chores or care givers to
siblings make them the least choice to be sent to school
and the first to be withdrawn when need arises. This
finally affects academic achievement of girl student.
Forum for African Women Educationist (2000) further
noted that women in developing countries spend large
amounts of time performing household chores and girls
share this work with their mothers. This coupled with
other factors, work against good performance of girls in
secondary education.
Parents have different attitudes towards their sons and
daughters. Daughters are brought up for female roles
such as child rearing. Furthermore, parents believe that
females do not have qualities of independence, initiative
and assertiveness. In some rural settings, parents fear
that schooling will make their daughters disoriented from
the cultural set up to become immoral.
According to head teachers, cultural impediments do
provide them with less exposure to the information that
allows individuals to develop self-efficacy hence it make
girls loose morale for school since girls would traditionally
depend on men. This finding can be supported by
Kasente (1996) who noted that girl students workload in
their homes clearly has a detrimental influence on their
academic performance, since their duties are a daily
affairs. This study concurs with Abagi and Ayayo 1976)
who notes that girls are normally overburdened with
family and household chores thus do not enjoy plenty of
time to study and freedom to choose what to engage in.
This finally leads to poor academic performance in
examinations. The success of girl student secondary
education will depend on the role of the secondary
principals by involving all stakeholders and emphasizing
on the importance of girls retention. To achieve this, the
principal has a role to invite guest speakers and women
role models during annual general meetings to educate
the parents and make them aware of their responsibility
in providing the necessary resources that will enable the
girls to complete basic education, (Republic of Kenya,
2005a). According to head teachers factors associated
with the instructional process such as textbooks, teacher
quality, teaching methods, school organizations,
teachers correction of pupils books, school library

Juma and Simatwa 175

activity, class room organization and frequency of

homework determined the level of participation. This
assertion is supported by Eshiwani (1993) who noted that
the presence of quality school facilities and services are
some of the symbols of high educational quality. It is the
role of the principal to put in place rules and regulations
that will ensure that girls remain in school at all times
unless they are participating in educational activities
outside the school. She understands the curriculum
establishment and plays a key role to increase retention
by organizing, planning and coordinating school activities
with the girl at the center (Ochieng, 1997).
According to head teachers, most girl students could
do better than they were scoring if the facilities could be
adequate for learning. Inadequacy of facilities forces girls
to either share or improvise and this venture is never
liked by girl students who finally give up and relax for
nature to take its course. This finding can also be
supported by Odaga and Heveneld (1995) when he noted
that the availability of physical and instructional facilities
has significant influence on girl student performance. The
facilities include classrooms, workshops, dormitories,
computers, school vehicles, text books, laboratories and
lighting among others. In his study of quality of schools in
Kisumu Municipality, Odaga further noted that physical
facilities attract and motivate students to work hard and
complete their education. He further observed that those
schools with better facilities do better in examinations.
Wanjiku (1994) also noted that the quality and adequacy
of these resources have direct influence on the girl
student education. One Head teacher noted during
interviews that; textbooks in Kenya do depict girls and
women with sexist bias that does not only lead girls into
traditional roles, but also contribute to their negative
attitude to learning and withdrawal from school. This
finding is consistent with Oburas (1991) observation that
in reference to mathematics texts, it is noted that they
depicted a picture of active male engaging in active work
and business in a wider range of fields, earning cash,
buying land houses, farm, vehicles, food, and clothing,
borrowing and taking loan to develop his financial
capacity, savings and investing substantial profits.
Women in contrast are mainly absent from these
activities, but when they do appear in textbook, they are
engaged in domestic or poultry activities (Obura, 1991).
According to one head teacher during interview said;
the personality and attitude of the subject teacher far
exceeds the methods and materials in teaching and
some teachers in either mixed schools or girls schools
regarded girls as academically inferior as they described
girls as stupid and lazy, articulating lower expectations.
This finding is also supported by Kasente (1996) in a
study of Uganda post-secondary institutions, who
asserted that the way teachers criticized the student
responses and other gender-based teacher-pupil
relationships could lead to negative and limited
perceptions of female academic ability and potential. The

findings can further be supported by various documented

records that the majority of students admitted to preservice training programmes did not choose education at
all, but took teaching as the only available option
(Republic of Kenya, 2005a). Consequently, they joined
teaching as a last resort and were somewhat not stable
and effective enough to promote girl-child participation.
The head teachers equally noted that an unmotivated
teacher is inappropriate personnel to promote girl-child
participation since they might perpetuate gender
stereotypes on role, occupation and behavior in the
process of curriculum instruction. In addition to that, it is
important to note that less experienced teachers are less
likely to use textbooks, which motivate learning among
students, than more experienced ones (Psacharopoulos
and Woodhall, 1985).
CONCLUSIONS
In Kenya, most parents believe that girls do not have
qualities of self confidence, independence, initiative ,
innovativeness , creativity and assertiveness. Hence,
they discourage them from full participation in education
which inhibits them from high academic achievement. In
fact, the media and books used in school curriculum
depict them mere females whose roles are child rearing
while sons are depicted as career builders.
Men have a negative attitude towards womens
education, especially in what is considered as education
that leads to prestigious careers such as engineering,
architecture, teaching, medicine, law, statistics and
actuarial science that would give women a superior role
in society. These in turn impedes the schooling of girls
and hence cause low academic achievement in National
Examination.
Cultural factors in almost all circumstances depict girls
as inferior to boys, a factor that demeans girls and indeed
impedes girls aspirations in life. They even fail to
consider education as the best investment in good life
free from poverty, slavery, ignorance and diseases. The
consequence of which is laxity and negative attitude
towards education. This lowers girls morale and
eventually low academic achievement.
All these factors encourage girls to develop a negative
attitude towards schooling and ultimately result in low
academic achievement. Where the girls have been
liberated from the cultural bondage through religion ,they
have in fact excelled in National examinations. This
implies that indeed negative cultural impede girls
academic achievement.
RECOMMENDATIONS
Head teachers should create girl friendly environment
conducive to their academic work in schools.

176 Educ. Res.

Head teachers should put in place rules and

regulations that should protect the girls from harassment
by hostile teachers and fellow student.
School administrators should improve on teaching
learning facilities in their schools to enhance academic
achievement of students in general.
Head teachers should cater for individual needs of
girls by improving on the infrastructure in accordance with
the Ministry of Education and the Department of Public
Works rules and regulations. For instance having pit
latrines in the opposite direction and provision of running
water.
Parents should provide basic needs for girls such as
sanitary towels without which they cannot compete with
boys effectively in academics.
REFERENCES
Abagi J, Ayayo O (1976). Disparity in Education between boys and girls
among the Luo community. Journal of East African Research and
Development 15.91-100.
Abdulahi A (2005, July 12). Lack of Fees Affecting Girls in Maasai
Land. Daily Nation, Nairobi: Nation Media Group. p 10.
th
Abdullah S (2011). Standard Newspaper. 12 Feb. 2011. Pg16.
Abramson P (1980). Personality, New York: Holt Eninehart and Winston
Ademola M (1989).Culture and Girl Education: Basic Education forum
Vol. 4, 12.
Aduda D, Muito M (2003). Evaluation of the child friendly: Gender
responsive and stimulating Class strategy. Nairobi: UNICEF KCO.
Ahawo H (2009). Factors Enhancing Student Academic Performance in
Public Mixed Day Sec. Schools in Kisumu East District Kenya
Unpublished MED thesis Maseno.
Andeweg R, Van B (2003). Linking Birth Order to Political Leadership:
The Influence of Parents or Sibling Interaction? Political Psychology.
Vol. 24, 609.
Astone NM (1991). Family Structure, Parental Practices and High
school Completion. American Sociological Review, Vol. 56, 309-320
Ayodo TM O (2010). The Position of Secondary Education in Kenya
Proceeding of Educational Management Society of Kenya. Migori
workshop April 2010.
Ayodo T M O, Gravenir F Q (1991). Economics of Education. Nairobi:
ERAP.
Ballara
M
(1992).Women
and
Literacy:
http://www/theage.com.../articles/2002/04/171018333698398.html.
Men and Development Series. London: Zeal Books LTD.
Bear M, Jacobson G (2005). Revising the Birth Order Creativity
Connection. The Role of Sibling Constellation: Creativity Research
Journal, from http.//www.des.emong.Retrieved on November, 12,
2009 at 10.00am.
Bell J (1993). Doing Research Project. Buckingham: Pergamon Press.
Bernard A (2002). Lessons and Implications for Girls Education
Activities, New York: UNICEF.
th
Borg M P, Gall M (2007).Educational Research: An Introduction 5
Edition; New York: Longman.
Caceres J (2004). Impact of Family Size on Investment in Child Quality:
th
Multiple Births as a natural Experiment. Retrieved April 9 , 2012
from URL, http://www.tinbergen.nl/costlondoat 3.25pm.
Cammish NK, Brook C (1994). State, status and status quo: Factors
affecting the education of girls in Cameroon In international journal
of education development vol. 14 No. 3, 233 to 240.
Campbell BP (2004). The Gender Wars in Education. Wesley Centres
for Women, Groton, MA: Wesley and Campbell Kibler Associates.
Chapman DW (2004). Changing Lives of Girls: Findings, Conclusions
and lessons from the external evaluation of the African Girls
Education initiative. New York: UNICEF.
Chege AN, Sifuna DN (2006). Girls and Womens Education in Kenya.
UNESCO.

Chege AN (1983). Education for Maasai Girls, Socio-economic

Background. Unpublished Master of Arts Thesis, University of
Nairobi.
Cole M (1989). Equality of Education. London: Routledge and Kegan
Paul Ltd.
Coombe C, Kelly M (2001). Education as a Vehicle for Combating
HIV/AIDS. Paris: UNESCO.
Desarrollo I (2007). The Quality of Education in Latin America and
Caribbean Latin America. Research Work Institute Desarrollo
Paraguay.
Egbuna PC (2006). Influence of Educated women in the African society.
th
A paper presented at the 4 African convention of Principals
conference in Abuja, Nigeria.
Eshiwani GP (1993). Education in Kenya since Independence, Nairobi:
East African Publishers.
Eshiwani GS (1986). Science teaching and Women in Kenya. A paper
presented at the workshop on access of girls and women to
technical and vocational Education, Nairobi; Kenyan Science
Teachers College.
Evans HL (1999). Gender and Achievement in Secondary Education in
Jamaica. Kingston Policy Development Unit.
FAWE (2000). Closing the Gender Gap in Education curbing dropout.
Report
on Regional ministerial consultation for Eastern and
Southern Africa. Nairobi. FAWE.
FAWE (2002). The Teaching Profession in Sub-Saharan Africa, where
are we? Where are we going? Nairobi: FAWE.
Feinberg K (2003). Sibling Differentiation. Sibling and Parent
Relationship Trajectories in Adolescence. Journal of Child
Development. Vol. 74, 1261- 1274.
Field PA (1980). Ethnography: Four Nurses Perspectives. Unpublished
Dissertation: University of Alberta.
Finlay RB (1981). Birth Order, Sex and Status in a State
University.Psychological Reports. Vol. 49:100.
Gachathi PJ (1976). Report of on the national Committee on Education
Objectives and Policies, Nairobi. Government Printer.
Galgalo AC (2002). Wastage in Primary Education and their
Implications for Curriculum Development in Central Division of
Marsabit District, Unpublished Masters of Arts Thesis, Moi
University, Eldoret.
Garikai BW (2010). Determinants of poor academic performance. In
th
Articles base. April 9 , 2012 from URL http://www.articlesbase
.com/educationarticles/determinants-of-poor-academicperformance-3659333.html at 10.25am.
Garzarelli P, Lester D (1989). Self Concept and Academic Performance
in Jamaican Teenagers. Journal of Social Psychology. 129 (5) 725726.
Gatitu J, Kaburu S (1998). Improving Primary Education in Developing
Countries. Unpublished Thesis, University of Nairobi.
Gay LR (1992). Educational Research; Components for Analysis and
th
Application 4 Edition, New York: McMillan Publishing Company.
Gichuku P (1990). Educating All the Children. Policy Research Working
Paper Series. Washington D. C: World Bank.
Graham P (1998). Relationship in Adolescence. London: Routledge.
Groose
M
(2000).
Getting
the
order
right
from
http://www/theage.com.../articles/2002/04/171018333698398.html.
Retrieved September 30, 2011 at 2.00pm.
Hammer B (2003). ETS Identifies Factors Affecting Student
Achievement. Washington. D.C.
Haveman R, Wolfe B (1995). The Determinants of Childrens
Attainments: A Review of Methods and Findings. Journal of
Economic literature. Vol. 33, 173-180.
Heneveld L (1995). Gender Differences in College Stress, Academic
motivation and career intent during adolescence. A paper presented
at the meeting of the society for Research on Adolescence,
Washington DC.
Herera MC (2003). Beliefs about Birth Rank and their Reflection in
Reality. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. Vol. 85, 142150.
Hertwig R, Davis JN (2001). Parental Investment: How an Equity Motive
can Produce Inequality. Psychological Bulletin. Vol. 7, 28-45.
Hertz B (1991). Letting Girls Learn: Promising Approach in Primary and
Secondary Education, World Bank Discussion Papers, Washington

Juma and Simatwa 177

D.C: World Bank.
Hewison R (1985). Self conception Development and Education.
London: Holt, Rinehart and Winston
Iaovou M (2001). Family composition and childrens educational
outcomes. Institute for social and economic Research, Essex
University, CD/Chester CO3SQ UK.
Ingersol R, Kralik J (2004).The Influence of mentioning on Teacher
Retention: what Research says.700 Broadway. Suite Derver:
Education Commission of States (ECS).
Jamil A (March 2011, Vol. 3, No. 2). International Journal. Effects of the
Birth order Educational Achievements of children.
Juma MN (1994). Determination of Female Participation in Primary
Education:
A
Survey
of
Kwale
and
Taita
Taveta
Districts.Unpublished Doctor of Philosophy Thesis, Kenyatta
University, Nairobi.
Kadzamina EC (1998). Gender and Primary Schooling in
Malawi.Retrieved on February 10, 2009.http/www.ntd.co.uk/ids
bookshop/details.asp.
Kamara EK (2005). Gender Youth Sexuality and HIV/AIDS: A Kenyan
Experience. AMACCA- EldoretGabba Publisher.
Kanyuka M (1990). An Ethnographic study of Factors affecting the
Education of girls in Southern Malawi. Malawi USAID.
Karthryn (1994). Gender Issues in the Curriculum and Organization of
School Subjects. New York: Academy Press.
Karugu FA (1987). An examination of socio-cultural factors hindering
higher education and status achievement. Nairobi: A publication of
Basic Resource Centre.
Kasente DH (1996). Process Influencing Gender Differences in Access
to Post Secondary Institutions in Uganda. Unpublished Doctorate of
Philosophy Thesis, Kenyatta University, Nairobi.
Kasonde NS (1999). Gender and Primary Schooling in Zambia:
Retrieved
on
November
10,
2009.
http//www/ntd.co.uk/idsbookshop/details.asp.
Kathuri NJ, Pals DA (1993). Introduction to Educational Research.
Njoro: Egerton University Educational Media centre.
Kelly NJ (1999). Primary Education in Heavily Indebted Poor Countries:
The case of Zambia in 1990s: Lusaka: UNICEF.
Kelly R (1998). Economic and Demographic Behaviour of Households
in Kenya. Nairobi: Macmillan Publishers.
Kennedy K (1987). Women in Western Political Philosophy: London:
Wheetsheef Books Ltd.
Kihumba W (1997). Education and Culture among the Lesotho. A
workshop presentation. Nairobi.
Kinyanjui K (1982). Education and inequality in Kenya, Research
Experience as Issues, ID Seminar Paper No. 2037.Nairobi:
University of Nairobi Press.
Kitaev J (1999). Private Education in Sub-Saharan Africa, Reexamination of Concepts and Theories in Relation to the
Development and Finance, Paris: UNESCO.
Konchora G (2004, December 3, 6). Gender Violence stunts
Development in Patoral Areas: The Standard Newspaper. Nairobi.
Kothari CR (1990). Research Methodology. Methods and Techniques.
New Delhi: Washura Pakstan Willey Eastern Ltd.
Kothari CR (2003). Research Methodology. Methods and Techniques.
New Delhi: New Age International.
Majoribanks K (1997). Ordinal Position Family Environment and Status
Attainment among Australian Young Adults. Journal of Social
Psychology.Vol 157, 398-399.
Majoribanks K (2001). Sibling Dilution Hypothesis. A regression Surface
Analysis. Physiological Report Retrieved on Nov, 10, 2009.
http//www.ncbi.n/m.nik.groped.
Maleche AJ (1972). A new Status for Women in Kenya. East African
journal, Vol. 9, 20-30.
Mampele M (1994).Equity policy: A framework of Questions, Equity,
Reality Issues and their Implications: Cape Town: UTC Press.
Maritim EK (1990). The Dependence of O and A Level Results on the
Sex Examiners in Kenya. Journal of Education. Vol. 123, 90-100.
Marshall C, Rossman GB (1989). Designing Qualitative Research
Newbury Park, California: Sage.
Masaanja VG (2001). Female Education in Mathematics and Sciences
in Africa, Dar Salam, Tanzania Project Center. Retrieved on
th
January 5 2010. http//www. Unesdoc.unesco.org/ images.

Mbilinyi DS (2003). Equity in learning: The gender dimension. Dare

salaam Tanzania.
McDonald H (1989). Action Research in Secondary School: The
psychologist as change agent. London: Routledge.
Melilo B (1984). Birth Order and Perceived Birth Order, and Family
Position of Academic Women. Psychological Abstracts. August,
Vol. 71, 208-210.
Mingat A (2003). Achieving Universal Primary Education by 2015.A
Chance for Every Child. Washington D.C: World bank.
Mischi PK (2002). Moving Beyond the Classroom: Expanding Learning
Opportunities for Marginalized Population in Ethiopia and Tanzania:
th
Overall Report. Retrieved on January 29
2010 from
http//www.jstor.org/stable
Moulton J (1997). Formal and Non- Formal Education and empowered
behaviors. A review of the Research Literature Washington D.C
USAID/AFR/SD.
Mugenda O, Mugenda A (2003). Research Methods Quantitative and
Qualitative Approaches, Nairobi: ACTS Press.
Mugenda O (1999). Research Methods: Quantitative and Qualitative
Approaches. Nairobi: African Center for Technology.
Mukonyi PW (1987). A comparison of Academic Attitudes and
Aspirations of Students in Mixed and Single Sex Schools and their
Relationship in KCSE Examinations in Kakamega District,
Unpublished Masters of Education Thesis, Kenyatta University,
Nairobi.
Murnoe P, Fox R, Macklin F (1983). Socially maladjusted adolescents
perception of their families. New Delhi: Mohan Primlani for Oxford.
Needman
R
(2001).
Birth
Order:
Psychological
Journal.
th
http//:www.drspock.com/ article. Retrieved on May, 13 2009 at
4.00pm.
Odonoghue M (1999). Training and Vocationalization of post primary
education in Uganda. Paper presented at the First Regional
Conference on secondary education in Africa. Kampala, Uganda.
Obura AP (1991).Changing Images portrayal of Girls and Women in
Kenyan Textbooks. Nairobi: ACTs Press.
Ochieng R (1997). Raising Quality in performance in secondary
Schools in Kenya. Unpublished Med. thesis. Kenyatta University,
Nairobi. Kenya.
Odaga A, Heneveld W (1995). Girls and Saharan Africa: from Analysis
to Action, Washington D.C: World Bank.
Oloo MA (2003). Gender Disparity in student performance in day
Secondary Schools, Migori, Unpublished Master of Education
Thesis, Maseno University.
Oluwole K (2001). Influence of Educated Women in the African Society.
th
A paper presented at the 4 African Convention of Principals
Conference in Abuja, Nigeria.
Omoraka S (2001). The effect of gender, socio- economic status and
school location http/www/fundartticles.com/p/articles retrieved on 26
August 2010 at 2.00pm.
Orodho J (2003). Access and Participation in Secondary Education in
Kenya. Emerging Issues and policy implications. Discussion paper
no. 037, August 2004, Nairobi: IPAR Discussion paper series.
Otula PA
(2007). Mastery of Modern School Administration
Unpublished Work.
Otunga R (1994). Examination Report Workshop. Eldoret, Moi
University.
Papanek H (1985). Class and Gender in Education: Employment
Linkages. Journal of Educational Review. Vol. 29, 2-15.
Patrikakov EN(1997). A model of Parental Attitudes and Academic
Achievement of Adolescents. Journal of Research. Vol. 10, 31-33.
Paulhus D, Traphell P, Chen O (1999). Birth Order Effects on
Personality and Achievement within Families, Journal of
Psychological Science, Vol. 10, 482-488.
Pearson R (1995). Gender Analysis and Policy. Edinburgh.Routledge
publishers.
Peng B, Wright H (1994). The Effect of Motivation, Family Environment
and Student Characteristics on Academic Achievement.
http//:www/questia.com. Retrieved November 10/2009 at 11.00am.
Philips M (1998).Family Background, Parental Practices, and the BlackWhite Test Score Gap. Washington, D.C: Booking Institution Press.
Plomin R, Defris JC, Mclean GE (1990). Behavioral Genetic, A Primer,
San Francisco: Freemen Publishers.

178 Educ. Res.

Psacharopoulos G, Patrinos HA (2004). Returns to Investment in

Education: A further Update: World Bank Policy Research Working
Paper. Washington, D.C.World Bank.
Psacharopoulos G, Woodhall M (1985). Education and Development:
An Analysis of Investment Choice. Washington D.C: World Bank.
Republic of Kenya (2005a). Sessional Paper Number One of 2005:
Policy Framework for Educational Training and Research, Nairobi:
Government Printer.
Republic of Kenya (2005b). Kisumu District Strategic Plan (2005
2010) for the Implementation of the National Population Policy for
Sustainable Development (Nairobi: National Coordinating Agency
for Population and Development).
Republic of Kenya. (2007). Economic Survey. Nairobi: Central Bureau
of Statistics.
Ronald l Nuttall. (1976). The Effects of Family Size, Birth Order, Sibling
Separation and Crowding on the Academic Achievement of Boys
and Girls. American Education Research Journal, Vol. 13, 217-223.
Rubin JZ (1974). The Eye of the Behoder; Parents view on sex of new
born. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry Vol. 14, 10-13.
Salloway FJ (2002). Parental Investment: How Can Equity Motive Can
Produce Inequality. Psychological Bulletin. Vol. 123, 728-745.
Salvanes KG (2005). The More the Mernier? The effect of family size
and Birth order on Childrens Education. The Quarterly Journal of
Economics. Vol. 20, 669 700.
Schultz TP (2002). Why Governments Should Invest More to Educate
Girls, World Development. Vol. 30, 207-225.
Siegel M (1987). Do Fathers Treat Sons and Daughters More Differently
More Than Mothers? Development Review. Vol. 7, 183 209.
Sifuna (2006).Girls and Women Education in Kenya. Nairobi: UNESCO
Publication.
Spears J (1982). The relationship of intelligence to birth order in a
sample of 5-18 years old children on the island of Puerto Rico.
Unpublished thesis. The university of Connecticut. Dissertation
abstract International, 43 (5), 1550A.
Spender D (1982). Equality and Inequality in Education policy; Adelaide
SA 500 Giles street.
Sputa CL, Paulson SE (1999). Birth order Family Size, Influences on
Adolescents achievement and related parenting behaviors.
th
Psychological
reports.
Retrieved
on
October
10
2009.http/www.ncbi.nim.nihigov/pub meal.
Storo J (1994). Girls are girls Boys are Myths, Stereotypes and Gender
Differences. US Office of Educational Research and Improvement.
Department of Education.
Tembon M (1997).Gender and Primary Schooling in Guinea, IDS,
University
of
Sussex,
Brighton,
U.K
from
http//:
rd
www.dfdhealthrc.org/publications/health Retrieved on November 3
2009 at 4.00pm.

Tenibiaje S (2002). Developing education and youth promotion

measures with focus on crisis prevention and peace building.
Eschborn, Germany: Deutsche Gesellschaft.
th
The Standard (2009, March 4 ). The K.C.S.E Results. The Standard:
Nairobi: Standard Group, p. 1.
Todaro MP (1989). Economic Development in the Third World. London:
Longman publishers.
Uba A (1989). Theories of counseling and psychotherapy. Ibadan:
Patrice Continental Press,
Udo A (1979). Theories of Counseling and Psychotherapy. Ibadan.
Practice Continental Press.
UNESCO (1994). The Challenge of Achieving Gender Parity in Basic
Education, Paris: UNESCO.
UNESCO (2003). Gender and Education for All. The Leap to Equality.
EFA Global Monitoring Report 2003/4 Paris: UNESCO.
UNESCO (2003). Education for All monitoring report: The Quality
Imperative Paris: UNESCO.
UNICEF (2003). Caribbean Youth Development (Country Study)
Washington D.C: World Bank.
UNICEF (2004). State of the World Children, Paris: UNESCO.
UNICEF (1995). A Participating Poverty Assessment Study, Nairobi:
UNICEF.
USAID (2002). HIV/AIDS and Girls Education. Washington D.C: World
Bank.
Wamuhiu SP (1975). Girls dropping out and Adolescence Pregnancy.
Bureau of Education Research. Kenyatta University.
Wang J, Wildman L, Colboum G (1996). The Relationship between
Parental influences and Student Achievement in Seventh grade
mathematics, School Science and Maths.
Wangechi K (1996). Educating Girls; Strategies to increase access,
Persistence and Achievement. Washington DC: USAID Publication.
Wanjiku M (1994). The Road to Empowerment. Nairobi: FEMNET.
Wolf JF, Kainja K (1999). Change in girls lives: Malawi from 1991 to
1997. London and Washington DC: Commonwealth Secretariat and
The World Bank.
World Bank. (2002). Strategies for Girls Education for Development: An
analysis of investment choices, New York: World Bank.
Zajonic RB (2001). The Family Dynamics of Intellectual Development,
America Psychologist. Vol. 56, 490-496.

How to cite this article: Juma L.S.A. and Simatwa E.M.W. (2014).
Impact of Cultural Factors on Girl Students Academic Achievement
in Secondary Schools in Kenya: A Case Study of Kisumu East
District. Educ. Res. 5(5):166-178