course Code

BCA -201
1

Course Title

Assignment No.

Question 1:

Database Management System

: BCA -201/ TMA-1

What is data mining? Explain its need and the

methodology of its working. Page no.220-226

(15 Marks)
Introduction to data mining

 The past two decades have seen a dramatic

increase in the amount of information or data
being storage in electronic format.
This accumulation of data has taken place at
an explosive rate.
It has been estimated that the amount of
database are increasing even faster.

VLUMC
OF DATA

1970

1980

1990

2000

Data storage become cashier as the

Availability of large amount of computing
power at cost that is falling cost of processing
power and storage made data cheap.
3

 The new methods then to be computationally

intensive hence demand for more processing
power.
Having concentrated so much attention on
the accumulation of data the problem was to
do with this valuable resource?
It was recognized that information is at the
heart of business operation and that decisionmakers could make use of the data storage to
gain valuable insight into the business.
This is where data mining or knowledge
discovery in databases has obvious benefits
for any enterprise.
The term data mining has been stretched
beyond its limits to apply to any foam of data
analysis.
Some of the definitions of data mining, or
knowledge discovery in databases are as
follows:
1. Data mining, or knowledge discovery in
databases as it is also known, is the nontrivial
extraction of implicit, previously unknown, and
potentially useful information from data.
- William j Brawley, Gregory piatetsky-shapiro
and Christopher matches
2. Data mining is the search for relationships and
globed patterns that exist in large databases but
are hidden among the vast amount of data,
such as a relationship between patient data and
their media diagnosis.
- Marcel Holshemier & Arno Sieges(1994)
3. Data mining refers to using a variety f
techniques to identify nuggets f information or
decision-marking knowledge in bodies of data,
and extracting these in such a way that they can
be put to use in the areas such as decision
support, prediction, forecasting and estimation.
4

-Clementine user guide, a data mining toolkit

Data mining
Process of semi-automatically analyzing large
databases to find patterns that are:
Valid: hold on new with some certainty
Novel: non-obvious to the system
Useful: should be possible to act on the item
Understandable: humans should be able to
interpret the pattern
Also knowledge discovery in databases (KDD)
Basically data mining is concerned with
the analysis of data the user of software
techniques for finding patterns and
regularities in sets of data.
The idea is that it is possible to strike gold
in unexpected places as the data mining
software extract patterns not previously
discernable r so obvious that no-one has
noticed them before.
Data mining analysis tends to work from
the data up and the best techniques are
those developed with an orientation
towards large volumes of data, marking
use of as `much of the collected data as
possible to arrive at reliable conclusions
and decision.
The phases depicted start with the raw
data and finish with the extracted
knowledge which was

Acquired as a result of the following

stages:
Selection- selecting or segmenting the data
according to some criteria that is all those
people who own a car
Transformation- the data is not merely
transferred across but transformed in that
demographic overlies commonly used in
market research.
Data mining- this stage is concerned with the
extraction of patterns from the data. A
pattern can be defined as given a set of fact
f, a language l, and some measure of
certainty c, pattern is a statement s in that
describes relationships amount fs off with a
certainty c such that s is simpler in some
sense then the enumeration of all the fact in f
s.

What can data mining do?

Data mining is primarily used today by
companies with a strong consumer focusretail, financial, communication, and
marketing organizations.
With data mining a retailer could use pointof-sale record of customer purchases to
send raged promotions based on an
individuals purchase history.
For example, blockbuster entertainment
mines its video rental history database to
recommend rentals to individual customers.
Wal-Mart massive data mining to transform
its supplier relationships.

 The national basketball association is

exploring a data mining application that

can be used in conjunction with image
recording of basketball games.
By using the NBA universal clock, a coach
can automatically bring up the video clip
showing each of the jumps short attempted
by Williams with price on the floor, without
needing to comb through hours of video
footage.
How dose data mining work?
While large-scale information technology has been
evolving separate transaction and analytical
system, data mining provide the link between the
two.
Generally, any of four types of relationships are
soughed:
Classes: stored data is used to locate data in
predetermined groups.
For example, a restaurant chain could mine
customer purchase data to determine when
customers visit and what they typically order.
Association: data can be mined to identify
association. The beer- diaper example of
associative mining.
Sequential patterns: data is mined to
anticipate behavior patterns and trends. For
example, an outdoor equipment retailer could
predict the likelihood of a backpack being
purchased based on a consumers purchase of
sleeping bags and shoes.
Extract, transform, and land transaction data
onto the data warehouse system.
Store and manage the data in a multimedia
meniscal database system.

 Provide data access to business analysts and

information technology professionals.
Analyze the data by application software.
Present the data in a useful format, such as a
graph or table.

Question 2:

Discuss the principles of mapping of OODBMS to

RDBMS. Also explain the differences between them. Page no.202206

(15
Marks)
Mapping of OODBMS to RDBMS
The RDBMS is built on schema representing
complex relationships between entities are then
translated into a table.
Under the context of OO system, the class is
mapped into tables in the following manner as per
approach given by Jacobson and other.
1. Assign attribute as a column in the table. The
attributes are primitive. The columns of table
usually indicate data type and its name.
2. The column representing the primary key will be
a unique instance identify.
3. Each instance of the class will now be
represented by a row in this table.
4. Each acquainted association with cardinality
relater then 1 will become a new table.
This can be describable with the example of
student.

 The class or object student has the

attributes such as roll number, student
name and address.

The object student and its attributes can be

transformed into a table as followings:

Rol Roll
number

Stu
10

Student name
Ad

Address

S.A. Patel

1102, sedative
path, pane

50

N.M. Joshi

102, M.D. Road,

pane

456

P.G. Desponded

119, Narayan path,

pane

M.R.Shinde

234, parfait, pane

7890

Each table one primary key.

A primary key is the combination of one or more
attributes whose value unambiguously locates each
row in a table.

Rol Roll numberStu

Student name
Ad

Address

College
Id

10

50
456
7890

S.A. Patel

1102, sedative 1001

path, pane

N.M. Joshi

102, M.D.
Road, pane

1002

P.G. Desponded

119, Narayan
path, pane

1001

M.R.Shinde

234, parfait,
pane

1005

College table
Roll number is a primary key of student table
10

 College id is a primary key of college table

College id is a foreign key of student table

College ID

College name
11

Address

1001

National college

123, M.G. Road

1002

Model college

456, Shankar

1005

City

678, Karce nagger

o The conversion of object class to table is shown in

figure.
o Class student has attributes name and address as
discussed above.
o The SQL also maps domain to data types.
Comparison between RDBNS and OODBMS

There are certain significant benefits of OODBMS over RDBMS.

This be understood from following comparison:
RDBMS

OODBMA

Not suitable for engineering

manufacturing, office automation
complex MIS system

Highly suitable for engineering,

manufacturing office automation and
complex MIS system

Data access

Significant improvement in data

access performance

performance is normal

There is no explicit management of

Inheritance property represents
inheritance of attributes and methods relations explicitly
Records in RDBMS are passive

Records in OODBMS are active

Cannot handle large number of data

types, relationships and behaviors

Handle large number of data types,

relationship and behaviors

Poor in navigational and associative

access to information

Supports navigational and access to

information
12

Data representation has no character

and no identify in itself

Data has character

RDBMS does not cover advanced

features of OODBMS.

OODBMS provides all required

advanced features in addition to all
features of RDBMS

Question 3: Explain the concept of Data Warehousing. Also

discuss in detail about its evolution, objectives and advantages
along with proper examples. Page no.176-177
(15
Marks)
What is a data warehousing?
Data warehousing is a process of transforming data
into information and marking it available to users in
a timely enough manner to make a difference.
1. Technique for assembling and managing data from
various sources for the purpose of answering
business question thus making decisions that were
not previously possible
2. Decision support database maintained separately
for the organizations operational database provide
its user interface.
Data warehousing is the process whereby
organization extract meaning from their
informational asserts through the use of data
warehousing Barium, 1996
Evolution of the concept of data warehousing
The evolution of data warehousing dates back to
sixties.
During these days, batch processing was in
existence.
It was really hard to find and analyze information.
Also, it was quite inflexible and expensive to
reprogram for every new request.
13

 The things improved slightly in early seventies.

In the late-80s, IBM researchers Barry Devlin and
Paul Murphy developed the concept of business data
warehousing.
Basically the data warehousing concept was
intended to provide an architectural model for the
flow of data from operational system to decision
support environments
In the absence of a data warehousing architecture,
an enormous amount of redundancy of information
was required to support the multiple decision
support environment that usually existed.
Each environment served different users but often
required much of the same data.
Often new requirement necessitated gathering,
cleaning and integrating new data from the
operation system that were logically related to prior
gathered data
Based on analogies with real-life warehouses, data
warehouses were intended as large-scale
collection/storage/staging areas for corporate data
Advantages of data warehousing
You have seen so far that a sort of revolution was
brought in the IT fined by the concept of data
warehousing.
Some of the benefits that a data warehousing
provides are discussed below:
Common data model- a data warehousing provide a
common data model for all data of interest,
regardless of the datas source.
Data warehousing is an efficient way to manage and
report on data that is form a variety of sources. Non
uniform and scattered throughout a company.
Prior to loading data into the data warehousing,
inconsistencies are identified and resolved. The
greatly simplifies reporting and analysis.
14

 Because they are separate from operational system,

data warehouses provide retrieval of data without
solving down operational system.
Data warehouses are designed to perform well with
aggregate queries running on large amounts of data
Queries that would be complex in very normalized
databases could be easier to build and maintain in
data warehouses, decreasing the workload on
transaction system
Data warehousing is an efficient way to manage
demand for loss of information from lots of users.
Data warehousing provides the capability to analyze
large amounts of historical data for nuggets of
wisdom that can provide an organization with
competitive advantage.

Objectives of data warehousing

The primary objective of data warehousing is to
provide a consolidated, flexible meaningful data
repository to the end user for reporting and
analysis.
All other objectives of data warehousing are
derived this primary objective.
The data flow in the warehouses also is determined
by the objectives of data warehousing.
Limitations of data warehousing
Data warehouses no doubt are extremely useful in
the IT scenario.
Despite enormous, there are certain disadvantages
to using a data warehouse:
High cost: over their life, data warehouses can have
high cost. The data warehouse is usually not static.
Manteca costs are high.

15

 Obsolescence: data warehouses can get outdated

relatively quick. There is a cost of delivering
suboptimal information to the organization.
Functionality: there is often a fine line between data
warehouses and operational system. Duplicate,
expensive functionality may be developed. Or,
functionality may be developed in the data
warehouse that, in retrospect, should have been in
the operational system and vice versa.

Question 4: Explain the mechanism of log recovery mechanism

in DBMS along with proper examples. Page no.217-220
Introduction to recovery mechanism
Storage media can be protected from failure during
data transfer.
Block transfer between memory and disk storage
can result in:
Successful completion: the transferred information
arrived safely at the destination.
Partial failure: a failure occurred in the midst of
transfer, and the destination block has incorrect
information.
16

 Total failure: the failure occurred sufficiently early

during the transfer, that the destination blocks
remain intact.
If data-transfer failure occurs, the system detects it
and invokes a recovery procedure to restore the
block to a consistent state.
To do so the system must maintain two physical
blocks for each logical database.
In case if disk failure, both blocks are at the same
location.
Write the information on to the first physical block.
When the first write completed successfully the
second physical block starts.
The output is completed only after the write
completes successfully.
During recovery each pair of physical block is
examined.
If both are the same and no detectable errors then
exist, then nio further action is necessary.
If one block contains detectable errors we replace its
contents with the other block.
If both blocks contents of fixed block in the value of
the second.
Failure if with loss of volatile memory:
Such failure can occur as a result of software or
hardware errors. The processing of an active
transaction is terminated in an active unpredictable
manner before it reached\s its commit or rollback
state and the contents of the volatile memory are
lost.
Failure with loss of Non- volatile storage: such failure
head crash on disk drives or errors in writing to a
non-volatile device.
Log based recovery
Most widely used structure for recording database
modification is the log.
17

 The log is a sequence of records and maintains a

record of all the updates activities in the database.
Following data recorded in log:
Transaction identifier: transaction that performed
write operation is called transaction identifier.
Data item identifier: unique identifier of data-item
writes.
Old value: value of data- item prior to the write.
New value: value of data- item after the write.
Commit transaction marker or, abort or Rollback
transaction marker.
The log is written before any update is made to
database. The is called as write-ahead log
strategy.
In this strategy a transaction is not allowed to
modify the physical database unit undo portion of
the log is written to stable storage.
This strategy requires that transaction is allowed
to commit only after the redo portion of log and
transaction marker are written back to the log.

18

Course Code

BCA -202

Course Title

Data Structures Using C

Assignment No.

BCA -202/ TMA-1

Question 1: Discuss the complexities of Bubble, Selection and

Insertion Sorts along with proper examples.
(15
Marks)
The first type of sorting which we are going to discuss is
bubble sort which is very well known amount beginner of
programming.
The bubble sort method is easy to understand and
implement and of the entire sort it is consider as least
efficient.
It works by repeatedly stepping the through the list to be
stored, in which each pass consider of comparing each
element in the file with its successor, x [i] and x [i+1] and
interchanging the two elements if they are not in proper
order.
The pass through the its is repeated is called bubble sort
because each number slowly bubble up its position.
Notice that 82 are at second highest position.
Since each iteration places a new element into its proper
position, a file of n elements requires no more than n-1
iteration.
The complete set of iteration is as following:

19

Iteration
Iteration
Iteration
Iteration
Iteration
Iteration

0
1
2
3
4
5

22
22
22
22
11
11

56
45
39
11
22
22

45
39
11
32
39
39

39
11
45
45
32
32

11
56
56
56
45
45

99
82
32
32
56
56

82
32
82
82
82
82

32
99
99
99
99
99

We have seen that n-1 passes are sufficient to sort the

file of size n.
So, to eliminate the unnecessary passes we should
detect that the file is already sorted.
Under this method if the file can be fewer than n-1
passes, the final pass makes no interchanges.
Algorithm for bubble sort
Procedure bubble sort
Do
Swapped: = false
For each I in 0 to length (A) 2 inclusive do:
If A [i] > A [i+1] then
Swap (A [i], A [i+1])
Swapped: = true
End if
End for
While swapped
End procedure
Complexity of bubble sort
In bubble sort method there are n-1 passes and
n-1 comparisons on each pass.
In the first pass the largest element gets place at
the last position.
20

 There are n-2 comparisons in the second step,

which places the second largest element in the
next to last position and so on. Thus,
F (n) = (n-1) + (n-2) +.. + 2 + 1 =n (n2
1)/2 =n /2 + 0 (n) = (n2)
Hence, bubble sort has worst-case and average
complexity both 0 (n2), where n is the number of
items being sorted.
Insertion sort
Insertion sort is a simple sorption algorithm, in
which the sorted array is built one at a time; it is
much less efficient on large lists.
However, it provides several advances:
- Simple implementation
- Efficient for small sets of data.
- Adaptive, that is, efficient for data sets that
are already substantially sorted.
- Stable, that is, does not change the relative
order of element with equal keys.
- In-place, that is, only requires a constant
amount of additional memory space.
Suppose an array A with a element is in memory
then the insertion sort algorithm scans the array
from first position to the last position, inserting
each element into its proper position in the
previously sorted sub array.
Now, the given figure illustrates the insertion sort
algorithm.
The colored element indicates the number the
proper place of inserting the element to be
compared.

21

PASS

A [0]

A [0]

A [0]

A [0]

A [0]

A [0]

A [0]

A [0]

K=
K=
K=
K=
K=
K=
K=
K=

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8

75
75
32
32
12
12
12
12

32
32
75
45
32
32
23
23

45
45
45
75
45
45
32
32

12
12
12
12
75
75
45
45

84
84
84
84
84
84
75
64

23
23
23
23
23
23
84
75

64
64
64
64
64
64
64
84

57
57
57
57
57
57
57
57

SORTED
ARRAY

12

23

32

45

64

75

84

57

Pseudo code for insertion

Insertion sort (array X)
Begin
For 1:= 1 to length [X] do
22

Begin
Value: =X [i]
J: =i-1;
While j > 0 and X [j]>value do
Begin
X [j + 1]: = X [i];
X [j]: =value;
J: =j-1;
End;
Complexity analysis
Worst case: in this case, array is in reverse order and
the inner loop must use the number k-1 of comparisons.
Hence.
F (n) = 1+2.. + (n-1) =n (n-1)/2=0 (n2)
Average case: In this case there will be approximately
(k-1)/2 comparisons in the inner loop.
F (n) = 1/2+2/2+.. (n-1)/2 =n (n-1)/4=0(n2)
Insertion sorts overall complexity is O (n 2) on average.
Regardless of the method of insertion.
Number of writes is O (n2) on average. But number of
comparisons may vary depending on the insertion
algorithm.
Selection Sort
The Selection Sort method entirely consists of a selection
phase in which the smallest element of the array is
selected and is positioned at the First place.
At the end of n-1 selections. The entire array gets sorted.
For example,
Suppose an array A contains 8 element as
followings:
75, 32, 45, 12, 23, 64, 57

23

 Now, applying the selection sort algorithm to A,

we will receive the element as shown in the give
figure.
The colored elements indicate the elements
which are to be exchanged
PASS

A [1]

A [2]

A [3]

A [4]

A [5]

A [6]

A [7]

A [8]

K= 1, LOC=4

75

32

45

12

84

23

64

57

K= 2, LOC=6

12

32

45

75

84

23

64

57

K= 3, LOC=6

12

23

45

75

84

32

64

57

K= 4, LOC=6

12

23

32

75

84

45

64

57

K= 5, LOC=6

12

23

32

75

84

75

64

57

K= 6, LOC=8

12

23

32

45

57

75

64

84

K= 7, LOC=7

12

23

32

45

57

64

64

84

SORTED
ARRAY

12

23

32

45

57

64

84

84

Pseudo code of selection sort

If AR is the name of the array and small and pose are
the variable which will hold the smallest element and
its position in the array, then the pseudo code for the
same can be written as:
Small = AR [L]
For I =L to U do
{
Small = AR [I]
For j = I to U do
{
24

If AR [J]
{
Small = AR [J]
Pos = j;
}
J = J + 1;
}
Temp = AR [i]
AR [i] =small
AR [pos] = temp;
End
Complexity of selection sort:
The number f (n) of comparison in the selection sort
algorithm is independent of the original order of the
element.
There are n-1 comparisons during pass to the
smallest element, there are n-2 comparisons during
pass2 to find the second smallest number and so on.
Accordingly,
F (n) = (n-1) + (n-2) + (n-3) +3 + 2 + 1 = n (n-1)/2 = 0 (n2)

Question 2: Explain Binary search method of searching an

element with an example. Write an algorithm to
illustrate the same. Also do the efficiency analysis of
Linear and Binary Search.

Binary search

25

 Binary search is one of the most efficient methods of

searching a sequential table without the use of
auxiliary indices or tables.
Basically the element of the table is in sorted order.
If both of them are equal, then the position of the
search key is returned and searching is terminated,
otherwise, the then the item compared with the
middle element, if it is less than the middle key, then
the item to be searched must lie in the lower half of
the array.
And if it is greater, then the item to be searched
must in the upper half of the array.
The process is repeated until the key value is not
found.
Now, knowing that the target must be in one half of
the array or the other, the binary search examines
media value of the half in which the target must
reside.
The algorithm thus narrows the search area by half
at each step until has either found the target data or
the search fails.
The algorithm is easy to remember if you think about
a childs guessing game.
You would continue to refine your choice until you got
the number correct.

For example,

26

 For the above set of data if the position of 15 is

to be found using binary search technique then
there can be there possibilities:
1. If the data to be searched is present at the
middle position then it can be explained with
the given example,
23

55

66

72

77

85

89

92

96

99

Now, suppose the element to be searched is 77, then

applying the binary search technique,
Lower bound = 0
Upper bound = 9
Mid value = (0 + 9) /2=4.5=4
23

55

66

72

77

85

89

92

96

99

Now, compare the element 77 which has to be

searched with the element stored at the mid position,
as the element stored at mid position in is 77 which is
equals to the number to be.
Efficiency analysis of binary search
As we know that in binary case, at each step of the
block of items are divided and key item is searched in
both halves.
We can divide a set of n items in half at most log 2 n
times.
Thus the running time of binary search is proportion to
log n and we can say that it is 0
(log n) algorithm.
27

28

Question 3: What is hashing? Explain the different types of

hashing. Also discuss different methods of building hash
functions. Page no.167-169
(15
Marks)
The search time of each algorithm depends primarily
on the number of elements in collection of data.
Now the terminology which we are going to discuss is
called hashing and is oriented towards file
management.
Hashing is a useful technique for managing the
insertion, deletion and accessing of element in the
database.
It is an efficient data methodology implemented by
building a table of pointer called hash table that
points into the database.
These are sometimes also called scatter table.
Hash function is a mathemation function which
translates each element to be stored into the
database.
This number is then used as the index into the hash
table
In table, each index contains the address of the
corresponding element of the database.
Hence, we can directly access any element
Types of hashing
There are types of hashing:
1. Static hashing: The set of keys of field and give in
advance.
29

2. Dynamic hashing: The set of keys can change

dynamically.
Good hash function
The general idea of using the key is to
determine the address of a record but the key
much be modified so that a great deal of space
is not wasted.
If the modification result into a function H from
the of keys k into set of memory address L, then
the same can be written as:

H: K-> L
And the same is called a hash function or
hashing function.
A good hash function should:
- Minimize collision
- Be easy and quick to computer
- Distribute key values evenly in the hash
table.
- Use all the information providers in the key.
- Have a high load factor a given set of keys.
Methods of building hash function
1. Truncation:
By ignoring some part of the key and using the
remaining part as the index is truncation.
For example, if key has 8 digit integer and hash table
has 1000 location; then first, second and fifth digit
from right might make a hash function.
So that 62538194 reduce to 394, truncation is very
fast method, but it often fails to distribute the key
exactly through the table.
2. Folding:
Partition the key into several parts and combine
the part in a convenient way to obtain the index.
30

 For example, if the key has 8 digits integer and the

hash table has 1000 location then the sum of all
digits makes the hash function so that 62538194
given 38.
3. Mid-square:
The key is squared and the middle part of the
result taken as the hash value.
To map the key 3121 into a hash table of size
1000, we square it 31212 =9740641 and extract as
the hash value.
Can be more efficient with powers of as hash table
size.
Works well if the key do not contain a lot of leading
or trailing zeros.
Non-integer keys have to be preprocessed to
obtain corresponding integer values.
For example,
Consider an organization in which 50 employees are
assigned a unique 4 digit employee code.
Suppose L consists of 100 two-digit address: 00, 01,
02, 99.
Now applying the above hash function to each of the
employee codes:
4208, 5128, 2645
a) Midsquare method: perform the following
calculation:
K= 4208
512 2645
K
= 17707264 26296389 6996025
H (k)
= 07
96
96

Notice that the fourth and fifth digits from are chosen from
the hash address.

31

b) Folding method: dividing the key k into two part

and add them to from the following hash
address:
H (4208) = 42+08= 50
H (5128) = 51 . 28 97
H (2645) = 26+45 = 71

Question 4: Explain Depth First traversal and Breadth first

traversal methods along with an example. Write
algorithms to illustrate them. Page no.137
(15
Marks)
Many graph algorithms require one to systematically example
the nodes and edges of a graph.
In order to do same are two traversal methods for directed and
undirected graphs:
Depth first traversal /search (DFS)
Depth first search is a traversal method for both
directed and undirected graphs.
Then the search backtracks, returning to the most
recent node it hash; t finished exploring.
Depth first traversal is exhaustive and uninformed
search.
In a non- recursive implementation, all freshly
expanded nodes are added to a stack for exploration.
32


1.
2.
3.
4.

The time and space analysis of DFS differs according

to its application area.
DFS is typically used to traverse an entire graph and
take time 0 (V + E), linear in the size of the graph.
Algorithms where DFS is used:
Finding connected components
Topological sorting
Finding straggly connected components
Solving puzzles with only one solution, such as mazes.
Depth first search (S: = status. N: = node.
Stack=stack [] ) suppose graph G starts with
vertex A then.
1. Initialize all nodes to ready state (s= 1)
2. Push starting node A onto stack and change
stack from 1to 2.
3. Repeat steps 4 and 5 until stack is empty.
4. Pop the top node of STACK. Process N and
change its status from 2 to 3.
5. Push onto STACK all the neighbors of N that are
still in status 1 and change theor status from 1
to 2.
6. End of step 3 loop.
7. Exit
P

33

 For example,
Consider the above graph. Now , suppose we
want to traverse and print all the nodes
reachable from X, then the same can be
done using depth first search by starting
from node X, given below:
a) Initially, push X onto the stack as
followings:
STACK: K
b) Pop and print the top element X and then
push onto the stack all the neighbors of X
as following:
Print X
STACK: T, Y
c) Pop and print the top element Y and then
push onto the stack all the neighbors of Y
as following:
Print Y STACK: T, U, Y
d) Now, Pop and print the top element V and
then push onto the stack all the neighbors
of V as following:
Print V STACK: T, U, R
e) Pop and print the top element R and then
push onto the stack all the neighbors of R
as following:
Print R STACK: T, U, Q
f) Pop and print the top element Q and then
push onto the stack all the neighbors of Q
as following:
34

Print Q STACK: T, U
g) Pop and print the top element U and then
push onto the stack all the neighbors of U
as following:
Print U STACK: T
h) Pop and print the top element T and then
push onto the stack all the neighbors of T
as following:
Print T STACK:
As the stack is empty now, so the depth first
search is now complete. And the nodes are
accordingly printed as given below:
X, Y, V, R, Q, U, T
Breadth first search (BFS)
Breadth first search (BFS) is a general technique
for traversing a graph.
Breadth first traversal/search visits all successors
of a visited node before visiting any successors of
any of those successors.
The breadth first traversal involves the following:
- Visits all the vertices and edges of G.
- Determines whether G is connected.
- Compute the connected components of G.
- Computes a spanning forest of G.
Algorithms
This algorithm executes a breadth first search on a
graph G beginning at a starting node A.
In breadth first search, queue data structure is used,
now, suppose that the status of queues can be of
following types which can be written as:
SATCK= 1 (read state) - the initial state of the node
SATCK= 2 (waiting state)
SATCK= 3 (processed state)
35

 Breadth first search (S:=status, N:=node, stack=stack [])

Suppose graph G stats with vertex A then,
1. Initialize all nodes to ready state (s= 1)
2. Put starting node A onto stack and change
stack from 1to 2.
3. Repeat steps 4 and 5 until stack is empty.
4. Remove the front node N of queue, process N
and change the status of N from 2 to 3.
5. Add to the rear of queue all the neighbors of N
and change their status from 1 to 2.
6. End of step 3 loop.
7. Exit
Consider the graph G suppose G represent the university in
which several building are there which are represented by
different node, and suppose we want to go from one
building P to building X with the minimum number of stops.

36

The minimum path can be found by using a breadth first

search beginning at city P and ending when Y is
encountered.
We will also keep track of the origin of each edge by using
an array together with the array QUEUE. The step of our
search following:
a) Initially, add A to QUEUE and add NULL to array as
following:
FROMT =1
QUEUE: P
REAR= 1
ARRAY: 0
b) Remove the front element P front QUEUE by setting FROM
:=FROM + 1 and add to QUEUE the neighbors of A as
follows:
FROM= 2
QUEUE: P, Q, R, S
REAR= 4
ARRAY: O,P, P, P, Q
Note that origin P of each of the thee edges
is added to ARRAY
c) Remove the front element Q front QUEUE by setting
FROM :=FROM + 1 and add to QUEUE the neighbors of Q
as follows:
FROM= 3
QUEUE: P, Q, R, S, T
REAR= 5
ARRAY: O,P, P, P, Q

37

d) Remove the front element R front QUEUE by setting

FROM :=FROM + 1 and add to QUEUE the neighbors of R
as follows:
FROM= 4
QUEUE: P, Q, R, S, T
REAR= 5
ARRAY: O,P, P, P, Q
e) Remove the front element S front QUEUE by setting FROM
:=FROM + 1 and add to QUEUE the neighbors of S as
follows:
FROM= 5
QUEUE: P, Q, R, S, T, U
REAR= 6
ARRAY: O,P, P, P, Q, S
f) Remove the front element T front QUEUE by setting FROM
:=FROM + 1 and add to QUEUE the neighbors of T as
follows:
FROM= 6
QUEUE: P, Q, R, S, T, U
REAR= 6
ARRAY: O,P, P, P, Q, S
g) Remove the front element V front QUEUE by setting
FROM :=FROM + 1 and add to QUEUE the neighbors of V
as follows:
FROM= 7
QUEUE: P, Q, R, S, T, V, U
REAR= 7
ARRAY: O,P, P, P, Q, S, V
h) Remove the front element U front QUEUE by setting
FROM :=FROM + 1 and add to QUEUE the neighbors of U
as follows:
FROM= 8
QUEUE: P, Q, R, S, T, U, X
REAR= 8
ARRAY: O, P, P, P, Q, S, V, U

We stop as soon as X is added to QUEUE,

since X is our find destination.
We now backtrack from X, using the array
to find the path thus.
X<-U, -V<-S<-Q
38

is the required path,

39

Course Code

BCA -203

Course Title
Management

Financial Accounting and

Assignment No.

: BCA -203/ TMA-1

Question 1: Explain the salient features and significance of

Computerized Accounting System. Discuss the features of some of
the accounting software packages. Page no.225-227
(15 Marks)

Features of computerized accounting system

1. Easy Accessible: These packages are easily
accessible by anyone who has a basic primary
knowledge of accounting.
2. User Friendly: These packages are very much user
oriented. Its not only a user friendly but it also
supports the single user, multiple users and
Remote access for the users and administrator
respectively.
3. Security: Data can be secured from any
unauthorized access, tapering. Alteration of
various data. Since we can give limitations to
every user who is accessing the
software/database.
40

4. Quick Processing: Accounting system helps in

quick processing of various transactions takes
place.
5. Minimize Error : Accounting software minimize
the error which may generate in case of manual
recordings of data but one should also remember
that it very difficult to detect mistakes which has
made intentionally (fraud) in recordings of data
which may possible in an accounting software.
6. Periodical Report: Any report can be generated at
any time which not easily possible in manual
accosting.
7. Update Record: Records are updated regularly
with an immediate effect. Some time I may not be
done in case when records are entered or
recorded manually.
8. Self-Audit: One can easily audit by himself to
investigate the fraud which have generated
accidently or intentionally to find out culprit. So
also it helps in tracing the fraud without many
efforts.
9. Help Support: These accounting packages have
strong help support within the packages itself,
which can easily guide the user and can clear
their queries.
10.
Back Up and Restore: this is one of the major
features which is available in any accounting
software which safe guard our efforts and can
help us from any disaster if happen unfortunately.

Silent features and significance

41

Automatic updating of customer accounts in the sales ledger

1. Automatic recording and updating of suppliers
invoices and purchases ledger
2. Automatic Recording of bank receipts for
reconciliation
3. Automatic updating of the general ledger
4. Automatic adjustment of stock records
5. Integration of a business database with accounting
program
6. Automatic calculation of payroll and associated
entries
Additional significance:
1. Less paper Work- It decreases the paper work, which
in general is more in case of manual recording and
maintenance of data.
2. Less Labour Cost- labour cost can be reduced by
hiring few number of people we can achieve the
desired purpose.
3. Less wastages- since everything is done
electronically so it reduced the cost of stationary
and its misuse of stationeries, this leads to less
wastage.
4. Cost savings- computerized Accounting systems
reduce staff time in checking of accounts and reduce
audit expanses as records are neat, up-to-date and
accurate.
5. Reduce frustration-reduce stress levels of the
employee for the following reasons
42

6. Speed- data entry on the computer with its

customized screens and built-in databases of
customers and supplier details and stock records
can be carried out far more quickly than any manual
processing.
7. Automatic document production- fast and accurate
invoices, credit notes, purchase orders, printing
statements and payroll documents are all done
automatically
8. Accuracy- there is less room for errors as only one
accounting entry is needed for each transaction
rather than two (or three) for a manual system.
9. CST/VAT return- the automatic creation of taxes and
return for the regular or outstanding CST/VAT
returns and other purposes
10. Efficiency better use of resources and time; cash
flow should improve through better debt collection
and inventory control
11. Staff motivation- the system will require staff to be
trained to use new skills, which can make them feel
more motivated
12. Availability of information- the data is instantly
available and can be made available to different
users in different locations at the same time
13. Minimum time consumption- minimum time is
consumed since after passing an single entry all the
necessary changes takes place automatically in
compared to manual accounting where every entry
have to be passed till all the steps completed

43

Question 2: Explain the preparation and presentation of

Balance sheet with suitable examples. Also discuss their
limitations.

Preparation and presentation of balance sheet

The process of preparation and presentation of balance
sheet involves two steps:
i.

Grouping and

ii.

Marshalling

The first step refers to proper groping of the various items,

which are to be shown in the balance sheet as assets and
liabilities. For this purpose items of similar nature are
grouped under one head so that the balance sheet could
convert true message to its users. For example, stock,
44

debtors, bills receivables, bank cash in plant and machinery,

furniture and fixtures, tools equipments under fixed assets
similarly sundry creditors for goods must be shown
separately and distinguished from money owing other than
due to credit sales of goods.
The second step involves marshalling of assets and
liabilities. It means orderly arrangement in which various
assets and liabilities are presented or shown in the balance
sheet. There are two methods of presentation:
I.

In the order of liquidity

II.

In the order of performance

Under liquidity order, assets are shown on the basis of

liquidity or reliability. These rearranged in an order of most
liquid, more liquid, liquid, least liquid and not liquid (fixed)
assets. Similarly, liabilities are arranged in the order in which
these are not to be paid or discharged.
Under the Order of performance the assets are arranged
on the basis of their useful life. The assets, which are to
serve business for the longest period of time, are shown first.
In other words, this method puts the first method in the
reserve gear. Similarly, in case of liabilities, after capital, the
liabilities are arranged as long term, medium term, short
term and current liabilities.
Following are the respective formats of Balance sheet to
bring out the clarity of concept
I.

Liquidity Order
BALANCE SHEET OF
As on

II.

Order of performance
45

 Limitations of balance sheet

Through the balance sheet is prepared by every organization for
disclosing its financial position. Yet it is suffering from the
following limitations:
1.

Fixed assets are shown in the balance sheet at

historical cost less depreciation up to date. A conventional
balance sheet cannot reflect the true value of these assets.
Again intangible assets are shown in the balance sheet at
book values, which may bear no relationship to market
values.

2.

Sometimes, balance sheet contains some assets

which command no market value such as preliminary
expenses, debenture discount, etc. the inclusion of these
fictitious assets unduly inflates the total value of assets.

3.

The balance sheet cannot reflect the value of certain

factors such as skill and loyalty of staff.

4.

A conventional balance sheet may mislead untrained

readers in inflationary situations.

The value of majority number of current assets depends upon

some estimates, so it cannot reflect the true financial position
of the business.

46

Question 3: Explain the method of codification of accounts with

suitable examples.
Page no.230
(15
Marks)
Codification of accounts
This is an optional features in accounting system, so
this may not be available in all the accounting system.
Codification of accounts in general means to assign a
code to provide a unique identity to each account.
The code may be assigned to the group, subgroup, and
ledger accounts according to the proprietors need. A
code in general consist a numeric value, alphabetic
value or an alphanumeric value (combin1at1ion1 of
both).
These codes help in customized report generating and
avoid duplicity of records. These codes also helps in
detection of errors which have been generate in
recording of data

A brief overview of tally 7.2 accounting

package
When tally has been installed in the beginning you will a
screen at gateway of tally where only create company is
enabled

47

 The following screen is for creation of a new

company
The same screen will open when one want to alter
(change) company information
After filling this window you will able to create
your company
If you want change any information
Press F1 at gate way and click alter company an
appropriate changes

48

49

50

51

52

53

54

ss

55

Question 4: Explain Capital budgeting along with its principles

and techniques by giving suitable examples. Page no.143 -160
(15 Marks)

Meaning of Capital Budgeting

The term capital budgeting contains two words capital, the
relatively scarce. Non-human resource of production
enterprise, and budgeting. Indicating a detailed quantified
planning which guides future activities of an enterprise
towards the achievement of its profit goals. Capital refers
to total funds employed in an enterprise as a whole. The
Capital fund is increased by inward flow of cash and
decreased by an outward flow of cash and as such it is
important for an enterprise to plan and arrange cash flows
properly.
Capital budgeting, then. Consists in planning the
development of available capital for the purpose of
maximizing the long-term profitability.
Capital budgeting may be defined as the decision-making
process by which a firm evaluates the purchase of major
fixed assets, including buildings, machinery, and equipment.
It deals exclusively with major investment proposals which
are essentially long-term projects and is concerned with
allocation of firms scarce financial resources among the
available market opportunities a search for a new & more
profitable investment proposal and the Making of an
economic analysis to determine the profit potential of each
investment proposal .They are large, permanent
commitments, which influence its long-run flexibility and
earning power.

56

 It is a process by which available cash and credit resources

are allocated among competitive long-term investment
opportunity so as to promote the greatest profitability of
company over a period of time.it refers to total process of
generating, evaluating, selecting& following up on capital
expenditure alternatives

Capital Budgeting Techniques

Capital Budgeting Techniques

Traditional/Non-discounting
Adjusted/discount cash

Time

Techniques
flow method

Pay back method

Average rate of
(PB)
return method (ARR)
Profitability
Methods (NPV)

index (PI)

Internal Rate of Return

Method (IRR)
57

Net Present values

Pay Back Method (1)

The pay back method (PB) is the traditional method of
capital budgeting. It is the simplest and perhaps, the
most widely employed quantitative method for
appraising capital expenditure decisions. This method
answers the question how many years will it take for
the cash benefits to pay the original cost of an
investment. Cash benefits here represent CFAT (cash
flow after taxes) ignoring interest payment.

PB Period =

Investment
Constant annual cash flow

Example:
A project requires an initial investment of Rs, 1, 80,000
and yields an annual cash inflow of Rs, 60, 000 for years.
PB Period =

1, 80, 000
= 3 years
60, 000

Discounted pay-back period (DPP) - (2)

In this method the cash inflows are discounted at a
rate, which is equal ordinary payback period method as
DPP considers the time value of memory.

58

Average Rate Method (3)

This method is also known as Accounting Rate of
Return. This method considers A.R.R. which means the
average annual yield of the project under this method
profit after tax & depreciation (also called as accounting
profit) of a percentage of total investment is
considered.
ARR=
*100

Average Annual Earnings after taxes & depreciation

Average Investment

Net Present Value (NPV) Method: - (2)

The objective of the firm is to create wealth by using
existing &future resources to produce goods & services.
To create wealth, inflows must exceed the present value
of all anticipated cash outflows. NPV is obtained by
discounting all cash outflow &inflow attributable to
certain investment project by a chosen percentage e.g.
the entitys weighted average cost of capita.

NPV= C0+

NPV= C0+

C1
(1+r) 1
C1 +
C2
1
(1+r)
(1+r)

+
2

59

. + CR
(1+r)

Profitability Index Method: - (5)

The profitability index (P1) is yet another method of
evaluating the investment proposals. It is also known as
the benefit-cost ratio (B/c). It represents a ratio of the
present value of future cost benefit at the required rate
of return to the initial cash outflow of the investment.
PI = Present value of cash inflows
Present value of cash outlay
The IRR Method is yet another discounted cash flow
technique, which takes into consideration the
magnitude and timing of cash flows. It is also known as
time adjusted rate of return, marginal efficient of
capital, marginal productivity of capital, and yield on
investment and so on. It is employed with the cost of
investment and the annual cash inflows are known
while the unknown rate of earnings is to be ascertained.
Examples:
Project X involves an initial outlay of Rs. 1, 60, 000. Its
lifespan is expected to be three years. The cash
streams generated by it are expected to be as follows:
Year

Cash Inflows (Rs.)

80, 000

70, 000

60, 000

You are required to calculate the 1 RR

60

Course Code

BCA -204

Course Title

Mathematics Part-I (Fundamentals)

Assignment No.

BCA -204/ TMA-1

Question 1: What are Determinants? Explain the expansion of

second and third order determinants. Also discuss their
properties.
Determinant of second order:Definition: A square array of 4 i.e. 2^2 numbers in two horizontal rows
and two vertical columns enclosed between two vertical
bars is called a determinant of second order.
It is denoted by
A1

b1

A2

b2

A1, A2, b1, b2 are called elements of the

determinant.
A1, b1 are called elements in the first row
and a2, b2 are elements in the second
row.
Similarly, a1, a2 are elements in the first
column and b1, b2 are elements in the
second column.
Thus, a determinant of second order has
two rows and two columns.
61

 Expansion of second order determinant

A1

b1

A2

b2 =A1 b2-A2 b2 is called the expansion

determinants.

or the value of

The diagonal from upper left to lower right is called the

principal diagonal.

Determinant of third order: A square array of 9 i.e. 3^2 numbers in the form
a1

b1

c1

a2

b2

c2

a3

b3

c3

is called determinants of third order.

A determinant of third order has three rows and three

columns.
Expansion of third order determinant:a1

b1

c1

a2

b2

c2 =a1

b2 c2 a2
b3 c3 b1 a3
62

c2

a2

c3 +c1 a3

b2
b3

a3

b3

c3

Is called expansion or value of determinant.

Properties of determinants:1. The value of determinants remains unchanged if its rows and
columns are interchanged.
a1 b1 c1

a1 a2 a3

D= a2 b2 c2 and D= b1 b2 b3
a3 b3 c3

c1 c2 c3

Then D=D
Note: - from the above property it follows that a result which is
true for rows is also true.
2. The value of determinant changes only in sign if any two
rows are interchanged
Let
a1 b1 c1
D=

a2 b2 c2
a3 b3 c3

a1 b1 c1
D= a3 b3 c3
a2 b2 c2

(Obtained by interchanging 2nd and 3rd rows)

Then
63

D= -D
3.

If any two rows (or column) of a determinant are identical,

then the value of determinant is zero.

Let
D=

a1 b1 c1
a2 b2 c2
a2 b2 c2

Then D=0 (Here R2=R3)

If all elements of any row (or column) of a determinant
is multiplied by the same number k, then the value of
determinant so obtained is k times the value of the
original determinant.
Let
a1 b1 c1

a1

D= a2 b2 c2

and D

A3 b3 c3

b1

c1

ka2 kb2 kc2

a3

b3

c3

(Obtained by kR2)
Then D=kD

If each elements of row (or column) of a determinant

can be expressed as sum of two terms, then the
determinant can be expressed as the sum of two
determinants.

64

Let

D= a1+x b1+y c1+z

a2
b2
c2
a3

b3

c3

Then
a1 b1 c1
D= a2 b2 c2

+ a2 b2 c2

a3 b3 c3

a3 b3 c3

Note: - the above property gives us a method of finding the sum

of two determinants which differ only in one row (or column).
The value of a determinant remains unchanged by
adding to the elements of any row (or column) the same
multiples of the corresponding elements of any other
row (or column).
Let
a1 b1 c1
D= a2 b2 c2
a3 b3 c3

and D=

a1+mc1 b1 c1
a2+mc2 c2 c2
a3+mc3 b3 c3

(Obtained by C1+mC3)
Then D=D

65

Question 2:. Discuss the properties of Set Operations along with

examples. Find the rank of a matrix by reducing it to normal form.
Properties of Set operation: Basic properties of set operations are discussed here. 1-6
directly

correspond

to

identities

and

implications

of

propositional logic, and 7-11 also follow immediately from

them as illustrated below
1. AU=A
AU=A
. Identity Laws
2. AUU= U
A=
. Domination Laws
3. AUA=A
AA=A
.. Idempotent Laws
4. AUB=BUA
AB=BA
.. Commutative Laws
5. (AUB)UC=AU(BUC)
(AB) C=A(BC)
.. Associative Laws
6. AU(BC)=(AUB) (AUC)
A(BUC)=(AB)U(AC)
. Distributive Laws
7. If A B and C D, then AUC BUD, and AC
8. If A B, then AUB-B and AB-A.
9. AU(B-A)=AUB
A(B-A)=
10. A-(BUC)=(A-B)(A-C) (cf.AUB=AB)
11. A-(BC)=(A-B)U(A-C) (cf. AB=AUB)
.De Morgans Laws
12. B=A if and only if AUB= U and AB=
13. A=A
Additional properties:
66

BD

14. A AUB
15. AB A
The properties 1 6 and 11 can be proven using
equivalences of propositional logic.
The others can be proven similarly by going to logic, though
they can be proven also using some of these properties.
Lets prove some of the properties.
Proof for 4:- AUB=BUA
We are going to prove this by showing that every element is
in AUB is also in BUA and vice versa.
Consider an arbitrary element x. then by the definition of set
union
xAUB
xAVxB
xAVxB by the commutatively.
XBUA by the definition of set union.
Hence by Universal Generalization, every element is in AUB
is also in BUA.
Hence AUB=BUA
Proof for 6:- By the definition of the equality of sets, we
need to prove that x [x AU(BC) if and only if
x(AUB)(AUC)]
For that, considering the Universal Generalization
rule, we need to show that for an arbitrary
element in the universe x,
x AU(BC) if and only if x(AUB)(AUC).
Here the only if part is going to be proven. The if
part can be proven similarly.
x AU(BC)
xAV x(BUC) by the definition of U.
XAV (xBxC)

by the definition of

(XAVxB) (XAVxC)

by the distribution from the equivalences of

propositional logic.

(XAUB) (XAUC)

by the definition of

X (AUB) (AUC)

U.

by the definition of

67

The rank of matrix by reducing it to normal: Definition:- By performing elementary transformation, any
non-zero matrix 4 can be reduced on one of the follow 4,
forms called as
Normal form of A.
[Ir], [Ir, O], Ir
Ir O
O, O O
Ir is unit matrix or identify matrix and O denotes null matrix.
1. Number or so obtained is rank of the matrix.
2. p(A)=r
3. One can use both row and column transformations.
Solved Examples
e.g.
1) Reduce the following matrix to normal form and then find its
rank.
1
2
3
6

2
4
2
8

3
3
1
7

0
2
3
5

R4-(R1+R2+R3)

1
2
3
6

2
4
2
8

3
3
1
7

R2-2R1 and R3-3R1

0
2
3
5

1
0
0
0

2
0
-4
0
68

3
-3
-8
0

0
2
3
0

C2-2C1 and C3-3C1

1 0 0 0
0 0 -3 2
0 -4 -8 3
0 0 0 0
-1/4C2
1 0
0 1
0 0
0 0

0
-8
-3
0

- (C3+C4)
1 0 0
0 1 0
0 0 1
0 0 0

0
0
2
0

0
3
2
0

R23
1 0 0
0 -4 -8
0 0 -3
0 0 0
C3+8C2
1
0
0
0
C4-2C3
1 0
0 1
0 0
0 0

0
3
2
0

C4-3C2
0 0 0
1 0 0
0 -3 2
0 0 0
0
0
1
0

1
0
0
0

0
1
0
0

0
0
-3
0

0
0
2
0

0
0
0
0

= I3 0
0 0
e (A) =3
2. Reduce to normal form and hence find i th rank
1 2 1 0 2
3 1 2 2 -3
2 5 5 6 3
2 1 3 -1 -3
R2-3R1, R3-2R1, R4-2R1, Elements of col.1 except R1 (i.e. - Row 2, 3,
4=0)

1 2 1 0 2
69

0 -5 -1 2 -1
0 1 3 6 -1
0 -3 1 -1 -7
Make Elements of Row 1 except R11 i.e. Column 2, 3, 4, 5=0

C2-C5, C3-C1, C5-C2

1 0 0 0 0
0 2 -1 2 -2
0 2 3 6 -2
0 4 1 -1 -4
Make
R22=1, C2+C3
10 0 0 0
0 1 -1 2 -2
0 5 3 6 -2
0 5 1 -1 -4

R3-R4 and R4-5R2

1 0

0
70

0 1 -1 2 -2
0 0 2 7 2
0 0 6 -11 -6

C3+C2, C4+C5, C5+2C2

1 0 0 0 0
0 1 0 0 0
0 0 2 9 2
0 0 6 -5 6
C3
1 0 0 0 0
0 1 0 0 0
0 0 2 9 2
0 0 3 -5 6
R4-3R1
1 0 0 0 0
0 1 0 0 0
0 0 1 9 2
0 0 0 -32 0

C4-9C3
71

1 0 0 0 0
0 1 0 0 0
0 0 1 0 2
0 0 0 -32 0
-1/32 R4
1 0 0 0 0
0 1 0 0 0
0 0 1 0 2
0 0 0 1 0

1 0 0 0 0
0 1 0 0 0
0 0 1 0 0
0 0 0 1 0
[I4; 0]
Therefor e (A) =4.

72

Question 3: What are Sets? With the help of examples explain the
different set operations
A set can be described in a number of different ways.
The simplest is to list up all of its numbers if that is possible.
For example {1, 2, 3} is the set of three numbers 1, 2 and 3.
{Indicates the beginning of the set, and} it ends.
Every object between them separated by commas is a
member of the set.
Thus {{1, 2}, { {3}, 2}, 2}, {1 } } is the set of the elements
{1, 2}, { {3}, 2} and {1}.
A set can also be described by listing the properties that its
members must satisfy.
Set operations: Sets can be combined in a member of different ways to
produce another set.
Here four basic operations

are

introduced

and

their

properties are discussed.

Definition (Union):- The union of sets A and B denoted
by AUB, is the set defined as
AUB={x|xAVxB}
Example 1: If A={1, 2, 3} and B={4, 5}, and then AUB={1,
2, 3, 4, 5}.
Example 2:If A={1, 2, 3} and B={1, 2, 4, 5}, then AUB ={1,
2, 3, 4, 5}
Note that elements are not repeated in a set.
Definition (inersection):- the intersection of sets A and B,
denoted by AB, is the set defined as
AB={x|xA xB }
Example 3:If A={1, 2, 3} and B={1, 2, 4, 5}, then AB={1,
2}
Example 4:If A={1, 2, 3} and B={4, 5}, and then AB=.
73

Definition (Difference):- The difference of sets A from B,

denoted by
A-B, is the set defined as
A-B={x| xA xB}
Example 5: If A={1, 2, 3} and B={4, 5}, and then A-B={1,
2, 3}.
Example 6:If A={1, 2, 3} and B={1, 2, 4, 5}, then A-B ={3}.
Note that in general A-B B-A.
Definition (Complement): For a set A, the difference U-A,
where U is the universe, is called the complement of A and
t is denoted by A .
Thus A is the set of everything that is not in A.
The fourth set operation is Cartesian product we first define
an ordered pair and Cartesian product of two sets using it.
Then the Cartesian product of multiple set is defined using
the concept of n-tuple.
Definition (ordered pair): An order pair is a pair of objects
with an order associated with them.
If objects are represented by x and y, then we write the
ordered pair as <x, y>.
Two ordered pairs <a, b> and <c, d> are equal if and only if
a=c and b=d.
For example the ordered pair <1, 2> is not equal to the
ordered pair
<2, 1>.
Definition (Cartesian product): the set of all ordered pairs
<a, b>, where a is an element of A and b is an element of B,
is called the Cartesian product of A and B and is denoted by
A B.
Example 1: Let A={1, 2, 3} and B={a, b}. Then
A B={<1, a>, <1, b>, <2, a>, <2, b>, <3, a>, <3, b>}
Example 2: For the same A and B as in example 1,
B A={<a,1>, <a, 2>, <a, 3>,<b, 1>, <b, 2>,<b, 3>}.
74

 As you can see in these examples, in general, A B B A

unless A=, B= or A=B.
Note that A = A= because there is no element in
to form ordered pairs with elements of A.
The concept of Cartesian product can be extended to that of
more than two sets.
First we are going to define the concept of ordered n-tuple.
Definition (ordered n-tuple): An ordered n-tuple is a set of n
objects with an order associated with them.
If n objects are represented by x1, x2, x3,..,xn, then we
write the ordered n-tuple as <x1, x2, x3,..,xn>.
Definition (Cartesian product): Let A1, , An be n sets.
Then the set of all ordered tuples <x1,.., xn>, where xi
Ai for all i, 1<=i<=n, is called the Cartesian product of A 1,
.,An, and is denoted by A1 .. An.
Definition (equality of n-tuples): Two ordered n-tuples <x 1,
,xn> and <y1,,yn are equal if and only if xi=yi for all I,
1<=i<=n.
For example the order 3-tuple <1, 2, 3> is not equal to the
recorded n-tuple <2, 3, 4>.
Set operation: Basic properties of set operations are discussed here. 1-6
directly

correspond

to

identities

and

implications

of

propositional logic, and 7-11 also follow immediately from

them as illustrated below
16. AU=A
AU=A
. Identity Laws
17. AUU= U
A=
. Domination Laws
18. AUA=A
AA=A
.. Idempotent Laws
19. AUB=BUA
AB=BA
.. Commutative Laws
75

20. (AUB)UC=AU(BUC)
(AB) C=A(BC)
.. Associative Laws
21. AU(BC)=(AUB) (AUC)
A(BUC)=(AB)U(AC)
. Distributive Laws
22. If A B and C D, then AUC BUD, and AC
23. If A B, then AUB-B and AB-A.
24. AU(B-A)=AUB

BD

A(B-A)=
25. A-(BUC)=(A-B)(A-C) (cf.AUB=AB)
26. A-(BC)=(A-B)U(A-C) (cf. AB=AUB)
.De Morgans Laws
27. B=A if and only if AUB= U and AB=
28. A=A
Additional properties:
29. A AUB
30. AB A
The properties 1 6 and 11 can be proven using
equivalences of propositional logic.
The others can be proven similarly by going to logic, though
they can be proven also using some of these properties.
Lets prove some of the properties.
Proof for 4:- AUB=BUA
We are going to prove this by showing that every element is
in AUB is also in BUA and vice versa.
Consider an arbitrary element x. then by the definition of set
union
xAUB
xAVxB
xAVxB by the commutativity.
XBUA by the definition of set union.
Hence by Universal Generalization, every element is in AUB
is also in BUA.
Hence AUB=BUA

76

 Proof for 6:- By the definition of the equality of sets, we

need to prove that x [x AU(BC) if and only if
x(AUB)(AUC)]
For that, considering the Universal Generalization
rule, we need to show that for an arbitrary
element in the universe x,
x AU(BC) if and only if x(AUB)(AUC).
Here the only if part is going to be proven. The if
part can be proven similarly.
x AU(BC)
xAV x(BUC) by the definition of U.
XAV (xBxC)

by the definition of

(XAVxB) (XAVxC)

by the distribution from the equivalences of

propositional logic.

(XAUB) (XAUC)

by the definition of

X(AUB) (AUC)

U.

by the definition of

Question 4: Discuss the theorems involved in transformation of

parallel and intersecting lines.
Transformation of a line
We know that any two points determine a line in a plane.
The position vectors of two points A&B, specifying the coordinates of them, define a line.
Under 2x2 transformation a point A is transformed to A* & B*
to B*.
Therefore a line with end points A&B is transformed to
another line A*B* with end points A*B*
a) Length AB to length A*B*
b) Slope of the line, or orientation is also changed
Let us take a practical example
77

 Let A, B be two points with position vectors [1, 2], [2, 0]

respectively.
If
3
1
is the transformation matris
1
2
[1 2] [T] = [1 2]

1
1

[2 0] =[T]= [2 0]

=[ 5

5]

1 =[6
1

Under transformation [T] A [1

2]

2
2] transformed to A*[5

5] & b

[2 0]

Y
5
4
3
2
1

A*(5, 5)
B*(6, 2)
A (1, 2)
B(2,0)

Orientation as well as length is changed of AB to A*B*.

Transformation of Parallel Lines
78

 the effect of 2x2 transformation matrix on a pair of parallel

lines is another pair of parallel lines
Y
D

D*

B*

C* A*

Let [A]=[x1y1] B=[x2y2]

AB & CD are parallel to each other they have same slope
M=y2-y1/x2-x1
Let [T] = a

b be general transformation matrix then,

C

A
B
=

x1
x2

y1
y2

ax1+cy1 bx1+dy1
Ax2+cy2 bx2+dy2

x*1

y*1

x*2

y*2

Slope of A*B*= m*= y*2-y*1/x*2-x*1

=bx2+dy2-bx1-dy1/ax2+cy2-ax1-cy1
=b(x2-x1) +d(y2-y1)/a(x2-x1)+c(y1-y1)

79

a
c

b
d

=b+d (y2-y1/x2-x1)
a+c(y2-y1/x2-x1)
m*=b+dm/a+cm
m* is independent of x1, x2, y1, y2 Also m, a, b, c, d are
some for AB &CD Hence m* is same for A*B* & C*D*
Give parallel lines are transformed into another set of
parallel

lines

similarly

parallelogram

will

be

transformed into another parallelogram.

Transformation of Interesting Lines:a) Under transformation matrix [T]= a
b
c

A pair intersecting strainght lines gets transformed into

another pair of intersecting lines.
b) The point of intersection of original pair of intersecting
lines

gets

transformed

into

the

intersection

of

transformed form of pair of lines.

Theorem:a) Let y=mx+h be an equation to a line under transformation
matrix
[T]= a
c

b
d

get transformed to

y*=m*x*+h
1) We know proof of m*=b+dm/a+cm
2) We need find out h* when
Y=mx+h gets transformed to y*=m*x*+h
[x y][T]=[x* y*] means
[x y] a

b
c

=[x*
80

y*]

.. (1)

Therefor [ax+cy

bx+dy]= [x*

y*]

Therefor putting these values in (1)

bx+ dy = b+dm (ax+cy)+ h*
a+cm

Since h is y intercept of line y=mx+h, (o.h) lies on it

Therefor 0+dh= b+dm

a+cm

Therefor h*=dh-

(0+ch)+ h*

b+dm
a+cm (ch)
bc+dcm

Therefor h*=h d- a+cm

ad+dcm-bc-dcm
Therefor h*=h

a+cm

Therefor h*=h ad-bc

a+cm

Theorem 2:Let intersecting lines.

Y=m1x+h1

..

(1)

&
81

Y=m2x+h2

(2)

Be transformed under transformation matrix.

T= a

to

y=m1*x+h1* .. (3)
y=m2*x+h1* ..(4)
Then,
a) Transformed lines are intersecting.
b) Point of intersection of original pair is transformed onto the
point

of

intersection

of

new

pair

of

lines

transformation matrix[T]
a) The lines y=m1x+h1
y=m2x+h2
are intersecting as m1 & m2 are different m1 m2

Their point of intersection is

-m1x+y=h1
-m2x+y=h2

[x

y] -m1
1

-m2
1

=[h1 h2]

Therefor
82

under

[x

y] =[h1 h2] -m1

-m2 -1
1

=[h1 h2]

m2-m1

m2

-1 -m1

[h1 h2] 1

m2-m1

m2

-1 -m1

[h1-h2

h1m2-h2m1] as m2-m2 0

m2-m1

[x y]= h1-h2
m2-m1

h1m2-h2m1
m2-m1

Also line y=m1x+h1 is transformed onto y=m1*x+h1*

Therefor m1*=b+dm1

& h1*=h1

ad-bc

a-cm1

a+cm1

Similarly therefor m2*=b+dm2

& h*=h

a-cm2

ad-bc
a+cm

& the point of intersection of y=m1*x+h1* &

y=m2*x+h2* if exists
83

It will
[x*

y*]=

h1*- h2*

h1*m2*- h2* m1*

m2*-m1*

m2*-m1*

. (6)

ad-bc
Therefor x*= h1*- h2*

==

h1

m2*-m1*

ad-bc

a+cm2 -h2 a+cm2

b+dm2 -

b+dm1

a+cm2

a+cm1

x*=a(h1-h2)+c(h1m2-h2m1)
m2-m1
As m2m1 therefor it exits

b) Consider transformation of point of intersection & (1)

&(2) under [T]
h1-h2
m2-m1

h2m2-h2m1

m2-m1

= a(h1-h2)+c(h1m2-h2m1)

b(h1-h2)+d(h1m2-h2m1)
84

m2-m1

m2-m1

(7)

(6)&(7) imply that point of intersection &(1) & (2) is transformed

on to point of intersection of (3) & (4).
Solved sums:1) A[4

9], B[-2

1] line segment joining AB is scaled uniformly

by factor 2 find midpoint of transformed line segment.

Solution:Uniform scaling by factor 2 is given by
T= 2 0
0
2
Under general transformation midpoint of AB is transformed onto
midpoint of A*B*
Midpoint of AB
M= 4+(-2)

9+1

=[1

5]

Therefor M*= [M][T]

= [1 5] 2

0 2 =[2+0 0+10]=[2 10]

2) Line y=2x+1 is transformed by 22transformation matrix.
[T]= 4
2
-1

3 find eqn of transformed file.

Solution: we know that under transformation matrix

[T]= a b
c

d line y=mx+h is

Transformed to y* =m*x*+h

85

Where m* =b+dm

& h*=h

ad-bc

a+cm

a+cm

Now,
T= 4

-1

therefor a=4, b=2, c=-1, d=3;

Y=2x+1 therefor m=2, h=1

Substituting
m*=2+32

==

4+(-1)2

2+6

==

4-2

h*=1 43-2(-1)
4+(-1)2

==

8 =4
2

12+2

==

14

==

Therefor eqn for transformed line=y*=4x*+7

Line y=2x+1 is transformed by 22 transformation matrix
[T]= 4

-1

find eqn of transformed fine.

Solution:We know that under transformation matrix.

[T]= a

line y=mx+h is

Transformed to y*=m*x*+h

86

87

Course Code

BCA -205

Course Title
:
Introduction to Multimedia
System and its Applications
Assignment No.

BCA -205/ TMA-1

Question 1: Explain multimedia information system along with

its components. What are different technical challenges of
Multimedia Information System?

Multimedia information system

Multimedia is an integration of continues media and
discrete media through which digital information can be
Conveyed to the user in an appropriate way.
Whereas, the computer based integration of text,
sound, still images, Animation and digitized motion
video is called multimedia technology.
In this technology, capabilities of computer are merged
with television, VCRs, CD players, DVD players, video
and audio recording equipment, music and gaming
technologies.
This information can be in any form such as images,
video, audio, graphic, charts, text etc.
Multimedia information system is a combination of
several technologies such as:
1. Digital signal processing
2. Image processing
3. Computer graphics
4. Digital video technology
88

5. Advanced databases
6. Operating systems
As discussed earlier that information can be in any form
such as video, audio, images and text.
Multimedia information system components
A multimedia system consists mainly f several
components including multimedia storage sever, media
synchronization, multimedia representation and
compression, multimedia database management,
networking and communicating and methodologies and
tools f many multimedia application.
The explanation f its each and every component is given
below:
1. Multimedia data management:
When the concept of internet was developed,
people were much excited with that
technology which is used to find information
more quickly.
As we know that multimedia data are growing
at an controlled, organized and efficient
manner.
The management f non-text data such as
image, video and audio is really challenging
and has attracted many research activities t
be done n the same.
These techniques and system will make
search retrieval and filtering of digital media
manageable.
2. multimedia representation:
It is indeed a challenging job for the capacity
and speed of the storage device to store to
large amount of multimedia data.
And is also difficult to represent that data in
compact way.

89

 In order to manage the same, multimedia

compression and representation standards
have been developed such as MPEG and JPEG.
As multimedia data is bulky and voluminous,
so reduction of data has to be done in order to
compress the storage space.
The objective of compression is to reduce
redundancy and storage space requirements
without losing the useful Information.
Technical challenges of multimedia information
system
The various technical challenges of multimedia
information system are listed below:
1. Sheer volume of data: use of multimedia
information system requires managing of huge of
data.
2. Timing requirements: proper timing is required
among components of data constraints, that is, real
time performance is required.
3. Integration requirements: there is a need to
process traditional media as well as continues
media is not always independent of each other that
is; synchronization among the media may be
required.

Question 2: Explain the different hardware components required

for a multimedia PC. Pa
(15 Marks)
Explain the different hardware components
required for a multimedia pc.
Input devices.

90

 Keyboard.

The last section discussed the key specifications of

computers used in multimedia development.
In this section we consider the various input devices
which are batched to a computer for multimedia
development and delivery.
Keyboards input devices enable users to input different
kinds of data from text through to video into a
computer.
Keyboards have not changed in layout since the
QWERTY arrangement of t6he nineteenth century
although there have been several attempts at
improving its layout.
Pointing devices.
There are a range of pointing devices used in
multimedia development and delivery.
The classic pointing device is the mouse which is now
available cordless and is based on an optical sensor
rather than a rolling ball.
Figure shows a state of the art tracker ball which gives
developers finer control over the position of the pointer
without.
The other pointing device used by developers is the
digitizing tablet as shown in figure.
91

 Either a special pen or a mouse is used as the pointing

device allowing developers to map the dimensions of
the tablet to dimensions of the screen.
Sound recording equipment.
The use of sound in its various forms is a component of
a multimedia application and the quality of the record
As Adding eguipant in determining the final guilty of the
sound.
The essential pieces of hardware for recording sound
are microphones or musical instruments for creating
the sound source.
Portable recording equipment like a digital audio tape
(DAT) recorder for use outside a studio.
Once the sound has been recorded it must be input into
a computer support it.
Microphones

As true most is equipment all microphones are not

created equal.
If you are planning to use a microphone for input you
will want to purchase a superior high-quality
microphone because your recordings will depend on its
guilty.
92

 The original sound the microphone is the most

important factor in any sound system.
Regardless of the guilty of the other audio system
components the true attributes of the original sound
are forever lost if the microphone does not capture.
Midi hardware.
MIDI is a standard that was agreed upon by the
major manufacturers of musical instruments.
To communicate MIDI instruments have an in port
and an out port that enables to be connected to one
another.
Some MIDI instruments also have a through port that
allows several MIDI instruments to be daisy chained
together.
Video recording equipment
The hardware used in professional video production
is beyond the scope of this book so we focus on the
kind of equipment that could be used by a small
intendant multimedia design company or home
users.
Basic video recording equipment insides either an
analogue or digital video camera and a video capture
card installed in a desktop computer.
Video capture cards are different to graphic display
cards which are not capable of video capture.
Video cameras.

93

 With the right adapters software and hardware

camcorders and digital video cameras can be used to
capture full-motion images.
Although regular camcorders store video on film
digital video cameras store images as digital data.
This enables the digital images to be transferred
directly into the product being created.
Connected quick am to thousands of dollars for
higher-end equipment.
Digital cameras.

94

 Digital cameras allow you to take pictures just

as you would with regular camera but without
film developing and processing.
Unlike regular cameras photographs are not
stored on film but are instead stored in a digital
format on magnetic disk or internal memory.
The photographs can be immediately
recognized by the computer and added to any
multimedia product.
Image scanners.

95

 The last type of input device used in multimedia

development which you should be aware of is
image scanners.
Copies of pictures and photographs ready for
editing and inclusion and multimedia projects.
Scanners digitize already developed images
including photographs drawings pages of text.
Output devices.
The most important output device for
multimedia development and delivery is
monitor.
Thus the guilty of monitors and graphic display
cards that drive them are important
considerations for multimedia developers.
Large monitors do not necessarily mean that
more information can be displayed.
See chapter 8 for an explanation of the meaning
of resolution.
There is one a data projector.
Speakers.
Another crucial output for multimedia
applications are the speakers which provide the
sound outputs.
Speakers are driven by sound cards as
explained in the section.
Most sound cards support the SoundBlaster
standard developed by creative labs and the
general MIDI standard for sound reproduction.
Speakers used with desktop computers usually
require their own power source and built-in
amplifiers.
Printers.
The last type of output device used in
multimedia is the printer.
It is impossible for a printer to exactly match
the on-screen colors however they are helpful in
96

seeing the general look and feel of an

application.
There are two types of color printer laser and
inkjet.
Currently color laser printers have a lower cost
per page than an equivalent inkjet printer.

Question 3: Along with proper diagrams, explain the

different storage devices used in multimedia.
Storage:
Multimedia products require much greater storage
capacity than text-based data.
All multimedia authors soon learn that huge drives are
essential for the enormous files used in multimedia
and audiovisual creation floppy diskettes really arent
useful for storing multimedia product.
Even small presentation will quickly consume the 1.44
MB of storage allotted to a high-density diskette.
When purchasing a storage medium, consider the
speed of the device-how fast it can retrieve and save
large files as well as the size of its storage capacity.
Optical disks:
Optical storage officers much higher storage capacity
than magnetic storage.
This make it a much better media for storing and
distributing multimedia products that are full of
graphical, audio, and video files.
In addition, reading data with lasers is more precise.
Therefore, when working with multimedia, optical
storage media such as magneto-optical disks and CDROM is more common than magnetic media.
Digital versatile disk a newer optical storage media
with even greater storage capacity than a CD, will
probably take the place of the other optical media
within the next few years.
97

 CDs:

CD-ROM stands for compact disk read only memory.

A CD-ROM can hold about 650MB of data.
Because CDs provide so much storage capacity, they
are ideal for storing large data files, graphics, sound,
and video.
In addition, interactive components that enable the
user to respond and control the media ensure that the
user will be even more attentive and likely to retain
information.
Because a CD-ROM is the most common type of optical
disk, computers sold today include a CD-ROM drive as
studied equipment.

98

 Therefore, when considering the purchase of a

multimedia computer the important consideration in
regard to the CD-ROM drive is the speed of transfer.
CD-ROM speed is measured in kilobytes per second.
Double speed CD-ROM drive can transfer data at a
rate of 300 KB per second, quadruple speed can
transfer data at of 600 KB per second, and so on up to
24*and higher.
DVDs:
DVD which in some places stands for digital versatile
disk, but really doesnt stand for anything, is newest
and most promising multimedia storage and
distribution technology.
DVD technology offer the greatest potential to
multimedia become its storage capacity is expensive.
DVDs are the same size as CD;s but they offer much
more storage capacity.
DVDs are either single or double sided.
By using more densely packed data pits together with
more closely spaced tracks, DVDs can store
tremendous amounts of data.
DVD disk types and capacities include the following
four:
DVD-5: one layer, one side-max. Capacity
about 4.7GB.
DVD-9: one layer, dual sided-max. Capacity
about 8.5GB.
DVD-10: one layers, one side-max. Capacity
about 9GB.

DVD-18: two layers, dual sided-max. Capacity about 17GB.

Question 4: Discuss in detail about different applications

of multimedia.
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 Application of multimedia
As multimedia becomes one of the hottest craze in the
computing industry, there are a lot of programmers
turning their application into multimedia capable.
1. Film industry:
The film industry is the biggest industry
that is using multimedia application to
improve quality of their production.
A help few major blockbusters such as
terminator 2, lion king and Jurassic park
used multimedia applications hugely.
The stunts developed by the applications
look more breathtaking real.
Several seemingly impossible to shoot
sequences have been created using
multimedia.
2. Music industry:
Multimedia applications play a big role in
the music industry.
The various sounds can be compiled into
one tape and of course, can be edited too.
The CD nowadays has become a very
important media in music industry as its
can hold a lot of sound data.
The applications are designed to suit the
companys need.
A very powerful multimedia music
application sometimes can suggest to us
what exact sounds or music hardware
should be used to improve our songs.
3. Companys presentation:
A multimedia presentation is a great tool to
grab the attention of the audiences.
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 Presentation with music, animated graphics

and video capability, can attract and retain
more audience than a boring presentation.
Presentation can be edited in special
application software and can be inserted
with sound and animation.
The application is specially designed to
fulfill the client.
These types of application will make our
presentation look professional.
Multimedia in the future
Even though it is tough to predict future generally, one
can safely predict that multimedia will become one of
the most powerful and indispensable tools sought by
industries, government and common people?
Voice capability:
Will it be possible to talk with your P.C?
Nothing is impossible as IBM is already trying
to make this possible.
Voice can be recorded in the applications
library and a program will tell the PC what to
respond when receiving that particular
message from users.
For example, you will say to the PC; Open
Mumka.DOC.please and the PC will
recognize that command is to open the
mentioned file, automatically it will open that
file for you.
This technology has been said to improve the
military technology wherein the fighter
planes need no pilot anymore.
The Russians have been working hard on this.
Their test fighter planes are called UMF or
unmanned fighter planes.
Video phone/ conference
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 As far back as the 1964 New York worlds fair.

When AT&T first demonstrated its futuristic
picture phone technology, science fiction fans
and the rest of us have been waiting for the
videophone to arrive in our homes.
The obstacles to producing a viable
commercial product have been formidable
high implementation cost, huge bandwidth
requirements and perhaps most daunting of
all uncertainly about whether the public read
wants to been seen by anyone who happens
to dial their phone number.
You can confer with a panel having members
from everywhere in the world without being
geographically close.
Virtual teacher/class:
No need go to school and get scolded by
your teacher if you forgot to do homework?
The virtual teacher and classroom is
designed to teach you with a teacher in the
PC?
The software will teach you, give an
exercise and show video to make you
understand better.
This is quite helpful as sometimes real
teacher cannot get or fin lost of helpful
tools to assist in their teaching.
Softwares like KBSR science, English and
kemahiran holdup are good example.
The attractive visuals and sound, along with
greater integration will be able to hold the
attention of learners much better, besides
teaching them PC operation and typing?
Home assistant:
The home assistant is a system that been
designed to help as us to manage the house.
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 The home assistant will use a special

application that connects to the main sever.
This system can recognize home owner by
scanning the persons retina and then door.
The home will be fully controlled by the
computer.
It will also control the air condition depending
on the weather and temperature of the
house.
Home theatre
Home theatre is a few seta of hardware that
connects to the multimedia enabled PC.
It connects to the TV, hi-fi and a few
megawatts speakers.
This to ensure you will have same pleasure
while watching cinema.
As the display is from MPEG card so, the
picture quality will be much better.
What about sound? The speakers that could
be put into four directions will give a real
effect to the sound.
Virtual office:
Virtual office is where you work from home
with the aid of information technology.
ILAN system inc. USA has started this
system.
He or she will publish the through the HOME
PAGE in the internet.
The product will be bought by using credit
card and will be sent to the address of the
buyer.
Second, if youre a SE, you can do any
required programming from home.
It could be a boon to home makers and stay
at home moms, who could contribute to the

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 The

The

work force, bringing up their kids at the

same time.
Cyborg:
Technology could help making a Cyborg that
could replace humans in life diffusion,
besides helping in other dangerous actives
such as fighting wars.
It could be programmed to fly fighter planes,
drive tank, ship and carry out suicide
missions.
smart card:
All the current facilities of credit card, ATM
card, discount card etc. could, in future be
clubbed in one smart card along with you
personal details; giving you access to you
often visited bulging such as home and office.

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