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CLASSICAL

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DATE DUE

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ami

The Legacy of Gre'

"sts,

PRINTED

IN

USA

by
Charles

F.

Baker

III

and

Rosalie

F.

Baker

and Inventors

Dedication
In

Joseph and

grateful appreciation to our parents,

Rose

and Charles and Carol

Ferreira

guidance through the

years.

i/

I
A

Baker, for their

special note of thanks goes to

Amanda

California State Polytechnic University at

for

the time she spent reviewing the

ABOUT THE COVER: Photograph by

A. A.M.

Podany,

Pomona,
text.

van der Heyden. Please see page

42.

No part of this book may be reproduced

mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or
by any information storage or retrieval system, without the written permission of the publisher, except where
permitted by law. The only exception is the reproduction of pages for classroom use (maximum 30 copies
Copyright

1993 by Cobblestone Publishing.

or transmitted in

any form

or

Inc. All rights reserved.

by any means, electronic

or

each).

Cobblestone

Publishing, Inc.

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Manufactured

in

the United States of America

ISBN 0-942389-07-7

All

photographs by

A. A.M.

van der Heyden except

NY.: 25, 89; courtesy Charles

F.

Baker

III

for

Comstock

Inc

/Georg

Gerster: 13; Scala/Art Resource.

48-49, 64-65, 67, 102. Alinari/Art Resource, N.Y.: 62; photo by

Gary

Layda. courtesy Metro Parks. Nashville. TN: 63; courtesy Museum of Fine Arts. Boston, Catharine Page Perkins
Fund. 95.21 77; The Metropolitan Museum of Art: 78 top (Gift of El Conde de Lagunillos, 956.56.49. ), 78 bot1

tom (Rogers Fund. 1907 07 286

Sardis. 1914.14.30.26),

84). 78-79,

79 bottom

79 top (Bequest of Walter

1931.31.11.10)

Copy-edited by Barbara Jatkola

Design by Ann C. Webster
Design Coordination by Brenda Ellis
Illustrations by Annette Cate
Maps by Coni Porter
Typesetting by Rosalie Ferreira
Printing and binding by Semline, Inc.

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Foreword

Maps

CHAPTER 1
The Seven Wonders of the Ancient World

CHAPTERS
The Classical Temple

32

CHAPTER 3
Ancient

Artists

and

Their Crafts

60

CHAPTER 4
Rome's Ingenious Engineers

86

CHAPTER 5
Greek
Cross

Creativity

110

Companion

140

Reading

141

Further

Teacher's Guide

143

Index

155

San Rafaef
110C

Pufcffc Lfbrary

"Life

There

rushes from within, not from without.

is

no work of

that

it

was not

in

some

art so big or so beautiful

all

once contained

youthful body."

Willa Cather (1873-1947), American novelist, The Song of the Lark

FOREWORD

Too

often periods in history are studied as sep-

arate units that are unrelated to other periods

The same happens with cultures

and civilizations. As a result, it is difficult for students to see how each period affects, and in many
ways fosters, future events. This book aims to make
students aware of the extent to which the artists,
in history.

and inventors of the ancient Mediterranean world have influenced their successors
architects,

through the ages.

Chapter 1 introduces the Seven Wonders of
the Ancient World, structures that inspired other
ancients

whose

creations

we now

imitate.

Chapters

2 and 4 focus on the architectural accomplishments

Greeks and Romans, while Chapter 3

features ancient artists and sculptors. All three chapters compare and contrast the two ancient cultures
(Greece and Rome) and then explain how craftsmen
in the Western world have imitated their predecessors. Chapter 5 focuses on the inventive genius of
of the ancient

the Greeks.

Each chapter contains a

series of puzzles that will

test students' retention of the material

presented.

The Companion section of each chapter and the

Cross Companion at the end of the book introduce
questions aimed at encouraging readers to see comparisons and contrasts both in ancient times and
between ancient and modern times.
A note on spelling: We have followed the Greek
spelling in the transliteration of Greek names and
the Latin spelling in the transliteration of

Roman

names. For example, Halikarnassos is spelled with a

k and an os as it would have been by the Greeks. Its
Latin equivalent

is

Halicarnassus. Exceptions:

We

chose to keep the c in Acropolis, Crete, Corinth, and

Pericles and the c and us in Croesus to conform to
the present-day English spelling of these names.

Venice

Apennines

V'\

Strait of

Messina
.Carthage

Morocco

r.

Tunisia

Acrillae^

V.\-.

\Ani o

River

A".

HerculaneuinV^
Mti Vesuvius'"}*
Pompeii A
'

'

Herakleia

o
'
.

J.

Athens

Attica

Peloponnesos
''

Sparta

'

Salamis^jtSftjm

.'C^p^u^i.

Crete V<N*t:

'$^ L&dbs'
Rhodes

^^^^^^Ml

Me

Vegean World

maps by Coni

Porter

"Great deeds need great preparations."

Heliodoros, third-century A.D. Greek writer

ARTICLES
The Great Pyramid of Khufu
C.

THE

2500 B.C.

Wonders
Philon 's choices became the accepted wonders
Philon's

List

of

SEVEN

of antiquity.

The Hanging Gardens of Babylon

Sixth

century

13

b.c.

The Statue of Zeus at Olympia

Fifth

century

15

b.c.

ANCIENT

The Mausoleum at Halikarnassos

350s

b.c.

WORLD

The Temple of Artemis at Ephesos

Completed 323

WONDERS
OF THE

b.c.

The Pharos of Alexandria

Completed c. 270 b.c.

The Colossos of Rhodes

Begun 304 b.c.

PROJECT
Time Line of Ancient Wonders

PUZZLE PAGES
Crossword Puzzle

aid

29

T:JAPT ER
Sight

Common Neighb

COMPANION

31

pyramids constructed
by kings of Egypt, the Great
Pyramid of the pharaoh Khufu (called Cheops
by the Greeks) is located at Giza on the West Bank
of the Nile River. Although
most of the stones were taken
from nearby quarries, some
came from across the Nile and
other, more distant quarries.
The workers used no machinlargest of three

Thearound 2500

THE

GREAT PYRAMID
OF KHUFU

B.C.

ery or iron tools, only copper

and saws,

chisels

to cut the

huge limestone blocks. Thousands of other workers, their

bent backs glistening with

sweat under the hot Egyptian

sun, dragged the blocks to the
site at Giza.

of stones

After the

was

first

layer

in place, the

workers built ramps of earth

and bricks and dragged the
stones up the ramps to form
the next layer. As they completed each layer, they raised and
lengthened the ramps, until
finally the last stone

was

in

place.

This entire mass, which covers 13 acres, contains approxi-

mately 2.3 million blocks of

limestone, each weighing about
2 1/2 tons (5,000 pounds).

When

the outer coat of gleam-

ing white casing stone

intact, the

was

still

pyramid reached a

height of 481 feet.

Near the Great Pyramid at Giza, the Great

Sphinx, built during the reign of Khufu's son

Khafre

(c.

2575-c. 2465

B.C.),

has

come to

represent the Egypt of the pharaohs. The

symbol of ancient Egyptian royalty, the sphinx

took the form of a crouching lion with paws
outstretched. Its head was a portrait statue
of the king responsible for

10

its

construction.

When

Herodotos, a fifth-century

rian, visited the

later,

B.C.

Greek

histo-

Great Pyramid two thousand years

he wrote:

The causeway, the works on the mound where the

pyramid

stands,

and the underground burial cham-

The pyramid took twenty

years. Square at the base and with a height equal to the
length of each side, the pyramid is of polished
stone blocks beautifully fitted together. Not one
bers took ten years to build.

of the blocks

is

less

was made from

turned the

site into

than thirty feet long.

the Nile, the water from

OF WONDERS

an island.

Herodotos also commented that such a

massive structure could have been built only

by slave

labor:
Egyptians were forced to drag blocks of

Some

PHILON'S LIST

canal

which

stone from the quarries in the Arabian hills

During the

second century B.C., an advanced

student of applied mechanics named
Philon wrote a much-celebrated work titled The
Seven Wonders of the World. As he was a native
of the Greek city of Byzantium, historians refer
to him as Philon of Byzantium. His list of engineering marvels, although different in some
cases from those mentioned by other ancient
writers, became the accepted wonders of later
1

The blocks were then ferried across

and taken over by other laborers, who hauled
them to the Libyan hills. The work continued in
three-month shifts, a hundred thousand men to
to the Nile.

a shift.

It

took ten years of this oppressive labor

to build the track along

hauled a work,

in

which the blocks were

my opinion,

magnitude than the pyramid

of hardly less

itself.

its

Great Pyramid in

of Babylon, the temple of Artemis at Ephesos,

The three-month shifts that Herodotos

mentions took place during the time that the
Nile River flooded

banks, fertilizing the

the statue of Zeus at Olympia, the

at Halikarnassos, the

work from being done. During

months,

many

these

Egyptians were free to work

on the royal tombs.

The Egyptian belief that an individual's
body had to be preserved and protected so

was the drivbehind the tombs. The Egyptians

that the soul could live forever

ing force

Mausoleum

Colossos of Rhodes, and

the lighthouse on the island of Pharos.

In recognition of the outstanding engineering

surrounding land but preventing any agricultural

wonders included the

Egypt, the Hanging Gardens

generations. Philon's

capabilities of the ancients, in this chapter

we

focus on Philon's seven wonders.

When the Roman emperor Constantine made Byzantium the
new capital of the Roman Empire, he changed the name of the
1

city to

Constantinople. Today

it is

known as

Istanbul,

principal city

of Turkey.

not only built colossal stone structures to

shelter

and protect the bodies of

but they also developed great

corpses.

Through the

their pharaohs,

embalming
archaeologists and

skill at

centuries,

historians have uncovered countless

mummified

remains of humans and animals.

1
Since the completion of the Aswan High Dam in 1 970, the annual
flooding of the Nile has been controlled mechanically.
.

11

KHUFU'S BOAT
Khufu's body were treasures of gold and precious objects that filled
the chambers with the wealth he would need in the hereafter. Also buried with
Khufu was a 141-foot boat made from the cedars of Lebanon (wood so strong that it

Entombed with

resisted even the

sel

was

to

worm

borers of the Nile River) and steered with 26-foot oars. This ves-

provide Khufu with transportation

being buried in a special airtight pit

voyage through eternity. Before

beside the pyramid, the vessel was dismantled and
for his

the 1,224 pieces

instructions for

were marked with shipwrights'

reassembly. Today the 4,000-year-

old reassembled boat stands in a

museum

next to

the Great Pyramid.

Even the pyramid shape had a religious meaning.

The Egyptians thought that the sloping sides were
like the slanting rays of the sun and would help the
king's soul as it climbed to the sky and life among
the gods in the hereafter.
Inside the Great Pyramid, a passageway leads

from an entrance on one side of the structure to several rooms within. The room originally planned as
the pharaoh's burial chamber became the Queen's
Chamber, although no queen was buried there.
Khufu had the King's Chamber constructed at the
end of a corridor 153 feet long and 28 feet high.
Called the Grand Gallery, this corridor
In

1954,

a young architect-archaeologist

named Kamal

el-Mallakh (standing next to the reconstructed boat)

the project director of a road being

Their find

was Khufu's boat.

to

be one of the great

is

considered

feats of ancient

was

near the Great

Pyramid. Convinced that the irregular placement of the
southern bounaary wall of the pyramid meant a possible
burial site, he persuaded others to begin excavating the site.
built

by many

architecture.

Unfortunately, ancient Egyptian

tomb robbers

ravaged the Great Pyramid centuries after Khufu's

They stole the treasures of the mighty

pharaoh and even his sacred, mummified body. As
death.

the years passed, most of the white outer casing

was stripped from the sides of the Great

Pyramid and used in the construction of other
tombs and temples. Still, the pyramid at Giza
remains a monument to the skill and devotion of an
ancient people whose extraordinary achievement
has been admired throughout the ages.
stone

12

Babylon

remembered

best

is

for the artfully

designed gardens that towered above the

city.

Although no remains of these gardens have

been found, according to tradition,

Nebuchadrezzar II, king of Babylon
(605-562 B.C.), had the gardens built to
please his queen, who was homesick
for the cool, mountainous land of

THE
HANGING

her birth, the kingdom of Media (an

ancient country located in present-day

northwestern

Iran).

These gardens

were not actually "hanging" gardens

but overhanging balconies, or terraces,

were part

that

of a roof garden that

soared high above the

city.

GARDENS
OF BABYEON

The approximately

three-hundred-

fifty-foot-high struc-

ture comprised huge

terraces planted

with

tier after tier

and
above an

of trees, shrubs,

flowers set

enormous vaulted
superstructure. In

the

century

first

B.C.,

the

Greek

his-

torian Diodoros

wrote that "the garden was four hundred feet square and
surrounded by battlements and bulwarks. The ascent

was similar to that

which goes to the
top of a mountain....

Under the

steps of

the ascent

were

arches, one above the another, rising gently

by

degrees. These arches supported the entire plantation.

The arch upon which the platform was

was an

laid

incredible eighty feet high."

Although archaeologists have not yet uncovered any

traces of the Hanging Gardens, remains of foundation
chambers and vaults that could have supported
pumps and other equipment necessary to supply the
for such a garden have been uncovered
what was ancient Babylon's palace.

water

in

Diodoros also noted that the base of the garden

13

BABYLON
Babylon was

once the most splendid

city of the ancient East.

Approximately two

thousand years before the birth of Christ, Babylon was the capital of Hammurabi,
the great conqueror and lawgiver. Hundreds of years later, Babylon rose to glory under
King Nebuchadrezzar II, who rebuilt the city and extended its mighty fortifications.
Many ancients considered the massive walls that surrounded the city as one of the
wonders of the world. When the Greek writer and traveler Herodotos visited Babylon
he claimed that the walls were fifty-five miles long, eighty feet thick,
and three hundred twenty feet high walls upon which a four-horse chariot could turn.
in

about 450

B.C.,

was made

huge stones covered with reeds,

asphalt, and a layer of tiles. These layers were covered with sheets of lead, which prevented the moisture that seeped through the top layer of earth from
of

rotting the foundation.

Quintus Curtius, a

Roman

traveler in the first cen-

tury a.d., described trees twelve feet in circumfer-

ence and

fifty feet

high shading the gardens: "The

ascent to the highest story of the gardens

is

by

stairs,

and at their side are water engines, by means of

which workers, appointed expressly for the purpose,
are continually employed in raising water from the
Euphrates River which flows through Babylon into
the gardens. " Water then fell over the vegetation and
dripped in front of windows, creating cool rooms
within an ancient form of air conditioning.
Building this architectural wonder was no easy
task. The stones that supported the enormous
weight of the earth needed for the gardens had to be
hauled from great distances. Building materials were
usually manmade bricks and tiles.
In the fifth century B.C., Babylon was conquered
by the Persian king Cyrus. Although accounts of the
conquest differ, one writer stated that Cyrus was
aided by traitors from within the massive walls surrounding Babylon, the most protected city of the
ancient world. According to Herodotos, Cyrus
diverted the waters of the Euphrates River so that
his soldiers could enter the city along the riverbed.

Whatever the actual story may be, Babylon's walls

and its towering gardens gradually deteriorated.
14

the fifth-century

B.C. city-state

of

Elis,

in the

Innorthwestern corner of the Greek peninsula

known as the Peloponnesos, a temple was erected
a statue of Zeus, the mightiest of all the
house
to
Greek gods. In ancient times, worshipers from every district in Greece
traveled to this area and the nearby
Olympia every four years

plain of

THE STATUE

to

Zeus in a contest
of sports. A truce was proclaimed
throughout the Greek world so that

pay special tribute

friend

and enemy

to

alike could

safely to the events,

as the
at

known

Olympic Games, and

OF ZEUS
AT OEYMPIA

journey

collectively
to

worship

the shrine of Zeus.

The

great temple at the site

architect Libon of Elis.

It

was

was designed by
built

on a high

the

plat-

form, with thirteen large columns along each side

and

six

on each end supporting a roof of gleaming

white marble. Detailed sculptures covered most of

the building's exterior.

The eastern pediment

(a

low-

pitched triangular section) above the front entrance

showed a

quiet scene

from the Greek

tale of Pelops, a

legendary king of Asia Minor, and Oenomaos, a king

who

ruled over the Greek cities of Elis and Pisa.

The

western pediment over the rear entrance depicted a

scene from the battle between the Centaurs (creatures that are half-man, half-horse)
(a

and the Lapiths

mythical mountain tribe of northern Greece).

The crowning achievement, however, was the statue of Zeus within, which was created by the greatest
Greek sculptor, Pheidias of Athens. Six hundred years
later, the well-known Greek geographer and traveler
Pausanias visited the area and told of the divine statue seated on a majestic throne. Resting on a stone
pedestal three feet high and twenty-two feet wide,
the statue rose to a height of nearly forty feet and
occupied a large part of the temple's central
Pausanias also wrote in
according to tradition,

Guide

when

Pheidias prayed to Zeus to

to

Greece that,

the statue

make

aisle.

a sign

was
if

finished,

the

work

pleased him, and immediately a flash of lightning

struck the pavement at the very spot

urn

still

where

a bronze

stood in Pausanias 's time.

15

Fashioned by Pheidias and his attendants in a work-

shop near the temple, the statue was made of chryselephantine (ivory and plates of gold fastened to a
1

wooden framework) To prevent

.

ing in Olympia's

with

oil

damp

the ivory from crack-

kept in a pool in the temple

was made

was treated
The throne

climate, the statue

floor.

of cedar covered with gold

ebony, ivory, and precious stones.

and

On the

inlaid

with

legs of the

throne were figures of Nike, the Greek goddess of vic-

The arms were formed by sphinxes clutching

2
their Theban victims. The slaughter of Niobe's family
by two of Zeus's children, Apollo and Artemis, 3 was
tory.

represented along the edge of the

the throne

seat.

On

the back of

were the Graces and the Horae. 5

Zeus was depicted with his uplifted right hand

holding a gold and ivory figurine of Nike. In his left
hand was a scepter inlaid with precious metals and
supporting an eagle. Eyes of brilliant stones shone
forth from a face of ivory framed with wavy hair and
a beard of solid gold. Zeus's feet, clad in sandals of

which was guarded by

two golden lions. On the front of the stool was a representation of the battle between the Greek hero
Theseus and the fearless nation of female warriors
known as the Amazons. A mantle, also of gold and
decorated with animals and flowers, flowed across
gold, rested

on a

footstool,

Zeus's ivory shoulders.

The great beauty of tr^is wonder of the ancient

world not only increased the Greeks' devotion to
Zeus as king of the gods but also added another
aspect to his power over mortals: It brought peace
to the minds of troubled men. Sometime during the
fifth century a.d., approximately one thousand years
after its construction, the statue of Zeus at Olympia

was
1

destroyed.

The remains of Pheidias's workshop were discovered

in

the 1950s.

On a

rock near the entrance to the Greek city-state of Thebes sat a

sphinx, a creature with the body of a winged lion and the breast and
head of a maiden. The sphinx asked every passer-by the same riddle:
"What walks on four legs in the morning, two at noon, and three in the
evening?" If the person answered incorrectly, the sphinx flung him or her
2.

When the Greek king Oedipus answered "a

the sphinx flung herself from the rock.

from the rock.

human

being,"

3. Because the mortal Niobe had dared to compare her family to that of
the immortal Leto, the mother of the twin deities Apollo and Artemis,
Niobe and her family were punished with death.

16

4.

The Graces were the goddesses of grace, charm, and beauty.

5.

The Horae were the goddesses of order

in

nature

and the

seasons.

353

Mausolos, king of Karia, an area

B.C.,

Inbordering the Aegean Sea in southwestern Asia

Minor (present-day Turkey),
to

succeed him, his wife, Artemisia

Artemis, the

name

of the

With no

died.
(a

heirs

derivative of

Greek god-

became the next

it was the custom for
the rulers of this kingdom to marry
their own sisters, Artemisia also was
dess of the hunt),

Mausolos 's

The

THE
MAUSOLEUM

As

ruler of Karia.

sister.

grief-stricken Artemisia resolved

honor her dead husband with a

magnificent tomb. She sent emissaries
to Greece to find the finest architects,
sculptors, and craftsmen and invite

71

to

them

Few could

./\. _L

HALIKARNASSOS

to Halikarnassos, the city that

Mausolos had

'

built as his capital.

resist the

challenge to

design and construct the most splendid

tomb humans

had ever seen. Renowned architects such as

Satyros and Pythios and sculptors such as Skopas,
Timotheos, Bryaxis, and Leochares sailed from
Greece across the Aegean Sea to Halikarnassos at the
or gods

bidding of Artemisia. Their goal

ument

that

would be known

design, the richness of

its

was

for the

to create a

beauty of

sculptures,

and

its

mon-

its

superb

craftsmanship.

Queen Artemisia died in 351 B.C.,

tomb was completed. The artists, however, were so devoted to their work that they chose to
stay and finish it. The first-century a.d. Roman hisUnfortunately,

before the

torian Pliny the Elder wrote that the sculptors

remained
skill."

"for their

And

a record of their

so there rose above the city of

Halikarnassos a
to her

own fame and

monument

to Artemisia as well as

husband.

The Mausoleum soared one hundred

forty feet

above a large rectangular courtyard. In the center, a

high stone platform

was

accessible

by a

flight of

marble stairs guarded by majestic sculptured lions.

A second platform was enclosed by a wall on which
there were sculptured standing figures of gods and
goddesses. At each corner were statues of warriors
on prancing horses.
Rising from this platform was the rectangular
17

which the bodies of Mausolos and

Artemisia lay. The base of the chamber was decorated with sculptured reliefs, and above it rose thirty-six
Ionic columns made of marble, nine to a side, supporting a pyramid of twenty-four steps that seemed
to be suspended in midair. Crowning the flat-topped
pyramid was a marble chariot drawn by four enormous horses, with the standing figures of Mausolos
and Artemisia as passengers.
marble tomb

in

around the lower part

battling Greeks and
Amazons, Centaurs fighting Lapiths, and an intense
chariot race. Every scene portrayed a sense of restless
movement. The sun's rays reflected on the structure's glistening white marble and on the statues and
friezes painted in the Greek fashion: Flesh was colored red; draperies were gold, blue, green, and white;
and the warriors' weapons and the trappings of their
horses were of gleaming gilt bronze.
This wonder of the ancient world survived for
more than fifteen hundred years, witnessing the
arrival of Alexander the Great, the dominance of
Rome, the attacks of pirates, and the alternating invasions of the Crusaders and the Turks. At the beginThree sculptured

of the

friezes

Mausoleum depicted

ning of the fifteenth century, earthquakes shattered

the columns of the

with

its

Mausoleum and

chariot, riders,

Many marble

sent the pyramid,

and horses, crashing down.

blocks were carried off to be ground

powder to provide lime for plastering. Fortunately, some sculptures were not destroyed and eventually were preserved in museums.
Although Artemisia's monument to her husband no
into

longer stands in

its

stately glory overlooking the city

Mausolos is still honored today, for

his name has passed into contemporary usage in the
term "mausoleum," meaning any magnificent tomb.
of Halikarnassos,

18

temple of Artemis at Ephesos, a city on

the west coast of Asia Minor (present-day
Turkey), was larger and more splendid than

The

famed Parthenon in Athens,

Greece. The second-century Greek
traveler and geographer Pausanias
the

observed that

"it

THE TEMPLE

surpassed every

by human hands."
The first of five shrines erected on
this site for the worship of the ancient
mother goddess of Asia was a primistructure raised

tive tree shrine built in

800

B.C.

In 700

B.C.,

approximately

a stone building

OF ARTEMIS

AT EPHESOS

was constructed over and around it.

This shrine was destroyed in 660 B.C. by invading
European tribes. The structure was rebuilt, only to
be destroyed again and replaced in 600 B.C. by a
third temple of fine limestone with a porch of two

columns facing west.

As Ephesos was one of the most prosperous cities
in Asia Minor, its citizens were determined to
rebuild the deteriorating shrine on a more magnificent scale. Neighboring states aided the Ephesians,

with Croesus, the rich king of Lydia in Asia Minor,

contributing most of the columns. The new temple,
constructed of white marble and surrounded by
Ionic columns, was four times the size of its predecessor. Years later, in

named

356

B.C.,

Herostratos burned

attempt to

make

name

young Ephesian

down

this

temple in an

for himself.

Again the citizens of Ephesos began the process

of rebuilding.

Out

of respect for Artemis, various

kings presented columns for the

the

women

new

temple, and

of Ephesos sold their jewels to raise

The Macedonian ruler Alexander the Great

offered to pay the cost of the reconstruction if the
Ephesians would let him dedicate the monument
in his name. The Ephesians tactfully declined this
funds.

1
The Greek Artemis and the Asiatic mother goddess Artemis were not
the same. The Greek colonists who settled in the area ana later the
Roman conauerors so closely iaentified their Artemis (the Roman Diana)
with the Artemis of the Ephesians that the Greek and Roman aeities
adopted many characteristics of the Ephesian goddess. One belief that
aia not change was the iaea that the Ephesian Artemis was a mother
goadess, symbolized by her egglike breasts, whereas the Greek Artemis
and the Roman Diana were represented as maiden goddesses who
roamea the woods, not the homes and cities built by people.
.

19

by replying
one god could

offer

that

not dedicate a
:-?hA

temple to another.
The temple was
finished in 323

measured
425 feet long and
225 feet wide and
had 127 columns,
B.C. It

each 60 feet high

and 36 of them
richly sculptured.

The huge roof was

constructed of

planks of cedar,

and the doors

were made of
Cyprus. The firstcentury A.D.

Roman

historian

Pliny the Elder

wrote that most

writers believed

the statue within

was made

of

ebony. Pliny also

mentioned that
the staircase leading to the roof

was constructed
from a single vine that had been imported from the
Aegean island of Cyprus. (Vines reportedly grew to
an extraordinarily large size on that island.)
The placing of the roof beams on top of the
columns was a feat in itself. Workers hauled the
beams up ramps made of sandbags that were piled
higher than the columns. As the sand was released
from the lower bags, the beams settled permanently
into place.

This

immense monument

dess took

many

to a

years to complete.

not only for the splendor of

its

It

became known

architecture and dec-

orations but also for the richness

20

much-revered god-

and beauty

of the

treasures within. Nations from

all

over Asia contin-

Since the late 1800s, excavators have

ued

to deposit their riches

art in the

and precious works of

temple for as long as the cult of Artemis

and

been uncover-

ancient Ephesos. The

remains show that several temples were constructed
on the same site. Visitors to Ephesos today can walk
ing fragments

artifacts in

along the ancient streets, imagining the grandeur

and beauty of this once bustling metropolis.

prevailed.

In a.d. 262, during the reign of the

Roman emper-

was plundered and burned

by invading Goths from northern Europe. It was
or Gallienus, the temple

A new religion, Christianity, had

been gaining strength and had begun to draw followers from the worshipers of Artemis. Eventually,
never restored.

Christianity

Roman

became

the official religion of the

Empire.

21

525 B.C., the Persian king Cambyses attacked

and conquered Egypt. Egypt won its independence from Persian control in 404 B.C., but only
until 343 B.C., when Egyptian troops were defeated

In

by another Persian
Artaxerxes

THE PHAROS
OF ALEXANDRIA

332

in

B.C.,

III.

the

king,

decade

later,

Macedonian

king Alexander the Great

entered Egypt. The Persian

satrap (governor) surrendered

mighty Alexander with-

to the

out a battle, and Egypt became

part of Alexander's empire.

Alexander planned a new

city to replace the old Egyptian
capital of Memphis. He chose
a site at the western end of the
Nile Delta and

named

Alex-

it

He wanted his city built

on a mile-and-a-half-wide strip
of land between the Mediterranean Sea and Lake Mareotis.
andria.

Alexander reasoned that the

new
it

would give
two harbors, making it a
city's position

principal port serving the sea

trade as well as that of the Nile

Of the eighteen Alexandrias founded by Alexander,

this settlement in Egypt would
endure and become a rich cenRiver.

ter of culture.

Alexander asked the famous

architect Deinokrates of
to design his glorious
lis.

Streets

were

Rhodes

metropo-

laid out in

an

orderly manner, and a splendid

boulevard one hundred feet

wide and lined with columns

ran the length of the

city.

Huge

parks, magnificent palaces, a

to

22

The Egyptians had dug a series of canals

connect Lake Mareotis with the Nile.

THE WORD PHAROS'

Constructed

of gleaming white marble, the lighthouse at Alexandria

stood on the island of Pharos in the city's harbor, hence

its

name

the

Pharos of Alexandria. Through the centuries, the word "pharos" has been
adopted in different forms as the word for "lighthouse" in several languages. In Latin, a lighthouse

is

pharus; in French,

it is

phare; in Italian

and Spanish, it is faro; in Portuguese, it is farol; and, until

was used in English to refer to a lighthouse or beacon.

zoo, a

museum, and

a library that

recently,

pharos

would become the

repository for scholars throughout the ancient world

were included
be a

in the plans. Egypt's Alexandria

monument

to the creator of

was

to

an empire.

But in 323 B.C., before his dreams could come

true, Alexander died unexpectedly in Babylon.
Ptolemy Soter, a Macedonian Greek general and
Alexander's successor as ruler of Egypt, carried on
the

scheme

years

initiated

when

later,

by

his predecessor. Several

the city

was completed, Ptolemy

had the remains of the great conqueror placed in

a coffin of gold and laid to rest in a mausoleum of
great beauty. (The coffin was replaced by one made
of glass a century

Around 290

later.)

B.C.,

Ptolemy Soter started planning

the construction of a lighthouse to guide ships

toward the harbor of Alexandria. He died in

283/2

B.C.,

before the project

was completed. The

towering landmark, designed by Sostrates of Knidos,

was completed

in about

280

B.C.

under Ptolemy

Ptolemy Philadelphus.
The lighthouse, with its many stories, each smaller than the one below it, soared almost six hundred
feet into the sky. The marble blocks were welded
together with molten lead instead of cement so the
building would withstand the constant pounding
of the water. The base was a heavy stone platform
upon which was built a massive square building
that housed numerous government offices, military
barracks, and stables for several hundred horses.
The next level contained a broad balcony where
Soter's son,

Opposite:

On

the

beach near

Alexanaria, the

remains of an old pharos, identical in shape

to the famed Pharos of Alexandria, still stands
guard.

23

TAIX TA1ES
were told of the capabilities of the Pharos of
exaggerated
Many
or polished metal mirror
was said that a huge
Alexandria.
tales

glass

It

helped send beams

of light far out to sea.

also

It

was

said that the Pharos

enemy ships afire by reflecting the rays of the sun god's flaming
Some people claimed that anyone who looked into the mirror

could set
chariot.

could see as far as Byzantium, in Asia Minor (present-day Istanbul,

Turkey). Although these tales

may be

false,

it is

certain that this beacon

was the most powerful ever created and continued

to guide ships into the

harbor for hundreds of years.

refreshments were sold to

tourists.

Another balcony,

about three hundred or four hundred feet higher,

became the lookout point for sightseers. The final

hundreds of feet above sea level, was

cylindrical in shape and contained a beacon chamber at the summit where a fire burned continuously
in a great brazier (metal pan). Horses carried fuel up
an inclined plane that gradually ascended the lower
section, rising

half of the tower.

The

top through a central

(a

drum

or cylinder

was then hoisted to the

shaft by means of a windlass
fuel

wound with

rope and turned

with a crank).

As the centuries passed, Alexandria's fame grew

throughout the ancient world. Even after the death
of Cleopatra VII (a Ptotemy descendant) in 30 B.C.,
when Egypt became a province of Rome, Alexandria
continued to be one of the world's most respected
intellectual centers. With the breakup of the Roman
Empire in the fourth century a.d. and the subsequent collapse of Rome in the next century, the city
lost its prominence. When Egypt fell under Arab
control in the seventh century, the capital moved
from Alexandria to Cairo. Yet the lighthouse stood

and architectural
capabilities of ancient civilizations until sometime
around 1375, when an earthquake destroyed it.
as a

24

landmark

to the engineering

the Macedonian command304

305
FromDemetrios
attacked the island
Rhodes
to

B.C.,

of

er

in

the Aegean Sea. In spite of Demetrios's hun-

dreds of ships, tens of thousands of men, and huge

war machines, the determination and

courage of the Rhodians finally forced

him

to

withdraw. As an offering of

thanks to the sun god, Helios, the

protecting deity of the island, the

Rhodians raised a colossal statue in

his honor. Tradition says that the stat-

In

THE coiossos
OF RHODES

artists were captivated by ancient art and

incorporated representations of past works into their own
as illustrated by this tapestry of the Coiossos now hanging in

the 17th century, European

sculpture.

Many

works of art,
the Louvre Museum

in Paris.

25

ue was made entirely of the bronze obtained from

the siege artillery that Demetrios left behind.
Chares of Lindos, a Rhodian sculptor who had
helped defend his city, was asked to design and construct

what was

to

become known

as the Colossos,

the largest bronze statue ever made.

mer

He was

pupil of Lysippos's, the only sculptor

a for-

whom

Alexander the Great had commissioned to fashion

his official statues.

Chares cleverly used the captured siege tower as

columns were erected as the main

supports of the statue, and iron struts extended out
of them to support the statue's bronze skin. The
large bronze plates were cast and hammered into
shape by craftsmen who were skilled at producing
the body armor and greaves (leg armor) for Greek
warriors. These plates were then riveted together
and to a skeleton of iron rods. This was done only
after Chares had personally inspected each plate.
The heavy plates were hauled into place following
the same principles the Egyptian pyramid builders
had used twenty-two centuries earlier. Chares built
a mound of earth around the Colossos that grew to a
height of one hundred twenty feet. The workers carried the bronze plates into position up a ramp just as
the Egyptians had dragged the huge stones onto the
tombs of the ancient pharaohs.
After Helios 's crown vof spiked rays was riveted
into place, the mound of earth was shoveled away,
the bronze skin polished, and the scaffold removed.
A majestic figure measuring sixty feet around the
chest, eleven feet around the thighs, and five feet
around the ankles now stood at the entrance to the
a scaffold. Stone

harbor of Rhodes, a

monument

to the Rhodians'

hard- won freedom.

Unfortunately, the Colossos stood for only

six years,

when an

earthquake brought

down. Through the

made
lay

crashing

years, several attempts

were

to reerect the statue, but all efforts failed.

where

it

fell

for eight

sold as scrap metal.

26

it

fifty-

hundred years

until

it

It

was

PROJECT

TIME LINE OF
ANCIENT WONDERS
You Need

i\&$ps

ruler

pencil

piece of blue construction paper measuring 24 by 18 inches

black felt-tip marker
crayons or paints (tan, green, yellow, white, maroon, orange, and
brown)

1.

With a

ruler

and

pencil,

divide the construction

paper

lengthwise into nine 2-inch-

wide rows.
Use the black marker to
darken the lines dividing the

2.

rows.

Across the top row, print or

write "Time Line of Ancient

3.

Wonders" with the marker.

4. Measure 4 inches from the
left

side of the construction

paper. Draw a vertical

and darken
5.

it

line

with the marker.

Divide the remaining 20

inches into twenty -inch-wide

columns. Darken the lines with
the marker.
1

6. In

the

first

column

of the

second row, write "Ancient

Wonder" with the marker.
7. Using the marker and
beginning with the line marking the first column, write, in
chronological order above
each line in the second row,
the following dates: 2500,
2275,2050, 1825, 1600, 1375,

1550, 1775, 2000. (Note:

pointing

right.

the 4-inch column on the

chronological
order, the name of each

9. In
left,

write, in

wonder and the

it

city

L(N

orANaemwoNDE^

where

stood:

Great Pyramid, Giza

Hanging Gardens, Babylon

Statue of Zeus, Olympia

Mausoleum, Halikarnassos

Temple

of Artemis,

Ephesos

Pharos, Alexandria

Colossos,

10.

Rhodes

Reread each

article

and

when the construction of

each wonder began. Mark

find

the date in pencil in the

appropriate box opposite the

wonder's name.
1 1
Find the date when each
wonder was finally destroyed

1150,925, 700,475, 250, 25,

and mark

200,425,650,875, 1100, 1325,

ate box.

illustrated

Each

block represents a period of

225 years.)
8. Above the block separating
the numbers 25 and 200, write
"B.C." with an arrow pointing
left and "A.D." with an arrow

by Annette Cate

If

in the approprithe wonder still

that

TIMELINE

OFMCIE

stands, put

an arrow pointing

the last box.

12. Using crayons or paints,
color in the period of time durright in

which each wonder existed. The color used represents

one of the construction mateing

rials used:

Pyramid: tan for the limestone

Gardens: green

for

the trees

and

Zeus: yellow for the gold

Mausoleum: white

maroon

make

the

for

for

the marble

orange

Colossos:

for

brown

the flame

for

the bronze

You might want to add a

symbol that shows the
destruction of the wonder. A
zigzag would mean a natural
disaster, such as an earthquake; a bow and arrow
would mean human intervention, such as war.
13.

Compare

the lengths of
time the wonders stood and
how they met their ends.
14.

plants

Artemis:

Pharos:

the vine used to

stairs

MAKE A LEGEND
You might want to add a legend to explain the colors used to
represent each wonder and the symbols used to represent the
means of destruction.
3.

^\^

columns.
4. On the second row, write
"Name of Wonder," "Color
and Symbol," and "Explanation of Color and Symbol" in
marker over columns 1, 2, and

You Need
ruler

pencil

piece of blue construction

paper measuring 6 by 4 1 /2
inches
black felt-tip marker

crayons
1.

With the

ruler

and

pencil,

divide the construction

paper

/2-inch-wide horizontal
rows. Darken the lines with the

into

marker.

Across the top, write "Legend" with the marker.

2.

Divide the remaining rows

into three 2-inch-wide vertical

3,

respectively.

names

seven
wonders in the first column.
6. Color in the middle column
to correspond to the color
used to represent each wonder. Then add the symbols you
used on the time line.
7. In the third column, add the
reason for the color used and
what the symbol represents.
8. Affix the legend to the back
of the time line or an unused
area on the front.
5.

Fill

in

the

of the

PUZZLE
PAGES

CROSSWORD PUZZLE
DOWN

ACROSS
2.
5.

He
What a mausoleum

designed the Colossos of Rhodes

3.

is

Zeus at Olympia held a statue of her

The patron god of Rhodes
Greek sculptor who worked on Mausolos's

Temple scenes often show these mythical

people fighting with Centaurs
10. Great river in Egypt
1 1. They plundered and burned the temple at
Ephesos
15. Greek sculptors used this color to repre-

4.

sent flesh

9. Latin

7.

16.

6.
7.

Greek historian
One of the colors Greek sculptors used
Olympia

b.c

located on

is

this

material

19.

-month
25.

The opposite of

Greek

It destroyed Pharos
Alexander the Great's coffin was

made

had one

city-state

22.

Greek traveler and geographer

He designed the Pharos

24.

Where pyramids are

27.

Alexander's successor as ruler of Egypt

Egypt became one of its provinces in

21.

B.C.

Used to carry fuel for the Pharos

28. The mightiest of Greek gods
30. Where Lydia and Ephesos were
31 Used to construct Colossos of Rhodes
32. Number of wonders that were tombs
33. Architect who designed Alexandria
26.

36.

made of

of this

shifts

35. Alexandria

Hanging

this

20.

in

of the

King of Babylon
The Mausoleum's columns were

13.

Greek peninsu-

Egyptian pyramid builders worked

writer

14.

for

la

23.

Famed Greek

word for pharos

12. These formed the base
Gardens

draperies
21.

City of Babylon had fifty-five miles of these

The blocks used to build pyramids were

made of this
8.

Spanish word for lighthouses

17. First-century
18.

tomb

29.

30 b.c
34. Used to prevent the
from cracking

of these

where Olympia

is

ivory in Zeus's statue

located

Pyramids housed their remains

38. Where Mausolos ruled
37.

10

11

14

13

12

15

16

17

19

18

20

21

22

25

27

26

28

29

30

33

36

24

23

32

31

35

34

38

37

Answers to these puzzles can be found

in this

chapter and on page

144.

29

PHIEON'S SITES AND SIGHTS

PUZZLE
PAGES

Can you match

the ancient site with the sight(s) located there?

temples were erected to Artemis at

1.

Five

2.

Nebuchadrezzar

who
3.

this city

The people here

for
4.

that

felt

gardens

built

II

was too

built

for his

this site.

aueen,

a statue of

welcomed

Helios

in

ships into this city's har-

of a neighbor

name

common

Giza

d.

Ephesos

e.

Rhodes

f.

Babylon

also.

Khufu

pyramid here.

built his

his name to a monhouse his remains.

of Rhodes is located

gave

This king

built to

The island

2.

3.

of this

Many

to follow
really

at Alexandria

7.

an ancient wonder.

strong that

wood
it

of Khufu's

boat was so

resisted these animals,

(two words)

to

pay special

this

name

to his

new

capital of Egypt.
Her tribute to her husband's

gave the columns

13.

attempt at air conditioning.

14. Two Greek sculptors who went to
work for Artemisia.
statue was made of this.
Two famed sculptors: One was
from Rhodes, and the other was

mem-

16.

from Greece.

2._n
s.
6.
7.

a
a
a

8.

9.

io,

"
12.
13.
14.

15.
i6.

30

for

temple at Ephesos.

of his country?
These were Nebuchadrezzar's

!
4.

tribute to

Zeus, (two words)

15. Zeus's

Alexander gave

3.

once have?

What was the name

in this

country.

9.

this city

Artemis's fourth

was.

every country that housed

8.

did

is

The Greeks instituted these

12. This king

this religion.

The sculptor Pheidias lived

The

1 1

games

wood.

of Artemis's worshipers left

What the Pharos

5.

10. Istanbul

The roof of Artemis's temple was

made

became a wonder

of the world.
the present name of
ancient Byzantium. What other

ory

name

here, (two words)

6.

to

mausoleum

7.

4.

Use the clues to fill in the

blanks. The letters in the

c.

husband here

Pheidias sculpted the statue of Zeus here.

1.

NEIGHBOR
boxes will spell the

her

her

6.

ument

COMMON

Alexandria

g. Halikarnassos

monument to

Artemisia's

became

b.

thanks

bor.
5.

Olympia

hot.

military victory.

lighthouse

a.

a
a

a_
a

_a
a
a.

COMPANION
Topics for Comparison
1. Compare and contrast seven modern wonders with the ancient won- I
ders. Modern wonders may include 1

London

the Crystal Palace in

New

the Statue of Liberty in

City (1886), the Eiffel

(1889), the

Tower

(1851),

York

York City

(1931),

Golden Gate Bridge

and the

(1937).
2.

Through the

centuries,

many

Jj

of

won-

ders were recycled and used in the

construction of other structures.

Compare

this practice

with the recyon through-

cling of buildings going

out the United States today.

3.

Both the Mausoleum

at Halikar-

honor dead spouses.

built to

The wonders of the world are just

more magnificent than

small mausoleums have been

The ancients provided us with the

dimensions of certain parts of the
2.

and shoals everywhere have

lighthouses to guide incoming and

Many new

shopping
malls and business complexes have
indoor hanging gardens and mock

passing vessels.

Massive religious buildsuch as the Church of St. John

the Divine in New York City and the
National Cathedral in Washington,

waterfalls.
ings,

D.C., are

still

in the process of being

Take a look around your neighborhood, city, and/or state and find a
monument to compare and contrast
with one of the ancient wonders.

Take a tape measure and

an object in your area that measures five feet in diameter (the measurement given for each of the Colossos's ankles). Try experimenting with
the other measurements as well.
3. Create your own wonder. Determine the criteria that would make
your creation qualify as a wonder.
Specify the purpose of your creation.
Draw up the dimensions. Tell where
it would be located and why you
Colossos.
find

Compare and

contrast the circum-

would choose

stances under

which they were

Give the probability of

monuments

4. Erecting

to

built.

honor the

The
Great Pyramid and the Mausoleum
are just two of many such monuments. Compare the latter with other
dead

is

a time-honored practice.

structures built to house the bodies

of

honored leaders

Grant's

Tomb

(for

example,

in Riverside Park,

New York City,

and the Invalides

It

Assignments
.

What

would be very

difficult for a

ruler today to build a hanging gar-

den, pyramid, or mausoleum.

Compare and

Why?

contrast the reasons

such constructions were possible in

Why?
Was each civilization at its peak
when the wonder was constructed?
4.

The main purpose of the Pharos

Alexandria was to act as a light-

this tell

you about the

civ-

ilization?

What does

5.

the type of construc-

and the reason for the construction tell you about the people who
built a wonder? Were they prosper-

it

also attracted

many

ous?

Was

tourists. List

some modern

structures

How

did the climate relate to such

house, but

have had a similar history, then

compare and contrast the examples
you give.
7. The Colossos of Rhodes was built

that

as a

modern wonders? Would you delete

Why? Would you add any?

tion

of

is

should be classified as such?

3. Do you agree with the choice of

the present.
6.

determine what

wonder and what is not?

2. What criteria would you establish
to determine whether a wonder

ancient times but are not possible in

monument

to a victory.

Com-

its

being

what the seven natural

wonders of the world are and the cri4. Find out

criteria

What does

that particular area.

used.

any?

in Paris).
5.

Suggestions for Writing

1

may

be done as a class project. Divide

the class into groups and allow each
group to choose a wonder to replicate.)

built,

built.

nassos and the Taj Mahal in India

were

examples are the Iwo Jima

the Arc de Triomphe

jp'orts

the materials used to build the

Two

those built

to celebrate a victo-

imilar, smaller structures. Countless

|

San Francisco

in

three-dimensional figure. (This

modern times

rger and

(1914), the Empire State Building

New

in Paris.

jy.

8.

in Russia (1905), the

in

monument and

Further Activities
1. Reread the description of each
ancient wonder. Then try to reconstruct one either as a drawing or a

In

in Pari

Trans Siberian Railroad

Panama Canal

monument with

j>are this

their nation at peace?

teria for their

being

named

natural

wonders.
5. Research the story of Pelops and

Oenomaos and

the origin of the

Olympic Games.
6.

Research the

tale of the

Centaurs

and the Lapiths.

Topics for Debate
1 The time and expense required to
build a wonder would be put to better use if spent on humanitarian pur.

poses.

Only during times of prosperity

can a people create a structure or
work of art worthy of being recognized as a wonder.
2.

a lengthy undertaking?
6. Architectural

wonders are

sources of national pride.

the ancient and

How do

modern wonders

reflect this?

31

"Life

is

short, art

Hippocrates

32

(c.

460-c. 377

B.C.),

is

long."

Greek physician

ARTICLES
The Acropolis
Its

origin,

destruction

by the P&rsians

and restoration under Pericles.

The Parthenon
The Propylaia

36
36

The Erechtheion

38

The Ravages of Time

39

CIASSICAJ,

TEMPLE

The Greek Temple

Its

development from a plain wooden

to

a marble

Inside the

structure

architectural wonder.

Greek Temple

The Three Orders

The Ancient Block Movers

From Columns to Roof

Rome's Architectural Legacy

Rome incorporated the arch, dome, and vaultA
into

Greek design.

Greek Versus Roman

Greek Revival

in

the United States

PROJECT
Optical Illusions

Greece Versus Rome

COMPANION

59

33

Rising approximately two hundred

above modern Athens and

measuring one thousand feet long
and four hundred feet at its widest part,
this enormous rock ledge
sixty feet

served as a fortress for the

THE

Athenians.

first

It

was known

an acropolis, a combination of the Greek words akros

(highest) and polis (city).
Although this term originally
as

ACROPOLIS

referred to the citadel or

fortress of

any

city,

as

Athens assumed

the role of a world power,

its

magnificent

rock ledge became the Acropolis of the

ancient world.

The

early kings, such as Kekrops

and

Erichthonios, built their palaces on the

grew in size
and importance, the ledge became an area
sacred to the city's patron deities and to
legendary Athenian heroes. Around the

Acropolis. However, as Athens

seventh century

were relocated

When
480

B.C.,

B.C., all

private dwellings

base of the Acropolis.

at the

the Persians entered Athens in

they destroyed and burned the

Acropolis. After the Greeks

regroup, they routed

at

trj.e

had time

Persian forces

Salamis in September of 480

then

at Plataiai in

Thirty years

479

later,

to

B.C.

first

and

B.C.

the master Athenian

statesman and general Pericles commissioned the architects Iktinos and Kallikrates
The Acropolis, with the majestic remains of the
Parthenon, stands above present-day Athens.

and the famed sculptor Pheidias to design

a religious center on the Acropolis as an
everlasting memorial to Greece's hard-won
victory over Persia. The result of their
combined efforts, which included the construction of the Parthenon, the Propylaia,

and the Erechtheion, made the Acropolis

the world-famous monument of the classical period of architecture.

1.

The English words "metropolis," "police," "cosmopolitan,"

"politics" are all derived from the Greek polis.

ana

34

w.^i^;s"M^^/*L

35

THE PARTHENON
temple built by the Athenians
magnificent fifth-century
The Parthenon, thegoddess
Athena, was one of the finest temples ever built.
B.C.

for their patron

Its

unequaled beauty and serene simplicity summarize ancient Greece's legacy to the
Western world.
The grillwork of the doors allowed the sun to cast its light on the enormous forty2
two-foot statue of Athena standing at the western end of the naos. This exquisitely
carved work of the Greek sculptor Pheidias represented the goddess of wisdom
fully armed and holding a statue of Nike, the winged goddess of victory, in her
right hand. The drapery, armor, and accessories of the wooden statue were formed
of detachable gold plates. The face, hands, and feet were of ivory, and the eyes
were of precious stones.
To add to the grandeur, the interior of the naos was divided into three aisles by
two rows of two-tiered columns (one row of columns set above another). The statue
was located in the central spot, at the end of the middle aisle and in front of another

row

of tiered columns.

The Parthenon derived

its

name

from the goOdess Athena,

who was known

as Athena Parthenos, or Athena "the

maiden goddess."
2.

The Greek term naos also

is

used to

refer to

the

chamber where the image

of the deity stood.

THE PROPYEAIA
This

massive marble structure, which incor-

porated into
the Acropolis,

design the entrance to

its

was begun under

approximately 438

B.C.

Pericles in

Unfortunately, the

Peloponnesian War (the great war between the

Greek

Athens and Sparta) intervened, and all work was halted in 431 B.C. The
basic plan included five gates, with the largest
in the middle. To the east and west of these
gates were porticoes (porches). The completed
north wing housed a small hall and a large
chamber. The south wing was to be identical to
city-states of

the north but

36

was never completed.

Exterior Doric columns still decorate the facade of the Propylaia, the
entrance to the Acropolis.

37

THE ERECHTHEION
Named in honor of Erichthonios, one of the
kings of Athens, this temple was originally the sanctuary of the divine protectors of
first

Athens Athena,

the goddess of wisdom,

and

The ancient
authors wrote that the rock ledge on the north
side still bore the marks made by Poseidon's
trident during his contest with Athena to determine who would be Athens's patron. There,
too, the ancients built a chamber to enclose a
Poseidon, the god of the sea.

fountain sacred to Poseidon.

side

was

Athena's

a corresponding
gift to

chamber housing

Persia, the tree

burned, but, miraculously,

new

the south

Athens, the sacred olive tree.

During the wars with

put forth a

On

it

was

immediately

shoot.

The most famous section of the building

was the porch of the maidens on the south side.
Instead of columns to support the roof, pillars
were sculptured in the shape of draped women,
with the capitals (top part of the pillar) above
their heads resembling baskets. As such, they
were reminiscent of the young women who carried baskets on their heads in the solemn procession during Athena's Great Panathenaic
Festival.

These karyatides, as pillars in the shape of

maidens were called, presented to the observer
a sense of strength and firmness. Through careful and deliberate placement of the hair, the

which was
necessary for the burden these maidens carried.
The sculptors also crafted the maidens so that
they seemed to place their weight on one leg,
giving them the appearance of elasticity and
architects strengthened their necks,

power.

The Erechtheion, with its porch of karyatides, was the most elegant
building on the Acropolis.

38

THE RAVAGES
OF TIME
Archaeologists and

historians treasure the well-

preserved description of the Acropolis written by

the second-century a.d. Greek traveler and geographer

Pausanias because, only two hundred years

Roman emperor Theodosius

destroy pagan

the

later,

ordered his soldiers to

monuments throughout

the empire.

few buildings were spared and used for other purposes. The Parthenon was one. It later became a Christian
church.

When

the Turks conquered Greece in the late four-

teenth century, they seized the Acropolis and added

minarets to the Parthenon to

They

make

it

into a

mosque.

gunpowder in the temple. In 1687,

war with the Venetians, a cannon shot pierced the Parthenon's roof and ignited the
gunpowder. The damage was devastating and irreparable. The magnificent structures that had survived the
centuries were in ruins. No attempt at restoration was
made. Rather, the marble pieces were used in other

when

also stored

the Turks were at

structures.

In recent years, the Greek government has enacted

several laws

aimed

at controlling the

done
and faulty restoration

damage being

to the Acropolis because of pollution, acid rain,

efforts. Tourists are

allowed to enter the temples. Vehicular

banned from the road leading up

no longer

traffic is

to the Acropolis,

and

residents in buildings adjacent to the Acropolis are

restricted as to the type of heating fuel they

may

use.

In 1985, Greece entered into an agreement with the

European Economic Community

Acropolis.

The

project

is

until after the year 2000.

ans, engineers,

hope
lize

and

not expected to be completed

The

archaeologists, histori-

scientists involved in this project

to correct mistakes

the structures that

of walls

to begin restoring the

and columns

made by

still exist,

that

have

past restorers, stabi-

and restore hundreds

fallen.

39

The term

"temple" originally referred to areas

of sacred land, natural caves, or hollow trees.

Sometimes a sacred stone or an

altar

was

placed in a selected area to symbolize a divine pres-

ence and a place of

architects

ally,

THE GREEK
TEMPEE

sacrifice.

Gradu-

began designing

struc-

tures to enclose these sacred areas.

Because the ancients considered these

sites the earthly

homes

and not an area

for people to gather, a

large interior

Greeks called

of their deities

was unnecessary. The

their temple naos, which

means "dwelling place." Because religious ceremonies and sacrifices were held in the open
spaces and on the altars outside the temple, it was
opened only on special occasions, if at all.
The first temple structure consisted of a small
boxlike building. Frequently, a long, narrow opening
in the roof allowed light to enter. Later, columns
were placed in front between projecting side walls.
As the decades passed, more columns were added to
the front and to the back and sides.
The Greeks had a superb sense of beauty and proportion, which they used to modify, supplement, and
alter their architectural styles. The simple tree-trunk
columns of the early wooden structures gave way to
cut and fashioned wooden columns. Bricks were used
to build porticoes.

damp

To separate the bricks from the

ground, a stone wall about two feet high was

incorporated into the temple design. For strength, the

crude bricks,

made

of gravel,

mixed with chopped

dry for several years before being used. Gradually,

clay
to

pounded pottery, and

were usually allowed

straw,

stone or marble replaced

wood and

bricks, radically

changing the character of the temple.

substructure, called the stereobate, provided

added strength and protection for the temple. This

below-ground foundation was usually rectangular
in shape. Above it was the stylobate, or base, which
formed the steps of the temple and was composed
of more carefully dressed (cut and smoothed) rows

The usual number of steps was three,

and the height of each step was determined by the
height of the stylobate. The steps of the great temof blocks.

40

were so high that smallintermediate steps were added at convenient

pies such as the Parthenon

er,

places to allow for easier entrance.

The stone blocks were quarried by

then sent
into

down mountainside

wagons pulled by

slaves

and

chutes

thirty to forty

INSIDE THE GREEK

oxen. At the building site, state-hired

workers did the actual construction

work using
ing,

and

derricks,

wooden

TEMPEE

scaffold-

lathes.

On the

stylobate

cell-like structure.

was

Temples were

a rectangular

Much more

massive

and detailed than its earlier counterpart,

it served the same purpose to provide
an earthly home for a god. The windowless walls were of solid stone or marble.
Extra care

was taken

so that each block,

especially those of marble,

the next.

rubbed

fit

closely to

The blocks were cut and then

to obtain the

smoothest possible

surface.

Once a block was set in place, it was

moved backward and forward until the
slow grinding of the stone bonded block
to

block and created a perfect

there
tar.

was no need

to

fit.

Hence,

to fasten

its

each block

horizontally adjacent

block and fixed with dowels (metal plugs)

to its vertically adjacent block.

Although the Greeks modified and corrected their designs in

numerous ways

as

they strove to create a perfect structure,

they never added anything unnecessary.

Even ornamentation served a purpose.

For example, the simple decoration on

The

interiors of these sacred buildings var-

and

ied in design

detail according to the size

and

grandeur of the temple.

Often the ceilings were coffered, or composed of
deeply recessed marble or ornamental stone panels.

Columns also served to support the decoratively

painted wooden roof timbers above the naos, the
chamber housing the image of the deity.
The floor was usually formed of large slabs of
stone or marble. In the Parthenon, as in most temples, the central portion of the naos's floor

slightly

Many

was

sunken.

temples had a special chamber called the

placed. Also

in place. In the Parthenon, every block

to

designs.

opisthodomos where worshipers' offerings were

To further strengthen the walls, the

was clamped

massive doors, which opened out, were often

gold plated and covered with gold and ivory relief

use cement or mor-

ancient Greeks used bronze or iron

clamps and dowels

usually built facing east. Their

known

as the treasury, this area in the

most venerated temples became so filled with offerings that small treasure houses had to be built nearby to accommodate the many gifts of the faithful.
Within each temple, one section was designated
as the god's special home. Located directly behind
the naos and facing west, this area was usually open
only to priests and priestesses. Entrance into it was
through the opisthodomos. In smaller temples, elaborate bronze screens or grilles separated this sacred
area from the

more open area

of the temple.

the capitals allowed the spectator's eye to pass

smoothly from the columns

level).
still

to the entablature (upper

So magnificent was the Greek temple that

it

remains an unsurpassed tribute to the glory of

Greece.
41

THE THREE ORDERS

The dominant feature of every fifth-century

B.C.

temple was its columns. Rectangular temples

were classed according to the arrangement of the

columns and the number of columns

the Parthenon

is

peripteral octastyle. Peripteral,

from the Greek words

(wing),

means

in front. Thus,

that

peri (around)

and pteron

has columns along both sides

it

and the ends. Octastyle, from the Greek word octo

(eight), means that it has eight columns in front.
As the temples increased in size, so did the
columns. Single drums or columns became impractical and impossible. Instead, drums were cut
horizontally into sections to be reassembled
at the site.

To

facilitate

reassembly, the

masons left small blocks of marble projecting from each piece of the drum. Ropes were
looped around these projections. At the
building
to help

site,

them

workmen used

the
set

then to revolve the

fit

these ropes

each section in place and

drum

perfectly into the one

until

below

each section
it.

Three basic architectural orders (styles

of columns) developed: Doric, Ionic, and
Corinthian.

'

The simplest

DORIC

of the three, the Doric

symbolized strength and

solidarity.

column
It had no

base but stood directly on the stylobate.

circular shaft

was

ty vertical ridges).

Its

fluted (usually with twen-

Atop each column rested

a capital consisting of three sections:

(1)

the

annulets, or horizontal flat moldings,

(2)

the

echinus, or curved circular disk, and

1

(3)

the

unmolded slab of stone.

were never decorated. The
height of a Doric column (including the capiabacus, or square

Doric capitals

In defining the sections of the ancient temple, we have opted to used

the Latin forms for two reasons: This chapter includes articles aPout Greek
and Roman temples, and the spelling most commonly found in Pooks on
architecture is the Latin form of the Greek term.
1

42

tal)

was four

to six

and a

half

times the diameter of the col-

umn's base (page

42).

IONIC
column was more
graceful and refined. Originating in the eastern Greek
towns of Asia Minor (preThe

Ionic

sent-day Turkey) this style

,

was

inspired by the art of the

and more slender than the Doric column,

the Ionic stood on a molded
Orient. Taller

base. Its height

was nine

times the lower diameter of

column. The flutes of the

Ionic style were deeper and

its

narrower.

The distinguishing characteristic was the column's capital, which was separated
from the main shaft by a
molding, above which was a
band carved with a design of
palm leaves or water lilies.
The capital itself consisted of
a pair of volutes, or spiral

on the front and rear

of the column. These spirals
were connected by an echinus. The side molding was a
scrolls,

simple, cushion-shaped band.

The front and rear moldings

were carved with an egg-anddart design (top right).

CORINTHIAN
The

third order, the

Corinthian,

nized by

was

easily recog-

its capital.

The

Greeks rarely used this order, perhaps because they

that its ornamentation detracted from the sim-

felt

43

THE ANCIENT BEOCK MOVERS

few written accounts of their building methods. However, several building
contracts do exist. These contracts list the materials needed, the equipment used, and the
costs involved in transporting the stone blocks from the quarry to the building site. Still, it is

The ancients

left

the stone block itself that provides the best account of building methods.
Careful and detailed study of the remains at each site has helped historians

and

architects

reconstruct the building methods used. Each block's grooves, indentations, lumps, and holes
are studied separately and then in relation to those on other blocks surrounding it. The find-

compared with past findings and with descriptions of hoisting machines found in
ancient works, especially The Ten Books of Architecture by the first-century B.C. Roman writer
and architect Vitruvius.
Using levers, pulleys, and pulley blocks, workers raised the blocks from the ground to their
final resting place on the building. Workers at ground level and on scaffolding helped complete the task. Clamps (metal bars) and dowels (metal plugs) were used instead of cement or
mortar to fasten the blocks together. The grooves, slots, and holes made to hold the clamps
and dowels are still recognizable today.
ings are

After workers placed a stone properly, they cleaned the joint with bicarbonate of soda

with clean water. A supervisor inspected every joint to determine whether

was tight enough. If it was, the workers poured molten lead around the clamps and dowels
until every crack was filled. This final step ensured secure and immovable stones.
before rinsing

it

plicity they believed a

it

temple required.

According to a Greek legend, the Corinthian capi-

form originated in the city of Corinth, in central Greece. A young girl had died, and her nurse
had put a basket filled with all the girl's favorite
belongings on her grave. To keep everything in
place, the nurse had placed a tile over the basket.
The following spring, the leaves of a nearby acanthus plant completely surrounded the basket. When
the famed Greek sculptor Kallimachos passed the
spot, the beauty of this basket surrounded by acantal's

thus leaves so entranced

him

that he created a

and named it Corinthian.

Whatever the origin, the Corinthian

new

capital

capital does

resemble a basket or inverted bell, the lower part of

which is surrounded by two rows of eight acanthus
leaves. From between the leaves of the upper row
rise other

elongated leaves and volutes, which sup-

port the abacus. Each side of the

curves outward to a point

44

molded abacus

at the edges.

The remaining columns of the

2nd-century b.c. temple of
Olympian Zeus at Athens near
the Acropolis are excellent

examples

of the Corinthian order

of architecture.

45

FROMCOI^
The section above the columns was known as the
entablature.

It

was composed

sions: the architrave, the frieze,

main

divi-

cornice.

The

of three

and the

treatment of these sections corresponded to the order

columns used. Thus, the Doric entablature was

simpler than the Ionic and Corinthian entablatures.
The architrave, or principal beam, was composed
of long blocks of stone, each bridging two columns
and extending halfway across the capitals of the two
columns. The upper part of the architrave formed
a flat molding with a narrow band from which
extended six guttae, or small conical drops. So symmetrical and methodical were the Greek architects
that each group of guttae was positioned below a
of the

projecting triglyph

The

frieze

(a

section of the frieze).

was composed

of alternating triglyphs

(three vertical stone channels) and metopes. By custom and design, triglyphs were centered over each
column and over the space between the columns.

Metopes, the square spaces between the triglyphs,

were usually decorated with groups of finely sculptured figures. Doric entablatures had metopes and
triglyphs; Ionic

and Corinthian entablatures had a

continuous sculptured

frieze.

Perhaps the most famous metopes are those

known

as the Elgin Marbles. In the early 1800s,

Lord Elgin of England was assigned as an envoy

Constantinople (present-day Istanbul, Turkey).

to

lover of antiquities, Lord Elgin feared that the ani-

mosity between the Greeks and the Turks, who controlled Greece at that time, might cause irreparable

harm

metopes adorning the Parthenon.

Therefore, he requested the Turks' permission to
measure and sketch the ancient monuments for
posterity. After his request was granted, Lord Elgin
proceeded to send various artifacts, including the
Parthenon's metopes, to London, where they are
now housed in the British Museum.
The cornice supported the roof of the temple. It
also sheltered the frieze and the architrave because
to the

46

JMS
it

TO ROOF

jutted out

beyond them. Doric architecture

ed that small,

flat,

dictat-

square blocks (mutules) or small,

projecting, rectangular blocks (dentils) be placed

on

the underside of the slightly sloping cornice. Ionic

and Corinthian temples had a continuous row of

dentils above the frieze.
The entablature supported both the roof and the
pediment, the triangular space above either end of
a Greek temple. Usually, this space was filled with
sculptured reliefs depicting a

myth involving

the

temple's deity.

Although traces of bright colors have been found

on sculptures from pediments, friezes, and metopes,
color usually

was

restricted to the detailed reliefs.

Archaeologists believe that this

was done

to accent

the designs of areas farthest away. Also, because the

sun reflected the brilliance of the marble walls and

columns, the addition of color softened the effect of
the temple and enhanced the beauty of the sculptured details. Red was used for the architrave and
the lower molding of the cornice; blue was used for
the triglyphs and mutules. The guttae often were
yellow or gilt with gold, and the metopes were
white. If the metopes were sculptured, the background was painted red or blue.
The roof was made of strong rafters covered with
baked clay tiles or slabs of white marble closely
joined to prevent leaks. At the end of each row of
jointed tiles was an antefixa, an ornament usually
sculptured to resemble a lotus flower or an acanthus
leaf. Sculptured lions' heads often were placed at
intervals along the eaves. These acted as spouts for
rainwater, which then fell into a gutter around the
stylobate and was carried in pipes or open channels
to tanks

near the temple.

Lord Elgin's treasures

were shipped

to

England over a period of ten

Crown bought the entire collection

in 1816. ToOay the guestion of who owns the Elgin Marbles is a matter of
great aispute. Greece wouia like to see them returnea to the country of
their origin. Englana feels that because
ensured their safekeeping,

years, from 1802 to 1812. The

British

it

it

shouia retain possession.

47

Roman world grew in size and

power, Rome found its buildings

As

the

accommodate the daily

inhabitants and the hordes

too small to

business of

its

of people flocking to the

capital city.

ROME'S

tects

Roman

archi-

and engineers soon

realized the limitations of

ARCHITECTURAL
LEGACY

Greek temple design

that they had borrowed.
With its simple column
and architrave (the flat
stone blocks resting on
the columns), the Greek
the

temple did not lend itself to much adaptation. Furthermore, the comparatively
small, enclosed areas within the Greek
temple did not lend themselves to public

The Romans needed a design that

would allow them to span large, open
areas and that would, in turn, create buildings with immense interiors.
The arch, formed by a series of wedgeuse.

like stones or bricks

supporting each other

and bound firmly together by mutual

pressure, constitutes the main distinction
between Greek and Roman architecture.
The Romans used the vault and the dome
in combination with the arch. Although
not the originators of these designs, the

Romans took

the initiative in adopting,

modifying, and expanding

all

three.

GREEK VERSUS

ROMAN
The Greeks were a very religious people and centered their architectural endeavors on their temples.

These structures, though relatively small, were

The Romans concentraton

buildings
that served the worldly
ed
needs of the peoples and nations they governed,
such as aqueducts, baths, circuses, law courts, and

architectural masterpieces.
their efforts

48

-\

theaters. Thus, the architecture of these ancient civi-

and philosophies.
The qualities essential to all Greek temples were
simplicity, unity of form, and symmetry. The Greek

lizations reflected their lifestyles

temple was a self-contained

(often

on a

hill),

unit, standing alone

Begun in 27 b.c. by the Roman statesman Agrippa, the

Pantheon was completea by the emperor Habrian
sometime between a.d.
8 anb 28. The Corinthian
columns along its facabe supporteb a triangular pebiment. The main boby of the temple was a circular
brum strengtheneb with enormous brick arches ana
covereb by a magnificent borne.
1 1

apart from business and residential

Although the Roman temple resembled the

Greek temple, the Romans built their temples in
populated areas. As was characteristic of this energetic and powerful race, the plans of their buildings
conveyed vastness, magnificence, and strength.
areas.

49

Instead of using the Greek temple's low stylobate,

the

Romans placed

their

temple floor on a raised

platform with a stairway across the front. This

added

to the grandeur, as

it

attracted

and raised the

onlooker's eye to the temple's entrance.

The Greeks
the rising sun

built their

temples facing

would illuminate the

east, so that

deity's statue

positioned opposite the entrance door. The

Romans

concerned themselves primarily with easy access and

had their temples face the forum, or marketplace.
One of the most admirable features of the Greek
temple was its construction out of huge, rectangular
stone or marble blocks. The Romans revolutionized
the art of building

made

when

of lime, pozzolana

fragments of stone.

No

they introduced concrete

(a

volcanic rock) and broken

,

longer were large slabs of

granite needed. To build very thick walls, the

made

Romans

the sides, or facings, of stone and brick and

fashioned the core (the middle section) of fragments

of these materials. Concrete

was usually used

for the

foundations and sometimes as a facing for walls.

The interior of the Roman temple [naos in Greek

and cella in Latin) was usually wider and larger than
its Greek counterpart. Some Roman temples even
had windows. Both nations used coffered ceilings of
stone or marble, but the Greeks tended to use wooden timbers for the ceiling above the naos. Both also
used their temples to store state treasures and often
the wealth of private citizens.

Perhaps the most often imitated and striking fea-

were the columns,

the entablature, and the pediment. The columns and
tures of the ancients' temples

the

flat

beam above them, known

as post-and-lintel

were the hallmark of Greek architecThe Romans varied this style with their addition of the curved arch. Greek columns were usually fluted that is, marked with vertical ridges. The
Romans often left their columns unfluted, especially
when they were of veined marble or granite.
The Greeks used three orders of architecture (types
of columns): Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian. The
Romans added the Tuscan and Composite orders.
The favorite and most widely used Greek order
was Doric. The Romans rarely used this style
architecture,

ture.

50

because of its severe simplicity. When they did, they

modified it in several ways for example, by adding
a base for each

column

or using unfluted

columns

or moldings above the abacus.

The Romans sometimes used the Tuscan order,

which was a much simpler form of the Greek Doric.
It had a base, an unfluted column, a simple capital,
and a plain entablature.
Although the Greeks rarely used the Corinthian
order because of its ornate capital, the Romans easily
adapted its fluted column to accent their larger temples. Whereas the acanthus leaves of the Greek
Corinthian capital were of the prickly type and pointed, the Roman capital featured blunt-ended acanthus
leaves or olive leaves. Later the

Romans introduced

known as modillions, along the cornice.

The Romans had a fifth order of columns, known
as the Composite. More ornate than the Corinthian,

brackets,

the Composite had capitals that

were

a combination

and Corinthian acanthus leaves.

An architectural feature commonly used by the
Romans but not the Greeks was the pilaster. This
feature was actually a half column because one
side of the pilaster was attached to and formed part
of Ionic spirals

of a wall.

The Greek temple was

a public expression of the

Greeks' love of beauty. In contrast, the

ple clearly expressed the

Romans' love

Roman

tem-

of power.

GREEK REVIVAE IN
THE UNITED STATES
The centuries between the
and the

fall

of

Rome

(a.d.

410)

Middle Ages (thirteenth century a.d.)

witnessed the destruction, complete alteration, or
abandonment of many Greek and Roman architectural masterpieces. The Renaissance, the great move-

ment

late

of intellectual rebirth that spread throughout

Europe during the fourteenth, fifteenth, and sixteenth

centuries, saw a renewed faith in the creative abilities
of every human being. When the artists and scholars
of this period sought models, they turned to the

51

The lst-century

b.c.

temple

built

Nimes, France, served as the

tol

building

in

Richmond,

by the Romans

model

Virginia.

for

in

the state Capi-

ancients

who had

once ruled the

Roman

world.

read and followed the works of Vitruvius, a

century

Roman

B.C.

Roman

architect.

They

They

first-

also studied the

ruins that remained or had been converted

into churches.

Not

until the eighteenth century

and the begin-

ning of systematic excavations was the Greek style

and appreciated. The

ruins of ancient buildings and the many finds that
were unearthed so inspired Western architects that
of architecture understood

new

style of building design developed. This style

conformed

Roman

to the rules of the ancient

architects.

Greek and

In post-Revolutionary America, the people of the

United States found

it

ture of ancient Greece

easy to identify with the cul-

and Rome. Thomas

Jefferson,

the third president of the United States (1801-1809),

was

a great proponent of the classical style.

He

designed the state capitol in Richmond, Virginia

(built

based on a Roman temple that

still stands in Nimes, France. Other leading architects, such as Benjamin Latrobe and Charles
Bulfinch, also designed and promoted the classical
style. As a result, many of our customhouses, state

from 1789

to 1798),

and public buildings reflected the

nation's newfound freedom from England and a
capitols, banks,

desire also to be free of England's architectural style.

Although the noble simplicity of the Greek temples inspired the new architects, the size and
52

grandeur of the Roman

buildings impressed

them even more.

Sometimes they built
exact replicas of these
structures. At other

times, they used a particular ancient building as

a model. In

most

instances, the architects

combined elements from

both the Greek and

Roman

styles.

American architects
were not content with
using Greek and Roman
structures as models for
public buildings. They
also incorporated these

elements into the

designs of their homes. This style

Revival and

was

called

was very popular from 1815

Greek

Tennessee, constructed a tempoParthenon to house the international

art exhiPition for the 1897 Centennial Exposition. In the
1920s, the city's park Poard, faced with a decaying
and unsightly structure, authorized a complete recon-

The

city of Nashville,

rary replica of the

to 1860.

It

was characterized by the use of any of the orders of

column architecture, whether they be used on porticoes or on either side of the front entrance. The
baseless Greek Doric column was the most commonly used architectural order. However, pilasters

struction using

permanent

materials.

were frequently placed on either side of the front

door and Ionic pilasters at the corners.
Greek Revival architects favored moderately
pitched gable roofs. Sometimes they placed the gable
end (the temple pediment) above the front door. At
other times, the front door was placed in the middle
of the lengthwise side of the structure, with the

gables at either end.

The doors and windows

of these

buildings were of the post-and-lintel design that

they had a

flat

is,

top of wood, stone, or marble that

resembled the architrave above the temple columns.

53

PROJECT

OPTICAL ILLUSIONS
Perhaps the most fascinating characteristic of Greek temple design is its perfect symmetry. The Greeks understood how light plays tricks on the eye. To
help you understand this part of Greek design, try the following two experi-

ments.

You Need
piece of Styrofoam measuring 24 by
20 by 2 inches
ruler

pencil
18

empty cardboard tubes

paper

rolls

(toilet

work best)

dinner knife or screwdriver

piece of flat cardboard measuring

21 by 17 inches
rags or pieces of cloth (scrap paper
can be used no cloth is availif

able)
scissors

Scotch tape

1.

Make a

series of dots 2 inch-

in from each side of the

Styrofoam. Connect the dots.
2. Using one corner of the rectangle as your base, place
dots 4 inches apart on the

es

lines.

Take one of the empty

cardboard tubes and place
it over a dot. (Keep the dot
exactly in the middle of the
tube opening.) Trace a circle
around the bottom of the
tube. Do the same for every

3.

dot.
4.

With the dinner knife or

screwdriver, carefully press

down

the Styrofoam along the

circles
5.

you have made.

FNace one cardboard tube

on each circle. Make sure

each tube is secure and can
stand by itself.
Place the piece of flat
cardboard on top of the

6.

tubes.
7.

Set your "temple"

on a

table.

- illustrated by Annette

l/vW'/Mo"

i*i

<>e\

{of

^i

Cate

)JECT

EXPERIMENT 2

EXPERIMENT 1
Now you are ready to challenge your eyes. Look at your
"temple." Do not stand too
close. Remember, the Greek
temple stood alone, away
from the marketplace and
bustling crowds. Does the
middle portion of any of the
columns appear smaller than
the top or bottom of the col-

Do the corner columns seem

a

little

thinner than the mid-

dle columns? They should,

because

another optical
illusion the Greeks had to
overcome. Corner columns
this

is

appear thinner because the

background behind them is

umn?

always brighter than that

behind the other columns.
Stuff the corner columns

The Greeks knew that the

middle portion of a straight

more rags or paper to

make them slightly thicker

column appears thinner

because light from behind the
column "eats away" at To

than the other columns. Remember to keep the bulge in

the middle. Now look at your
"temple." The optical illusion
of thinner corner columns
should have disappeared.

with

it.

overcome

this

optical

illusion,

the Greeks used entasis

a
gentle swelling of the column
at the center and a slight
tapering toward the top.
To create

bit of

a bulge

in

the middle of your columns,

stuff

each cardboard tube

with rags or scrap paper.

Put extra stuffing

in

as you

approach the middle of the

tube. Make two 1-inch cuts on
either side of the top of each
tube. Slightly overlap the cut

tube and seal

them with Scotch tape.
Replace the flat cardboard
sides of the

piece.

Place the "temple" on the

table. Look at the temple from
all angles. Do you see how
entasis tricks the eye into
believing the columns are
evenly proportioned from top
to

bottom?

.:
Col*"*"*

Note: Another optical illusion that the Greeks attempted to

was the apparent "sinking" in the middle of a long

correct

horizontal

line. This

"sinking"

detracted from the temple's

ways to fool the eye

the floor of the stylobate, and the
lines of the entablature curve very slightly in the middle.
(The rise of the curve depended on the size of the temple.)

strong facade, so the Greeks invented

They

On

made the steps,

Assignment: Next time you see a Greek Revival building,

look carefully at the columns. Did the architect use entasis?

How

did he or she treat the corner columns?

ptfz:

A JUMBLED FORTRESS

:s

Use the clues listed below to find the twenty-one words hidden in the puzzle.
The answers can be found in the articles on the Acropolis, pages 34-39, and
on page 146.
Athens's fortress
The patron goddess of Athens

Two Greek city-states

Two structures on the Acropolis
Two kings of Athens
Two Greek architects
Columns in the shape of maidens
The Turks made the Acropolis into this
The temple chamber where the deity's statue stood
The goddess of victory
The war between Athens and Sparta
An Athenian statesman
Enemies of Athens

A Greek

sculptor

The Greeks defeated the Persians

The Greek word for city

SALAMI

S S

in

these two battles

R S

OKCESSPARTAPH
1

R R P

N R

OA

R P

E
L

CA
T

ROA

E
1

N A H
A D
1

D
E

E
1

OMR
E

H P
E

H R

S
1

HANAKLOTPR
K
A
A
H N K
Y
ON N
H
HAKTOS
K P N AO S
CDT UARKOSNPL S OAC R
A A Y
S R KO
QU
RSE PATHEN SUN A P P
EANAISENNOPOL P K
1

E S

L
1

56

PUZ*E

GREEK TEMPEE
SCRAMBEE
1. This

architectural order originated

Minor.

the Greek towns of Asia

in

nocii

Unscramble the words

to

determine the

"

'

answers

2. This

principal

beam was composed

theacivarr

Then place each num-

of long stone blocks,

bered

"
"

The Greek builders used these to join each block of the

Parthenon with its vertically adjacent block.
loedsw

name

base formed the steps

of

a temple,

bestotaly

ll"

The leaves of this flower were incorporated

column's capital.
hacustan

into the Corinthian

5.

"

6. This

roof

sculptured ornament covered the

axefatin

tiles.

was the

rocdi

for the

Greek

temple

answers can be found

in the articles on the
Greek temple, pages
40-47, and on page 146.

"

end

of

each row

of jointed

"
"

7. This

cor-

chamber where offerings were placed. The

"

"

on the

to discover the

letter

responding blank line

3.

4. This

to the clues.

simplest of the three

columns used by the Greeks,

"
"

space above either end

had sculptured reliefs.
mindteep

8. This

triangular

of

a Greek temple

usually

"

2
9.

Greek temples had

extra strength.

below-ground foundation to provide

this

beetatorse

"
"

10. Doric

temples had a

series of

these separated by

triglyphs.

posteem
10

The Greek

12

name for the temple chamber where the

offerings of

worshipers were placed: _

1

4 5

6 7 8

9 1011 12

57

UZZLE
PAGES

GREECE VERSUS ROME

Can you match the Greek and Roman temple features on the right with the
descriptions on the left? The answers can be found in the Greek versus Roman
article,

pages 48-51, and on page 146.

These qualities defined the

Greek temple.
2. The Roman temple conveyed
these qualities.
3. The Greeks positioned their temples facing east for this reason.
1.

So the rising sun would light up

the deity's statue
b. Post-and-lintel architecture
c. Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian
a.

d. Vastness,

e.

The Romans positioned their

temples facing the marketplace
4.

for this reason.

5. This

feature

was the trademark

of

Greek design.

6.

The Romans

added

this

to their buildings to give

feature

them

more space.
7.

column
8.

9.

orders.

The Romans

column

added

these two

orders.

These were the Greeks' building

materials.
10.

The Romans introduced these

as building materials.

58

f.

Stone or marble blocks

Simplicity, unity of form,

and

symmetry
g. To allow easy access to the
temple
h. The curved arch
Concrete and broken pieces
i.

stone
Tuscan

j.

The Greeks used these three

magnificence, and

strength

and Composite

of

COMPANION
Topics for Comparison
1. Compare the Greek post-andarchitecture with the
use of the dome, arch, and
vault. Compare the type of build^|
ings each style can create. How do
they differ in use and appearance?
2. Find out more about the Elgin
Marbles. Who was Lord Elgin?
Why was he in Athens? How did
he gain possession of the Parthenon's metopes? Did he send any
other artifacts back to England?
lintel style of

plished this task. Did architects

in

one period do a better job than

those in the other? Explain.

Roman

3.

Compare and

contrast the meth-

ods used by the ancient Greeks to

"cement" together blocks of brick,
stone, and/or marble with the

methods used by masons and

sculptors today. Include which
methods you think require less
care, which last longer, and which
look better.
Walk slowly around your neigh-

4.

borhood or through your city or

town and see how many houses
and buildings have borrowed their
designs from the architecture of
Greece and Rome. Try to distinguish the Roman elements from
the Greek. Compare and contrast
modern plans and adaptations
with those of the ancients.
5. As the fortunes of the ancients
grew, they replaced wooden
columns with stone or marble
columns. Today we see both
wooden and stone columns in
cities throughout the United
States.

create.

Compare the effects they

Which do you prefer? Is

one better in certain circumstances

than the other? Elaborate.
6.

Did you find any pilasters?

Become an architect and design

2.

a temple.

Have

a reason for build-

ing the temple. Decide to

Suggestions for Writing

you wish

Assignments
1. What was Thomas Jefferson's
background? What was his train-

ture. (Pick

ing

and schooling?

Why

did he

favor the classical style, and how

did he promote it?
2. The Acropolis was the pride of

Athens and the barometer of its

fortunes. The magnificence of the
buildings erected on it and their
subsequent ruin paralleled the rise
and fall of the city. Elaborate on
this statement and carry it into the

to dedicate

some

whom

your struc-

deity,

legendary

figure, hero, fictitious personality,

which order
columns you would use and
why. Design the scenes to be
carved on the metopes or frieze.
Remember, the theme of the
designs must relate to the person
or deity to whom you dedicate the
or even yourself.) Tell
of

temple.
3. The ancients had five main
orders of architecture. If you

present.

were asked to create a sixth, what

would it look like? Explain the rea-

Benjamin Latrobe and Charles

Bulfinch were architects in the

4.

3.

United States known for their

Greek Revival buildings. Who

were these men? What buildings
are credited to them? Who were
other Greek Revival architects?
4. Elaborate on why the Greek
Revival style was so readily adopted and adapted throughout the

new United

States after the Rev-

olution.
5.

sons for your design.

The great building boom on
the Acropolis coincided with the

Golden Age of Athens and the rise

what was
happening in other fields, such as
drama and literature, at that time.
of democracy. Research

Topics for Debate

1. England should return the Elgin
Marbles to Greece.

From the records of the

ancients and from excavated finds,
2.

Courthouses, customhouses,

know

state capitol buildings,

archaeologists and historians

were commonly

and understand how the Parthenon was constructed and how it

Revival style.

and banks
Greek
Why? Give exambuilt in the

ples.

The United States is not the

only country where the Greek
6.

looked in the fifth century B.C.

Should a full reconstruction of the
Parthenon be initiated?

Revival style has been used. Give

examples of buildings in other
countries that were designed

according to this style.

Greek and Roman architectural

styles reflect the personality of

each country. Select a recently

constructed building in your
neighborhood, city, or state. How
does it reflect the personality of
the people who live there? Compare the

ways

in

which ancient

and modern architects accom-

Further Activities
1. Look at the buildings in your
city or town and the houses in
your neighborhood. Find some
with columns. Can you identify
which are Doric, Ionic, and
Corinthian? Are any of the
columns Tuscan or Composite?

59

"I

would rather have people ask why there

no statue of me than why there is one."
Marcus Cato (234-149

60

B.C.),

Roman

statesman

is

ARTICLES
The Ancient Sculptors

62

Greek Sculpture

62

The Demise of Greek Sculptur* f

63

Endangered Sculptures

66

Roman

66

Sculpture

Greek Versus Roman Sculpture

The Ancient
Art

in

69

Artists

Ancient Greece

70

70

Parrhasios's Curtain

71

From Pausanias's Guide to Greece

72

Roman

73

Art

The Four

Styles of

Roman

Greek Versus Roman

Painting

ANCIENT
ARTISTS

AND
THEIR
CRAFTS

74
74

Art

The Vase Makers

75

The Greek Potter

75

Decorating a Greek Vase

77

The Shape

78

Tells All

PROJECT
Design a Mosaic

^^

80

PUZZEE PAGES

APTE R
COMPANION

85

61

THE
ANCIENT
SCULPTORS

GREEK
SCULPTURE
sculpture
believed
have originated
Greek
on the Mediterranean island of Crete. The
to

is

theories developed there, together with the

ideas of later sculptors in the

Greek colonies of Asia

Minor (present-day Turkey), gradually

made their way to mainland Greece,
where no sculpture existed in early
times.

The

Greek statues were quite

form. They stood facing front,

first

rigid in

hands

at their sides, left foot

forward.

They had accentuated muscles,

hair, and a fixed smile.

stylized

In the latter part of the sixth century,

it

became the custom,

especially in

Athens, to fashion statues of victorious

athletes. This practice afforded artists

the opportunity to create something

other than
athletes

stiff

who

religious statues.

The

trained daily for athletic

were perfect models. As sculptors attempted to have their works

resemble^the human form more closecontests

ly,

the magnificence of the

body was

glorified

human

and humanism

entered the realm of

Gradually, statues

art.

became

less

stereotyped in form. Athletes were

shown

in various positions, both at

The Greek sculptor,

however, was more concerned with
the superb fitness of the human body
rest

and

in action.

than with the identifying features of a

particular person. Therefore, although

each sculptured body began

assume individual

to

characteristics,

its

face did not.

During the Golden Age of Greece,

62

from about 460

to

400

city-states, especially

beautify their

cities,

B.C.,

the rulers of the

Greek

those in Athens, sought to

making them

reflect the wealth,

power, and prestige of the inhabitants. In Athens,

more
ties

attention

was given

than in any other

to artists

and

cultural activi-

city-state. Pericles, the out-

standing Athenian statesman of this period, believed

Athens had to be made worthy of its destiny. After

Greece defeated the Persians at the Battle of Marathon in 490 B.C. and destroyed any hope the East had
of conquering the countries of the West, a burst of
artistic and cultural energy profoundly influenced not
only the contemporary Mediterranean world but also
succeeding generations.

Some

of the greatest pieces ever sculptured

created during this period.

One was

were

the gigantic stat-

ue of the goddess Athena in the Parthenon, the work

of the renowned Athenian sculptor Pheidias. Another
was The Discus Thrower by Myron, another famous
sculptor. The statue of Athena bore some resemblance to the art of the archaic period, whereas
Myron's piece heralded the trend toward more realism. Myron was acknowledged as one of the first, if
not the

first,

to represent

moving

figures of athletes

In

1982, Nashville sculptor Alan LeQuire

assistants

began

tor Pheiaias's

and

re-creating the ancient

several

Greek sculp-

statue of Athena. The replica stands

almost 42 feet

tall

insiae Nashville's Parthenon.

Opposite: A marble

copy

Thrower stands today

Terme.

in

of the original

bronze Discus

Rome's Museo Nazionale

aelle

and animals. In The Discus Thrower, he captured the

moment just before

when every muscle

the athlete hurls the discus,

is

straining.

One can

almost feel

the motion and the intensity of the action. This tech-

nique became one of the characteristics of the period.

THE DEMISE OF
GREEK SCULPTURE
AsGreekdecades
the

passed,

new

trends emerged.

sculptors of the fourth century B.C.

became more concerned with the reality of their

immediate surroundings. The expression of emotion
in art was emphasized.
One of the great masters of this period was
Praxiteles, whose works were characterized by elegance of proportion and graceful beauty. Lysippos,
the official sculptor of Alexander the Great, also

ranked among the best of the age. One of the most

63

famous pieces
Pergamon

the

of this later period

Frieze,

with

its

was

statue

The Dying Gaul (also called, though

incorrectly, The Dying Gladiator)

movement and heightened

became the chief characterthe Hellenistic 2 style, the name

Increased

expression
istics of

given to the

art, history,

and culture

Greece following the conquests of

of

Alexander the Great.

Unfortunately, the quality of sculp-

tured pieces gradually deteriorated as

the

artists'

Many

ingenuity diminished.

sculptors produced reproductions of

earlier masterpieces instead of creating

their

own works.
seemed

nality

Age

and origiGreece's Golden

Creativity

lost as

faded. In the previous centuries,

had been divided into various

schools of thought, and their works
sculptors

reflected this. Later artists either

copied a particular piece exactly or

based their work on the rules and

beliefs of a certain school.

One

most famous schools

was the Pergamene School. The wellknown group composition known as
Laocoon and His Sons 3 belongs to this
of the

school. In his novel

Christmas Carol,

the English author Charles Dickens

(1812-1870) compared the long comforter

wrapped around Bob

Cratchit's

neck

(scarf)

to the serpents

encircling Laocoon's body.

The
1.

later

Greeks were not the only ones

Pergamon was a

133

b.c.

To

flourishing

Greek

city-state

commemorate Pergamon's

copy

Asia Minor from 282 to

victory over the invading Gauls

b.c), the king of Pergamon commissioned a

that included The Dying Gaul.

(sometime before 230

umphal monument

in

to

tri-

The Greeks referred to themselves as the Hellenes, a derivative of

and the father of the mythical founders of the original
four tribes that inhabited Greece.
2.

Hellen, Zeus's son

the great Trojan War, Laocoon was a Trojan who counselea his countrymen not to accept the Greeks' gift of an enormous wooaen horse. The
gods who favored the Greeks sent serpents from the deep sea to coil
themselves around Laocoon and his sons and kill them. The Trojans
accepted the gift and were defeated by the Greek soldiers hiding inside.
3. In

64

their ancestors' masterpieces.

tact

with the

As Rome came

art of other nations, the style

it

in con-

most

was that of Greece. Rome's sculptors

produced numerous excellent copies of famous Greek
works. Some were for private citizens, others to adorn
readily adopted

Barely able to support himself

Gaul appears bent and

wounded

in

on one arm, The Dying

pain as blood spurts from

his

The twisted collar around his neck,

the mustache, and the hair style suggest he is a Gaul.
right side.

public buildings.

Although the creativity and originality of the earlier Greek artists had been lost, their works had a
great influence on the Roman world. During the
Renaissance and the centuries that followed,
Hellenism, with its superb naturalistic portrayal
of the

human

European

form, became the inspiration for

artists

and

sculptors.

65

ENDANGERED SCULPTURES
original
Many
longer was

classical sculptures

were destroyed when what they represented no

when new rulers sought to suppress the past. Others

and maimed by those who needed pieces of marble, stone, and gold
in fashion or

were mutilated
for

new

statues.

The few

that

remain owe

their survival primarily to accidental burial

in collapsed buildings.

such as Hermes of Praxiteles and Venus de Milo, were hidden and

worshiped in secret by members of various religious sects. Others, because of their
prominent position in a public square or building, were regarded with reverence
and superstition. An example is the equestrian statue of the Roman emperor Marcus
Aurelius (a.d. 121-180) on Rome's Capitoline Hill. During the Middle Ages and the
rise of Christianity, the rider was believed, incorrectly, to be Constantine, the Roman
emperor who in 313 granted Christians the right to practice their religion without

Some

statues,

'

fear of persecution. For this reason, the statue

was

never marred or disfigured.

1

Praxiteles

and

Milo

were the ancient

sculptors of these statues.

ROMAN
SCULPTURE
The RomansRome's

recognized the Greeks as master

sculptors.

In

1537,

when

the

Italian sculptor

and

Michaelangelo (1475-1564) was designing the Piazza del

Campidoglio on the Capitoline Hill, the bronze eguestrian
statue of Marcus Aurelius became the focal point of the
square's design. The statue is now behind glass in the hill's
museum to protect from pollution, weather, and vanit

dalism.

last

painter

conquest of Corinth, the

Greek stronghold,

in 146 B.C.

ushered in

an age of wholesale adaption of Greek sculptural

ideas and techniques. It also signaled the end of creativity and originality among the Greeks, who realized that the Romans sought the works of the early
Greek masters.
In 27 B.C., Octavius Caesar, later known as
Augustus, was declared the leader of the

Roman

world. His rule marked the beginning of the Golden

Age

Rome. Octavius 's determination to beautify

Rome and make the city worthy of being the capital
of the world made Rome a paradise for artists and
sculptors. Because Greek work was especially
prized, Greek artisans flocked to Rome.
Although thousands of Greek statues had been
of

imported prior to this period to adorn Roman

homes, temples, and public buildings, thousands
more were imported now. In addition, numerous

66

Above: Thousands of sarcophagi, each with its own unigue reliefs and
symbolism, have been uncovered among ancient ruins. This one dates to
the 2nd or 3rd century a.d. and is housed in the Archaeology Museum in
Alexandria, Egypt. Right: Discovered
creation, the statue of

snakes encircle

Laocoon and

in

Rome

his

their limbs exemplifies

in

1506, centuries after

two sons

writhing

the style of sculpture

its

pain as

in

known as

Hellenistic.

copies of Greek statues

were made. To display these

works of art, semicircular or rectangular niches and
recessed areas in the walls of buildings became the
fashion. Architects often fronted these areas with a

row

columns or used side columns and a pediment

of

to "outline" the area.

Most

Roman

of the material written about

Greek and

sculpture emphasizes the tremendous legacy

and the work of Roman

sculptors often is overlooked. The Romans, however,
were not pure imitators. They did make contribuof the

Greek

sculptors,

tions to sculpture.

A widely practiced

custom among the Romans was

the making of wax masks of dead family members.
These masks were carefully preserved and treasured.
Roman statues and busts reflected this practice, as
faces became uncompromisingly realistic. No attempt
67

In a.d.

13,

100-foot

the

Roman emperor

column

memorate

in

the Forum at

Trajan erected

Rome to com-

campaigns in Dacia
ana western Rumania).
Inset: Carved on the spiral bana that winas for 215
yaras along the column are scenes illustrating
Trajan's march from Rome and his victory over
his

successful

(present-Pay north-central

the Dacians.

was made to flatter a subject by omitting a disfiguring

mark or blemish. The Roman sculptor's golden rule
was faithfulness to life, and in the field of lifelike por-

Roman artists surpassed all others.

The Romans also excelled in the relief work

traits,

they

fashioned to decorate sarcophagi (large stone boxes

similar to our coffins). Since burial within the walls
of a

Roman

city

was forbidden,

the

Romans

built

mausoleums to house their dead. Often the remains

of a deceased individual were placed in a sarcophagus, the sides of which were covered with low-relief
sculptured panels.

At

first,

the scenes on these panels were allegorical

and mythical. However, as Rome extended its rule

around the Mediterranean world, the depiction of
contemporary events, such as battles and triumphal
marches, came into vogue. The distinguishing char68

GREEK VERSUS
ROMAN SCULPTURE
The Greeks were concerned with the accurate
treatment of the body and muscle structure; the

Romans concentrated on
of an individual's

The portrayal
distinguishing characteristics was so
facial features.

Romans that ready-made statue bodwere mass-produced and available for sale. A
Roman citizen would purchase such a statue and then
commission a sculptor to chisel the desired head and
important to the
ies

face before screwing

it

into the body.

Whereas the Greeks believed

essential aspect of beauty, the

that simplicity

was an

Romans enjoyed adding

superfluous decorations wherever possible. As a

result,

ous

they developed the art of scrollwork and vari-

floral

and

foliage designs for use

on

their private

and public buildings.

Both Greek and Roman sculptors have influenced
the art of the Western world, but the works of the two
groups should not be classified together as classical
sculpture. Rather, each should be appreciated for its

own

merits and contributions.

work was its realistic quality. Soon

were commissioned to fashion sculptured

acteristic of this

sculptors

panels not only for sarcophagi but also for

umphal

altars, tri-

and other public monuments.

In later years, when columns were erected in recognition of outstanding achievements, sculptors were
occasionally commissioned to depict scenes commemorating the event in circular fashion on the column
itself. The Roman emperor Trajan's column in the
Roman forum is perhaps the best existing example.
Another Roman contribution to sculpture was the
equestrian statue. Throughout the Roman world,
arches,

mounted sculptures immortalized Roman

heroes. The tradition survives in the statues we

these

see

adorning public gardens and buildings of the twentieth century.

69

THE
ANCIENT

ART IN
ANCIENT

ARTISTS

GREECE
Greece's mountainous terrain and the three
and Aegean)
tended to isolate the early
but these geographic features also fos-

seas (Mediterranean, Ionian,

that surround
city-states,

it

tered a respect for nature and

ple,

life.

A religious peo-

the ancient Greeks believed that everyone

should give thanks to the immortal gods for the

of

life.

Building a magnificent temple

was one way

of doing this. Creating reproductions of

was

gift

human

life

another.

Greek painting
the fifth-century

as art
B.C.

is

said to have

begun with

painter Polygnotos. Before this

Greek understanding of botany and human

anatomy was limited. Hence, features and posture
were quite severe and unrealistic. Polygnotos is
credited with introducing more realistic features.
Lifelike representations of muscles and joints followed. Using the descriptions and observations of
nature and the animal kingdom made by the fourthcentury B.C. Greek philosopher Aristotle and his followers, the Greeks gradually mastered the art of
portraying the human form artistically.
Because very few Greek paintings survived the
centuries, much of our knowledge about Greek
art comes from the works of Roman writers. (The
Romans imported thousands of pieces of Greek art.)
period,

For example,

Roman

authors

tell

us that the Greeks

generally used only a few colors in their

tion, early

terns.

As

art.

In addi-

designs often were simple, repeated pat-

far as materials,

Greek painters used a

and easel paintings. The

variety of brushes for wall

coarser type

was made

textured sponge.

of bristles, the finer of close-

large piece of

sponge served as

both an eraser and a means of washing out the brush.

The ancient Greeks enjoyed

70

fresco painting, a

on freshly spread
plaster before it dried. First, a wet surface was carefully prepared. Mortar remains damp longer and
does not require rewetting each day if it is laid
thickly, so a thick layer of sand mortar and marble
stucco was the norm. The painter used a brush and
water colors. The water in the paint and the water
in the mortar combined to give added strength and

method

that involved painting

durability to the painting. Since varnish as a protective surface

was unknown,

folding doors

were some-

times constructed to cover and guard a painting.

Another technique of painting discovered during

the fifth century B.C. but not really developed until
the fourth century

was

the encaustic method.

Paintings of this type have not survived,

and ancient

accounts of them are sketchy. Essentially, the

used colored

wax

to create a scene

on stucco.

Historians believe that the Greeks melted the

and then kept

fied,

in a pot.

it

When

the

wax had

was polished (rubbed with

the design

artist

wax

solidi-

wax

candle), then cleaned with a linen cloth. Later, the

colors of the picture

were

fixed

by passing a hot

blend of wax, stucco, and/or ashes over the design.

This method, though slow and tedious, produced

works

that

were durable and whose colors were

bright

and

attractive.

In 1977, several royal tombs (one thought to be

that of Philip

II,

the father of Alexander the Great)

were discovered

at Vergina,

find has yielded

numerous works

Greece. This exciting

of art.

Today

archaeologists and historians continue to excavate

the area, seeking

ods and styles of

more information about the meththe ancient Greek painters.

PARRHASIOS'S

CURTAIN
Paintings to deceive the eye seemed to be the goal
of two fifth-century B.C. Greek painters named
Parrhasios and Zeuxis. Contemporaries, they knew
each other well. Parrhasios hailed from the Greek
colony of Ephesos in Asia Minor and Zeuxis from
71

Greek colony of Herakleia in southern Italy.

Both were master artists, famed for their accurate,
detailed, and extremely realistic scenes.
According to the ancient Greeks, Parrhasios and
the

Zeuxis once challenged each other to

The heated debates that had

arisen between their loyal followers
had forced them to find some means
of determining which one was better.
a contest.

FROM PAUSANIAS'5
GUIDE TO GREECE
Pausanias, a second-century
writer, described

Volume
tells of

many

a.d.

Greek

traveler

Neither rejoiced
but each took

and

very seriously and

spent weeks hidden

of the paintings he saw. In

away

in his stu-

dio drafting and redrafting his entry.

Book X, of his Guide to Greece, Pausanias

building whose walls had been painted by

I,

it

at the opportunity,

Finally, the

arrived.

Polygnotos:

day of the contest

Hundreds of followers waited

room that had been

outside the great

Above

Kassotis

[a

spring in central Greece near Delphi]

prepared for the event. Inside,

Parrhasios and Zeuxis waited motionless and expressionless, neither one

by Polygnotos.... The
Delphians call it the Club-House because this is where they
met in ancient times both for storytelling and for serious
conversations.... As you enter the building, a painting
depicts the fall of Troy and the Greeks as they sailed
is

a building with paintings

betraying his intense anticipation.

Beside each was his entry, covered

own

away.... In another scene, Polygnotos painted Nestor [a

with

Greek king] with a hat on his head and a spear in his hand;
there is also a horse which is about to roll in the sand; the
beach comes as far as the horse and you can even see the
pebbles.... Such is the beauty of the painting.

gold cord.

its

When

bound by

room could hold no more

the doors were closed. The

the

spectators,

silence

curtain and

was deafening.

"You,

"may go

my

friend," said Parrhasios,

^irst."

Zeuxis nodded. Before pulling the gold cord to

draw back the curtain covering his painting, Zeuxis

opened a cage that he had brought with him and set
loose a small flock of birds. Then, as the curtain

fell,

crowd gasped. Was it a painting or a table set

with a bowl of grapes? Even the birds seemed to
stop midway in flight. Before anyone could speak,
the birds flew straight toward the grapes and began
to nibble. But all they tasted was paint. Zeuxis's followers applauded and cheered their hero.
the

"Your turn, Parrhasios," Zeuxis

Parrhasios

bowed

slightly.

He

said.

raised his

pull the gold cord, then stopped with his

midair.

"My

He

hesitated

and turned

dear friend, Zeuxis," he

the honor of uncovering

72

my

hand

arm

to

in

to Zeuxis.

said,

"would you do

painting?"

"Most certainly!" Zeuxis replied,

and without a moment's hesitation,

he reached out his hand to pull the
cord. But there was no cord. The
curtain and the gold cord were
Parrhasios's entry.

After a long silence, Zeuxis finally

regained his composure. "Congratulations,

my friend,"

he

said. "Certainly

you have won. I deceived only the

birds; you deceived me."

ROMAN ART
Roman
decoration

painting

The

was generally confined

to the

of the interior walls of buildings.

from mythological topics

to scenes of daily life. After Rome's conquest of
Greece in 146 B.C., Greek works of art found a ready
and eager market in Rome. Greek artists were in
great demand, and Roman artists imitated their ideas.
The Romans used the fresco method of painting.
Roman writers tell us that artists painted on a base
consisting of three layers of sand mortar followed by
two or three layers of marble mortar. (The Romans
subjects varied

understood the importance of thick mortar, just as

The artists then smoothed and flattened the surface by rubbing a piece of wood across
it. Roman artists used brushes and water colors. The
water in the paints combined with the water and
lime in the mortar to make the wall and the painting
one unit. This process did not work with certain colors, however, and other binding substances, such as
milk, were used.
Four of the world's best-known paintings were
the Greeks had.)

buried during the a.d. 79 eruption of

Mount

Vesuvius. Three were discovered in Pompeii: Venus

Marina

(also called

Top: From August 24 to 26,

erupted, destroying
Pompeii. Centuries

dug down
adorn

their

a.d. 79,

Mount Vesuvius

many surrounding

later,

towns, including

treasure hunters haphazardly

into the Puried city, seeking artifacts to

homes and

to

sell. In

new director
done there and

1860, the

of the site reorganized the work Peing

set rules for orderly, scientific excavations, Below:

Roman

worshiped special personal deities

protected and guarded their
homes. A small shrine called a lararium, which usually
resemPled the fagade of a temple, was erected near
the entrance. Statues or figures painted directly on the
wall represented the deities. Pictures of snakes were
common, as they were considered good luck.
families

whom they Pelieved

Venus on the Half Shell), Garden

House of Venus Marina, and Portrait of a

Husband and Wife. A fourth painting, The Centaur
Scene

in the

Chiron Trains Young Achilles

found

in

in the

Art of Music, was

Herculaneum.
73

These frescoes and others have provided some of

the best illustrations of ancient mythology. In addition,

many

of the landscape paintings are serenely

began in the 1700s,

throughout the world have painted their

beautiful. Since the excavations

artists

interpretations of these ancient scenes.

THE FOUR STYLES OF

ROMAN PAINTING
The First Style was the simplest, with
pictures.

little

color

Sometimes the wall was divided by

and few

lines or geo-

metric patterns of another color.

The Second Style incorporated pictures, architectural landand vistas into its design. Figures also were introduced.
The Third Style was much more elaborate. A landscape
scene was used as a backdrop, and a single figure or group of
figures was painted in the foreground. Both the Second and
Third styles added visually to the dimensions of the house or
building by giving the viewer the impression that he or she
was looking at a serene outdoor scene.
The Fourth Style was flamboyant and often impressionistic. The architectural vistas of the Second Style were reintroduced, and almost every part of the frame was filled with
drawings of figures, statuary, and even landscape scenes.
scapes,

GREEK VERSUS

ROMAN ART
Greek paintings are easily distinguished from their
Roman

counterparts.

The Greeks

treated daily

life ideal-

and at times quite unrealistically All was fresh, simple,

and beautiful. In contrast, the Romans were concerned with
the daily life of the craftsmen. Market scenes were common.
The Roman artists excelled in portraiture, and their death
masks were very realistic.
ly

74

THE
VASE

THE GREEK
POTTER

MAKERS

Greek civilization can be traced through a study of Greek

vases. In very ancient times, gourds were hol-

The growth and advancement

lowed out

to serve as containers. After the proper-

ties of clay

began

became

better understood,

to fashion clay pots, using

Gradually, clay

was used

and drinking

jugs,

of

Greek potters

gourds as models.

to fashion all types of jars,

vessels. Therefore,

it is

not sur-

prising that thousands of these vessels have sur-

vived the centuries,

many

completely

intact.

were shaped according to the intended

The designs were functional and practical, with

Vessels
use.

nothing unnecessary added. Rather than search for

new and different shapes, Greek potters preferred
to perfect existing designs until a graceful

balance

between functionalism and beauty was achieved.

Deposits of

clay,

a product of the continued weath-

and erosion of the earth's surface, were, and

still are, found in abundance throughout Greece.
Potters mixed various clays to obtain a certain color
or special characteristics. (Clays differ in color and
properties, and not all are suitable for making pottery.) The deposits found in the area around Corinth,
in central Greece, were whitish in color. The clay
found in eastern Greece, in the area called Attica,
was reddish brown due to the presence of iron.
"Raw" clay had to be purified, as it came out of the
quarry mixed with sand, small stones, decayed vegetable matter, and other foreign materials. To do this,
workers combined the clay with water and then put
the mixture in a huge basin. The heavier impurities
settled to the bottom, and the clay, which rose to the
ering

surface, was pumped into another basin. This process

was repeated until the workers deemed the clay fine
enough to use for pottery. The type of vessel to be

made

dictated the degree of purity required

the

more delicate the vessel, the finer the clay.

Once the clay was considered pure enough, it was
allowed to set for several months. This was neces75

sary for the clay to retain

its

shape during molding.

After the setting period, the potter beat the clay to

obtain a smooth consistency and to remove air bubbles.

The

potter then placed a ball of clay on his

wheel is believed to
have been invented in Asia Minor sometime around
3000 B.C.) Worked by a helper's hand (foot-operated
wheels were unknown to the ancients), the wheel
allowed the potter to use both hands in shaping the
clay. The rotation of the wheel created a momentum
that transferred the energy to the clay, making the
latter more pliable and easier to shape.
Once the potter had obtained the desired form, he
left the clay to dry. When the vessel was dry, the potter placed it on the wheel a second time and removed
any unwanted clay with metal, bone, or wooden
tools. He then smoothed the surface with a wet
sponge and added handles, feet, and pedestals. To
remove the vessel from the wheel, the potter pulled a
wire or cord under the clay as it turned on the wheel.
Very large containers were made in sections and
then joined together so skillfully with wet clay that
the joints were invisible. Completed vases were kept
in a damp room until they were ready to be decorated and fired in a special oven called a kiln.
The technique of firing dried clay in a kiln to
make it a hard, useful material had been discovered
thousands of years earlier, but the process had been
greatly refined over the centuries. The Greek kiln
had two areas, one in which the potter stacked his
pots and the other in which the fire burned. At the
top of the kiln was a vent hole or chimney, which
rotating wheel. (The potter's

was covered

at certain

times during the firing

had a door and a spy hole so

that the potter could monitor the firing process. To
check their work, potters used test pieces with holes
in them. The potter could easily remove a test piece
with a hooked stick to check whether it was "done."
The production of pottery was one of Greece's
most active industries. Greek potters were considered the best in ancient times, and Greek vases
were exported to communities throughout the
Mediterranean world. Many twentieth-century potters and interior decorators have been inspired by
the simple beauty of ancient Greek vases.
process.

76

Each

kiln also

DECORATING
A GREEK VASE
In

very ancient times, potters rarely decorated

their products. Gradually, however, incised

and techniques such

lines

as pinching the

rim

of a vessel to create a decorative

touch were introduced. Potters

also realized that the

method

firing affected the color of

clay. If

fire

^miMi^WJIxu >sr

red

the fire burned freely, the

product was buff-red.

final

of

was smothered,

it

was

If

the

gray-

black.

As potters became more daring,

they began to fashion vases covered with geometric designs.
Later,

human and animal

figures

were added. Soon potters began

to treat vases as painters use can-

vases and drew scenes depicting

the deities and their exploits,

Greek heroes, military expediand daily life.

Most Greek vases are classified

tions,

according to the color of the

fig-

ures. In the earlier black-figured

style,

the painter used a brush

to paint

black-enamel figures on

the vase. Details were added by

incising lines in the silhouette

with a small, pointed instrument

that cut through the enamel to

body of the vase.

the more advanced red-figured

The stamnos held wine or

the clay
In

style,

oil.

the

painter outlined the figures in silhouette and

covered the rest of the vase with black enamel.

This method gradually superseded others, as

enhanced the beauty of the figures. Details

were applied with a brush rather than using the
it

difficult

process of incising

lines.

77

THE SHAP
The Greek potter fashioned a great variety of
vases, each with

its

houettes here illustrate

The

phiale

was

own

some

specific use.

The

of the vessels

sil-

made.

a saucer-shaped drinking vessel.

The holmos was

a drinking vessel.

The kyathos was used to ladle or pour out wine and

came in various sizes to hold specific amounts.
The karchesion was
The kantharos was

a drinking vessel.
a drinking vessel with

two high

vertical handles.

The amphora was one of the most

commonly used
halfway

in

jars.

It

was

either buried

kalpis

The

hydria

was used

for

was used

for

drawing and holding water.

It usually had three handles a small one on each
side for carrying water and another for drawing
and pouring out water.

the ground or set slanting

against the wall. Store owners used

amphorae

The

to

drawn from

keep honey and wine

large, fermenting vats.

drawing and holding water.

It usually had three handles a small one on each
side for carrying water and another for drawing
and pouring out water.

The krater was used to mix wine with

water at meals. Sometimes it had a
stand to support its rounded, pointed
or pedestalea bottom.

fEUS AU
was used

for storage.

The kelebe was used

and water.

for storage

and

The askos resembled

a goatskin

and was used

The

pelike

for

mixing wine

for

transporting wine.

The legoena was hung as a sign in front of wine

shops and was put before guests at table.
The alabastron was used for fragrant ointments. Its
narrow neck allowed the liquid to run out in
drops. Its round bottom required a stand for support.

The aryballos held oil used in anointing the dead.

Greek women also used it to keep perfumes and
oils. Its narrow neck allowed the liquid to run out
in drops.

The bombylios was

row mouth.

The lekane was

The

a drinking vessel with a very nar-

The olnochoe was a wine container

that took its shape from that of wineskins

the leather bags country folk

used to store wine and

oil.

a storage vessel.

kylix (left

and below) was a shallow

had a

drinking vessel that usually

pedestaled

foot.

The lekyfhos held oil used in anointing

the dead. Greek women also used it to
keep perfumes and oils. Its narrow neck
allowed the liquid to run out in drops.

79

PROJECT

DESIGN A MOSAIC
For thousands of years,

artists

and craftspeople have used pebbles, tiny pieces of stone or

ble,

and, in

some

mar-

areas, glass to

on
and

surfaces

create pictures

flat

such as floors

walls.

These

pictures are called mosaics.

Some mosaics

are quite simple;

others are extremely intricate

and detailed.
Greek craftsmen
century

B.C.

of the fifth

refined the art of

making mosaics. Using white

and black pebbles, all similar
size,

in

they created various floor

designs. For variety, fourth-

Greeks added red

and green painted pebbles. Soon
century

B.C.

thereafter, cut pieces of stone or

marble were used. Craftsmen of

the Hellenistic period introduced

refinement that added

and allowed mosaics to be
used as windows or on walls.
The Romans loved to decorate
glass, a

color

their floors

with mosaics.

Many

have been uncovered, still intact,

at excavation sights throughout
the ancient

The

Roman

world.

directions given here are

mosaic made out of paper.

However, if you live in an area
where small, round pebbles can
for a

be found in abundance, you

might want

to try

making a

mosaic out of pebbles.

illustrated

by Annette Cate

You Need
pencil

paper
the
sand or dirt (enough to
box bottom to a depth of
plain white

fill

sides

about

was used
as the packing box for an
box

is

one

that

appliance such as a refrigerator, stove, or washing

machine. Appliance box
bottoms usually have a
metal tape that holds the
cardboard sides in place.
This makes a perfect mosaic
bed. Call ahead to an
appliance store in your area
and ask them to save one
for you.)

glue
construction paper

in

vari-

ety of colors

corrugated cardboard (Call

ahead to a supermarket
and ask them to save you
several empty packing
boxes. Before beginning

half-moons, and circles. For

greater ease when fashioning

your mosaic, do not cut the

pieces too small. Also, leave
larger pieces of each color
uncut so that when you need
a particular shape as you
fashion your mosaic, you will
be able to custom-cut that
piece.
6. Carefully arrange the cut
pieces, one at a time, on top
of your design. Press each
piece slightly into the sand or

As you

you

will

fill

in

need

the design,
to custom-cut

pieces to fit, First measure

each space, then cut the
required piece out of the
appropriate colored paper
Fill in every empty space in

pencil design of

this

your mosaic on the white

paper. Mark which sections or
pieces will be which color.
2. Spread the sand or dirt
evenly on the box bottom.

paper into souares, diamonds, rectangles, triangles,

tion

7.

scissors

Make a

to

dirt.

the project, cut the sides

to the size needed for your
mosaic.)

1.

paper

the pieces aside until the

glue is dry.
5. Cut the pieces of corrugated cardboard and construc-

2 inches high (The best type

of

tip of

a piece of
corrugated cardboard. Set

struction

inch)

box bottom with

With the

your pencil,
trace your mosaic design in
the sand or dirt.
4. Glue each piece of con3.

8.

manner.

Check

to see

if

you need to

make any changes

ished design.

If

not,

You have
pleted a mosaic.

lations!

#
s

in the fincongratu-

just

com-

A GREEK AND
ROMAN MATCH

PAT

Match each clue with the appropriate phrase. The answers can be
found in the articles on Greek and Roman sculpture, pages 62-69,
and on page 149.
a.

here.

c. Facial features

The Greeks strongly

believed that this was an
essential aspect of beauty.

Mediterranean island of
Crete
e. Octavius Caesar
f. The Discus Thrower

2.

3.

Work by master Athenian

sculptor Myron.
4.

Two

Greek

7.

i.

sculptors

concen-

realistically.

One

of

Rome's contribu-

tions to the world of sculpture.

8.

The

en
9.

Roman

sculptor's gold-

rule.

During

his rule,

Rome was a

sculptors' paradise.

The Roman statue of this

person survived the Middle
10.

Ages because

it

was

incor-

thought to represent
Constantine the Great.
rectly

Roman emperor Marcus

sculpture.

Roman

very

g. Simplicity

Aurelius

trated on portraying these

life

d.

characteristics of early

sculptured work belongs

to the Pergamene School.
6.

b. Faithfulness to

h.

5. This

82

Laocoon and His Sons

Greek sculpture was

believed to have originated
1.

Standing facing

front, styl-

ized hair
j.

Equestrian statue

PUZZLE
PAGES

CROSSWORD PUZZLE
DOWN

ACROSS
I.

4.
6.

Greek philosopher
Fifth-century b.c. Greek painter
Romans usea this to smooth anp

flatten

23.

They have told us most of what

excelled

Secona

in this field

we know

Style of

Roman

painting

12.

Greek painters knew that a

this

was best

thick layer of

for fresco painting

20.

sea borders Greece

Works of art were found in tombs here
Greek painters useO this as an eraser
Century (b.c) when Greek painting began

22.

Number

16.
19.

area

it

15. This

here
of this

real

the encaustic methoa, the Greeks used

this to polish their aesigns (two words)
10. To protect paintings, the Greeks sometimes used these

about Greek painting

Venus on the Half Shell was uncoverea
artists

was so

9. In

24.

Roman

in

Type of cloth Greeks used to clean design

painted by the encaustic methoa
8. These landscapes were common to the

sea boraers Greece

Roman

of this

5.

birds

21.

maOe

painters used most

painting of a curtain
fooled another painter

25.

A technigue Greek

4. His

the Third Style of Roman painting, this

type of scene was the usual backdrop
II A painting of the Centaur Chiron was
uncoverea here
13. Greeks liked this type of painting
14. This sea boraers Greece
1 7. His grapes were so real they fooled the
7. In

artists

Fine

3.

the fourth century

fresco paintings

18. This

Greek brushes were

2.

often incorporatea scenes

into their paintings

of styles of

Roman

painting

12

13

14

15

16

120

21

25

The answers can be found

in

the articles on Greek

and Roman

art,

pages

70-74,

ana on page

149.

83

pnzaE
PAGES

A POTTER'S SCRAMBLE
Unscramble the
clues.

eight

Then place

jumbled words

numbered
name given

the

lines to discover the

The answers can be found

75-79, and on page 149.

ters.

1.

determine the answers to the

on the corresponding blank

to

letters

made by

to the vases

Greek potters used these as

early

on Greek

in the articles

Greek

models,

their

dusgor
"

8
2.

10

The ancients used

alyc

material to

this

make

storage containers,

"

4
3. This

is

nilk

potter's oven.

"

5
4. This

process was used to bake the clay,

rgifin

"

a potter kept
rakgbcaly

5.

If

If

a potter

let

the

fubdfer

"

fire

burn

"

The Greek potter used

heyopls

this

to

hris

pieces inside the

this

during the

firing

process,

"

name

check

sometimes covered

heymnic

given to the

11

style of

vases

potters:

12345

84

this color,

"
"

The

the vase turned

12

7.

Potters

freely,

_-_
"

8.

this color,

-_
"

6.

smothered, the vase turned

his fire

67 89

10 1112

made

pot-

pottery, pages

by early Greek

kiln,

COMPANION
Topics for Comparison
1.

Roman

artists are

Explain

considered mas-

Yet the Greek tale

and Parrhasios points to a

What

ters at realism.

get

of Zeuxis

3.

desire for incredible realism.

Com-

why

this

satisfaction

from acting

Roman

behavior occurs.

identify the style?

do the "destroyers"

you

way?
were realists.

was portrayed

ject's face

figured?

this

artists

as

is.

What

of

does this reflect about the thinking of

the

and the Romans' approach.

2. Both Greece and Rome experienced a Golden Age. Yet this period

4.

The

nations differently.

stressed. What does this reflect

about the thinking of the Greeks?
5. The Greeks were very concerned

contrast the styles

with beauty and attempted

when

of the

the arts flourished affected the

Golden Age

Compare and
and tendencies
artists of

both

nations.
3.

A Roman

buy

could walk into a shop,

and then have

a head fashioned. An ancient Greek
would have scoffed at this. Compare
and contrast these two lines of
a headless statue,

thought.
4.

Compare

the four styles of

Roman

What do you think the

each was? Which do you

wall painting.

purpose of
prefer?
5.

Why?

The Romans marked

plishments with
capital city of

picture

book

their

monuments

Rome. Find

accomin the

a detailed

of Washington, D.C.

Describe the monuments we have

used to decorate our capital and the
significant events they

commemo-

rate.

were

to

Yet
the Greeks never added any unnecexpress

it

in all their creations.

essary decorations.

Why?

Throughout the Western world,

equestrian statues, modeled after
those fashioned by the ancient Romans, have been erected to honor
national and military heroes. Research some modern examples of
such statues.
7. Athens and Sparta were rival
Greek city-states. Many of Greece's
most famous architects, artists,
sculptors, and philosophers were
Athenians. Sparta left no traces of
cultural achievements. Could the fact
that Athens promoted a democratic
form of government and Sparta an
aristocratic form of government have
contributed to the cultural growth
and achievement (or lack thereof) in
6.

Suggestions for Writing

each city-state?

Assignments
1. Greek sculpture

Further Activities

an

art

museum

do they

Roman

wing

Com-

near you.

pare the Greek and

How

body's proportions and superb form

do

Why?

3. Visit the classical sculpture

Greeks' approach toward realism

idealists.

style

A sub-

pare the differences between the

Romans?
Greek artists were

Which

prefer: red-figured or black-

statues.

differ?

Go to the library and take out a

book on Pompeii. Look for one that
has color reproductions of the rooms
that have been uncovered. Can you

4.

identify the styles used to decorate

the walls?
5.

Try

book that has illusfamous paintings dis-

to find a

trations of the

covered during the excavations of

Pompeii and Herculaneum. (Many
books on the history of art include
paintings from these

two ancient

cities.)

6. If there is a potter or a pottery-

making factory near you,

ask to

visit.

See

how

today. Are there

call

pottery

any ways

in

and

is

made

which

modern methods resemble ancient

techniques? (Another suggestion:

you

live

near a historical

replicates early

If

site that

American life, visit

compare tech-

the potter at the site to

niques.)

Topics for Debate

1 Rome conquered Greece on the
battlefield, but Greece conquered
Rome in the field of art and sculp.

ture.
reflects Greece's

Greek

Become

2. Greece's defeat at the

Greece's history, the rise of democracy and the Golden Age, and Greece's

and design a
vase. (You can fashion your vase out
of modeling clay or draw the design
on paper.) First decide what its use

conquest by Rome.

will be.

political fortunes. Relate

sculpture to the early period of

a potter

Romans

hands of the

more to the
originality in Greek sculp-

contributed

decline of

ture than did the

Romans' desire

for

copies of the fifth-century master

Then design the style so that

you can color it authentically. After

sculptors' works.

ments were destroyed by new rulers

who came to power. This pattern has

your work is complete, test your

design by asking your family,

Parrhasios

continued throughout history. After

the fall of the Berlin Wall in

friends, or classmates to guess the

winner. Parrhasios deceived only the

purpose for which your vase could

be used.
2. Visit an art museum that houses a
collection of Greek vases. Study the

sense of sight. Zeuxis deceived two

2.

Many

ancient sculptural

Germany and

monu-

the breakup of the

Union in the early 1990s, the

wall and many of the statues of former rulers were destroyed. Give
other examples of this phenomenon.
Soviet

shapes.

Can you

3.

According

to the ancient Greeks,

won

the art contest, but

Zeuxis should have been

named

the

senses sight and smell.

identify the uses

before reading the plates?

Can you

85

\\

Compare with such

indispensable structures
as these aqueducts which carry so many
waters the idle pyramids or the useless,

although famous, works of the Greeks,"

Frontinus, lst-century a.d.

86

Roman water commissioner

ARTICLES
The Timeless Via Appia

The

Roman Aqueduct

ROME'S

As the Water Flows

Preventive Maintenance

The Magnificent Colosseum

The Structure
'There

Will

What's

in

Itself

INGENIOUS
ENGINEERS

Be Awnings

a Name?

Mock Naval
Hadrian's

Battles

Mausoleum

From Tomb to

Fortress

PROJECT
Construct a

Roman Road

PUZZEE PAGES

A Wet Scramble
A Colossal Puzzle
A Wordy Fortress

COMPANION

CHAPTER
The buildings mentioned in this chapter are in chronological order
according to the date of the beginning of their construction.

87

stones could speak, those along the Via Appia

(Appian Way) would give the world a fascinating

.account of more than two thousand years of his-

tory. In

ancient times, those stones withstood the

feet of

\/

-m-vt^t

/\

Roman

soldiers

and proud but dejected captives from

Europe, Asia, and Africa. Similarly, in
the twentieth century, they have felt
the feet of soldiers from many nations
fighting in both world wars and states-

THE TIMELESS
^ _
_

triumphant

tt

AA \^\^\ r\

men journeying

to

Rome

for interna-

tional meetings.

Named for Appius Claudius Caecus, the Roman

censor who commissioned its construction about
312

B.C.,

the Via Appia

Roman

was probably

the

first

As the Roman world

expanded, Rome's leaders recognized the need for a
reliable system of communication between the seat
of government in Rome and the far-flung provinces.
An international road system was their answer. The
implementation of this plan began with the Via
Appia, which measured approximately three hundred fifty miles in length, and continued until paved
roads, many of which are still used today, crissgreat

road to be

built.

Roman Empire.
made possible a great exchange

crossed the entire

These roads

of

and commercial products and fostered a spirit of unity ajnong Rome's subjects. Along
the Via Appia and other main roads, posting houses
with fresh teams of horses and vehicles and resting
stations or inns were available.
Today a walk along the Via Appia transports visitors
ideas, customs,

back across the centuries to the time of the ancient

Romans. The way is lined with the ruins
of ancient monuments, tombstones, and mausoleums.
(Burial within the city walls

Rome.) The

was prohibited

in ancient

composer Ottorino Respighi

(1879-1936) was so moved by this area that he wrote
a symphonic piece titled The Pines of Rome. The fourth
movement, called "Pines of the Appian Way," embodies his vision of the glories of Rome. As the trumpets
blare and the orchestral forces gather strength into a
mighty crescendo (increase in volume of sound), every
listener

88

can

Italian

feel the tread of the

Roman

soldiers' feet

as they

accompany

their general in

the traditional

tri-

umphal march
along the Appian

Way to

the Capi-

toline Hill in the

center of Rome.

The Via Appia

is still

in

such

good condition
that present-day
Italian

road engi-

neers have

fol-

lowed the path

of the old

Roman

road, used

its

foundations to
strengthen their

own
left

roads,

and

various sec-

tions

untouched

in silent testimony
to the ancient

Romans.

As 20th-century Romans
zoom along the Appian
Way, the monuments

and

ruins along the road

remind them ot their illus-

trious past.

89

The maintenance

of a steady water supply

government.

priority for every

is

When Rome's

leaders realized that the Tiber River

and

nearby streams did not supply enough water

the city's increasing needs,

its

to

meet

Roman

were ordered to develop a

and efficient method of import-

architects

THE ROMAN
AQUEDUCT

reliable

ing water.

Roman aqueduct was built

Named the Appia in honor

The

first

in

312

B.C.

of

Appius Claudius Caecus, the public

charge of public works at the

official in

time, this structure

long,

with

its

was approximately eleven miles

greater portion laid underground. Forty

later, another aqueduct, the Anio, was built.

As Rome continued to grow in power and size,
more structures were needed
to transport water from the
springs and streams in Italy's

years

144

interior. In

B.C.,

the Marcia

was begun. This aqueduct

stretched across more than
sixty miles of Italian country-

side

and traveled above ground

as

carried

it

its

exceptionally

cold and sparkling water to the

ed^ that the

It has been calculatMarcia could supply

Rome with

forty million gallons

capital city.

of water every day.

By
a.d.,

the end of the

first

century

nine aqueducts covering

about three hundred miles

entered Rome, with a daily input
of

more than two hundred thou-

sand gallons of water. In a.d. 97,

assumed the
curator aquarum

Julius Frontinus

position of

(caretaker of the waters, or

water commissioner) Frontinus

.

greatly

improved

this magnifi-

cent engineering system.

detailed plans

made

He had

of each

aqueduct, especially of those

90

sites that

required extra care. His

Aqueducts

of the City of Rome

work About

the

has helped historians

and archaeologists understand the construction, size,

and capacity of the Roman water system.
Today the term "aqueduct" brings to mind the
image of a massive but graceful double- or tripletiered series of arches spanning a valley. However,
such arched bridges were rare, for they were veryexpensive to build. The Romans preferred to run the
aqueducts along the ground or under the ground.
Once the water reached Rome, it was diverted to
areas such as the great public baths, businesses

requiring water (such as cleaners and tanners), fountains (both drinking and ornamental), and arenas in
which naumachiae (mock naval battles) were held.
The Romans' development of the arch and a type
of cement that hardens and sets underwater allowed
them to build these aqueducts. Many are still in use
today, as are the ancient reservoirs, which aid farm-

ers in irrigating their fields.

THE WATER FEOWS

AS

The Latin term for "aqueduct," aqueductus,

the Latin
leading)

word aquae

Most

(of

the Anio River and

its

from

is

water) and ductus

of the water entering

Under the Roman emperor Augustus (27 b.c-a.d.14), the

aqueduct known today as the Pont du Gard (Bridge of the
Gard) was constructed to carry water across the Gard
River to the Roman-occupied French city of Nimes (above
and page 90).

(a

Rome came from

springs located in the foothills

of the Apennines.

The ancients followed

several rules

when

seeking

Whenever a new fount

was found, the surrounding land was dug out to create a reservoir where the water could accumulate.
This area was enclosed with a wall. Since the
Romans had no pumps or engines to force the water
to flow down or up under pressure, as we do in our
suitable sources of water.

water systems, the reservoir had to be located above

the channels of the aqueduct so that the water could

down the slope and into the channel.

The Romans usually built the channels of

flow

tine or peperino,
tral Italy.

two types

The trough

of stone

of the channel

traver-

common
was

stone and lined with a very hard cement

to cen-

of brick or

made

lime-pounded brick or pottery and pozzolana

of

(a vol-

91

making hydraulic cement, which

hardens underwater). The Romans usually covered
the channels to protect the flowing water from
storms, exposure to the sun, and contamination by
canic rock used in

airborne objects. However, because

Roman

engi-

neers believed that a totally covered channel would

create problems with air pressure, they

made

air

holes at regular intervals in the roof of the channel

when one

channel was placed on top

of another. To ventilate the channels that ran below
or in the sides

ground, they constructed shafts of masonry to carry

the air to the surface.

Because the water had

great distances,

Roman

be transported across
architects had to plan for
to

every type of terrain. Two- and three-tiered masonry

arches were constructed to cross valleys. Channels
built of stone blocks
hills,

were used

to tunnel

through

and openings resembling channels were made

rocky cliffs.
Often lead or terra-cotta (clay) pipes were used
instead of a channel or within a channel to transport
in

the water. Each pipe

was

at least ten feet long. Its

width depended on its use. Lead pipes were cemented together at the joints; clay pipes fit inside one
another. Since a perfect setting of the joints

was

the

key to a good system, the first water that flowed

through the pipes was mixed with ashes. These
ashes settled into the joint areas and further cemented them.
Because this type of pipe construction was more
flexible than stone masonry, it allowed Roman engineers more latitude in planning the routes of their
water systems. Water could now be carried around
instead of through a hill. Also, valleys of more than

one hundred fifty feet were no longer obstacles.

Pipes could be placed up and down the sides and
across the floor of a valley.
In Rome, the water poured into a vast reservoir

aquarum (shelter of waters). Usually

main castellum was a highly decorated building.
Inside was one vast, cement-lined chamber with a
vaulted roof supported by massive pillars. Pipes carried the water from this castellum to three smaller
called a castellum

the

castella (the plural of castellum) located

92

throughout

PREVENTIVE MAINTENANCE

tremendous amount of care went into overseeing the aqueduct system. Before Octavius
Caesar (later known as Augustus) became the ruler of the Roman world in 31 B.C., public

known

offi-

and regulated the waterworks. Augustus recognized the need

for a special board of overseers and created the position of water commissioner. By the end of the
first century A.D., this branch of the government consisted of several officials, who supervised
more than four hundred fifty maintenance workers.
The construction of new pipes and major repairs were done by private contractors. To control
the need for repairs, the Roman government passed a variety of regulations. One law stipulated
that a strip of land fifteen feet wide on either side of an aqueduct was to be kept absolutely free
and untouched, especially of plantings whose roots might damage the aqueduct.
To create a smoothly flowing water channel down the side and across the floor of a valley, an
elbow-shaped piece of cement was formed with a round hole through the center. The pipe extending down the hill fit into the top opening and the valley-floor pipe into the other opening. Essential
to a continuous flow of water was a gradual sloping of the channels and pipes. As a result, many
cials

as censors maintained

aqueducts took quite a circuitous route before reaching their

final destination.

Due to the effect of climatic changes on construction materials, repairs were frequently required.
Here again, the Romans' superior understanding of the principles of engineering is evident. When
an aqueduct was closed for repair, the water flowing in the channel had to be stopped. To prevent
a water shortage, the

course so that

the

city.

if

Romans

often built reservoirs at convenient points along the aqueduct's

one section required some type of maintenance, only that length had

The system was

to

be closed.

so well engineered that one

any excess water,

public ponds and fountains.

of the smaller castella received

which was then used in

Whenever a water shortage occurred, the public

offi-

immediately closed this reservoir.

The flow of water was controlled by using vari-

cials

ous-sized pipes. Records

water being distributed.

and the

were kept of the amount of

Businesses, homeowners,

were all assessed for their water use.

In early Rome, citizens were forbidden to divert any
water from the aqueducts for private use. Only the
water that escaped because of flaws in the pipes and
channels could be used. Later this law was revised
to allow private individuals to insert a branch pipe
into the main pipe or channel to divert water into
state

water shelters). A lead cistern was built within the house to collect and store
castella privata (private

the water.

93

THE MAGNIFICENT
COEOSSEUM
"Quamdiu stabit Coliseus,

stabit et

Roma;

Quamdiu cadit Coliseus, cadet et Roma;

Quando cadit Roma, cadet et mundus. "

'While the

When

Colosseum stands, Rome

the Colosseum

When Rome

falls,

falls,

Rome

the world

The Venerable Bede

(a.d.

to

stand;

will fall;

will fall."

672/73-735),

English historian and Benedictine

The

will

Venerable Bede's prophecy

monk

may

still

prove

be correct. Although people, in their quest

and progress, have

for power, prosperity,

caused great damage to the Colosseum as well as to

Rome, both still stand, and the world continues.

Roman emperor
Colosseum was officially
dedicated the year after Vespasian's death by his son
and successor, Titus. Within its walls, surrounded
by a dazzling display of magnificence and extravaBegun during the

Vespasian

rule of the

69-79), the

(a.d.

gance, the poorest citizen could share in the wealth

and power of the empire. No mention of any riot or

uncontrollable crowd appears in any of the works
by ancient authors.
For generations, the magnificence and size of the
gladiatorial combats and other games held in the
Colosseum increased as each emperor attempted
outdo his predecessor. Gradually however, as
Christianity and its philosophy of the value of life

to

Titus died in a.d.

year by Domitian,
1

94

81

and the Colosseum was completed the

brother and successor.

Titus's

following

began

to spread across the

Roman

world, the specta-

ceased to appeal to the masses. Early in the fifth

century, an irate monk named Telemachus leaped
cles

an attempt to snatch the weapons

from two gladiators. The crazed spectators turned
on the monk and stoned him to death. Soon thereafter, a law was passed forbidding gladiatorial combats. The venationes, fights between animals or
between animals and men, were not abolished until
into the arena in

the sixth century.

Earthquakes in 492 and 508 caused some portions

of the

Colosseum

to

fall.

The

collapse of half of

was probably the result of a ninthcentury earthquake. Contemporary accounts note

the outer shell

that fallen blocks of travertine

and other decorations

were hauled away to build palaces, bridges, and

other structures. In fact, entire buildings were con-

Even the
marble fagade was stripped and reused, and several
of the marble chairs once used by Roman senators
and dignitaries stand today in Rome's churches.
The Colosseum was never completely vacated.
structed using pieces of the Colosseum.

From time

to time, squatters lived there.

A powerful

once used it as their home and

The arcades became chapels, and religious
plays were performed within its walls. In the fourteenth century, bullfights were held in the arena.
The destruction continued, however, as cartload
after cartload of travertine blocks was hauled away.
In the eighteenth century, the Colosseum became a
depository for manure, which was used in the production of saltpeter (an ingredient needed to make
explosives) Decades later, the Colosseum was consecrated to the memory of the Christians who had
suffered martyrdom within its walls. 2
Gradually, the willful destruction ceased, and conItalian family

fortress.

scientious efforts continue to be

its

made

to strengthen

walls and inner structure. Unfortunately, the

future of the Colosseum

is

uncertain. Noise,

air,

and

environmental pollution threaten the magnificent

structure with irreparable damage.

2.

Many

scholars maintain that

no

Christians

were martyred

in

the

Colosseum.

95

THE STRUCTURE
IT5EEF
The Colosseum's design was daring and attested
to the

superb

skill

and

artistry of its architects,

and craftsmen. Wooden arenas had been

the norm, erected for a particular show and then
quickly leveled. It was only in 30
artisans,

B.C.

that the first stone amphitheater

was

built.

Three years

later,

a catas-

trophe in the town of Fidenae, locat-

ed just five miles northeast of Rome,

radically changed the rules governing the construction of amphitheaters.

Thousands of people had crowded

into a newly erected amphitheater
in Fidenae. Suddenly, while all

intently

watched the gladiators

fighting for their lives, they heard a

great noise as the staging began to

buckle.

Pandemonium broke

out as

the boards cracked and broke. Panic

followed, as the spectators fought to

escape from the collapsing building.

Thousands died in the catastrophe.

The contractors were held responsible for their hasty and unsatisfactory work, and henceforth Roman
magistrates urged the construction
of only stone amphitheaters.

Despite centuries of misuse, abuse, and natural disasthe interior corridors and vaulted substructures of
the Colosseum are still clearly visible.
ters,

As a result of disasters such as the

one at Fidenae and of seating problems at other amphitheaters, Roman
architects constantly rethought and
revised their designs. The Colosseum was their crowning achievement. Measuring 615
by 510 feet and covering an area of nearly 5 acres, it
seated approximately 50,000 people (estimated by
allowing approximately 23 inches of sitting space per
person).

The

walls, rising nearly 160 feet high,

of brick, tufa limestone,

with white marble.

96

and

were

travertine, all faced

Numerous niches were adorned with

the ceilings of the arches

cooled

the interior.

On

story structure, eighty

were

statues,

and

gilded. Fountains

the ground floor of this four-

numbered entrances provided

easy and quick access to the assigned sections and

seats. Seventy-six

entrances were for the public; the

other four, at the

main

dignitaries,

were for the emperor,

and for the removal of

axes,

and gladiators

dead gladiators.

The substructure

of this

enormous building

includ-

ed passageways, cages for beasts, cells for gladiators,

and corridors to hold props and scenery for gladiatorial shows and wild-beast hunts. The Romans always

made

a special effort to create authentic settings for

the great array of exotic beasts

and

gladiators recruit-

reconstructed view of Imperial Rome shows

the Colosseum dwarfed its neighbors.
This

ed from the empire's

many

provinces.

how

97

THERE WIEL BE AWNINGS!'

The Amphitheatrum Flavium was an engineering marvel. The archi-

had discussed and evaluated every need and possible emergency. Adjustments and additions were made wherever necessary.
Because the Colosseum's high walls prevented any breeze from entering, the architects designed a velarium (awning) that extended from the
perimeter walls out over the spectators. To allow light and air to enter,
an elliptical or circular area above the arena was left open, leaving only
the combatants exposed to the burning Mediterranean sun.
To encourage prospective spectators to attend the events, placards
advertising gladiatorial contests announced "Vela erunt!" ("There will be
awnings!"). When the Roman emperor Caligula (a.d. 37-41) attended the
spectacles, which he did quite frequently, he often ordered all the spectators to remain where they were and then commanded the velarium to
tects

be drawn back. Usually the cruel Caligula waited for the hottest part of
the day before giving this order.

How

the awning

worked

is

a question that archaeologists, architects,

Although many believe that the

question will never be completely answered, some facts are clear. The
fourth story of the Colosseum was a simple wall divided into sections by
eighty pilasters. A small window in every other section allowed daylight to enter. On the inside of the wall was a covered portico. Here the
seats were wooden, in contrast to the rest of the structure, which was
built mostly of travertine, a decorative limestone quarried near Tivoli, a
town northeast of Rome. (A specially cut road, six feet wide, was used
for transporting these blocks to Rome.)
Between the pilasters were three projecting brackets and sockets to support the two hundred forty masts that held the awning. A visitor today
can see, from street level, the corresponding holes in the cornice (projection) above, through which the masts were set for support and stability.
Stone slabs at ground level may have been markers to help with crowd
control, but many scholars believe that they also helped with the great
number of ropes needed to work the awning. It is thought that a corps of
specially trained sailors worked this complex rigging and the awning. But
how it was unfurled, how many sections it had, and what held it straight
and kept it from collapsing are unanswered questions.

and builders have debated

for centuries.

98

pilaster

is

a rectangular support that

is

treated architecturally as a column Put

is

not freestanding.

WHAT'S IN A NAME?
The structure known to us today as the Colosseum was an amphitheatrum (amphi-

theater) to the Romans. A combination of the Greek terms amphi (on both sides)
and theatron (an area where something is seen or viewed), an amphitheater is a
place where a public spectacle can be seen by those seated on both sides of an arena.
Hence, an amphitheater resembles two theaters placed back to back. Because the one
in Rome was built and dedicated by emperors whose family name was Flavius, it was
called the Amphitheatrum Flavium (Flavian Amphitheater) in their honor.
Even after the amphitheater ceased to be used for public spectacles, visitors continued to marvel at its size and beauty. Many began referring to it as a colossos,
from the Greek term kolossos, meaning "something gigantic." Sometime during the
Middle Ages (a.d. 400-1400), the Amphitheatrum Flavium became the Colosseum.
1

When used

as an adjective to modify the neuter noun amphitheatrum, Flavius

becomes

Flavium.

MOCK NAVAE BATTEES

The

site of

the Colosseum

was uniquely

suited to

its

purpose.

It

had once housed

swimming pool of the Roman emperor Nero (a.d. 54-68). Since Nero's
had been marked by many cruel incidents, all traces of the emperor were

the
reign

eliminated after his assassination.

Vespasian's architects quickly claimed the pool

site

because

it

was

the perfect

substructure for the magnificent amphitheater the emperor had commissioned.

was drained, the cavern was carefully sectioned off, and specially
wooden boards were placed on the walls of the substructure. Sand and whatever
props or scenery were required for a show were then placed on the boards.
After the water
fit

The

architects of this grand amphitheater designed the arena

so that

it

and the area below

could be flooded with water to allow warships to battle each other.

do not agree on the exact method the Romans used to convert the
Colosseum into a lake, but several ancient authors mention the naumachiae (naval
Scholars

battles)

What

still

they witnessed in the Amphitheatrum Flavium.

must have been! Imagine the

one of today's stadia flooded, two naval ships floating a short distance apart, a bugle sounding, and the battle
beginning. Even with our advanced technology, it is difficult to conceive of such a
a sight

it

field of

contest.

cages and compartments was completed,

were heia elsewhere.

Scholars believe that after the elaborate subterranean system of

ing the

area was no longer

possible,

and mock naval

battles

flooO-

99

a.d. 135, the eighteenth year of his rule, the

InRoman emperor Publius Aelius Hadrianus

initi-

ated the construction of his mausoleum. As the

on the banks of the Tiber

River, he also commissioned his architects to build a

site lay

would
the mausoleum.

bridge, the Aelian Bridge, that

HADRIAN'S

lead directly to

Hadrian died
its

MAUSOLEUM

one year prior

to

Antoninus Pius (138-161), had

Hadrian's remains transferred to the
grand burial chamber in the mau-

soleum, which became the

all

in 138,

completion. Hadrian's successor,

official resting

place of

succeeding emperors until the third century.

The general design of the mausoleum consisted of

an immense circular drum about two hundred thirty
on a square base. Each side of
the base measured approximately three hundred
thirty feet. To soften the effect of such a towering
solid mass, a series of attached columns (pilasters)
and colonnades graced the structure. The columns
were of richly colored imported marble and porphyry (a type of rock consisting of feldspar crystals
feet in

diameter

embedded

set

dark red or purple groundmass). In

addition, the entire facade was covered with marble,
mostly white.
On top of each corner of the base was a group of
equestrian statues. Between the columns and on the
circular

in a

drum were numerous

other statues. Rising

above all this was a cone-shaped marble dome surrounded by cypress trees and crowned either with a
gigantic sculpture of Hadrian or a majestic bronze
figure of the sun god Apollo in his quadriga (an
ancient chariot drawn by four horses).

The inner core, much of which still exists today,

was constructed of large blocks of peperino and
travertine. These blocks surrounded an inner mass
of concrete, where the central burial chamber and
the passages leading to it were located. All the surfaces were covered with rich Oriental marble and
paved with mosaics. To allow
shafts reached from the main
1

100

Sources

differ

as to

who was

the

last

light to enter, vertical

floor to the

emperor buried

in

basement.

the mausoleum.

Built to serve as a

reminder of Hadrian's

and Rome's greatness,

this structure remained a
revered

monument

for

approximately two hun-

dred years. As Rome's

power diminished, invading troops became more

daring. But Rome would
without a strug-

not

fall

gle.

The emperor

Aurelian (270-275) built

a wall around the city

and connected Hadrian's

mausoleum to it. Thus,

was a Roman emperor,
not a foreigner,

who

defaced the grand

it

first

edifice.

Decades later, in
August of 410, Alaric
and his Visigoths 2 invaded Rome, plundering it
mercilessly. Fortunately, the

monument was

left

untouched, but the treasured urns within the mau-

from around the world cross the Tiber River on

Hadrian's Aelian Bridge to admire the enormous struc-

Visitors

ture

he constructed to house

his

remains.

soleum were broken, and the ashes of the dead

emperors mixed with those of the plundered city.

FROM TOMB TO
FORTRESS
Theodoric the Great, king of the OstroFour years later, his conquest
complete, he named himself king of Italy. Theodoric

In

a.d. 488,

goths, invaded Italy.

restored Rome's walls and fortified Hadrian's

mau-

soleum. Yet his efforts were in vain. After his death,

invaders from the north again descended on Rome.

Recognizing that the mausoleum was stronger

The Goths were a Germanic people whose military forces harassed the
Empire for centuries. The Ostrogoths were the eastern Goths, who
conquered and settled the lands from Italy to Constantinople. The Visigoths were the western Goths, who conquered and settled the lands
from France to Spain and Portugal.
2.

Roman

101

than any existing fortress or

citadel,

Rome's inhabitants

for

fled to

it

refuge. Their efforts to defeat the

attacking Goths

were so desperate

that they pulled

down

the magnifi-

cent statues, snapped and

them

into large pieces,

hammered

and hurled the

heavy fragments onto the heads of

the enemy. The strategy worked,
and the invaders retreated, never to
return. Shorn now of its beauty, the
mausoleum assumed its new role as
a fortress and citadel of Rome.
At the end of the sixth century, a
deadly plague swept through the city.
In desperation, Pope Gregory the
1

Great took a revered picture of Mary,

the mother of Jesus Christ, and parad-

through the streets of the city.

As he approached the Aelian Bridge,

ed

it

Gregory looked toward the mausoleum. Awestruck, he turned away

and looked again. There, above the
tower's summit, he saw a mighty
angel sheathing a bloody sword.
Believing that this
Through the centuries, Romans have protecteO ana
preservea the statue of the angel sheathing its sworO
atop the huge stone arum that was once Haarian's
mausoleum. WeathereO or Oamagea statues are
always replaced.

the great plague

was

over,

and sought an appropriate way

this event.

He renamed

omen meant

that

Pope Gregory rejoiced

the

commemorate
mausoleum Castel
to

Sant'Angelo (Castle of the Blessed Angel) and com-

missioned the figure of an angel sheathing a sword

be placed on the summit.

During the Middle Ages, the mausoleum became
the center of much intrigue and bloodshed. Owing
to the thickness and strength of the concrete mass,
to

had become an impregnable fortress. Dungeons,

miserable prison cells, and vats were hollowed out
of the interior. These vats were used to hold water
and to boil oil for pouring on the heads of attackers.
Enormous storerooms were created to hold provisions that could feed the garrison and all the inhabiit

tants during a siege.

is

102

The pope, the chief pontiff ana representative of the Catholic Church,

now heaOauartered

in

Rome.

As the Catholic Church became more prominent

and powerful, the mausoleum became the stage for
many religious struggles. A passageway was built
linking the Vatican, the pope's headquarters, with

the

mausoleum

to allow the

pope

to escape to the

mighty fortress whenever his life was in danger.

As a result of this constant activity within
Hadrian's mausoleum, battlements and other prerequisites for a well-equipped garrison were constantly being installed. Luxurious staterooms were
added during the sixteenth century to accommodate
visiting heads of state, church officials, and other
nobles.

made by the
van Vershaffelt, was added

In 1752, a colossal bronze angel,

Dutch sculptor Pietro

the summit. This angel

soleum.

An

earlier

still

stands atop the

to

mau-

marble statue by Raffaello da

Montelupo stands in the courtyard. (Many statues

have stood on the summit. One was stolen, and others were destroyed during numerous battles around
the edifice.)

The nineteenth century witnessed

renewed
respect for the ancient resting place of Rome's
emperors. Church and state no longer used the mausoleum as a battleground, and on September 29,
1870, the pope and the papal garrison evacuated the
mausoleum. Shortly thereafter, the flag of Italy fluta

tered beside the figure of the angel.

Today Hadrian's tomb, more widely known as the

Castel Sant'Angelo, is a museum open to the public.
Although it is difficult to imagine how this grand
edifice looked in the past, the imposing remains and
the size and strength of the inner core allow visitors
to

imagine the voices of the people

course of history for so

many

who

steered the

generations.

103

PROJECT

CONSTRUCT

A ROMAN ROAD
'

The key

Roman

to the success of the

road system was

thick substructure

various materials.

its

composed of
The Romans

realized that this combination

aided drainage and provided

and give to their

The standard paved road

flexibility

roads.

consisted of several layers.

Native earth: First the

ground was leveled and pounded so that it would be very firm.
Should the ground remain soft,
wooden pieces were wedged

(about eight inches) of stones of

a size that

would

Rudus: A

fit

in the hand.

layer of rubble or

concrete about three inches

composed of broken stones

and lime.
Nucleus: A bedding of fine
cement made of pounded potsherds (pieces of broken pottery)
and lime.
Dorsum: The "crown" of the
road was paved with large
thick

polygonal blocks of lava or rectangular blocks of hard stone.

into the earth to tighten the area

was constructed

involved.

that the middle section

Statumen:

A thick

layer

in

such a

It

way

was

higher than the sides, allowing

and water to run off.

Sometimes the stones were cut
to a point at the bottom so as to
grasp the next layer better. Each
stone was trimmed so that all fit
rain

closely together, thereby ensur-

ing the durability of the road.

Crepido, margo, or semita:

raised footway or sidewalk on

either side of the road.

Umbones and gomphi:

Urn-

bones (edge stones) were used

to strengthen and support the
walkway. Gomphi (curbstones)
of greater size

placed

and height were

at intervals in the line of

umbones. These gomphi were

found in and near cities.

PROJECT

\Js
You Need

ing

scissors

the box.

2 sheets of plain white

shoe box bottom or

rectangular box

paper

4.

line

Using the

write the

similar

across

pen

name

each

side of

or marker,

(Native Earth,

glue

Statumen, Rudus, Nucleus,

Dorsum) for each layer.

ruler

5.

pen

or felt-tip

With a scissors, cut off one

of the narrow ends of the shoe

marker

wrap

plastic

box.

Scotch tape or masking tape

dirt (enough to make a 1/2the box)
round toothpicks
inch layer

small stones,

in

each no

larger

than a pea (enough to

make a 1/2-inch layer in
the box)
twigs broken into pieces
(enough to make a 1-inch
1

layer

the box)

in

popcorn

kernels

make a

Take a piece of plastic

wrap, fold it in half, and place
it across the open end of the
box. Make sure the top of the
box and the folded edge of
the wrap are even. Pull the
other edges of the plastic
6.

wrap so that fits tightly. Tape

the three edges to the box.
7. Cover the box bottom with
it

(enough

/2-inch layer

to

in

the

box)

/2 inch of

tangular

some

wooden

blocks,

it

down

pieces of toothpicks where the dirt seems a

8.

loose.

Place a

small stones

Make

thicker than others

Press

firmly. Insert

little

small, flat stones or small rec-

dirt.

1/2-inch layer of

on top

sure they

fit

of the
snugly

dirt.

together.
1.

Refer regularly to the

layers

used by

list

of

Roman road

engineers.

Cut the white paper to

cover the sides of the box.
Glue it in place.

2.

Place the ruler vertically at

each corner of the box. Mark

3.

each

layer: 1/2 inch,

inches,

1/2

inch, 1/2 inch.

Place a 1-inch layer of small

broken twigs on the stones.
10. Place a 1/2-inch layer of
popcorn kernels on the twigs.
11. Place the thickest flat

9.

stones (or wooden blocks) on

top of the corn kernels along
the middle section. Fill in the
side areas with the remaining
flat

stones (or

wooden

blocks).

Connect the marks by draw-

- illustrated by Annette

Cate

105

'ZZ
PUZZLE
PAGES

A WET SCRAMBLE
Unscramble the ten words below to determine the answers to the clues. Then
place the numbered letters on the corresponding blank lines to discover what the
Romans used to collect household water. The answers can be found in the articles
on aqueducts, pages 90-93, and on page 151.

1.

These were two of Rome's earliest aqueducts,

acamipirapa
"

2.

Much

of

"

Rome's water

"8

13

came

from these

hills,

snainepen
11
3.

He was the

first

Roman emperor

satusugu

a water commissioner,

'

"

4.

to appoint

Whenever a new fount was found, Roman engineers created one

of

these to hold the water.

vesirorer

"
"

5.

An aqueduct's channels were often made

of

this,

ritnatvere

12

Rome, the aqueducts poured water

quumaclraumastle

6. In

"
1

7.

into this

enormous

reservoir,

"15

"

As water commissioner, he oversaw Rome's aqueducts,

ritunsofn
"

type of volcanic rock was used to

hardened underwater.
zoanzalpo
8. This

make a

type of cement that

"

"

7
9.

Romans used lead

or this

substance to

make

their pipes,

tactetaror
"

10. This river in

Rome

14

did not

produce enough water

needs.
betri

10

Romans used these

106

to collect household water:

TiiTIITI

~9

to TT

T2T3T4T5

to

meet the

city's

A COLOSSAL PUZZLE

PUZZLE
PAGES

Use the clues to fill in the blanks. The letters in the boxes will spell the name
of the emperor responsible for constructing the Colosseum. The answers can
be found in the articles on the Colosseum, pages 94-99, and on page 151.
protected the Colosseum's
spectators from the sun.
2. Fights between animals or animals and men.
3. More than two hundred of these
were believed to hold the awning
over the Colosseum.
1. This

4. In later

centuries, the Colosse-

um's arcades were turned

into

The word "colosseum" is derived

from this Greek term meaning
"something gigantic."
7. This is a modern threat to the
Colosseum.
8. This was the Colosseum's original
6.

name

in

Type

English.

used to
construct the Colosseum.

9.

of stone blocks

these.
5.

Mock naval

battles held

in

the

Colosseum.

1-D

2._a
3.

4.
s.

6.

a
a

7.

8-

9.

_.
a

107

PUZZLE
PAGES

A WORDY FORTRESS
Use the clues to find the twenty-two words hidden in the maze. The answers
can be found in the articles on Hadrian's Mausoleum, pages 100-103, and on
page 151. Hint: To help you on your way, the name used today for Hadrian's
tomb has been highlighted.
This

bridge leads to Hadrian's

tomb

The inner core of the tomb

with these

What Pope Gregory saw atop the

tomb

Hadrian's

god
Emperor who connected the tomb
sun

Rome's
The

This

dome was surrounded

by these

mausoleum
Hadrian's tomb is on the bank
He

trees

The general shape of Hadrian's tomb

During the Middle Ages, these were
hollowed out of the tomb
Rome is located here

Many columns were made

Another name for a tomb

U N E

VV

fortified

the

of this

river

passageway connected the

tomb to this area
Alaric was the leader of these people
Color of the tomb's fagade

of this

later

P S S H T
T E R S
P

tomb today

these two materials

type of column was used on
Hadrian's tomb

to

walls

MC T
A U S
CAS

paved

They invaded Italy

The inner core is made of blocks of

Hadrian's successor

Roman

is

OG

V A

RG

ECYPAMWURSN
PNAUNHDRHT

P U

OM Y AMM
DCA S T E

L
L

ON
DC

ON
NO
S E L AG
SANTANGE LON
1

R
U

RAIUHGILRNOEYRU
EOODBACEOI LREGICTS
HO SMLOAPTREOVEGSP
H N
R
A
O
S NGO
BOPSEMOSA ICSUTRRU
T

P
L

WH
108

MA

BERAP IGAETS

COMP
f

Topics for Comparison

ne's
1. Compare and contrast Rome':
international road system with the
U.S. interstate highway system.

Compare

also the use of signs (mile-

stones for the Romans).

Compare

the periods in the histories of both

nations that prompted the introduc-

Compare the construction of

modern roads with the methods
2.

used to build
3.

Compare

Roman

roads.

U.S. reservoirs and

water systems with those

the

built

by

Romans. Can sections be shut

United States as they were

off in the

Rome?
Compare and contrast Roman

how the Roman road

system reflects Rome's quest for
power.
4. Find the oldest existing structure
in your community. Research the
various purposes the structure has
3. Explain

served. List them chronologically

and tell why each change was
made. If the use of the structure has
remained the same, discuss why
you think this is so.
5. No matter what the century or

country, people love spectacles. In

today's world,

what spectacles have

replaced the events that took place

in ancient times in the

arenas such as the Colosseum with

twentieth-century sports stadia in

well-being of

size,

construction,

crowd

control,

exits, food concessions, covered

domes, use of a variety of turfs, and
boxes for VIPs.
5. Compare the Romans' use of
Hadrian's mausoleum as a "cemetery" for emperors with Arlington
National Cemetery in Virginia and
its use today as a cemetery for out-

standing leaders.

Today's laws forbid the use of

lead in household paints because
of the detrimental effects lead can
have if consumed. Research the use
1.

Rome. Could lead

have entered the Romans' systems
and contributed to the decline of
Rome and the weaknesses exhibited
by many of the later emperors?
2. Research the rule of Hadrian.
How did he affect Rome? The mausoleum was not Hadrian's only
grand construction project. Research
his villa and the Pantheon. How do
the structures he commissioned still
of lead in ancient

affect

Rome?

their amphitheaters for the nau-

machiae. Develop your

own

theory.

mind how the Roman aqueduct system worked and incorporate

Keep

it

in

into

your theory.

Topics for Debate

1. The Romans spent too much time
and effort building and maintaining

the Colosseum, a building dedicated

to cruelty
2.

The

and

suffering.

sports stadia of today have

replaced the

Roman

amphitheaters.

in this chapter, list

Rome

(lowest

first).

Explain your reasoning.

Further Activities
1. Make a time line of the buildings
discussed in this chapter. For each,

include the date of construction, the

dates of the emperor(s) under
it

was

built, the

from the date

tion), the

date

it

(if

it

whom

dedication date

different

when
Suggestions for Writing

do not know
Romans flooded

still

the

6.

(if

of comple-

ceased to be used

for its original purpose,

Assignments

how

Colosseum?

Of the four structures discussed

them in order of
their importance to the growth and

in ancient

4.

5. Historians

exactly

assumed

its

and the date

present role

any).

Go to the library and ask for a

recording of Respighi's The Pines
of Rome. Listen to the movement
"Pines of the Appian Way." Write
down your thoughts about the composer's motives and how you think
2.

the piece reflects them.

3. Research the location of aque-

ducts that were built by the

and are still standing today.

Romans

The Colosseum was built on the

foundation of Nero's swimming

4.

pool. This reuse of parts of older

structures

is

common

today.

Look

around your city or town. Are there

any buildings that were built on the
foundations of other structures?

109

"Everything

is

deemed

discovered, just
impossible before

first

miraculous when it is
as so much is judged
it

Pliny the Elder, first-century a.d.

110

actually occurs."

Roman

historian

and

naturalist

ARTICLES
The Inventors and Their

GREEK

Archimedes

A Greek from Syracuse

CREATIVITY

Ctesibius

A Greek from Alexandria

Hero

A Greek from Alexandria

Archimedes and
the Siege of Syracuse:

Play

Potpourri of Classical Ingenuity

Brief descriptions of several creative

techniques

used by the ancient Greeks and Romans

PROJECT
Make

Your

Own

Sundial

PUZZLE PAGES
A

Creative Match

Unscramble the People

Crossword Puzzle

COMPANION

^^^^

C KAPTE R
The inventors are presented

in

chronological order.

Ill

THE INVENTORS

AND THEIR

ARCHIMEDES

INVENTIONS

Archimedes was born around 287 B.C.

in

an island in the Mediterranean Sea just west of southern Italy. Of the

few facts known about his life, one is certain: He
spent a considerable amount of time studying in
Egypt in the city of Alexandria, the center of scienSyracuse,

tific

Sicily,

learning in the ancient world.

Archimedes devised several principles and methods that form the basis for mathematics. Among
these are (1) the formula for finding the volume of a
cylinder, (2) the formula for measuring circles and
ellipses, (3) a system to enumerate numbers as large
as might be desired, (4) the ratio of a cylinder to a
circle

the

within

Greek

it,

method of calculating n (n is
which represents the ratio of the
a circle to its diameter), and (6) the
the

(5)

letter pi,

circumference of

basic principles of integral calculus. Today, as the

fields of science,

mathematics, and technology

into the twenty-first century, the discoveries

theories advanced

by Archimedes

still

move

and

stand,

unchanged and undisputed.

THE WATER SCREW

The land bordering Egypt's Nile River was always
because the Nile overflowed its
banks every year and its waters acted as fertilizer.
extremely

fertile
1

Throughout the rest of Egypt, rain fell infrequently

and farmers used buckets to haul water from the
river to their fields. Archimedes's invention of the
water screw 2 was revolutionary. Farmers throughout
Egypt readily adopted it.
To construct his water screw, Archimedes used a
long, thick screw with good-size threads (making
his invention similar in appearance to a huge corkscrew). He attached a handle to the top of the screw

Since the completion of the

ing of the Niie has

been

Aswan

High

Dam

in

1970. the

annual flooa-

controlled mechanically.

Some sources state that a type of water screw preOated that of

Archimedes.
2.

and then encased the screw in a cylinder. The openended bottom section of the cylinder with the screw
inside

was put

in the water, while the top section

rested on the land. To set the screw in operation, a

worker turned the handle. The water entered the

cylinder and "climbed" along the threads of the
screw before pouring out the top of the cylinder. To
catch the water, farmers placed buckets underneath
the top or used pipes or channels to carry the water
to their fields.

In

some areas

of Egypt today, farmers

still

use

Archimedes's screw to irrigate their fields. Sailors

use the screw to empty bilge water. Propellers work
on basically the same principle as the water screw,
because they move machines forward by spinning
the air or water behind. In Holland, Archimedes's
invention is used in reverse to move water from
the land back into the canals.

THE LEVER AND FULCRUM

Another
from
to place

medes

of Archimedes's inventions resulted

his boast "If

my feet,

had another earth on which

could

move

sincerely believed that

leverage and force, he could

friends,

this earth." Archiif

he had the proper

move

however, did not believe

the world. His

it.

Since no other earth existed for Archimedes to

prove his theory, he offered to move any object the

might choose. Hieron

took up the challenge and chose a huge ship he had
just built. The day was set. Archimedes prepared his
mechanical devices: pulleys and ropes, all based on
ruler of Syracuse, Hieron

II,

the principle of the lever and fulcrum (the point or

support on which a lever turns).

Many came

to wit-

was
moved

ness the "mad" scientist's defeat. Archimedes

confident and, with a

minimum

of effort,

the ship.

Today the principle of the lever and fulcrum

forms the basis for countless tools and pieces of
equipment. Sticks, screwdrivers, oars, and pulleys
are

all levers.

113

GOLD VERSUS SILVER

nother of Archimedes 's discoveries involved a

A'gold crown that Hieron

had ordered. After

the goldsmith presented Hieron with the crown,
Hieron thought it weighed less than it should have
and that the goldsmith had not used pure gold but a
mixture of gold and silver. The problem was how to
prove

II

it.

Hieron summoned Archimedes. Before long,

Archimedes was so involved in finding a solution
that he neglected his own bodily needs. His slaves
were accustomed to this behavior and were constantly after him to eat, drink, and wash. Perhaps
this was fortunate, for one day, as he stepped into a
tub brimming with water, he noticed water spilling
out. Without stopping to clothe himself, he ran out
into the street shouting, "Eureka! Eureka!" ("I have
found it! I have found it!").
What Archimedes had discovered was the basic
principle of hydrostatics, the science that deals

with the laws of nature governing liquids at rest.

Archimedes took a lump of gold equal to the
amount of gold that Hieron had ordered for the
crown. If the lump and the crown each displaced

same amount of water, Archimedes reasoned,

the two were identical in weight. Archimedes placed
the lump of gold in a container filled with water. He
carefully measured the water that ran out as the
lump entered. Then he placed the crown in an identical container and measured the water that flowed
out. The crown displaced less water than the lump.
The goldsmith had cheated.
As a result of this experiment, Archimedes and
others had a specific method to differentiate one
substance from another. Hieron 's crown also helped
Archimedes discover the principles of buoyancy
and specific gravity. Not until the 1800s and the
the

experiments of the French scientist Blaise Pascal

were any new laws added

114

to hydraulics.

CTESIBIUS
Facts about Ctesibius's life are few. The son of a
was born during the

barber, he
B.C. in

third century

the Egyptian city of Alexandria. At an

became known for his mechanical abiliand ingenuity. Which inventions are his and what

early age, he
ty

modifications he

be

known

made

for certain

to other inventions

may

never

because none of his works has

survived. However, both the water organ

water clock are commonly attributed

and the

him.

to

THE WATER ORGAN

The diagram included here

is

modern

recon-

struction of Ctesibius's water organ. To create

and maintain a steady flow

the lever

upward

arm

(H).

This action

in the cylinder (A),

air in the cylinder to

into a globe.

weight, air

If

of

air,

a person pressed

moved

which

the piston

pass through the valve

the piston sank

was drawn back

(B)

JJ

in turn forced the

down by

its

(C)

and

own

into the cylinder

and

again forced into the globe (D). The air that accumulated in the globe pressed

rounding

it,

(E)

the water sur-

causing the water level to

pressure of this water

the box

down on

made

rise.

The

the air in the globe

rush through the organ pipe

(G).

and

When

musician struck a key (F), the stopper piece below

the organ pipe was pushed back until a passageway

was created from the globe to the organ

pipe producing a sound. The length and width
for air

of

the individual pipes determined the type of sound.

THE WATER CLOCK

The ancients commonly used sundials, but this
timepiece had

many drawbacks.

It

required sun,

gave only the approximate time, and required special positioning in

respect to the longitude and

lati-

tude of each location.

Water clocks date back to at least 1500 B.C. The

ancients used the water clock in the courtroom to
limit the time a

lawyer could speak. Exactly

water clock worked

is

not certain.

Hermann

how

the

Diels,

115

-.?

an early twentieth-century German scientist,

is credited with the best reproduction and explanation of how the water clock developed or enhanced
by Ctesibius might have functioned.
Water flowed through a pipe (A) into a holding
vessel (G). From this holding vessel, the water slowly dripped via the small opening (E) into a cylinder
(KLMN). The mechanism was advanced enough to
enable users to control the rate of flow and make it
uniform. Therefore, the amount of water collecting
in the vessel provided a fairly accurate measure of
time. To indicate the amount of time that had
passed, a float (P) was attached by a rod to a stand
(Q) on which stood a figure with a pointer in his
hands. Attached to cylinder KLMN was the base (R)
of another cylinder (Tl)SV).

Around

the upper rim of cylinder

TUSV

are the

twelve signs of the zodiac. Along the side of the

cylinder

SAfPI COULD
STAY OF UNflL-j
THL LITTLE MPVN/

GOT

ALLlHt^

UP To THE TOP!

116

is

The ancients divided

twelve hours and nighttime into twelve

a graduated scale.

daytime into
hours. Hence, the length of the hour varied according to the season that is, shorter daytime hours and
longer nighttime hours in winter and vice versa in
summer. The graduated scale took all this into
account. As the water rose in cylinder KLMN, the
pointer indicated the hour on cylinder TUSV. When
the float had risen to the top, the day was done. The
hole at the bottom of cylinder KLMN (O) was then
unplugged to allow the water to exit, and the process began again.

HERO
mathematician and
inventor named Hero lived in the Egyptian city
of Alexandria. He wrote about his own inventions and often described other machines and principles he had seen or heard about. His writings have
provided valuable historical information in the fields
of mathematics and applied mechanics.
Hero spent most of his time on inventions that
the

first

century

a.d., a

In

were

and entertaining, not laborsaving

devices, because the society in which he lived was
based on abundant slave labor. Hero used a pump
to sound a toy trumpet and toothed wheels to move
puppets. He constructed a machine that dispensed
holy water when a coin was deposited in a slot. He
even designed a mechanism that opened temple
doors when a fire was lit on the altar. Several of the
inventions attributed to Hero are described here in
fanciful

Hero's

own

words.

THE STEAM ENGINE

Place

a cauldron on a stand over a hearth.

Fill

the

cauldron with water and light a fire underneath.

Cover the cauldron and bring the water to a boil.
Attach a tube to the cover so that it extends into the
cauldron and also above the lid. Bend the top part of
the tube at a right angle and connect

it

with an

air-

hollow ball. On the opposite side of

place another tube with a pivot between it

tight joint to a

the ball,

and the

ball.

Have

its

tion, attach to the ball

base rest on the

two

lid.

In addi-

tubes, bent at right

angles, perpendicular to the tubes extending

up

from the lid, and diametrically opposite one another

on the ball. Point the ends in opposite directions.
117

steam enters the ball through

the tube, then pours out through the openings in the
bent tubes. When the steam hits the lid, it causes
"As the water boils,

the ball to revolve."

THE WHISTLING BIRD

Attach

a figure of a bird to the tip of a pipe or

tube (D) that juts out from a container. Place

wheel halfway up the

a toothed

pipe.

Run

a second

pipe through the container and perpendicular to the

'bird's' pipe. Its

base.

inner end

A toothed wheel

on

is
it

pointed to revolve on a

connects with the

first

toothed wheel. Place a small container with water at

the end of the pipe extending out from the container.

In the small container, place a smaller hollow

container with no bottom (V) and with a pipe lead-

from

ing out

its side.

Attach a rope from this con-

tainer to the horizontal pipe.

"To

make

the bird rotate, turn the wheel outside

the container. This action also will cause

V to rise.

hand from
unwind, and will fall back
into the larger container and into the water. This
action will force the air in the hollow container out
through the pipe, causing a whistling sound."
"To create a whistling noise, take your

the wheel.

The rope

will

THE ODOMETER
Along the main roads of the Roman Empire,
blocks of granite and stone marked the distance
a traveler

had gone and

listed the distance

still

to

go to reach a particular destination. Hero provides

us with a detailed description of his invention for

measuring distances:
"Five pairs of toothed elements are set at right

angles to each other.

Some

are wheels,

and others
The top

are tubes with a circular ridge jutting out.

pair

is

attached to a circle marked with figures to

record the distance traveled. The whole mechanism

motion when the pin attached to the axle

of the wheel of the traveling vehicle to which the
is

set in

device

is

attached catches in the radial pegs of the

bottom wheel."
118

ARCHIMEDES

AND THE SIEGE

OF SYRACUSE'
Characters
King Hieron 2 king of Syracuse
Prince Gelon son of Hieron
Archimedes great mathematician and inventor
Prince Hieronymos grandson of Hieron and son of Gelon
Hippokrates traitor who seized control of Syracuse
Marcellus Roman commander

Roman
Roman
Roman

lieutenant

engineer
soldier

Introduction
Syracuse, a peaceful and thriving city on the island
of Sicily, a

Greek colony

was the home

off the

southern coast of

famous mathematician
and inventor Archimedes. Under the reign of King
Hieron II, Syracuse found itself affected by a fierce
conflict involving Rome and Carthage, a powerful
city-state on the north coast of Africa.
The Romans and the Carthaginians were vying for
Italy,

of the

control of the Mediterranean Sea. Carthage already

had colonies in Spain and claimed all of the western Mediterranean and most of Sicily except for
Syracuse. Rome's armies had been capturing the
Greek city-states in Italy. It was reasonable to expect
1

This

that
2.

play

is

a revised edition of an original play by Charles F. Baker

in the September 1989 issue of CLASSICAL CALLIOPE.

appeared

Some

sources spell Hieron's

name

Hiero.

illustrated

by Annette Cate

119

that Syracuse, because of

its

location,

would be

caught in a war between the rapidly growing

powers.

Act

It is

the year 220

B.C.

Syracuse has an alliance

with Rome, but King Hieron is

wondering how long it will last.
Carthage has a great
ships,

fleet of

and the Romans are

spread out

all

over the area and

cannot be relied on for protec-

King Hieron needs a plan

to defend his vulnerable city
tion.

and turns to his long-time

friend and kinsman Archimedes
for advice and help.

Scene

The royal palace of King Hieron.

The king and his son, Prince

^fia^l^

Gelon, have received news that

the

Romans

are angry with the

Carthaginians because they cannot trade in

Sicily.

Carthage has

recently gained control of the

Strait of Messina,

which separates

Sicily

and

Italy.

Hieron has just sent for Archimedes.

KING HIERON: My
our

city.

Rome

son,

fear for the safety of

will not tolerate the aggressive

actions of Carthage, and there will be a war.

PRINCE GELON:
ation.

Rome

agree. This

will be cut off

is

from

a dangerous situ-

its

own

The Romans cannot even

ports in

around
Sicily because Carthage also controls the western
Mediterranean. All-out war is inevitable, and we
eastern

Italy.

sail

will be caught in the middle.

KING HIERON: We
selves,

even though

must prepare

we have an

to

defend our-

alliance with

Rome.

They could not possibly come to our rescue against

the Carthaginians. They are already fighting in
many different areas and cannot spare soldiers or
ships to protect our

city.

PRINCE GELON: I would

people, and

not trust the

Romans

They are an ambitious

am sure they will want to add our

to continue to be our

allies.

prosperous city to their growing empire.

KING HIERON:

think you are right. That is why

defenses. It is my hope that
our
up
I want
I will leave a strong, independent city for you and
my grandson, Prince Hieronymos, to inherit. I have
I

to build

Archimedes so

sent for

PRINCE GELON:

we

that

serious situation with him.

can discuss

this

value his advice.

also have great respect for

Archimedes, but how can he help defend our city?

He is only a mathematician, not a soldier.
(Archimedes enters the royal chamber and hears
Prince Gelon's statement.)

ARCHIMEDES:

You are

Highness. Since

returned to

Syracuse from Egypt

Your Royal

right,

many

years

have dedicated my life

entirely to mathematical research.

ago,

KING HIERON: You know as

do, my friend, that you

well as

have become famous for your

clever mechanical inventions.

ARCHIMEDES: They are

only the

diversions of geometry at play, and

I

attach

no importance

to

them.

regard the business of mechanics

and despicable.

as vulgar

KING HIERON:

Syracuse

is

in

danger of becoming involved

in the

war between Rome and

Carthage.

ARCHIMEDES: So have heard

KING HIERON: Having been at
I

peace for so many years, we have

not bothered to maintain our defenses.
that our city

We

forgot

was taken by siege years ago. I do not

happen again. Archimedes, I implore

want that to
you to use your scientific knowledge to prepare for
me offensive and defensive engines that can be used
in every

kind of siege warfare.

ARCHIMEDES:

do not

like the idea of

using

sci-

ence to destroy people.

KING HIERON: Why

can you not use some of

knowledge to defend the city that
has sheltered you and given you the freedom to do

your

scientific

your mathematical research for so many years? I

should think that you would be anxious to prove
that science can provide a better means to defend
Syracuse than an army can.

ARCHIMEDES:
once

You have won.

will begin at

to devise plans for all sorts of engines to use

against any besiegers.

KING HIERON: We

will all

be grateful for your

expertise.

Scene 2
Several months

later.

King

Hieron, Prince Gelon, Prince

Hieronymos, and Archimedes are

standing on the battlements of

Syracuse inspecting the newly

war machines designed by

the famous mathematician. Once
Archimedes had set his mind to
this project, he had drawn plan
after plan, and each machine had
built

been constructed by the king's

wbrkmen.

KING HIERON: am
I

very

pleased by your fast and productive work, Archimedes.

knew we

could rely on you to

strengthen our city with your

clever inventions.

ARCHIMEDES: Thank you,

all

Your Majesty. I used

the knowledge about mechanics that I have

gained over the years.

PRINCE GELON: Would

you describe the functions of some of these war machines to us? My son,
Hieronymos, and I are curious as to their use. They
all look so ingeniously made.

ARCHIMEDES: I would
122

be happy

to,

Your Royal

Highness, (pointing

various machines)

to the

Those are

which can fling heavy stones at long

short ranges. Over there are machines that

catapults,

or

can discharge showers of missiles through holes made in

the walls.

PRINCE HIERONYMOS:
Why are those poles jutting
out beyond the walls?

ARCHIMEDES: Some
them

of

are to be used to drop

heavy stones or pieces of lead

on enemy ships.

PRINCE GELON: What

are

thoae objects hanging from

poles that look like beaks on

enemy

ships?

ARCHIMEDES: They

are

iron claws that will be low-

ered to grapple the prows of

them into the air

and swinging them until the
ships, lifting

sailors fall out,

then dropping

the vessels onto the rocks,

where they

will be

smashed.

PRINCE HIERONYMOS: What

are

all

those mir

rors for?

ARCHIMEDES:

intend to use

them

to direct

the sun's rays at the attacking ships, blinding the

become confused and cannot

They can be effective only if the sun is

sailors so that they

fight back.

shining intensely, of course.

KING HIERON: Our

city

should be safe from

any attack by our enemies. Until we are besieged,

I command that these machines be stored away
but kept in perfect working condition. The ropes
must never become frayed, any rotted wood is to
be replaced, and none of the metal can be allowed
to corrode in the salt

always have

even

if it is

men

air. I

also

command

that

we

trained to operate the machines,

years before

we need

to use

them. Let

Knowing

us return to the palace.

well protected,

Act

can

now

that

my

city is

sleep in peace.

II

about 212 B.C. King Hieron died in 215 B.C.; his

son, Prince Gelon, died a short time later. His grandson, Hieronymos, then became king of Syracuse.
It is

Hieronymos did not

was murdered by a

stay king for long.

He

man named
Hippokrates, who had

treacherous

been bribed by Carthage

to kill the king.

When

Hippokrates took control

one of the
first things he did was to
break the city's alliance
with Rome. He then
of Syracuse,

made

new

alliance

with his friends in

Carthage.

Rome was

very angry

such a valuable
and immediately

at losing

ally

declared

war on

Syracuse. Marcellus, a

famous Roman general

and a personal enemy pf
Hippokrates 's, was sent
with a large fleet and an

army

to seize Syracuse

from the Carthaginians.

He was determined to
gain control of the Strait
of Messina so that

Roman

ships could

finally use

Scene

it

safely.

The battlements of Syracuse. A large Roman fleet is

approaching the city, and the frightened people are
pleading with Hippokrates to protect them.
called on

124

Archimedes

to

He

has

ready his war machines. The

mathematician does not

his city, but

like the traitor

who now

Archimedes must think of protecting

rules
his

fellow citizens.

HIPPOKRATES: Archimedes, I beg you to use

your war machines to repel the Roman besiegers.
Their army surrounds us on land, and their fleet
of sixty ships is about to attack us by sea.

ARCHIMEDES: Where
are your friends

from

Carthage?

HIPPOKRATES: We
cannot wait for their
help.

We must

Romans now
too

stop the

before

it is

late.

ARCHIMEDES: The
machines have been
kept in excellent condi-

were
and the men

tion since they

first built,

them

trained to operate
are ready.

HIPPOKRATES: What
is

that harp-shaped con-

traption built

on a

plat-

form on those Roman

ships?

It

looks frighten-

ing.

ARCHIMEDES:

That

is

called a sambuca, after

the musical instrument

it

resembles.

It

carries

a broad scaling ladder

that,

when

makes

it

pulled up,

possible to

scale walls.

HIPPOKRATES: Swarms

of

be pouring into our city

we do

sambuca

if

Roman

soldiers will

not destroy the

first.

ARCHIMEDES: Do

not worry. The cranes

have
constructed on the walls will drop large stones on
I

125

the ships before the soldiers

can climb the ladders.

HIPPOKRATES: How
we stop the land forces

shall

that are

approaching?

ARCHIMEDES:

have created

engines that will shoot

all

sorts

and large quantities

of stones with great speed at
the invading army. The soldiers
will be knocked down and
thrown into confusion.
of missiles

HIPPOKRATES: The

stories

have heard of your cleverness

^are true. You have contrived all
P^ sorts of war machines to use
against our enemies. Let us prepare them for action at once.
-

(The two

men

leave immediately,

for the invading forces will soon

be upon Syracuse.)

Scene 2
The camp of Marcellus, just outside the walls of Syracuse. The Roman commander is conferring with his
officers and engineers after a devastating attempt to
besiege the

city.

MARCELLUS: (looking up at the walls of Syracuse)

We are certainly up against a formidable foe. All
that

have heard of

Archimedes must be true.

How do his war machines

this

(turning to his engineers)

work?

ROMAN LIEUTENANT:

Some

of

my men

think

that they are fighting against the gods because

many

missiles are

thrown

ROMAN ENGINEER:
contrived by a

at

them

so rapidly.

The machines have been

man who

has studied mathematics

Archimedes has made giant engines

that are working models of geometry and mechanics. He uses levers and pulleys, cranks, cogwheels,
and screws, as well as his knowledge of balance
and the centers of gravity.
extensively.

126

MARCELLUS: How

are they

ROMAN ENGINEER:

powered?

By manpower,

air

power,

and waterpower.

ROMAN LIEUTENANT:
destroy our ships and
that

my men become

kill

frightened

wood

a rope or piece of

These war machines

our soldiers so effectively

whenever they see

projecting from the walls

of the city.

They run away shouting

machine

appearing to

is

MARCELLUS:

kill

that another

them.

(turning in jest to his

own

engineer)

Let us stop fighting this geometrical Briareus 3

who

has destroyed our sambuca, treated our ships as

they were cups to ladle water from the sea, and

hurled so

many

missiles against us, outdoing the

hundred-handed monsters of mythology.

ROMAN LIEUTENANT:
Look! Archimedes

is

one of his engines

at us.

must

We

flee.

MARCELLUS:
lieutenant)

end

aiming

all

(turning to his

command

fighting

that

we

and assaults on

the city and retreat to safety.

Let us prepare for a long siege.

But in the meantime, we shall

attack and conquer other areas
of Sicily that are held

by the

Carthaginians.

Syracuse remained uncon-

quered for some time while

Marcellus captured the ancient
city of Megara; took the camp
of Hippokrates at Acrillae,
killing eight thousand men as
they were building entrench-

ments; and overran

Sicily.

He was

much

of

victorious everywhere he led his

army.
Briareus was one of the three mythological Hekatoncheires, hundred-armed giants who were the sons of Uranos (Heaven) and Gaia
3.

(Earth).

if

Marcellus returned with the intention of blockad-

by land and by sea. He came upon the

city as the citizens were celebrating a festival in
honor of the goddess Artemis. He noticed that a
tower had been left poorly guarded and promptly
had his men build ladders to scale the wall at
night so as to take the city by surprise. At dawn,
Marcellus ordered trumpets to sound, and the staring Syracuse

tled Syracusans fled in terror, thinking the entire

had been overrun by the Romans.

city

Syracuse was soon in Marcellus's possession. As

he surveyed the beautiful city from a high point,

Marcellus wept because he knew its impending
fate.

ing

In those days,

army

not prevent

this,

enslaving of

all

ially

it

was the custom

for a conquer-

to sack a defeated city. Marcellus could

but he forbade the killing or

free citizens. Marcellus

was

espe-

of Archimedes, for
he had developed much
respect, and he immediately
sent for him.

anxious to save the

life

whom

Scene 3
The house of Archimedes in
Syracuse. The mathematician
concentrating so intently on a
diagram he has drawn

is

in glass

dust that he has not heard the

clamor created by the invading

Romans, not even the blaring

of trumpets.

soldier sent by

Marcellus enters the house with

orders to bring Archimedes to the

Roman commander

ROMAN

at once.

SOLDIER:

(bursting

into the house} Is this the

home

Archimedes? (Archimedes
ignores the soldier, his mind and

of

eyes too involved with the prob-

lem he has drawn on the

ROMAN

SOLDIER:

Archimedes?

tray.)

(shouting)

Old man, are you

ARCHIMEDES: (barely glancing up at the soldier)

Yes,
am Archimedes. Do not bother me.
I

ROMAN

SOLDIER: I have orders to bring you

my commander, the Roman general Marcellus.

ARCHIMEDES:
I

refuse to go

Leave

anywhere

me

to

alone.

until

solve this problem.

ROMAN
his

SOLDIER:

sword)

with me,

(drawing

you do not come

will kill you at once

If
I

ARCHIMEDES:

Wait a

moment. I do not want to leave

my problem incomplete and
unsolved. The wonders of science are more my concern
than the affairs of generals.

Furious, the soldier kills the

old

man.

When

finds out that

Marcellus

Archimedes

is

dead, he has the soldier execut-

ed for murder. To pay tribute

to the man he wished to meet,
the Roman commander has the
famous mathematician buried with

much ceremony

and also honors his friends and relatives.

During his lifetime, Archimedes had requested
that upon his tomb there should be engraved the
drawing of a cylinder circumscribing a sphere within it, together with an inscription giving the ratio of
(3:2). He regarded his discovery of this ratio as his greatest accomplishment,
more important than the invention of any war

the cylinder to the sphere

machine. Marcellus granted this wish as a tribute to

the greatest mathematical genius of antiquity and
possibly the greatest that the world has ever seen.

the remains of
Whereas
uments and buildings,

a nation are

mon-

the remains of a

people are mostly houses and personal

possessions. To understand past civilizations, we

must study both types of remains.

By doing so, we realize that the basic
needs and wants of every civilization

A POTPOURRI

are the same.

OF CLASSICAL
INGENUITY

How

a nation's people

address these needs and wants

measure
ativity.

how

of their ingenuity

Following

the ancients

is

is

and

the

cre-

a sampling of

met some

of their

needs.

SALT AS A

PRESERVING AGENT
Ancient

Egyptian

relief

scenes and fish and other

foods found intact in excavated tombs have

taught us

much

about the methods used by ancient

fishermen and cooks to preserve food. Salting was a

favorite

method

of preservation, especially for fish,

because the properties of

salt

hasten the drainage of

body fluids and stop the deterioration of the meat.

The preservation process was as follows: The
fish were gutted and/or slit from head to tail before
being washed and hung on ropes to dry in the
sun and wind. Coarse v salt was rubbed on the fish
before they were packed according to the following
pattern: a layer of fish, a layer of

salt,

a layer of

These bundles were covered

for several days before being turned over

fish, a layer of salt.

and
and

left

was

a dry,

with

salt.

more days. The finished product

hard fish whose tissues were permeated

left for

several

TELEGRAPHY
ery early in

human

flash fire signals to

Through the

centuries,

history,

people learned to

members of other tribes.

many ingenious systems of

telegraphy have been devised. Polybius, a second-

century

B.C.

Greek

historian,

wrote about the

tem he invented:
-

illustrated

by Annette Cate

sys-

"Provide each tribe or participant with ten torch-

Divide the torches into two groups of five each.

Divide the twenty-four letters of the Greek alphaes.

bet into four groups of five letters

and one group

of

four letters. Let the five torches in one group represent the five groups of

Greek

five torches in the other

Greek

letter

from

letters.

Let each of the

group represent a specific

group.

its

"To flash a message, have the person on duty use

the following rules to spell out each word. First,
raise the required

number

of five to indicate the

letter belongs.

number

of torches in the first set

group to which a particular

Then have him

raise the required

of torches in the other set to indicate the

specific letter within the group."

This system was accurate but tedious and

required hours to spell out a message of considerable length.

DRY CLEANING
The ancients, especially the Egyptians and
Romans, developed an effective dry-cleaning
method that used water mixed with special herbs,
plants, and urine. (The urine was collected in vessels placed on street corners and then allowed to
decompose before it was used.)
First,
(or

the entire cloth

portions of

it

was placed

were dipped)

into

vessels containing the cleaning fluid.

Then the cleaner used mallets and

wooden sticks to beat the cloth.
Roman wall paintings show cleaners
using their hands and actually step-

ping into the vessels to pound the

cloth with their feet.

washed

cloth

The wet,

was allowed

to

dry

before being rinsed again in another

solution
tools

and brushed with special

made

of teasel

burs, thistles, or

(a

prickly plant),

hedgehog prickles

raise the nap.

To bleach the cloth, the garment

was placed over a wicker frame
inside of

which was a pan or pot

to

with burning sulfur. Since this process did

not bleach evenly, the ancients rubbed the material
with white or colored earth depending on the color
of the cloth. Another brushing followed. Then the
filled

uneven

fibers

and threads were cut from the garthe cloth was pressed between two

ment. Finally,
boards worked with screws.

PUBLISHING
The invention of the printing press about a.d.
1440 signaled the end of the tedious recopying
by hand of every letter of a book, text, speech, or
law. But there had been a time, centuries earlier,

when book

publishing had gone at a relatively

rapid pace.

During the
slaves in

first

century

Rome grew

B.C.,

rapidly.

the

number

of

As conquest followed

conquest, slaves were continually being sent to the

many

them were well educated, they

became teachers and professionals, although socialcity.

ly

Since

of

they remained slaves.

Educated Romans and others saw in these slaves a

means

numbers of books, speeches,

and decrees. The process was as follows: Up to one
hundred educated slaves would sit in a room. A
reader would stand before them and dictate a book,
page by page. If more readers and several rooms
were available, a book could be dividto reprint great

ed into sections. In a relatively short

period of time, as

book

as there

many

were

copies of the

slaves

would be

ready for distribution.

REFRIGERATION
he Greeks and Romans dug large
pits and covered them with grass,
chaff, earth, manure, tree branches,
and other substances that do not conduct heat. Then they collected snow
from the mountains, pressed it

and placed it inside the pit as a lining.

Sometimes the snow was wrapped in thick cloths
a further measure against melting.
together,

as

Ancient sources credit the Roman

emperor Nero (a.d. 54-68) with

One day a
shipment of produce packed in snow
came to Rome from the north. Nero
observed that the contents were quite
cool as a result of having been next
to the snow, not mixed with it. He
inventing the "cooler."

applied the

No
to

same

principle to drinks.

longer did water and wine have

be mixed with snow

cool.

Now

to

keep them

a glass or container filled

with liquid had only to be placed in

the snow to keep the contents cold.

PEDESTRIAN WALKWAYS
Modern crosswalks are marked in white at busy
intersections. In addition,

have

lights regulating

many

intersections

both vehicular and pedestrian

Such concern for pedestrian safety is not

new. As excavators removed volcanic debris from
Pompeii, an Italian city south of Rome that was
traffic.

buried in the a.d. 79 eruption of

Mount

Vesuvius,

they noticed sets of steppingstones along

many

These stones allowed pedestrians to cross

the street without having to maneuver around the
ruts made by carriages and carts or to walk through
animal excrement or waste products along the
streets.

street.

Although steppingstones helped pedestrians

avoid street litter and sewage, they did not prevent
wheeled traffic, for the stones were spaced so that
the wheels of carts, carriages, and chariots passed
through the openings between them. To block a
street off from vehicular traffic, stones high enough
to prevent any wheeled vehicle from passing were
placed along the

street.

133

PROJECT

MAKE YOUR OWN

SUNDIAL
You Need
very

flat

wood

Perhaps you have already

and

level

piece of

heavy cardboard
measuring 5 by 5 inches
or

On

a simple sundial.

made

sunny

day you may have drawn a

cle in the

sand or

dirt,

cir-

planted a

determined

ruler

stick in the middle,

pencil

which

protractor

then "read the shadow" of the

thin stick 3

pen

inches long

or fine-tip

marker

direction

was

and

north,

stick to figure out the approxi-

mate time

of day. For a

more

accurate reading, however, you

have to know the latitude

of your location so that you can
first

position your stick parallel to

Then you need

it.

a protractor to

measure the hours and a knife

or sharp instrument to cut and
mark the lines and numbers.
In this project, you will learn

how

make

to

a simple but quite

useful type of sundial

a meridian

dial.

known

meridian

as

dial

does not show twelve o'clock

noon because the rays

of the sun

are parallel to the face of the

sundial at noon.
that the

name
is

gnomon

The shadow
(the scientific

for the stick) casts at

endless,

and

its

noon

edge cannot

be seen.
Note: The time your meridian sundial
telling

is

solar time.

is

However, the difference

between mean solar time and clock time is

never more than eighteen minutes, so your
meriaian sundial

is

auite accurate.

illustrated

by Annette Cate

/#**!

^v^
Mark the center of the
wood or cardboard.
2. Using the center mark as

Mark the spot on each circle.

8. At 3 p.m., take your board

your base, take the protractor

a 2-inch diameter (a 1-inch

you went to in the morning.

(Again, you may choose any
time you wish, but it must be

radius).

an afternoon hour when the

1.

and draw a

3.

circle with

Draw a second

inch from the

a 2

circle with

or

ter,

circle

/4

a
1/2-inch diame-

first

circle (or

1/4-inch radius).

Draw a third circle /4 inch

from the second circle (or a
4.

a 3-inch diameter,

circle with

or

5.

Draw a

1/2-inch radius).

from the
cle with
or

fourth circle 1/4 inch

third circle (or

cir-

a 3 1/2-inch diameter,

3/4-inch radius).

Place the stick in the center

of the circles. Check to make
sure the shadow cast by the
stick is long enough to cross
the four circles. (You need to
take the board into the sun to
6.

check
7.

a.m.,

sun

is

shining.)

point

same

Look at the

where the shadow cast

by the stick touches each of

the circles. Mark the spot on

each circle.
9. Connect the pencil marks
on each circle and find the
exact middle point between
the two marks.
10. With a pen, draw a line
from the stick through all the

middle points. Mark an N at

the top of the fourth circle. This
line, which intersects all four circles, is the meridian line, pointing

due

north to the celestial

pole at the noon hour.

1 1

When you want to know

take your board

side to your spot. Look

the

may choose any time you

relation to the line

it

must be a morning

hour and the sun must be shining.) Look at the point where
the shadow cast by the stick
touches each of the circles.

Kind

o^4r^

stick casts

its

where

shadow

outside to a specific spot. (You

wish, but

spot

the time, take your board out-

this.)

At 10

outside to the

in

you drew

pointing north. As the N represents both north

and the noon

hour, figure out the time of

day

in

luck

and have

relation to the N.
fun!

Good

PUZZLE
PAGES

A CREATIVE MATCH
Match each clue with the inventor, invention, or phrase that it best
describes. The answers can be found in the articles on the Greek inventors, pages 112-118, and on page 153.
used today by Egyptian farmers

1. Still

for irrigation.
2.

3.

Many

native of Alexandria,
of today's tools

and
of

these.

specialty

was creating amusing

measures the distance a

vehi-

cle travels.

graduated scale compensated

days in winter.
7. Archimedes shouted this when he
solved the "gold crown" mystery.
6.

Its

for shorter

8.

136

b.

Odometer

c.

Archimedes
Water screw

e. "Eureka!
f.

inventions.
5. This

Hero

d.

machines are based on the use

4. His

a.

He traveled

to Alexandria to study.

Eureka!"

Ctesibius

and fulcrum

g-

Lever

h.

Water clock

PUZZLE
PAGES

UNSCRAMBLE
THE PEOPLE
Unscramble the jumbled words to determine the answers to the clues.
Then place the numbered letters on the corresponding blank lines to
discover whose preparations ensured Syracuse's freedom even after
his death. The answers can be found in the play, pages 119-129, and
on page 153.

1.

He wanted

meet the great

to

sculrealm

"
"

2.

They

built

the

sonarm

sambuca on

the prows of their warships,

"
"

3. His

inventor of Syracuse,

devotion to mathematics cost him

his

life,

damicshere
"

4.

They wanted to defeat

Rome

for control of

the Mediterranean

Sea.

csinaaingrath

"
"

5.

He committed murder

kphisorepat

He succeeded

nogle

the

ruler of

Carthage,

2
his

father as ruler of Syracuse,

"

"

His

become

~
"

6.

to

war preparations ensured Syracuse's freedom even

after his

death:

TT 3~T

5~ 6~

137

CROSSWORD PUZ2XE
DOWN

ACROSS
1

6.
8.

11.
13.
14.
15.
16.

17.
18.

Used as a preserving agent

Made by carts in Roman roads
Ancient dry-cleaning ingredient
Used to work a clothes press
Erupted
Ancient

in a.d.

1.

Ancient bleaching agent

Greeks used these to telegraph

2. Early

messages
3.

79

4.

city buried by volcanic debris

Used to keep drinks cool
Used to make dry cleaners' brushing tools
Used to make dry cleaners' brushing tools
Greek who invented a system of telegra-

Invented the "cooler"

Ancient dry cleaners used these to pound
clothes

5.

They commonly preserved

7.

Roman

9.

fish

"crosswalks"

Basic ingredient

in

ancient dry-cleaning

fluid

phy

10.
12.

Invented about a.d. 1440

Workers in ancient "publishing" houses

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

18

17

The answers can be found

138

in

the article on classical ingenuity, pages 130-133,

and on page

153.

COMPANION
Topics for Comparison
1. Alexandria was one of the

ancient world's intellectual capitals.

What are today's intellectual capitals? Compare one or more of them

with Alexandria. In your answer,
include the prerequisites for being
an intellectual capital, the type of
people each attracts, and each one's
location in relation to other intellectual centers.
2.

How

does Hero's steam engine

design.

whistling teakettle?

jg&

Do some

research on outboard
motors and discover how their
mechanism is based on Archimedes's water screw.
3. Make a simple lever and fulcrum
(a seesaw or something similar in

2.

design). See

you

compare with the modern-day

3.

Further Activities
1. Take one or more of the inventions explained in this chapter and
tell how you would improve its

to

move

how

easily

car odometers and odometers that

walkers strap to their ankles to

measure the distance they travel.
4. How do today's irrigation systems
compare with the water screw
devised by Archimedes?
5. Compare Ctesibius's water organ
with today's organ.

Suggestions for Writing

Make

of the tools and

your house and/or
classroom that are based on the
lever and fulcrum.
5. Experiment with the displacement of water. Take a two-cup
measuring bowl. (You can use two
measuring bowls if you have them.)
Pour in one cup of water. Take two
identical objects. Place one in the
water. See how much the water

4.

machines

list

in

Remove

Assignments
1. Expand on Hieron's argument

level rises.

that

Archimedes owed it to Syracuse

develop military weapons to
defend the city.
2. Part of Archimedes's success was
the fear he instilled in the enemy.

the other object in

to

it

this fear contribute as

allows

its size.

Compare Hero's odometer with

Did

it

items in relation to

much

careful not to spill

much?

rise as

two are

It

identical.

the object. (Be

any water.) Place

the water. Does
should

if

You can

the

try this

experiment using a great variety of

objects

and weights.

to

Syracuse's independence as his

machines? Comment and elaborate.

3. What do Marcellus's actions
toward Syracuse and Archimedes
tell you about the Roman general?
4. The sundial has its drawbacks,
but so did the water clock. Can you
name some problems with water

Topics for Debate

1

In a society based

or cheap labor,

on slave labor

much

time

is

wasted.

Overconfidence in machines and

technology led to the Roman victory
2.

at

Syracuse.

clocks?
5.

The ancient Roman pedestrian

used steppingstones to cross the

Do you think steppingstones

could be used effectively today?
street.

If yes, where? If no, why not? Do

you have any other suggestions for
methods of ensuring pedestrian

safety?

139

OSS

COMPANION
Topics for Comparison

Greek artists stressed the

beauty and magnificence of
1.

human

the

form;

artists stressed

Roman

the

power and

strength of the individual.

Compare and
two

contrast

how

the

civilizations reflected this

Compare and

contrast

Mausolos's and Hadrian's

tombs. Include the reasons for
the construction, the people
involved, the subsequent uses
of each tomb,

and the

3.

contrast

Hadrian's Pantheon in

Rome

with the Parthenon in Greece.

4.

Compare and

contrast

Rome's use of the arch and

dome

of

rectangular buildings to create

aesthetic wonders.

its

Suggestions for Writing

Massive, innovative building

programs need patrons. Why?

Compare the lives and motives
of the patrons mentioned in
this

2.

book.

Rome

prided

itself

on

Would

a road

system have helped Greece?

If yes, was there any reason(s)
Greece did not build one? If
no,

140

why

not?

monuments.
worse? Or are they

Which

is

ancient times. Explain. You

may

a.

historical

use as examples masters

in fields other

than the arts and

you must

tie

your examples in with the masters mentioned in this book.

5. This book, and each chapter
in it, begins with a quotation.
Choose one quotation and
to

meaning in relation
the book or the chapter that

it

precedes. (Suggestion: Divide

its

Re-

b.

The works

Greek archipotters, and

The works

of

of

Roman

architects, sculptors,

and

artists

Modern-day buildings,
statues, and vases crafted in
the Greek style
d. Modern-day buildings,
statues, and paintings crafted
c.

in the
3.

Roman

Host an

style

art

show using

books, illustrations, drawings,

and posters. The manner in

which you set up your work
could follow one of the following suggestions:
a.

Group by

category, as

the chapters in this book, and

the class into six groups and

fqcus on the differences be-

assign each group one of the

tween the Greeks and Romans.

quotations.)

Proceed chronologically
beginning with the archaic
Greek period and ending with
b.

craftsmen reflected

an emphasis on beauty and the

excellence of the

human

body;

Rome's craftsmen reflected an

emphasis on power and conquest. What do you think future generations will say twen-

Greece was made up of separate city-states.

inventors

many

state.

search their careers and works.

tects, sculptors,

its

far-flung but unified empire.

town, or

have caused the destruction of

6. Greece's

Assignments
1

2. Ideas for collages:

city,

many monuments. However,

records show that humans

explain

to create its engineering

wonders with Greece's use

culprits in the disintegration of

architecture, but

sites

today.

Compare and

your

both equally bad?

4. Few people are acclaimed
masters. This also was true in

philosophical difference.
2.

Today pollution and natural

disasters are named the two
3.

tieth-century

American

crafts-

the

fall

of

Rome.

c. Separate the Greek works

from the Roman works and
focus on each country.

Topics for Debate

1 It is wasteful to spend enormous amounts of money on
monuments. They only crum.

men

reflected? Explain your

answer.

Further Activities
1 Find out whether any
.

known
tors,

ble to ruins.
well-

architects, artists, sculp-

and/or inventors hail from

To be acclaimed an architectural or sculptural wonder, a

work should be massive.
2.

furthe
1THE SEVEN WONDERS

wonder was

Each chap-

built.

Jacqueline Morley,

opens with the artist's

impression of the wonder.
Comparisons between the
wonders and similar later

Bergin,

buildings also are included.

OF THE ANCIENT

WORLD
An

Egyptian Pyramid

by-

Mark
and John James (New

ter

York: Peter Bedrick Books,

and
explains the construction and
uses of the pyramids while
1991) graphically depicts

retelling

how

the ancient

Egyptians lived and worked.

The Pyramid Explorer's Kit

by Lee Home (Philadelphia:

Running Press, 1991) includes
an excavation tool, labels, and

THE CLASSICAL
TEMPLE

tion

and history of the

aque-

and houses.

York: Scholastic, 1986)

who

has her class

experience firsthand the

town's water-purification
system.

Greek Potter by Giovanni

(New

York: Peter

scribes the lifestyle

Celia King (San Francisco:

cities,

ducts, roads, amphitheaters,

teacher

ANCIENT ARTISTS
AND THEIR CRAFTS

Seven Natural Wonders of

by

structed their

accompanies an innovative

Caselli

(1992)

by David Macaulay (Boston:

Houghton Mifflin, 1974) uses
text and black-and-white illustrations to show how the
Romans planned and con-

(New

Parthenon.

The Seven Wonders of the

Ancient World (1990), The
World (1991), and Seven

Planning and Construction

The Magic Schoolbus at the

Waterworks by Joanna Cole

the

Story of Roman

trated survey of the construc-

a soft slab of rock so as to

Modern Wonders

bridges, temples,

removing pieces of clay from

Khufu's Great Pyramid.

4
City:

ROME'S INGENIOUS
ENGINEERS

Greek Temple by Fiona

MacDonald and Mark Bergin
(New York, Peter Bedrick
Books, 1992) presents an illus-

step-by-step instructions for

reconstruct the outline of

READING

Bedrick Books, 1992) de-

and work

ENERAL

habits of a fifth-century B.C.

The Archaeology of Greece:

Athenian potter and his

An

family.

York: Cornell University

Chronicle Books) are three

Introduction (Ithaca,

Press, 1980)

is

New

an excellent
It includes an

miniature pop-up books fea-

Roman Art and Architecture by

reference tool.

turing a colorful, creative

Mortimer Wheeler (London:

Thames and Hudson, 1985)

overview of classical archaeology in Greece and descrip-

uses illustrations to discuss

and illustrations of the

major monuments, sculptures,
pottery, and paintings.

illustration

and

brief historical

account of each wonder.

and explain the various

Wonders of the World by
Giovanni Caselli (New York:

aspects of

Dorling Kindersley, 1992)

and the

explains

why and how

each

of

its

Roman

art in

development

Empire.

rest of the

terms

tions

in Italy

Roman

Architecture

by Eleanor Van

Zandt (Austin, Texas: Steck141

irther

READIN
Vaughn Company, 1990) provides a general history and
overview of architecture from
the Egyptian pyramids to con-

temporary forms.
Artists and Artisans by Irene
M. Franck and David M.
Brownstone (New York: Facts

and ideas gave

Western
values. The
birth to
clear and precise illustrations
add considerably to a class
presentation on the subject.

whose

culture

Amazing

Buildings

by Philip

Wilinson, illustrated by
Paolo Donati

(New

York:

Dorling Kindersley, 1993)

looks at the construction

and decoration of twentyone buildings from around

The Muses at Work: Arts,

and Professions in
Ancient Greece and Rome
edited by Carl Roebuck

the world, including the

ry of craft occupations such

(Cambridge, Massachusetts:

Roman

as painting, pottery making,

MIT

On

File,

1987) traces the histo-

sculpting,

and

glass

from early times

blowing

to the twenti-

eth century.

Crafts,

Colosseum and a sixteenthcentury replica of an ancient

Press, 1969) presents a

collection of readable

and

informative essays about the

artistic

techniques used by the

Diagrams and illuscomplement the text.

ancients.

by Irene M. Franck
and David M. Brownstone

Builders

(New York:

Facts

On

File,

trations

Start Exploring Architecture

by

1985) tells of architects, road

Peter Dobrin (Philadelphia:

workers, masons, and others from

Egyptian times through the

Running Press Books, 1993)

presents examples of architecture from around the world,
both past and present.
Accompanying black-and-

builders, construction

present.

Fun With Architecture by

David Eisen (New York:
Metropolitan

Museum

of Art

white drawings give readers

the opportunity to incorporate
their

own

architectural ideas.

and Viking, 1992) presents

architecture's basic principles

and includes stamps

for read-

Then and Now by Stefania and

Dominic Perring (New York:

ers to use to create innovative

Macmillan, 1991) describes

structures.

the

Greek Art and Archaeology

by John Griffiths Pedley (New

York: Harry N. Abrams, 1993)
is an excellent introduction
(for teachers) to

142

the people

wonders of the ancient

world and the times in which
they were built. Transparent
see-through reconstructions
allow readers to see the sites
as they
today.

were and as they are

theater.

guid

TEACHER'S

the material present-

Alled

book

in this

is

geared to generating an

and an appreciation

interest in

for the ancient artists, archi-

individually throughout a

ciplines exist at all levels.

semester or the school year.

Most Companion questions

do not have definite right

The Cross Companion could

or

series of puzzles that will test

thinkers, not just repeaters of

students' retention of the mate-

what they have read. Therefore, you will not find a sug-

and inventors of the

Mediterranean world. Many
of the pieces focus on the fact

rial

that the creative genius of the

all

ancients continues to influ-

the Teacher's Guide.

tects,

ence today's inventors, archi-

and

tects,

artists.

Chapter

introduces the

World, structures that inspired

we now

whose

imitate.

creations

Chapters 2

and 4 focus on the architectural accomplishments of the

ancient Greeks and Romans,
while Chapter 3 features
ancient artists and sculptors.

compare
and contrast the two ancient
cultures (Greece and Rome)
and then explain how craftsmen in the Western world

All three chapters

have imitated their predecessors.

Chapter 5 focuses on the

inventive genius of the Greeks.

The overview

presented.

The answers

to

the puzzles are presented in

at the begin-

gested answer for every question in the Teacher's Guide.

To encourage students

to

Rather this guide

offers,

see the relationships and con-

whenever appropriate,

between the past and

the present, and between
Greece and Rome, we have

tional information to help

trasts

Seven Wonders of the Ancient

other ancients

wrong answers. Students

are asked to become critical

be used as the final unit.

Each chapter contains a

included a Companion section

at the

end of each chapter.

This section

is

designed to

involve students mentally and

physically in understanding

and developing the thoughts

and ideas presented in the
chapter. The Cross Companion should be used to encour-

age students to compare, con-

and evaluate what they

have read and observed in all
the preceding chapters.
trast,

Many
ities

of the Further Activ-

could be treated as inter-

disciplinary topics,

and

classes

addi-

teachers evaluate students'

responses.

The Topics

for

Debate are not referred to in

the guide, as the arguments
for each of the opposing sentiments will vary widely among
students. The basic arguments
for each side are obvious.
A note on spelling: We have
followed the Greek spelling in
the transliteration of Greek
names and the Latin spelling
in the transliteration of Ro-

man

names. For example,

Halikarnassos is spelled with
a k and an os as it would have
been by the Greeks. Its Latin
equivalent

is

Halicarnassus.

We

chose to keep

ning of each chapter provides

and/or individual students

Exceptions:

a steppingstone to the materi-

could work on them in the

the c in Acropolis, Crete,

science or language arts class-

Corinth, and Pericles and the

room

al

contained within. Class-

room

units

and integrated

arts

units can be built using the

overview as the base. In fact,

each chapter can be treated as
a complete unit and studied

as well as the social

studies classroom.
erative efforts

Such coop-

would help

stu-

dents see that interrelationships

between the various

and us in Croesus to conform to the present-day

English spelling of these

names.

dis-

143

ANSWERS
Crossword Puzzle

Topics for Comparison

Across: 2. Chares, 5. tomb,

1.

7. Lapiths, 10. Nile, 11.

Goths,

15. red, 16. faros, 17. Diodo21. Peloponnesos,

ros, 18. blue,

23. three, 25. a.d., 26. hors28. Zeus, 30. Asia Minor,

es,

31. bronze, 32.

two J

1.

which each was

built;

under

monument;

purpose of the monument;

Three of the basic reasons

construction materials used;

5.

whether the projects were

are the prohibitive cost, the

built for public or private pur-

shortage of workers needed

which

still

stand today

those that no longer

Nike, 3. Helios,

for erecting the

style used.

the

serves;

the cause of destruction of

38. Karia.

Down:

historical circumstances

and the purpose each

37. pharaohs,

Elis,

reasons for construction; the

poses;

33. Deinokrates, 35. zoo,

36.

Answers should include the

performed by the deceased;

person or persons responsible

exist.

Answers may include

to

accomplish such a time-

consuming task, and the lack

of skilled workmanship.
6. The Space Needle in
Seattle,

Washington, the

4. Skopas, 6. walls, 7. lime-

2.

stone, 8. Herodotos, 9. pharus,

remodeling of old factories to

house malls, restaurants, and

Empire State Building in New

York City, and the Prudential

other businesses; reuse of old

Building in Boston are three

12. stones, 13.

Nebuchad-

rezzar, 14. marble, 19. earth-

and marnew buildings; remak-

quake, 20. gold, 21. Pausanias,

fireplaces, mantels,

examples. Revolving restau-

22. Sostrates, 24. Egypt,

ble in

rants atop buildings also can

27. Ptolemy, 29. Rome, 34.

oil.

and malls
Philon's Sites

and

f.,

6. a., 7.

c.

3.

A Common
1.

e.,

4.

b.,

5. g.,

The

Taj

Yamuna

Assignments

River outside the city

was begun

borers, 8. Alexan-

in

by the Mughal
emperor Shah Jahan of India

the ingenuity that fostered

mausoleum for his wife,

Arjumand Banu Begam, who

add

was

built

the basis of

14. Skopas, Timotheos,

workers, style of architecture,

16. Deinokrates, Leochares.

common
nean Sea.
144

neighbor: Mediterra-

because of the magnificence

purpose of the building, and

to complete.

had died in childbirth in 1631.

Comparisons may be made on

15. chryselephantine,

are chosen

twenty-two years

Olympic
Games, 12. Croesus, Lydia,
13. Hanging Gardens,
stantinople, 11.

Wonders

of the building design, the

as a

Con-

1.

1632 and took approximately

It

5. lighthouse, 6. Greece,

dria, 9. Artemisia, 10.

Suggestions for Writing

Mahal, located

of Agra in India,

Neighbor

Mausolos, 2. Aegean Sea,

worm

and

on the southern bank of the

3. cedar, 4. Christianity,

7.

into schools

housing for the elderly.

Sights

3.

l.d., 2.

be given as examples.

ing of closed military bases

size,

number

of

and setting.
4. Comparisons should
include

title

or office held

by

the deceased; honorable deeds

such a creation. Students

their

own

may

reasons, but

they should be very specific

and

detailed.

Comparisons

can be made between ancient

and modern wonders. The

issue of whether the criteria
for wonders are the same
today as they were in ancient
times also

may be

addressed.

4. Students should note that

ANSWERS
may
peak when a

although a civilization

Australia, the caves in the

the Centaurs. Pirithoos then

not be at

Pyrenees mountains separating Spain and France, the har-

made an agreement with

wonder

its

created, the for-

is

Rio de Janeiro in Brazil,

tunes of the reigning king or

bor

government must be high.

Checking into the fortunes
of the commissioner of each

the Paricutin Volcano in

wonder

would make

also

for

at

Mexico, the Grand Canyon

in the

United

States, Victoria

Falls in Africa,

and Mount

Theseus to capture and marry

one of Zeus's daughters.
Theseus took Helen (the same
Helen whp was taken to
Troy), only to lose her

an interesting paper.

Everest in the Himalayas.

Pirithoos

The construction materials

used reflect the area where the

Most

mined

5.

are millions of years old.

All are natural

phenomena

when

her brothers freed her.

was then

deter-

to steal Persephone.

Pirithoos

and Theseus ven-

created by the continually

tured into the underworld,

ple are very prosperous, they

changing forces of our planet.

where Hades, the king

can afford imported materials.

The basic tale says that

Oenomaos, the king of Elis,

underworld, seized them.

promised

kles,

structure

War does

is

located.

If

the peo-

not preclude build-

ing efforts, but

it

certainly

reduces the avail-ability of a

large

work

force.

Climate

defi-

5.

his daughter

Hippodamia

who

to the

race. Pelops did so,

the three-month shifts certain-

who

an

effect

ly

produced wonders.

6.

A monument

that

is

recog-

builders a sense of pride.

commemorate

and

Theseus but not Pirithoos.

to

he instituted the Olympic

Games.
6. Pirithoos

was

the king of

the Lapiths, a mythical people

inhabited the mountains

The

Greece. Because of his father

Ixion's indiscretions,

he had

half-brothers called Centaurs.

was

able to arrange

Pirithoos

same sense

a peaceful agreement with

of pride, especial-

ly as visitors flock to the area,

the Centaurs. However, at

remarking on the ingenuity of

Pirithoos's wedding, the

creators.

Centaurs drank too much

wine and attempted to seize
Pirithoos's bride.

Further Activities
4.

to free

his victory,

natives of the area feel this

monument's

was allowed

of Thessaly in northern

nized as magnificent gives the

the

Another Greek hero, Hera-

defeated her in a foot-

on building, as an area with more sun

and temperate weather allows
builders to spend more time
on a particular project.
However, with the pyramids,
nitely has

person

of the

The seven natural wonders

are the Great Barrier Reef in

A struggle

ensued, and the Lapiths, with

the help of the legendary

Greek king Theseus, defeated

145

ANSW1
SWERS
A Jumbled

lent a

Fortress

Acropolis; Athena; Athens,

Sparta; Parthenon, Propylaia;

Erichthonios, Kekrops;
Iktinos, Kallikrates;

kary

mosque; naos; Nike;

atides;

more

graceful appear-

and karyatid

have. There could be arches

from the Erechtheion. Elgin

also shipped artifacts from
other ancient Greek sites to

of various sizes within the

England.

ance to the structure than a

post-and-lintel style

same

would

building, a variation

impossible within the con-

Peloponnesian; Pericles;
Persians; Pheidias; Plata!ai,

fines of the post-and-lintel

design. However, the arch,

Salamis; polis.

Greek Temple Scramble

1. Ionic, 2. architrave, 3.

trave, cornice,

dow-

Suggestions for Writing

Assignments

Thomas

Jefferson had a

dome, and vault also can

result in structures without

sound

aesthetic appeal because of

beginning in grammar school.

their

enormous

size.

The

post-

classical education

In 1784, he traveled to France,

and-lintel style,

though simple
and practical, conveys an
impression of strength and

where he spent considerable

time reading, visiting museums, and engaging in discus-

10. metopes.

solidarity.

sions with the intellectuals of

for

2.

4. stylobate, 5. acanthus,

els,

6. antefixa, 7. Doric,

pediment, 9. stereobate,

8.

The Greek name

the temple chamber where

the offerings of worshipers

were placed: opisthodomos.

Known

Lord Elgin, Thomas Bruce

(1766-1841) was the seventh
Earl of Elgin

diplomat and

Greece Versus Rome:

From 1799

1.

f,

2. d, 3. a, 4. g, 5. b, 6. h,

7.

c,

8.

Paris. Jefferson

to history as

and

a British

art collector.

to 1803, Elgin held

the post of British ambassador

was keenly

interested in architecture

favored the classical

and

style.

Because of the offices he held

and the fact that he was well
respected throughout the
United States, Jefferson's

were

to the

ideas on architecture

Answer should include

the following: The dome and
vault created more interior

tion, Elgin petitioned the

widely known and followed.

In 1785, he planned the state
capitol in Richmond, Virginia,
with the help of a French-

Turkish authorities to take

man named

"pieces of stone with old

space and produced a feeling

inscriptions or figures"

back

was the first

public building in modern

to England. Permission

was

times based on the design of

j,

9.

e,

10.

i.

Topics for Comparison

1.

of grandeur.

Because the

dome covered
space,

it

light to

reach

ly

began packing and shipping

They

every section, eliminating the

dark corners created when

the treasures to England.

using a square or rectangular

and fragments of
statues from the Parthenon
and a column, capital, archi-

design.

The use

of the arch in

structures such as aqueducts

146

included

friezes,

sculptures,

Charles-Louis

Clerisseau. This

granted, and Elgin immediate-

a circular

allowed

Ottoman Empire in
Constantinople. Aware that
the Acropolis was in disrepair
and fearing for its preserva-

pediment

an ancient temple. Jefferson

incorporated the plan of a

Roman
of his

villa into the

design

home, Monticello, in
Always a proponent

Virginia.

of education, Jefferson estab-

lished the University of

ANSWERS
w

Virginia.

By using

the classical

style for its buildings,

he

attempted to educate the

damaged and neglected

ings,

citi-

zenry as to the beauty and

new

much

less

build-

on conceiving

projects. For centuries,

Latrobe also was in charge

of completing the Capitol

Building in Washington, D.C.

He

known

United States could best be

symbolized through architec-

Greece came under foreign

domination: Alexander the
Great, the Romans, and later
the Ottomans. Artistic genius
and building programs are difficult to accomplish when a

ture.

nation

Background information:
Throughout its history, Athens
patron goddess, Athena, a fact

er. The Greeks won independence from Ottoman rule in

1830, but the ensuing governments were somewhat unsta-

reflected in the temples of the

ble.

Greeks
defeated the Persians, Athens

government has
presided over the country. As
a result, the Athenians and
the Greek government have
supported and continue to

the Massachusetts State

support laws that will mini-

followed Latrobe as the

mize the possibility of damage

American

simplicity of this style of

architecture. Jefferson felt
that the values of the

new

2.

paid special

homage

to its

Acropolis. After the

assumed a leading role in

Greek politics. The pride
its citizens and leaders felt
allowed them to put enor-

mous energy

into a building

is

subservient to anoth-

Since 1973, a democrati-

cally elected

is

best

Basilica of the

for the

Assumption of

Mary

the Blessed Virgin

in

Baltimore, Maryland. Charles

Bulfinch (1763-1844)
sidered the

first

is

con-

professional

"American" architect in the

United States. When in Paris,
Jefferson advised Bulfinch to

study the designs of the major

buildings throughout France

and

Italy.

House

Bulfinch designed

in Boston, the

Connecticut State House in

Hartford, and the

Maine

Capitol in Augusta.

He

architect of the U.S.

Capitol Building. Other Greek

program. Athens grew ever

to the Acropolis. Also,

more prosperous. The arts,

literature, and building programs flourished. Peace

restoration projects are in

Revival architects were

progress. (Refer to the project

William Strickland (1788-

mentioned in "The Ravages of

Time," page 39.)

whose works include

Athenaeum
in Providence,
the
Rhode Island, and the

allowed artisans to concentrate

on extras rather than

just

3.

The

many

British-born architect

the essential needs of a war-

Benjamin Latrobe (1764-1820)

torn or struggling community.

is

After Athens's defeat in

sional architect in the United

the Peloponnesian War, the

States. In 1803,

Athenians turned inward and

Jefferson

questioned their leadership

veyor of public buildings.

considered the

first

profes-

Thomas
appointed him

sur-

designed the Bank of

Greek peninsula.
Economic and personal hard-

He

ships did not allow the

considered the

Athenians to spend time and

energy on restoring war-

ment to the Greek Revival

movement in America.

role in the

Pennsylvania in Philadelphia,
first

monu-

1854),

Masonic Temple, the U.S.

Mint, and the U.S. Custom
House in Philadelphia;

Thomas Walter (1804-1887),

whose works include
Founders Hall

at

Girard

College in Philadelphia and

Andalusia, the

home

of

Nicholas Biddle (financier and

scholar) near Philadelphia.
4.

During the Middle Ages,

147

AN^
SWERS
works and values of the
ancient Greeks and Romans
were ignored. The Renaissance, with its emphasis on
the

affluence.

The Greek Revival

was believed

Aristophanes, the historian

be the
perfect style to provide a
sense of independence, free-

Herodotos, the philosopher

Polykleitos.

and on learning, saw an

dom, power, and potential

prosperity. Examples exist

intense interest in studying

every state (college campuses,

re
The arts werf
promoted, and sculptors,
architects, and artists began
studying the Greek and
Roman works that had survived. A renewed appreciation

federal buildings, state

supreme courts), but it is a

good idea to select local examples to which students can
relate. The federal buildings
in Washington, D.C.,

with

for the genius of past civiliza-

which most students

are

tions followed, as did a desire

familiar, also

copy and emulate what the

ancients had accomplished.
When the United States
won its independence from

6.

the value of the individual

the classics.

to

England,
that

it

it

wanted

to

show

was independent

every way.

No

in

longer did

want to copy only

English styles. They went to
Italy and France to study the
many buildings that were
being modeled after those
remaining from classical
times. This was perfect for the
young United States. Greece,

style

to

in

can be included.

Examples are the British

in London, the
Brandenburg Gate in Berlin
(this was inspired by the
Propylaia), the Church of the
Madeleine in Paris, and the
Prado Museum in Madrid.

Museum

architects

with

its

democratic govern-

Further Activities
Athens
was the principal Greek citystate, and its navy commanded the eastern Mediterranean
4. Fifth-century B.C.

Sea. Athens's tributary states

each paid a

tax,

adding

to

ment and hard-won freedom

from the Persians, and Rome,

Athens's wealth. Athens was

one of the greatest empires

monarchy to a democracy. It
was becoming the art center

that ever existed,

were consid-

ered worthy models.

5. Citizens

considered these

buildings the barometer of a

state's or a nation's

148

power and

shifting gradually

from a

of the world. Fifth-century

B.C.

personalities

were the

dramatists Sophokles and

Euripides, the comic poet

and the sculptors

Pheidias, Myron, and
Sokrates,

ANSWERS
A Greek and Roman Match
1. d, 2. g, 3.

7.

j,

8. b, 9.

4.

f,

5. a, 6.

i,

power and accomplishments

nature as realistically as possi-

Unnecessary
additions were further examples of their need to show
their worth in material terms.
3. To a Greek, the delineation
of the body's form was the
most important part of the
statue. The action and power

c,

ble.

10. h.

e,

expressed by representing

A Roman

artist

would

probably have added some

decorative designs to the cur-

Crossword Puzzle

tain and/or cord,

Across:

to

1. Aristotle,

and certainly
the grapes and table. Greek

4. Polygnotos, 6.

wood,

artists

7. landscape, 11.

Hercula-

realism

neum, 13.

fresco, 14. Ionian,

followed the rule that

was

simplicity in

of their leaders.

of the body's muscles, the var-

design.

The Greeks were more

17. Zeuxis, 18. Mediterra-

2.

nean, 21. portraiture,

and religious
than the Romans. As a result,
their works of art, regardless
of the age, reflected this. The
Greeks felt that the gods
should be thanked and honored for creating such a
superb piece of workmanship
as the human body. The indi-

and the tautness of the muscles were important to the

Greeks. Greek works of art
were more symbolic than
individually realistic. The
Roman artist wanted to make

vidual personality did not

was trained

introspective

23. Romans, 24. Pompeii,

25. marketplace.

Down:
tic,

2. sponge, 3. encaus-

4. Parrhasios, 5. linen,

8. architectural, 9.

wax

dle, 10. doors, 12.

mortar,

can-

15. Aegean, 16. Vergina,

19. sponge, 20.

fifth,

22. four.

Potter's

1.

gourds, 2. clay, 3. kiln,

Scramble

4. firing, 5. gray-black,
6. buff-red, 7.
8.

spy hole,

name given
of vases made by

chimney. The

to the style

early

Greek

much

matter as

as the body,

which allowed a person

to

ious positions

knew

an artist's composition. Power

and might provided the Greek
artist with the atmosphere to

walls of

of art reflecting

this

philosophy of

trast,

the

life.

In con-

Romans honored

to look for the

body was not

4.

works

the statue

The Roman eye

personality. Therefore, the

necessary details weakened

create

whom

exactly

represented.

tance.

figured.

could assume,

sure the observer of a statue

accomplish great deeds. Un-

potters: black-

it

of great impor-

As Rome's might grew and

more provinces were added,
the decorations on the interior

Roman

buildings

changed. The First Style was

simple: no vistas or grand
ideas. Lines

sometimes broke

Topics for Comparison

the individual, not his or her

the

Answer should include

the following: The Romans

form. They placed importance

stressed realism in portraiture.

made him

The Greeks stressed beauty

and simplicity. For the

greater than anyone else.

as religious as the Greeks,

As the houses grew in size and

Rome's outlook seemed more
prosperous, pictures and
scenes were added (Second
Style). Romans also were

Greeks, this simplicity

Roman

beginning to accumulate

and beauty could best be

their creations reflect the

1.

on what

an individual did that

or her different or

artists

Not

sought to have

monotony

of a plain color.

money, which allowed them

to

149

ANSWERS
The Greeks believed

confidence that provided

5.

simplicity expressed beauty.

scenes and people enjoying

with a climate in which

to experiment and visually
reproduce the bodies of its citizensthe people whom the
gods had endowed with the

such areas were great backdrops for a room, especially a

ability to

Answers could include examfrom everyday life.

6. Examples are the 1939 statue of Theodore Roosevelt (in
front of the American Muse-

the good

um

take vacations

homes

in the

and buy second

country or near

the shore. Prosperity gave

Romans more

leisure time.

Resorts cropped up. Landscape

home

room in a
primary residence whose ownvacation

ers also

or a

had a second home

(Third Style).

The Fourth

Style

seemed to include everything.

It was fantastic, resembling a
scene from the theater.
5. Washington has more than
three hundred memorials and
statues, including the Lincoln

Memorial, the Jefferson

Memorial, the Theodore
Roosevelt Memorial, the
Washington Monument,

artists

use every muscle for

and glory of Greece.
In Athens, the champion of
Greek liberty, the democratic
form of government created
a political and philosophical
atmosphere that stimulated
creativity. As Greece began
to decline, the confidence of

Greek

began to
decrease. When conquering
nations marveled at the works
of the old masters, Greek
artists sought identity and
artists also

self-worth in copying their

stat-

ues commemorating Civil

War

memorial benches,
temple-style buildings, and
the Vietnam War Memorial.
heroes,

predecessors' works.
2. After a military victory,

people throughout history

have often

felt

the need to

destroy or remove anything

that symbolizes or represents

Suggestions for Writing

Assignments
1.

of

Greek

sculpture reflect Greece's

emergence as a nation. Beneath the stylized, draped

cloth is a knee and leg tentaof

its

break out

confining restrictions.

Aware

of

its

ability to repel

invaders, Greece gained a self-

150

The reasons

defeated.

desire have

The archaic forms

tively attempting to

the people they have just

for this

been the subject

of study for psychologists,

many

of

behavior

whom
is

feel this

often cathartic.

There are many examples: the

storming of the Bastille during
the French Revolution, the
execution of Mussolini, and
the trials of the Nazi war
criminals.

that

ples

of Natural History in

York

City), the

New

1915 statue of

Joan of Arc (Ninety-third

Street and Riverside Drive in
New York City), and the Cecil

Rhodes Memorial at Groote

Schuur in Cape Town, South
Africa.

ANSWERS
A Wet
1.

Scramble

need

Appia, Marcia, 2. Apen-

to use

Jrand by

road maps and

encyclopedia

maps

of

in the library

Rome's

nines, 3. Augustus, 4. reser-

roads. Historically, the fron-

voir, 5. travertine, 6. castellum

tiersmen and pioneers carved

aquarum,

out the

7. Frontinus,

8. pozzolana, 9. terra cotta,

10. Tiber.

Romans had

these

first

roads in the

where waste and water are

treated would provide materi-

tem

al for

3. masts, 4. chapels, 5. nau-

machiae, 6. kolossos, 7. pollu-

troops quickly to a "hot spot"

household water:

castella privata.

A Colossal
1.

Puzzle

velarium, 2. venationes,

tion, 8.

Flavian Amphitheater,

9. travertine.

Emperor

re-

water department. Emphasis could be

placed on the purification of
water today. A visit to sites
visiting the local

United States as they sought

land. A central road sys-

new

communication and
commercial purposes followed. Rome's roads followed
its conquests, first of Italy and
then of the Mediterranean
world. For Rome, communication and the ability to deploy

to collect

calling or

for

students to continue a

discussion in class. This question also could be

done

in

cooperation with the students'

science teacher.

can choose a spesports stadium in the

4. Students
cific

were important. Troops often

United
wishes

States. If the student

do further research,

to

constructed or supervised the

or

sponsible for construction of

construction of roads in the

groups, a comparison between

Colosseum: Vespasian.

provinces.

small arenas used in

2.

A Wordy

Fortress

Aelian; angel; Antoninus Pius;

Apollo; Aurelian; cypress;

drum; dungeons; Italy; marble; mausoleum; mosaics;

museum;

Ostrogoths; peperi-

no, travertine; pilaster;

Theodoric; Tiber; Vatican;

Visigoths; white.

The

project in this chapter

1.

Answers should include the

following: our system of high-

way

on archways above
roads and to the left and right
of roads; the Romans' use of
stone markers and the central
milestone in Rome. Students
signs

the class

is

divided into

Roman

towns and the stadium

in the

hometown

could be a starting point for

students' city or

this question. Students also

would be

could contact the state's

possibility

department of public works

about road construction and
current road projects in the
area. Answers should include
materials used, depth of the
foundation, width of the road,

between small stadia and stadia where professional games

drainage systems, use or lack

use continued as such, albeit

of stop signs

Topics for Comparison

if

and the

like,

and

interesting.
is

Another

a comparison

are played.

The purpose of Hadrian's

mausoleum was to house the
5.

corpse of an emperor, and

its

for a short period of time.

Arlington National Cemetery

repair schedules.

Research also is needed

this answer. Each student (a
class could be divided into
groups) could be assigned a

was

specific aspect of the U.S. or

ern troops occupied the land,

water system to research.

Information can be gathered

and

3.

city

for

originally (in the early

1800s) the estate of George

Washington's adopted son.

During the

of

Civil War, north-

in 1864 the U.S. secretary

war declared

it

a national

151

ANSWERS
cemetery.

War dead from

every war have been buried at

Arlington. Outstanding lead-

such as Robert E. Peary

and Robert F. Kennedy also
ers

are buried there.

L^

admiration for and use of the

Greek style of architecture.

These structures have become
symbols of the days when

Rome

nean world. They draw millions of tourists to Rome.

3.

Suggestions for Writing

Assignments
Lead was commonly used
for pipes and dishes. It has
been noted that only the well1

ruled the Mediterra-

Rome extended

its

road

system wherever it wanted to

extend its power. Roads kept
military outposts in touch
with each other and with

Rome.

to-do could afford lead dishes

and that the poor used earthenware or clay dishes. Hence,

some historians have proposed the theory that the lead
in the pipes and dishes con-

Further Activities
3.

Two

of the

aqueducts

most famous

still

standing today

tributed to the fact that there

du Gard near
Nimes, France, and the aque-

were so many mentally unbal-

duct in Segovia, Spain.

anced

Roman

leaders in the

later years of the empire.

Students could find out the

effects of lead poisoning that

are

known

today and the laws

against the use of lead paint in

their state. This project could

be done in cooperation with

the students' science teacher.

Hadrian was the Roman

emperor responsible for unifying and consolidating the
2.

empire.
ly

He

traveled extensive-

throughout the provinces.

Have students use illustrated

books that show Hadrian's
mausoleum, Pantheon, and
villa. Have them reflect on his
152

are the Pont

ANSWERS
A

Creative

1. d, 2.

f,

8.

c.

7.

e,

Match

find illustrations

3. g, 4. a, 5. b, 6. h,

and explana-

15. snow, 16. burs, 17. teasel,

18. Polybius.

destruction. Perhaps the prin-

1.

Marcellus, 2. Romans,

Archimedes,

4. Carthaginians,
5.

Hippokrates, 6. Gelon.

His war preparations ensured

Syracuse's freedom even after
his death: Hieron.

Crossword Puzzle
Across:

1. salt, 6. ruts,

8. urine, 11. screws,

13. Vesuvius, 14. Pompeii,

Down:
3.

1. sulfur, 2.

Nero, 4.

feet, 5.

torches,

Egyptians,

treatment of Archimedes's
family and the inhabitants of
Syracuse illustrates a respect

Answers may include the

following arguments: Whether
Archimedes designed war
machines or not, Syracuse
would be attacked. If Syracuse
lost, its citizens also would
lose. To keep Syracuse and its
citizens free, a victory was
necessary. Archimedes could
design weapons that would
wreak havoc with the
enemy's strategy and tire
and frustrate the enemy,
not weapons aimed at total

3.

the destruc-

tion

Assignments
1

his,

would be aimed against

what he then controlled. His

tions.

Suggestions for Writing

Unscramble the People

Syracuse was

for life

and the powers of the

intellect.

Answers could include the

following: Even the smallest

4.

pinprick of a hole could cause

loss of water; freezing

temper-

atures could cause water to

water clock was

cumbersome; water clocks

freeze; the

needed constant

attention.

ciples involved in the design

of the

7. steppingstones, 9. water,

later

10. printing, 12. slaves.

2.

war machines could

be used in peacetime.

Answers may include

the following arguments:

Topics for Comparison

1.

A list

of intellectual capitals

might include Boston, Paris,

London, and Tokyo. Included
in the prerequisites should be

Continued fear creates suspense, which in turn can

cause panic and lead to retreat and defeat. Fear of the

unknown

is

common

to every-

one. Archimedes's foes did

know

or understand his

schools located in the area;

not

research centers; world-

inventions. Because they

famous scientists, physicians,

and artists; cultural centers;
and museums.
2-5. These questions require

seemed unexplainable, they

students to use the library to

caused fear.
3. Marcellus does not appear
be bloodthirsty or vengeful.
His goal was conquest. Once

to

153

ANSWERS
each

Topics for Compariso]

should be based on reseat
using history books, encyclo-

and architectur-

al illustrations.

Suggestions for Writing

Assignments
The two patrons mentioned
are Pericles and Hadrian.
Their drive, energy, and will1.

ingness to allocate funds contributed to the success of their

building programs.
2.

Ancient Greece's system of

individually ruled city-states

did not create a need for a

massive road system. Various

mountain ridges divide

Greece, the Gulf of Corinth
separates southern Greece

from the north, and the

fin-

gerlike land formations of the

Peloponnesos meant further

isolation in the southern

Greek communities. In addition,

Greece's colonies in Asia

Minor and southern

Italy

could be reached faster by

water than by land. Under
these circumstances, a fleet
of ships

was more important

than a road system. Students

also should research the road

system used in Greece today.

3. Students should check the
reasons for the destruction of

154

they include

in their answers. If both

1-4. Students' answers

pedias, maps,

monument

humans and

natural disasters

on

have affected a monument,

students can explain which
did the most damage or the
most irreparable damage.
4. Perhaps to make this more
relevant to students, you
should encourage them to
look at acclaimed masters in a
field in

ested.

which they

are inter-

INDEX
naval battles, 99
official name of, 99
structure and design of, 96-97
through time, 94-95
Colossos of Rhodes: 25-26

Alexandria

and Alexander the Great, 22-23

and Pharos, 22-24
Appian Way. See Via Appia.
Aqueducts
care

Columns
Greek

93

ot,

construction of channels, 91-93

development of aqueduct system,
90-91

Arch
of,

48

Archimedes
background,

12

and lever and fulcrum,

and measuring weight of
1

Roman
Composite

gold,

14

order: 51

Doric order: 42-43, 51

Dry cleaning: 131-132

Egypt

and

Art

Greek, 70-71

dry cleaning, 131-132

Great Pyramid

Greek versus Roman, 74

Roman, 73-74
styles,

98

orders, 51

play about ("Archimedes and the

Siege of Syracuse"), 1 1 9-1 29
and water screw, 112-113

Roman

orders, 42-45, 50-51, 53

pilasters, 53,

Corinthian order: 44, 45, 49, 51

Ctesibius
background of, 115
and water clock, 115-116
and water organ, 115

and temples, 48
use

mock

Acropolis: 34-39

74

two Greek painters, 72-73

See also Greek art, Roman art.
Artemis: temple at Ephesos, 19-21

of, 10-12
use of salt as preserving agent, 130
Ephesos: temple of Artemis, 19-21
Erechtheion: and Acropolis, 38, 39

story of

Artemisia:

and Mausolos's tomb, 17-18

Athena

Greek

and Athens, 38
and Parthenon, 36

Hanging Gardens

of,

art

painting techniques, 70-71

and Pausanias, 71
versus Roman, 74
Greek pottery
decorating, 77

Babylon
city of,

Greece
and refrigeration, 132-133
and system of telegraphy, 130-131

13-14

75-77
78-79
See also Vases, Greek.
Greek Revival style: 51-53

production

of,

styles of vases,

Colosseum
awning

of,

98

155

INDEX
water screw, 112-113

Greek sculpture
demise of, 63-65

whistling bird, 118

Roman, 69
and Rome, 66-67

Ionic order: 43, 51

versus

Khufu

Greek temple
columns of, 42-45
construction of, 40-47
design of, 40-42
entaPlature of, 46-47
in Greek Revival architecture, 51-53

for,

Hadrian's mausoleum
design of, 100-103
as fortress, 101-103
and Vatican, 102-103

Packground of
and odometer, 18
and steam engine,
and whistling Pird,
,

64

also Artemisia, Hadrian's mausoleum.

Mosaics. See Projects, Design a Mosaic.
battles):

99

II

and Babylon, 14
and Hanging Gardens,
Nero: and "cooler," 132-133

13

Parrhasios: contest with Zeuxis, 71-73

1

17

Parthenon

18

and Babylon, 14
and Hanging Gardens,
and pyramids,

and Acropolis, 34, 36

column structure design
14

and statue of Zeus, 15-16

and temple of Artemis, 19
Pericles: and Acropolis, 34

Inventions
"cooler," 132-133

fulcrum,

of,

design of, 41
through time, 39
Pausanias

13

measuring weight of gold,

odometer, 18
1

44

Olympia: statue of Zeus, 15-16

Herodotos

17

telegraphy, 130-131
water clock, 1 15-116
water organ, 1 15

156

Hadrian's, 100-103

steam engine,

Mausoleum

Nebuchadrezzar

and Mausoleum, 17-18

Hellenistic style of sculpture:

and

10-12

Naumachiae (mock naval

Hero

lever

of,

See

Roman, 48-51

transportation of stone Plocks

Halikarnassos:

12

Mausolos's, 17-18

interior of, 41

versus

boat of,
pyramid

Pharos
1

14

of Alexandria, 22-24

derivation of word, 23
tales of,

24

Pheidias

and
and

Acropolis, 36
statue of Zeus,

5-1

44

INDEX
and wonders of antiquity,
"Archimedes and the Siege of

Philon:

Play:

Syracuse," 119-129
Pliny the Elder
and Mausolos's tomb, 17
and temple of Artemis, 26
Polybius: and telegraphy, 130-131

See Greek

Pottery.

as preserving agent, 130

Sculpture
endangered ancient pieces,
s, 66
Salt:

Greek
demise

of,

63-65
64

Hellenistic style,

Greek versus Roman, 69

Roman, 66-69
See also Greek

pottery.

Projects

Construct a Roman Road, 104-105

Design a Mosaic, 80-81
Make Your Own Sundial, 134-135
Optical Illusions, 54-55
Time Line of Ancient Wonders, 27-28
Propylaia: and Acropolis, 36
Publishing: 132
Pyramid, Great: 10-12
Refrigeration: 132-133

Roads: development of road system, 88-89.

See also Projects, Construct a

Roman Road.
Roman

sculpture,

Roman

sculpture.

Statue of Zeus at Olympia: 15-16

Telegraphy: 130-131

Temple

of Artemis: 19-21

See

also

Greek

temple, Roman temple.

Tuscan order: 51
Vases, Greek
decorating, 77
production of, 75-77
styles of, 78-79
Via Appia: 88-89

art

versus Greek, 74

Walkways, pedestrian: 133

painting techniques of, 73-74

Wonders

styles of,

columns

Colossos, 25-26

74

Roman sculpture:
Roman temple

versus Greek, 69

Mausoleum, 17-18

of,

pilasters of, 53,

Great Pyramid, 10-12

Hanging Gardens of Babylon, 13-14
introduction to,

of, 51

48-51
versus Greek, 48-51

design

of ancient world

Pharos of Alexandria, 22-24

statue of Zeus at Olympia, 15-16
temple of Artemis at Ephesos, 19-21

98

Rome
and arch construction, 48
and dry cleaning, 127-128
and pedestrian walkways, 33
and publishing, 132
and refrigeration, 132-133
and siege of Syracuse, 19-129
1

Zeus: statue at Olympia, 15-16

Zeuxis:

contest with Parrhasios, 71-73

157

Charles

and

F.

Baker and Rosalie

F.

Baker are the founders

magazine CALLIOPE: World History

for Young People. Together they have written two
books, The Classical Companion and Myths and
Legends of Mount Olympos. Mr. Baker also is the author
of The Struggle for Freedom, a series of plays on the
American Revolution. Both have served as teachers
and administrators in public and private schools.
editors of the

ISBN 0-942389-07-7