A project of Volunteers

in Asia

AmateurIs w*
by: Ian Bradley
: Published by:
Model and Allied Publications
Argus Books Limited
P.O. Box 35, Wolsey House
Wolsey Rd., KernelHempstead
Hertfordshire HP2 4SS England
;,:;
,'
:;;:',,,
Paper copies are $11.00.
;:;;
,~~
%Available from:
META Publications
;;:' P-0. Box 128
;!,:;,,
Marblemount, WA 98267 USA
,::I:,
Reproduced by permission of Model and Allied
:c:Publications.
,','Reproduction
of this microfiche document in any
,'1form is subject to the same restrictions as those
of the original document.

by
an Bradley
with chapters by
the late
Dr. N. Hallows
u.110 also took
,;;;ITI~of the photographs

MODEL & ALLIED PUBLICATIONS

Argus Books Ltd., Watford, Herts

Argus Books Ltd., I4 St. James Road. Watford, Herts

@ 1976, Argus Books Ltd. and Ian Bradley
ISBN 0 85242 482 5
All rights reserved. No part of this
book may be reproduced in any form
without the prior permission of the publisher
First published 1950
New edition 1971
Reprinted 1974
Revised edition 1976

PRINTED BY
STAPLES PRINTERS LTD
LONDON

Chapter
:.
3
4
5
6
7
;
10
:::

13
14
15

16
17
18
::
;:
23
;;
z;
iti
i:

Page
...
THE WORKSHOP
.........
...
THE LATHE
............
...
THE DRILLING MACHINE
......
...
BELT DRIVFS .........
. I
. .
THE SHAPING MACHINE
......
..
THE MILLING MACHINE
......
...
CHUCKS...............
...
MANDRELS
............
. ..
LATHE TOOLS ............
...
KNURLING
............
...
LATHE OPERATIONS(MISCELLANEOUS)
...
TAPER TURNING
.........
...
......
LAPPING
..
TOOLMAKERSBUTTONS
.....
......
. .
MiLLrNC IN THE LATHE
......
. ..
DIVIDING IN THELATHE
......
..
......
DIVIDING
.
.
.
DRILLS AND DRILLING
.....
......
.
.
.
COUNT~ZRSINKING
AND C~VNTERBORING
...
CUTTING SCREWTHREADS ......
CUTTING SCREWTHREADSIN THELATHE . . .
...
MEASURINGEQUIPMENT
......
.. .
MARKING OUT
. ..
THE DIAL INDICATOR
1::
1::
...
SUDSEQUIPMENT
.........
...
LATHE OVERHEADDRIVES
. ..
.. .
SOLDERING,BRAZING, & CASEHARDENING. . .
COMPRESSED
AIR IN THE WORKSHOP. ..
. ..
.. .
SOMEADDITIONAL MACHINE TOOLS
.. .
.
.
.
THE BACK TOOL POST
REAMERS
.. .
.. .
1::
.. .
. ..

13
ii
49
2:
65
74
78
87
92
104

110

115
118
129
137
148
163
167
178
188
195
211
218
221
226
235
244
250
258

SINCEthis book was first published,

over twenty-five years ago, some of the

equipment then available is no longer manufactured. In addition, much of the
elementary advice originally contained in the book has been incorporated in
Beginners Workshop, a title with a target needing no amplification.
Thus, by the removal of material mainly of interest to the beginner, the way
has been left open for the inclusion of more advanced treatment.
So the new Amateurs Workshop may be considered as the logical extension of
the primary manual Be,:inners Workshop. For the sake of completeness there
must inevitably be some duplication of materia! contained in the two,Pooks;
where this is so the contents have either been extended, or abridged with a
reference to the primary work. In this way space has been found for including
more up-to-date material of greater interest to advanced readers. For example,
subjects such as making improvements to the inexpensive lathe, or describing
the operation of the shaping machine are dealt with in detail.
WICKHAM, BERKSXRE. 1976

I.B.

Figure

Figure

Chapter I-Th&
1
2
:
6
i
9
10
;:
ii
15
f6
::
19
20
21
21A
22

Workshop
The Author in his Workshop
A typical workshop bench
A raw material storage container
Incandescent strip lighting
> fitted to a Myford lathe
Cable Support
Common Transformer
Auto Transformer
Electric Drill
Spot Drilling attachment
Cutter Grinder
Air OVER frame cooling
Air THROUGH frame cooling
Shunt wound motor (A)
Series wound motor(B)
Reversing switch
Heavy Current Switch
Foot Switch for Transformer
Parts of heavy current switch
fitted to low-volt electric drill
An angular rest fixed to a small
grir.der
An angular rest fitted to a
commercial grinder
Diagram of a correctly mounted
grinding wheel
Hollow grinding a screwdriver on
a small wheel
Fixture for grinding screwdrivers

Chapter 2-The
:
i
:
7

9A

Lathe
The Drummond 31 in. lathe
The Drummond Toolpost
TheCtool turret
The Back Tclpost
The Fixed Steady
The Travelling Steady
Method of avoiding damage from
the steady jaws
Half-centre azd Female-centre
c ThePPumpCentre
&$arar;fouxmblerGear and Norton
The ML10 Lathe
The ML10 lathe on stand
The ML7 Lathe with gearbox
ML7 Super 7 Headstock in section
Checking the accuracy of levelling
the lathe bed
The chip Tray-ML7
The chip Tray-Drummond

fi
20

Leadscrew Protector
Clamp for chip tray
Arrangement of chip trays for the
Drummond

Chapter 3-The
:
:
i
7
8
9
ii
11A
;:

15A

Drilling Machine
The Champion Drilling Machine
Cowell 8 in. Drill
Cowell 4 in. Drill
Pacera Bench Drill
Pacera Floor Drill
Mounting Motor below the bench
Speed Range device for
Champion Drill
Speed Range device for Cowell
Drill
Two methods of mounting the
Drill Chuck
Securing the Drill Chuck
The Albrecht Chuck
Section of the Albrecht Chuck
Chuck Guard
High-Speed Attachment for
drilling very small holes
Testing the Drilling Machine
Testing the Drilling Machine
Testing the Drilling Macnine

Chapter 4-Belt
1
:
ii
:

Drives

Round Belt Fixing

Pulley Sections
Alternative Belt Layouts
Jx Short Centre Belt Drives
Wire fastenings for flat belts
Belt Tensioning Method

Chapter 5-The
1
:
4
2
;

Shaping Machine
The Cowell Shaping Machine
The Acorn Tools Shaping Machine
Shaping Machine Surfacing Tools
Tool for cutting internal keyway
The Starrett Taper Gauge
An improvised method of locking
the clapper box
The American Tool Post
Cutting an internal keyway

Chapter 6-The
1
:

Milling Machine
1 he elements of the Milling
Machine
Errors in a machine vice
Testing a machine vice

l-HE AMATEURS WORKSHOP

Figure

Figure
4

Testing the standing jaw of a vice

Testins the paralleiism of vice jaws
The Tom Senior Milling Machine
A vertical mi!ling machine
The Dividing Head
The Rotarv Table
The Rotary Table
The Rotarv Table Wormwheel and
Retaining Plate

i
7
s
9

10
11

Chapter RI-Knurling
Types of Knfu%ng
Hand Knurl Wheel holder
Knurls for hand bolder
Method of using the hand holder
STi:,gle Wheel Machine Knurlmg

:
:
5
6
:A

Straddle Knurting
1 Siraddle Knurling Tool

Chapter 7-Chucks
The Bell Chuck
The -l-jaw independent chuck
The Self-centring chuck
Numbering the chuck jaws
:
Jaw sequence of entry
The Colle: Chuck
2
Collet Chuck Assembly
Types oiCollet fh-ck
z
9A - Mvford Coilet Assembly
YBJ

Myford Collet Closer and

10
Extractor
The Ja::obs Chuck
Draw Z >lt Fitting for Chuck
,i:
Backplate and Chuck Assembly
13
Tool for removing swarf from
14
Backplate Thread:
The Chuck Brace
15
Ttie Chuck Brace
,16
:

Chqier
.:
2
2
I
8

8-,Mandrels
Plain Taper Mandr:!
The Le Count Expanding Mandrel
Stub Mandrels
Mandrels for Hold& washers
Mandrels for Holding washers
Details af the above
Expanding stub mandrel
Hollow Mandrels

Chapter 9;Lathe
Teools
The Front Roughing tool
1
The Knife Tooi
} YE5Fr::::tti~
Tool
The Parting Tooi
The Back Tooipost
The Back Tooipost and Boring Bar
The Hand Graver
boring Tool Holders
Boring Tool Holders
Boring Tool J-folders
The Angular Grinding Rest
Setting the angular rest
A Battery of angular rests
A special grinder with angular rests
The Grinding Rest Template
Wheel Dressers

Tool Rack and Stand

i
10
11
12

f
: Straddle Knurling
Drummond Lathe

Tool for

3$

Chapte-r II-Lathe

Operations

The Centre Drill

Using the fixed steady to support
work for drilling
Wiring the carrier to the lathe dog
A lever-operated tailstock
The Cowell lever-operated tailstock for the Myford lathe
The D-bit

:
3
4
5
6

The Tools point-undercutting

8
SC 1J
Using a drill gauge to assess tool
9
clearance
IO
Boring Tools with detachable
cutters
;:A 1
Effect of tool point shape on the
12
work
Effect of tool overhang
13
Correct method of tool clamping
14
Back Facing
15
16 7, Two simple boring tool holders for
t78

Using the Sticky Pin

Setting the Cutter

:i
;:
23
24

;f;;;fgBar

Internal Keyway Cutting

Chapter I2-Taper
:
:
5
:A
1
i
fY

Turning

Taper turningattachment
Set-over tailstock
Adjustable centre
Adjustable centre dismantled
Working drawing for set-over
centre
Setting over with protractor
Using the protractor for an actual
job
Machining male and female cones
Dial test indicator used to sat taper
Calculating tapers
Calculating internal tapers
Checking tapers

THE AMATEURS WORKSHOP

Figure
4
5

Tes!ing the standing jaw of a vice

Testing the paralleiism of vice jaws
TheTomSenior
Milling Machine
A vertical millina machine
The Dividing H&d
The Rotary Table
The Rotary Table
The Rotary Tabie Wormwheel and
Retaining Plate

10
~ 11
(

Chapter 7-Chucks
The Bell Ch,uck
1
2
3
4
5
!
iA

9B

IO
II
12
:i
:i

Chqter

The 4-jaw independent chuck

The Self-centring chuck
Numbering the chuck jaws
Jaw sequence of entry
The Collet Chuck
Coilet Chuck Assemb!y
Types of Coliet Ch-ck
Myford Coiiet Assembly
Myford Collrt Closer and
Exuactor
The Jacobs Chuck
Draw i?>lt Fitting for Chuck
Backplate and Chuck Assembly
Tool for removing swarf from
Backplate Threads
The Chuck Brace
Tke Chuck Brace

&--Mandrels
P!ain Taper Mandre!
The Le Count Expanding Mandrel
Stub Mandrels
Mandrels for Holding washers
Mandrels for Holding washers
Details 3f the above
Expanding stub tnandrel
Hollow Mandrels

,:
i
:
7
8

Chapter 92Lathe

Tools

The Front Roughing tool

The KnifeTool

5:
4
5
6
I

$ Boring Tools
The Screwcutting Tool
The Parting Tool
The Back foolpost
The Back Toolpost and Boring Bar
The Hand Graver
boring Tool Holders
Borine Tool Holders
Boring Tool Holders
The Angular Grinding Rest
Setting the angular rest
A Battery of angular rests
A special grinder with angular rests
The Grinding Rest Template
VvkeelDressers
Tool Rack and Stand

t
10

Figure
Chapter IQ-Knurling
Types of Knltrling
Hand Knurl Wheel holder
Knurls for hand holder
Method of using the hand holder
:
Single Wheel Machine Knurling
5
Tool
6
Straddle Knurling
aA 2 Straddle Knurling Tool
1
2

9I
i:
12

1: Straddle Knurling
Drummond Lathe

Tool

for 31

Chapter II-Lathe
Operations
I
The Centre Drill
Using the fixed steady to support
work for drilling
Wiring the carver to the lathe dog
A lever-operated tailstock
The Cowl1 lever-operated tailstock for the Myford lathe
The D-bit

5
6

The Tools point-undercutting

it
SC 1
Using a drill gauge to assess tool
9
clearance
10
Boring Tools with detachable
11
cutters
11A I
Effect of tool point shape on the
12
work
Effect of tool overhang
13
14
Correct method of tool clamping
15
Back Facing
wo simple boring tool holders for
iI

] &l;y;gBar

:z
;:
23
24

Using the Sticky Pin

Setting the Cutter
iI

Internal Meyway Cutting

t;hupter /I-Taper
2
:
5
:A
;
1;
11

Turning

Taper turntng attachment

Set-over tailstock
Adjustable centre
Adjustable centre dismantled
Working drawing for set-over
centre
Setting over with protractor
Using the protractor for an actual
job
Machining male and female cones
Dial test indicator used to set taper
Calculating tapers
Calculating internal tapers
Checking tapers

TbiE AMATEURS WORKSHOP

Figure
Chqter
:
3
4
5
Chapter
:
3

Figure
j3-Lapping
The Simple lap and holder
A simple expanding lap
The Boyar-Schulz lap
Mounting the lap in the lathe
A large hi.
/4-Toclmakers
Buttons
Toolmakers Bu!tons
Se!:ing Buttons to run true
Stages in setting Buttons on work

Chn~~rev /5--Milling
in the Lathe
I/IA
The Flycutter
Double Flycutter
2
3
Flycutter on Faceplate
Feeding the Fiycytter
4
5
Calculating packing
The End Mill
6
The slot drill
i
gA ) Saw tooth proportions
The Milling Arbor
It:
Machining woodruff keys
l!
Fixed Vertical Slide
12
Compound Vertical Slide
13
1
ii> (
16
17
18
Chupiri:
3
4
2
s

~~~~~~~~~Head
with Selfcontained motor
Elements of a simple saddle mounted dividing device
Cross slide self-act
16-Dividing
Arrangement of detent
Detent details
Detent in place on Myford lathe
Simple push-in detent
Spring loaded detent
Section of spring loaded detent
Details of spring loaded detent
Arrangement of wheels for compound dividing
Simple method
of eliminating
backlash
Mandrel Extension for the ML 7
Details of the Mandrel Extension
End of ML 7 showing change
wheel and detent
Parts of the.detent bracket
Details of the parts
Detent for the Drummond Bull
Wheel
Using the Chuck Backplate
Using the bull wheel face
A bull wheel mounted dividing
plate

ChopIs
IA
1
15
2
3
4
5
7
;
IO
II
I2
13
I4

17-Di\:iding
Elements of the Dividing Head
Lathe Dividing Head
Parts of the lathe Dividing Head
Index Fingers
The Myford Dividing Head
Simple Dividing Attachment for
the la!;ie saddle
D&ails of above
Set-up for linear dividing
Diagram of above
Diagram for linear dividing
Diagram for linear dividing
Set-up for rack cutting
Train of gears to satisfy the function
Complete
train of gears for
accurate indexing
The Rotary Table
Set-up for engraving on the rotary
table

Chupter I8-Drills
1
2

zhrv$ing

and Drilling
damage to a- taper

The removal of taper shank drills

Mounting work in a V-block
Locating the V-block
:A
The Mvford machine vice
4
The O&n vice
The drilling machine setting ring
2
7
Drilling machine stop
Modified drilling machine stop
;
Depth stop gauge
Potts drilling grinding jig
10
The elements of the twist drill
II
12
Drill point angle
Drill lip clearance
I3
Chisel point angle
14
Faults in drill grinding
15
Testing free hand drilling methods
16
Drill grinding on the side of the
17
wheel
Modified drill point for brass
18
Thinning the drill point
:i
The modified drill point
Grinding the modified point
21
2IA
Mist lubrication
A pair of V-blocks
22
Setting work for cross-drilling
Cross drillingjig
::
Parts of the jig adjustable stop
Details of the drilling jig
:i
27
Guide bushes for the ji,:
Drilling the jig V-b!ock
Device for pilotEng holes
Chapter 19-Countersinking
and
Counterboring
1
C$x$ersink, cotmterbore and spot

HE AMATEURS WORKSHOP
igure
2
i

Countersink with single cutting

edge
A pair of simple edge countersinks
Some commercial countersinks
Examples of counterbores and pin
drills
A simpie counterbore or pin drill
Various types of coumersink and
methods of sharpening,rhem
Modifying the drill point

Ykapter 20-Cutting

Screw Threads

!2

The effect of coarse and fine pitch

on core diameter
Die holder fitted with guide collet
Sta.ndard method of retaining die
in biolder
Three collered die holders
The, collets
The die seating and adjusting screw
Die holder to show oosition of
guide
Details of die holder bodv
Details of die holder body
Details of die holder body
A set of modern taps
Checking squareness of tap
A T-handled tap wrench
A T-handled iap wrench
The Myford die holder
The tailstock die holder
Wrench for large taps
The tailstock die holder in use
Tapping from the tailstock
A tailstock tap holder
A tailstock tap holder with extension handle
Tap mounted on back centre
Tap mounted on top slide
Tapping from the headstock
Myford mandrel handle
A dri!lina machine converted for
tapping Drummond mandrel handle
Another form for Myford mandrel
Starting a large tap from the headstock
Fap;i;~
handle for the drilling

!!

Tapping in the drilling machine

7huptev

21-Cutting
Screw Threads
in the Lathe
The basic screw-cutting tools
Inside and outside chasers
A height gauge for tools
Graphical method of obtaining the
helix angle
Using the tool height gauge
Thread setting gauge
Thread setting gauge
Using the thread setting gauge

iB
4A
5

i
7
10
!3
9
!OA
8

1
z
4
i
6A
I

Figure
8
1:
10A
f:
12A
ii
15
16
17

Relation of tool point to leadscrew pitch

The thread indicator
Construction of the thread indicator
Parts of the thread indicator
A simple gear train
Tumbler gearing
Tumbler gearing
Compound gear train
Thread pitch gauge
Thread run-cuts
Thread callipers
Turning threads with top slide set
over

Chapter 22-Mea:.Lzring
1
IA
2
2A
:
4
2
8
:
IO
11

Equipment
The micrometer calliper
Micrometer stand
The gauge
The small hole eaee
The small hole gauge
Using a taper pin to measure a
small hole
Measuring callipers
The slide gauge
The vernier
The micrometer depth gauge
The vernier depth gauge
The hook rule
Narrow rule and holder
The taper gauge

Chapter 23-Marking

Out
Setting the dividers with a micrometer2
Common form of angle plate
3
Clamo made from a nut
4
Box angle plate
Adjustable parallels
i
Screw jack
7
Precision V-block
8
Plain V-block
9
The surface gauge
The scribing gauge
fA
The rule stand
11A
The scribing gauge
IOA
The rule stand
The centre head
i:
Jenny callipers
14
Modified Jenny callipers
16
The centre punch
17
Using bridge pieces
18 to 23 Using Jenny callipers
~Supporting a shaft in V-blocks
2
Using the centre line
Using the snrface gauge
2:
Using the square
28
Setting out for marking keyways at
an angle
29
Setting out for marking keyways at
an angle
1

THE AMATEURS WORKSHOP

10
Figure
30
31
32

Determining the distance between

centres
Marking-off hole centres
Alternative method of marking-off
hole centres

Chapter 24-The

Figure
3

Dial Test Indicator

A dial indicator mounted on an

Eclipse magnetic base
Alternative feet for :he indicator
Dial Indicator mounted on a
surface gauge
Three t&n% of spigot indicator
mountinv
The ind&tor set on the spigot
mounting and alter,native mount
for clamping to a lathe tool
Details of the mounting for clamping to the lathe tool
Indirator mounting for the Drummond Lathe
Details of the Drummond Lathe
mounting
The internal Attachment for the
Indicator
Parts of the Internal Attachment ,.,
tnternal Attachment for side-entr::~
indicator
Mounting ior setting dial indicator
internal attachment in the chuck
Fine adjustment for the indicator
The Wobbler
Setting the Wobbler
Using the indicator to set a boring
bar
;h$ing
a pair of common IChecking a pair of matching Vblocks
Setting the vertical slide
Setting work mounted in the
vertical slide

Chapter 27-Soldering,
1
:
4
5
!:
1.;

:A
:
4
5

:
i
7

Suds equipment mounted on the

lathe
The pump Equipment
The Faucet
Mist lubrication system
Miniature Mist Lubrication Equipmeni
Miniature Mist Lubrication Equipment

9
it
12

Chrrpter 2&-Lathe
Overhead Drives
1
A simple overhead drive unit for

13

the Drumtnond Lathe

~~~b~~~edrive
for the Myford

14
!

15A

Brazing, etc.

The Self-blowing blowpipe

Details of the above
Details of the self-blowing blow
pipe
Burners suitable for bottled gas
Brazing hearth-Commercial
pattern
Brazing hearth for bottled gas
Low pressure rotary blower
Set-up for sandbath tempering
The electric muffle
The muffle-to show construction
Cross-section of material to show
unhardened and hardened conditions

Chapter 28-Cgmtxessed
Workhop

C&apter. 25-Suds
Equipment
1
%npte method of applying cutting
2

Overhead fitted to the Myford

Lathe driving a spotting drill
A low-voltage miniature drive unit
Driving the leadscrew independently of the lathe
The Tailstock Drilling Spindle set
up in the lathe
The Tailstock Drilling Spindle
The Drilling Head and Spindle (A)
The Drtving Pulley and adapter(B)
The Drilling Spindle in use on the
saddle of the Myford Lathe

Air in the

The Workshop Compressor

A small compressor driven by a
low voltage motor
The Seperator
The Reducing Valve
The Reducing Valve in section
Diagram of reducing valve to show :
principle of operation
A typical application of the red- ~
!
u&g valve
A turbine-driven drilling attach- ~
ment
An air-driven handpiece
with I
mounting for use in the lathe top
Tirting
slide
A gravity-feed paint gun
The suction-feed paint gun
Working parts of a suction-feed
paint gun
The combining cone and air jet
centring device
Complete equipment for stove
enamelling
The interior of the enamelling oven
Rotary Paint Tables
Rotary Paint Table

Figure
6
i
9
E
1s
E*
15

The Base-type D-Part B

The Base-type M-Part B
Fixing Bolts~-type D
Fixing Bolts-type M
Locking Lever-Part H
The Parting Tool
The Chamfering Tool
Eclipse Blades
Turret
for Eclipse Parting Tot .
>
Details of the Turret.

Chapter 3I-Reamers
:
3
4
5
6
7

Parallel reamer
Adjustable reamer tapped axially
for expander screw
Adjustable
reamer, slotted to
accept detachable blades
Machine reamer
Reamer for dressing morse taper
seatings
Taper pin reamer
Five-sided broach

.._
.-.

XWPTER

HE %orksh~p
:!sejf may take
many forms. Lt may be a room in
the house. it may i-,e an outwilding attached to the ;~ouse or it
nay be compiete!y separate from it
ind constructed for the purpose.
Whatever form it takes, the workhop needs to be as well lighted as
3ossible. both by natural and artificial
ight, and to have some meaw of
nes@ng tlx shop dry and warm.
Where the workshop forms part oT
:he house, the provision of artificial
righting presents little iifficulty. The
same ma! also be true of the heating
rystem. Eut the natural iighting may
well be inadequate.
, For this reason ail benching and
machine tools should be iocated as
close to the windows as practicable.
In cne workshop
known
to the
author the workshop is an upstairs
room having a large window embrasure with glass on three sides and the
benching is located end-on to the main
glass area. This enables the maximum
of natural light to be concentrated
upon the various machines grouped
on the benches.
For those contemplating
the planaing of an amateur workshop on
these lines, a warning must be given;
make sure that the floor joists are
strong enough to support the concen:rated weight. Any reputable builder
would adnse on this point. Failure to
make certain that the flooring is
idequate cc&d easily result in a disas:er that would be most unlikeiy to win
applause from the household authorties.

Workshops

that do not form part of

the main ho,use are either in outbuildings or in purpose-made wooden

sheds of the garden type.
The outbuilding, where availabie, is
probably the better of the two as t!re
brick or stone construct,ion makes rnc
heating problem easier, moreoT.et-. if
needed, the solid nature of th+: :~*:iiiding forms an excellent anchorage for
the benching.
The wooden workshop, however,
presents more heating problems and,
untess erected on a substantial concrete platform, is a difficult building to
equip with benching and machine
mounts.
The natural lighting, however, will
present little difficulty since buildings
of the garden shed type can be provided with plenty of window space.
Moreover, the addition of roof lighting to a wooden building is quite an
easy matter, though care must be
taken to see that there is no water
leakage from any skylight or transparent panel used ;or the purpose.
Artificial lighting for the separate
building wi!l, of course, be supplied
from the electrical mains; and electricity may also, with advantage, be
used to supply the heating.
The whole question of electricity in
the workshop will be discussed later.
Workshop Furniture
Having decided on the most suitable
type of workshop the amateur will
have to consider the furniture needed
for it.
Perhaps the most important item is
the benching. It is not possible to buy
really satisfactory benches so these are
best made for oneself. For the most
part the free-standing variety are the

THE AMATEURS

14

Fig. 2. A

typical workshop

most practical as they need no support

from the building itself.
They should be amply strong, which
some commercial made benches are
not, with legs made from at least 3 in.
square materia!
end having tops
fashioned from 14 in. deals, or better
still 2 in. deals, seeing that they will
perhaps to support a number of
machine tools as well as forming the
platform for mounting the vice used
when sawing or filing.
A firm foundation
for the vice is
essential for it is near.impossible
to
work either with accuracy or comfort
unless the benching is rigid.
The illustration,
Fig. 2, gives the
essential measurements
of a typical
bench. (The height will, of course,
depend on the stature of the person
using it, and the size of the vice it is
proposed to employ.)
A guide to vice mounting is so to
arrange matters that the upper surface
of the vice jaws is level with the point
of the operators elbow when in the
filing position. If the bench is also to
be used for supporting machine tools,
a comfortable
working height for
handling these will need to be considered and perhaps some compromise may have to be effected.
For the most part, however, the
guide for setting the vice will serve to

WORKSHOP

bench

provide a comfortable working height

for the machine tools themselves.
After deciding upon the size and
location of ,the workbenches, thought
must be given to the storage of tools
and machine accessories as well as for
the general engineering materials that
will gradually accumulate.
Some may prefer to keep hand tools
in racks, in which case these can easily
be made for oneself. On the whole,
however, tomolsare best kept in small
chests of drawers while the machine
accessories are housed in cupboards,
preferably glass fronted so that they
may be more easily identified.
Raw materials can be stored in
wood or metal boxes of which at one
time there was a plentiful supply in the
form of surplus ammunition
containers. These were of robust construction and one example at any rate
might well form a model for making a
number in wood. This container,
shorn of some non-essentia! fittings, is
illustrated in Fig. 3.
Nuts,
bolts
and
screws
are
conveniently
kept in old tobacco
tins that have their ends painted
with white emulsion paint so that
the contents can be clearly indicated
with one of the many 1abo:atory
marking
pens now available. The
tins themselves can then be placed

15

THE WORKSHOP

conveniently in a shal!ow cupboard.

The number of cF:sts of dr~awers
and cupboards that are required will,
of necessity, depend on the size and
scope of the workshop. The author?
experience is that, for the most part, it
does not pay to make them oneself? for
cheaper and perhaps better examples
are to be bad. often at a fraction of the
cost in time and materi& in one of the
many auction sales that are nchw frequently held.
When choosing the furniture and
deciding on other arrangements in the
small outdoor shop. w~here space is
naturally limited, remember to ensure
that the entrance door opens outward.
Failure to dc so will toss valuable
floor space that could otherwise be
devoted to the siting of a cupboard OF
other storagemedium.
We now come to what is no doubt one
of the real problems encountered
when planning
a sma!l workshop,
,namely, how to heat it. The solution is
of great importance, not only in relation to comfort when working there
but also because of the v-aluable tools
and machinep
it will eventually contain.
Fig. 3. A raw material

Workshops
forming part of the
main house or attached to it will
present little difficulty since the space
devoted to them may well be already
adequately heated, or at least can have
the heating system exiended to it.
These remarks apply to household
central heating systems as well as to
electrical block heating with night
storage, probably the easiest and most
satisfactory method CT(them all.
On no account should the household heating furnace, if designed for
solid fuel, be located in the shop. The
attendant dust, inseparable from the
stoking, is in every way such an unmitigated nutsance. and so damaging
unless adequate precautions are taken,
that it is scarcely possible to write
about it in temperate terms. !iappy
the man, how;~er, who has oil fired
central heating; no problents of this
sort arise for him.
Wherever the workshop
may be
located, on no account should any
form of heating that discharges its
pt oducts of combustion directly into
the interior air be considered. This
applies to gas or oil fired convector
heaters and ;he like. These produce
water vapour which, when the shop is
cold, condenses on any unprotected
storage

container

16
cold metai surfaces, and causes rust or
corrosion.
The outside workshop, is of course,
the most liable to the condensation
nuisance. As a first step in getting rid
of it the building needs to be lined, the
space between the carcase and the
lining being packed with an insulating
medium. This will help to maintain an
ei~en temperature inside the shop and
lessen the volume of the heating required to achieve it.
-4 workshop bui in this way can be
readi$
heated with a low-wattage
electrical heater permanently left on
or, if thought desirable, fitted with a
room
thermostat
to control
the
system. The temperature
range needed
for both comfort and machine protection is from 60 to 65F. so that the
beat input needed is not large.
~~gctr~city in the ~~~~~sh~~

It is now time to consider the whole

question of the use of electricity in the
workshop. For many years in the past
gas was the medium employed for all
heating iahting and power require-

THE AMA? UJRS

WORKSHOP

ments. In this connection many older

readers will doubtless agree that a
good gas engine in tl : shop possessed
attributes
of companionship
never
attainable by the electric motor. Be
that as it may the versatility of e!ectricity cannot be gainsaid, nor, fur the
most part, can its reliability
be
questioned.
Lighting
The artificial lighting of the workshop
is a most important matter, the more
so when it is the main source of illumination even in daylight.
The m,ast satisfactory method is a
mixture
of general
lighting
supplemented by individual lamps where
needed. For the former duty, both on
the score of economy and ellicicncy,
flourescent strip lighting is to be preferred. Lamps and fittings for t,his purpose have nowadays been so simplified that apart from devising some
simple way of hanging them up, and
even this is not always necessary, they
may begplugged into the mains much
as an ordinary bulb would be.
Incandescent strip lamps are sometimes ia convenience
fcr lighting
machine tools. An example is that
shown in Fig. 4 and Fig. 5 where a
lamp of this type with its reflector and
support is seen attached to a Myford
lathe. The maximum power of this
class of lamp is 60 candles, generally
considered sufficient for individual
lighting.
High candle-power
incandescent
lamps can be used for general lighting
but these do not provide the level of
light obtainable
from flourescent
tubes. They are therefore best kept for
individually illuminating some specific machine or bench operation.
In industry, the practice of providing a low-voltage system for lighting
individual machine tools is growing in
Fig. 4. Incandescent
strip
fitted to a Myford lathe

lighting

17

THE WORKSHOP
strip
Fig. 5. incandescent
fitted to a Myford lathe

lighting

favour. The machines are safer to use

when equipprd with low-vo!tage lighting because the hazaJ
of electrx
shock is compietely ciiminated. moreover, the sn,allness of thr fittin?<
needed allows the !i&h!s to be concc?
trated near the war!. :I ,!~hout causing
any obstruction to the. zperator.
The as:hor has had ;: complete lowvoltage lighting-and-power
system in
oper&onLfor many !rars and its convenience cannot bL questioned.
dy
means of this system it has been possible to make use of sL)me of the many
types of small electric motors produced for militar: purpojes and to
harness them to machinr tool attachments or even tc, the machines themselves for duties .~.r;;~~as the driving of
lathe leadscrews 12,:-Lenan indf :,?j?dent
feed was needed.

For many years now the lineshaft

driven by a sing12 prime mover has
given place, in bisth the commercial as
well as the private workshop, to individual elecxi,: motors fitted to the
machine tool: themselves.
For the
most part in the private shop these
electric motors are of fractional horsepower and, as they are unlikely to be
used all together, they can be connected directly to the smgle phase a.c.
domestic nains.
In this connection
it should be
noted that the maximum individual
loading permitted on the single-phase
domestic supply is 1 hp.
As an addition to the normal high
voltage domestic power supply it is
possible to use a tow-v&age supply
fed by a mains transformer or a trans.former in combinatton with a rectifier
when a d.c. supply is needed. These
matters wih be dealt with in detail
later.

Plug Points
Them shoul:.! be plenty of electrical
plug points iri the workshop. This will
simplify conne+ng
12:: the various
machines and : ?v special lighting required. In actditnxn if one or two plug
points are 7, :rd at convenient locations below ne ?.nch.es such equipment a; elecIric ii.,:Ad drills and soldering irons can be brought into use. The
sockets used can either be plastic or
iron ~.~:lad;but thy,: plugs should be of
the rubber kind. These will withstand
th; hard knocks they are likely to
receive in service.
The sockets must be correctly connected,.intc
the domestic system SO
that they are properly earthed. With
advantage this may be work for a
qualified electrical contractor, especiaily if there is a number of points to
be arranged. He will have all the
necessary equipment
to check his
work and ensure that it is satisfactory.
Cables
The electrical cables used in the shop

18

THE AMATEURS
Fig. 6. Cable

should be of a tough variety able to

withstand abrasion. This requirement
applies to both lighting and power
cables. These should not be allowed to
trail about the floor but be supported
above head height so as to cause no
obstruction.
Cables about the workshop are inevitable. For ourselves we have devised a simple method of suspending
these by means of an adjustable support attached to the roof by a simple
hook. This fitment is illustrated in
Fig. 6.
It consists of a hanger that can be
suspended by a hook from any convenient point in the roof. On the
hanger is placed a crutch that can be
adjusted for height and then locked.
The cable or cables are then dropped
into the crook of the crutch and held
well out of reach.
The size and type of cables required
will, of course, depend upon the
electrical loading they have to carry.
Those for lighting will, have a maximum carrying capacity of 5 amperes
and cables for power 15 amperes with
a third core enabling any apparatus to
be properly earthed.

WORKSHOP

support

In the matter of low-voltage lighting the cables for this purpose should
have a maximum capacity of 5 amps.,
this will be sufficient to light the single
lamps normally available. Therefore,
the cables suitable for mains lighting
will serve.
Lowvoltagepowercables,
however,
will need to have considerable current
carrying power. It is absolutely necessary that the current should be fed to
motors without any drop in voltage or
their power output will be much
diminished. As an example of this requirement, motors used in the authors workshop can be cited. Some of
these normally operate at 20 volts a.c.
and are rated at j h.p. Therefore, for
the moment disregarding any figure
for the efficiency of the motors themselves, in the first instance the current
needed will be of the order
746 watts
248 watts
= 12amDs.
3 x20 volts
20 volts
I
approx.
The efficiency of these low-voltage
motors, for practical purposes can be
assumed at 50 per cent. Therefore the
currents needed will be twice the
theoretical figure, say 25 amps. To
carry such a loading 30 amp. cables
could suffice, these are often obtainable from suppliers specialising in
the sale of surplus equipment.
When a correct-sized cable is used
there should be no sign of it warming
up. If a cable does get warm then there
will be a drop in the suppiy voltage. If
the cable gets hot then the volts drop
is considerable and the cable is unsuitable.
In order to accommodate cables of
the substantial cross-section required
the plugs and sockets will need to
match. In days gone by the two-pin
power plugs, and their attendant
sockets, were of quite heavy proportions.

THE WORKSHOP

19

Our experience is that fittings of this

type sometimes appear amongst the
early !ots in auction sales where, because there is usually no competition
to secure hem, they may be bought
for a fraction of their origmal cost.
The use of modern three-pin plugs
for duties with a low-voltage system is
not advised. It could be fatally easy to
plug one of these, attached to some
piece of low-voitage equipment, into
the dome,stic supply, and the results
might bt disti~~rous.

The low-vo!tage supply may be obtained from the domestic electricity

mains in a variety of ways, in accordance with whether it is an alternating
current, a direct current supply or
combination
of both these IS needed.
The alternating current supply will
be obtained from a transformer and
this may be one of two types. The first
is the common transformer iliustrated
diagrammatical!y
in Fig. 7.
, This piece of equipment consists
essentially of a laminated soft iron
core upon which there are two distinct
and independent windings. The first of
these, the Primary Winding, marked
P is connected
to the domestic
supply whilst the Secondary winding
S sometimes tapped, as it is termed,

to provide a.n alternative voltage, is

connected to any low-voltage apparatus it is needed to supply.
This type of transformer
has the
great asset ths. .t is most unlikely to
providetheuserwith
anelectricshock.
There is no electrical connection between the Primary and Secondary
Winding so the chance of a highvoltage component being fed to the
low-voltage side of the system is most
unlikely.
The other type of transformer we
hare to consider is that known as the
auto transformer depicted diagrammaticaily in Fig. 8.
This illustration represents a typical
example as used by the authors. As
will be seen there is but a single winding with tappings supplying voltages
of the values indicated. It will be obvious that transformers
of this type
will ne4 to be properly earthed, for it
must be remembered that, here, there
is no isolated primary winding so the
risk of electric shock is very real. The
output from the transtormer is taken
connecting from the zero tapping to
which the neutral (black) wire from
the mains must be conmcted.
Rectifiers
If a low-vo!tage direct-current
is needed this is best met
Fig. 7. Common

transformer

Fig. 8. Auto transformer

MAINS

IN -

b -MAINS

IN-

supply
by the

THE

Fig. 9. Electric

addition ofa rectifier connected to the

output of the tmnsformer.
Modern
techniques ha\,e produced apparatus
capable
of rectify:ing quite large
currents. They are very reliable and
their manufacturers are always pleased to supply -retaiis and suggestions as
to the most practical ways cf using
them.

AMATEURS

WORKSHOP

drill

Another wfty to procure a lowvoltage electrtctty supply is to make

use of a motor-generator
.:et run from
the mains and provjided with a regulator in the field circuit of the dynamo
to control its output. In this way the
generator, which of course runs at a
constant speed, can be set to deliver an
output suited to the work in hand.
Our own version of the motorgenerator set consists of a : h.p. a.c.
motor direct coupled to a d.c.,generator once torming part of the hghting
system of a somewhat historic motor
car. the 30-98 Vauxhall circa. 1922.
The equipment is mounted on a
light four-wheel trolley enabling it to
be taken about the workshop or indeed anywhere else its presence might
be needed.
It is no bad thing to have the means
of low-voltage supply in a portable
condition as it greatly increases its
usefulness. This also applies to the
d.c. supply obtained from a metal
rectifier. In our case the transformer
that feeds it is in a flooden box provided with a substantial
carrying
handle, whilst the rectifier itself is
fastened to tbe outside under a ven-

Fig. 10.
Spot

drilling
attachment

rHE

21

WORKSHOP

:iIated protective soiler. The transformer will gi\se 33 outpilt sfsolile

700
watts whilst the rrcriiter can handle
Ibout 200 w:ms at 33 V d.c. comiortabiy.
Readers mav wonder what are the
rpplicatinns
oi- a low-voi:r?ye supply
in the workshop. apart from the obvious on2 of iocal lighting. They may
rest assu:sd thar rhe applications are
numerous.
In thz first piace for example,
motors fed from this supply can be
used to drive independently the lathe
Ieadscrew or the feed screw of the
cross-slide. This facilir; is essential to
some of thz operations when milling
in the lathe in parricular on the occasions wheel the headstock itself is
holdiilg
the work and therefore
stationary.
Low-voltage
IllOtOiS
can be controlled simply b.8 connecting a variable resistance in series with their
sapply, therefore they ma,y canveniently be used to drive a milhng spindle
mounted on the lath? saddie or a spotdrilling attachment simiiarly located.
In addition the motors may be used
to power toolpost.grinding
spindles,
cutter grinders. drrlis both hand and
portable, and rot&r> filing equipment
to name but a few applications. Some

Fig. 11. Cutter

grinder

of these are illustrated

cult1 1 !

in Figs. 9, 10

The motors that are suited to these

various duties can be divided into two
categories.
the high and the lowpower. The high-power motors. giving
about i h.p. are capable of driving
milling spindles, toolpost
grinders,
cutter grinders and hand ndrilis; -whiist
the low-voltage
class. consuming
about 40 to 50 watts are very suitable
for use with independent feed screw
drives and spot drilling attachments
for the lathe where ;I small motor is
essential on account 01 space and
light weight.
Motors of both types are often
found on the surplus market where
they have gr:lvitated having been removed from various pieces of redundant military equipment; as might be
expected they are of an exceptionally
high standard.
There is of course little dem~and for
them so they may often be bought for
a small fraction of their original cost.
Provided that the input current to
these motors is low they will cool
themselves automatically.
Motors requiringa high input current, however,
will need to be artificially cooled par-

22

THE

AMATEURS

Fig. 12. Air OVER frame

Fig. 13. AirTHROUGH

WORKSHOP

cooling

framecooling

titularly if they are to be used for exrended dutl: 3 purpose for which they
wrfre not originally intended.
Cooling of these motors can be
achieved in two ways. both needing a
separate smal! motor driven blower of
a type sometimes used for cooling
radi.2 transmitter valves and also to be
obtained on the surplus market.
The simplest method of the two is to
blow air over the outside of the motor.
A typical set-up for carrying this out is
seen in the illustration Fig. 12. Here
the motor is surrounded by a metal
case: made from a pair of coffee tins
and connected to the blower output.
The case or sleeve is open at one end
whilst the air input is at the opposite
end. In this way the coolant is directed
along the length ofthe motor.
The alternative method is more
difficult as it involves stripping down
the motor and drilling a ring of holes
in the drive-end bearing plate. The air
from the blower is thus taken to a

connection on the detachable cover

over the brushes and air is forced
through the inside of the motor to cool
it. Both methods are illustrated diagrammatically in Fig. 13.

Fig. 14A.

Fig. 148.

Shunt wound

motor

Motor Internal Connections

For the most part an electric motor
consists of two main elements. (1) the
Armature (or Rotor) and (2) the Field
Magnet. When the motor is intended
for use with the d.c. supply these
elements are connected together in
one oftwo ways.
In the first of these the Armature
and field are connected in the manner
seen in the illustration Kg. 14 at A.
This is known as a shunt field. When
the connections are made in the way
illustrated at B it is called a series field.
Of the motors we have been considering those of low power are connected internally
as shown at (A)
whilst those capable of considerable
Series wound

k$
0B

motor

23
power output for the most part have
their internai connections made in the
manner shown at (hi!. The latter
arrangement
will also snabie the
motors to be used ivith an alternating currem supply.
Small 3lt~rn3til?gctirr~:1t machines,
even ii :lV3ii:tblC. :ilT K~tl!~ !lOt >l
~practicai proposition.
They possess
littlepouer and tack I-leuibility.
Fig. 15.

~Switching for Small Power n:

Before we lea\~e the sub&F of lowvoltage e!ectricity a word must be said
about the switches that will be needed
t8 contri>i the direct current motors
emplnyed.
For Fhc SlliLiil pixver machines any
well nxido switc!i with a 5 amp. rating
w!ilt serve. !n addition some form of
switch. enabling the motors to be
reversed. will be needed. Here. again,
the surplus market can often provide
a solution to the problem. A wiring
:;diagram showine a typical arrange;ment is given in Kg. !5,
This illustration depicts a change,&er switch having its centre poles
,connected to the armature
of the
motor to be reversed. whilst its field
,winding is cross-connected
to the
outer poles of the switch. In this way,
simply by moving the contact blades
to one side or other of the outer poles,
the field winding connections
are
reversed in relation to the armature,
thus aiterina
the direction
of the
motors rotazon.
Neavy Current Switches
Switches for use with low-voltage
motors having considerable
power
output need to be capable of handling
heavy currents. There appears to be
nothmg on the surplus market that
will satisfy the requirement in an uncomplicated
way so, if a neat and
compact switch is wanted, we must
Fig. 16.

Heavy current

switch

Reversing switch

make it for ourselves. The basis of a

suitable switch is the design used in
many of the starter switches fitted to
motor cars. A diagrammatic representation of the arrangement is given in
the illustration Fig. /6.
A switch of this nature consists
firstly of an insulated base carrying a
pair of brass quadrants B, and B,. It is
further provided with two concentric
serrated brass cups C, and C,, mounted on a plunger D when this is depressed the two cups make contact
with the brass quadrants
thus connectingthem together electrically. The
circuit is broken when the cups are
separated from the quadrants by the
return spring seen surrounding
the
plunger.
As a result of the large area of contact provided by the concentric brass
cups, a switch of this type will handle
heavy currents without anji detrimental arcing. Moreover, the design proI

24

vides a comp!ete self-cleaning system

and is particularly useful in a highlyinductive circuit when, for example, it
is used in the primary
circuit of a
transformer.
The foot switch illustrated in Eg. 17 was designed and
made for just such an application. The
same type of switch is fitted in tne
?tandle of the electric drill previously
illustrated. The details of th~is device
are iilustrrrted in Fig. 18.

As has so often been pointed out,

some~ me2ns of grinding tools is
essential in the metal-working
shon.
Without it no lathe tools or drills can
be sharpened nor is it possible to make
a creditable job of re-shaping screwdrivers of the instrument type, as for
the best results these tools need to be
hollow ground.
The process of sharpening tools on
the wheel is known as off-hand
grinding. and it is a curious fact that,
except for treating specialist equipment such 2s carbide tipped tools,
the practice in industry really is offhand, for no means are provided, on

THE

AMATEURS

WORKSHOP

the grinding machine itself, of ensuring that the correct angles are imparted to the tools.
Fortunately,
the small workshop
can remedy this deficiency for itself by
fitting to the bench grinder a tool rest
capable of being tilted at an angle in
relation to the side face of the grinding
wheel.
The illustration Eg.21 depicts such
an angular rest fitted to a small
grinder intended for the treatment of
small turning tools. The make-up of
this device will be almost self-evident
consisting 2s it does of but three simple
parts, the rest table, the support, and a
bracket for attachment to the base of
the machine.
The use of the device is of course
restricted to grinding on the side of the
wheel, for only in this way can the
correct angles be imparted to the tool
face.
The illustration
Fig. 19 shows a
similar angular rest fitted to a commercial electric grinder.
The parts of the device are similar to
those shown in the previous illustration, and the method of adjusting the
tool angle to be ground is the same.
It is of course, perfectiy possible to
make an adjustable rest that will allow
the periphery of the wheel to be used
for grinding. But the small wheels
normally used by amateurs tend to
produce a hollow-ground
finish and
weaken the cutting edge of the tool
itself. For this reason grinding on the
side of the wheel~is to be preferred.
Fig. 18. Parts of heavy ccrrentswitch
fitted to low-volt electric drill

HER WORKSHOP

If

it is

~?sit?ie. two

vlreeis shuid

br 3\ ~!if3bk

grinding

in the ihop.

he. a whee! <ii60 crit six for rough

haping the tool. tire orher an X0 grit
wheel to be used :;_7~ii~ish ginding the
001 point.
When the pirider is of a reputable
nake it is safe to assume that the
grinding wheeis themsel\-es will be
rroperi~ nk>unted. It is worthi!hile,
reverthekss. to assure oneself on this
mint. A co;-recrly iiiounted wheel is
!epictsd diar;illlrz?;t~ica11v in Fig 20.
The whcei. having ;I lead bushrng at
is cen!r~. is gripprd between ii pair of
!ished tI;inpss. One of these is a firm
it, and is sometimes keyed, to the
pindie. The flange diameters
are
iormaiiy one-third
of that of the
;rinding wheels riwnsel\~es and paper
rashers are interposed between the
langes and the face ofthe \vheel to enme that it beds properly. The 4anges
nust never contact the wheel iirectly
.nd to ensure they do not. grinding
irheef manufacturers supply the washrs already afhxsd ro the whee:.
The wheel itself must run without
ny wobble. if there is any. the fixed
Lange should be examined and its
ontact face checked for true running.
Yobble at this point, provided the
,xed flange is secure. can sometimes
le corrected by turning the flange in
Ilace. But this. admittedlv, is not an
asy job so it is better to \w&hdraw the
Lange, mount it on a true running
aandrel on the lathe and machine the
part in this way.,
The grinding wheel must be run at
the correct speed of approximately
5,CJOO surface feet per minute in
accordance wiith the following table:
wheel
Rew per
dimierri
3
4

n?inlrre
6,400
4.800

In use, the individual grits of which

the wheel is composed becomes dulled
and do not cut freely. It is necessary,
therefore, to uress the wheel from
time-to-time in order to remove the
worn grit and present a new cutting
surface. This is carried out with a
wheel dresser, a tool available in most
tool shops. The operation is accompanied by a considerable amount of
dust. naturally of an abrasive nature,
so the siting of the bench grinder in the
workshop is of some importance.
Whenever possible, grinding machines should be placed well away from
other machines. if this cannot be done
the to& must be covered to protect
themduringthewheel
turningprocess.
Grinding Screwdrivers
Screwdrivers are not the easiest tools
to re-shape free hand. Instrument
screwdrivers, in particular, need careful treatment and should, for preference, be hollow-ground.
Provided the
screwdriver to be ground is of a
medium size the set-up illustrated in
Fig. 21 can be used. A small diameter

THE AMATEURS

WORKSHOl

Fig. 21. f-lollow gria~iding a ecrevv

driver on a small wheel

Fig. 20. A correctly

lrlg wheel

mounted

grind-

wheel is needed mounted directly on

the shaft of the driving motor or, if
need be. on a separate spindle. In
order to -make sure that the grinding is
symmetrical. the shank of the tool is
painted with blue marking and a ring
scribed round it. Tne ring is brought
into contact with the edge of the grindingrest each time the tool is turned
over; in this way- the ground faces will
be symmetricai,
A more sophisticated
device is
depicted in Fig. 22. Here the marked
screwdri\:er: resting against the edge

of the grinding rest, is replaced by ar

adjustable angular fence consisting 01
a table upon which the fence is
mounted and a rail to accept V.
grooves machined in a block to hold
the blade of the screwdriver. Thir
enables grinding to take place either
upon the periphery of the wheel where
instrument screwdrivers need to be
serviced or on the side of the wheel in
the case ofstandard drivers.
The use of the angular grinding rest
is again dealt with in some detail later
in the book where, in Chapter 9, the
servicing of the lathe tools is being
considered.

Fig. 22.
grinding

Fixture for
screwdrivers

XAPTER~ 2

HE lathe is the most important

single item in the equipment of
the amateurs workshop. With it,
rhen fitted with the necessary attachrents, we can solve almost anv prob:m in machining that mzay *be enountered. Many of these additional
xtures may be purchased as comtercial products whilst those of a
aecialised nature are not ditKcult to
rake using the lathe itself to help in
tachinmg the necessary parts; spectiist fixtures wih be dealt with in a
tter chapter.
The type cf lathe most suitable to
re requirements of the amateur is one
f simple but robust design having
tcilities for the adaption of a range of
dmmerciai
attachments
produced
specially for it as weli as for the
pecialist fittings already referred to.
he rroduction
of such a tool at a
rice acceptable to a wide range of
uyers eventually entails manufacture
n the large scale, and nowhere is this
etter exemplified than by the proucts of the Myford Engineering

Company
whose !athes have, for
many years, achieved a world-wide
reputation.
Whilst there are some amateurs
whose financial resources enable them
to buy lathes having the maximum of
refinement, for the most part purchasers in the amateur field do not
need such equipment, requiring only
the basic machine tool to which
simple attachments
may he added
from time-to-time. For this reason it is
the simple lathe that will be the subject ofthe present treatment.
The DrummoEd Lathe
However, before dealing with lathes
specifically designed and manufactured today for amateur use, mention
must be made of thtir most important
predecessor. This was the Drummond
Lathe of 3i in. centre height. Made
specifically for light machining such as
would be encountered
in the small
Fig. 1. The Drummond

3g lathe

28

THE AMATEURS

Fig. 2. The Drummond

workshop. the lathe had, or has for

there are many still in existence, a
number of outstanding features and
some of these may be seen in the illustration Fig. I.
The first, and perhaps the most important, of these features is the lathe
bed itself. As will be seen the casting is
of cantilever or anvil form having a
single mounting foot of large area set
nearly at this casting mid point. This
ensures that, when bolted down to a
bench, there is no possibility of disturbing the lathe bed and destroying
its accuracy.
The second feature is the somewhat
original toolpost fitted to the top slide
of the Drummond lathe. This enables
any tool in the toolbox to be quickly
set at centre height without resorting
to the collection. of packing often
associated with this operation.
The Drummond
toolpost,
illustrated in Fig. 2 consists of a toolbox
clamped to a pillar integral with the
top slide. After clamping in the tool
seating the tool point is readily set at
both correct height and position by
slackening the clamp bolt and raising

WORKSHO

toolpost

or lowering the toolbox as requirec

There are many more features tha
made the Drummond lathe, when i
production, one of the most successft
ever produced for amateur use; nc
only the robustness of the saddle c
slides as wel! as the bed itself but spat
does not allow of their de;criptio,
here.
In England the immediate success
ors to the Drummond lathe in theligh
engineering field were the range o
machines produced by the Myforl
Engineering Company.
These hav
now developed into two main pro
ducts; the MLIO, a back geared screw
cutting lathe of 39 in. centre height
admitting 13 in. between centres am
tile ML7 and its derivatives lathes o
3: in. centre height admitting 19, 21
and 32 in. between centres. There i
also a wide range of accessories am
equipment available from the manu
facturers.
Standard Equipment
All screw-cutting lathes are suppliec
with a set of standard equipment. Thi
usually consists of a set of change
wheels for screw cutting, a face plate
a catch plate for driving work mount
ed between centres, a pair of centre
and the necessary driving belts am
their guards.
In this form the lathe as supplied i
only suitable for mounting on thl
bench and the work it will hand11
restricted to operations between ten
ties or on the faceplate.
It follows, therefore,
that soml
additional
fitments are needed tc
enabie a normal range of machining
Apar
operations to be undertaken.
from some means of driving the lathe
and today this infers an electric moto:
for which a mounting, together wit1
the necessary built-in countershaft, i,
normally provided, chucks will bc

HE LATHE

Fig. 3. The 4-tool

turret

ceded so that both bar material and

tstings can be machined. In addition
special chuck to be mounted in the
lilstock mandrel will be required in
rder to grip drills and centre drills,
ups and other tools.
All these matters have been dealt
ith in Begirzizers Workshop, so it is
nlv necessary to mention them in
&ine here.

oolposts
he standard toolpost supplied with
te lathe is one admitting a single tool
nly. This is a somewhat restrictive
rrangemenr :hat can be largelv over>me by substituting, the 4-tooj turret
:en in the illustratton
Fig. 3. This
zcessory is normally a manufacturers
apply and is provided with a simple
leans of indexing to ensure that tools
,111take up their correct station after
te turret has beer, rotated to bring
tern successively tcl bear on the work.
The turret is designed to admit
round steel toolbit,s. in the case of the
lyford lathe. up to 8 in. section.
In conjunction
with the 4-tool
rrret, or indeed in its absence, the
ack Toolpost illustrated in Fig. 4 is a
sefui adjunct since it enables a part-

ing tool to be permanently mounted at

the rear of the cross-slide, and, rapidly
brought into use, a facility of great
value when machining small numbers
of sim.ilar components.
Back Toolposts
made for light
lathes usually have a single bolt fixing
and have means of tool height adjustment either by packing or by a radially
seated boat that supports the tool
and allows it to be adjusted with
greater ease,
The Back Toolpost
has further
advantages if it can be provided with
its own turret to hold an additional
tool, such as one for chamfering; the
design for a Back Toolpost to hold
two tools will be discus,zd in a later
chapter.
Steadies

Steadies to support long and slender

work mounted between centres, or
projecting sSme distance from the
chuck, can be supplied by the lathe
makers but only as additional attachments; the serious user cannot afford
to be without them. There are two
forms of steady, the first illustrated in
Fig. 5 is known as a fixed steady, and is
used to support work projecting from
the lathe headstock. It is fastened to
the lathe bed along which it can be
Fig. 4. The back toolpost

THE AMATEURS

Fig. 5. The fixed steady

m?l?

OF

r---l

WORK

Fig. 7. Merhod of avoiding

from the steady jaws
Fig. 6.

The travelling

steady

damage

WORKSHO

turned and be secured in the positio:

desired.
The second or Travelling Stead)
seen in &q. 6, is attached to the saddl
of the L&e and is brought to bear 01
work mounted between centres. I
enables the turning tool to be set 40s
to itsjaws and prevents the work itsel
from backing away from the toolpoin
The steady has a pair ofjaws, restrain
ing the work in both the horizonta
and vertical direction, and these, i
common with the jaws of the fixec
steady, are usualiy made of bronze
Thejawsare, ofcourse,adjustableant
can be clamped where required in re
lation to the work.
Metal jaws bearing directly on rela
tively soft material such as aluminiun
alloy are not to be recommended sincm
they tend to score the work. But thi
difficulty can be overcome if a strip o
well-oiled card is interposed betweel
the jaws and the work and set ret
against rotation by being clampe ii., II
the case of the fixed steady, betwee]
the upper and lower halves of tb
attachment. This is a tip that seem
unknown to a great number ofturner
so that no apologies are oRered fo
bringing it to readers notice. Tb
method of holding the card is illus
trated in the diagram Fig. 7.
This method of avoiding damage tc
the work has been :lsed by us man:
times in the past and has enabled worl
to pass the somewhat exacting re
quirements as to finish imposed b:
such bodies as the atomic energy
authorities.
Centres

Part of the standard equipment pro

vided with a lathe is a pair of centres
These fittings are a survival from thl
earliest days when practically all turn
ing was carried out between centres
Of those supplied, one is hardened
the other left soft. The former fits thl
tailstock whilst the latter is set in tht
headstcok mandrei and can be turner

LATHE
,8. Mlaif-centre

31
and female-centre

lace to makecertain that any,work

unted between the centres, wail run
Lddirional hardened centres avail: are half-centres, enabling slender
idles to be turned without the
te tool fouiing the tootstock centre
lf, and female centtes to accomdate pointed spind!es.
-hese centres are iiiustrated in Fig.
: (A) and (9) respective!y. Fema!e
tres are principaily of interest to
zkmakers and instrument workers
ase activ+ties sometimes include
rk on painred shafts.
Ine other form of centre deserves
ice if onIy.for its antiquarian assocon. This 1s the pump centre illus:ed in Fi,. 9. It may be used to
tre work that has to be mounted on
lathe faceplate when it is essential
t the part to be machined is held
Imetrically.
?he pumps centre consists of a

. 9 end
. SA. The

np centre

tapered body (A) designed to fit into

the lathe headstock mandrel. A centre
(Bj that is an accurate sliding fit in the
body, and a compression spring (C)
bearing on the centre (B) and held in
place by the cap (D).
An example of the use of this form
of centre is in the setting of a trunk
piston casting in the lathe so that the
seatings for the gudgeon pin may be
bored.
Here, after the casting has been
machined all over to the correct dimensions, the work is marked off for
the location of the gudgeon pins holes.
These centres are then lightly spotted

THE AMATEURS

Fig. 70. The tumbler

gearbox

WORKSH(

gear and Nortc

to allow the pump centre to be wit1

drawn.
In addition to the ccntres describe
some manufacturers
can supply, i
additional
fitments, prong centrr
enabling the turning of large woode
objects to be undertaken, and adaf
tots carrying drill pads for use in th
lathe tailsiock. These drill pads will b
described in a later chapter.

with a centre drill. The faceplate is

now mounted on the lathe mandrel
nose and the pump centre inserted in
the mandrel bore. The Tailstock with
ccntre in place is then brought up and
the work y.nped between the two
centres. It is then a simple matter to
offer up an angle ptate fixed to the
faceplate and to secure both the anale
plate and the :vork in perfect alignment. When this has been carried out
the faceplate is temporarily removed
Fig. 11. The MLlC lathe

The Leadscrew
As might be expected, in lathes mad
at a competitive price, the Leadscrej
serves to drive the saddle along th
lathe bed both for normal turnin,
purposes as well as for screw-cuttin!
operations.
The Leadscrew itself i
driven from the headstock mandre
through a train of pick-off gears o
change wheels that may be varied tc
accommodate the rate of feed require<
or the pitch of the screw it is desired tc
cut. In addition a device known as the
tumbler gear allows the drive to bc
reversed when needed.

Fig. 12. The ML10 iathe on stand

recerrcd to. But there is an c;tremely

wide range of access(ries availxble.
for :he most part intcrc!,angeable
:vith those applicable to the ML7
lathe.
X:0 tumbler gear is fitted and the
bath g,ear is eng:;ged b) the simple expedieni of pro\Iding a forh, cast on
behind the front bearing, to house the
back gear cluster, allowing the gears
to be slid into engagement and then
locked to position. The same arrangement is used to provide a means of
reversing the Leadscrew drive. These
aie but two examples of the simplification already referred to.
k further example is the omission of
the rack for the quick-traverse
arrangements for the saddle. In this
instance the pinion of the traverse
hand!eengages the headscrew dirccily.
The herldstock spindle is hardened
and ground and runs directly in the
iron casting of the headstock,
an
arrangement
that should provide
bearings having long working life if

n,:t unlike that of tT91tlO air-cads dexrihed. but with th

addition of I2:er q?;tcd hxk-ge~~
;~z:irmblies. Tt
3nd rumbler-sc:ir
Headsrock and Tailstock spindles at
bw h b~~~~red
Xi). 2 Morse Taper and tlf~orrner is carried on white met;
bezringb prso\ ided \viih pick-coil shin
iSir adjustment purposes. This adjus,
mcnt 15 clrricd out in the first ir
smnce. at the works. Provided th
lathe has proper treatment our e,
pericnce is that despite many hour
work no further adjustment
is r(
quired e\en after 30 years use.
In the case of the MT.7 the pinion c
the quick traverse gear engages a rat
set under the wavs on the front face c
the iathe bed casting.
The top slide is completely detach
able from the cross slide leaving th
Iatter quite free for the mounting c
the many accessories that are avai
able. or for USC
as a boring table.
The Leadscrew is normally drive
through pick-off gears and is rever!
ible. a~ has already been mentionec
by a turnblcr gear system placed at th
rear end of the headstock casting. Fc
those who need the facility, a gearbo
a qxc!!ica!i~~I?

35
Lathe beds with separated mounting feet are really not suitable for
setting on wooden benches because of
their liability tocausedistortion
of the
bed. ln fact, most manufacturers ask
purchasers
to avoid placing their
lathes on a wooden foundation.
For the most part lathes of the size
most suitable to the amateur are bes,t
placed on a cabinet stand. These are of
all-metal construction
so, provide,!
that the stand itself is on a solid foundation,
once the lathe has been
correctly levelled on the stand, accuracy will be maintained.
In large organisations
employing
many machine tools the millwrights
who are responsible for setting new
tools in place, have sensitive spirit
levels and other instruments to ensure
that machines are correctly lev*eiled.
The amateur usually is not so finely
equipped but he can still achieve
success with the facilities he possesses.
A dial test indicator is normally
available in the small workshop and it
is this instrument that can be used to
assist in the levelling operations. The
lathe is first m.ounted on the bench or
Fin. 14.
section

ML7

Super

7 headstock

in

36

cabinet stand with its hoiding-down

bolts in place but not secured. A piece
of round bar material. <i-out 1 in.
diameter and some 10 in. ,-mg, is then
gripped .m the chuck and set to stand
out about 8 in. from thejaws.
The di-i test in&cator
is then
brought in:o contai: with the bar and
maximum ano mic imum readings are
taken by fc~ta:in; the chuck by hand.
The mean 0,the-: L; readings is next
estabiished
again 0:~ turning, the
chuck, and the in&:,::i~tr set to zero at
the mean position.
If the holdina-dou. .i bolts are now
tightened ar:j; disiortrqjn of the lathe
bed will be indicated I~,vmovement of
the indicator needle. Shim packing
wi?E then need to be +;ed
under the
feet of the lathe bed un:il rhe indicator
reads zero when the bolts are fully
secured.
Having levelled the bed in the way
described which accords with the
makers instructions, a check must be
made on the accuracy of the setting.
The procedure is illustrated in the
diagram Fig. 15. A test piece, about
1 in. diameter and some 6 in. long is
turned and relies-ed in the manner
shown~in order to provide two collars
about 3 in. wide. These are each
machined with the same tool setting
taking a cut of about 0.002 in., the

THE AMATEURS

WORKkHOF

test piece being unsupported

by the
tailstock.
A micrometer
is then
applied to each collar in turn, and its
reading noted. If both readings are
identical no further action is needed.
If on the other hand there is a discrepancy this indicates that furthex
adjustment t I the packing of the foot
at the tailstock end is required. Should
this be so, and the collar on the outer
end of the test be the larger, the
packing must be placed under the
front of the foot. Tfthe collar is smaller
insert it under the rear of the foot.
Readers shouid note that two or three
checks may be needed to secure final
accuracy.
Caring for the Lathe
Earlier in the chapter reference has
been made to the proper use of t
lathe. Readers may well think th.is
matter that is not only self-evident
scarcely worthy of comment.
perience has shown however, that,.
the main, the treatment of macho
tools leaves much to be desired so
apology is offered either for referti
to the matter or for suggesting so
practical ways of ca~ring for a
In the first place all
machinery should be cove
not in use; this too has already
stated. The atmosphere general

Fig. 15. Checking the

accuracy of levelling
the lathe bed

< LATHE

of dust and the air in the workshop

,ticu!ar!y so; therefore, it is imtant to take any. reasonable steps
reduce the deposit of this possible
.asive substance on the tools them(es.
t goes without saying that a lathe
:ds to be regularly lubricated. The
kers are very defimte about this and
the most part issue precise instrucns on the matter. It is most import that the mandrel bearings are
lienished with oil each time the
he is used for an extensive run, and
rt the sleeve bearing of the driving
liey is lubricated as layed dcwn by
: manufacturers.
This also applies
:he back gear assembly.
Many of the other bearings in the
he are provided with oil retaining
mze bushes. so it is only necessary
lubricate these at infrequent inters as laid down by the manufacers.
[t is also important to make sure
it swarf, that is the collection of
:tai particles which are the products
turning operations, is kept away, so
as is possible, from the surface of
: lathe bed and slides as well as

,. 16. The
p tray-7

37
from the Leadscrews and the feed
screws.
The feed screw-s are usually protected bv their own slides, whilst the
manufacturers provide some form of
clip guard foi the leadscrew.
But the safeguarding of the lathe
bed is a matter for the user himself. A
chip tray attached to the cross slide is
the best solution to the problem, the
device being on the lines of that shown
in Fig. 16 and Fig. 17.
In addition to the chip trays for the
protecticn
of the saddle the lathe
should have some means of preventing swarf from dropping on to and
lodging in the headscrew. Many lathes
are so provided, but for those who do
not already have them the fitment
illustrated in Fig. 18 is quite easily
made from a short length of cycle
tubing affixed to a lug enabling it to be
attached to the lathe saddle. As illustrated the Leadscrew guard is suitable
for attachment
to the Drummond
lathe and this applies also to the chip
trays seen in previous illustrations.
The trays may be affixed to the
saddle in many different ways, but,
because quick detachability for clean-

THE AMATEURS

38

Saddle

Fig. 20. Arrangement

the Drummond
Fig. 18.

Leadscrew
Knurled

Fig. lg.

WORKSHC

Rearquard

of chiptrays

f#

protector

screw

Clamp for chip tray

ing or other reasons is important, tl

clampseen in the illustration Fig. 19
the best. The use of these device
fitting the T-slots as they d,,, enat
chip trays to be put on or taken off
a minimum
of time. They we
designed for one-handed
operatic
and are self-releasing by virtue of tl
light spring that pushes up the clan
p!ate as soon as the icnurled screw
turned.
Possibly alternative placing of tl
chip trays is depicted diagrammati
ally in the illustration
Fig. 20. TI
arrangement
for the Drummor
lathe is outlined at A whilst the lay-o
for the Myford lathe is seen at B.

Fig. 17. The

chip trayDrummond

THE LATHE

similar layout is also suitable for any

other lathe having wings to the saddle.
Chip trays may be extended along the
axis ofthe lathe but care must be taken
to avoid contact with the chuck.
Finally a word of warning must be
uttered on the subject of overloading
the machine. Probably the greatest
damage thar can be done to the mandrel of a hght lathe is brought about
nurling. This is 111 operation invblving the use of a single-wheeled

39
tool, for the most part fed radtally into
the work. As may be imagjned this
imposes a considerable strain on the
mandrel and its bearings. The loading
can be somewhat~ reduced, however, if
the tailstock is brought up to support
the work. A better form of knurl
wheel holder is one having two wheels
diametrically
opposite that embrace
the work to it. This tool relieves the
mandrel of all bearing loading; it will
be described in a later chapter.

CHAPTEI?

EXT to the lathe the most important single item of machine

equipment is the drilling machine, Whilst it is of course, perfectly
possib!e to use the lathe for a number
of drilling operations, indeed sometimes more conveniently, for the most
par: these are more easily and expeditious!y performed by means of a
machme specifically made for the
purpose.
In the past a number of drilling
machines have been designed and
made ready for use by amateurs and
others interested in the production of
light machine components.
But for
one reason or another m.any of these
have ceased to be manufactured
and
so, for better or worse, are unobtainable.

Today the drilling machines most

suitable to the requirements
of the
small workshop can really be grouped
into three main classes. The first a
light high speed lnachine having a
maximum capacity of d in. The second
a medium speed machine of # in. or
perhaps 4 in. capacity. Whilst the
third class comprises machines also of
interest industrially,
with a multispeed range and a maximum capacity
of as much as 1 in.
Of the first class probably the most
successful, because it was specially
designed for the amateur,
is the
Model Engineer drilling machine.
This drill, designed by E. T. Westbury,
who will need no introduction to those
already interested in light engineering8
is intended to be made in the horn
workshop. The components have ali
been designed so that they can b
machined on a lathe of 39 in. centr
height, and none of thework present
any real difficulty. A set of detaile
drawings is available and castings ma
be obtained.
-Next in the range of dri!!ing ma& 1
ines suitable for amateur use are tho
illustrated in Fig. 2 and Fig. 3. B
machines are the design of Mes
E. W. Cowell of Watford and are,
part, suitable for making in
amateur workshop.
They may
bought as sets of castings with som
the heavier machining already car
out or they may be had as fully fin
ed machines.
The lighter of the two machines h
a capacity of i in. and a three-spee

Fig. 7.The Champion

drilling machine

HE DRILLING

MACHINE

Fig. 2. Cowell

41
2 in. drill

ge of 800 to 2.500 r.p.m. or a sixed range of220 to 2,500 r.p.m. The

nsions of the work table are
i in. while those of the base,
hich may be used to secure work
necessary, are 9: Y 5: in.
maximum
depth from the
o the base and the chuck to the
ble are 104 in. and 84 in.
spectively, while the overall height
the machine is 24 in.
The.3 in. capacity machine, iliused tn Fig. 3 is of heavier construcd, in addition to its duties as a
ess is also intended to be emfor light milling operations
sed in conjunction
with the
s compound slide bolted to the
e. To this end the whole quill
that is the drill spindle and
armgs together with the rack-fed
ng that supports them, is of

altogether more substantial proportions than those of the lighter

machine.
Moreover, the spindle is drilled for
a drawbar needed to secure some
forms of cutter and is bored No. 2
Morse Taper to accommodate
the
class of col!et used with the Myford
lathe. The nose of the spind!e itself is
threaded
to accept the ring nut
required to close these collets.
The machine has six speeds from
150 to 2,100 r.p.m. and its cone pulley
Poats on a separate pair of ball races
thus relieving the spindle from all side
thrust.
The third class of drilling machine
is one extensively used in industry. It
is of a design that appears to have had
its origins in America, many machines
with a family likeness being imported
during the last war.
Fig. 3. Cowell

k in. drill

42
The two drilis we iliustrate in Figs. 4
and 3 come from the range made by
Ltd. of
Messrs. c. J. Meddings
Slough. As readers will see the heads
of both machines are identical only
the mounting
columns differ, one
being intended for standing on the
bench the other on the floor. Some
may consider the floor model to be
worth its extra cost, particuiarly when
bench space is limited.
-411the machines v;e have illustrated
find a place in our own workshop so
we are able to speak about them at
first hand.
Whilst we have, in the main, described
a class of machine that has its own
built-in drivina motor. there are still a
number of drifis not so provided. For
these, and there must be not a few of
them available on the second-hand
market a convenient driving method

THE AMATEURS

WORKS+

has to be contrived.
Probably t
simplest way is to mount the mote
below the bench, allowing the drivi
belt to pass through.the bench top
the manner depicted in the illustrati
Fig. 6. In this way the motor is w
protected and occupies no valual
bench space. This method of mom
ing the driving motor has been used
the authors when fitting up the Mot
Engineer drill and the earlier mod1
of the Cowell drill.
The belts used with both the
machines are of the round leatf
type ~&-in. dia. for the Mode1 Eng
eer drill and 4 in. dia. for the Cow
machine. a subject that will be de,
with fully in a laterchapter.
As drilling machines are only us
intermittently
they may convenien
be driven by low-voltage motors, t
these need to be capable of developi
4 or + horse-power in order to functi
satisfactorily. This is a matter alrea

Fig. 4. Pacera
bench drill

Fig. 5. Pacera
flcor drill

HE DRILLING

MACWlNE

ig. 6. Nlounting
lotor below the
ench

ig. 7. Speed
ange device for
%ampion
drill

eferred to in an earlier chapter where

n illustration of such an application
ias given.
Ipeed Changing Arrangements
,The simplest method of providing
range of speeds for the drilling
aachines suited to the requirements
lf the amateur shop is to fit the drill
pindle and the driving motor with
iatching cone pulleys having three or
aore steps enabling the driving belt to
le moved from one step to another
Jithout the necessity of adjusting its
ension. This was the arrangement
:enerally adopted in connection with
lost of the small drilhng machines
old for amateur use.
When the driving motor was locaed rmder the l.n..rL
VCllrll trr..
rvp, pLoweve;
here was naturally
difficulty and
.elay when belt changing, so some
orm of speed selection device that
ould be located Qnthe drilling machae itself was considered. The first of
hese fitments is that shown in Fig. 7
(here a Champion t in. machine,
.ow no longer obtainable,
is illusrated.
The system, apart from the jockey
lulleys needed to allow the round
:ather driving belt to come up from
,nder the bench, consists of a small
ounter shaft A with three-step cone
lulley mounted on an outrigger be-

hind the head casting, an intermediate

cone pulley B attached to xn adjustable arm secured to the top of the
column and finally the original cone
pulley C fitted to the machine spindle
itself. The belts used are miniature Vropes that are readily obtainable, and
these. after the speed selection has

THE

AMATEl~IRS

Fig. 8.
Speed
Cowell drill

range

WORKSHOI

device

fo

such 3s tapping, the trcpanning

0
large holes and operations of a like
naturecan be undertaken successfully
In addition mar y of the larger math,
ines have electrtcal reversing switche:
fitted to them. a provision that greatl!
assists when simple tapping opera
tions are beingperformed.
Choice of Chucks and Methods
of Fitting

been made. ha\e their tension adjustcd by the intermediate pulley secured
IO 1h~cx,lunIn.

L:irtualix the same belt arrangement

was fitted to the early Cowell i in.
Driiling Machine illustrated in Fig. 8.
Jn this instance. however. the intermediate pulisy is carried on a bracket
secured IO the head casting, while the
countershaft
is mounted directly on
the machine column.
and larger
The more ad:.anced
drilling machines to be had commercially usuail! have a wide range of
speeds attainable
from
available
multi-step cone pul!ey~. In addition,
as the she Pacera machine depict,ed
earlier, thev are often fitted with a
back-gear similar to a lathe, so the
final range of available
speeds is,
therefore. doubled and much work

There is little doubt these da.ys, tha

for drilling purposes the most populai
and w,ide!y used chuckis that made b!
the Jacobs Companies. Years of ex
perience both in design and manufac
ture have resulted in the production o
high-quality components that, whet
assembled. provide a piece of equip
ment having great accuracy withou
which successful drilling to close
tolerances is not possible. Before the
general adoption of the Jacobs type o
chuck there were numbers of differen
makes to be had. none of them re
nowned either for good design o:
quaiity.
For the most part, drilling machine!
have their chucks mounted on pegs o:
arbors. These have tapered seats tc
accept the chuck itself while the arbor
may also have a shank machined tc
o.?e of the Standard Morse Taper!
enabiing it to fit spindies simiiari!
bored out.
Small drilling machines such as the
Model Engineer or the Cowell how,
ever, have their spindle noses formec
to accept the chuck directly as there if
obviously no room in the spindle fol
an acceptance bore as large as the
smallest standard Morse Taper. Both
methods are illustrated in Fig. 9 at A
and B respectiveiy.
In order to secure the chuck to the
taper we have always advocated the
Fig. 9. Two methods
drill chuck

of mounting

the

tE DRlLLING

MACHINE

45

Fig. 10. Securing the drill chuck

troduction when possib!e of a screw

,t axially through the body of the
luck and engaging the drill spindle
self. A typical application of the idea
depicted diagrammaticallv
in Fig.
1. It wiii be observed that the clearIce hoie for the axial screw is thread1 so that a 4B.A. jacking screw can
: used to removre the chuck from the
Gndle if this becomes necessary. This
a method that is preferable to that of
Ldeavouring to stri ke the chuck from
s seating w;th the attendant danger
-damage.
Before drilling and tapping a chuck
the manner illustrated, readers are
Lvised to m~ake sure that the particur chuck they wish to treat in this way
m withstand this without detriment.
n example of the type that must not
: drilled axiaiiy is the Albrecht
tuck also made by the Jacobs
ianufacturing
Company. This is a
:yless chuck, as opposed to the usual
cobs product that needs a key to
:kten it. The mechanism
of the
ilbrecht chuck is such that it could
: damaged were an attempt made to
41 the chuck axially. In any case
any of the parts are hardened so
,illing is not tikelv to be successful.
Reese tools are extremeiy well and
curately made and have a range of
Fig. 17. The Albrecht

chuck

12 sizes withcapacities from0 to & in.

for the smallest to k to g in. for the
largest chuck. For those interested in
the drilling of very small boles may
like to know that the first chuck in the
range is provided with an engraved
index on its body. This can be set to
the size of drill that is to be mounted,
thus making sure that it is properly
gripped. Those readers who have had
experience
in these matters
will
scarcely need reminding how easy it is
to insert a small drill, only to find that,
when the machine is started, the drill
point runs eccentrically because the
shank is -t properly seated in the
chuck. Moreover, when very small
drills are concerned, failure to mount
them correctly at the first attempt
could result in their permanent damage. The Albrecht chuck in question is
illustrated in Fig. 1 I. In the interests of
safety the bodies of modern drill
chucks are now made smooth. In the

46

THE AMATEURS

Fig. 11A.
chuck

past severa! nasty accidents have

occurred as a result of hair or clothing
being caught by their serrated or
knurled surfaces. In very small highspeed machines. where, for example,
the diminutive Albrecht chuck would
be used. this risk is negligible. But on
large capacity
drilling
machines,
where the drill mounting is usually at
eye-level, a knurled chuck sleeve can
be a hazard unless some form of
protection
is provided. Industrialiy
this provision is now obligatory, but
the amateur may well consider that to
follow suit is a wise precaution.
A
typical chuc~k guard made for the
Pacera machines is illustrated
in
Fig. 12.

Section

of the

WORKSHOP

Albrecht

igh Speed Drilling Attachment

It often falls to the lot of the small
workshop to carry out operations that
industry would refuse on the score of
expense or simply because there is just
no equipment for the work.
One such operation was the driiling
in stainless steel of a number of holes
0.007 in. dia., b En. deep and spaced
0,012 in. apart in pairs on a platform
0.030in.dia.
C!early this was not work for any of
the ordinary drilling machmes in the
authors workshop; but a little consideration showed that. if a suitable
high-speed attachment could be devised, the old Champion
drilling
machine
already
referred to had
sufficient feed sensitivity for success to
be achieved.
The resulting equipment is illustrated in Fig. 13.
Here, an air-driven turbine A is
mounted in the drill chuck B and is
guided by the steady C. The attachment, as has been said, is lowered to
the work by means of the original feed
handle and is counterbalanced,
for the
small amount of vertical movement it
has to make, by the adjustable spring
b ox 0 forming part of the original
drilling machine.
The steady is secured to the drill
?ab!e and is adjustable so that a dril
set In the chuck of the turbine can be
brought to bear on the work. The
drills themselves are caught in a special form of chuck called a collet. This
device and other chucks are dealt witk
in Chapter 7.
The turbine is controlled by a needle
valve and is fed from the shop air line
Turbines of the type employed were
once largely ;jsed in connection witk
aircraft instriinrents. They are capable
of very high speeds, up to 100,OOC
r.p.m. in some instances, so it is important that, when they are applied t

HE DRlLLING

MACHIXE

47

operations.
these turbines
.ave some meant of control or the
loints of the drills they drive may be
lurnt.

.rilling

he makers of the more important

iectric hand driiis are abir to provide
hem with fixtures that will convert
he drills into bench machines. While
tiese conversions
are, of course,,
apable of driihng metal with a fair
egree of accuracy hey seem to be
es! suited to wo~odworking, a fie!d in
which they are particularly useful and
an be recommended.
Vhile a new drilling machine ofrrpuible make may be considered above
eproach so far as accuracy is conerned, it may we!i be that after some
,me a second-hand machine, however
cell made, will have lost the accuracy
: once had. Readers contemplating
ne purchase of a used machine may,
zerefore~ consider it worthwhile to
rake a critical inspection of any drill
ffered for safe and, at the same time,

to carry out a couple of simple checks

which will establish its general condition.
A quick glance will show if the
equipment has beenmaltreated
ornot.
Holes drilled in the worktable, and a
general air of decrepitude will doubtless be a signal to investigate no
further.

ig. 14.

Fig. 15.

Testing

the drilling

machine

Testing

the drilling

machine

-IWEAMATEURSWORKSHOP
Fig. 15A. Testing

Howev:r. if the machine is clean

x:d of good appearance, it will then
be worthwhils to make the checks
refsrred to. The first of these, illustrated in Fig. 14 wiIi give a rough
estimate of the squareness of the work
table in relation to the machine
column. The blade of the square used
must be o:fadzquate length or an error
may not be revealed. If the ~machine
stands up to this check the would-be
purchaser may proce2d to the second
test.
The object of this trial is to establish
the accurar.y of the work table alignment. in relation to the machine
sprndle itseif: for it must be remembered that squareness with the machine column
is not necessarily
a
guarantee that the drill spindle and
the work tabie are themselves in
alignment.
Ths rqiiipmznt need2d to make the
check is to be seen in Fig. 15 and consists of a dial indicator attached to an
arbor set I_nthe machine spindle. The

the drilling

machine

outer end of the arbor is made to bear

against a steel bail placed on the work
table. and a weight hung on the work
table ensuring that pressure is uniform. The dial indicator is set to zero
at the position shown in the illustration, the drill spindle slowly rotated by hand and readings taken at
four points around the drill table. If,
at a point immediately to the front of
the table, the dial indicator shows a
reading of plus 0.001 in., this is i
order, for it is usual to give a sligh
bias here in machines of quality so a
to compensate for loads when actua
drilling is in progress.
Unless the machine has a ti!tin
table, not a high!y desirable feature i:
the authors opinion, the readings a
each side of it should show no dis
crepancy. if there is a variation th
table will have to be adjusted; unt:
there is no difference in the reading:
When this has been done the checks a
the back of the front of the table ca:
be made, for these would be of nl
value unless the table had just been se
level.
The amount of error that is toler
able will depend on the work th
machine is going to be called on to dc
If high-qualit;
workmanship
anI
production
is expected, then th
latitude is virtually nothing. If on1
rough work is to be undertaken the:
considerable
tolerance is allowable
In all cases, however, the spindl
bearings should be in good conditior

N the past, machine tools in both

the pri\;ate and COill~lierCi2Il
workshop were driven b>~a single prime
mover. such as 3 stealil. sas or petrol
engine. through the medium of lineshafting and individual countershafts,
permitting the machines to be connected or disconnected from the drive as
Later. engines pave way to large
electric moiors. blur the iineshafting
and the countershafts remained. filling
the roof area with a forest of flat belts
:that were an obstruction to the natural
lighting of the workshop.
,:,, Today. however. each machine in
the commercial shop and. in ?he main,
most of thos: in amateur hands, has
uilt-in e!ectric motor. This
has much simplified the driving of the
tools for, as well as getting rid of expensive and light-obstructive
lineshafts and belting. it allows anv tool
to be moved and re-sited without
Accordingly. it is not proposed to
devote much snace to a form of drive
that is now only of historic interest.
Instead the emphasis will naturally be
placed on current practice, and the
conditions the reader will find at work
both in the factory and in the private
Nevertheless. since the use of flat
belting cannot be dismissed out-ofhand, if only because there are sti!l a
number of the older machines driven
by means of it, some brief notes on its
use will appear later in the chapter.
Some years ago, in a booklet entitled Belt Drives in the Small Workshop, (Argus Books Ltd.), we went
extensively into these matters. Those
readers who possesscopies ofthe book

will no doubt pardon us ifwe can only

deal with the subject somewhat
repetitively in less detail here. However, thevwill find that information on
such subjects as the driving of drilling
machines or the provision of overhead
belt systems for the lathe is includ,zd in
those chapters that relate to the
machine tools in question.
Round Belts
The round belt is certainly one of the
most ,atisfactory
means of driving
small machine tools. It has great
flexibility and can be used to transmit
any drive which necessitates
an
abrupt change in angular direction
since a round beit will run freely on
jockey pulleys without any appreciable loss of power.
A good quality ieather belt has
much to commend it both on the score
of expense and reliability.
Today,
however, round rubber canvas belts
are being produced and these may be
obtained in lengths that can be joined
with a fastener or in the endless form if
need be.
The fastener commonly used is a
simple hook made from high-tensile
steel wire. This, as will be observed in
the illustration
Fig. I, is passed
through holesdrilled in the belting and
bent over and clinched in the manner
depicted.
However, if an irritating clicking
noise is not to result as the belt runs
over the pulleys, certain precautions
must be taken when fitting the fastener
as well as ensuring that the pulleys
themselves are correctly formed.
A shows the form of the fastener
commonly employed. If it is clinched

THE AMATEURS

WORKSHOP

At one time pulleys used with round

belting had a groove with an included
angle of 90 degrees machined in them,
as depicted in Fig. 2. But experience
has shown that, in order to transmit
the maximum of power, the angie
shouid be reduced to d0 degrees or
less in order to materially increase
the wedging actions !n addition, as a
further step towards silencing the
drive, a rectangular groove is machined at the apex of the angle. This forms
. 4. Round belt fixing
a clearance space for the fasteners
should they protrude at all.
over in the manner depicted at B>
Jockey pulleys are commonly made
clearly the fastener will project, and
with a circular groove. The reason for
become a source of noise. If, on the
this is that, as no wedging action is
other hand, the fastener is sunk into
needed here, in fact it must be avoided,
the belting as demonstrated
in the
the circular groove is best suited to
diagram C, then the noise will be
allow the belt to run freely. Again, it is
much reduced if not actually eliminadvisable to machine a clearance space
ated.
for theebelt fasteners.
It ,irlst not be supposed, however,
that simply by squashing the fastener
into the belt this end can be achieved ; Applications of the Round Beit
action on these lines would only result
Present day uses for the round belt are
in disappointment.
It is necessary,
principally confined to the drihing of
therefore,
to cut shallow grooves
small drilling machines and grinding
lengthwise in the belt to allow the
heads. Both aspects halve been desfastener to be sunk below the surface
cribed fully in our book Beginners
wi?hout destroying the belting itself.
Workshop so it is not proposed to
This is done by using a sharp chise!
further enlarge on this part of the
with the belt held in the vice and the
subject.
cuts started from the drilled holes
However, a word should perhaps be
through
which the fasteners
are
said here on the subject of the lathe
passed.
overhead drive, though this is a matter
receiving attention in an appropriate
Fig. 2. Pulley sections
and later chapter.
The lathe overhead is a belt system,
driveneither from the lathe power unit,
itself, or from a subsidiary motor,
enabling work held stationary in the
headstockchuck,
or otherwise mounted on the mandrel, to be drilled or
milled as required.
For the most part it is work needing
only a little power, and this the round
belt is well able to supply. In addition
its flexibility
enables the belting
arrangements to be modified ?o suit

BELT DRlVES

almost any contingency. In Fig. 3 two

typical layouts are i!lustrated.
The layout A is us.;d when using a
milling atrachment mounted on the
,saddle of the lathe, whilst the arrangement B was that employed for driving a spot-drilling attachment before
it was fitted with self-contained electric drive.
The parts of the overhead drive are
all adjustable positionally. Thus, if it
is necessary to bring the jockey pulley
forward over the lathe the counterweight can be moved back to compensate for this.
Reversing the direction of the drive
when using a round belt is a simple
operation. All that is needed is to cross
the belt in the manner shown in the
second diagram.
When the pulleys are well-designed
and correctly machined round belts
have a sound gripping action. It is,
therefore, quite unnecessary to apply
a heavy counterweight to the system.
A weight of, say, 5 to 6 lb. will usually
be quite suficient to secure a satisfactory drive.
Round belting can usually be had in
a variety of sizes, but for the most part,

Fig. 3. Alternative

belt layouts

a & in. dia., belt will be suitable for

the small drilling machine whilst : in.
dia. is a convenient size to use in
connection with the lathe overhead
drive.
V-belt

Drives

The popularity of the V-belt derives,

for the most part, from the fact that it
can be used to transmit power at very
short centres. Typical examples are
those seen in the illustrations Figs. 4
and 5, depicting the primary and
countershaft
drives of the Myford
lathe. In both instances it will be seen
that the c:entre distances between the
motor and the countershaft, and the
countershaft
and the lathe mandrel
itself, are commendably short, resulting in a most compact layout.
The smaller sizes of belt commonly
used will transmit power up to a
maximum of 2 h.p.; they are very
flexible and so do not beat UQ when
bent round pulleys of small diameter.
For this reason, when increased
power has to be transmitted,
it is

52
usually better to increase the number
of small behs rather than make use of
a single belt of greater cross section.
.4part from the range of V-belts that
are generally in service there is a
number of small V-belts of miniature
form that are of especial use in the
amateur workshop. They are, for the
most pa$ approxin:r,tel\i 4. in. wide
and are made in a variety of lengths.
We have used these belts in a number
ofapp!ications,
both as single belts or
in a composite assembly. where their
great flexibility makes them most suitable for employment with the quite
small pulleys ntted to the various
mechanisms.
dleys
For the range of belts used, industrially. pulleys, either made of sheet
steel or cast hgh: al!oy. are available
from stockists. many ofwhom are well
qualified to give advice or solve any
problem that may arise. The minia.ture
belts referred to earlier, however, for
the most part need pulleys that the
amateur must make for himself.
In order to secure the maximum
wedging action from a V-belt the
groove in the pulley must be machined
to thecorrect angle-information
that

THE AMATEURSWORKSHOP
can be obtained from the manufacturers catalogues. In this connection it
should be understood that the angle
varies with the pulleys diameter. The
reason for this is that as the belt is
bent round a small pulley its crosssection changes and the V-angle of the
belt itself varies from normal. The
correct angle for any given diameter
can usually be found in the relevant
makers list.
The making of these small pulleys is
a ztraight-forward
exercise in lathe
work with which we shall be dealing in
a later chapter.
Applications

V-belt drives are in two forms. The

first, and perhaps the most common of
them, is that in which the pulleys used
both have V-grooves. The applications of this drive can be seen throughout industry. The second form combines a V-pulley, the driver, with a
normal flat faced pulley driven by two
or more narrow V-belts. This type of
drive is parttcularly useful because it ~
often allows existing flat pulleys to be ~
used. Examples in our own workshops
are compressor dhrves, and, in one
instance, the primary drive of the lathe
countershaft.

Fig. 4. Short
centre belt
drives

BELT

DRIVES

AS has hem said eariier. the Fat belt

has now falkn into disuse ir. the workshop exceot in a few cases where old
type maci-iifirs are in use. Ne:ertbeless
some notes on the use of the flat belt
seem still jusrified.
A; oile time Rat beirinp \+a5 made
from a varietv of mat&!ais such as
canvas? rubbe;isedcanvlis:Indleather.
For the drivir;g of m<:chine too!&
however, leather be!tir.g is still the
most satisfactory since it is the least
affected b:; oil and. for the most part,
is the most flexible. It is probably the
most expensiv,e. but its all-round
advantages and tong-life. for drives
20 years old are not uncommon in the
amateur workshop, make ii, in the
long run: still the best material available.
Belt Fasteners

Unless the belts are to be run over

large pulievs the commercia! pattern
of fastener-is really not suitable. The
aim, in the private shop at all events, is
a drive that is free from noise and is to
ali intents and purposes endless.
It is best therefore, to make a butt
joint and to sew the two ends of the
belt together in the manner seen in the
diagram Fig. 6.
The sewing is carried out with 24 g.
copper or soft iron wire after drilling
the belt and cutting shal.ow nicks in its

Fig. 5. Short cantre

L-----J
UPPER SURFACE

Fig. 6. Wire fastenings

JOCKEY PULLEY

Fig. 7. Belt
tensioning method

belt drives

CONTKT

FPCE

for flat belts

54
surface to allow the sewing to sink
below the face in contact witb. the
The

number of sew&s
will of
epend on the widthof the belt
itselF, but the diagram demonstrates
an application to one having a width
of I in.
etices
elt TeQsio
Unlike the V-belt, if the flat belt is to
be used with pulleys mounted at close
centres some form of tensioning device will be needed. In the case of the
lathe this may weli take the form of a

THti

AMATEURS

WORKSHOP

countershaft
mounted
on rocking
centres so that the drive from the
countershaft, and perhaps also from
the motor, can be put under tension.
Perhaps the simplest course, however, is to provide a jockey pulley that
can be brought into contact with the
outside of the belt applying tension
and increasing the wrap-round effect
on the pulleys themselves.
In order to minimise any power loss
the pulley must be mounted in contact
with the free side of the belt and as
close to the driving pulley as possible.
This arrangement
is depicted diagrammatically in Fig. 7.

E shaper, as it is commonly
termed, whether it be operated
by hand oe power-driven,
is a
most useful machine for forming
accurate flat surfaces and cutting long
keyways as well as work of a similar
kind. Although these operations can
be carried out in the lathe by milling or
fly-cutting, the shaper has the advantage, by virtue of its longer slides, that
its capacity is greater for dealing with
larger work? such as surfacing machine tables. Again, the method of
mountingthecuttingtoolintheshaper
head, and the massive castings used
used for the sliding parts, imake for a
rigidity that ma); be lacking in a light
lathe equipued with a revolving cutter.
A suitable tool enables a heavy
initial cut to be taken when machining
iron castings, and a subsequent light
cut gives a highly-finished
accurate
surface.
The Drummond hand shaper, used

Fig. 1. The Cowell

shaping machine

for many years in the workshop,

proved to be an accurate machine and
was found capable of machining the
table of a vertical slide measuring 6 in.
by 5 in. Moreover, when tested on the
surface plate, the part was found to be
truly flat and did not require a final
hand-scraping operation. In addition,
the dovetail slides on the back of the
casting were machined w~ithout difficulty. Although this machine, made
for bench mounting or fitted with a
pedestal stand, is no longer in production, the Cowell hand shaper is of
somewhat simrlar design and appears
to be a worthy successor.
There are also smaller machines on
the market which are in some demand.
The bench-mounted
Cowell shaping
machine,
shown in Fig. I, is of
accurate and robust construction and
capable of machining work up to a
maximum of 6 in. by 6 in. The tool
slide has a feed of 22 in. and the maxi-

56
mum distance from the tool to the
surface of the table is 5 in. The five
rates of automatic feed of the traversing slide range from 0.0025 in. to
0.0125 in. and the tool slide swivels
through 180 degrees. The base member of the toolholder can be set over to
afford relief OS the idle stroke when
taking cuts at an angle or on vertical
surfaces.
It should be noted that, to reduce
the cost of installation, the machine
can be supplied in the form of a set of
components with all the heavy machining completed.
together with all
necessary parts and materials. Included also are a set of working drawings
and full instructions for completing
the machine which can be carried out,
like other Cowel! products, in a 31 in.
lathe. A machine vice, designed for
use with the machine, can be supplied
either as castings or in the finished
form.
To save working time and unnecessary labour, the Drummond
workshop machine was replaced some
years ago by the Acorn Tools powerdriven shaping machine, which has
proved in every way satisfactory both~
with regard to its accuracy and freedom from wear. In fact, despite much
of the heavy work undertaken,
no

THE

AMATEURS

WORKSHOP

adjustment has been needed, although

provision is made for this by fitting the
sliding members with peel-off shims.
This machine, shown in Fig. 2, is
massively built to ensure rigidity and a
caeacity for taking heavy cuts. The
sliding ram has a stroke adjustable
from 4 in. to 7 in. and is fitted with a
graduated, swivelling tool slide mounting a toolholder
and clapper-box.
The machine table has a height adjustment of 5 in. and a horizontal
travel of 98 in. which is operated
either by hand, or automatically
to
provide feeds of from 0.005 in. to
0.025 in. in either direction.
To prevent tilting of the machine
table under the cutting pressure, the
box-form casting is supported by an
adjustable, travelling jack-screw.Both
the tool slide and the traversing table
are fitted with index collars graduated
in thousandths of an inch.
The ram is driven by a $ horsepower electric motor at the rate of
from 40 to 170 strokes per minute
through variable gearing incorporating a V-belt drive. Ball and needlerailer bearings are fitted to carry the
driving shafts. and ample means of
lubrication are provided for the working parts.
Aswivelling machine vice is secured

Fig. 2. The Acorn

Tools shaping machine

Fig. 4. Tool for

cutting internal
keyway

HE

SHAPING

ig. 3.

MACHINE

Shaping

machine

surfacing

means of T-bolts sliding in the

of the box-form work table. The
of the vice is graduated in degrees
ovideetaciangularsettings.
perating the Shaping Machine
e usual high-speed steel !athe tools
I serve for most machining operhe various tools to meet all
nary requirements are fully desed in the book Shaping Machine
Lathe Tools, published by Model
Allied Publications.
he tool shown on the right of
3 is suitable for all general suroperations. and the second tool
zontal surface as well as an inal vertical shoulder.
oththesehigh-speed
steeltoojscan
e readily ground when resharpening
ecomes necessary. Tungstencarbideed tools have been found to retain
sharpness
when taking cuts
rough the scale of iron castings and,
a following light cut, they also
a high surface finish to this
tool illustrated in Fig. 4 was
for cutting internal keyways in
he bores ofpulleys and other machine

The inset cutter-bit enables such

keyways to be accurately machined
for both width and depth by referring
to the index collars fitted to the feed
screws of the machine.
The Starrett taper gauge, Fig. 5 is
graduated in thousandths
of an inch
and provides a ready means of measuring the width and depth of the keyways as machining proceeds.
External keyways can also be cut in
shafts with a tool similar to that used
for parting off work in the lathe.
However, for this purpose, it is
advisable to drill a shallow hole equal
to the width of the keyway to form a
run-out for th,e tool at the forward end
ofits travel.
After securing the work in the
correct position on the machine table,
and before starting the motor, the
length ofthe ram stroke is set from the
linear scale to enable the tool to clear
the work at either end of its travel, and
the position of the ram is adjusted
accordingly.
It should be noted that the base of
the clapper box needs to be set so that
the tool is slightly inclined towards-the
work in the direction of feed. This enables the point of the tool to rise clear

THE
Fig.

5.

The

AMATEURS

Starr&t

tapar

WORKSHOI
gauge

with suitable rake and clearano

angles, corresponding
with those o
the ordinary wood chisel or plant
blade.

of the work face on the idle or return

stroke.
The rate of the ram travel will
depend on its length of stroke; that is
to say, time wil! be saved by using a
rapid stroke for small work, :nd
smoother working will be obtained
with a slow stroke rate when machining large surfaces.
It is advisable to apply cutting fiuid
for machining steel, but cast iron is
best machined dry.
When a batch of metal strips has to
be machined parallel and to an equal
width. this can be readily done by
bundling or clamping them together in
the machine vice, and then taking cuts
over both the upper and lower
surfaces.
Shaping operations on plastic materiais give exceiient resuits, and it has
been found that Perspex, dealt with in
this way, can be brought to a high
surface finish by subsequently rubbing
with a rag. backed by a wooden strip
and charged with liquid metal polish.
Woodwork can alsn be machined to a
high finish in the shaper by using tools
made from silver steel and formed

The C!apper Box

The tool slide of the shaping machin
consists of two main components, th
Base and the Clapper Box. As has al
ready been shown the tool slide as ;
whole is attached to the head of thm
ram and can be turned at an angle il
order to assist some machining opera
tions.
It is sometimes necessary to lock th
claoner box itself. Normallv this i
allowed to swing free in order to giv
relief to the tool. when machinin:
overhung surfaces such as tool slide
the box must be locked or the tool wil
jam on the return stroke.
Some machines, as they should be
are already provided with some mean
of locking the box. However, in al
emergency when no provision is made
it may be locked by interposing a jacl
screw
between the base of the too
slide and the back of the tool itself, a
shown in Fig. 6.
Shaping Machine Toolholders
Two forms of toolholders are fitted tc
shaping machines, the English and thl
American. The first, comprises a cast
iron block fitted with setscrews pro
jetting into a box-type seating tc
accept the tools themselves;
tb
second, a pillar-like toolholder free tc
turn in a block forming part of tb
clapper box assembly itself.
The first has already been illustrates
in Fig. 6, the second is depicted il
Fig. 7.
From the standpoint of the shaping
machine operator the American typl
toolpost has much to commend it
principally because it allows tools tc

HE SHAPING

59

MACHINE

:ig. 6. An impro\rised
ng the clapper box

method of lock-

be set at an angle in relation to the

ool-slide itself, and to a much greater
,xtent than is possible with the English
rattern too! holder. This faciiity is of
great advantage when cutting down
he side of woi-k. an oneration
reluiring the tooi slide itself to be
.ligned at right angles to the surface of
he machine tab!e. Uhen mounted in
his way the variety! of lathe tools that
nay be employed is much increased.
t IS no bad thmg to coliect together
hose tools that experience has shown
o be particularly applicable to shapng processes and to mount them in a
vood block so that they are readily
lvailabie for use.

vlention has alreadv been made of the

,pecial tool for cmting internal key(ays in the shaping machine. This
)tece of equipment is seen in action in
rig. 8. It is important to note that the
001 must be pulled through the work,
herefore the clapper box has to be
ocked so that the shaper can cut on
he back stroke.
It is sometimes necessary to make
m accurate saw cut in some particular
:omponent. For want of a milling
nachine this is often possible in the
ig. 7. The American

tool post

ACK
SCREW
--...---I
TOOL
SE

&APPER

BOX /
JSSEMBLY

shaper using a short piece of hacksaw

blade mounted in a holder that may be
set in the tool post. It is obviously of
importance that the saw is upright in
relation to the work; this provision
can, of course, be assured by testing
set-up with a small square mounted on
the machine table or the vice.
Fig. 8. Cutting

an internal

keyway

ILL!NG as applied to workshop practice may he described

as the process whereby rotating cutters of various forms are used
to shape work by the removal of
metal. their action being controlled to
close limits of accuracy. Thus, by a
miiling process a k&way may be cut
ha~~ine b<)rh iri 4;idth and depth
dimer~ionaliy
correct throughout its
ien$1,

So this book would not be complete

without some reference to the milling
machine itself. But it must be said at
rhe outset rhar a reaily satisfactory and
accurate machine is expensive and
that the additional equipment needed
increases the first cost considerably.
Furthermore. the provision of suitable cutters and equipment for keeping them sharp. an essential in milling
operations. adds to the capital outlay.
For these reasons. then, milling
machines are unlikely to be found in
many pureiy amateur
workshops
though in the private shop, where it is
Fig. 1. The elements
machine

DRiW

-i

of the

milling

cnoss.

possible to offset their cost and recover !Fby carrying out machmmg oc
a commercial basis, they may well
have a place.
In the main, therefore, the amateur
will wish to use his lathe for milling
purposes, a subject that will be fully
covered in Chapter 15.
In the past there has been a number
of small bench machines produced for
purely amateur use. It is difficult to
say, however, whether a separate
machine
of necessarily
somewhat
light construction has any advantage
in this respect over a robustly made
lathe fitted with adequate attachments enabling at least the majority of
plain milling work to be performed.
Our own experience both in the
amateur and in the industrial field has
taught us that, for the most part, milling in the lathe within capacity of the
particular machine in use, is a sound
practical proposition,
and is capable
of yielding results able to satisfy the
most exacting requirements.
But to return to the milling machine. Many readers will know that,
historically, the horizontal miller was

61

,
:
L
I
:
I
r
:
:
,
.
1

little consideration
will show that
much of the effective capacity of a
small machine can be reduced by
fitting to it a vice that is too P~igh.
Reputable rnak=r L,oi machine tools
manufacture the vices fitted to them.
It can be assumed, therefore, that the
equipment they supply is suitable and
is also accurate.
Under these circumstances,
iherefore, it may not be considered necessary to check the vice supplied. On the
other hand, if equipment is purchased
from a source other than that of the
machine tool maker himself, or has
been bought at second-hand, then it is
worthwhile applying some simple tests
to it before putting the equipment into
use.
In the case of the machine vice there
are three principal points to watch for.
These are depicted in the illustration
Fig. 2 where a vice having these major
errors is shown.
In our illustration the standingjawA,
that is the one integral with the main
casting, is out ofsquare withthe baseC.
The moving jawB is loose on its slide
and will ride up when it engages the
work. Though not shown in the illusrraiion the face of this jaw may not be
truly parallel with that of the standing
jaw. In passing it may be worth noting
that one particular design of vice overcomes the last two difficulties by providing the moving jaw with some
means of clamping it to the base once
it has made contact with the work.
Fig. 2. Errors in a machine

vice

62

THE

AMATEURS

WORKSHO,

The last point to be observed is th

parallelism of the work surface il

relation to the base of the vice. This i
indicated at(C) in the illustration, an<
by making a check this is the firs con
Gderation. The diagram Fig. 3 show
how this is carried out. The vice itsel
is placed on a surface table and th
contact foot of a dial test indicator i
biOUght

Fig. 3. Testing

a machine

vice

c
Fig. 7. Testing
viz,

the standing

Fig. 5. Testing tile parallelism

jaws

jaw of a
of vice

iiii0

COiiiaCi

with

the

..^_
WVI

surface. The vice is then moved abou

under the indicator. If when the foa
of the indicator making contact a
A, B, C, and D, no movement of th
indicator needle can be observed the:
both base and work surface are para
Ilel. If accuracy is established we ma
proceed to test the squareness of th
standing jaw. The method employel
is illustrated in Fig. 4. Here a stee
parallel of known accuracy is set in
vice also known to be accurate. Th
vice to be tested is then clamped to th
parallel, a roller being interposed be
tween the moving jaw and the stee
parallel.
The dial test indicator is then ap
plied in the way shown in the diagram
Parallelism in relation to the vice jaw
themselves can easily be checked i:
the way depicted in Fig. 5.
Whilst the amateur can make goal
use of a simple milling machine pro
vided only with manually operate1
work feeds, the small professional use
will no doubt need more advance1
equipment that has these feeds con
trolled automatically.
A typical machine is that illustrate1
in Fig. 6 where one of the range a
machines
made by Messrs. Ton
Senior is depicted. This tool is design
ed especially with the small user i:
mind. It has spindle speeds in twelv
stages ranging from 60 to 4,000 r.p.m
enabling very small end mills to bl
used efficiently whilst the lower spin
dle speeds available
allow larg
cutters to be employed for heavy stoc!
removal.
The work table fitted has dimen

63

Fig. 6. TheTom
ine

Senior milling

mach-

The first of these is the Dividing

Head. This comprises two uniXs;
1. A small headstock with division
plate: a mandrel with driver plate and
centre. and a detent to engage boles or
hilst a vertical millir?g attachment
:d in conjunction with a horizontal
ichine may suffice for mtich of the
xk to be undertaken there is no
ubt that a miller designed for the
rpose has many advantages over
y such combination.
A good example of a vertica! mach: is that iliustrated in Fig. 7. Here the
,liing unit with its driving motor is
iached to an overarm thus aliowing
Bch !atitude in the way the cutter
#proaches the work. fn addition to
e normal controls for the work table
:d knee the mi,lling unit itself has its
vn independent feed arrangements
Id a depth stop that can be set to suit
e work in hand.

hatever attachments are used with

e milling machine there are certain
lditional items ofequipment without
hich the tool cannot be employed to
i fullest capacity.

Fig. 7. A vertical

milling

machine

Fig. 8. The dividing

Fig. 9. The

rotary table

Fig. ?O. The rotary table

head

slots in the division plate ilself. 2. ,

tailstock with centre adjustable in r(
lation to the work whichmay be eithc
mounted on crntres between the tw
units. or carried in a chuck attached t
thefirst unit.
In tl.is way the part to be machine
may be rotated through the successiv
fractions of a whole turn required t
complete the work in hand. Both unit
are mounted on the work table of th
milling machine as shown in Fig. 8.
The second item of additiona
equipment. is the rotating table. Thi
is a device that is i:self secured to th
machine table enabling work place1
on it to be turned through calculatel
parts of a turn with a high degree o
accuracy.
Two forms of Rotary Table ar
illustrated in F&s. 9crr7tlIO respective],
where it will be seen that both have th
edges of their work tables engraved iI
degrees and are provic 1 with ;
vernier attached
to the operatin;
wheel enabling minutes of a degree tc
be indexed.
Bothexamples have tabtesT-slottec
to accept fixing bolts and one has :
pump centre allowing work to bc
mounted concentrically
with greate
facility.
Like the Dividing Head the mech
anism of the Rotary Table comprise:
3 worm and wormwheel,
the latte
forming part ofthe work table itself. I
will be appreciated that no backlasl
can be permitted in the engagement o
these gears. To this end some form 0,
adjustment has to be provided ensur,
ing that the worm and the wormwhee
do mesh accurately. Fig. II shows the
wqrmwheel under the work table ant
the retaining plate attached to it.

Fig. 11. The rotary table wormwhee

and retaining plate

EFORE dealing with the different lathe operations two items of

equipment need to be considered.
e first ofthese are the various forms
chuck nsed to hold the work and the
econd, the tools used to do the actual

e chuck is one of the more impornt items of workshop equipment,

Id it is also one of the mo-re expenve. Our experience.
both in the
ofessional as well as in the private
ctor of workshop activity: leaves us
th the impression that chucks in all
eir forms deserve better treatment
an they: usuaib get.
Early lathes possessed no chucks as
e know them. For the most part the
thes were used for wood turning and
Lework was either mounted between
ntres or fixed to an elementary face,ate. Subsequently work tended to be
:mented into wooden cups or chucks
Fig. 1. The bell chuck
g. 2. The 4-jaw

independent

chuck

and these in turn gave place to brass

cups screwed to the nose of the lathe
mandrel and furnished with a series of
screws to secure the work. Such chucks
are known as bell chucks and are
sometimes found among the equipment of certain
precision
lathes
though they have large!y fallen into
disuse.
The bel! chuck seen in f%. I can.
however, be said to be the foyerunner
of the 4-jaw independent chuck illustrated in Fig. 2 an intermediate
development being the faceplate fitted
with dogs or jaws introduced
by
certain German manufacturers
some
50 years ago.
The 4-Jaw Independent Chuck
In the 4-jaw independent chuck the
jaws are reversible and so may be used
to hold work by the bore as well 3s
from the outside. Since the jaws move
independently of each other the chuck
may be used to hold irregular work

66

THE AMATEURS

Fig. 3. The self-centring

such as castings provided that these

arc within the chucks capacity. The
jaws have a portion of square thread
on their back face engaging corresponding screws set in the body of the
chuck itself. Under normal conditions
the threads on the jaws are fully engaged. If, however, one tries to grip a
piece of work too large for the chuck
the threads are not fully engaged and
th~ose in contact may well be strained.
Moreover, the bearing of the jaws in
the ways machined in the chuck body
is reduced allowing thejaws to tilt.
There is no difficulty when reversing
the jaws in the body, for the latter is
numbered
to correspond
with the
mating jaws which should always be
placed in their correct location.
The Self-ceding
Chuck
As with the Independent
chuck the
jaws of the self-centring chuck, illustrated in Fig. 3, areset in tenons formed
in the chuck body itself. The jaws,
usually three in number, carry threads
on their reverse face corresponding
with those machined on the scroll used
to control the jaw movement. The
scroll is a heavy disc of toughened
steel incorporating
the thread previously referred to; it has a bearing in
the cast iron body of the chuck and is
turned by means of bevel gearing, ?he
crown wheel teeth being machined on
the back of the scroll itself. The bevel
gears are also set in bearings formed in
the chuck body and are extended to
the outside so that a T-handled key

WORKSHOI

chuck

can be used to turn them when in

serted into the internal square math
ined in the extension. Whilst it i
possible to set work in an independen
4-jaw chuck with complete accuracy
this, for the most part, is not true ofth
self-centring chuck. For it must bl
bcrrlc in mind that the accuracy of thi
type of chuck is entirely dependen
upon the skill and precision used iI
machining the scroll and: perhaps to;
lesser extent, the jaws.
Changing *Jaws in the
Self-centring Chuck
The jaws of a self-centring chuck arl
not reversible so two sets have to b
provided; one set called the drill jaws
are used for the holding of work by it
outside surfaces as well as for grippin:
it internally on one or other of the se
of steps formed on these jaws.
The second set of jaws provide1
with the chuck are employed whel
large diameter work, perhaps sup
ported by the tailstock,
is bein,
turned. In this way the maximum con
tact between the scroll and the jaws i
maintained.
Both the body and th
jaws are numbered so it is not difficul
when changing jaws, to ensure tha
each is in its correct place.
The Imethod 0: numbering is seen il
the illu:jtration Fig. 4. Thejaws have tl
be replaced in the correct order or th
chuck wi!l not self-centre. Whilst th
custom.ary sequence is jaw No. 1, ja\
No. 2 and finally jaw No. 3, this is no
always so:; therefore, the sequent,
must be checked by an examination o
the backs of the jaws themselves a
seen in ig. 5. This will reveal that th
first jaw to be entered is the one havin,
the smallest space between its grip
ping face and the leading edge, of th
thread whilst the last jaw to be enterer
is that having the greatest space be
tween them. The remaining or inter
mediate jaw is, obviously, entered be

67

JKS

6. The collet
:k

n the first and last jaw. A look at

jaw numbers will now confirm
ther the sequence is 1, 2, 3 or
rwise; and a note made for future
nce chucks tend to operate in an
where swarf and metal particles
xesent> it follows that some of this
anted material may find its way
the scroll and on to the back of
:huckjaws. Before changing jaws,
efore, all swarf and metal dust
t be removed either with a brush,
referably with an airblast used ingently, to ensure that both the
111and jaws are clean before re,mbly.
othIndependent
and Self centring
cks are fitted to the mandrel nose
mgh the medium of a backplate.
plate is screwed to the mandrel
is machined with a register ening the complementary
recess at
back of the chuck. We shall be
ling further with this matter later
:n the fitting ofchucks is discussed.
: Collet Chuck
watchmakers
lathes
,4.

Numbering

and

most

the chuck jaws

precision lathes a third form of chuck

is commonly used. This is the toilet
chuck illustrated in Fig. 6. Essentially
this chuck is a tube split three or more
ways for part of its length and furnished with an angular nose so that, when
the chuck is drawn into the hollow
mandrel of a lathe having a corresponding internal cone, it will contract
and grip work placed within it.
Collet chucks are made to a high
degree of precision enabling work to
be removed and repla~ced with the
certainty that it will run true. These
chucks are particularly suitable for use
in connection withinstrument
work of
all kinds and watch and clock making
in particular.
In watchmakers
and
instrument lathes the closure of the
chuck is effected by a draw-in spindle
consisting of a hollow tube having an
internal thread at one end engaging a
corresponding
thread on the co!let,
and a hand-wheel at the opposite end
allowing the lathe worker to operate
the collet. The arrangement
is illustrated in Fig. 7.
For the newcomer three types of
collet are of interest. These are illusFig. 5. Jaw sequence

of entry

3rd

THE AMATEURS

68

HAND-WHEEL

Fig. 7. Collet chuck assembly

trated in Fig. 8. The first of them

marked A in the illustration,,is
the
collet usually found with precrston or
watchmakers lathes and is closed by a
draw-in spindle.
The second marked Bis thepa~ttern
usually employed in connection with
bar lathes and is closed by a cap acting
on the nose of the collet.
The third form of collet, marked
c, was introduced some years ago by
the Myford Engineering
Company
Fig. 8. Types of collet chuck

WORKSHI

and fitted to lathes of their manufa

ture. These colicts fit into the taper1
bore of the mandrel nose and a
closed by means of a knurled cap e
gaging a ring machined on the out
extremity of the collet itself. Fig. 3
and9B.
Since this ring is in fact anunderct
a simple piece of equipment has to
provided to close the collet and allc
the cap to be slipped over before t
collet is inserted in the lathe mandr,
This piece of equipment is illustrat
in Fig. 10.
The Care of the Collet Chuck
The fact that collet chucks are piec
of precision equipment
cannot
emphasised too often. They are COSI
and so, for the most part, owners
private workshops will give them f;
treatment. Industrially, however, th
seem, sometimes, to be the target f
all sorts of abuse, so perhaps a fr
words on the care of collets and (
their limitations may not be out
place.
First then, their limitations. Map
years ago the then great authority (
the precision iathe, the late Geor
Adams, stated these limitations
most precise terms.
In the preface to what must now
thought an almost nostalgic catalog
of machine toqls Adams says: In :
the watch, clock and instrume
trades split chucks are of the great6
importance. There is, in fact, no w
of re-chucking work accurately oth
than by this method. The split chum
must be carried in a spindle with gla
hard bearing surfaces ground at
lapped to permit very high spee
while still preserving accuracy for 101
periods oftime.
A split chuck is also the on
appliance with which one can I
chuck rods that must run true. The
is really no latitude in a split chuck.
will only take just that size of tn

Fig,

9A.

Myford

collet

assembly

ldrical work ~which it is ground or

ied out to rake.
. if ;~recision is the
DViOtisi\~.
ihell
one must not expect the coliot or
: chuck IO accommodate o,iersize
,ndersire work :tnd sti!l run true.
act ih2 prdctic? ;ii disioltiiig the
:k with unsuitable
work may
iaee it nermanently.
<iI1 have been appreciated that
particuiar
location of the split
ck in the nose of the mandrel ren; it e:ctiemel!~ liable to the ingress
;uarf or metai dust. It follows.
,efore. that when replacing work
hanging t!le chuck itself both the
ck and its seatins must first be
:fuily cleaned.
less Chucks
:less chucks are principally used in
taiistock ofthe tathe to hold centre
other drills. An example of the
less chuck is the Rlbrecht referred
n Chapter III. Albrecht chucks
e great holding power and are ob.able in a wide range of capacities
to a maximum of 3 in. diameter.
: smallest of these chucks has a
timum capacity of I$ in. and is
vided with an index collar so that

the chuck can be set to accept very

small drills without difficulty.
Fig.

10.

Myford

coliet

closer

and

extractor

CLOSER

EXTRACTOR

70

THE

AMATEURS

WORKSI

Fig. 11. The Jacobs chuck

The form of chuck most commonly

used in both the lathe and the drilling
machine is the keyed chuck illustrated
in li,~. !I. Thrcperationofthese
tools
i< similar to that of the keyless chuck,
but greater force is imparted to the
s&ye which closes the jaws by the
empioyment of a key having a small
be.vei gear at its extremity; this gear
engages teeth machined on the edge of
the slee.ve itself.

firill Chucks are usually mounted on

taper pegs fitt;ng both the headstock
and tailstock ofthe lathe as well as the
internal taper in the spindle of many
drilling machines. Some American
lathes. however, have drill chucks
screwed directly to the nose of the
mandrel
for use when machining
small bar material, an application for
which the drill chuck is particularly
suitable.
Fig. 12.

it should beremembered that, in

case of lathes for the most part, i
only friction between the taper
and the mandrel or tailstock, as
case may be, that prevents the dril:
equipment from rotating under Ic
If rotation does take place both n
ing tapers may be damaged; it is
portant, therefore, to guard aga
this.
Where drilling machines are c
cerned the spindles are provided Y
a socket in the upper part ofthe fen
taper. The tang machined at the
tremity of the chuck peg, and on ta
shank drills, fits this socket and
effectively prevents the tapers ft
slipping. The same remarks also al
to some of the larger lathes. On 11
lathes, however, no such provis
exists so the use of a draw bol
recommended. A typical arrangen
is seen in the illustration Fig. I2.
majortty of drill chucks are secure<
the peg itself solely by friction. If I:
chuck and peg are free from oil :
and are really dry when put toget
the chances of slip are minir
Nevertheless some may prefer to
crease security by fitting a screw in
manner shown in Chapter 3 Fig.
An added refinement,
if thoc
desirable, is the tapping of the a

Draw bolt fitting

for chuck

71
FIXING

SCREWS
I

MANDREL

Fig. 13.

REGISTER

F&ES
/\

NOSE

REGlSiEfi

Backplate

and chuck assem-

blv
The above remarks apply equally to
independent
4-jaw or self-centring
chucks, but in the case of the former of
late years there has been a move to do
away with the backplate and screw
the chuck directly to the mandrel.
Whether this move has received much
encouragement it is difficult to say.
For the most part lathes are supplied with their independent and selfcentring chucks ready fitted. Some
manufacturers
furnish an additional
chuck back-plate ready screwed and
correctly fitted to the mandrel nose
ready for machining to fit a customers
chucks
;

The Care of Chucks

The first and perhaps more obvious
way to ensure that a chuck will have a
1 long working life and continue to give
; good service is to avoid putting into it
I work that is too large. This practice
: inevitably ruins the chuck in time
i because the gripping load, instead of
being shared by a number of threads
on both the scroll and jaws, is trans: ferred to one or two threads withevery
likelihood
of their partial or even
; complete collapse under the strain.
The second way is to avoid excessive
tightening.
The manufacturers
of

72

THE

I
POINT ANGLE
= 550

Fig.

14.

backplate

Tooi

for

removing

swarf

from

threads

chucks supply keys of the correct size

for the purpose, so the practice of
extending the length ofthe handle part
of the key with pieces of metal tube in
order to obtain greater leverage is to
be depricated. This deplorable measure may be observed only too often in
industrv; but it has nothing to recommend ii and it will inevitably shorten
the life of the chuck.
Finally, self-centring chucks need
stripping down from time-to-time for
cleaning and oiling. The reason for
this is that, working as they do in an
environment charged with metal dust,
in time swarf may find its way into the
inside of the chuck and set up wear to
the scroll seating and other parts.
Some have advocated packing the
chuck with grease on re-assembly.
This seems a doubtful
practice.
Grease would seem to retain metal
dust, whereas if thin htbricating oil is
used small metal particles tend more
easily to be thrown off by centrifugal
force when the chuck is rotating. In
lathes where the work is subjected to
copious supplies of thin cutting oil we
have always found that thechuck itself
gets sufficiently well lubricated to need
only infrequent attention.
When a chuck has been removed

AMATEURS

WORKSHC

from the lathe it should be stood c

the tips of its jaws with the back-pla
upwards. This prevents any chips th;
may have found their way into t1
chuck from fouling the threads of t1
back-plate and so making difficult r
fitting to the lathe mandrel nose. BI
where this has happened the chil
should be scraped away with a tog
made from sheet brass in the form of
V at one side, see Eg. 14.
When boring
or drilling
rig1
throughpartssuchasbushesorcolla,
which are gripped in the self-centric
chuck or 4-jaw chuck, it is importat
to prevent chips entering the interic
of the chuck or the internal taper (
the mandrel nose. This is best done t
firmly pluggingthe throat ofthe chuc
with rag or cotton wool. On withdrav
ing the plug, the accumulated chif
will come away with it. Swarf enterin
the chuck can cause unnecessary we;
and loss of accluracy as has bee
stressed earlier.
A final word in connection wit
independent 4-jaw chucks. It might t
thought that by releasing two ac
jacentjawsofthechucktheworkwhe
remounted would again be centred b
tightening these two jaws; but, wit
most chucks, an experiment, using
dial test indicator as a check, wi
show that this assumption
is nc
realised.
The Chuck Brace
The changing of chuck jaws can b
hastened appreciably
if the brat
illustrated in Fig. 15 is used instead c
the usual key supplied with the chuck
It will be appreciated, of course, th:
the brace is used only to bring the jaw
into an approximately
correct pos
tion in relation to the work; final aC
iustment is carried out with the chuc
key itself.
The brace illustrated has the advar
tage that it can be used with eithe
4-jaw or self-centring chucks. As ca:

-3

i-

seen from the illustration Fig. I.5

: brace is of built-tip construction
ing bright mild steel sections of a
tss normally o:>tainable from matersuppliers.
Something needs to be said about
e general construction of the brace
case this should not be clear from
e illustrations just mentioned.
In
.rticular some remarks need to be
ade in connection with the working
d of the brace illustrated in Fig. 1.5

and in detail in Fig. 16. In the first

place the key for the 4-jaw chuck fits
inside that for the self-centring chuck
and is spring loaded so that it will
project when required for use. It is
locked by an allen grub screw in either
the extended or retracted
position.
Secondly, in order to secure the large
key against rotation
in the lower
member of the brace crank, a dowel is
set axially in the key and is arranged to
project into the brace member.

Fig. 16. The chuck

brace

CHAPTER

ANDRELS are used to mount

work for turning when it is
essential that both the bore and
the exterior of the work are machined
concentric.
4 simple example is a
bronze bush carrying a shaft. Concentricity, here. is of paramount importance especially when a pair of
bushes have to be used in line.
Mandrels take many forms. That
most usually employed is illustrated in
Fig. I.
A mandrel ofthis type is intended to
be mounted between the lathe centres,
and when correct!y used is a high!y
accurate device. It consists of a casehardened and ground steel bar, provided with female centres for mounting purposes, tapering very gradually
from one end to the other. The
extremities ofthe mandrel are reduced
in diameter and have a flat surface
milled on them to accommodate
the
carrier bv means of which the mandrel
is driven-in the lathe. It is also usual to
indicate the small end of the mandrel
by a ring machined on it as seen in the
illustration.
A wide range of these
mandrels is available commercially.
.4s will be appreciated work held in
this way is secured by friction only. It
is important, therefore, to make sure
that any part being machined is as firm
as possibie and cannot slip. In the

pcessed cenim
/

fl&br

professional workshop this matter is

taken care of by using a mandrel press,
a piece of equipment,
as its name
suggests, specifically designed for the
insertion and removal of mandrels.
The amateur is unlikely to have
such a tool and so will have to rely on
the copper hammer or raw hide mallet
to ensure that the mandrel is well
driven home. However, provided that
the bench vice is large enough, it is
possible, using suitable tubular packing and taking some care, to use ii
effectively as a substitute
for the
mandrel press.
Expanding Mandrels
In order to embody a wide range 01
expansion in a single device, expand.
ing mandrels of the pattern illustrated
in Fig. 2 were introduced.
This, the Le Count expanding mandrel, consists of a body provided with
female centres so that it can be used
!ike a plain mandrel, and having three
inclined keyways machined in it tc
accept stepped jaws upon which tht
work is set. The jaws can be moved
along the keyways by an expander
ring and so caused to grip the work.
Mandrels of this type have suffic
ient accuracy for many classes 01
work, but inevitably, as might be ex
petted from the number of parts in

~IOII end indicator,

acceptonce of carrier

MANDRELS

volved, the overa accuracy cannot be

as high as that of a plain mandrel.
Stub Mandrels
A common method of assuring
zoncentricity
in components
is to
machine them on a stub mandrel, or
bung to give it its colloquial name.
These mandrels are made from short
lengths of mild steel gripped, for
preference, in the four-jaw independent chuck so that they can be
machined accurately
and reset bv
means of the dial indicator when it is
necessary to use them again.
Usually the work is held by friction
anly so the mandr.els take the form
illustrated in F;ig.3 at A and D. Nevertheless, there are times when it is
expedient that the work should be
secured more positively while at the
same time being easily removed and
replaced when repetitive machining is
required. It is then that the mandrels
jeer1 at B and C are employed. The
work is made a firm push fit on the
device and is secured by a nut as seen
in the illustration. These mandrels are
useful, not only for machining work in
the lathe, but also for handling work
For milling purposes.
A somewhat novel device is that
depicted in the illustration Fig. 4. This
was produced in order to hold pressedsteel washers so that they can be
machined to an acceptable standard.
The washers are held by the bore and
are forced against the face of the
Body A by means of the threaded taper
mandrel B. The parts comprising

Fig. 2.
mandrel

The

La

Count

Expanding

Fig. 3. Stub mandrels

Fig. 4. Mandrels

for holding

washers

Fig. 5. Mandrels

for holding

washers

THE AMATEbXS

16

Fig. 3. Expanding

&f

these devices are iilustrated in Fig. 5.

whi!st their dimensional
details are
given in Fig. 6. Together the two
mandrels cover washers from i in. to
& in. internal diameter, a range that
should suffice for all practical requirements in the small workshop.
The work that these devices are
called on to perform is the holding of
washers for the turning and chamfering of their edges, when only light cuts
are needed. However, a centre may be
drilled in the large end of the threaded
member in order that the tailstock can
be brought up in support if needed.
~~~andiag Stub Mandrels
In place of the plain stub mandrels
referred to earlier it is sometimes
convenient to use mandrels that have
a limited range of expansion. These

WORKSHOP

stub mandrel

follow the basic design employed to

mount a change wheel at the tail of the
mandrel and described when dealing
with methods of dividing in the lathe.
Expanding stub mandrels, therefore, follow the pattern depicted in
Fig. 7 and are easily made for oneself
when needed. As with the plain stub
mandrels previously described, if well
made they can be readily set to run
true by means of a dial indicator.
The amount of expansion available
is small, about 0,005 in. in fact, and
this movement must beg assisted by
turning a relief behind the working
area as seen in the illustration.
Hollow Mandrels
There is often need to turn down
square bar material in the lathe. Normally stock to be machined in this way
would be caught in the 4-jaw chuck,
and this still remains the correct
method if a high degree of concentricity is wanted. However, an acceptable standard of accuracy can be

Fig. 6. Details of
the mandrel for
holding washers

4NDRELS

Fig. 3. Hollow

mandrels

,hieved if the square material is

tssed through a hollow mandrel, the
lrist would perhaps catl it a split
rllet. which is placed in the self,ntring chuck and grips the material
I its corners.
A group of these titments is illusated in Fip. 8 one havsing a piece of
luare bar that has been turned down
,ounted in it. These mandrels are
.achined from mild steel bar, turned
Jwn to fit in the chuck and bored out
r that the square material will slide
[to them without shake. They have
;tegral stiffening collars at each end
1preserve their concentricity and are
)lit lcngitudinally
in order that they
ill contract on the work when the
luck jaws are tightened. To remove
ny undue stiffness without, however,

marring the accuracy of the fitment as

a whole, the collars themselves are
also split directly opposite the main
saw cut.
The hollow mandrels shown were
made to take $ in., g in. and i in.
square material, sizes which are in
common use in the workshop.

CHAPTER

T one iime the material for the

making of the tools used in the
lathe and other machines was
aimost exciusiveiy Carbon Steel, a
metal that could be formed, hardened,
and tempered by the operative himself. But as the metals to be worked
became harder and tougher, and the
machining rates faster. the tool steels
had to be improv~ed. This requirement
led to the production
of high-speed
steels of ditferent specifications, very
satisfactory from the machining stand
point, but difficult for the operative to
handle by himself when hardening had
to be carried out. The heat treatment
ofcarbon steel is a comparatively easy
needing
the simplest of
process
equipment that will be described in
Chapter 25. Not so the hardening
and tempering
of the high-speed
steels. These require more complicated apparatus
inciuding, for the
mos: Dart, equipment that can measure very closely the temperatures in
the heat treatment furnaces.
As a result more and more of the
steel manufacturers
tended to fully
finish the materials supplied by them
and so. today, we have available
hardened and tempered tool bits that
are ground ail over. These need only
grinding to shape before they are set
in the lathe top slide. See Fig. IA.
In addition some manufacturers
can supply. in the finished condition,
boring tools and form tools for screw
cutting needing only sharpening when
the occasion arises, matters that will
receive attention in a later chapter.
These special tool bits are intended
for mounting directly in the lathe
under the top slide tool clamp or
alternatively,
in specially designed

holders intended for a similar method

of mounting.
There are many forms of lathe tool,
and for these readers are referred to
the book Shaping Machine and Lathe
Tools published by Model and Allied
Publications.
However, the essential tools are few
and comprise those for turning. boring, screw cutting and parting off.
Front Tool
There are two forms oftool commonly
used for turning the surface of cylindrical work. The first of these is the
Front Roughing Tool illustrated in
Fig. 1.
This tool is ground to the rake and
clearance angles shown in the illustration,
and the point is slightly
rounded, the amount of rounding
being increased if the tool is required
for finishing purposes.
The direction offeed is from right to
left as shown by the arrows, that is ta
say the tool cuts towards the headstock.
Fig. 1. The front

roughing

tool

79

4THE TOOLS

0A
ig. 2A 83 25.
nife tool

The

08
.nife Tool
he second.and perhaps the most imortant tool is that depicted in the
lustration Fig. ZA and B. This is the
Knife Tool, more commonly used, for
ie most part, than any other. It may
e employed both for sliding and suricing and so is able to machine any
arts that need shouldering IS well as
uning on their outrr su&ces.
In
rder to ensure that the finish impart:d to the work is smooth the end of

ig. 1A.

the tool has a slight land ground upon

it. This tool is illustrated in Fig. ,?A
and can be used for both roughing and
finishing
cuts imparting
a sharp
corner to any shoulders. When these
need to be rounded the tool is given
the form shown in Fig. 2B.
The Boring Tool
There are several forms of boring tool,,
some are one-piece, others are boring
bars having hardened tool bits mount-

THE AMATEURS

80
Fig. 4. The screwcutting

WORKSHO

tool

ed in them! the combination

being
gripped under the lathe tool clamp.
The bar itself is sometimes szt in a
rectangular split sleeve, a convenient
method of holding it since it enables
the tool points position to be adjusted
in relation to the work.
Theclearance and rake angies ofthe
boring tool are very much like those of
the Knife Tooi. In fact some workers
prsfer to reproduce the form of the
Knife Tool when making cutters for
bxing purposes. The corner of the
leading edge. in common with that of
the knife tool. can either be sharp or
irounded as occasion demands.
The clearance angles of a typical
boring tool are as indicated in Fig. 3.
Screw Cutting Tools
The tools used for cutting screw
threads in the lathe are of two types,
one for the machining of male threads
the other for the forming of their
female counterpart.
Both tools have
the basic conformation
depicted in
Fig. 4.

Fig. 5. The parting

tool

The tool shown is one suitable fc

cutting male threads of Whitwort
form. An internal threading tool
one similar to that tised for boring bt
having the same point as that shown i
the illustration.
In practice there are numbers (
variants ofthe basic threading tool, a
designed to simplify the production (
accurate screw threads. These too
will be d,escribed in Chapter 21 wher
the subject of screw cutting in th
lathe is dealt with in detail.
The Parting Tool
Once the piece of work has been full

Figs. 3 and 38

Boring tools

81

ig. 6. The back toolpost

machined the operator will need to

ever it from its bar of parent material.
he process used to do this is known
s parting off and the tool employed
; the Parting Tool depicted in Fig. 5.
n order to lessen the stresses when
iis tooi is in use. as well as to avoid
hatter, the width of the cutting edge
; made as narrow as possible conistent with adequate
mechanical
trength. Clearance angles are also
educed to a minimum to avoid weakning the support afForded to the
utting edge. Relief has also to be
iven to the tool behind the cutting
dge to prevent jamming in the cut.
he tool shown is suitab!e for parting
tee1 and it will be noted that a top rake
f some 5 to 10 degrees has been given
Nehind the cutting edge. This rake
hould beestended well down the tool
loint, otherwise the coiled chips pro.uced may form in the work groove
[self and possibly jam, causing dame.
:ig. 7. The back toolpost
lar

and boring

The Back Toolpost

As a result of the forces that occur
when parting off from the top slide set
in its usual position in front of the
work, difficulty is sometimes experienced in obtaining satisfactory results.
This is the more noticeable when
working with a light lathe, but it can
be largely minimLed if the tool is set
behind the work. In this way the forces
acting on the tool slide are upwards,
thus thrusting its working surfaces
into close contact and so promoting
the greatest rigidity to the whole setup. A little thought will show that
when the tool is placed in front of the
work the rigidity is impaired because
the forces acting tend to separate the
working surfaces, thus promoting instability.
Placing the parting tool at the rear
of the work needs a special toolpost
set at the tail end of the cross slide as
seen in the illustration fis. 6. Its holding down bolts are set dnectly under
the toolpost thus providing the greatest rigidity. The device shown has
provision for two tools. either being
brought into play by rotating the
capstan head and clamping it securely
by the lever seen on the top ofthe tool-

82

Fig, 8. The hand graver

post. The second tool. may, well be a

chamfering cutter. as this 1s as often
used as is the parting tool. leaving the
top siidr to cam-r:. any turning tool
required.
The Back Tooipost is also useful to
carry specialist tools such as boring
bars and threading form cutters. An
example of a back toolpost equipped
with a boring bar is illustrated in
Fig. 7.
When the Back Toolpost has a
rotatable turret it is clearly important
that, each time it is turned. the turret
is correct,i>~ indexed and is always
clamprd rn exactly the same place,
whichever tool is selected. To ensure
thus the turret is furnished with a
dowel registering accurately in holes
drilled and reamed in the body of the
toolpost.
Hand Tools
At one time a great deal of turning was
carried out with hand tools. Today,
however. escept for wood turning, the
practice has almost ceased to exist and
is confined to the rounding of corners,
the turning of ball ends and similar
work using the tool illustrated
in
Fig. 8.
The tool, which can be made from
an old square file, or if greater durability is required, from a length of
bright rectangular
high-speed steel,
has a lozenge-shaped
facet ground
upon it at an angle of 45 degrees to its
shank. The !atter is tapered so that it
can be set firmly in a wooden handle
leaving al least 4 in. of the shank pro-

THE AMATEURS

WORKSHOI

jectingin order to provide agood hand

hold.
Both hands are needed to use the
tool which is set on a hand rest secured
to the cross slide of the lathe and ad~justed so that the cutting edges lie
on the centre line of the work. In
the case of a right-handed operative
the left hand guides the tool whilst the
right hand sweep it in an arc using the
left hand as a pivotal point.
Those readers who desire further
information on this matter are advised
to consult Beginners Workshop
where the subject is treated in some
detail.
Tool Holders
At one time there were several makes
of tool holder on the market, for the
most part designed to accept the
commercially produced tool bits already described.
Today the n-umber available
is
much reduced and amongst those that
can be purchased perhaps the most
widely used are those made by Messrs.
James Neil1 for their Eclipse brand of
tool bits. This company can supply a
range of tool holders for turning,
boring and parting off in sizes suitable
for most lathes.
The amateur, however, can readily
make such holders for himself and
some examples designed
to hold
various forms of boring tool and
made by us, are shown in Figs. 9, 10
and/l.
Tool Grinding
Unless the tools used are really sharp
the quality of the work turned out can

THE TOOLS

Iy be poor. It is clear. then. that

ir form ofgrinder. ho\vever simple,
,ssentir:l.
The sub.ject of tool grinding is an
,ensive one so it is oniy possible to
11with it in an abridged form here.
: hav~e aiready covered tool grind; extensively in two books S/Ic?iyJeUSmall Tools and Shaping Machitie
1 Lathe Tools both published by
adel and Allied Publications.
In
iition
Beginners Workshop has
,ensive coverage of the procedure.
e Angular Grinding Rest
my readers wili be aware that the
rrpening process employed is called
f-hand grindin-g. The term is really
f-explanatory tor the method leaves
ihe operative himself the somewhat
jhazard work of establishing the
rect cutting angles on the tool freeId. There hal-e been many devices
this
cribed that wiil overcome
Faculty and ptirhaps the simplest of
se is the grinding rest illustrated in
:. 12.
The rest illustrated replaces those
nmoniy found attached to electric
nders and others supplied comrcially, and consists of but three
ts; the Table A supporting the

tool during the grinding process, the

Swing Arm B that allows the table to
be correctly aligned with the grinding
wheel after being set to the desired
angle and finally, the Angle Bracket
C securing the whole assembly to the
bench of the machine. The adjustment

. 9. Boring tool holders

Fig. 10.

Fig. 11.

Boring tool holders

Boring tool holders

THE AMATEURSWORKSH(

84

Fig. 12. The angular grinding

rest

of the Table A for a typical tool is

illustratedin Fig. 1ZA.
Little need be said about the construction of an angular rest except to
stress the necessity of providing
a
table of adequate size in order to give
proper support to the tool being
ground.
Fie. 13 il!ustrates a battery of
angular grinding rests attached to
machines of simple but very practical
design once available on the market,
whilst in Fig. 14 a specially made
grinder for finishing small tool bits is
seen equipped with an angular rest of
the typedescribed
The clearance angles required to be
ground on the various forms of lathe
tool are, for the most part few in
number. So, in order to facilitate setting the angular rest and to avoid the
unnecessary
removal of tool steel
Fig. 12A.

$etting

SIDE OF TOOL

the angular

rest

during the resharpening process, it

as well to prolide oneself with ter
plates that will enable the angular re
to be set accurately in relation to ti
wheels surface. The templates m;
take the form of a blade, say of fs i
thickness, either brass or steel w
serve here, mounted in a footing, aga
either of brass or steel, enabling t,
whole to stand upright on the table
the rest and be brought into conta
with the face of the grinding wh<
while the angularity
of the rest
adjusted. A typical template is dep:
ted in Fig. 15.
Usually a pair of templates havi,
angles of 5 and IO and I5 and
degrees respectively will be sufficie
and they should of course, as she\
in the drawing, have their Angular:
stamped on them.
Grinding Wheels
Most tool merchants are able to a
vise on the corrzct grade of wheel
use for general grinding operations
the workshop but as a rough guic
whatever grade is suggested, the g
size should be 60 for roughing do7
and 80 for finishing the tool, possit
followed by a hand stoning operatil
with a fine slip stone in order to PI
mote a keen, durable cutting edge.
The correct speed for a grindi
wheel is one that will give it a peri,phg
al speed of approximately
5,000 fr
per minute. Thus a 6 in. wheel shor
run at 3,200 r.p.m. The following tal
gives the correct speeds for a,selecti

END OF TOOL

TOP SURFACE OF To4

85

HE TOOLS

ome commonly
Wheel

used wheel sizes:

R&w per

: surface of the grinding wheei will

d to be treated from ttme to time,
h to restore the cutting ability of
abrasive grains as well as to ensure
t the wheel as a whole is running
:.
This is effected by a device called a
eel dresser. an example being illusted in Fig. I6 at A. The dresser
tsists of a hand-held framework
sporting a set of alternate plain and
r wheels that are free to revolve
en brought into contact with the
nding wheel. The action of the
:sser is that of breaking away the
.led grains of the wheel and bring: to the surface hew and sharp
:asive material.
The same result can be achieved by
: dresser seen at ESthis is an indus11diamond set in a holder so that it,
r, can be brought to bear on the
nding wheel. While such a dresser,
:d in some circumstances, may have
vantages, the first dresser described
Fig. 16. Wheel
1. 15. The grinding

dressers

rest template

Fig. 13. A battery

of angular

Fig. 14. A special grinder

lar rests

rests

with

angu-

86
is that most commonly employed. It
should perhaps be.potnted
out that
much abrasiv~e dust IS produced by the
wheel-truing process. so the location
of the grinding machine should be as
far away as possible from any machine
tools. Otherwise the tools must be
covered up whi!st the process is being
carried out.

THE

AMATEURS

WORKSH

A Rack and Stand for Lathe Tools

It is sometimes convenient to hs
those lathe tools commonly
USI
grouped together and close to hat
The stand illustrated in Fig. 17 sho
a rack for the tools together wit1
table to support small containers :
cutting oil and such measuring equ
ment that may be in immediate use.
Fig. 17. Tool rack and stand
rT

Block
\,

Mitred bmdinq
YEby l/S,

HAPTER

10

HE process of Knurling is employed to form a finger grip on

cylindrical work. The knurling
ises the surface by a rolling action.
Iparted bv. one or more serrated
i;dened wheels. and may take the
brrn of a straight pattern with the
rratons parallel to the axis of the
lurl. or a diamond pattern produced
\I a pair of knur!s having serrations
,t ;II an angular relation !o their axis.
he pitch of the serrarions is the same
jr both wheels and they are set to
ass on the work thus producing the
!amond pattern. Some of the knurlkg wheels used in machines and the
ltterns thev produce are illustrated
iagrammatIcally in Eg. 1.
Formerlv. when much work was
reduced in brass. often by handIming. any knurling needed had also
f be imparted by hand methods. A
ngle wheel. mounted in a suitable
older. was heid on the hand rest and
I positioned
that a leverage was

exerted upon the work. Obviously, the

widthofknurline
thatcould beachieved was small beyng conlined to such
items as brass terminals, instrument
parts and the like. The hand knurl
wheel holder is depicted in Fix. 2
whilst a selection of wheels suitable for
mounting in it. and at one time available. are to be seen in f-i,?. 3.
As has been remarked, to be able to
produce a reasonable knurled pattern
even in soft materials it was essential
to use considerable
leverage. The
diagram Fig. 4, illustrates the method
ofdoingso. Bythismeansonly
narrow
surfaces can be treated because it is
not possible to traverse the knurling
tool along the hand rest at the same
time maintaining even pressure upon
the work.
Much amateur work is often spoilt
by poor knurling and so, indeed. are
many commercial products. So far as
the amateur is concerned part of the
trouble lies in the lightness of the

Fig. 1. Types of knurling

A_DJUSTMENT
J
mu

THE AMATEURS

88

2. Hand knurl wheel

flat
st

WORKSHO

holder

raiqhi
rk

hol!ow
straight

convex
strdight

Fig. 3.
Knurls for
hand
holder

f!dt
diamond

lathes commonly in use. Btit, fo!,,the

most part, the poor results stem irom
setting about the work in the wrong
w-av
he
single wheel i-.nurling tool
illustrated in Fig. 5 is unsuitable for
use in a light lathe because of the
damage it may do to the bearings of
the headstock unless the tailstock can
be brought up to support the work.
The forces acting are directly at right
angles to the axis of the lathe spindle,
tending to force the mandrel out of
line and do permanent damage. So, if
a large component has to be knurled
and a single knurl wheel must be employed, then the sequence of machining operations should be so arranged
that the tailstock can be brought into
play during the knurlingprocess.

Fig. 4.
holder

Method

of

using

the

hand

The difficulty, however, can be sur.

mounted by a process that, for want oi
a better term, may be called straddle
knurling. In this method a pair oi
knurl wheels are used, set in an adjust.
able holder, and are applied above ant
below the work in the manner depic
ted in the illustration
Fig. 6. Thr
wheels are adjusted to apply a sligh
wedging action, experience will shove
just how much this needs to be, so the
resultant forces that act on the man
drel bearings will be no more, am
possibly a good deal less, than thos
experienced during a normal turninl
operation.
The tool illustrated in Fig. 7 and ir
Fig. 7A was made for use in a 4-in
centre lathe and has all the require
ments for 5, holder designed for strad
dle knurling.
A similar device was designed am
made by us to be used in the 34 in
Drummond
Lathe. Manufacturin,
drawings for this tool are given il
Figs. 8, 9 and IO whilst the devic
itselfis illustrated in Figs. 11 and 12.

Fig. 5. Single wheel machine knurling

tool
KNURLINC
TOOL
TOOL

POST
\

ER .mt+

Fig. 6. Straddle

9. Straddle knurling
mmond lathe

knurling

tool for 3%

rting the Knurling Operation

order to get the best results, and
3re the knurl wheels are set in
tion, the work must run perfectly
5. This may be ensured sither by
ing a light cut over its surface, or by
:ing it to run true with the aid of a
1indicator.
. 8. Straddle knurling
munond lathe

tool for 3t
Fig. 7A.

Straddle

Fig. 7. Straddle

knurling
knurling

tool
tool

THE AMATEURS

90
UPPER PAD PIECE
DIMENSIONS TH;
SAME. AS LOWE

LOWER PAD
s

I
L--4

0C

Fig. 50. Straddle knurling

Drummond lathe

La--

tool for 3f

When this has been done the knurls

are engaged to straddle the work,
making contact with at most 6 in. of
the surface. The knurls are then
tightened and the work turned by
hand for a few revolutions.
Fig. 12. Straddle knurling
Drummond lathe

tool for 3&

WORKSHO

If, on examination,
the patter
annears correct, tighten the knul
wheels further, engage the lathe bat
gear, also the automatic traverse, an,
proceed with the knurling. After
pass or two to establish the patter:
throughout the length of the work th
speed of the lathe can be increased an
the knurling be allowed to proceel
until
the pattern,
when viewec
through a magnifying glass, appear
sharp and its crests seen to be full:
formed. However, it may be that whel
starting the knurling, the pattern i
seen to be confused, the wheels bein!
for the moment out of step. This r
known as doubling, and it can b#
cured by increasing the wheel pressutuntil a proper pattern is produced
Thereafter the process can proceec
following the lines indicated.
When a knurled surface of soml
length has to be produced the whee
holder must be set at a slight angle tc
the axis of the work. An angle of soml
5 degrees is recommended,
the pur
pose being to ensure a uniforn
pattern. This is particularly importan
when forming a straight knurl when
the pattern must be perfectly paralle
to the work axis. If the wheels are se
square with the centre line of the work
there is then a tendency for metal to bc
thrown up in front of them, and the!
will not then follow a straight tours
but will be deflected; the- resultir

91

KNURLING

Fig. 11. Straddle

knurling tool for 3f
Drummond lathe

then well be a slow helix

f lines that are anything
word about

lubricating

not cut in the strict sense of the word.

Their action is one of crushing or
queezing, so metal is removed from
he work in the form of fine particles.

Unless a copious supply of suds or oil

can be brought to bear on the work
and wash this metal dust away as soon
as it is produced, it is best where small
areas are involved to carry out the
operation
dry. The application. of
small quantities of oil by brush or can
does nothing to help and, in most
instances, are definitely detrimental to
the quality of the pattern produced.

CHAPTER

I1

1. Mounting Work Between Centres

It is not ihe purpose of this book to go
into the detail
of elementary
lathe
practice.
This has been fully covered
in Begiilners
Forkshop. On the
other hand there are certain processes
or parts of them that
need fuller
co\rrage.
The first of these is the
n>;ltter of mounting
work
between
ccntres.
in c>rder to do so the work
it~~lt h;rs 11)be drilled
so that it may
accept
the lathe
centres
as most
readers will be aware. This drilling
is
perfc. rmed with a special tool known
as a cczntrs-drill
that provides a seating
for the centre of the shape shown in
the cross-section
Eig. I at A. The
centre then engages this seating corrcctly as seen at B. From time to time,
however.
the centre drill
needs resharpening,
but all the operative
himself can do in this respect is to grind
the point
of the pilot
portion
only
since he has not the necessary equipment to sharpen the 60 degree cone
Fig.

I.

Thecentredrill

portion
as well. .As a result, the relative
positions
of the two become
progressively
shorter and shorter till
a condition
IS reached when. as depicted in F;<y. I at C, the lathecentre
will
not seat properly
because its point is
in contact vvith the bottom ofthe hole.
We make no apology
for calling the
attention
of readers to this defect: we
haveencountered
it so often.
When drilling
for centres it often
happens
that the work itself is too
large 10 be passed into the hollow
mandrel
of the lathe. It must then be
supported
by the fixed steady in the
manner
illustrated
in I-ig. 2. Work
mounted
between
centres
is driven
through
a lathe dog bolted
to the
driver plate attached
to the mandrel.
In the absence
of a forked
lathe
carrier. though these are rendi!y made
in the workshop.
the standard form of
carrier should be wired to the doe in
the manner
seen in the illustration
P;,c. 3. This will prevent
the carrier
knockin,g against the lathe dog during
the turntng operation.

2. Drilling from the Tailstock

When machining
components
in the
lathe it is often necessary to use the
tailstock
to mount a drill. Tailstocks
fitted as standard
to the majority
of
lathes use a hand wheel in order to
feed the drill to the work. Whilst the
somewhat slow rate of adv,ance resulting from this arrangement
is. perhaps,
tolerable
when actual
drilling
is in
progress it is certainly
not so during
the frequent withdrawals
for clearing
purposes that the drill itself requires;
the more so if the drilled hole is deep.
Moreover,
the very fact that the tailstock mechanism
functions
on the

93

Fig.

2.

Using

support
Fig.

work
3.

the
for

fixed

steady

to

drilling

lever-operated

tailstock

An alternative
sq~stem makes use of
a rack and pinion to provide the feed.
This arrangement
is similar
to that
used in some drilling
machines and is
Fig. 3.
dog

principle
of the i:ut and bolt ensures
that ~~~cti~ii
forczs. onerating
uhen
the dri!i point is forced intO the work.
add a cnnGderabie
friction
loading
that the i:pe;ator
must
(overcome.
This is particular!)in widence
when
thzdril!s
zre!argc.
A!i this can Fbe surmounted.
however. by making
use of :I lever feed.
either iii ;li; attachment
or. ils illUStratedin
~j~.~.b~thesuhstitutionofa
replacrment
zGiit&
w titted. In this
wav the rate of in-feed u;i!i be g:-satly
in&eased
znd the time lost in drill
withdra~~~~a! iargelyreduced.

Wiring

the

carrier

to

the

lathe

THE

Fig.

5.

The

tailstock

for

Coweli
the

Myford

lever-operated
lathe

the mechanism Messrs. E. C. CIowell

of W)atford have titted to their lever
feed for the tailstock of the Myford
Lathe. illustrated in Fig. 5.
3. Drilling Deep Holes
it may be worthwhile to point out to
those readers who do not already
knowitthat,whendrillingadeep
hole.
one should not rely on the twist drill to
keep to a straight path. Much may be
done, however, to improve its performance by a modification
to the
drill point and this ,will be described
in Chapter 18 Drills and Drilling.
Nevertheless, it is possible to produce an accurate and straight hole
through the axis ofthe work by means
of a tooi called the D-bit. As its name
implies the point of the tool is shaped
like a letter D and this is applied to
the work by means of an accurate
Fig.

6.

The

D-bit

AMATEURS

WORKSHOI

chuck carried in the tailstock. The

details of this tool are given in the
illustration F;,?. 6.
To use the D-bit the work is firs
drilled through axially some & to 1:
in. less in diameter than finished size
and the hole is t,hen opened out with 2
boring tool for a length equai to a
least :Lwice the diameter of the D-bi
so that the latter will enter withou
shake.
In this way proper guidance will bc
given to the passage of the D-bi
through tne work when mounted ir
the tailstock chuck and fed in as seer
in .Fig. 7.
Plenty of lubricant should be usec
irk the operation. both to promote fret
cuti;;~gas well as to oil the tools shank
in thisconnection
manycommercialt!
made D-bits have provision for tht
introduction
of cutting oil by the
machining of a groove along thei]
shanks.
4. Boring Work in the Lathe
The operation of boring in the tathc
can be performed in two ways. Thr
first is with the work gripped in tht
chuck and the boring tool mounted or
the top slide. The second with the
work secured to the cross-slide and z
boring bar running between centres
The tool used for the first method i!
shaped as shown in Fig. 8 at A. This ic
the best form for reasons that will bc
presently explained.
We do not need to spend any time
on the detai!s of boring holes extend,
ing clear through the work. This ha!
been done elsewhere. It is sometime!
necessary, however, to bore holes thaw
are blind. The initial procedure is firs
to centre drill the work, then to pilo,
drill it as shown in the illustratior
Fig. 8B to the full depth required. The
hole is then opened out to size a!
shown by the dotted lines. Supposing
however, that the work is a bearinj
and that the shaft to fit it must make
contact with the bottom of the hole

ATHE

g, 7.

OPERA~TIOSS

Using

e D-bit

Removal
(of unwanted
material
is
rried out by the too! depicted
in
8C undercutting
ihe work in th,e
If one is borin_r ~5 iarge hole the
oblem
of making
burr that
the
lerside of the tool does not rub
Gnst the ~!ork is not a ditlicuit
one
solve. for the normal
cleainnces
to the tool are ;Isirai!y sufficient.
en boring small hoies. however.
e position
is very ditficult.
Much of
e underside
of the tool has to be
ound away in the manner illustrated
Fig. 9. As one cannot
possibly
timate
beforehand
how much the
01 has to bs modified.
some way of
ing so has to be found. The best

The

Fig

SC.

The

boring

iool

undercutting

Fig.

Relief

8D.

iTHE

9-l

OPERATIOXS

be used for through-boring

duties
hiist the second iocation allows the
,ol to project when a blind hole has
Ibe machined.
the detzi!s of the dec~ice will be
ear from ths iiiustraticns
where it
ill be seen that the hc?!low bar A is
-otided with a cross-drilled thimble
) and that the tooi bit passes through
oth these parts. The tool is secured
q the push rod C pressure being
apiicd by the loch screw 0.
Making the equipment is not a
ificu!t operation hut it is absolutely
ecessary to make and us2 a simple

6B

C
d

Fig.

10.

Boring

tools

with

detachable

cutters
jig, the detaiis of which are given in
Fig. l/A in order to drill the cutter
seating holes successful!y.
Naturally, when boring a hole, the
object ofthe procedure employed is to
produce one that is both round and
parallel. And in this the shape of the
tool itself has a large bearing. If the
illustration
Fig. I2 is examined the
correct and incorrect tool shapes will
b e seen, and from this examination it
Fig.

11.

Boring

bars

for

small

tools

98

THE

Fig. 11A.
points

will be apparent that the tool point

likely to give the best results is one
that cuts on its front face only. The
thrust from such a tool is directly
parallel with the axis of the work, so
the tool will not be deflected. Consequently the finished hole itself will
Fig. 12.
wrong

Tool

point

shapes:

right

and

AMATEURS

Jigs to enwre

WORKSIK

correct

to

be machined parallel. On the 0th

hand, the thrust from a round no
tool is at an angle to the works ax
so the tendency is for a hole machine
by it to become tapered.
When using a large and heavy bc
ing tool this defect may not be
evidence, but in the size of equipme
used when boring small holes it w
almost certainly show itself.
The tool with detachable cutters
intended for mounting in a split slee
clamped in the top slide. As such tl
amount of overhang. that is the di
tance between the tool point and tl
sleeve. can be adjusted to give the be
results, and these are obtained,
depicted diagrammatically
in Fig.
when the overhang is reduced to
minimum.
A word should, perhaps, be said (
the use of the split sleeve for clampir
purposes. Unless the pressure of t:
top slide clamp is applied correct
there is every likelihood that the tot
point will turn round in the work at
ruin it. fig. 14illustrates the right al
wrong way of securing the tool.
Back Facing
Back Facing is a machining pro
cedure sometimes necessary when it i:
important that both faces of a borec
[WRONC]

99

3 OPERATIONS

MINIMUM

OVERHANG

I-

Fig, 13.
great

should be exactly parahe! one

the other; and when to remove
work from the chuck,
then
se and re-set it would destroy any
ibility of accuracy resulting from
a process. Fig. I5 depicts in
:ammatic form the type of tool
and the way it is applied to the
:. The tool is similar to any other
ng tool but has a somewhat longer
Iwhich is heavily raked so that the
cuts on its back face only. In
ing it is worth noting that the
ng tool with detachable cutters
ribed earlier, and for which detaillrawings were given, makes an
llent device for back facing. All
is needed is to reverse the cutter
hat it points backwards and the
pment is ccmplete.

14. Tool
,ppressure
t and
w

TOO

GRLAT

Overhang-minimum

Fig. 15.
Back facing
operation

BACK FAC;N&

and too

THE AMATEURS

WORKSH

1 _
2

I
1

Two Simple Boring Tool Holders

In order to provide means ofadjusting
the overhang that must be given
particularly to small boring tools the
two holders illustrated in Figs. 16 and
17 were produced. These are intended
for tools having round shanks & in.
3 in. diameter
respectively.
and
TheseTGholders are made from mild
steel to the dimensions given, the only

<
/

driver

plate

Fig.
18.
mounted

for
Setup
on the saddle

boring

work

Fig. 17.
holder

Another

simple

Fig. 16.

Simple

comment
being to
ings are
the tools

needed on their construct

make sure that the tool SI
smooth and the holes act
without shake.

boring

boring

tool

holder

Boring Work Mounted on the Sac

The second method of boring war:
the lathe is to mount it on the sad
The elements of the necessary set
are depicted in the illustration Fig.

s shows a typical casting bolted to

boring table of a small lathe where
tould be noted, the bolts securing
work pass through it in such a way
their clamping effect on ihe Ts results in their being supported
he face of the casting itself. If no
port is given damage to the T3 may easily result. The work is
:hined by a boring bar mounted
veen centres and driven by a
,ier through a dog attached to the
er plate.

Fig. 19.
by grub

Boring
screw

bar, with

Fig. 20.

Using

the Sticky

Boring Bar, illustrated in Fig. 19,

sists essentiallv of a substantial
I rod cross-d&led and reamed to
:pt the cutter, which is secured by a
3 screw. In addition,
however,
le boring bars are fitted with a
:se-headed screw abutting against
end of the cutter enabling it to be
isted th.emorereadilyand
preventit from withdrawing from the cut
e,jt has been set.
he provision of a screw for this
pose is clearly only applicable to
:e,boring bars where the added
is-drilling and tapping needed to
vtde a seating for such a screw
dd have no weakening effect on the
; themselves.
:mg the Boring Bar in
stion to the Work
le work is to be bored correctly
e are two essentials that must be
blished. First, the boring bar must
:orrectly centred in the work and
I the point of the cutter itself must
djusted to describe the correct arc.
xder to satisfy the first requireit the work is marked off as seen in
illustration Fig. 20 and placed on
boring table being roughly packed
to the correct height. The bar is
t passed through and mounted
veen the lathe centres so that a
:ky Pin attached to it can be
lied to the work itself. The Sticky

tool

secured

pin

BORING BAR

-A-I
Fig. 21.

Setting

the cutter

Fig. 22. Measuring

test indication

packing

with

dial

DIAL INDICATOR
-

I
PA&lNG

102

THE AMATEURS
Fig. 23.

Gearwheel

WORKSH

being

key-wa\

F!g. 21 is taken

and from it is SI
A
tracted the dimensions - that is t
2

the diameter of the boring bar its

thus leaving the measurement B
radius of the arc described by
toolpoint.
The second method is to take
A
dimension Y and add to it Pin is nothing
more
than
an
ordinary pin used in sewing, set in a
small lump of plasticene attached to
the boring bar. If the lathe is now
turned slowly by hand it will be possible to compare the path traced by the
pin with the circle scribed on the work
adjusting any packing until coincidence is achieved. Thereafter the work
is secured and the cross-slide locked.
Setting the Cutter
Provided that the boring bar itself
runs truly the cutter may be set with
reference to the bars periphery, and
to do this there are two methods open
to the operator of making the necessary measurement. In the first method
the measurement
X illustrated in
Fig. 24.

Moving

figure thus obtained again being

radius of the tool point arc B.
Making the measurement X u
in the first method is not always es
If the cutter is seated in a blind h
then this can be obtained directly va
a micrometer. But the conditions
doing so hardly ever obtain, so
second method must be adopted.
To make the measurement
Y
dial test indicator is used. If the ra,
of the indicator is lrrge, and the st:
out of the tool point from the
small, this dimension can be ta
directly. To do so the foot of the
dicator is applied to the boring
and the dial set at zero. The foo
raised without moving the indict
itself and is then applied to the tc

top-slide

with

a lever

CONNECTING

LINK
LEVER

ATHE
THE

OPERATIONS

int care being taken to turn the

he backwards by hand in order to
tain a maximum reading.
In cases where the tool projects too
for a direct reading to be taken,
, measured with the aid of a
ter, must be interposed bee boring bar and the indicator
to set it to zero. The measure is then the thickness t ofthe
of the
ing, plus the reading obtained
the dial test indicator itself, as
epicted in the iihistration Fig. 22.
Cutting Internal Keyways
hen making certain parts in the
mall workshop it is sometimes necesary to cut internal keyways. Though
s is work that, in a large commer1 undertaking,
would normally be

103
done in a vertical slotting machine, it
is perfectly possible to accomplish the
task successfully in the lathe. Fig. 23
depicts a gear wheel being key-wayed.
The cutter used is a parting tool
mounted upon its side and packed to
ensure that it is central with the work.
To form the keyway the lathe saddle
can be racked backwards and forwards whilst the tool is fed into the
work taking cuts of about 0.001 in. to
0.002 in. at a time by means of the
cross-slide. Using the saddle however,
continuously
in this way is not
desirable.
It is better to lock the
saddle, thus avoiding local wear on
the lathe bed, and move the top slide
by means of a lever system clamped
to the lathe bed itself, as illustrated
in Fig. 24.

CHAPTER

12

HE turning of tapers is one ofthe

more important lathe processes
undertaken
in the workshop.
The turner is often called upon, to produce tapers, both male and female,
that will match some existing mechanical part: and he must do so withcomplete accuracy or the fit of the mating
components will be non-existant.
. Turning Attachments
For those who nave much of this work
to do on a repetitive basis the expense
of a turning attachment will be justified. The attachment seen in Fig. I,
usually bolts to the back of the lathe
and consists of a slide that may be set
over to the amount of taper required
and is fitted with a cursor and a rigid
connecting link securing the cursor to
Fig. 1,

Taper

the cross-slide which, ofcourse, has it

feed screw removed for the period o
the turning operation.
The slide can be set at an angl
corresponding
with half the include{
angle of the taper itself. If the saddl
is now moved along the lathe bed th
cursor will travel up the attachmen
thus mol,ing the cross-slide in relation
to the work and so reproducing th
desired taper upon it. One of the ad
vantages of employing an attachmen
is that the lathe self-act may be used tS
traverse the saddle itself. Adisadvanl
age, however, lies in the fact that, wit
the feed screw disconnected the cu
must be adjusted by slackening th
connecting link and tapping the cross
slide forward. In many high clas
industrial lathes, on the other hanc

turning

attachment

APER

105

TURNING

tatters are so arranged that th.e cross

,ide feed screw is kept operative and
uts on the tool feed without impeding
meaction of the taper attachment.
. Turning with the Tailstock set over
n default of a turning attachment
mgtapers can be machined by setting
ver the tailstock and supporting the
lark on centres during the turning
peration. Indeed, this is the method
lost commonly
employed, and all
athes of repmable make have proision for it.
In order to set the tailstock over it is
nade in two parts. A base A and the
Yailstock Body B seen in the illusration Fig. 2.
:( A kev C tits accuratelv into both
hese parts so that when the nut D is
lackened, the tailstock body can be
noved across the base without enhmgering the alignment of the tailItocks axis with that of the lathe
This movement is controlled,
e most part, by two screws set
r side of the tailstock body and
ging a tenon projecting from the
Adjusting the screws moves the
dy by amounts that may be read off
a scale set at the back of the base
asting as seen in the illustration.
he degree of set over is usually
ted to some 10 degrees each side of

D-

I
A
Fig. 2.

Set-over

Fig. 3.

Adjustable

tailstock

centre

3. Turning with a Set-over

Tailstock Centre
Despite the comparative
ease with
which the tailstock as a whole can be
set over, many operators are reluctant
Fig. 4.

Adjustable

centre

dismantled

THE AMATEURS

106

WORKSHO!

\l

Fig. 5. Working

drawing

for set-over

ten

APER

TURNING

o disturb it once it has been set to

urnworkperfectlyparallel.
However,
he taiistock itself need not be set-over
f an. adjustable centre is employed.
:his piece of equipment is illustrated
n fig. 3 and dismantled in Fig. 3. The
tevi;e consists of two main parts, the
last A :*:Id the Slide B. The former
s fitted with a Morse Taper peg havng ;:ro\:ision for a drawr bolt so that
he centre may hold securely in the
ailstock. The slide, secured to the
,ase by a pair of set-screws, is fitted
vith a screw-in half-centre. It is pertaps hardly necessary to point out that
he slide must be,set perfectly parallel
with the face of the lathe bed or the
lbject of the dev~ice will be set at
taught. For this reason the parallelsm should be checked with a dial
ndicator set on the cross-slide and
applied to the Base A itself. Working
details of the set-over centre are given
n the illustration Fig. 5.
1. Turning with the Top-slide Set Over
Much of the work the lathe operator
.s called on to perform consists in the
machining
of short tapers whose
length is within the range of the top;lides travel. For this reason the
inclination
required is most conveniently obtained by setting over the
top-slide itself. Most lathes have the
base of the slide engraved in degrees
and with a zero or line incised on the
face of the cross-slide. The top-slide
may thus be set directly to the angle
required. For a lathe not so equipped,
or where there may be some doubt as
to the accuracy of the engraving, the
procedure deptcted in the ilfustration
Figs. 6 and 64 should be employed.
Here? as will be seen, the top slide is
removed from its base and a protractor, set to the angle required, has its
blade applied to the base, a parallel
test bar being interposed for the purnose. The base of the protractor en;ages the faceplate and the top slide
s adjusted until coincidence
with

1
Fig.

L
6.

Setting

Fig. 6A.
Using
actual job

Fig. 7.
cones

over

the

Machining

with

protractor

protractor

for an

male

female

and

these two reference faces is achieved.

When set the top slide is used to
machine male tapers, but the same
setting can be used for the turning of
corresponding female cones provided
the turning tool is used inverted as
shown in the diagram Fig. 7. A word
of warning, however, must be uttered
in relation to this and other turning
operations; at all times the tool point
must be on the centre line of the work
or it will be impossible to machine an
accurate taper.

THE

108
CENTRE

L...wELEPHANTS

morn

TOP SLIDEFiy. 8.
taper.

Dial test

indicator

used to set

5. Setting Tapers with the

id Test Indicator
The Dial Test Indicator may also be
used to set the top slide at the correct
inclination for a given piece of work.
A good example of the method employed is that illustrated in Fig. 8.
Here we see a Morse Taper centre set
up in the lathe so that the top slide
may be adjusted to enable a replica of
the taper to be machined accurately.
The centre is supported at one end
by the tailstock and at the other in a
female centre drilled accurately in a
piece of material gripped in the chuck.
A dial test indicator fitted with an
elephants foot or flat anvil is then
applied to the centre and the top slide
base adjusted until azero reading is
recorded by the indicator when the
top slide itselfismoved along the base.
Once the top slide has been set and
Fig. 9. Calculating

tapers

AMATEURS

WORKSHOF

firmly secured the check equipment is

dismantled and replaced by the piece
of material from which the part re.
quired will be turned. It is usually best
to support the work by means of the
tailstock and readers are again re.
minded that the toolpoint must be se1
on the centre line or no accuracy wil
result from the turning operation.
6. Calculating Tapers
The amount of taper on a given par
may be expressed in two ways. In the
first the amount ofTaper per foot is the
standard used whilst in the second the
cone angle of the part itself is stated
The first method applied, for the mos
part, to long slow ta.pers, whilst thl
second is used in connection with shor
components of a comparatively quicl
taper.
However, this may be in the fina
analysis the operator needs to know tl
what extent he must set over his tail
stock or deflect the top slide in order tl
be able to machine the taper required
This involves a simple trigonometrica
calculation the working out of whit:
will provide the set-over angle h
needs. In Fig. 9 this matter is depictel
in diagrammatic form.
In the diagram x is the angle re
quired.

The value of this angle is

A-B
= tan x where a = -andbisth
2
Fig. 10.

Calculating

internal

tapers

109

TAPER TURNING
Fig. 11. Checking tapers
-

distance bet~!een the major and minor

diameters of the taper. tioth A and B 0
are measurable
with a micrometer
whilst the distance
b, preferably
measured by means of a height gauge,
can be assessed reasonably well wit
depth gauge.
The assessment of an internal taper
follows the same pattern
but the
dimension b can be measured rather
more accurately either with a microA simple method of making a check
meter or with a depth gauge.
is illustrated in Fig. Il. Here at A a
The dimensions A and B seen in the
male taper is depicted having its surillustration Fig. IO may be measured
face scored with lines applied with a
with a iaper gauge when available or
soft lead pencil. If now the mating pa~rt
with internal cailipers transferred to
is rung on to the male member and
an outsidemicrometer.
then withdrawn the extent of the fit
will be apparent from the amount of
7. Checking Tapers
marking that is left on the taper. When
over half the marking remains as seen
It must not be supposed that, by using
in
Fig. 1lB it is usually advisable to
any of the methods described, a perfect mating of two tapers can be make a machining adjustment. Slight
discrepancies, however, may be corachieved without making a check
rected with a fine file whilst the work
during the progress of the work, and
is rotating . until,
then carrying out any adjustments to
. . . when the
I ~. female
taper
is
apphed
all
trace
of
the markthe machining equipment that ma: Y be
ing is removed.
needed.

CHAPTER

13

APPING
is a process used to
finish shafts and their bearings to
close limits of accuracy, imparting at ths same time a surface finish
that will materially prolong the life of
the bearing assembly.
The process is carried out by means
of a lap, a piece of equipment charged
with abrasive compound
that rubs
down the surface of the parts at the
samr time giving to them an extremely
smooth finish.
The machined surface of parts befor2 lapping consists. for the most
part, of-a series of small hillocks interspersed with valleys. Consequently,
when, during use. the excresences have
worn off a pair of mating components
(a shaft and its bearing for example),
a good fit is often quickly reduced to
an easy one having a low !ife factor. If,
however. the wearing down process is
carried out by lapping then it is
possible to fit the parts very closely at
the same time ensuring they are truly
round.
Unless special compounds are employed not every material used in
engineering is a suitable subject for
the lapping process. Those metals that
may be are comparatively
few. Cast
iron and steel, in both the hardened

and soft condition, can be lapped, but

the non-ferrous metals, and in particular white metal. must not be given the
treatment because they become impregnated with the usual abrasives
employed and are charged as the
term is. This makes them into good
laps but renders them useless as
bearings.
The Lapping of Shafts
When applied to steel shafts the lapping process serves to correct any
minor errors of roundness or taper
whilst, as has been indicated, imparting a working surface that will ensure
a long life. It is usual to allow excess
material. from 0,001 to 0.002 being
usual, so that when fully lapped the
finished shaft diameter is as laid down
in the detail drawings.
The lap consists of a piece of castiron or copper. held in a holder as
illustrated in Fig. 1.
The lap is split longitudinally, three
ways, one saw cut passing through its
wail. In this way the devicecan be contracted on to the work using the three
screws provided with the,lap holder. It
should not grip the work too firmly,
but should float axially along it not
being allowed to dwell at any point for

Fig. 1. The simple lap

and holder

rPPlivG

ir of ringing the :vork surface.

>rasive comnound is fed into the lap
rough the open sawcut, recharging
king place from time-to-time after
e lap has been washed in petrol to
move the metal dust formed during
e process.
Lapping is usually carried out in the
the, the work being run at a medium
eed. say 100 r.p.m. Natural!y. the
achine needs protection
against
jssible ingress of abrasivje com)und, and this is best effected by
lvering the bed and any -working
trts likely to come into contact with
.e lapping compound. The coverings
m be either of newspaper or rag and
lese, for obvious reasons, shouid aii
: burnt once the work has been cometed.
A word of warning must be given
,out the use of a micrometer
on a
aped surface. Make sure that the
Irk is clean: for any abrasive left on
will in time. damage the anvsil and
indle of the micrometer. The work,
en, needs to be washed clean before
easurements are taken.
g. 3. The

Boyar-Schulze

Fig. 2.

A simple

expanding

lap

Internal Lapping
The procedure used for lapping internal surfaces such as cylinder bores
is similar to that used for external

lap

ADJUSTING

COPPER

LAP

112
7s
c4P

THE AMAYELRS
WORKSHOP
AL!-EN
SCREW

I#iBSF ALLEN
GRU,B SCREW

Fig. 5. A large

,&liA

COPPER

lap

SLEEVE

work. The tool used is an expanding

lap similar to that depicted in the
illustration
Fig. 2. The shaft of the
contrivance is held iu the lathe chuck
and has a tapered seating for the
lapping head which is driven up the
taper in order to expand it. Naturally,
only light taps vviih a ravv-hide mallet
are needed to obtain any expansion
required.
A somewhat more sensitive lapping
instrument is the Boyar-Schulze lap
iilustra,ted in Fig. 3.
As with the adjustab!e lap just described, the Boyar-Schulze has a steel
shank split longttudinaliy and furnished with an adjusting screw to expand
the copper lap surrounding the head of
the shank. The lap is made from sheet
copper, perforated to hold the abrasand three copper
ive compound.
heads are provided with each tool.
The user is thus able to keep a separate
head for each of three grades of
abrasive,~an essential condition for the
finest work.
Internal lapping is commonly undertaken with w-ork held in the hand.
By this means the risk of bell mount-

ing the part is, in the main, eliminated,

because the work floats on the lap and
is not subjected to constraint in any
direction.
However, when the component i:
too large to be held in the hand it mus
be mounted in the chuck whilst the laf
is supported by the tailstock. On nc
account must the lap be held rigidl!
but be carried flexibly in the marine
depicted in the diagram Fig. 4.
The rubber hose used should be o
the canvas-impregnated
variety, suBi
ciently strong to resist the toque o
the lap but flexible enough to iniposl
no restraint on the lap. In this way thl
tool will follow the line of the worl
and not be pushed sideways, with ;
result that the bore may become bell
mounted.
Copper laps ofthe type illustrated il
Fig. 3 are not difficult to make. Th
copper head is readily rolled up fror
sheet material after drilling the per
forations and dressing away all burr!
Copper sheet of 24 s.w.g. will do wel
A lip must first be turned up to preven
Fig. 4.

Mounting

the

lap in the lath

RUBBER SLEEVE
\

TAILSTOCK CHUCK

A?PING

he lap turning in use after which the

olled up copper head is passed
hrough a hole, or a series of holes if
.ecessary. to size it.
,apping Compounds
he production
of lapping combounds is a specialist matter and not
.lI makers of abrasives undertake it.
-he abrasive used is. for the most part,
tither aluminium oxide or silicon carride held in suspension either in oil or
in
vater, and in some instances
grease.
,Many grades are available ranging
ram 90 to 700 grit size. For the
najority of work in the small work,hop the finest grades will suffice;
here is usually littie metal to remove
md time is not a significant factor. For
,his reason a compound of 500 grit
:an be used initially followed by one
If 700 to polish the work surface.
The first compound can wel! be oil
>ound while the polishing agent is a
Mater-suspended mix; and it goes
without saying that both the lap
:arrier and the work need to be
:horoughly cleaned when changing
iom one type of compound
to
mother. In addition the lap itself
seeds to be replaced or the residual
:oarser compounds
will .inhibit the
aolishing ofthe work surface.
Final polishing is commonly carried
aut with laps made of white woo ;,
ihose for external work being held in
the hand, followed by a cloth or felt
pad.

113

Wood laps for internal work are

usually made from dowelling, split
axially for a short distance and expanded by card or wooden wedges.
No great pressure is needed, the work
being run at a fast speed.
The subject of lapping is an extensive one; so it is only possible to
sketch in an outline here. The choice
of the correct compound for the work
in hand is of the utmost importance,
but here again it has been possible
only to deal in generalities. Readers
are therefore
advised to consult
abrasive manufacturers
who are always ready to provide help and
advice.
Protection of IMachines when Lapping
Reference has already been made to
the necessity of protecting the lathe
and any other machines
used in
lapping operations.
When the lathe is employed all
slides must be kept covered, preferably with rags held iii place by some of
the small permar.ent magnets available at most tool shops, a covering of
newspaper over the rag helping to ensure that any excess of lapping compound does not penetrate through to
the lathe bed itself.
The bore of the chuck must be well
stuffed with newsprint or rag, the
work, where possible, being held in
the jaws away from the scroll so that
rag may be introduced to protect it.
The tailstock, and the lever feed
mechanism
necessary to make the

1 t A
i

I-1

best use of the tailslcck, scarcely need

much protection as all the mechanism
is weil away from the area in which the
co!npolund is hei.?g emp!oyed. A rag
thrown over the taiistock, however,
will do much to minimise the inadvertent
introduction
of abrasive
carried on the hands of the operator.
The drilling machine is a very suitable machine in which to carry out
lapping operations.
It has all the
necessary mechanism for executing
the rectprocating
motion
of the
spindle carrying the lap; in addition
the protection of the table presents no
problems as this can be solved by a

THE AMATEURSWORKSHOI
piece of newspaper placed over th
table before any work is secured to i
where necessary.
>v.~orcci~cr, ~vs,~~LcrL
tscrk has to Ia
held in the hands, for the most part
the spindlecan be locked against verti
cal movement, the work table swun,
away, and any excess !apping corn
pound can then fall on to rag or news
paper placed onthe bench.
An old pair of gloves should be kep
to protect the hands during the proces
of lapping and kept with the equip
ment used, whilst all paper or rag usec
to protect the machines
is burn
directly the operation has ended.

APTER

14

by hand. The butt0n.s are usually made

0.300 in. or 0.500 in. in diameter and
it _.
ic cllctnmarv
_.
_..__. ---, tn
._ m&p one of the set
much longer than the others so that,
when a pair of buttons is set up close
on the work, as seen in Fig. 2 the
plunger of the indicator will not foul
the second button.
cornmer~~al buttons
ore woisted here
1.

Toolmakers

buttons

HTLE it is possibie to mark off

a pair or a series of centres very
accurately, if this condition is
3e maintained in the actual machrg operations,
recourse must be
I to toolmakers buttons set up on
work to preserve this accuracy.
it one time sets of these buttons
:e available on the market. Howr, this lack is easily made good by
ricating the buttons for oneself, for
y are simply hollow cylinders of
:l whose end faces are square with
ir axes. They are secured to the
rk by screws, and may be moved
mt and then locked in place when
rectly set.
5. typical
pair of toolmakers
:tons are illustrated in Figs I.
t will be seen that ample clearance
iven to allow positional adjustment
remade, while the washer used is of
ize that will ensure that the button
lains square with the work at all
ies.
fhey are used in conjunction with a
1 indicator, the work being set on
faceplate, for example, and aded until the button is seen to be
ning true when the lathe is turned

Using and Setting the Buttons

As has already been said the buttons
are attached to $he work by means of
screws, therefort?, supposing for example that a pair of correctly meshing
gears have to be mounted on a plate,
the workpiece must first be marked off
to indicate the centres for the two
gears and then holes must be drilled
and tapped at the intersection of the
centre lines for the insertion of the
screws securing the toolmaker% buttons. We will assume that the gears to
be mounted are of 32 Diametral Pitch
and have 15 and 32 teeth respective!y.
Fig. 2.

Setting

buttons

to run true

WORK
1
t

DIAL INDKATOR A<-/

THE

116
16 32
will therefore be - + 2
2
__32
,8+16
24
3
=
=
-in.
of an inch apart or 32
32 4
distant.

Thei:.centres

AMATEURS

WORKSHOI

We will further assume that the fin

gear is to be positioned with its centr
3 in. from both edges of the plate an
that the second gear also has its centr
located 6 in. from the edge. The wo
must therefore, first be marked off
shown in the diagram Fig. 3A.
Fig. 3.
work

Stages

DRILL

AND

in setting

buttons

AND TAP 4BA

\

SET UP FIRST BUTTON

r\
ADJUST

BUTTON ON SLIP

TURN THROUGH 90 DEGS

AND ADJUST THEN LOCK

C
D

PUTTON

LOCK SECOND -- BUTTON

WUEN MICROMETER
READS I ,250

CD-

I-

ILMAKERS

BUTTONS

Two holes are then drilled, No. 32

II, and tapped 4 BA to accept the
2ws that secure the buttons. The
t of these is then mounted as shown
?g. 38. With the button in place the
rk is removed to the surface plate
1 stood on its edge. A parallel slip
!50 in, square is then placed under
button which is tapped down until
ttact is made with the slip Fig. 3C.
xt, the work is turned ?hrough 90
;rees and the button again tapped
o contact with the slip. When thus
j been made the securing screw is
ally tightened Fig-. 30.
The second and !onger button is
w placed on the work and th.e prolure used to set the first button is
.ployed ?o ensure that both buttons
on the same centre line Fig, 3E.
It now only remains to ensure that
: buttons he at the correct distance
art. Since the second button is now
ly held friction&y and can still be
)ved, a micrometer can be used to

117
adjust the button in. the manner deuicted in I%. 3F. When this has been
hone the button is locked in place, and
the work removed to the lathe so that
it can be set up on the facep!ate.
The longest of the pair of buttons is
the first to be set running true, using a
dial indicator in the manner described
earlier. When this has been done the
button is removed and the work drilled and bored to whatever size is
necessary. The second button is then
set to run true and the procedure for
drilling and boring repeated.
It must be emphasised
that the
example given is only one of the many
ways of employing toolmakers buttons. In a book Marking OfjPractice,
once published by Percival Marshall
8c Co., the subject of these buttons
was extensively covered. It is suggested that any readers who may need
further information should enquire of
local libraries if a copy of the book is
still available.

CHAPTER,

15

HE use of the lathe for carrying

out milling operations has been
well understood
and practiced
for many years, Indeed, the eariiest
milling machines were, in the main,
lathes adapted for the purpose.
The range of work possible is considerab!e. varying from the cutting of
key-ways to the machining of gear
wheels. Obviously, the magnitude of
these operations is dependent upon
the size of the lathe employed; and it is
well, in this connection, to remember
that only the utmost rigidity will result
in satisfactory work.
Almost ali specialised milling is
dependent
upon clutters produced
commeicia~lq.; i~iesz liaLuraiiy requ)re
resharpening
from time to time and
this involves the use of equipment not
normally available to the amateur.
For this reason, where applicable, the
process of flycutting is employed as
this method avoids the use of specialised cutters and the attendant difficulty of re-sharpening.
Flycutting
Flycutting is the operation used in the
lathe for producing machined surfaces
on work held stationary while mounton either the cross-slide or top-slide.
Flat surfaces are obtained by rotating
a single-point cutter mounted in an
attachment that may be either held in
the self-centring chuck or bolted to
the faceplate. Curved work, and this
is, of course, confined to concave
surfaces, is produced by a cutter
mounted in a bar normally rotating
between centres. A typical piece of
Fig. 1 j The flycutter

work here is the fitting of a chimr

base to a locomotive boiler; the c
vature of the mating face of t
chimney skirt must agree exactly w
the curved surface of the boiler its
so the chimney must be machined
the boiler curvature.
A boring bar with the cutter po:
set at the correct radius will suffice 1
this class of work; but, for flat surf;
ing, more rigid equiprnent is require
The simplest device for carrying t
flycutter !s that illustrated in Fig. I.
It consists of a Hea,d A carried
a Shank B capable of being held
the chuck of the lathe. Two seatir
are provided
for the cutter; a
paraiiei to the axis of the device, 1
other at some 45 degrees to it. T
seatings are round in order to acco
modate the circular
section hii
speed steel bits that are available
well as si!ver steel cutters that can
made for oneself.
The amount of material that m
be removed at a singfe pass deper
very naturally on th.e class of me
being machined; in the case of lig
alloy and brass and using a lathe
34 in. centre height, 0.050 in. is quit

THE

120

Fig. 2.

Double

Fig. 3.

Flycutter

flycutter

on faceplate

AMATEURS

WORKSHO:

the amateur cannot be expected tc

have facilities for this, and so mus
fal! back on the file to produce th
seats after having first pilot driller
them.
Normally, both cutters are set ou
an equal distance from the block; bu
by adjusting the position of the bloc:
in the 4-jaw chuck, so as to make on
cutter lead the other, and increasin,
the depth of cut of the lagging cutte
the amount of stock removal per pas
can be virtually doubled. The lath
faceplate is a very suitable mount fo
the flycutter for the reason that, whel
the tool is located upon it, the distant
of its point from the headstock bear
ing, or overhang, is reduced to th
minimum possible.
The support for the tool itselfis ver
simple as it consists of a mild stee
block, provided with a tenon to en
gage one of the slots in the faceplate
having one or more hexagon screws tc
secure the device in place. Th
arrangement
is shown in the illus
tration Fig. 3.
If thought necessary the tool ma:
be set at an angle; but, with the larg
area of work that may be covered by;
fly-cutting tool mounted on the face
plate, an angular setting is hard!
needed and is probably best omitted
In addition to surface machinin;
the flycutter may be used to cut key
ways. The cutter used is similar to z
parting tool employed
in turnin;
operations.
It is mounted in a ba
revolving between centres or caught ii
the 4-jaw chuck with the lathe tail
stock brought up in support.
The work is fed against the directior
of the cutters rotation as a precaution
against tool-grabbing
that must in
evitably occur in a light machine
when the cutter is allowed to climb
the work. The technical term fo,
feeding the work in the same directioi
as the rotation of the cutter is climb
milling. The process has useful in
dustrial applications, but needs math

121

.- ._.__....__

,V

Fig. 4.

Fig. 4A.
Fig. 5.

Feeding

the flycutter

Flycutting
Calculating

a long

keyway

packing

mandrel held xcurately in the 4-jaw

chuck having been set to run true with
a clock gauge. The required measurement is then obtained by subtracting
half the diameter of the mandrel from
the height gauge reading. The dimension B is obtained by means of a
direct reading from the height gauge
applied to the surface of the top slide.

THE

122

Fig. 6.

The end mill

When established, the dimension

C becomes a constant for the particular latlre being measured. It is then a
simple matter to calcc!ate
t the
amount of packing needed to mount
the work truly on the lathe centre line.
~~oontiog Work on the Cross Slide
Work may also be mounted on the
cross slide. Location of work in this
way has the advantage of securing the
maximum
rigidity possible in the
circumstances.
Flycutting
is best
carried out when the work is bolted
to the dross slide. the more so when
the area of the work is considerable.
After marking off, setting the work
for machining will, for the most part,
be a matter of using the surface gauge
to ensure that the job is correctly
aligned. Again, recourse may have to
be had to the dial test indicator to ensure that the work is square with the
axis of the cutter.
Using End-mills
The End Mill illustrated in Fig. 6 is
commonly used for a variety of purposes such as the forming of hexagons
and squares
on small machined
details. This type of cutter is also
sometimes employed for cutting seatings for rectangular keys. Though the
Slot Drill, a variant having two cutting lips on!y and iliustrated in Fig. 7,

Fig. 7. The slot

AMATEURS

WORKSHO:

drill

is now more commonly used. Both the

end mill and the slot drill illustrate<
need to be centrally mounted if the:
are to perform
m a satisfactor!
manner.
For many operations
it will bl
sufficient to hold these cutters in thl
self-centring chuck; but for work sucl
as the cutting of keyways a little
consideration will show that unless thl
slot drill turns quite truly the keywa!
will be machined oversize. The sim
plest way to ensure the necessav
accuracy is to hold the cutter in the
4-jaw independent chuck. In this wa!
it will be possible to use a dial tes
indicator to test the truth of the slo
drills rotation.
When cutting keyways the worl
should be fed to the cutter in onr
direction rr!;, otherwise the keywa!
may be made oversize. In addition :
start should be provided for the cutte:
by drilling a pilot hole to the fulldeptl
of the finished keyway. The pilot dril
should be some 0.015 in. smaller thar
the slot drill in order to secure a gooc
finish to the work.
Using Circular Saws
Circular saws are used in milling for 2
variety of purposes. In the lathe they
can be used for slotting screws, foi
slitting the collars employed in shaf
location or for cutting the slots ir
collet chucks.

ILLING

123

IN THE LATHE

Essentially,
saws are thin plain
lilling cutters. The number ofteeth in
lem varies. For the most part fine
jothed saws are only suitable for
:latively shaliow cuts. whereas saw
/ith a comparatively
few widely
paced teeth find their application in
eep cutting. The reasons behind this
re the better swarf clearance and
,we; power consumption
of the
widely spaced tooth.
Fig. 8 shows the tooth proportions
If typical fine and coarse saws. These
nay be obtamed in a variety of sizes,
but for use in the amateur shop saws
rom 24~ to 3 in. in diameter with
hi,ckne&es O.Oi5 to O-060 in. will be
ound sufficient for aii average ic=
luirements.
In order to lessen drag in the work
.nd to break up chips that might
otherwise marr it7 some saws are
jrovided with side cutting faces.
Jaturaily they have a greater thickless than those of the plain variety, for
his reason their application
in the
athe is somewhat !imited. A typical
:xample is shown in use in Fig. 8a.
Nhen used in the lathe, metal slitting
,aws are normally mounted on an
arbor carried between centres. These
rrbors are similar to those fitted to a

:ig. 8A.
iupporting
a
staggered
:ooth side and
ace cutter
by
nears of the
ixed steady

normal horizontal milling machine,

and are ground on their own centres
so that they will run truly when again
SGmounted.
The arbors are provided with distance collars enabling any cutters used
to be placed in the most convenient
position in relation to the work. The
collars have to be made with the greatest care to make sure that their abutment faces, that is the faces that make
contact with the sides of the cutter, are
truly square with the axis of the arbor.
As there are several of the distance
pieces on the completely assembled
arbor a little thought will show that an
accumulation of errors here will result
in a bent arbor directly the cutter is
firmly secured by the lock nut.
The component parts of a typical
arbor assembly are illustrated in Fig. 9
Here, it will be seen, the collars are
show-n with their abutment
faces

Fig. 8. Fine and coarse

saw teeth.

124

THE AMATEURS
ARBOR
I

Fig. 9. The milling

WORKSHOP

arbor

NC(T

recessed. This allows them to be the

more readily cleaned before assembly
with the cutter to be used. Cleanliness
here is essential; since the inclusion of
metal particles between the mating
faces will have an adverse effect on the
alignment ofthe arbor itself.
It is sometimes convenient to catch
the arbor in the 4-jaw independent
chuck, setting it to run by means of a
dial test indicator, and bring up the
tailstock as support. In addition the
fixed steady may be used to provide
additional rigidity when needed.
Metal cutting saws are sometimes
mounted on short arbors designed to
be held in the chuck with or without
tailstock
support as occasion de-,
mands, but for the most part, their use ~
is in connection -with milling attach- ~
ments to be considered later.
!

Fig. 10.

Machining

keyways

Verticals Slides
The range of work that may be carried
out by milling in the lathe is greatly
extended by the use of fitments known
as vertical or milling slides. These are,
in effect, angle plates capable of being
bolted to the cross slide but having
one face, the vertical face, able to be
moved under the control of a feed
screw, in this way work attached to
the vertical face, either by being bolted
directly to it or held in a small machine
vice attached to the slide, may be set
in the correct position relative to the
cutter itself. A typical example is the
cutting of the seatings for Woodru
keys depicted in Fig. IO.
Two forms of vertical slide are1
available; the first a plain slide with!
vertical movement only, the second a
compound s!ide where both the slide
itse!f and its base can be rotated on
their own axes through 360 degrees. A
vertical slide of the second category
finds application in the cutting bevel
gears where the gear l?ank needs to be

LLING

IN

THE

125

LATHE

Fig. 11,

Fixed
slide

vertical

i
Fig. 12. Compound
vertical
slide

Fig. 13. The Myford

dividing
head

d to the cutter at an angle to the axis

the finished gear.
Typical examples of both categories
milling slide are illustrated in Figs.
I arzd I2 respectively, These slides are
anufactured by the Myford Enginring Company. The simple slide is
.tached to the lathe cross slide by a
iir of T-slot bolts whilst the comlund slide has one centrally placed
oh set in the base of the slide mountWhen gear cutting is to be underlken some method of indexing the
,ork is needed. The Myford Engin:ring Company supply a Dividiing

g. 13A.
sing the
lyford
ividing head

An alternati\.e to using the lathe htadstock for driving milling cutters is the
independenti)
driven milling attachment as iliustrated in Fig. 14. The
device is intended for mounting
on a
milling siide and is fitted with back
gear so hi
milling saws may be used
and run to ihe best advantage. It is
driven either from the lathe overhead
or from a dwarf countershaft
and
low-vo!ta,re eiectric motor attached to
?he end ofthe cross slide.
The spindie nose of the attachment
ISthe same as that used on the mandrel
of the MJford ML 7 lathe: in addition
?he spindle itself is drilled axially and
is bored F;o. 2 Morse Taper so that

standard Myford Collets can be used

as well as any peg-mounted
drill
chucks that are available.
An alternative milling attachment
is illustrated in Fig. 16. Here a commercially made milling spindle and its
driving motor are seen both mounted
together on a vertical slide so that only
a single short endless rubber dri\-ing
belt is needed. This particular attachment runs at a high speed and is suitable for use with cutters up to a
maximum
diameter
of + in. The
spindle of the attachment
is bored
No. 1 Morse Taper and is drilled for a
draw rod enabling cutters with taper
shanks to be mounted securely.
Driving

Milling

Attachments

Milling attachments of one form or

another have been known for many
years and the method of driAng them
has been the overhead lathe countershaft of more or less complicated
layout. The problem, here, is the
provision of a drive that will allow the
milling attachment to be used any-

.ING

IN

THE

LATHE

12 VOLT ELECTRIC
MOTOR
\

LEVER

re along the bed of the lathe withrunning into trouble with driving
s coming off their pulleys. The
:nt of the electric motor, however,
done much to solve these prob5 by permitting the driving unit to
nounted either on the attachment
for at the back of the cross siide as
itrated in Fig. 18, integrally with
milling spindle, as we have seen. or
trately on the cross slide as depictn the illustration Fig. 13. For furdetails of suitable beit drives
rence should be made to Chapter 1.
Jhere the work is to be mounted on
saddle some means of holding and
:xing it has to be provided. The
;t convenient way of satisfying this
17. Elements
rnted dividing

GEAR WHEEi

of a simple
device

saddle

ROX
Fig. 18.

Cross

slide

RATIO

1500-I

self-act

requirement and at the same time providing the greatest versatility, is to

make use of a milling attachment
similar to that illustrated in Fig. 14.
This device is made by the Myford
Fig. 16. Milling
attachment
contained
motor

with

self-

128
Engineering Company for use on their
lathes. and is fitted with a hollow
spindle provided with a nose that will
accept the chucks normally supplied
with the lathe. In addition an overarm with adjustable centre is included
in the device thus allowing work to be
mounted betw-eencentres.
The attachment
is intended for
mounting on a vertical slide, preferably a compound slide, in order to
furnish a rigid but adjustable support.

THE AMATEURS

WORKSHC

It is possible to make use of simple

devices, and in the main these usual1
consist of an angle plate bolted to th
lathe cross slide having a work moun
ing allowing a gear wheel to be attack
ed to the spindle. The wheel is engage
by a detent, the wheel chosen bein
one having a number of teeth that ar
a factor of the divisions needed to b
machined on the work. The elemeni
of the device are seen in the illustratio
Fig. 17.

APTER

16

ANY ofihemi!!ing
operations
carried out in the lathe, or
indeed elsewhere. inv,olve the
of some means of dividing the
k. Examples are gear cutting, the
ning of hexagons or squares on
tponents and other work of a light
:hining nature. Dividing may be
ned as the use of the machine to
rce a given piece of work into a
lber of equal parts.
1 the lathe dividing may be em:ed either circumferentially
when,
example, a ring of equally spaced
:s needs to be marked out on a
,kpiece, or in a linear form as in
cing a scale or the machining of a
1.
the lathe is to be used for miffing
poses employing a cutter spindle
rred in a fixture mounted on the
Se. then hexagons, squares and
:r regular shapes may be machined
Nork held by the lathe headstock;
,k held in this way will require the
.e itself to be used as a dividing
ine.
:umferetitizl
nplex

Dividing

w&out

~ttachmen~

hes are provided with a set of

nge wheels for screw cutting pures. These wheels have an accuracy
icient for all practical purposes so
i can be used with advantage in a
rber ofways to carry out a dividing
ration. All that is needed additionis a detent or stop to engage the
r teeth at predetermined
intervals
hold the work against rotation
12 the marking off or machining is
,ied out.
luch simple dividing can be perned using a single change wheel

mounted on the stud of the lathe

change wheel set up. This is equivalent
to mounting the change wheel directly
on the tail of the mandrel since both
rotate at the same speed despite the
possible interposing
of a tumbler
reverse gear. But care must be observed to ensure that all backlash is
removed from the simple gear trains
involved.
For the most part, when milling in
the lathe, the number of divisions required are few. There are four divisions for squares, six divisions for
hexagons and eight for octagons when
needed. It is necessary, therefore, to
choose wheels having numbers of
teeth divisible by these numbers. The
first of the divisions mentioned as
well as the second can be satisfied by a
60-tooth wheel whilst the last conveniently m.akes use of a wheel having
40 teeth.
The detent previously referred to is
bolted to the change wheel bracket
and engages spaces between the wheel
teeth as seen in the illustration Fig. 1.
Details of a detent suitable for the
Myford ML 7 lathe and the Drummond 34 in. lathe are given at A and
B respectively in Kg. 2. The detent
may be seen in the place at the lower

Fig. 1.

Arrangement

of deter&t

130

Fig. 2.
Fig. 3.
lathe

THE

Detent
Detent

details
in place

on

Myford

AMATEURS

WORKSHO

part of the illustration

Fig. 3. Th
wheel is marked offwith the necessar
tooth spaces equally disposed. If, fo
example, a hexagon is to be formec
then, with a 60-tooth wheel in USC
every tenth tooth space will need to b
noted and the detent engaged in eat:
marked tooth space in turn. As ha
been said, the detent employed i
usually mounted on the change whet
bracket, as this position allows it th
more easily to engage the chang
wheel on the stud. The detent ma
take one of two forms, a simple screw
in device as illustrated in Fig. 4 or th
more advanced spring loaded arrange
ment seen in the illustration Fig. !
The method of construction
of th
simple detent will be obvious. Th
pillar is provided with a screw lock an
brass pad, enabling t.he detent to b
locked firmly after registering with th
change wheel.
The spring loaded detent is see
sectioned in Fig. 6 and detailed i
Fig. 7. It.will, ofcourse, be appreciate
that the dimensions given are for

IVIDING

IN

THE

pecific application; but their modifiction to suit individual requirements

houid present no difficulty.
~Om~OO~~

131

LATHE

Fig. 5.

Spring

loaded

detent

ividing

come now to a more advanced

nethcJ of using change wheels for
iividing. This employs a train of
yheels and is used when a single wheel
;,not availab!e. Let us suppose that it
s necessarv to divide a piece of work
nto 100 diCisions: a common enough
equirement, by the wny, when makng a feed s!crew index. If a wheel havng 100 teeth was to hand no problem
vould arise since the detent could be
tsed on every tooth space. For the
nost part, however, a 50-tooth wheel
vould have to be employed, this being
he wheel normally supplied in the
rthe change wheel set.
The set-up may oe written down
ithmetically as:
1x40
2000
-equa~ls 100 divisequals ~
20
20
be

giiarlv if there is a need for 125

vision& sometimes used when makg a leadscrew index, a 50-tooth
heel could be substituted
for the
t-tooth thus gi:ing:
)x50
2500
__
equals __
20
20
mals 125 divisions.
here no second 50-tooth, wheel is
pplied, however, it will be necessary
further extend the gear train; a

Fig.
6.
detent
Fig. 4.

Section

Simple

o.f

push-in

spring

detent

loaded

132
;lossit-&

c:r-q;:!n~ri~>,i;

metically as :
50x40x25
-equals

is set out

a&h

125.,

Th.t: wheels in the numerator are the

drivers whilst those in the denomiti
a.tor the; driven wheel. They are there
fore conne.z?ed in the fol!owing order
32--Detent
Stud 50~ ----so
40-20

as see!: ii? the ~Jtistration

Eliininating

Fig. 8. Arrangement
compound
dividing
Fig.
7.
detent

Details

of

of

wheels

spring

Fig. 8 at B

B:xk:ash

for

loaded

One simple way is that shown in thl

illustration Fig. 9. Here, a shuck key i
inserted in the chuck holding the worl

iiDrNi:

!N

THE

133

LATHE

Fig. 9, Simpia method of eiimirretjng

d a cord attached to this key is

ssed over a pulley attached to some
nvenient object such as a bench. A
tight. of sufticient mass to ensure
at the ,.i:ork will remain loaded
:ains: the gear train. is then tied to
e ,,iJ of the cord. An arrangement
ch as this. though simple, !tas in the
,st been formd adequate when enaving the index dials of feed screws.
heel Moenting
I the Lathe mandrel
hen dividing from a single wheel,
id to a lesser degree when a train of
heels is in use. back!ash 17~; t\e
hninated if the wheel can be. Inoun Ldirect!y ok- the tail of the mandrt I
;elf. This is most convenientti
zcomplished by. makirg use of an
;yandingextenstonofthe
typeshown
Fig. 10where a device destgned and
.ade for the Myford ML 7 lathe is
ustrated. The extension fits intcj the
td of the mandrel and is expanded by
tapered bolt so that it grips the
.andrel. At the same time the change
heel mounted on the outer end of the
[tension is firmly held in place as a
:sult of its own seating being also
:ovided with means of expansion.
letai!s of the device are given in
ig. 11.
A detent can now be made to enige a change wheel so mounted as
:en in the illustration Fig. I2 where it
ill. also be apparent that a special
xture is needed to carry the detent.
ig. 11.
xtension

Details

of

the

mandrel

Fig, 13.
Fig. 10.
ML7

Parts

of the

Mandrel

detent

extension

bracket
,lor

the

THE

AMATEURS

WORKXO

The parts of this fixture are depicte

in the illustration Fig. /3 and detaile
in Kg. 14.
Dividiog

with &mph

.;twAnents

A simple solution to dividing in th

lathe is to make use of the buli whee,
that is the larger eear wheel attache1
to the mandrei I&elf. This has thy
advantage that work held in t!te chuc
will remain fast and can be machine1
without fear ofmovement.
Linfortunately.
many bull wheel
do not readily lend themselves tc ?hi
Fig.

Fig. 12.
wheel

End of NIL7 showing

detent

14.

Details

c,f the

parts

change

and

Fig. 55.
Detent
buil wheel

for

.the

Drummond

SOLEPLATE

TAP 1/4*BSF

135

IDING 1N THE LP.THE

.pose for the fry good reason that
number of their teeth is unsuitable
e 34 in. l?rummond laths, for which
siTpie detent depicted in the illustion Fig. 15 was made, has 66 teeth
the bull wheel so it is only possible
use it for hexagons or two flats
.metrica!ly opposite to each other.
Simple indexing, for the most part,
lsists. .: has been stated, in divid.:o two, four or six divis; work
IS. One <il. of providing for this is
drillin? ,I ring of equally spaced
Its in th.- chuck backplate. A detent
ty t!~lcn t,* bk?ited r.t some convenIt IL,:ation :.c engage the holes as

required. Suchan arrangement is rigid

and simple to use and is illustrated in
Fig. 16. If theedrilled holes are numbered from 1 to 12 indexing will be
made the easier because it will not be
necessary to actually mark the holes
needed for any particular
dividing
operation. For example, when forming a square needing four divisions the
detent will engage number I, number
3, number 6 and number 9 holes
successively and these figures can
readily be memorised.
An alternative to this arrangement
is the drilling of the face of the bull
wheel itself as seen in Fig. 17. This

Fig. 14. (continued)

TAPl/4*BSF

ydl3SF

--

THE AMATEURSWORKSHO

136

---,-,

- x

DETENT

-i
Fig. 17.

Using

the

bull

wheel

face

Fig. 16;

Using

the

chuck

backplate

method offers the advantage that an

equipment mounted on the mandrc
nose will be held firm!y, dl,ring an
machining process reqmmg indexint
Many light lathes of a century an
more ago, and in particular ornamer,
ta! turning lathes, were provided wit
complete
division
plates attache
either to the mandrel pulley when n
back-gear was fitted or to the bu
wheel itselfwhen the lathe had a back
gear. These division plates had seven
rows of holes so the range of dividin
possible was quite extensive. Fig. Is
depicts their fitment. The moder
lathe, however, with complete guard
ing of the moving parts on the head
stock does not lend itself well to thi
treatment.
/

DETENT
&ERE

Fig. 18. A bull

ing plate

wheel

mounted

divid

HAPTER

1:

re have already Ge::i~~lted the simple

eces of equipmert chat may be used
lr dividing directly from the headock and it will have become apparIt that, in order to carry out the more
jmplex di-isions sometjmes needed,
,ore advanced aoparatus is needed.
IC!I a device is iiiustrated in Fig. I.
his makes use of a change wheel
lounted on the tail of the mandrel
rnploying
the expander
extension
sreviously described.
Before embarking on a description
f~ the apparatus It iii!! be we!! to
nderstand the principle upon which
dividing head works. For the most

part, dividing heads used industrially

comprise basically a worm engaging a
worm-wheel
having 40 teeth (and
sometimes 60). These elements are
seen in Fig. IB. The worm may be
turned by hand enabling the operator
to advance the wormwheel by increments as required by the number of
the divisions to be made. C>nt.turn of
the worm advances the worms, heel by
one tooth so, by dividing the number
of teeth in the wormv,-c,e! by th.2
number of divisions reqtnred, it is
possible to arrive at the number of
turns needed, thus for example:
Teeth in wheel
40
- =2turns
Divisions needed 20

Fig. 1. Lathe dividing head

THE

AMATECTRS

WORKSHOI

Fig. 1A. Elements

the dividing
taeed

af

Fig. 16.
Parts Of tk I,
lathe dividing
head

WIDING

139

-J932

CSK. FOR 66~

SCREW
TO LOCK
FART.5 2 8 3
I4
-,4 B,A

TO LOCK .WOPM

TAPBBA

ti

DRILL No 34
CSNK~ ON UNDER SIOE FOR6EBiyA..

THE

Fig. 2.

index

fingers

S; milarly if we needed 80 divisions on

a piece ofwork we should need:
36
1
-irur;!s.i.e.-aturn
80
2
how it is manifestly impossible to
estimate a single turn or any fraction
of a turn by eye with any accuracy, so
a further item has to be added to the
dividing head in order to take all
guess-work out of the process.
This item is the Division Plate
whose function is to enable parts of a
turn of the operating handle to be
estimated. The division plate is provided with rings of equally spaced
holes whilst the operating handle is
fitted with a spring loaded detent that
may be made to engage any of the
rings of holes previously referred to.
Each ring has a d. .erent number of
holes in it and the numbers used are
related directly to the factors required.
If we again take as our example the 80
divisions requiring half a turn of the
worm we can use a ring of holes
divisible bv 2. Let us assume we select
a ring of-60 holes then it will be
necessary to move the handle by increments of 30 holes for each division
made. If the wholes had to be counted
each time a division was made the
resulting process would be laborious
and time.,wasting. So a further piece
of equipment is, added, this is the

AMATEURS

WORKSHO

assembly called the Index Finger:

This assembly rotates iaround th
:vormshaft and the fingers, of whit
there are a pair, can be adjusted rels
tively to each other and locked. In th:
way they can be made to embrace an
number of holes, interval required. !
should be noted here thai the fingei
are set to embrace these holes with th
addition of one extra hole, as seen i
the illustration
Fig. 2, indexing :
being carried out using an interval c
4 holes.
The peg is first set in position /
and the irdex fingers adjusted to en
brace the peg and 4 hoizs. When th
has been done a cut is taken. The pe
is then moved to position B, and tf
index fingers, which are friction tigh
swing round to the position shown b
their dotted outline. The second cut
now made in the work, the proce!
being repeated until all machining hz
been comp!eted.
Now that we have observed the UI
of the inde?; fingers let us see how tl
specific ring of holes is selected. Let t
suppose that we need to divide a piec
of work into 48 divisions. As we have
wormwhtel
with 40 teeth then tf
turns requi, ed will be :
40
5
-turns
or-of a turn
48
6
A circle of holes divisible by 6 will I
needed such as 24 or 35. If a circle (
24 holes is selected then S/6 of t
7
circle will be:
24
x 5holes=4x5
=20holes
6
So the index fingers are set to embrac
20+1 = 21 holes in the manner e
plained previously.
The Dividing
Attachment
itss
bolts dirzctly to the change whe
bracket and the worm with which it
provided
engages a single chand
wheel since no train of wheels
needed. No allowance is made fort
helix angle of the worm which has

141

LVIDING

tch of h~ in., but if thought desir,le this angle could be compensated

,r by introducing a wedge packing
ece between
the change
wheel
acket
and that supporting
the
,tachment. The device has been degned so that when using change
heels of 20 diametral pitch one turn
F the attachment handle advances
rch a change wheel one tooth. If
:ference is made to the illustration
ig. 1B it will be s,een that the appara,S consists initially of a bearing
jsembly carrying the worm shaft.
his assembly is attached
to the
hange wheel bracket. An extension
f the worm shaft carried the operatIg handle and spring detent whilst thy
ivision plate itself is attached to the
)p of the bearing housing. The fingers
)r the division plate are located on its
pper surface and rotate around a hu.b
arried on the wormshaft. The fingers
lay be set and clamped together, and
Iso secured to the division plate after
ch di~viding movement has taken

Dividing Attachment for

the Lathe Saddle
A dividing attachment
may also be
used on the lathe saddle. This enables
the lathe to be used ior gear cutting
with the work mounted
on the
attachment and the cutter carried by
the,lathe headstock. It also ailows the
lathe to be employed, for positronal
drilling such as is required. by a ring of
holes on a given yitch. circle. An
example of &IS equipment is seen in
the illustra:ion
Fig. 3 where the
Myford Dividing Head is depicted.
This device is designed to be attached
to a vertical slide niounted on the
la,the cross slide. It is .novided with an
overarm and centre ::: support work
either mounted on cehltres or held in a
chuck attache;. to the spindle. This
spindle is bored the same size as that
of the Myford lathe and carries a No.
2 Morse Taper so that a normal lathe
centre may be used ; the spindle nose is
a replica of that found on the lathe
Fig.

3.

The

Myford

dividing

head

i42

THE AMA7EURSWORKSHO
Fig. 4. Simple dividing
for the lathe saddEe

attachme

The attachment was made, in t

first instance, to permit index driili
of small components to be carried ou
But. subsequently, it has been foun
useful in the rapid end-milling of sma
batches
of components
requiri
spanner flatsand in other work of
like nature.
The details of the device are seen i
the illustration Fig. 5.
itself enatiling the standard chucks,
driver piate and face plate to be
mounted when required. In addition
the Myford range ofcollet chucks may
be used wiiil the attachment.
ividing Attachment
Sim
for the Lathe Saddle
A simpie device for indexing and
capable of being used with a vertica!
milling slide is that shown in?he illustration Fi<g.4. It consists of a base
plate with an attachment for a selfcentring
chuck, a spring loaded
plunger detent and a means of locking
the chuck agcinst rotation after each
indexing movement.
As the device is on!y intended for
simple dividing the rim of the chuck
back-plate is drilled with 12 equally
spaced holes. This enables indexing
for 2. 3: 4 and 6 divisions to be made
rapidly, and will suffice for those
divisions most commonly needed.

Linear Dividing
An extension of the use of the lat
a dividing engine is its employme
the purpose of cutting racks, engr
ing scales and work ot a like nature
These operations make use ot
leadscrew as the necessary medi
the process varying from he simpl
the more complex according to
nature ofthe work involved.
If the leadscrew is provided with
micrometer index wheel it will clear
be possible to use this fitment
measure UX the advance of the lea
screw required for any particul
piece of work. But such a practice
hkely to be time-consuming and
introduce
inaccaracies
if, for
reason, the reading of the index
not been correct. It is best, there
to employ the methods of the m
machine operator and set up a sim
wheel train to drive the leadscrew
make certain that the dividing is
curately carried out.
An example of the set-up require
illustrated
in Fig. 6 and diagr
matically in Fig. 7.
It consists of a change wheel brat
carrying a detent engaging a con
wheel having one tooth space o
This wheel is coupled to a cha
wheel which in turn is meshed wi
further change wheel, the ratio b
tween the two wheels being such th
one complete turn of the contr
Fig. 5. Details of above

iig. 6. Set-up
nwar dividing

for

i!g. 7. Diagram
f above

if Ieel advances
nnount desired.

the leadscrew by the

This is analogous to the process of

so the calculations
rew-cutting
,eded to set up a train of wheels for
be
i.vidingare similar.
A sirnple example wi!l suffice to
ow what is involved. We will assume
at it is desired to engrave a scale into
visions of i\F in., a procedure suitrle for engraving the barrel of a lathe
ilstock to fit it as a depth gauge. We
1. also assume that, as in the case of
e Myford lathe. the leadscrew has
:ht threads to the inch, i.e., 4 in.
tch. If we are to advance the enaving tool by increments of & in.
en the ratio between the control
reel and that attached to the leadrew would be:

-0ras2:
1
16
This is a ratio that is, of course,
easily satisfied by a pair of wheels
found normally amongst those supplied as standard with a lathe, a 60
wheel mounted on the leadscrew and a
30 coupled to the control wheel are
Fig. 8.

g. 9.

Diagram

for linear

dividing

Diagram

for

linear

dividing

144

DRIVEN

THE AMATEURS WORKSHO

WHEEL
/

Fig, 10.

Set-up

for rack

cutting

obvious examples as depicted in the

diagram Fig. 8.
If, on the other hand. it had been
necessary to have graduated the tailstock by increments of & in. then the
ratio OFthe wheels would have been:
8
I
- ,_ -oraji$:;
324
2
a ratio satisfied by the combination of
a 20 :tnd an 80 wheel.
In the event of an 80 wheel being
unavailable.
a compound train will
ha,;e to be used. Such a train could be
the wheels used for i+ in. divisions
pius a further pair of wheels to give a
further 2: i reduction. Thus as seen in
Fig. 9.
60- 120
40-+30t-DETENT
Cutting Racks
An operation that may be performed
on the centre lathe is the cutting of
racks. A rack may be described as a
gear wheel whose teeth have been
extended into a straight line. It follows
then that the distance between the
centres of adjacent teeth of the rack is
the same as that of a gear wheel having
the same pitch. This distance, known
as the circular pitch, is conveniently
i:
expressed by : where x =34f;i
and
P = Diametral Pitch
of the gear that will engage the rack.
As an example, let us suppose that a
rack has to be cut that will mesh with a

gear wheel having teeth 20 diametn

pitch. Then the circular pitch will br
i-c 3.142
-=--=O.l57in.
20
20
The wheels will be geared together i
the order shown by Fig. 10.
This arrangement
provides suffix
ient accuracy for most purposes s
will be apparent from the table belov
where wheel combinations
for man
gear pitches are given :

14

0.224

45

;
so

/ 0.004

25

Nil

40

0.001

35

Nil

38

Nil

50

Nil

95

Nil

50

Nil

40

0.001

The single figures adjacent to th

Driving Wheels are the number c
,turns these wheels have to m~ake.
Whereas, as has been said, the fore
going system provides a ready mean
of indexing a rack to limits thai ar
practically acceptable, certain of th
pitches have errors that would unf
them for use in circumstances needin
complete accuracy. As trii examph
t:he combination of a rack and pinio
to be used for measuring purpose
?would need a high degree ofaccuracy

iVIWING

In order to secure the greatest

)ssi.ble accuracy it is necessary to
jng into the wheel combination the
ctor i: :: 3. I42. If we take this figure
22
; represented
by the fraction !en wheels that will sarisfy
lund in the following way :
y ;: _:;mrl
55

it are

7,. 5
35
he 35 wheel is mounted on the lead:rew whilst the 55 wheel is placed on
~2stud and is geared to the 35 wheel
selfas shown in F-i,?.11.
Ifwe assume that the leadscrew has
thread of I in. pitch then the adince of the saddie and any work
:cured to it for each nmvement ofone
)oth ofthe 35 whee! will be:
25
_- _: 0.0035 jn,
,5
ine turn of the 55 tooth wheel geared
) it will th.en be 55 ,. 0.0035 in. I==
196 in. which is the circular pitch of
gear of 16 D.P. It is not convenient,
owever. to use onI:\ the 55 gear for
tdexing purposes so an additionai
:ar has to be mour.ted on the stud
longside the 55 gear to enable indeuIO;to be carried out. The arrangement
seen in Fig. I.?.
If for examDIe a 60 toothed wheel is
:lected for indexing purposes then
le advance per tooth is give-. by
ividing the number of teeth in the
rdex wheel into 0.196 so:
.196
=O.O032in.
60
upposing, therefore, that it is a rack
aving teeth 20 D.P. that is to be cut,
len the number of teeth in the index~g wheel that need to be used is given
y:
,156 (circular pitch 20 D.P.)
----= 48
0.0032
:eth.

Fig. 11.
function

Fig. 12.
accurate

Train
ii

of gears

Complete
indexing

train

to satisfy

of gears

the

for

The error in this instance is only

0 .OOOOL.
in. in a total of 48 teeth, for all
practical purposes a negligible figure,
and it is this method that has been used
in calculating the Table 11 giving figures for indexing a range of tooth
pitches.
When indexing it is advisable to set
a pair of dividers to embrace the
number of tooth spaces necessary and
to maik these in turn as they are used

146

THE AMATEURS WORKSH

Fig. 13.

table

to ensure that the dividing

remains in step.

ope-;tion
-

0.262

;;

Cl.224
0.194
0.175
0,157
0.143

24
26

0.131
0.121

18

40

0.087
0.079

61)
60
45
60

i
I

When the wheel train has been set

up it is as well to check it. This is
readily carried out by mounting a diai
Fig. 14. Set-up
rotarytable

for erlgraving

ROfARY
TABLE
l--l? /-----

ENGRAVINGS

r-

on the

The rotary

indicator on the lathe bed and using

to measure the milvement
of t
saddle under the control of the ind
wheei. A series of consecutive me;
urements shoul~d be taken setting t
indicator to zero be:ween each rnol
ment of the wheel. The set up is ilIt
trated in Fig. IZA.
The Rotary Table
The last device for dividing we have
consider is the Rotxy Table. Thou
not strictly of prime use on the latl
being intended a.s an accessory to t
milling machine, under certain cc
ditions it neve:!heless, may find e:
ployment there and so merits SOI
attention.
Its basic mechanism
is simp
consisting of a casting carrying t
work table and a set of bearings
support ,the worm which engages
worm wh,eel forming part cf the wo
table. The worm shaft is provided WI
a hand wheel for operational purpo:
and both it and the table may
locked against rotation under load.
The rim of the table is calibrat
and is engraved with a scale ofdegrel
The main casting carries a zero pla
and in some instances a vernier
enable the finer angular measul
ments to be made. Additionally
t
operating hand-wheel is sometim
engraved with a scale, a developme
that somewhat simplifies the maki
ofaccurate measurement.

DIVIDING

The surface of the table is crossed

with T-siots so that the work may be
secured to it by means of bolts engaging theT-slots.
The centre of the table is bored
accurately so tha in addition to a
dead centre plugs or bungs may be
used to centralise work or even, jn
some instances. to mount it.
In dividing work it will be apparent
rh,at a!1 measurements
are made in
degrees or parts of them, this enables
dividing to be carried out quickly and
:.lrth certainty. Thlrs if a hexagon is to
be machined the work is moved 60
degrees each time a face has been
completed: if a square is required the
mov~emcnt is 90 degrees and SC on
according to the number of faces

147
needed, these movements being determined by dividing the figure of 360
degrees by the number
of faces
desired.
Engraving a Protractor
An example of the c!ass of work that
can be carried out with a Rotary T~able
when mounted in the lathe is the protractor. In order to engrave it the
rotary table is secured to the lathe
faceplate. The work is secured to the
face of the table with the engraving
tool mounted on the !athe top slide
as seen in the illustration fig. 14.
The lathe mandrel is locked against
rotation and all dividing increments
carried out by the rotary table.

N our bock Beginners Workshop

we base givrn some consideration
to thequestion
ofdrili~
and drilling
and enough has been said there to
enabie the i+ner
to furnish himselfwith suthcrent equipment in order
FO carry out w~ork suited to his skiil
and the extent of his knowledge. As
this knowledge increases he will nat~ur;tiiy \vish to extend his facilities, so it is
the purpose of the present chapter i0
give some guidance on the subject.
At thr moment of writing the
d~esirabiiit~. of -going metric is uppermost in sveryones mind. The value or
otherwise of doing so commercially is
a matier for debate. but whichever
way the argument is settled it seems
h;irdly ssnsrbie for the amateur who
may hav~e painstakingly collbcied together a set of drills, and for that
matter
screwing tackle based on
English practice. to throw the whole
lot away and start all over again. It
should be emphasised. however. that
of late years the extension ofthe available rangeofmctricdrills.especiallyin.
the smafler categories. has made them
a valcabie subs&e
for some of the
drill sizes. Letter and number drills,
for example. being weil covered by the
metric range.
The range advances by close increments.
in point of fact a few
thousandths-of-an-inch
at a time, so
the purchaser has available to him
drill sizes that will be of the greatest
help when eirher reaming or tapping
threads.
The best advice we can give for the
moment. therefore. is to retain the sets
already in the workshop and to supplement these by individual metric
driils as occasion demands.

At auction, or sometimes on the dis

posal market, it is often.possible to ac.
quire drills with tapered shanks made
to the Morse standard. Apart fron
their obvious advantages when usec
in connection with driiing machine:
equipped to accept them. taper shank
drills can u:;efu!ly be employed on the
lathe. Aselccted few otthe larger sire:
will be sufhrient, but. care should be
taken to see that the drills chosen are
not too large for the machrnes witl:
which it is intended to use them.
In the case of second-hand equip.
ment offered for sale the state of the
tapers thernselves should be well inspected before any drills are acquired,
Many of the sharnks get damaged in
service so it is well to choose carefully
before selecting a particular
drill,
Slight damage may be put right by
polishing with an oil stone or a swisr
file, driil shanks being usually left soft.
but a setere case of bruising will need
the surface to be machined awav a!
depicted in the illustration @. I ai*B
If it is intended to use taper shank
drills in a drilling machine adapted for
the purpose, the tangs of the dril
themselves should be examined fat
damage. As has been shown elsewhere the tang fits into a recess formec
in the drill spindle itself; it prevent:
the dril! turning under load and has ar
essential part to play in the method
used to remove the drill when required
as illustrated in Fig. 2.
As will be seen a wedge, passed
th,rough a slot in the drill spindle,
makes contact with both the tang and
the spindle itself. A smart hammer
blow upon the end of the wedge drives
itinandejectsthedrill.

)RILLS

AND

DRILLING

149

,r -~

i (
c ,..__ -4
.MACHiNE

REM&X

OFF ANY SEVERE BRUISING

SAY 0.010
0020
FROM DIAMETER

.t is always advisable to store sets of

h?lls in stands. In this way not only
:an sizes be distinguished at a glance
Jut the drills themselves will be better
maintained than when ail jumbled
ogether in a box. While commercially
broduced drill smnds are readily
vailable: many workers prefer to
nake what is necessary for themelves, the more so when some special
:roupmgofthedrillsisdesired.
For example, as an examination
of
he handbook
Screw: Threads and
iz!isr D~+i!s r;iii show. the percentage
ngagement of screw threads varies
lirectly with the size of tapping drill
Ised. Some workers. therefore, prefer,
a connection with the screw threads
rabitually used by them, to group
ogether the varrous tapping size
MIS they need.
The purchase of a drill stand for
uch a purpose may very well be a
iifficult. if not an impossible underaking. But the want can easily be
illed bv a hardwood block, drilied at
:onvenjent spacings by those drills
hemselves that are to occupy the
tand, the block its& being shellaced
jr f:~.nch polish,:d subsequently
to
wevent staining by oil.

Fig. 1.
shank

Correcting

damage

to a taper

Whilst it is possible to mark the

drill sizes opposite the holes, using
letter punches for the purpose. unless
the drills are well spaced it is difficult
to read the sizes. So, in the main. it is
better to omit this retinement and rely
on experience and visual skill in the
first instance to select the drill sizes. in
any event, and especially where the
smaller drills are concerned, the diameter of those seiected is best checked
by means nfa micrometer calliper.
It may not be out of place, at this

Fig. 2.
drills

The

romoval

of taper

shank

THE

. MATEURS

WORKSHOP

placed !n the p;.:ket by mistake and

this by firm of nternational repute.
Ther,,oralisoi
vious-checkeverything a~td do not : ake for granted the
sizes m;xked qn .X&G or stampedi
on the ,<L,
i!ls thetns~:lves
Wt!.e1; buying new driils in the
smaller sizes it is also worthwhile
having a look at the dri!l points themselves. !t is not unknown for these to
have been sharpen:; :?cT;: xctly.
DrlIi Chucks
Chuckj for use with p~~~,:*! sl .nk
drills have already ?,c:en desc1.tL-d in
Chapter IV where equipment a~eed&
with th+: drilling machine is deait with.
Leaders are therefore referred io the
notes I-onrairted in that chapte:,

Fig.

3.

Fig.

3A.

ouatiny

Locating

work

the

in a W-block

V-block

Possibly as a resu!t of mechanical

packaging.
it does not necessarily
follow that the size of drill inside a
packet corms, xtds with the drill size
marked on tk:e outside. We recently
bad occasion :o need some drills
4.3 mm diarieter. These were duly
obtained and WI to itse after checking,
by the marking on the outside of the
packet onby, that the drills were as
ut it was not till the holes
required.
in a wnote ~batcb of wxk had been
found oversize that it was discovered
that dribs 4.4 mm diameter had been

Methods of Holding Work

There are several wa:s of h~~iciing
work on the drilling meshine CaiJie.
The firs& and unfortunatel?
most
obvious method, is to hoid tt b:, hand.
But this, for the most part, is a da.?gerous practice and not to be recommended. If the part is large and hea\ry 1:
may well stand up against the drill
forces without being secured to the
machine table. ELI?the small romponents made by the amateur need to be
firmly held m order both to protect the
opeator 2s well as to ensure accurate
drilling.
A method commonly used, to hold
round ,work is illustrated in Fig. 3,
where, a short length of shaft is seen
mounted in a V-block so that it can be
located under the drill point and held
firmly. Tt:e block itself is provided
with grocves; the clamp securing the
work and the dogs fastening the block
to the dr!!lCb:u machine table engage
these groo;r; holding the assembly
firmly.
When WC-h ISmounted in a V-block
for cross-drunng it is essential that ii
be set 2KlJr2tdy
or the drill Will no1
pass dir,.xt~v through the centre of the
work. A simple way to ensure that il

RILLS

AND DR:iLING

ies so is depicted in the iilust:ation

g. 3A. This sbows a piece of round
aterial gripped in the driil chu,ck
:ing brought into contact with the
.block 2nd held there while the
amps securing the block to the
achine tableare tightened.
It is importlint to see thnt. when the
eating spindle is removed from the
mck. enough room has been left for
,e insertion of the drill to be used;
r moveme,.t of the table after the
-block has been set correctly will unla11 theaccuracy ofpositioning.
Castings and ot!?er large componits can be bolted or clamped to the
ble .,fthe drilling machine lvhile the
nailer actails are gripped in a mache vice. There is a number of suitable
ces on the market: ;:f particuiar
:rvice to the worker in the small
o&shop is the vice made by the
l!;ford Engineering Company. This
3s a maximum jaw opening of ! 3 in.
ith a width of 1$ in. and 2 depth of
in. The vice is reasonably priced a:ld
accurate. a requirement essential to
*e serious user. It is also of simple
ig. 4.

The

Myford

machine

vice

Fig. 5.

The Offen

vice

design but it has all the essential

elements of 2 good machine vice. An
example is illustrated in Fig. 4.
Another small vice that may be
used on the drilling machine is the
Qtren Versatile Vice illustrated
in
Fig. 5. This piece of equipment is provided with a base machined on its
underside enabling it to be bolted
firmly to the table of the dril!ing
machine.
The base carries a ball
mounting to which the vice itself is
secured; this allows the vice to be
oriented and locked at any angle
needed in relation to the base.
The vice. which is well made, has a
capacity of 1 in., the jaws being 12 in.
wide and the throat 1% in. deep. It
will be observed that the screw is protected, a worthwhile improvement in
a piece of equipment that may be used
on the bench as well as on the
machine.
The Drilling Machine Setting King
Fig. 6
When setting work on drilling machines not provided with mechanical
means of raising or lowering the
machine table, difficulty often exists

THE

I52

AMATEURS

WORKSHt

MACHINE TABLE

f-!

,~-

fitting a setting ring below the castit

snppor~ting the machine table. Wi
this ring clamped to the column tl
table may be swung around witho
endangertng
its vertical
positio
When providing this additional
fi
ment it should be noted that a clam.
ing ring is preferable to one that relil
on a grub screw to secure it. If a grt
screw is used a brass pad should I
interposed between the screw and tl
machine column in order to avo:
damaging thz latter.
i

BRASS PAD

Fig. 6.

the

drilfing

machine

setting

in pr~irioning work under the drill.

To do 5~) i: is sometimes necessary to
suing the table around the column of
the drilling machine. In doing so the
tab!e may slip downs-ards. possibly
upsetting the depth gauging of the
drill swindle. This mav be avoided bv
Fig. 8.

Depth Stops and Methods of

Measuring Depth
When drilling blind holes, that is I
say hole> that do not pass cle;
through the work. it is important tot
able to ;::sure that the point of tl
drill only penetrates to the require
depth. :inilst it may be possible. whe
drilling a single hole, to provide fc
this requirement by direct mensuri
tion as described in our earlier boo1
Beginners Workshop, a series c
similar holes need a depth stop t
make certair 1\les are all ihe satr
depth.
On some types of commercial1
made drilling machines the stop fi)
ture consists of a clamp surroundin
the quill of the drilling machine an
carrying a threaded
upright upo
whtch two stop units run. the on
acting as a lock for the other. Th
casting of the drilling machine i
furnished with a drilled lug throug
which the threaded upright passes at-r
it is against this Isg that the stop nut
abut. All the parts that comprise th
stop fixture are illustrated in Fig. 7.
The upright is marked off in a seal
of inches but the actual operation o
setting the depth of hole required i
somewhat elementary and slow. SC
much so that we long ago decided tc
modify the arrangement in order tc
Fig. 8. Modified
Fig. 7.

Drilling

drilling
machine

machinestol
stop

Fig. 9.

Fig. 10.

Depth

Potts

stop

gauge

drilling

grinding

jig

depths such as & in., & in. and so on

are needed then a second gauge can
profitably be made.
Designers of drilling machines, in
which the spindle runs in a quill having a rack cut upon it, sometimes
make use of the rack pinion shaft to
carry an engraved sleeve for measuring depth. The sleeve is frictionloaded so that, after the drill point has
been brought into contact with the
work, the sleeve is set at zero allowing
the depth of the drilling to be read off
directly.
Drill Grinding
Whilst it is possible to resharpen a
drill by means of an off-hand grinding
operation, by this methcd the possi-

154

THE

w
TANG

AXIS

OF

CUTTING

AMATEURS

WORKSHOI

DRILL
CUTTING

EIXX

LIP

LIP CLEARANCE.
OR FLANK

CJTT;NG
---

Fig.??.

Theelementsofthetwistdrill

LIP

no fixtures he must of necessity rest

to it, experimenting initially with o
of the larger drills, say one of +
diameter. This will allow him t
more readily to check the angle oft
drill point as well as the length oft
lips.

bilities of ensuring that the tips are of

equal length and at the correct angle
to the long axis of the drill itself are
almost nil. It is of importance that
these requirements are met, if not the
drilled hole will neither be straight,
nor true to size.
A drill grindingjig will make certain
that the drill point is accurately resharpened, enabiing the user as it does
to carry out th:; work expeditiously.
One of the best known commercial
fixtures obtainable in this country is
the Potts Drill Grinding Jig seen in the
illustration
Fig. 10. The device is
designed so that it can be bolted either
to t.he~bench alongside the grinding
machine
or directly to it, and is
designed to enable drills to be sharpened on the side of the wheel.
The amateur, however, should not
be actually discouraged
from the
practice of off-band grinding. If he has

The Drill Point

Whatever method is employed
sharpen it, it is important to undo
stand the eiements bcth of the dr
and the drill point and the nome
clature used to describe them.
The terms applied to these elemer
are set out in the illustration Fig. Il.
For general purposes the includ
angle of the drill point is usually ma
118 degrees as seen in Fig. 12, whi
the lip clearance or back-off from t
cutting edge normally has an angle
from 9 to 12 degrees as depicted
Fig. 13 at A andB. If the clearance
increased
materially
beyond
t1

Fig. 12.

Fig. 13.

Drill

point

angle

Drill

lip clearance

ULLS

g. 14.

AND

DR:LLING

Chisel

point

angEe

Lurethe cutting edge will be weakenand may: chip during the drilling
beration.
In a correctly ground drill the angle
e chisel point makes with the lip or
tting edge is 130 degrees as seen in
g. I3 at A. ~Fhisang!e depends hower, on the amount of back-off given
hind the hp. If no cfearance is given
;d the drill point ground like a la-the
ntre the chisel pomt angle would be
duced to 110 degrees accordiag to
e illustration Fig. 14at B.
Two common faults in drib grind~illustrated in Fig. 15 at A and B
spectively. In A the back-off given
too great and, in consequence, the
tting edges have become thinned
.d weak, as well as crescent shaped.
In B the included angle of the drill
lint has been made greater than the
mdard 118 degrees resulting in the
ttingedges becoming hooked.
From all of this information it will
clear that, when grinding by off,na methods, the chances of proIcing a theoretically
correct drill
lint are extremely thin. The drill
anufacturers all stress this, but conde that some expet ienced operators
1occasionally produce an accurately
arpenedpoint free-hand. Those who
sh to experiment with this method
grinding would do well, in the first
stance, to set up a surface plate on
side as depicted in Fig. 16. The plate
n then be smeared with marking
ue and a correctly sharpened drill
lint rolled against it. In this way, by

Fig. 15.

Faults

in drill

grinding

observing the amount of blue transferred to the drill, point, the operator
can check the effectiveness of his
movements, and whether these will be
successful when he makes use of the
grinding wheel.
Drills are usually ground on the
side of the wheel as depicted in the
illustration
Fig. 17. This leaves the
Fig. 16.
methods

Testing

free

hand

grinding

.
.
I FF1
Lk

Fig. 17. Drill

the wheel

grinding

on the

side

of

156

Fig. 18.

THE AMATEURS

Modified

drill

point

for brass

worker with an additional problem,

that of maintaining the correct angle
of inclination.
na.n:ely 59 degrees,
when using freehand methods. Howeer, if a-jig is employed, no such
difficulty arises for the angle is already
set and is incorporated
in the basic
geometry of the design.
WRen the point of a correctly
sharpened drill is examined it will be
seen that the cutting edge has considerable top rate in the manner imparted to a lathe tool intended for
cutting steel.
This condition is depicted at A in
Fig. 18. When a dril! sharpeued in this
way is used for cutting brass it will be
found to grab or dig in. This
tendency can be overcome by imparting a flat or land to the cutting edge as
shown in Fig. 18 at B. A narrow land
is all that is needed, and this can readily be produced with a small slipstone.
If much brass work is being undertaken in the workshop it is often found
worthwhile to keep a number of drills,
not necessarily a full set, for drilling
brass only. In this way the inconvenience of having to resharpen a drill
previously used on brass before it is
again employed on steel can be avoided.
After much resharpening the chisel
edge of a twist drill will be found to
have materially increased in length.
The reason for this is that the web of
the drill is purposely made progress-

WORKSHO

ively thicker along the drills axis i

order to impart strength. Obviously
chisel edge that is too long will active1
decrease the drills free-cutting pov
ers. These can, however, be restore
by an operation known as thinnin
the point.
The thinning is brought about b
grinding an equal amount from eat
side of the web until, at the drill poin
it is approximately
one-eighth of th
drills diameter. In professional estat
lishments this is work normally give
to operators supplied with specie
fixtures for the pm-pose. Necerthelec 51
an experienced workman will often (y
the job freehand. All that is needed
a suitably narrows grinding wheel at
a steady hand, bearing in mind th
1it:le needs to be removed from tl
face of the web to achieve the desirl
objeci, see Fig. 19.
It will be appreciated that the ang
of the chisel edge is not ideal since t
chisel edge rubs rather than cuts. Tt
rubbing tends to throw the drill q
course resulting in a drilled hole out
axial alignment. An improvement
this condition can be brought abo
by modifying the point of the drill
that there are in effect two chi!
edges as depicted in the illustratil
Fig. 20.
In this way the rubbing surface is I
duced to nothing by the production
two new cutting edges that act as
pilot drill. This materially improv
the rate at which the drill will cut.
order to carry out this modification
is reat!y necessary to have availabh
Fig. 19.

Thinning

the

drill

point

POINT TOO THICK POlNTiHlNNE

:LLS

AND

DRILLING

157

The following table gives the drill

manufacturers
recommended
speeds
when drilling mild steel under commercial conditions.
They can be reduced with advantage in the amateur

20.
dified
L point

urc ill:it will :11lowthe drill to be ina! acctrratei~ through 18Qdegrees

addition a knife-edge wheel must
mounted on the spindle of the
tding head so that the wheels
iphery
can reach into the hutes of
drill without the side of the wheel
ning into contact with the drill
If.
he drill approaches the wheel in
manner and at the angle in the
gram Fig. 21. Readers, who for the
St part will not be in possession of a
:able grinding fixture. should not
leterred from attemptingthe
mo ii,tion free-hand. If experiments are
iducted with the larger drills, say
I. diameter upwards, and these are
drills that benefit the most from
treatment, practice will soon make
worker, if no: perfect, then
quate.
11 Speeds
: speeds at which drills should be
I are recommended bv the manuturers on the assumption that the
11sare made from high-speed steel
1 are to be used in commercial
lduction. In the amateur sphere
re is no requirement to d;ivje drills
the limit, so any figures given in
nmercial handbooks
can be re:ed with advantage.

Drill

dia.
in
inches

/ Hi&-sped
drills
I
/
r.p.,,,.

hi
:

I
j

A
i
+>

4,000
2,000
1,500

900

j Carbon .srei
,
drills
r.p.nr.
1,800
900
600
450
j
340

ij;;

1,100

;;

When drilling brass and aluminium

these speeds may be doubled, but
should be matertally reduced when
cast iron is being drilled. If not the
lands that form the sides :)f the drill
may be worn away and the drill itself
will then bind in the hole. From the
table above, it will be apparent that
drills made from high-speed steel are
capable of withstanding a greater !oad
than those made from carbon steel.
Moreover, they retain their sharpness
longer and are less likely to breakage
than carbon steel drills.
Fig. 21.

Grinding

the

modified

point

158

THE

Except when drilling cast iron or bra.ss

the work needs lubricating. At one
time lard oil was much recommendled
for the purpose. but today there are
many other lubricants available. For
the most part these see thin-bodied so
that they- penetrate the work quickIly.
In the amateur workshop they a,re
usually apphedwith a brush, but they
can. if thought ad\ isable, be used with
a simp!e air-operated spray.
The use of mist lubrication
has
much to rrcommend it, particularly
on machines where the lubricant. if
used it, any quantity. is liable to be
splashed about.
?vn example of mist lubrication
equipment. made originally to solve a
problem in the scuiptering of large
aircraft components. is seen fitted to
a pillar drili in the illustration
fig.
2i.4.

One of the more important operations

the metal worker has to perform from
Fig. 21A.

Mist

lubrication

Fig. 22.

AMATCURS

WORK?%

A pair of V-blocks

time-to-time
is the cross-drilling
shafts. This process is needed, 1
example. when a component such a
gear wheel needs to be fastened tot
shaft. Unless, for some reason
other, the drilled hole must be offse
may be assumed that the hole h
normally to pass through the ten
lineoftheshaft.
When but a single shaft or COI
ponent has to be cross-drilled
t
work is first marked offthen mount
accurately under the drill point in
pair of V-b1ock.s of retype iliustrat
in Fig. 22. These are sunplied with o
or more clamps enabling the work
be held firmly. The method of mat
ing offand setting the work is depic:
in the diagram Fi,. 23.
Centre lines are first scribed up
the end of the shaft or component a:
one of the lines is extended along
axis. A radial line cutting the latter
then scribed and a centre marked wi
a punch at the intersection of the tv
lines that have been marked off.
When this part ofthe work has be
completed a centre drill is placed
the chuck and the workaligned with
losing a square, as shown in the ilh
tration, to ensure that the scrib
centre line is truly upright. The wo

LLS AND DRILLING

IW secured by &mping both in the
lock as well as on the table of the
ling machine,
and dri!ling can
Imencc using first the centre drill
followed by a twist drill of the
rect size (2). If, for any reason, the
:ified drilled hole is large it is best
ise a pilot drill before finaliy openout the hole to size.
reyueniky it is necessary to Cross1a number of similar componerts.
ne procedure just describee haa to
bllowed for every indicidual part it
be clear that the whole operation
rid be most time consuming not to
tedious. lndustriallyz, of course,
ma~~cr is dealt with a JIMor fxture
3, especial!y for the purpose. The
;iteur however, and even the pro.ional engaged in small batch pro:tion, can solvre the problem by
Ins of a simple fixture that he can
ke for himself and which is illus:ed in Fig. 24. The devticeconsists of
-block fitted with a pair of studs
r which a saddle cr.rying a guide
h is placed. To enstire that the
h is correctly aligned before drillcommences it is only necessary to
ke sure that the distances between
underside of the saddle and the
of the V-block. marked by the
ers A and B in the diagram, are
[al.
he jig is fitted with a simple ad:able stop for use when a number of
ntical parts have to be cross-drilled.
: parts of this unit are depicted in
illustration Fig. 25.
he top comprises a bar (5) passing
ough a clamp (2) and carrying a
hbone (4) fitted with a long and a
rt abutment; either of these may
brought into use and set at the
rect distance from the work by
ning the bar in the clamp and settit where required. The stop is then
ured with the lock screw (3). The
ails of these and all other relevant
ts of the cross-drilling jig are given
the illustration
1cig. 26 and the

bELOCK

w-

.~~.SQUARE

Fig. 23.
drilling

Fig. 24.

Setting

Cross

Fig. 25. Parts

dist&e

work

drilling

for

cross-

jig

of the jig adjustablestop

160

numbers quoted refer to this illustration.

The guide bushes. details of which
are see&in Fig. 27. are made from mild
steel so that they may be case-hardened ifthought necessary.
it is not proposed to give a detailed
description of methods that may be
used in the construction of the fixture;
for the most part the work is of an
elementary nature. Rut one aspect of
the procedure calls for a little comment. It will be readily appreciated
that the success of the device depends
entirely upon the position of the guide
bushes in relation to the work seating
in the V-block. Ifrhe bushes are in any
way displaced otTeen!re then the jig is
tHeleSS.

THE

AMATEURS

WORKSHO

In order to ensure that the bushr

are correctly positioned it is essenti;
that the clamp itself is accurate1
placed in relation to the V-block. Th
requirement can be met quite simpl
if the following procedure is adoptec
Referring to Fig. 28, the clamp (1)
first marked off, then drilled with tw
pilot holes, say ;i in. dia. Next,
dircular chamfered plug (2) is fitted t
the clamp which is then secured to tf
J-block using a pair of toolmaker
clamps for the purpose. The & it
pilot drill is then fed into the V-bloc
for 4 in. and one end of the block an
the corresponding
end of the clam
are marked either with a centre punt
or a letter punch so that the clamp an
V-block can always be registere

Fig. 26.

Details

of the

drilling

ji

161

Fig. 27.

Guide

bushes

for the jig

V-BLQCK
Fig. 28.

Drilling

the jig V-block

ods, that is to say by either counterboring, countersinking

or spotfacing.
As this is work of a basic nature it very
naturally
had some treatment
in
our book Beginners Workshop and
readers are referred to this for initial
guidance. However, some expansion
of the subject is dealt with in the following chapter, Chapter 19.
When complete machine assemblies
have to be mounted on wooden baseboards or metal frames it is sometimes
dilhcult to establish by measurement
the exact centres for the bolt holes that
are needed.
In many instances it is possible to
drill on assembly as the saying is, but
sometimes even this is not possible because of the difficulty of getting the
drill to bear on the work.
It is then that a simple device we
have used for many years will be
found useful. This device, originally
introduced to deal with wooden baseboards but equally applicable to metal

162

THE

framework when made from suitable

steel. is the by-product ofa parting-off
operation in the ?athe. As described in
Fig. 3 it consists of a piece of round
material provided with a dimunitive
cenrre-punchat
one end.
The measurement D is that of the
hoie in the machine assembly through
which the device is passed in order that
the centre punch can make contact
with the baseboard Fig. 30 at A and
produce
a centre suitable for use with
a machine wood bit, as illustrated in
Fig. 30 at ES.

Fig. 30.

Device

for piloting

AMATEURS

Fig, 29,

holes

in wooden

base boards

WORKSHO

THE operations
that give their
names to the litis r7f ihis chapter
are frequently empioyxd for a
number of purposes in workshop
ctice. They are eac!t depicted diammaticaiiy in Fig. Z. and, for the
st part they are usually carried out
he drilliF?g

n;xl:ine.

will be seen in the iilustration.

intersinking
is most commonly
d to seat screws bath in wood and
tal. Provided the correct type of
11is employed the operation 1s one
hout difticuit). btt it sometimes
Ipens. either because the particular
inter-sink is unsuitabie.
or the
chine spindle lacks rigidity and is,
.haps, being run too fast. that
ration is set up resulting in a
tghened finish to the screw seating
:he pattern of the countersink itself
Iften reproduced on the work.
Thecountersink illustrated in Fig. 2
designed to combat this trouble. It
;imilar in form to the D-&t, desbed elsewhere in the book, and has
o been produced commercially as
,y be seen in Fig. 3 where a patr of
gie-edge countersinks, one of com-

mercial origin the ether home-made,

are illustrated. These tools cut fairly
fast and provide a perfect finish to a
screw seating. They operate best if
well lubricated and shculd be run at a
moderate speed.
The three countersinks
seen in
Fig. 4, are standard commercially
available cutters. A is a 60 degree
countersink for use on metal. B is a
90 degree cutter of the snail pattern,
particularly
useful when working in
wood or plastics, whilst C is a 90
degree tool of the type commonly employed when countersinking
metal
components.
Sharpness is an essential quality in
cutters
used
for countersinking.
uthilst, for the most part. badly
blunted tools will need regrinding on

Fig. 2.
Countersink
with single
cutting
edge
Fig. 1.
Countersink,
counterbore
ahd spot face

164

THE

AMATEURS

Fig. 3. A pair of simple

sinks

WORKSHa

edge count,

special equipment, much may be do

to improve their cutting edges by ha
stoning in the manner outlined in t
illustration Fig. 5 taken from Sharpt
ing Smell Tools published by Mot
and Ailied Publications. This depic
many of the different countersin
available and their application as w
as the manner in which the hand sto
should beapplied.
Counterboring

When it becomes necessary to si

cheese-head or cap-head screws
that they are flush with the surface
the work the operation of count<
boring is employed. As will be o
served from the original iilustrati
Fig. ! this involves the machini
away from the original drilled hole
portlon equal to the thickness oft
screw head and ci the same diamei
as the head itself. When forming
counterbore
three matters are il
portant. The first, and perhaps mc
obvious one, is that the depth oft
machining
should be correct al
should match the head thickness
the screw itself. The second requil
ment is that the diameter of the cou
terbore should fit the screw he
closely or the appearance of the wo
will-be spoilt. Finally both the hole a
the counterbore must be in alignme
or the screw may not enter. The cut{
depicted in Fig. 6, and sometim
calied a pin dril;, is designed to ta
care of the two last requirements. T
cutter is made from a singie piece
tool steel machined and filed to pi
vide a pair of cutting edges. A pilot
guide pin is furnished to engage t
Fig. 4.
sinks

Some

commercial

Fig. 7.
Examples
and pin drills

of

count@

counterbor

JNTERSINKIhG

AND

I. 6.
II

counterbore

A simple

165

COUNTERBORING

or pin

ew hole and keep the cutter in

snmcnt. This pilot is turned from
parent materiat to a size that allows
1 fit the screw hoi2 closrly.
3utters of this type are readily made
m silver steel. forming a useful
dium then non-standard
screws
:d to be accommodated.
7 ihustrates
a number
of
ig.
mterbores and pm dril!s. It will be
iced that included amongst the
lection is a commercial end mill.
ed wtth care. after first partially
ming the countcrbore with a twistIi. the end nLili wiii perform satisut it should be remembertoriiy.
that an end-mill also cuts on its side
any shake in the machine spindle
.y resuh in an oversize hole.

Twist drills thetnselves

may be
modified for use as counterbores. The
method of doing so is illustrated in
Fig. 8. First t!re point ofthe drill has to
bc removed by a grinding operation as
depicted at A, then each lip in turn is
backed off at an angle of 5 degrees as
iiiustrated at E where the drill itself is
seen mounted in a V-block. One ad?g.
and

5. Various
types of countersink
methods
of sharpening
them

STONE

c
~oocil
NOT WORTH
THE
OF RESHARPENING

TROUBLE

INE
,

STONf

TONE

GRIND

SE a
SLIP

(METAL)

(METAO

THE

166

AMATEURS

WORKPHt

vantage of using twist drills for t1

purpose is that a wide range of cou
terbore sizes is readily available wi
the minimum of dificu1t.y in makin

Fig.

8.

edifying

the

drill

point

Bolt or screw heads abutting agair

bosses on a casting need a machin
surface that is smooth and is al
square with the drilled hole throu;
which the shank~s ofthe bolts or screq
are passed. Whilst a one-piece pin dr
of the type already illustrated can
used to carry out the spotfacit
operation in the drilling machine, it
common, particularly
in large COI
mercial undertakings, to provide s<
of equipment where both the cutte
and the pilots used are interchang
able.
In the small workshop, howevc
one-piece spot-face cutters are nc
mally employed with one or ma
tools of the detachable cutter type
seen to the right of the group in Fig. ;

WP

-.
f

ER 20

the small kvorkshop screw

threads are normairy formed by
one of two methods. The first of
se makes use of equipment heid in
: hand. while the second employs a
rchine. for the most part the lathe, to
educe them. The amateur rarely
:ds hand operated equipment to
.xiuce threads above 4 in. in dia:ter since he can always resort to the
he when he needs to cut threads of a
ger sire.
When discussing the whole subject
screw threads we are once again
3ught up against the problem of
Gng metric7. In the years to come
: newcomer mav weli find in the
:tric field a sufficient range to meet
; requirement~s. At the moment of
iting however, the amateur worker
well catered for by a number of
ferent c!asses of screw thread.
lese are not going to disappear over&t and it is equally certain rhat the
:kle for producing
them wiil be
ailable for a long tn-ne to come. For
s reason the present position relat; to screw threads forms the back>und to the notes that appear in this
,ok.
We have already produced a subntial
handbook
entitled
Screw
readingandSrrewxxttingTand read; are advised to consult this if they
ed information
on aspects of the
bject that space prevents including
E, on then to the consideration of
xe classes of screw thread that are
: most convenient for use in the
la11 workshop.
The purchase of
itable equipment wih, for the most
rt, be a gradual process. Many
iders no doubt already have a

representative
collection
of tackle
based on then immediate needs but
the newcomer must decide for himself the class of the work he is to
undertake at the outset and base his
requirements upon this.
English standard screw threads are
based on the Whitworth thread form
introduced by Sir Joseph Whitworth
over 100 years ago in an effort to
standardise a screw thread that could
be acceptable to all manufacturers
instead of allowing each to fix his own
standard.
For the most part, in this he was
successful. BUFthe pitch of the thread
chosen for any particular diameter,
that is the distance from one thread
crest to the next, was such that the
core diameter
of small bolts and
screws was propcrtionately
small. As
a result such components were much
weakened and were liable to break in
service. Consequently,
industrialists,
while wishful of retaining Whitworths
thread form, decided that in relation
to their diameter the thread pitches
themselves
needed some revision,
their action culminating in the introduction of the British Standard Fine
thread. As an indication of the practicability of this step a comparison of
threads of the same form but different
pitch on the same size of component
is shown diagrammatically
in Fig. 1.
The original British Standard Whitworth thread, however, still found an
application,
particularly
amongst
t,hose concerned
with castings
in
aluminium, where it was fount! that
the coarser thread was superior when
tapping holes fcx studs and the like;
the greater ax5 of metal in the thread
itself mu.& reducing any. liability to

THE

168

dia.

Fig, 5. The effect of coarse

pitch
on core diameter

and fine

in the comparatively
soft
metai.
A,~c~::~T :he various classes of
thread ri\.,i::bie for a.nd, suited to the
,amat~:r :Z ihe sma!i workshop, based
on th,z standard
Whitworth
form
&Gng an included thread angle of
55 degrees. are :
1. &Irish Standard
where the pitch
Whitworth.
of the thread
(B.S.W.)
varies with the
diameter
2. British Standard
where the above
Fine (B.S.F.)
also applies
3. Brass Thread
where all pitches
are
identical
namely 26 threads to the inch.
4. ModeI Engineer
where all pitches
are
preferably
identical, name40 threads per
inch, though in
somesizesapitch
of 26 threads per
inch has been recommended.
stripping

AMATEUKS

WORKPIC

5. British Standard
Parallel Pipe
(B.S.P.)

where the pitc

of the threa
agiin varies wit
the diameter.
In addition, and of particular use t
the instrument maker is the Britis
Association
Standard
(B.A.) Thi
thread has an included angle of 47
degrees, the crests of the thread ar
rrmre rounded than those ofthe Whil
worth form, and the pitch varies wit
the diameter. It is a most convenier,
thread to use on much work below
in. diameter.
Hand Screw Cutting Tackle
While at one time there were a numbe
of d~iffering pieces of equipment fo
producing male threads, today, fo
the smaller sizes at any rate, th
button or circular die is mcst gene1
ally used. This form. split for the mos
part so Fhat a degree ofadjustment ca!
be obtained, is held in a die-holder anI
is applied to the work by hand.
The elementary type of die holde
has no form of guidance, so the start
ing and the maintaining
of a threat
square with the axis of the work i

Fig. 3.
Standard
method of
retaining
die
in holder

Fig. 2. Die
holder fitted
with guide
collet

169

Hcnve\~er. it iz noszibie Ii? make for

xseif :a form o!:die holder provided
irh guide5 that viii exible the user to
11threads c,iti: rhecertaint:.that
they
ill automatically
be square with the
lmponent iiseif. This die holder is
:picred diagrammaticail~~ in Eg. 2
here the location ofihe etiide and its
lation to the circu!ar d% itself may
bseen.
II the common die ho!der illustratn Eg. 3 the die is retained in place
three screws. one being used to exd the die tvhen necessary. Such an
b?; itself is well enough
angemenz
no guides are used. but is of no
hen they are. For this reason the
ed OF collected die holder, three
em being illustrated in Fig. 4 have
a pair of axial screws designed to
the die against its abutment face
thus square with the guide, as
ted in iig. 4A. Three grub screws
loyed, these serving to adjust
for size? while the guide, as
in the illustration Fig. 5 is held in
bv a thumbscrew. The body of
vke is fenestrated to aliow metal
ps to be discharged.
lodies for colieted die holders are
dily made from mild steel shaped
the dimensions
attached to the
ustration Fig. 6. The measurements
er the three sizes of die most
y used. that is tosay dies
IR. and I & in. diameter. The

Fig. 4B.

The collets

Fig. 4A.
screw

The die seating

Fig. 5.
guide

handles
suitable
attached

Die holder

and adjusting

to show

position

of

can be machined to taste,

lengths and diameters being
tn the schedules.

170

THE

Interchangeability
of the dies and
the collets or guides make this form of
die holder very versatile. For example.
it is possible to cut threads on shouldered work iithe guide selected fits the
works major diameter.

Modern taps. for tiie most part,

follow the pattern depicted in the
illustration Fig. i. Few, however, are

AMATEURS

WORKSHO

provided with the parallel lead c

guide shown on the taper tap. Th
provision is a great help when startin
a tap square with the hole in which tt
threads are to be cut; because, k
drilling the hole to suit the lead, tt
tap itself will start upright and remai
so throughout the operation.
Guides of this form are seldom
found on taus below %in. diameters
when using-small taps and those I
provided .with a parallel lead, squa
ness of entry should be checked in 1
manner illustrated in Fig. 8.
Two classes of wrench are comma
ly employed. The first, depicted
Figs. 9 and 9A foi use with taps up
1 in. diameter and usually available
two sizes; the second, suitable 1
larger taps and obtainable in a varic
of forms but genera!ly following 1
pattern seen in the illustration Fig.
Equipment for Threading in the La1
Threads may be cut in the lathe
either one of two ways. The first
Fig. 6.

Details

of die holder

body

Fig. 6A.

Details

of die holder

body

--

esemakesuse cf h:md equiixnent

Fig. 6B.

nsurc ihair the screw

read is in axial aiignment with the
. Most lathe manufacturers can
v die hoiders, such as that seen in
1-0.4. that are supported on a peg
d in the tai!stock and xhat will
\-el :riong it 3s the ?hre;td is formed,
iie small taps may be gripped in the
istock drill chuck.
holders previously

taper
Fig. 7.

age
the
the
If

Details

of die holder

set ond
A set of modern

handles

Plug
taps

the lathe top slide. LOpreventdevice from turning. The parts

equipment are illustrated in
whilst the die-holder is seen in

hen the larger size of tap is

nted in the taiistock chuck ir is
!ly necessary
to make some
ision in order to Stop the tap and
k turni?g. Perhaps the simplest
y of ensurmg that they do not do is Vice
grip the tap with a lathe carrier in
manner indicated by the illustraFig. 13. The carrier can then be
ght into contact with the top
r those who would prefer a somemore sophisticated device, suitthe smaller size oftap, the tool
ed in Fig. iJ and Fig. i+Amay
It has been desigr,ed to accomte taps up to f ix s,hank diiand consists of a short length of
material A, cross-drilled to
wo short arms B and prcvidmmon with the die-holder preIy illustrated this tap holder has

A T-handied
tap wrench

ing squareness

of tap

THE AMATEIIRS WORKSkI

Fig.

SA.

Fig. $@A.

Fig. Il.

A T-handled

The

Myford

The tailstock

tap wremh

die hc!der

die holder

an extension arm C that may

brought into use when the top slide
the lathe is needed as a stop.
Holding and starting really lar
taps in the lathe often poses a pro
lem, not always easy to solve. Tv
solutions to the difficulty, howev
are illustrated in Fig. 15 and Fig.
respectively. In the first example t
tap is located by the tailstock, maul
ed on the back centre, and is turned
a wrench while being fed forward
the tailstock hand wheel. Once the t
has properly engaged it will feed itse
but care must, of course be taken
follow the tap or it will probably r!
out ofalignment.
The second solution provides f
the tap to be gripped in the toolpc
on the top slide and ali,gned with t
work by means of packmg. The tap
fed into the work by means of t
saddle which is free to move along t
lathe bed so as to provide no co
straint. In bo?h instances the work c
be transferred to the vice for COI
pietion
of the tapping
by har
Tapping may also take p!ace from t
headstock. The process in its simple
form the tap is held iit the chuck wh
the work is supported by the tailsto
drilling pad and secured by tot
makers clamps. This arrangement
depicted diagrammatically
in Fig.
though, for the clarity, the clam
have been omitted from the illustr
tion. The method is generally suital
for plate work.
A second procedure makes use
the top slide and tool clamp to hc
the work, and a simple example oft
manner in which it is used is illustrat

_:..
h-My.In
I.
Wrench
for
large taps

ITTING SCREW THREADS

I.122

173

The

lstock die
l&r in use

Fig. 14. A tailstock

tap holder

Lathe

Fia. 13.
Tapping
from
the tailstock

- ~-~

THE AMATEURS WORKSHO

174

Fig. 23. A drilling

for tapping

Fig. 14
ez&s-dcn

t~i~sto~k
bangle

tap

bolder

machine

converta

with

i-i

Fig. 46.

Tap

mounted

on back

centre

Top rl!de

Fig. 16.

Tap

mounted

on top

slide

Wood
Block

Fig. 17.

Tapping

Fig. 20.

Myford

from

the

mandrel

haadstoc
handle

JTTING

g. lg.

SCREW

Drummond

THPfADS

mandrel

handle

Fig. 18. The work IS first set square

ith the chuck and at the co&t
:ight so that it can be machined with
Rycutter as depicted at A. Next the
ark is prepared for tapping with a
ries of drills as seen at B. The pur)se of the counter drill is to remove
etal from the area of the first two
reads for a reason we shall presently
.plain. k taper tap is then gripped in
e chuck and fed into the work until
-

!
t

Fig. 20A.
mandrel

Another

Fig. 78. Starting

headstock

form

a large

for

Myford

tap from

the

THE

176
it is well started as shown at C. When
this has been done the work can be removed and placed in the bench vice
for hand tapping as depicted in the
diagram D.

When rapping in the lathe it is

generally inconvenient, if not actuaily
detrimental,
to drive the mandrel
under Dower, so much itdvantage may
be gained Sy fitting some form of
handle that will enable the mandrel to
be turned with a sensitivity that would
otherwise be impossible. Some ingenuity will need to be exercised in this
matter because accessibiiity will piay
an important
part in the eventual
arrangement adopted. Two examples
are handles that were made and fitted
by us to the Drummond and Myford
lathes respectively. As will be noted
the Drummond handie screws directly
into the h ow mandrel, which was
tapped out co accept it, whilst that

AMATEUR,S

WORKSHOP

fitted to the Myford is secured to the

adapter made for the change wheeh
used for dividing purposes and de+
cribed in Chapter VII. The handle it.
self is a diecasting, but a built-up
substitute will do equally well. The
two handles described are illustrated
in Figr. 19and 20.
Tapping in the Drilling Machine
Undoubtedly the drilling machin eisa
very conventent medium for sta;rtin
a tap and even for carrying ou t th 1
complete
tapping operation.
damentally, the machine is used i:
way demonstrated
by the dial
Fig. 21 where it will be seen tf
lathe carrier is attached to the rr
ines spindle to act as a handle, H
the work itself is placed on the t
The driving belts are removec
course, in order to maintain
sensitivity ofthe set up. For those
contemplate much work ofthis n;
the drilling machine handle illustl
in Fig. 22 may be found worthwhi
is secured to the spindle by the 1
gon screw D engaging the key
The handle may be extended a
quired by siiding the bar E thrs
22. Tapping
ing machine

Fig.

handle

for the drill

1

CUTTING SCREW THREADS

177

the body A and securing if by the

clamp R. SoIme may prefer to fit a
key to the body instead of relying on
the set xrew to take : he drive. If this is
so the key may easi!y be made fast
with Araldite,
thus avoiding
the
difficulty
OF securing with small
screws.
Ifthought desirable the handle may
be extended acd fitted with a pair af
knobs as depicted in the iltustration
Fig. 25 \i;hlch shows an old drilling
machine that has been adapted for
tapping purposes and since converted
to power operation.
In order to obtain the best work the
vice needs to b e so mounted that is is
free to align itself with the tap. This
universality is achieved by attaching
the vice to a sole plate working as a
shde and superimposed
on another
slide a? right angles to it, ihe whcle
being boited to the table of the drilling
machine.
The arrangement
being
known; for obvious reasons; as a
jelly plate mounting.

Fig. 21.
machine

Tapping

in the

drilling

HEN a Fh?ead of large diameler has to be cut or when it

13csscntial that rtte thread itse!f
should be in perfect a!ignmznt with
the pm-t IUPon w41ich it is to be cur,
rhen the la:hs is xed to carry out the
work.

In our primary manual Begimrrs

HorXs/~op we have provided an outline ofrhs Iathe screw cutting process;
but no apoioa? is offered for recapuiari3g l!:e basic infoimation
in part.
since the intention here is eventually
to extend the readers knowledge ofthe
SUbjKF.

A iazhe intended for screw cutting is

provided with a lead screw to traverse
the saddle along the lathe bed. A train
of gears car, be seF up and used to
drive the iead screw from the mandrel,
the ratio of the gearing dictaiing how
far the saddle will move aiong the bed
for each turn ofthe mandrel.
If now a tool is mounted on the
saddle and engaged with work attached io the maEdre1. as soon as the latter
is turned a rough screw will begin to
be formed. the pitch of this screw
being dependent upon the ratio of the
gearing emp!oyed.
Screw Cutting Tools
The basic screw cutting tools are
illustrated in Fig. II the first intended
for threading external werk whi!st the
second is employed in internal screwcutting. The angle of the point in both
instances is ground to conform with
the standard i? is desired to cut. For
example, if the Whitworth .tandard
was being used then the included angie
wonid be made 55 degrees.
Threads produced by these simple
tools have crests and roots that are

sharp; but, as an exarnination of any

and
commercially-produced
well
made bolt or screw will show, the
practical thread has these details in
rounded form; and it is the function
of the chasers depicted in Fig. 2, to
provide this finish to the work. These
tools are sometimes applied by hand,
but today it is preferred to set rhe
chasers in the toolpost where they can
be used under controlled conditions.
Of course, in industry, form cutters
are used to produce the same resu!ts.
These tools are: in effect, very short
lengths of chaser, capable of cutting
fully formed threads without a change
of tooi. For those readers who have
good contacts in industry it may be
possible to obtain old or unwanted
chasers from the geometric dies used
in the capstan lathe section of the
works. Provided a suitable holder is
made for them these old chasers often
make very good form cutters.
Fig. 1.

The basic screw-cutting

tools

outside
Fig. 2.

Inside

and outside

chasers

:UTTING

SCREW

THREADS

IN

THE

179

LATHE

When grinding a tool for screwcutting, the sides of the point must be
given sufficient clearance to prevent
the tool from rubbing on the work.
The extent of the clearance required
will depend upon the helix angle of the
tbread in relation to its axis and is
dependent
upon the pitch of the
thread itself; for work of a given
diameter the greater the pitch the
greater the helix angle. This angle can
be found by the graphical method
depicted in the diagram Fig. 4. Here
the circumference
of the thread

:ig. 3.

A height

gauge

for tools

: Readers should note that it is

ssential
ah tools used for screw
:utting are set on the lathe centre line,
)r an accurate thread wil! not be
armed. The height setting gauge
!!ustrated in Fig. 2 wi!! be fottnd a
great help in ensuring that they are set
:orrect!y. Little need be said about its
:onstruction for the simpiicity of the
device will be evident from the illusration. Not only will thisgauge prove
rsefu! when screwcutting but it is also
:ssential for setting the ordinary
,uming tool, particularly when tapers
tre being machined for this is another
occasion when incorrect height setting
vi11result in inaccuracy.
:ig. 4. Graphical
:he helix angle

method

circumference

of obtaining

Fig. 5.

Using

the tool

height

gauge

(3.1416 x the major diameter) is set

out as a base line whilst the pitch is
drawn as a line at right angles to it. If
the triangle is completed the helix
angle of the thread can be measured
directly with a protractor. It follows
then that the clearance angle needed
at the leading edge of the tool must be
greater than the helix angle of the
thread to be cut: This is part~icuiariy
the case when square threads are being
machined, as we shall presently see.
When making
the height
setting
gauge a !ine is scribed and then engraved on the blade of the device
making use of a centre placed in the
tailstock
to perform the necessary
marking off.

THE

Fig. 6.

Fig. 6A.

Thread

setting

Thread

setting

Using

thethread

gauge

gauge

setting

INTERNAL

WORKSHOP

In addition to setting the tool at the

correct height, it must also be aligned
square with the work itself. This is the
purpose of the gauge that appears in
the illustration Fig. 6. It is, of course, a
production of fine tool manufacturers
and is used for both external and internal threading, being applied to the
tool and the work in the way demonstrated by Fig. 7. Gauges of this type
are available, for the most part, to suit
various standards, the notches having
included angles to match the particular thread to be cut. Thus, if Whitworth is the standard in question, the
notches will have an included angle of
55 degrees. This enables the operator
to grind the screwcutting tool correctly by checking its angularity against
the large notch at the end of the gauge.

Using the gauge is simplicity itself.

All that is needed is to pack or adjust
the height of the tool pcint so that
when the too! is firmly clamped, the
pcint is aligned with the scribed line
on the gauge blade.
The method is depicted in the
diagram Fig. 5.
Fig. 7.

AMATEURS

gauge

The Thread Indicator

At the beginning
of the chapter
reference has been made to the leadscrew. This is provided with a clasp
nut, a device attached to the saddle
enabling the leadscrew to be thrown in
or out of engagement at will. It consists of a pair of half-nuts and a mechanism by which they may be caused to
close upon or be released from the
screw at will. For the most part the
light lathes supplied for amateur use
have leadscrews of 4 in. pitch, or 8
threads to the inch. If a thread of this
pitch was to be cut the leadscrew
could be engaged wherever the clasp
nut would drop in because the threads
are the same. The same holds true for
or
all sub-multiples of &such as +,
22.
On the other hand, supposing a
thread of & in. pitch is to be cut, then
the nut cannot be closed except when
the thread of the work and that of the
leadscrew coincide. This condition
will be made clear in the riagram Fig.
8 and it is the function of the thread
indicator Taoshow the iathe operator
when this coincidence occurs so that

CUTTING

181

SCREW THREADSIN TM LATHE

point.
A ty~k-~.?lindicator i\ iliu~trated in
Figs. 9. whilst its gena-ai c0iisIrL!ctiOIl
is showr? in i-i,?. !O. ahe ittdicatOr
of three major
ShOWI& consisting
parts, \vas made for the Drummond
lathe. A brackrr .ri is used to attach
the de-i;ice to the saddle, whilst a
swivel B ailovvs the indicator body
C t:, be mo\.ed so that the pinion
mounted on the end of the indicator
shaft can be brought into contact with
the lead screw and then locked in
place.
Tix pinion itself has 16 tee:h meshitis with the ,t in. pitch lead screw.
I-hi; GLIMS the head of :he indicator
to rc\iihe.
ti1c cngrared
numbers
registering in succession w~iththe zero
index line on the body. The intervals
between the figures quartering
the
did each represenr four turns of the
le;ld~screwori :n. ofsaddlemo\,ement.
so.the figures themselj-es can be used
for ail even-numbered
pitches. OFposite pairs ci figures. 1 and 3 and 2
8 :,I?3 of the !endsnd 4 ) represt
screw, or a saddle travel of I in.. so
serving for the cutting of odd numbered thread pitches. When the claspnut is closed at any one number only,
the distance travelled by the saddle is
2 in. so this particular number can Abe
used as an indicator for half-pitches
suchas 124 threads to the inch.
Change Wheel Gearing
We have already seen that it is the
relative speeds of the mandrel and the
leadscrew that governs the Fitch ofthe
thread to be cut. For example, if the
leadscrew has eight threads to the inch
and the-mandrel. and the work, turns
at twice the speed of the leadscrew,
then the pitch of the thread cut will be
&in.
It is the purpose ot the change
wheels to provide the gearing necessary to satisfy the ratio between the

j---J J---JJpy
Fig. 8.

Relation

Fig. 9.

The thread

Fig. 10.
indicator

of tool

Construction

point

to lead-

indicator
of the

thread

THE

Fig. 1 OA.

Parts of the thread

Fig. 11~ A simple

gear train

Fig. 12.

gearing

Tumbler

indicator

AMATEURS

WORKSHOE

Ditch of the leadscrew and that of the

ihread to be cut. If the cutting of a
thread of & in. pitch, or 16 threads to
the inch, is taken as 2~ example then
the gears to produce this pitch using a
lead screw of: in. pitch can be calculatedfrom the ratio:
8 (leadscrew thread)
16 (thread to be cut)
If gear wheels having 8 and 16 teeth
were available these would be satisfactory but wheels having40 teeth and
80 teeth, or 20 teeth and 40 teeth,
would provide the same ratio; and as
these are among the set of change
wheels normally supplied with the
lathe they could be used. It will, of
course, not be possible to mesh the
wheels directly so an intermediate
wheel must be engaged with them.
However, this does not affect the gear
ratio in any way; moreover, the interposing of a third, or idle wheel as it is
termed, is needed to ensure the production of a right-handed thread, that
is unless the lathe is provided with
tumbler gearing that allows the direction of the leadscrew to be reversed at
will.
The location ofthe gears themselves
is shown by the rule:
Driving Gear
Numerator
Driven Gear
Denominator
If the change wheels necessary to
cut a thread of & in. pitch are again

CUTTING

SCREW

THREADS

IN

THE

183

LATHE

taken as an example the 20 tooth gear T,Jha, r_

m
is mounted on the mandrel whilst the
--L flDLkK
-&IAN DREL
10 tooth wheel is placed on the lead- G
WHEEL
screw. The diagram Fig. II indicates
thedispositionofthesegears.
The idle wheel is mounted on a stud
attached to the change wheel bracket
and from this location the mounting is
adjusted to bring the wheel into m&h CI+ANT.F
-. -- --- #TUD
WHEEL
,-.
withthe other two gears.
WHEEL
When the lathe is provided with
Fig. 12A. Tumbler
gearing
tumblergears the mandrel gear itseifis
not actually mounted on the mandrel
but on a stud wheel attached to the
tooth wheel is available so this is atttumbler gear bracket. Intermediate
achedtothe
leadscrewandthe
16value
wheels, of course, have to be placed
in
the
ratio
obtained
by
connecting
a
between the mandrel and the stud
20
tooth
wheel
on
the
mandrel
stud
to
wheel but these do not, in effect, alter
compound gearing. A 20 wheel has a
the gear ratio because the wheel percommon factor of 4 with the value 16
manently attached to the mandrel and
so, as 16 is four-fifths of 20
the stud wheel itself are both the same
16
4
size. The arrangement is illustrat.ed in
-=....
Fig. IZA.
20
5
The stud wheel has an extension
the compound gearing consists of two
fitted with a key to which the selected
change wheels mounted on the same
change wheel is attached.
stud and coupled together, one having
20 teeth the other 25. If, because of
avaiiabiiity, it is more convenient the
Compound Gearing
gears can be 40 and 50
For the most part, the numbers of compound
teeth,
it
will
not
affect the ratio.
change wheels supplied with a lathe
We
now
have
found all the necesare limited, so it is not always possible
sary
change
wheels
and these are conto employ a simple train of gears. In
nected as shown in the diagram Fig. 13
this event a compound train of wheels
But before doing so, however, the
has to be used, but the precise details
train of gears sh,ould be checked to
seldom need calculation by the operaensure
that they are indeed correct for
tor ~because lathe manufacturers
althe particular thread it is desired to
most always provide a chart showing
cut.
the change wheels needed for a wide
range of threads.
However, it may sometimes
be
necessary to find the wheels to cut a
thread not included in the lathe
makers list, so it is as well to know how
to set about the,caiculation.
Let us
take an example :%thread of 15 turns
to the inch. Now the ratio of the
wheels to satisfy this pitch using an 8
to the inch leadscrewis 8/15 or 16/30.
If we had these wheels they could be
used directly, but, usually only the 30

Proving the Gear Train

The gears are proved in the following
manner :
Threads

per inch to be cut =

together
over

Driven gears multiplied

Driving gears multiplied together

multiplied

by Pitch of leadscrew

expressed

as t.p.i.
If we again take as our example the
wheels to cut 15 t.p.i.

THE

184

or/

\
i
LEADSCRE~V ---

Fig. 13. Compound gear train

Fig.

;4.

Thread

pitch

gauge

I.5
2 8 t.p.i. = Driving gears 20 1:LO
4
60.0
-=
15
4
Drivm

gears 25 .r 30

x 8

Except to check that the wheeis they

recommend are set in the right positions there is iitt!e point in proving
the lathe manufacturers
gear trains.
These will have been checked many
times in their drawing offices. An
occasional exercise, however, on the
lines we have demonstrated
and the
comparing
of the results with the
manufacturers
solution
will often
prove useful as a refresher.
Practical Screw Cutting
We have seen the tools used in screwcutting and have also discussed the
way in which the lathe is set up to
machine the pitchofthreaddesired,
so
the time has now come to examine the
practical aspects of the work.
A screw thread has two diameters.
The first the top or major diameter,
the second the core or minor diameter,

AMATEURS

WORKSHOP

and we are interested in them because, by subtracting one from the

other and dividing the result by 2, we
are able to obtain the theoretical
depth of the thread and thus the
amount of in-feed that must be given
to the tooi itself.
For the most part the whole depth
of thread, for any given pitch, is obtainable from books of reference. If
faced, therefore, with a component
for which a mating thread has to be
cut, the pitch must first be ascertained.
This is the purpose of the thread gauge
illustrated in Fig. 14. It contains a
number of leaves each having a different pitch cut upon it. By applying
successive blades to the part the pitch
of the thread can be determined.
Gauges of this type are obtainable in
both Whitworth and metric pitches,
and those who contemplate
much
work of this nature would do well to
add them to their tool kit.
Before the tools for screwcutting
are actually set up, and after the work
has been machined to the correct siLe,
it is advisable to turn an undercut or
run-out where the thread finishes, at
the same time the lead end ofthe work
can be chamferred or rounded to taste.
Some operators, after a light cut has
first been taken with the threading
tool, allow the thread to run out into a
hole drilled in the work. This method
is illustrated in Fig. 15, at A. For the
inexperienced
worker, however, the
undercut depicted in the same illustration at B, offers many advantages.
This form of run out is turned with a
small parting tool fed into the work
for a depth equal to that of the thread
to be cut. Not only does this provide
some latitude when throwing out the
clasp nut and disconnecting the lead-~
screw at the end of each cut, but when
the point of the tool touches the surfaces of the undercut the worker
knows that the thread has been machined to full depth.
In practice the width of an undercut

JTTING

SCREW

THREADS

IN THE

185

LATHE

tries to suit the work in hand, the

trrower it is the neater the work.
owever, until practice has perfected
ie operators technique it is suggested
Iat a minimum width of i+r in. be
;ed.
Measurement
of the diameter is
ldertaken
with a pair of outside
Jlipers having their jaws fined down
ltil they are some 0.030 in. thick at
le extremity. The cal!ipers are then
,t against packing of the right thick:ss, a drill of the correct diameter or
pair of inside callipers adjusted with
,ference to an outside micrometer.
At this point it may not be out of
ace to consider the three types of
illiper used in thread measurement.
Fig. 16 is examined it will be seen
(at the callipers used for measuring
Leoutside diameter of male threads
ive wide spatulate extremities enablg them to bridge a number of
Ireads thus providing a reliable read.g. The inside cal!ipers depicted at
1 have pointed ends enabling them
1measure the major diameter of inrnal threads, Juhilsr the callipers at
Z,are the type that have already been
ferred to in connection with undertts and run outs. For the most part
easurements
taken with these inruments are referred to as microeters or verniers so that numerical
adings can be established.

Fig. 15.

Thread

run-cuts

Cutting the Thread

There are two ways of feeding the tool
into the work. In the first the tool is
moved inwards by the cross slide, the
direction being at right angles to the
axis of the work; with the in-feed
measured by the cross-slide irdex. The
second method makes use or a technique that, used with care, elfectively
avoids the possibilityy of the tool digging in. Here, the top slide, sometimes
called in American text books the
Compound Slide, is set over at an
angle. The obliquity is that of half the
included angle of the thread to be cut.
Thus, when cutfing threads to the
Whitworth standard, the top slide is
set over 274 degrees. The object is to
make the leading edge of the tool do
the bulk of the cutting whilst the trailing edge only shaves the work. The
Fig. 16.

Thread

callipers

186

THE AMATEURS WORKSH

set-up can bc used for both external

and internal threads in the way depicted by the diagram Fi~y. 17. The cut is
put on bq the top slide feed screw, its
index beir~p: used IO measure the
amount of in-feed. In this connection
it should be neted that when the slide
is set over in t!tis way a reading of
0.001 in. on the index represents an
actual rntiv~ement of 0,0008 in. approsimately. to be precise 0~00081 in.
The feed screw of the cross slide is
only used to move the threading tool
out ofcontact with the work at the end
of each cut. and has its index set at
zero. whiie thetool point isjust touching t!ris surface of the work. In this
WLij.
each time the cross-slide
is
wit!rdrawn past the zero mark on the
index the tool will ciear the work
effectiv~ely.
Before commencing
the screwcutting operation. however, the top
slide index must also have been set to
zero. This must hav,e been done at the
same time as the cross siide index was
zeroed w-ith the tool in contact with

the work. But it will also be necessa

to engage the thread indicator. If t
has a moveable index ring, adjustme
is simple. However many indica
have no adjustment, they must th
fore be set so that one of the engr
figures on the dial registers with
index line before the slide indices
adjusted in the manner descri
above. a?d, of course, with the I
screw ,iap-nut closed.
The saddle can now be moved
the right of the work, the ieadscr
engaged with reference to the thre
indicator, a cut of some 0.002 in.
on by the top slide, the back gear
gaged and a trial cut taken. It
suggested that, when only a fine thre
has to be cut, the lathe is best turn
by hand leaving power operation
the coarser threads needing the
moval of much material.
Suita
equipment for turning the lathe
hand has already been describ
earlier in the chapter.
When the first cut has been corn
pleted, the lathe is stopped, the lead
Fig.
slide

EXTERNAL

17.
Turning
set over

threads

vvith

to

TTING

SCREW

THREADS

IN THE

LATHE

ew disengaged. the tool withdrawn

m the work and m<>ved back to the
g,inning :igain so that the whole
xation can be iq7eatecl; ihii pros is continued until the thread is
1yformed.
4r first. and before atlempCng to
ew thread 2 iinishrd piece of \+urk,
: newcomer wouid be well advised
pa&se tcii 3 piece ofmzieria! ofno
portance. In rhis way he can perfect
technique.
When sufficient ex:ience has been obtained he will be
le to tnck!e a screw-cuttingjob
with
nfidenir.
The work needs pienty of lubricant.

187

Lard oil. or one of the many specially

prepared oils that are obtainable caE
be applied with a brush or via the suds
system about which we shall have
something to say later.
As to the depth of cut; until experience is gained light cuts are safest.
But One should remember that the
deeper the machining
extends, the
greater is rhe work surface in contact
with the tool. Therefore the operator
may well start with a relati:ely deep
in-feed,sayfromO.O05in.
to0.007in.
finishing off with lighter cuts of from
0.002 in. to 0.001 in. as he nears the
end of the threading operation.

ij our pr~ious book Begktwrs

;I I.
,rL:ii?<;::: he subject of the equipment usid io measure work in
progrzss has already been touched
xpon, so. in some respects, little more
is needed than to reinforce remarks
then made; particu!ariy
those concerned with the proper care ofthe tools

the toois needed. Many of these COI:

into the category of measuring equi
ment but it is rhought bz:ter to de
with them as they are applied to tl
specific work of marking of7 rath
than describe them in the catalog:
sense.

employed.

tlowe~rr, the measuring equipment

described was that considered to be of
fundamentai
importance and essential to the requirements of the newcomer. if only acquaintance with the
tools in question was the outcome.
For this reason it is not proposed to
spend further time describing
the
micrometer caiiiper, for example, as
one must assume that readers will
already have experience of the tool
and know how to use it. Rather, space
will be given to the use of the dial test
indicator and its use, as well as the
employment of other aids to accurate
measurement and the setting of work
for machining.
In the succeeding
chapter,
on
ma~rking off, fuli coverage is given to

The

Micrometer

Fig.

As h-2 already been assumed reade

will be aware ofthis measuring dexvi
and how to use it. They will a!
doubtless know that rricrometers a
available to measure both inside aI
outside work. The inside micrometc
however, isa somewhat unsatisfacto
tool, not capable of measuring tl
smal!er holes at all, and, unless co
tinuously handled, liable to provil
a series of readings of problematic
accuracy.
For the purposesoftheamateural
small worksilop it is far better to ma1
tise of the familiar outside micromet
in conj&nction with particular devic
that enable holes as small as + in. to I
measured with great precision.
MICROMETER
SCYEEW

FRAME

NUT FOR ADJUSl

WEAR OF SCRE\
/

Fig. 1. The micrometer

calliper

EASUR:NG

EQUIPMENT

Fig. IA.

Pvlicrometer

stand

Iicrometer Stands
/hen using a micrometer to measure
number of small objects it is usually
tore convenient to moun.t the microteter in a stand leaving the hands free
) hold the work and make the
measurement.
The stand shown in the illustration
ig. IA is a commercial product; b;lt
te making of a simple stand is wurk
tat can be undertaken in the small
lop and will form a useful and
tstrustive exercise.
Readers may well be ab!e to design
rch a stand for themselves; for those
owever, who may not be quite clear
s to the requirements of the device
set of simple drawings is given in
lg. ii?.
mall Hole and Telescopic Gauges
he most useful of the devices that
$n be used with the micrometer are
ie small hole and telescopic gauges.
The small hoie gauge, illustrated in
ig. 2A consists of a steel ball machini integrally with a stalk enabling it to
e mounted in a tubular handle. The
all and its stalk are split and the two
alves are separated by a moveable
edge controlled
by an adjusting
xew situated at the base of the
andle.
These small hole gauges are usually
lade in sets of four with a range from.
Fig. 2A.

hole

gauge

ADJUSTING

EDGE

PLIT

The small

BALL

A
.Ei.P. em.

The small

SCREW
,

ho!e

gaugs

190

THE AMATEURS WQRKSH(

WQRK

;---=--;
:

PENCIL

; :x = r m

- - - _-_--

- --

_ _ ___

i-

TAPER
Fig. 3.
a small

Using
hole

a taper

Fig. 4.

Meesuringcaiiipers

PIN

pin to measure

& in. to 3 in. They have the great

advantage that they enable the holes
parallelism or otherwise to be checked
immediately.
When the internal dimensions of
the work are above $ in. diameter the

telescopic
gauge, depicted
in tl
illustration Fig. 2b provides a reac
means of measuring a bore accurate1
The plunger, sliding in a fixc
member attached to the handle,
smingloaded and can be locked bv tl
tinge; screw passing through- tl
handle. To use the device, the lockit
screw is first released, the measurir
head is then passed into the work ar
the plunger locked taking care to SC
that the handle is being held horizon
tal. The gauge is then withdrawn ar
has an outside micrometer applied I
its measuring head in the same way i
the small hole gauge previously de
cribed.
Both the tools described are, (
course, for the more advanced worke
so it may well be the case that mol
elementary methods will have to 1
adopted by the newcomer to worI
shop practice.
If it is accepted that their bores al
parallel, small holes can readily h
measured with a standard taper pi
;$ed
as shown diagrammatically
i
The taper pin is pushed into th
hole to be measured and a pencil mar
made on the pin adjacent to the edg
of the hole. A micrometer measure
ment taken over the pencil mark the
gives the size of the hole for all pram
tical purposes.
The tapered
pi
method is applicable to holes up t

Fig. 5.

The slide

gaug

131

very expensive; today, however, excellent tools at a reasonable price are

available. When it is considered that a
6 in. slide gauge can take the place of
several micrometers, and can be used
for both outside as well as inside
measurements,
the actual cost is
probably well worthwhile.
Fig.

8.

The

Fig. 7.

micrometer

The vernier

depth

depth

gauge

gauge

THE AMATEURS WORKSHI

192

I
A typical slide gauge is illustrated in
Fig. 5.
The slide gauge consists of a steel
rule having a fixed jaw at one end, and
a sliding head with a second jaw free
to move up and down the rule. When
these jaws are closed on a piece of
work a datum line and vernier indicate the dimension on the rule scale.
The fixed jaw is made in one piece
with the rule, while the sliding head
itself combines several parts, the jaw
being a portion ofthe head havicrg the
vernier scale attached to it. As it is not
ptJss$& to set the tool with any
accuracy siinply by sliding the head
along by hand a fine adjustment is
provided. This consists of a clamp,
knurled nut and screwed stud the
latter being rigidly attached to the
moving jaw. By locking the clamp and
turning the nut the jaw can be slid in
se out of engagement with the work
until the correct setting is found. The
jaw itself is aiso provided with a lock
for use when needed.
Two forms of jaw are in common
use: the knife edge for making external measurements in narrow recesses
and the inside whose purposes is
obvious and is combined with the
main jaws for taking outside dim,ensions.
Mow to Read a Vernier
As there may be some readers who do

Fig. 9.

The

hook

rule

not understand how to read a verni

a short explanation has been in&d
here.
The bar of the tool to which t
vernier
is fitted is graduated
fortieths-of-an-inch
or 0.025 il
every fourth division representing
tenth-of-an-inch
being
numbere
The vernier plate, attached in tf
instance to the slidingjaw of the gau
is divided inio 25 parts and number1
0.5,O.lO,etc.,upto25.These25pa1
occupying
the same space as 1
divisions on the bar.
The difference in width between o:
of the 25 spaces on the vernier and o:
of the 24 divisions on the bar
tberefore, !/25th of l/40 or l/l,QOO
an inch. if the tool is set so that t:
zero (0) line of the vernier and the ze
(0) line of the bar coincide, the ne
line to the right on the vernier w
differ from the zero line on the bar 1
l/l,000 of an inch, the second line I
2/1,000 of an inch and so on, tl
difference continuing to increase 1
steps of i/l,000 of an inch until ti
line 25 on the vernier coincides wi
line 24 on the bar.
To read the slide gauge note hc
many inches, tenths (or 0.100 in.) ar
fortieths (or 0.025 in.) the zero ma
on the vernier is away from the ze
mark on the bar; then note the mu
ber of diversions on the vernier fro
zero to a line which exact!y co&id
with a line on the bar. For exampl
in Fig. 6 the vernier has been moved
the right one and four-tenths
ply
one-fortieth inches (I ,425) as shov

Fig. 10.

Narrow

rule and hold1

IASURING EQUIPMENT

the bar and the e!eventh line on the

mier coincides with a line on the
r. Eleven-thousandths
of an inch
1st therefore,
be added to the
:vio~~c rear mu of ! .425 in. making
otal -df 1 .4& B
The same drocedure
applies to
ight or depth gauges incorporating
rernier.
:pth Gauges
te depth gauge iilustrated in Fig. 7
akes use of the vernier principle. It
.s one advantage over the built-in
,pth gauge found in some vernier
lhpers, in that its base is wide and
n be held down firmly during the
easuring operation, moreover, the
idth of the base makes certain that
e rule itself is held vertically. It is a
oi much in use industrialiy,
be.use it may be used rather imo:e
feedily than the micrometer gauge
ustrated in fig. 8. This gauge is also
.ovided with a wide base and has
terchangeable depth rods that allow
wide range of measurements to be
ken.

g. 11.
te ?aper
wge

193
On the score of expense, however,
the amateur
worker will be well
served by a slide gauge having a depth
gauge incorporated.
But he must be
prepared to take some trouble in
mak,ing his measurements.
Steel Rules
We shall be hearing more of the steei
rule in the succeeding chapter on
marking off. However, no description
of measuring
equipment
could be
considered complete without a mention of two particular types of rule
having somewhat special applications.
The first of these is the hook rule
illustrated in Fig. 9. It enables the user
to take the guess work out of setting a
rule perfectly level with the end of a
piece of work and is also useful when
adjusting either the dividers or the
inside callipers
to some definite
measurement.
Rules of this type are
often narrow
and proportionally
thick. They are sometimes hardened,
an advantage
in maintaining
the
quality ofthe engraving.
The narrow rule seen in the illus-

194
tration Fig. 16 has a particular interest
for the turner or the user of any of the
other machine tools to be found in the
workshop.
Those who have had only a short
experience of the lathe will quickly
have realised how difficult it is to make
measurements in the somewhat confined space that is usually available.
The rules we a~ considermg are, for
the most pari. a set of four, varying
from 4 in. to 1 in. long. They are
mounted on a holder and are gripped
by a collet contracted by a draw rod
operated by the finger nut seen at the
end of the handle.
The device iliustrated is by one of
the more famous of the American fine
tool manufacturers and its availability

THE AMATEURS

today may be doubtful. However,

can make these pieces of
quite easily, cutting up an old rule
supply the scales needed.

The Taper Gauge

!
Whilst not exactly meriting the de
cription of a rule the taper gaui
illustrated in Fig. 11 is used to measul
the diameter of holes. These gaugl
are graduated in 0.001 in. and tl
example shown has a range from 0,
in. to 0.5 in. They are very simple 1
use, all that is needed is to push tl
proper blade into the hole when i
diameter may be read off directly.

APTER 23

AWKING-OUT
is the operation of indicating on components their finished dimensions,
ell as the location of any drilled or
:d holes that may be required, in
ndance with the dimensions inted in the machine drawings; in
.tion. guide and reference lines are
ribed as a further aid to the
hinist.
he purpose of this process is two; hrstlyl to ensure that a componsuch as a castina will allow for
hing to the rsq&ed dimensions,
will not have to be discarded
n partly machined; and secondly,
hmenston lines, by indicating the
cribed limits, will hasten the
hining of the part, and will also
*d against the perpetration
of
rs and spoilt WC:>.
Larking-out prior to machining is
normal and recognised procedure
he small machine-shop,
where
:les are made singly or in small
iber:, but this operation, however
performed, cannot attain absolaccuracy any more than can the
,equent machining processes. The
degree of accuracy ofthe finished
will be the outcome of the inracy due to marking-out added to
of machining, and any cancellingIf these errors will depend only on
ice.
productionwork,
marking-out is
ensed with and instead, the machzarries out the work with great
racy on the component located by
ns of a jig or fixture: and in this
even the inherent inaccuracy of
nachine may be eliminated by the
lfguides and guide bushes.
ven in the small workshop,

marking-out is not employed prior to

the machining of components such as
gear wheels, for here the teeth are
machine indexed, and their form is
determined by a machining operation,
which ensures greater accuracy than
could be achieved by working to
dimension lines.
The Qatum Line or Surface
As in the case of a mechanical drawing, a base line is used in marking-out
when scribing dimension
lines and
locating centre points on the work.
When marking-out sheet metal, the
process is very similar to that used on
the drawing board, but, in the case of
castings and objects of more solid
form, a surface and not a line is
usually necessary for reference.
In the first place, therefore, a flat
surface should be prepared by filing
or machining, to afford a stable base
on which the component can stand on
the surface plate or other plane surface.
From this datum or reference surface all dimension lines and location
points should be marked-off by means
of a surface gauge used where necessary in conjunction
with other appliances on the surface plate or marking-out table.
When marking-out the centres of a
series of holes, for example, it is important that each in turn should be
located from a single datum point; for
if, on the other hand, each centre is
marked-off from the previous centre
and there is an error of, say, fivethousandths
of an inch in the setting
of the dividers, there will then be a
cumulation
of this error, and the

THE AMATEURS WORKS

196

tres should be marked-out in the

inst,nce, for not only is this g
more convenient, but the prel
machining operations by obli
the datum line may render
marking-out difficult to accom
Fig. 1. Setting
the dividers
with a
micrometer

tenth hole of the series will be located

forty-five-thousandths
out of place,
whereas, when each hole is located
from a common centre the error
should never exceed five-thousandths
of au inch.
Stages in Marking-out
In many instances it would be impracticable to transfer all the details of
the machine drawing to the work at
one setting and the usual practice is,
therefore, to provide such marking-off
as is necessary for the machining immediately required.
For example, when machining the
casting of an engine cylinder, the first
operation is usually to bore and face
the part. In this case, all the markingout required is the indication of the
centres from which the machinist can
set up the work, and, in addition to the
true dimension line, a witness line
should be scribed to indicate the limit
of the preliminary boring operat.ion.
After the casting h.as been bored
and faced, it is again marked-out on
the machined surfaces to show the
position of the stud and bolt holes.
When preparing
plate or sheet
material
for machining,
both the
dimension lines and the drilling cen-

Errors in Marking-out
If the datum surface is not truly
the component
may rock on
surface plate and thus assume
different positions; this is liable
cause inaccuracy and confusion, as t
marking-out
may, in this case,
located from two instead of from
single datum surface.
In the same way, a burr on
datum surface arising from car
handling, or a metal chip, may c
rocking or displacement of the wo
with attendant
inaccuracy
duri
marking-out.
Errors may also arise from the
of defective tools, as when the jo
of callipers and dividers or the adj
able parts of the surface gauge are
need of attention, and are liable
move when in use.
Mishandling
of these tools, a
failure to keep them in a place
safety on the bench, may also result
their adjustment
being upset u
wittingly.
A convenient and accurate met
of adjusting the dividers, and
often used by mecha.nics, is to
the setting by means of a micromet
as shown in Fig. I,
In order that only the points oft
dividers may make contact with t
micrometers measuring surfaces, t
tips should be finely tapered, or, bett
still, the outer surface of the po
should be ground flat, and only
inner and side surfaces are stoned
when the points are sharpened.
Even if, in the first instance, the
setting of the, dividers is found to be
incorrect, by this method very fine
adjustments
can be made when a
process of trial and error is adopted.

197

IARKINC OUT
WE importance of using a datum
line or surface in marking-out
* has already been stressed, and in
ae case of sheet material this iine may
uffice as a base for all subsequent
larking-out operations comprising
No-dimensional lining-out, but when
ealing with work of more solid form,
datum surface is necessary to enable
ae marking-out to be undertaken in
a.ree planes in space, thus representrgthree-dimensional delineation.
Usually this datum surface or base
rill not of itself afford adequate
uidance for the marking tools emloyed, and it becomes necessary to
xtend this r-:ference base by resting
he work on a large flat surface, from
rhich all points and dimensions can
elocated.

he extent of the surface employed

lust be adequate to accommodate
ae work, together with the appliances
sed for marking-out. In the case of
trge castings, a marking-out table
nth planed cast-iron top and edges is
,,ii^r .wVln
..-.... z she& of
sed, but for ~zk.~~~.
late-glass or a surface plate may be
mployed.
For this purpose the machinenished surface plate is quite satisactory, but in the small workshop the
and-scraped surface plate is often
mployed in this way, in addition to
:s normal use as a reference surface.
Although the surface plate is
sually of massive construction and is
eavily ribbed to afford rigidity, it is
nportant that it should be protected
rom damage when not in use, and on
o account should it be employed as a
ammering block, for any burrs or
istortion so caused will inevitably
:ad to inaccuracy when marking-out
iundertaken.
When large work is dealt with, the
able should be accurately levelled so
hat a spirit-level can be employed to

Fig. 2.

Common

form

REMOVE THREAD FROM

NUT 6 CUT AWAY
SHADED
POR-ION

Fig. 3.

Clamp

made

of angle

D~,LL
SCREW

from

S rAp

plate

,cOR

AS SHOWN

a nut

facilitate setting and marking-out the

component.
Angle Plates
Usually a component can be markedout while resting on its iltum surface
on the surface plate but, on the other
hand, at this stage there may be no
machined datum surface, and the part
is then attached to a fixture such as an
angle plate, which itself furnishes the
datum surface. An example of the
type of angle plate in common use is
depicted in Fig. 2.
These fixtures are provided with
holes or slots for attaching the work
by means of bolts or dogs, but at times
clamps are used for this purpose;
these clamps may be of the ordinary G
variety or of the toolmakers pattern,
but for securing sheet material the
type shown in Fig. 3 will be found

THE AMATEURS

Fig. 4.

Box angle

plate

convenient. and the method of making them will be readiiy gathered from
t hc drawing.
The bo:x angle nlaie; shown in Fk. 4
with its six machined surfaces, iy a
more etaborate and more generally
usefui~ form of fixture, for, with the
work attached to one face, the five
remaining surfaces may be used at will
for positioning
?he work, and it
folfows that at a single setting a component can. be marked-out
in three
planes at right angles. In some
patterns of these angle ~plates T-slots
are provided to facilitate the work of
clamping.
The adjustable angle plates and
tilting tables, largely used in connection with drilli;,g and milling operations, may be employed for setting
work on the surface plate when
marking-out.
-1

and
Some difhculty may at times be experienced when mounting
irregular
work on the surface plate, for example
the machined datum face may carry
a tenon as in the case of a tailstock
sole-plate, and two similar packing
pieces will then be required to support
the work.
To ensure equality of thickness, these
parallel packing pieces are ground on
all their longitudinal
faces, and in
aeking

Strips

WORKSHO

addition the surface may be chromii,$

plated to afford protection fromdan
age and rusting.
Where critical adjL. nent of th
height of setting is rec...ired, adjus
able packing strips, or adjustabl
parallels as they dare called, canb
used with advantagecfor these device
cant be accurately,.set to any ,require
height by means oft a micromete
From the drawing bindFig. Fit will t
seen that theseparallelsare
compose
of two grooved members, sliding :o
an inclined~ plane, and capable .I
being locked,in any position by apse
screw.
Screw Jacks
Small screw jacks and at times wedge:
are largely used for setting wor~k ,o
the marking-out
table, either in th
level position or incliued at an an&t
the surface. Fig. 6 shows one of a pa
of screw ,jacks that were special1
made for adjusting the positionc
heavy castings on a large marking,o%
table.

Fig. 5.

Adjustable

Fig. 5.
Screw Jack

parallels
Pig. 7.
V-block

Precisio

199
bl:ocks of the. type ihustrated in Fig. 7
are provided, afford a ,ready means of
setting the work at various heights,
and the:clamps may bebused, to secure
the.work in;position during markingout.
:i .
(Thelarger V-blocks, which are al~so
machined~in pai:rs;usually have only a
single, op:en V for: supporting ,round
material of large diamete,r. .A ~large
plain V-block is illust~rated in F&.8:
The jack screw is made from a $$n.
S.F. Alien screw. and the head is
Led:with a 4 in. bearing bal! ~firnily
&sed into place; but for smaller
Irk a screw jack of half this size with
k in. screw and a & in. ball will be
und more convenient.
To reduce working friction, part&
irly when heavy castings ax dealt
t&the base member ofrhejack may
fitted with a bronze bush threaded
engage thejack screw.
The head of the jack should :~be
xs-drilled
for t,he insertion of a
mmy bar, to give increased leverage
Edto faciiitate adjustmeni
in awktrd positions.

,blocks of cast-iron or hardened

:el are used to support and locate
und work on the surface plate.
These blocks should be purchased
pairs, to ensure that they are alike
.d will support the work parallel
th the surface on which t.hey rest.
The four V-grooves, with which
g. 11.

The scribirig

gauge

SotfaCe :Ghugev ot &rib&g IMockS

These devices are used for scribing
lines on plane or irregular.surfaees at a
predetertnined djstan.ce fr,om :he: base
surface, and,ih addition they may be
emnfoyed~ to set components in parallel alignment with thesurface
of the
markin~g-out table.
,,
~Tn the :universal type of gauge
illustlated-in~~~~.,~9, and recommended
for genenil .use, theheavy base, member has a truly flat under-surface: in
:,.:
..,, ,;
~ ~> .;T ~::, , ~~~
Fiti, 3: JYfj&~8~ ,:.,~
S&)p& ga:uge~, ,i:: ~.

200
which a V-groove is machined
to
afford a location on cylindrical work.
In addition, the base is furnished
with retractable guide pegs, by means
of which the appliance can, if desired,
be guided from the edge of the surface
plate or other machined surface. The
sma!ler forms of surface gauges are
usually equipped with a removeable
guide piece for clamping to the base,
and the guide pegs are then omitted.
The two-ended scriber is carried in
a bracket which is clamped to th:e
vertical pillar of the gauge.
This pillar is in turn clamped in a
cross-drilled
spindle, which can tie
rotated to impart a radial movement
to the pillar for adjusting the height f,,f
the scriber point.
Fine adjustment of height is effec:ted by means of a rocking gear, comprising a radial arm attached to the
piiiar clamp and controlled by a fine
thread finger-screw.
Ifdesired, the pillar can be removed
and the scriber mounted directly- in
the pillar clamp when working close
to the base of the gauge. As in the
previous case, fine adjustment 0: the
position of the scriber point is affected
by means of the screw-controlled
rockinggear.
As previously mentioned, the surface gauge may be used for levelling
and positioning :vork on the surface
plate; for this purpose the curved end
of the scriber is turned downwards,
and is then applied to various points
on ?he work under adjustment until
uniformcontact
is obtained.
In addition to its use as a setting
gauge, the surface gauge is more often
employed for scribing lines parallel
with a reference surface or edge.
It is essential that an accurate method of setting the scriber point should
be adopted, when the surface gauge is
used to scribe lines or locate points at a
definite distance from the surface of
the marking-out
table. Whenever a
rule is used fr.r this purpose, an angle

THE AMATEURS

WORKSHC

plate or a special rule-holder shoul

be employed, to ensure that the rule
maintained in a truly vertical positio
while the setting is made.
The device shown in Figs. IO an
IOA which was specially designed fc
this purpose, will hold securely an
accurately any rule of standard widt
without obscuring the graduations.
The accurate setting of the scribe
point against the rule will be facilita
ed if the scriber itself is positione
horizontally,
and a magnifying glar
is used when making the final adjus
ment.
Distinct but lightly cut lines shoul
be made when scribing with the SUI
face gauge, for any attempt to cu
deeply into the metal will result i
inaccurate marking due to springin
or displacement
of the scriber, al
though the rigidity of the scriber wi.
be enhanced if it is clamped in it
Fig. 10.

The rule stand

RKING

201

OUT

.cket with the minimum

UT.

of over-

is device, which is depicted in Figs.

and IIA, will be familiar to woodrkers as the scratch gauge, but in
s instance some modifications have
:n introduced to make it suitable
metal work.
Lts compactness
renders it more
nvenient than the surface gauge for
,tbing lines parallel with a reference
ge. and the length of its base, unlike
: jenny caliipers, ensures that true
railelism at an exact distance from
: base line is maintained, particularn thecase ofsheet metal work.
As will be seen in the drauing, a
ding scribing bar> clamped in the
se member, carries a removeable
3ber point, which is adjusted to set
: bar in a horizontal positicen when
$. 10.

the

rule

stand

Fig. 11A.

The scribing

gauge

the fence is in contact with the work.

To avoid its digging into the work,
the scriber point should be set with
a slight inclination to give a trailing
action.
Fig. 10A.

The rule stand

r
------ -.LI.L--l
I+-

;: CENTRE OF GROOVE O*ll

WIDTH FOR 6 BP,
RETAINING SCREW

Q--

202

THE AMATEURS

Squares are ,used in marking-out

either wherrappiied
to anedge as in
sheet metal work, or standing on the
surface plate for marking vertical
lines, or to set surfaces and scribed
lines in theverticalposition.
Needless to say, only accurate
squares of good quality should be
employed for this purpose, and to
minimise wear the blade should be
hardened.
The edge of the bIade*should
be
plain, and not double-bevelled
as in
some t~vpes of tooimakers
squares
otherw;se errors of marking-out may
arise owing to the p-?sition of the line
scribed varying with th.e angle at
which the scriber is held.
For convenience, and to avoid encumbering the surface ofthe marking;
out table, squares of various sizes
should be provided for use with large
and small work.

Fig. 13.

Jenny

WORKSHO

callipers

this spirit-level may be used to SC

components F;~rallel with the surfac
ofthe table.
Since the blade can be clamped r
any point in the head, the combim
tion square makes a useful parall
marking gauge, and in addition it ma
be used as a depth gauge when marl
ing-out. For the sake of convenieno
a scriber is held frictionally in the hea
and ready for immediate ,use. Whe
the centre head, shown in Fig. 12
substituted for the ordinary head, tl
tool can be used to find the centre of
shaft or other cylindrical part.
The addition of a protractor hea
completes the usual equipment of tl:
combination
,square, and enable
angular work to be set out on tlmarking-out table.

The CQmbi~ati~~ Square

Although the combination square can
be used as an ordinary try-square, it
has the further advantage that then XXviders
When this tcol is used for spacing tl
stock or head slides on the grooved
distance
between points or for scril
blade and can be clamped to it at any
ing
circles,
one leg should be locate
desired point. Combined with the
by means of a small punch dot, i
stock of the square is a spirit-level and
order to avoid errors dueto,change
(
a 45-degree
mitre-square.~ If the
position
during
the
operation.
marking-out
tabie is set truly level,
Fig.

12.

The centre

~,#::,

head

Senny, Hermaphro@ite or
Odd-legs Callipers
This tool is generally used for scribir
lines parallel with and at a predete
mined distance from a reference edl
on the work.
As a rule, these callipers are mat
with a~plain frictional joint, as shov
innFig: 13 but some mechanics pref
the type fitted with a screw adjus
ment and illustrated in Fig. 14. As tl
latter form cannot &purchased,
the
have to be made from~a pair of scre\
adjustable inside callipers, One leg

ARKING

203

OiT

Fig. 15.

Fig. 14.

The scriber

Modifie
Fig. 16.

The centre

hortened and a piece of steel to CdrIy

set-screw and hold the scriber
nt is brazed on; the other leg is
heated and turned inwards as
n in the drawing. The scriber
e from a new gramo-

gently pressed into contact with

end of the rule.
f the joint of the ca!!ipers is in order
s setting should be exactly main-

is provided with a reversible point

which fits within the handle and is
retained in place by a screw chuck.
As a further safeguard, the upper
end of the handle is made of hexagon
form to prevent the tool from rolling
on the bench.
As in the case. of dividers, the
scriber should be sharpened periodically, for the pressure which it is necessary to apply to a blunt scriber may
cause uisplacement of the guide rule
with consequent
inaccuracy
during
marking-out operations.
centre

attention. The
ustable type is easily set by
ing the contact leg against the end
the rule and then bringing the
criber point into register with the
raduation required.

t might be thought that

design nor the use of the
ires description, this is far
g the case; for a faulty
ts improper use may cause
t of the scriber
, especially when
kit or allowed to

punch

Punches

For the initial marking

of centre
points, a centre punch with a fine
point of some 60 degrees included
angle should be used, and in the case
of drill holes, this should be followed
by a punch of 90 degrees or more,
Fig. 16, to afford adequate location
for thedrill.
It is important that the marking
punch should have a really sharp
point, otherwise it will be found that
no proper centre is formed to locate
the point of the dividers when spacing
out dimensions or scribingcircles.
When marking-out,
centre points
are usually located by the intersection
of two scribed lines, and it is here
essential that the punch point should
be exactly placed; this will be greatly
facilitated t:; employing a magnifying

2CM
glass, and the punch must be held
truly vertical to ensure that the centre
is not drawn over to one side when the
punch is struckwith the bammer.
The hammer used for this purpose
should be of light weight, but well
balanced, to enable decisive but wellcontrolled blows to be struck.
As great accuracy is demanded of
the fine tools used for marking-out,
their carefmpreservation
will be well
repaid. The small kit of band tools
requi:ed may be kept in a separate box
or drawer near the marking-out table
and ready for immediate use, whilst
the larger tools and appliances should
be stored together in a cabinet se that
they are readily accessible, but are at
tile same time well protected from
possible damage.

~ ;,
~
,,

When components are made singly or

in small numbers, some preliminary
work is usually required to prepare
them for the actua! marking-out
process. In the case of castings of
Pa
malleable iron, brass and aluminium
alloys, as we3 as forgings, some setting
or straightening
may be required to
give the parts their correct form,
otherwise the excessive removal of
metal during machining, in an attempt
to remedy the distortion,
may well
render the casting useless.
In addition, as the component is not
positioned for machining in a jig, it is
usually necessary at the outset to provide a flat reference or datum surface
for locating the part on the markingout table, and later to position it for
machining.
In the case of sheet metal work,
however, a straight base edge may be
formed, from which centres can be
located and dimensions marked-off as
in making a machine drawing; this
edge can also be used later to locate
the work for machining operations.

THE AMATEURS

WORKSHO

In the above example the base lir

serves for two-dimensional
markin;
out, but where solid objects are COI
cerned
three-dimensional
markir
may be required and a datum surfac
becomes necessary in most cases.
The datum surface is prepare
either by machining or by filing ar
scraping, and it is essential that
should be truly flat to avoid ar
possibility of rocking on the markin,
out table; at the same time it must i
so positioned as to ensure that tt
dimensions specified in the machit
drawing can be accommodated on tl
component when marking-out. Sam
times the datum surface is not USC
directly, but the component is locate
by this surface on an angle plate (
other fixture during both the markin,
out and machining operations.
In this manner, as has already her
mentioned, when the part is attache
to a box angle plate, five of its surfao
can be marked-out
or machined :
accurate
rectangular
relationsh
without alterations ofthe setting.
In addition to sheet metal work ar
solid objects, a third type of con
ponent,
represented
by a hollo
cylinder, frequentlv hasto be market
out. For example, the casting of 2
engine cylinder with cast-in bore mu
be marked-out to enable the bore ar
flanges to be machined,
prior
marking-out
and machining the stt
holes in the cylinder flanges.
After it has been ascertained th
the bore is centrally placed in the car
ing, the centre line of the bore
marked-out as a guide to the machi
ist when adjusting the casting for tl
boring operation. To enable this to 1
carried out, plugs of metal or ha:
wood are fitted to the bore at eith
end, and the bore centres are markc
on these by means of dividers or jem
callipers; from these centres dime:
sional and witness circles are scribe
as a guide to the operator.
In the case of a large cylinde

Fig. 17.

Using

bridge

pieces

most generally used appliance for the

quick and ready marking-out
of
simple dimensions, and for locating
drilling centres in much of the work
encountered
in the small machineshop. Moreover, this tool can also be
used for marking lines parallel with a
datum edge, finding the centre of a
shaft, marking the pitch circle for the
stud holes in a cylinder cover, and
other work of a similar nature.
Scribing Lines Parallel to
a Datum Edge
The simplest operation for which the
jenny is used is the scribing of a~line
parallel to the edge of a piece of plate
material. Such a line may be required
forthelocatinnofdrillingcentres,orit
may be used as a witness line when
filing. The method employed to scribe
a parallel dimension line is illustrated
in Fig. 18 and, as one leg of the jenny
has a guide or contact surface set at a
predetermined
distance
from the
Figs. 18 and 18. Using

Jenny

callipers

THE AMATEURS

206

Figs, 20 and 24. Using

Jenny

callipers

scribing point, it is essential that a true

face or edge should be provided to
ensure the accurate transfer of dimension to the work.
for Bolt Holes
The operation
of marking-off
the
centres of four bolt holes on a square
piece ofmaterialisillustratedin
Fig. 19.
In this case, the jenny is set to the
distance ofthecentre ofthe hoies from
the edge of the component,
and the
intersections of the four scribed lines
indicate the drilling cenires for the
bolt holes. It will be appreciated that
this principle may also be used to
mark-off additional
holes on the same
component, if the jenny is reset to the
distance of the new centres from the
edge ofthe work.
ar~~R~-out

Centres

Finding the Centre of a Shaft

One of the more common uses of the
jenny callipers is to determine the
centre of a round shaft. To do this, the
jenny is set to the approximate
halfdiameter of the shaft and, as shown in
Fig. 20 four arcs roughly at right angles
to one another are scribed on the end
oftheshaft.
The centre of the small area enclosed by these arcs is the centre of the
shaft, and this can be accurately determined by resetting the jenny until it is

Figs.

22 and 23. Using

WORKSHC

Jenny

calliper

found that the arcs meet exactly at

centralpoint.
Pitch Circles
It is sometimes required to scribe th
pitch circle of a series of holes on
component, such as a cylinder cove]
which has a circular periphery a
register. This is readily done by usin
the jenny callipers, which are set equs
to rhe distance between the pitc
circle and the periphery of the cover
Fig. 21 illustrates the method c
setting and using the callipers, and i
will be seen that the dimension A =
C-B
2
Marking-out
will be facilitated i;
this instance if the work is rotated, a
shown by the arrow, and the jenny i
he!d stationary; otherwise, the scrib
ing point will tend to rotate about th
guide leg and a circle of varyinl
diameter may result.
It may, in some cases, be fount
more convenient to scribe from thl
inner machined surface or bore of i
component, and the method here usit
is similar to the foregoing, except tha
the jenny is set equal to the distance
between the pitch circle and the bore
as shown in Fig. 22, where A = B---L
2

tKlNG

207

OUT

1the operation i!lustrated in Fig. 23

jenny is used ?o scribe a pitch
le on the edge of a disc or shaft,
the method is like that employed
marking-out a line parallel to the
e of a component.
as shown in
24 but in this case it is -more readily
.ied out ifthe work is rotated while
1 in the chuck on ihe lathe
ldrel.
Surface
Gauge to Find the
itres of a Shaft
his case? as is shown in Fi,q, 24, the
ft is supported in a like pair of V:ks on the surface plate. and the
er then prorides
the extended
urn sttrface for the guidance of the
Face pduge or other app!iances.
he V-blocks should be positioned
far apart as possible in order to
uce any error of alignment arising
II lack of straightness of the shaft,
, it may be found that clamping the
ft in one V-block will facilitate the
rking-out operation.
LSZustrated in Fig. 25 the height of
upper surface of the shaft is set on
surface gauge and then measured
I rule supported in a stand; if neces, the height of the rule should be
usted to Indicate an exact fraction
.ninchatthispoint.
rlext. the diameter of the shaft is
lsured either directly by means ofa
:rometer or callipers, or the height
the lower surface of the shaft,
ained by using the surface gauge
I rule, can be subtracted from the
ght of the upper surface to deterag the

.24 Supporting
/-

a shaft

in V-blocks

Fig. 26. Using

the surfisce
gauge

mine the shaft diameter. The scriber

point is then lowered by an amount
equal to half the diameter of the shaft,
and a line is scribed across the end of
the shaft as in Fig. 26.
The shaft is now rotate&in the Vbiocks through an angle of approximately 180 degrees, and the sc:riber
point of t.he surface gauge is brought
into contact with one end of the
scribed tine. The scriber is then applied totheotherendofthetinewithout
moving
.the shaft, and, if the coincidence is Fxact, the scribed line passes
through the centre of the shaft, but if
not, the scriber must be adjusted to
halve the discrepancy and a new line is
traced. This new setting should be
checked by again rotating the shaft
and applying the scriber to either end
of the line.
After the centre line has been truly
scribed, the shaft is rotated through an
angle of 90 degrees by using a try
square in conjunction with the scribed
centre line as shown in Fig. 27, and a
seccnd centre line is then scribed with
the surface gauge at right angles to the
first.
The intersection of these two centre
lint,; indicates the centre of the &aft.
Fig. 26. Using
the centre
line

Fig. 27.
Using the square

/
f-4

FLUID

l-l

208
Marking-out for Squaring
the End of a Shaft
The method used includes the geometrical construction
described for
marking a sqxue on the end of a shaft.
Paint the end portion of the shaft
with marking fluid, and with thejenny
callipers scribe a line A, to denote the
length of the square. by rotating the
shaft in V-blocks on the surface plate.
The shaft is then -lamped in one ofthe
V-blocks to prevent further rotation.
Find the cenire of the shaft as alread)
described. and with a mitre square or
prtraitrJr sii~ve a line ;i; 45 &.giccs
through the centre. Set :he scriber
point of the surface gauge to one end
of this line, and scribe lines on either
side of the shaft supto the line A and
also across the end of the shaft. Set the
scriber to the other end of the 45
degrees line and scribe three further
lines in the same manner. The four
lines thus scribed on the sides of the
shaft will denote the corners of the
square required, and the figure is completed on the end of the shaft by using
a try square.
If a square with a diagonal smaller
than the shaft diameter is to be formed
the shaft should be turned to the correct diameter prior to maiking-out.
The length ofthe diagonal of a square,
and hence the shaft diameter required,
is 1 41 times the length of its side.
Use of the Surface Gauge
When marking-out
a keyway on a
shaft by means of the su,rface gauge,
the shaft isclamped in V-blocks on the
surface plate, and the horizontal
centre line is scribed across the ertd of
the shaft by the method already illustrated in Figs. 2.5 and 26. The scriber
point is then set in turn, by means of
the rule, the half the width of the ke;way both above and below the centre
line, and lines are scribed across the
end of the shaft and along its sides for
a distance equal to the length of the
keyway.

THE AMATEURS

WORKSHC

Boththelengthandthedepthoftl
keyway are marked with the jem
callipers, and these dimensions a
then marked-out
by using the t
square standing on the surface plat
Fig. 27.
When two keyways at an interval
180 degrees have to be marked-out c
opposite sides of the shaft, the sari
procedure is adopted, but in .this i
stance the second keyway is marke
out by applying the surface gaugs
the opposite side of the shaft at eat
settingofthescriberpoint.
Angular Location of Kegways
A number of keyways or splines c;
be marked-out by rotating the sha
in the V-b!ocks and setting its cent
line to the appropriate angle by mea:
of a protractor Pig. 28 and &. 29. I
this method, too, a keyway or keyse
can be marked-oat
in any require
angular relationship to the .centre Ii]
of the shaft, or to another keyway,
is sometimes necessary when cuttil
keyseats in a petrol en,+ne half-tin
shaft for locating a ~a::: or a ge,
pinion.
Marking-out Internal Keywags
Internal keyways in flywheels, ge
wheels and collars can also be marke
out in the same way after the machi
ing of the component has been car
pleted.
Smaller components
such as ge
wheels can usually be fitted to i
arbor supported in V-blocks whl
Fig. 28. Setting
ways at an angle

out for

marking

ke

,RKING

209

OUT

I. 29. Setting
out far
ys at an angle
.
,rn!iig-oui

marking

------I
key.<~yS~
?~ILCIJ~~~

key-

Cl-d in

s case also it may be necessary to

intain a definite angular location
m a gear tooth, or an integrally
med cam to provide, for example,
the correct setting of the valve
king in a petrol engtne. The relative
ation of these components will be
rwn in the machine drawings. and
:se details should be closely obved when marking-out
to ensure
: correct assembly of the finished
3s.
The methods described for locating
iways apply also to the positioning
:ross-drilled holes in sh:rfts and the
ation ofdowels and register pins.
Irking-out a Duplicate Part
ren a component is broken or benes unfit for further service, the
:stion arises of making a copy ofthe
:t for use as a replacement. heed; to say, where the original part is of
tple design and is but little defective
.30.
Determining
een centres

the distance

be-

it can, in some instances, be used as a

template or guide both for machining
the overall dimensions and for drilling
any holes required.
In general, the first procedure is to
select a datum surface or surfaces
from which the dimension of the part
and the location of bolt and bearing
holes can be determined.
Following
this, either an accurate drawing can
be made and the dimensions transferred therefrom to the work, or, in
the case of parts of simple constructtion, these dimensions can be markedout directly on the material prepa~ratory to machining.
The actual dimensions of a part are
measured either by rule, callipers.
depth gauge or micrometer according
to the degree of accuracy required,
and the dimensions of a duplicate part
are likewise checked after markingout and machining have been completed.
The position of a hole in relation to
a datum surface can be conveniently
determined by fitting a short piece of
turned rod to the hole, and then
measuring the distance of the circumference from the datum surface with
either a plain or a micrometer depth
gauge, and subtracting therefrom half
the diameter ofthe rod.
To determine the distance between
the centres of two holes, pieces of rod
should be fitted as in the previous
example, and, as illustrated in Fig. 30
the overail dimension A is measured
and half the length of the diameters
B and C is then subtracted to give
the inter-centre distance D.
Reference to Fig. 31 will show a
method of setting-out hole centres,
whose distance apart has already been
measured.
Determine
the distance of both
centres from the horizontal
datum
surface as indicated by the lines A
and B, and scribe these centre lines
by means of the jenny callipers or
scribmg gauge. Scribe the vertical

THE AMATEURS

Fig. 31.

Marking-off

Fig. 32. Alternative

ing-off
hole centres

hole

method

centres

of mark-

crntre line of the first hole from the

vertical datum surface, and from the
point of intersection, which indicates
the hole centre, scribe an arc with a

WORKS

radius D equal to the intercer,

distance of the two halves; this sect
point of intersection will indicate
centre ofthe other hole.
An alternative method of marki
out these hole centres is illustrates
Fig. 32 the vertical centre lines or
ordinates are first drawn at the corr
distance apart and the horizor
centre lines are then scribed to lot
the hole centres. The distances A r
B of the hole centres from the vet5
datum surface are measured wit1
depth gauge as already described: a
if necessary the rod is removed fr,
the first hole when the position of
second is being determined.
The co-ordinates are then mark,
out in accordance with these measu
ments. In a similar manner the hc
zontal centre distances are measul
and the points of intersection of I
horizontal lines C and D with I
co-ordinates indicate the hole cent
repaired.

:HAPTER

24

WE Dial Test Indicator is probably one of the most important

items in the tool kit of the serious
,orker. It enables him to set his work
lrrectly in the machine tool he is
sing, and also allows him to check
re accuracy of the machines and
teirequipment.
Dialindicatorsaremadeinavariety
f forms- but those most commonly
mpioyed
have
clock-type
faces
pence the colloquial name for the
evice the clockj and are operated by
plunger driving a train of gears set in
le body of the instrument.
The
lunger may project from either side
f, the indicator as seen in Ffg. 1 or
:ay enter the body from the back as
Tillappear in later tllustraiions.
,The range and capacity of the inicator varies but those of general
tility are graduated in one-thousandIS of an inch and have a maximum
ieasuringcapacity
of 4 in.
The indicator
is designed te be
taunted on a suitable stand such as
16: Eclipse magnetic base already
lustrated in Fig. I or it may be
ttached, as we shaii see presently, to a
onventional surface gauge enabling it
I be set by means of the rocking lever
djustment common!y provided.
The bezel of the instrument carrytg its dial can be rotated, and in some
ases subsequently
locked,
when
:tting the indicator needle to zero
efore taking a readin_p.
The plunger fitted IS normally suplied with a single contact, either in
se form of a baii in a holder or a
lrger spherical foot screwed~ to the
lunger extremity.
But there are
umbers of applications where either
f the two feet mentioned would be of

little use. The user must then furnish

himse!f with additional feet such as
those depicted in the illustration
Fig. 2.

All three feet are designed to fit over

the plunger of the indicator and are
held in place by the thumb screw seen
in the illustration. The foot depicted
on the ieft is an extension enabling the
indicator, to reach what might ot.herwise be an inaccessible surface. Extensions of this nature are sometimes
provided \iiith a !ong pointed stem
that may be used, for exampie, on a
narrow projection such as a spigot
machined or a component held m the
lathe chuck.
Fig. 1. A dial indicator
mounted
Eclipse
magnetic
base

on an

THE AMATEURS

Fig. 2.
catoi

Fig. 3.
surface

Alternative

Dial

feet

indicator

foi

the

mounted

indi-

on a

gauge

Fig.4.
Three
mounting

formsof

spigot

indicator

Fig. 5. The indicatorset

on thespigot
mounting
and alternative
mount
for
clamping
to a lathe tool

WORXSHOI

The extension in the middle, know1

as the elephants foot, is particularb
useful when applied to tapers as wil
be seen later. The third extension i
another elephrnts foot able to reacl
further than the first.
When the indicator is mounted OI
the surface gauge, as illustrated il
Fig. 3, it may be used fcr a variety o
purposes such as setting work true ir
the4-jaw independentchuck.
In ihis instance the pins in the has!
of the mounting are pressed down am
engaged with the ways ofthe lathe bet
to prev-nt the base from moving.
It is not always convenient to use i
large and somewhat bulky mounting
for the indicator, particularly
wher
the instrument is employed about the
lathe or shaping machine.
Fig. 1
shows three forms of spigot mountini
suitable for use under the lathe tool,
post. That at A is a fixed spigo
designed for gripping in the 4-wa!
toolpost. At B is a telescopic versior
of the same device that allows the dia
indicator to be mounted as close to thr
toolpost as possible. It consists of i
split adapter fitted with a retractable
spigot upon which the clamp of the
indicator is placed.
The adapter illustrated at C is in
tended to be slipped under the centrr
bolt ofthe tootpost.
It is illustrated again in Fig. 5 when
it is depicted with the dial indicator ir
place. Also in the same illustration is s
small clamp that permits the indicator
to be attached directly to a too
mounted in the toolpost. This devia
is particularly applicable to the smal
indicators
with rear entry plunger
The economy of space and the versa
tility of application
offered by thi!
attachment make it, in our opinion
one of the simplest and best ways 01
using the dial indicator in connectior
with machine tools. The details of the
clamp are given in Fig. 6.
The mounting
in Fig. 7 was
designed and made specifically for the

IE DIAL

213

TEST INDICATOR

g. 6. Details
: the mounting
kr clamping
I the lathe
101

rummond !athe. It fits directly into

le feed screw tunne! of the top slide
here it is he!din place by the expandbolt assembly seen at the right of
12 device. It wiil be appreciated
that
te number of articulations provided
Lake this a very versatile mounting,
ipable of being a?tached equally
,ell to t~he tail of the cross slide or to
ie back toolpost provided a suitable
tounting block is available.
Working drawings of the mounting
s applied to the Drummond lathe are
aown in Fig. 8.

The Internal Attachment

The internal attachment
depicted in
Fig. 9, where the indicator is seen
mounted in the 4-way toolpost, can be
used for many applications, the first of
these being the setting of work truly,
either in the 4-jaw independent chuck
or on the faceplate, using a reference
hole already bored in the part to be
machined.
The parts of the attachment,
LS
Fig. 7. Indicator
Drummond
lathe

mounting

for

the

IE DIAL

213

TEST INDICATOR

g. 6. Details
: the mounting
kr clamping
I the lathe
101

rummond !athe. It fits directly into

le feed screw tunne! of the top slide
here it is he!din place by the expandbolt assembly seen at the right of
12 device. It wiil be appreciated
that
te number of articulations provided
Lake this a very versatile mounting,
ipable of being a?tached equally
,ell to t~he tail of the cross slide or to
ie back toolpost provided a suitable
tounting block is available.
Working drawings of the mounting
s applied to the Drummond lathe are
aown in Fig. 8.

The Internal Attachment

The internal attachment
depicted in
Fig. 9, where the indicator is seen
mounted in the 4-way toolpost, can be
used for many applications, the first of
these being the setting of work truly,
either in the 4-jaw independent chuck
or on the faceplate, using a reference
hole already bored in the part to be
machined.
The parts of the attachment,
LS
Fig. 7. Indicator
Drummond
lathe

mounting

for

the

215

THE DIAL TEST INDICATOR

Fig. 15. Internal
entry indicator

attachment

for side-

ord2r to obtain
position.

?he m<>si convenient

Adjusting the Indicator

The mechanism of the dial test indicator is d2licate and no good is don2
to the instrument 5~: rough treatment
such as banging n or iowering it
clumsily on :o the work. Vvhen the
indicator is mounted on the surface
gauge the user has at his command, as
has bzan said. a tine adjustment that
allows th2 instrumrnt to be brought
into contact with the work in a carefu!
11,;:11:1er.
It is not a!l.vays possible. hovvever.
to emp!oy the surface gaug2 for the
purpose so one must make use of any
device that can be added to the simple
mountings
that ha\-e already been
described. On2 of these mechanisms
is illustrated in Fig. 13. This fin2 adjustment device consists of a body
containing a worm and portion of a
wormwheel fitted with a spigot to hold
the indicator itself. The adjustment is
made by operating on2 or other of the
black plastic knobs placed above and
below the body of the device.
Using the Dial Test IndicatorThe Wobbler
An operation that lathe users need to
employ perhaps more than any other
is the setting of work accurately either
in the independent chuck or on the
faceplate. For the most part these
settings have to b2 made with reference to acentremarked
on the work or
else from a hole centre-drilled after the
work has been marked off.
Both these reference points entail
the use of a piece of equipment called
the wobbler in conjunction .with a
dial test indicator. The wobbler comprises a rod having a well-fitting spring
loaded plunger at one end. The plun~ger is centre drilled at its extremity so

Fig. 12.
indicator
chuck

Fig. 13.
indicator

Mounting
internal

Fine

for setting
dial
attachment
in the

adjustment

for

the

216
slocom be
centre
hole

Fig. 14.

6b@

point

Fig. 15.

Setting

Fig. 16.

Using

boring bar

The wobbler

the wobbler

the

indicator

to set a

that it can rest against a centre set in

the tailstock. The rod portion itself
has its point turned to an included
angle of 60 degrees so that it may be
engaged with the centre marked upon
the work. The wobbler is depicted in
Fig. 14. It is used in the manner
depicted i, Fig. 15. With the wobbler
in place as previously described the
dial indicator is brought into play
with its plunger resting against the rod
The chuck or faceplate is then turned
until the maximum point of eccentricity is ascertained. The indicator is
next to set at zero and the lathe again
turned until the minimum point of
eccentricity is found. This action will
also establish where the error lies in
relation to the chuck jaws or to a
marked position on the faceplate as
the case may be. The work may then
be moved for a distance of half the
indicator reading repeating the process until no movement of the clock
needle is observable. The work will
then be correctlycentred.
The dial indicator can also be used
for setting the tool in a boring bar.
The illustration Fig. I6 demonstrates
the way in which it is employed. When
using the instrument in this way its
overall range must be taken into
account. For the most part this range
is limited to & in. Therefore, movements of the tool in the bar must be
within this range. For this reason the
indicator is probably best employed
when setting the tatter for the final
two or three boring
operations,
remembering
that increments
of

THE DIAL

217

TEST INDICATOR

Fig. 17.
Checking
a pair
of common
V-blocks

0.001 in. tool movement enlarge the

boredholeO~O02ineachtime.
When setting the cutter the indicator must first be zeroed. This is done
by bringing the plunger foot into light
contact with the point of the tool and
then turning the lathe backwards until
a maximum positive reading is obtained, the bezel can then be turned to
bring zero on the dial under the
vindicator needle. Turn backwards cr
:the point of the tool will score the
plunger foot.
_,,:The test indicator can be used to
c,heck a variety of components such as
,Y-blocks and other equipment. Fig:
17 shows a method of checking a pair
of common V-blocks whilst in diagram Fig. 18, a pair of matching
blocks are shown being tested to
establish their surface accuracy before checking the work seatings.
It is manifestly impossible to list all
the possible uses for the indicator. T.ut
perhaps two more examples
will
suffice to encourage readers in the use
ofthe instrument. Bothexamples concern setting the vertical slide on the
lathe. In the first the indicator is applied to the standingjaw of the milling
vice Fig. 19. In the second example a
further use of the internal attachment
is depicted. Here, in Fig. 3, the
attachment is seen applied dire&y to
the worse-. This-method
is of value
when it is difficult to use the indicator
in the normal way.

Fig. 18.
V-blocks

Checking

Fig. 19.

Setting

a pair of matching
A

Fig. 20. Setting

vertical
slide

the vertical
work

slide

mounted

in the

ChAPTER

25

HE t2rm suds is applied to th2

used when machining
various mar~-rials in the lathe. At
072 tin12 ihiS iubricant
was a soapand-\vater nixture. hence the descriptive name suds. Today- on the other
hand. cutting oiis of various classes
312 a\,ailabie:
som2 of these are
soiub!2 in vvatrr. others are straight
oi!s?:ssd,\h.itiloutdilu~ion.~ndustrially,
til~M.lltrT-SCiluble;.ariet~ has, perhaps,
ii?2 greater
:!pp2al. Our own prefer2nce is for a straight oil because the
amateurs
various machine
tools,
contrary to rhosr of industry, often
have !ong periods ,when they are not in
use and euperiexe
has shown that
water-soluble lubricants. despite their
makers statements to the contrary,
seem to suffer in time from dissociation. The water, settling out, finds its
way into slides and this results in discolouration
because there is rarzly
sufficient oiliness to prevent it.
The simplest method of .+pplying
lubricant to work is to put it on with a
brush. It must h2 admitted, however,
that the process is a somewhat tedious
iuhricant

Fig.

1.

cutting

Simple
oii

method

of

applying

Fig. 2. Suds
the lathe

equipment

mounted

on

one. Nevertheless, this can be overcome by making use of a clip to hold

the brush against the work and attaching the device to some convenient object such a.s the back toolpost. By employing Terry clips in the way seen in
the illustration Fig. I the brush can be
quickly detached for replenishment
purposes. A useful device for light
cutting but not, of course, commendable when h2avy machining has to be
undertaken.
There is little doubt that complete
suds equipment is the answer to many
machiningproblems.
Inparticulaxthe
turning and drilling of stainless steel
makes the employment of a copious
supply of lubricant essential both for

,LlDS EQLIPMENI

Fig. 5. Mist

Fig. 3. The

pump

equipment

obtaining a good finish as well as

prolonging tool life.
Many years ago we designed and
made a set of suds equipment consisting of a reservoir and pump for the
lubricant. together with a faucet that
could be mounted on the lathe crossslide. to direct the suds on to the work
in hand. This equipment
is seen
mounted a? the back of a Myford
lathe, in the illustration Kg. 2 whilst
the pump unit is illustrated in Fig. 3.
The pump itself is of the rotary vane
type directly coupled to a modified
motor generator enabling it to be run
from the house mains.
The reservoir
holds some two
gallons of oil and is provided with two
Fig. 4. The faucet

lubrication

system

wire mesh filters, one on the input side

ofthepump,
theother in the lead from
?he lathe suds tray. These filters are
essential, their efficiency being proved
by the fact that the pump, which was,
by the way, machined from the solid,
has never been dismantled in 15 years
and shows no signs of wear.

THE AMATEURS
Fig.
6. Miniature
equipment

The faucet Fiq. 2, is made up from

banjo unions as-lit;ed on some automobile carburettors, an.4 has a screw
down needle valve to control the flow
of lubricant. An ordit ary tap would,
perhaps, do as well, tlut the needle
valve is somewhat more .~ensitive.
Oil Mist Lubrication
For those who havpe a com,>res:;ed air
system installed in their wS)rkshops.
the device depicted in Eg. 5 r,!ay be of
some interest. Originally desi,gned to
assist in the machining of large sculptured aircraft components it cc nsists
essentially of a spray gun fed wihh air
from the shop compressor and at oil
container, holding a gallon or mc;re.
that may be located in any convenient
place around the machine. The pc t
seen attached to the gun is in effect ;
primary reservoir designed to hold a
small quantity of oil and promote the
depression
tn the plastic oil pipe
leading to the main container.
The gun itself follows the same
pattern internally as that designed for
paint and described later in chapter
14.

mist

WORKSHOl
lubrication

Whilst the system is one of tot2

loss, so far as lubricant is concerned
it has been found to be very economic
al. Moreover it is readily controllabl
by means of the needle valve fitted t
the guns air-intake so can be adjuste
to supply a minimum localised di!
charge of lubricant.
For those not blessed with an al
line the device illustrated in Figs. 6 an
7 may be of interest. This has its ow
small compressor and spray gun uni
the latter seen affixed to the cros:
slide.
The compressor, a somewhat hi!
toric component taken from an earl
aeroplane, feeds air across the nozz
of the oil discharge pipe in a series (
rapid puffs and is driven from the lath
chuck by means of round feather be1
ing, thechuckactingasapulley.
The compressor itself is mounrc
on an angle upright forming part ,
the lathe overhead gear and has prl
vision for belt tensioning.
The oil container holds but a fe
ounces of oil, but this is sufficient fl
quite protracted machining, eloque,
testimony
to the economy
of tl
system.
Fig.
7. Miniawre
equipment

mist

lubricatic

..

HE 0verhea.d shaft used for

driving cutter frames and other
tools mounted on the saddle or
lsewherc has long been known to
ithe users, and its;mDorrance to the
mateur worker has not lessened with
hevears.
tiarmerlv. manv of the round belt
rives, fo&ing
-the basis of the
quipment ofthe old time lathes, were
omewhat elaborate
in layout and
Iften cumbersome to set up. These
,rrangements
allowed work to be
nilled or driiled at either end of the
@he as weii as providing a method of
nachining a iong keyway, for exam$e, without the possible necessity of
esettingthe work.
,CToday, however, there are other
itid better ways, perhaps, of achieving
he same end, at the same time bringng to bear a good deal more power on
he work.
Formerly, in order to provide for
:xtensive lateral movement
of the
:utter, the driving pulley on the overlead shafting ha,d either to be fitted
with a running key permitting
the
mlley to travel in step with the cutter
iame, or the pulley to be a long fixed
hum-like affair along which the belt
tself could trzvel as the cutter made
>rogress down the work.
Much of this requirement stemmed
iom the practice
of ornamental
:urning where long objects such as
:andle sticks and table legs, needing
luting or otherwise decorating, had to
,e machined. Today, however, for the
nostpart, the necessity for this kind of
acility has gone and it is seldom that
Fig. 1. A simple
overhead
For the Drummond
lathe

drive

unit

the amateur worker needs t.o move the

cutter more than a few inches at a time
in a lateral direction, such a movement being easily accommodated
by
the simple belt layout that can be employed.
Fig. 2 illustrates
an elementary
overhead drive unit made for use with
the Drummond lathe and designed to
be bolted to the bench behind the
lathe itself. The shafting is carried in a
plummer
pair of self-lubricating
blocks whiist the pulley, adjustable
along the shaft, is secured to it by a
simple clamping device consisting of
an allen grub screw and brass pad
bearing on a flat surface machined on

:HAPTER

26

HE overhea.d shaft used for

driving cutter frames and other
tools mounted on the saddle or
sewbere has long been known to
to the
a.the users, and its;mnorrance
mateur worher has not lessened with
leyears.
Formerly, many of the round belt
rives, forming
the basis of the
~uipment of the oid time lathes, were
,mewhat elaborate
in layout and
ften cumbersome to set up. These
rrangements
allowed work to be
killed or driiled at either end of the
1th.eas well as providing a method of
machining a long keyway? for examle, without the possible necessity of
esettingthe work.
,lToday, however, there are other
a:nd better ways, perhaps, of achieving
tfae same end, at the same time bringiirg to bear a good deal more power on
t1le work.
Formerly, in order to provide for
xtensive lateral movement of the
utter, the driving pulley on the overh ead shafting ha.d either to be fitted
rith a running key permitting the
ulley to travel in step with the cutter
rame, or the pulley to be a long fixed
rum-like affair along which the belt
self could travel as the cutter made
Nrogressdown the work.
Much of this requirement stemmed
rom the practice
of ornamental
urning where long objects such as
andle sticks and table legs, needing
.uting or otherwise decorating, had to
le machined. Today, however, for the
lost~part, the necessity for this kind of
acility has gone and it is seldom that
ig. 1. A simple
overhead
or the Drummond
lathe

drive

unit

the amateur worker needs to move the

cutter more than a few inches at a time
in a lateral direction, such a movement being easily accommodated
by
the simple belt layout that can be employed.
Fig. 1 illustrates
an elementary
overhead drive unit made for use with
the Drummond lathe and designed to
be bolted to the bench behind the
lathe itself. The shafting is carried in a
pair
of self-lubricating
plummer
blocks whilst the pulley, adjustable
along the shaft, is secured to it by a
simple clamping device consisting of
an allen grub screw and brass pad
bearing on a flat surface machined on

THE .AMATEL!RS

222

to combine the drive motor and it

miniature
countershaft
into a um
that could be bolted. either on th
hack of the saddle or on to the tail c
the boring tabie. In this way, th
saddle could travel the full length c
the lathe bed. taking with it motel
countershaft
and milling attachmer
with only an electric cable to b
accommodated.
A unit, of this type
running on 24 volts and giving sorm
thing of the order of $ h.p. contir
uously, is illustrated in Fig. 4.

Fig. 2. Overhead
ML7 lathe

WORKSHOP

drive

for the

Myford

rhe shaft itself. A spring loaded tensioniiig device is mounted on the

cross-bar and this fitment, in turn, can
be moved and locked where desired.
As will be seen, the fitting as a whole
forms a convenient support for the
lathelightingunit.
Fig. 2 depicts an overhead drive
fitted to a P&ford lathe. The frame
made from diicarded steel bed members, as was that for the Drummond,
is bolted to the lathe stand and
supports a shaft running, again, in
self-lubricating plummer blocks. This
shaft is driven from the countershaft
supplied with the lathe through a pair
ofminiature V-ropes.
Two driving pulleys are fitted, one a
three-step cone pulley for low speed
working. the other a larger wheel used
when an increased speed is desired. A
simple
weight-controlled
counterpoise is employed to tension the belt,
and the complete set up is seen driving
a spotting drill in the illustration
Fig. 3.

With the advent of the electric

motor, and in our case the availability
of high-grade
low-voltage
units at
ridiculously low cost, it was possible

Independent Feed Screws

If the lathe is to be used for muc
milling, and in particular when th
work must be mounted in the chuck
some means of independently
drivin
the feed screws has to be devised. If:
is not the user will always be oblige
to adopt the somewhat tedious prac
tice of turning them by hand.
So far as the leadscrew is concernec
perhaps the simplest method is t
drive it through a train of gears fro1
the iineshafting or countershaft.
A
example of such a drive may be seen i
Fig. 5. This set up required an 80 to
Fig. 3. Overhead
fitted
lathe driving
a spotting

to the
drill

Myfor

ATHE

ig. 5.

ently

OVERHEAD

Driving the tea&crew

of the

223

DRIVES

indepen-

lathe

uction gear box and some gearing

couple I: to the leadscrew. If the
needed to be re\.ersrd all that
o be done was to cross the pridriving beit. L.ater a iow-voltage
iepiaced the line
drive. This motor has a reversing
h thus providing for a change in
direction when desired.
bsequentiy. the driv~e has been
ified so that the motor unit with
s can be transferred
from one
to theother in theshop.
e >f the ad\.,an:ages of the elec. motor dri\ e is the abi!ity to conI the rate of feed by .varying the
ed of the motor itself. This can
ily be arranged by the use of a
le variable resistance in series
e low-voltage eiectrical supply.
he motors used take only some
eres the physical sire of this
le resistance is small.
order to make the most of the
he for milling purposes the cross-

slide also needs to be independently

driven. It is seldom possible, without
some elaboration,
to arrange this by
straightforward
mechanical methods;
on the other hand, by a combination
of worm and epicyclic gearing, it is
possible to build a neat driving unit
that can be attached to the tail of the
cross-shde. The reduction ratio is of
the order 1,500 to 1 so the torque at
the feed screw is Iarge. thus permitting
the use of a IOV power electric motor.
Again a reversing switch can be fitted
to take care of the requirement for a
change in the direction of feed, while
the speed ofthe motor is controlled by
a rheostat.
The epicyclic gearing is controlled
by a lever-operated
cam contracting
a steel brake band on to the drum
forming the housing of the annular
gear. By adjusting the tension of this
band the housing can be caused to
stop and so relieve any excess load
that may develop between the cutter
and the work.
Fig. 4. A low-voltage
unit

miniature

drive

THE

Fig. 6. The tailstock

set up in the lathe

drilling

spindle

When small drills have to be used in

the lathe it is seldom that they can be
run at a high enough speed, unless
snecial steps are taken to do SO. The
rig illustrated in Fig. 6> was designed
and made to allow the driiling of long
axial holes in small pins and other
components of a like nature, it is in
effect a means of converting the tailstock of the lathe so that it becomes
an electrically driven drilling machine
operating in a horizontal plane. In the
class ofwork for which it was designed
it is essential that the drilled holes
should run true and nrti~r:rn off-centre.
Probably the best way to ensure that
the holes do run true is to adopt the
contra-rotating
technique.
In this
method the work is rotated in the
opposite direction to the drill. This
has the effect of greatly increasing the
cutting speed OCthe drill and appears
to nromore straight running.
The equipmen?
seen in greater
detail 5 the itiustration Fig. 7, con-

AMATEURS

WORKSHt

sists of a spindle fitted with a chtt

that is passed thr~ough the hollc
barrel of the tailstock and seated
the driving unit. Both the spindle ai
the driving unit are carried on a pair
ball races and are illustrated in Fig
at A and B respectively. The devi
was originally
fitted to an c
Winfield lathe having its tailsto
modified to permit a more sensiti
feed. It has now been transferred tc
Myford ML 7 lathe incorporating
t
Cowell lever feed tailstock
attac
ment.
The driving motor. mounted or
spigot behind the driving unit
carried on the bracket seen in t
illustration
Eg. 9. It came origina
from an old vacuum cleaner and, af
cleaning and oiling, was placed in i
container illustrated. In ordzr to cc
trol the motor a switch is built mto I
end plate at the opposite end to 1
driving pulley.
A High-speed Headstock Spindle
The requirements that led to the p:
duction of the tailstock drilling sp
die led also to the design of a he:
stock that would rotate at a hi
speed. From time to time designs hr
appeared, but, so far as we are awa
most are fairly complex and few,
Fig. 7. The

tailstock

drilling

spindle

,THE OVERHEAD

DRIVES

225
bly mounted at the tail of the mandrel.
Such an arrangement
allows the
inner spindle to be driven directly
from the motor normally supplying
power to the lathe. It also enables the
self-act arrangements
usually associated with the lathe to be used to the
full. In point of fact six rates of feed
are available, three in direct drive and
three more with the back-gear enThe inner spindle is adapted to take

2. $0. The
iiling spindle
use on the
ddle of the
!/ford iathe

d spindle

fnj

y, al!ow the lathe self act to be

rployed.
The success of the taiistock drilling
indle suggested that a complemenry headstock spindle to the same
sign would adequately
meet the
se.
The headstock spindIe, therefore,
sses through the hollow mandrel of
e lathe, is carried on a pair of deepoove races placed in a housing
tached to the mandrel nose, and is
pported in a second bearing assem-

3. 9. The driving motor andbracket

A size collet chucks with a maximum

holdin
capacity of a $ in., these are
secured by means of a hollow draw
spindle operated from the tail of the
mandrel.
It is manifestly impossible to include here all the detailed drawings
needed to produce the narts for any of
the devices just described. But it is
hoped that enough has been said to
encourage and guide those who have
a use for such equipment to design and
make similar devices for themselves.

OFT soldering is a practice much

in u;e by the amateur and in some
fields by the professional, though
the Latter now tends to use other
methods because of the increasingly
exacting demands of industry when
thejointingofmetalsisundertaken.
ers and FIuxes
A hundred years ago the solders used
would probably have been a single
amalgam of lead and tin, in proportions almost entirely empirical, whilst
the fluxes employed were resin when
the work was exceptionally clean, or
killed spirits a preparation produced
by the action of hydrochloric acid on
zinc clippings. if a more vigorous
fluxing action was needed.
Resin flux is non-corrosive
but
killed spirits is very much the reverse
and its presence in the close confines
of a small workshop can be most
damaging to any machines and equipment that are installed in it.
Today, however, matters are much
improved; not only are solders prod,uced to meet almost every requirement, but the fluxes now employed,
whilst thoroughly active, have for the
most part been robbed of their highly
corrosive
properties.
In addition
many of the solders possess a core of
the flux, and this renders them very
easy to use. They are drawn as wires
of varying gauges having lead and tin
mixed in different proportions,
each
with an alternative melting point.
Methods of applying solder vary.
In some cases a hot soldering iron, is
used whilst in others solder in the form
of rings or strips is placed on the work
which is then heated by a blowpipe
untii the solder runs into the joint.

This is typically an industrial meth

and suggestions with practical exa
pies are usually obtainable from a
well known solder manufacturer.
An alternative method of applyi
the solder for sweating as the te
has it, is to make use of a solder pai
This is a mixture of very finely divit
solder grains and an active fll
enabling the material to be used in I
most economical manner. Only a VI
light coating needs to be applied to I
work so positional disturbance of I
parts to be formed is, for the most pr
reduced to acceptable limits.
the Work
Where it is to hand the domestic ;
supply~is a very convenient method
heating both the soldering iron a
the work itself. While gas heat
similar to boiling rings but provic
with a hood are obtainable, it is p
Heating

Fig. 1. The self-blowing

blowpipe

)LDERING

AND

BRhZlNG

ips simpler, as has been explained

in

eginners Workshop, to make use of

laboratory tripod and Bunsen burn: for the purpose. For hea:ing small
ad delicate work the self-blowing
low-pipe illustrated in Fig. I and in
etail in Figs. 2 and 3 has been found
lost effective. It is quite easy to make
nd has good flame control. Experitents, however, have shown that the
)rch is only suitable for use with coal
23.

Today the availability

of bottled
as in its various forms, and the fact
rat many workers in the amateur
eld live outside areas where coal gas
i on supply, is rapidly leading to a
ottled gas monopoly that is scarcely
kely to be disturbed in the foreseeble future.
Fig. 2. Details of
ig. 3. Details
low pipe

of

the

the

above

self-blowing

228
Moreover, the range of equipment
available. the hioh caiorific value of
the gases themse!ves, and the convenience of being abie to transport the
gas-bottles and torches anywhere with
the minimum of difficulty, is an asset
that cannot be disputed.
For soldering purposes, therefore, a
iaunsen burner specifically designed
for use with bottled gas, a laboratory
tripod and an ordinary soldering iron
will furnish ali that is needed.
Those workers who regularly undertake electrical wiring of one type or
another will not need remindingofthe
advantages of the electric soldering
iron. But it is, perhaps, not out of
place to remind readers that quite
large electrically
heated irons are
available, though some workers may
object to the trailing cable that is inseparable from these devices.
Preparing the Work
The keynote of succ;:ssful soidering is
cleanliness. The work must therefore
be free from grease, paint, rust or any
metallic oxide deposits that will inhibit the Bow of solder and prevent it
from tinning the work surface. .A
small amount of dirt is certain to rcmain. if only in a chemical condition
2nd it is the purpose of the flux to remove this. But the major part of the
cleaning must be performed by the
operator.
Work surfaces ;hat have
been freshly machined need little more
than degreasing with a suitable cleaner such as trichlorethylene
to fit them
for the soldering operation. But old
work must be wire-brtished, scraped,
Sled or cleaned up with abra,sive cloth
as required in order to restore the surface to a condition in which the solder
wjill takr.
Rusted parts are the most difficult
to treat because, until they have been
first chemically cleaned with a warm
I,0 per cent solution of phosphoric
acid or some proprietary
medium

THE AMATEURS

WORKSHO:

such as Jennolite, it will be difficult tl

assess if there is really any of th
original metal left with which to effec
a joint. If there is then the parts shoulc
be wire brushed and separately tinnec
before
being
sweated
together
Bakers Fluid may be suitable as i
flux, but more active ones are avail
able and workers would do well tc
consult solder manufacturers
abou
them.
When preparing work for soldering
and in particular where a sweatin!
operation
is contemplated,
it ii
essential that the parts suffer nc
positional
displacement
during the
process. This requirement
may bt
met either by machining the parts s(
that they key together when assemble<
and cannot possibly move in relatior
to one another during the solderins
operation
or secure them in plaa
using G-clamps for the purpose. Ir
some instances a combination of both
methods may be needed.
Hard Soldering
The process of hard soldering, 01
silver soldering as it is sometime:
called, is a somewhat similar operation to that just described.. In this
instance however, the temperature
needed to carry out the work, some
700C to 800C a dull red heat, can
only liken the process to the seating
we have previously considered.
For the most part hard solders have
a silver base with copper and other
metals in varying proportions.
Perhaps the best known, and certainly
most widely used is Easiflo produced
by Johnson-Matthey
of London. This
hard solder may be obtained as wire,
strip or, very conveniently, as a paint
where the metal is admixed with an
active flux. The flux used is for the
most part Borac.ic Acid in powder
form with an acti.vatar added; for this
reason it is advisable to make sure that
work of a ferrous nature is not over-

OLDERING

AND

229

BRAZIUG

eated or it may scale badly. All that is

eeded is a dull red heat when the
ilver solder will be seen to melt
eadily and to flow uniform!y around
he joint forming a tillet requiring the
minimum of cleaning up, if any at all.
:q~ip~ent Needed for Hard
;oldering and Brazing
Ye have already referred to the use of
bottled gas in connection
with soft
oldering. This method of heating the
vork is eminently suitable when hard
oldering is to be undertaken. AS has
Jready been said bottled gases have a
iigh-calorific value, are clean. and the
,pparatus employed very controllable
The two principal forms of burner
,uitable for brazing and silver solderng with bottled gases are depicted in
heillustration
Fig. 4.
The torch A is really a form of
3unsen burnerequipped
witha handle
tnd is very suitable for heating up
arge objects. It needs no air supply
rnder pressure whilst the torch B
Ioes require this. The second o? the
.wo torches illustrated gives a mar.:oncentrated and steady flame and so
s the better for dealing with fine wsork.
With equipment such as rhis the
objects to be brazed need to be sur.ounded by some refractory materiai
n order to conserve the heat applied
md to ensure that all parts of the work
reach an even temperature. Formerly
;as coke was used for the purpose but
;or many years now fire-clay cubes
lave been employed as they are quite
inert and produce no fumes likely to
damage the work.
In order to make the best use of this
refractory
material some form of
hearth is essential. In Figs. 5 and 6 two
hearths that have been in our workshops for over 30 years are illustrated.
The first of these Iitments, originally
intended for use with a paraffin blowFig.
gas

4.

Burners

suitable

for

bottled

lamp, has been adapted to employ a

coal-gas blow-pipe and is of commercial origin. The second, making use of
a small lathe-side turners cabinet, is
equipped, as will be seen, for bottled
gas. Both have a firebrick lining to the
bottom and backs of their trays and
each has plenty of refractory material
for packing around the work.
A Rotary Blower
In a subsequent chapter the use of
compressed air in the workshop will
be discussed. Whilst it is possible to
employ compressed air in connection
with a bottled-gas blowpipe such as
that illustrated in Fig. 4 owing to
their sensitivity it is better to make use
of a rotary blower similar to that depicted in Fig. 7. The particular contrivance illustrated is a piece of homemade equipment and is of the eccentric vane type; that is to say its rotor
is set off-centre in the stator so that
the air drawn in through the induction

THE AMATEURS

230

WORKSHO

Fig. 5. Brazing hearth---commercii

pattern
A blower of this kind supplies air:
low pressure but in relatively larg
quantities and this is the conditio
most suited to the use of bottled gas.

port is gradually
squeezed into a
reduced space between each pair of
vanes in turn and is then expelled
through the deliv~ery port into an oil
separator. The devrce is self-lubricating, oil being delivered through a
sight-feed from the separator, which
also acts as a reservoir, to the induction port through the small pipe seen
in the illustration. The main bearings
make use of ring lubricator and oil is
supplied to them by means of an oil
can through the aluminium cover seen
over the bearing housing.

Preparing the Work

The preparation
of the work fo
brazing or silver soldering follow
very much the procedure adopted fc
soft soldering. The work must beclear
freshlv machined chemicallv cleanes
work giving the best results. The part
to be joined must be a good ht. th
maximum
permissible
slackness c
such components as pipe unions bein
some 0.001 in. The parts are assem
bled together with the joint faces full
fluxed so that, when the work is heat
ed, the brazing material will iTo\
freely.
The use of silver solder paint, whel
applicable,
is a great help since i
provides the best means of thoroughl:
wetting the work surfaces, and, forth
most part, enough solder to form i
neatjoint.
When brazing flux is heated and be
comes .mixed with oxides. a glass:
substance is formed on the surface o
the work. Naturally, this needs to bi
cleaned off. Hot water and scrubbin;
will usually do this successfully, bu
stubborn cases may require an acic
pickie to remove the hardened flux.
Hardening of Cutting Tools
The cutting tools used in the amateur
workshop, certainly those he make:
for himself, are derived
from :
material known as silver steel. Thi:
is a steel containing sufficient carbon
to enable it to be hardened, if heatec
and then quenched in a suitable
coolant.
The toois am heated to a cherry ret
colour and then plunged into clear
cold water, or iced water if a some.
Fig. 6.

Brazing

hearth

for bottled

gas

SOLDERKNG

AND

231

BRAZ!YG

Fig.

it greater hardness is required. The

stee ,I is then dead hard, a condition
rem 3ering it unrit for immediate use
bee. ause of its lack of mechanical
stre ngth.
, Aiccordinelv the tool needs to be
tern pered unti? its britt!eness has been
rem loved whilst still leavingthecutting
e hard enough to withstand prosed use.
n order to temper the tool it is first
ished ali over to ensure that the
le film produced by the hardening
process is comple;ely removed. Heat
is then applied well away from the
cutting edge and maintained until a
p!ay of colours is seen to commence.
The colours range from light straw
through dark straw and biue to dark
biue. Tbe cutting edge of tools intended for cutting metal should not be
a deeper colour than light straw
though the shank, of a boring tool for
example, will naturally be a deeper
colour. Wood cutting tools usually
have their edges tempered to a dark
straw.
When the desired colours have been
reached the tool is plunged into cold
Fig. 8. Set-up

for sandbath

tempe:

.ng

7.

Low

pressure

rotary

blower

water to arrest the tempering opera-.

tion.
When a number of parts have to be
tempered to a uniform state use can be
made of a sand bath. This consists of a
metal box, filled with silver sand,
provided with some means of heating
such as a gas ring or bunsen burner. A
typical set-up is illustrated in Fig. 8.
To employ it the sand is first heated
until a sample component,
already
buried in the sand, is seen on inspection to have taken on uniformly the
tempering colour required. The heat
is then removed from the sand box
and the rernainder of the components
placed in the sand.
They will, after a suitabie interval
for soaking, all reach the same degree
of tempering as the sample, but no
greater. and can then be withdrawn

232

THE AMATEURS

W3RKSHOP

Fig. 9.
The electric
muffle

and cooled either in air or, if wanted

in a hurry, by being plunged in cold
water.
igb Speed Steel
The hardening and tempering of highspeed steel need not concern the
amateur worker or even the small
professional shop. As has been stated
elsewhere
fully treated
round
or
rectangular section tool bits are available. These only require grinding to
shape. In any case the equipment
necessary for the treatment is more
complex than would be warranted in
the amateur workshop.
Case Hardening
Case hardening is the process whereby
steel components
have their outer
surface layers converted into a material that may be hardened in the same
way as tool steel, at the same time
leaving the core of the work in the
softened condition.
In this way the necessity for tempering is avoided and the skin or case
may be left glass hard. Examples of
case-hardened parts are those used in
the producti~on of motor cars where it
is essential that, in addition to having
a hard wearing surface, the components should have adequate mechanical
strength.

We need not concern ourselves here

with the precise metallic changes that
take place. Suffice it to say that the
case-hardening
process increases the
amount of carbon present in the steel
and converts it from what is virtually
a mild steel into a tool steel.
This condition is brought about by
heating the work to between 800C
to 1,OOOCin the presence of a carburising agent. There is a number of
proprietary substances on the market
suitable for treating small components, but undoubtedly,
if one is
fortunate enough to obtain it, bone
dust as used by the gun-makers provides the best medium. The work is
packed in a cast-iron box, the cast
boxes used for electrical wiring are
excellent for the purpose, and is then
raised totherequired
temperature and
held there for a period depending on
the depth of case desired.
Methods of heating small work
vary from the simple use of the blowpipe and brazing hearth to the ideal:
the electric muffle.
A small muffle, made by amateurs,
is illustrated in Fig. 9. This device,
controlled by asimmerstat
as used in
cookers, consists of a vitrosil quartz
chamber, over which a heating ele
ment is wound. This chamber, as may
be seen in the illustration
Fig. 10 ir
supported in a frame with end plates

SOLDERING

AND

BRAZING

of which is provided with a door

ing a refractory brick facing. The
ole is enclosed by side plates and
interior filled with vermiculite as
heat insulator.
The illustration
ows an electi~ic pyrometer In use
th the muffie, but this is not essen-hardening for the
is heated to a dull
makers caii this
erature reached
e work when
the pleasing
mottled appearance often associated
with high-classwork.
Case ~ar~e~~~g Procedure
We have already briefly referred to the
basic methods to be used when caseIt is time now
ofoperations
st first be thoroughly
IF; degreased and cleaned to remove
:,~,Iany traces of dirt that would
il the mottled finish.
thylene or carbon:,, tetrachloride.carryingontthispart
ofthe operation either in the open
air or somewhere having plenty of
fresh air av!ailable.

Fig. IO.
The muffleto show
construction

233

Figs 11. Cross-section

of material
to
show unhardened
and hardened
conditions

2. Next, the parts are packed in bone

dust, or some form ofanimal charcoal, using cast-iron containers
that will fit the mufle and allow
the introduction
of enough of the
carburised material to ensure the
parts are fully covered. This is important, for no air must get to the
work whilst it is being carburised
or the surface finish will suffer. Do
not use bone meal obtainable
from horticultural
suppliers. Thi,
contains
a certain amount
of
sugar, a substance that will contribute nothing to the hardening
operation, rather the reverse.

234
3. Raise the work to temperature and
hold at this Iei,el long enough to
obtain the depth of case required.
The time will vary to some extent
on the steel used to make the parts,
but a maximum depth of some
0.010 in. per hour is a permissible
basis for calculation.
It is a good plan to put into the
box small pieces of the parent
steei so that these can be casehardened at the same time as the
matn components.
These small
pieces can then subsequently
be
broken and used as a check on the
depth to whic!l the hard case has
Tenetrated.

THE AMATEURS

WORKSHOP

The depth of penetration

can
readily be ascertained
from an
inspection of the cross-section of
the broken pieces.
In Fig. I I the metallic cross-
section presents an appearance
crystalline in the centre with a
pearly grey fine grained rim. It is 1
this rim that is the hardened case.
The final operation in the harden4. ing process is the plunging of the
work into cold water. This should 1
be done as quickly as possible in
order to ensure that the air has no
time to act on the red-hot work.
The water should be as cold as
possible and must, of course, be
absolutelyclean.

HAPTER

28

HERE are many uses for compressed air in the workshop, so

the provision
of a simple but
ficient supply system would seem
Ily justified.
Unfortunately
comercially made equipment is expenve and the amount of use it is likely
get in the amateur shop would
arceiy warrant
the initial cost.
owever, much may be done by
e amateur
himself
to provide
lequate
apparatus
of his own
aking, indeed our own workshops
e so equipped,
with modified
aierial obtained for the most part
i the surplus market.
The keynote of any system is the
impressor itself, and this should be
lpable of providing at least three
tbic feet of free air per minute.
therwise the demands of the various
r-driven tools are not likely to be
et, so their performance will natur-

g. 1.

me workshop
mlpressor

ally suffer. It is better to have available

too much air rather than too little.
In our own shops a pair of compressors of the type illustrated in Fig.
1 are used, both compressors
are
separately
mounted on small two
wheeled trolleys and each has its own
air receiver also attached to the trolley.
In this way both compressors,
which are of course independently
driven may either be used together or
separately as the occasion demands.
They are normally kept together in the
shop but can be removed for duty
elsewhere when needed.
Useful air-receivers for the purpose
are the oxygen cylinders once supplied
as aircraft equipment. For the most
part these cylinders are made from
stainless steel and so are proof against
the corrosive action of the condensate
inseparable from compressed-air systems.

236

THE AMATEURS

Fig. IA. A small compressor

a low voltage
motor

Fig. 3. The

reducing

Fig. 2. The seoarator

valve

driven

by

WORKSHO,

A useful maximum working pres,

sure for the air line is 100 p.s.i. So an!
receiver should by hydraulically testec
tout least 2OOp.s.i.
While the air line itself can be of 2
permanent nature say of steam barre
with points for the quick-attachmen
of air hoses. probably one point in the
shop and another say in an outsidt
building such as the garage will bc
enough to satisfy most needs.
The hoses employed should be o:
adequate mechanical strength. While
a burst here is scarcely calculated tc
result in a catastrophe, failure of the
air hose when in use is always 2
nuisance.
Since. in any compressed air systen
a quantity of water vapour is formed
it is necessary to provide a filter 01
separator
that will remove it. FOI
many purposes the presence of water
is not detrimental, provided of course
that the quantity is not excessive, bu,
for spray painting it is essential tha,
the air should be dry and free fron
moisture.
The separator is a simple device
consisting, as illustrated in Fig. 2, of:
cylindrical container fitted with inle
and outlet connections
and a quick
release va!ve enabling the water to bc
drained off.
For all practical purposes a simple
device of this nature will effective)
de-water the workshopair
supply, bu
must not, of course; be expected t(
deliver air dried to meet the condition!
needed in some laboratory work.
The Reducing Valve
When using the workshop air suppl!
in connection with brazing torches fee
with propane or similar bottled gase!
a reducing valve of the type illustrates
in Fig. 3 is well nigh essential. Bottle<
gas torches are very sensitive to ai,
pressure, and are almost impossible tc
control by any other means. There is i
number of types of reducing valve, the
simplest being that shown in Eg. 4

MPRESSED AIR

5. Di;igram
w principle

IN THE WORKSHOP

of reducing
of operation

valve

231
to

cting in section one made in the

h rhe vaive A, Fig. 5. and

pinges cn the me!al diaphragm B,
hus Immediat-ly
shutting off the
upply. A compression spring C, how1s attached to the upper side of
diaphragm and has its tension
e adjustabie
by means of the
Y D. En this vay th,- effect of air
sure on the diaphragm
can be
lanced against the spring tension
elf. Therefore increasing this tenran by screwing down the adjuster
res to raise the, air pressure
ilable at the outlet and to maintain
t ,at the value required. This arrangent also enables the device to handle
all fluctuations in the pressure of
e incoming air suppy.
A typical application of the reducvalve is that illustrated in Fig.*6.
re the valve is being used to control
air supply for an zerograph-type
n as used in the wo1.k of technical
trators. an in.pur air pressure of
e 60 to 80 p.s.1. being regulated to
to 20p.s.i. at the pen iiself.

. 4. The

reducing

valve

in section

Uses of Compressed Air

in the Workshop
Air is most commonlk used in the
workshop
for cleaning down the
machine tools after use. This is a
matter upon which t.here are two
schoo!s of thought, and even Duplex
between themselves have held divergent opinions.
Some contend that the air forces
small particles of abrasive swarf into
places they would not normally reach

238

THE AMATEURS

Fig.
7.
A
attachment

by natural means; others say that

modern machine tools are so well
protected against the ingress of swarf
that it could not possibly gain access
even when driven along by the pressure ofcompressed air.
This iarter view would seem to be
borne out by industrial experience,
for there seems no evidence to show
that in the professional workshop at
any, rate, machine tools are having
thetr useful life-span reduced or curtailed by the use ofcompressed air for
cleaning-down purposes.
Fig. 8. An air-driven
mounting
for use
slide

handpiece
with
in the
lathe
top

turbine-driven

WORKSHC

drillin

However,
be that as it may, the us,
should be discreet or damage ma
eventually result; moderation here, :
often elsewhere, would seem the be
advice.
The gun used for the purpose is
simple piston-operated device, usual
these days made in plastic materia
attached to a hose, some 12 ft. i
length, that is both strongandflexibl
There seems little point these days i
making a cleaning-down gun for onI
self. Commercially produced device
are relatively cheap to buy and tk
time saved by not making them ca
doubtless be bet&r spent. The sari
remarks probably hold true for tf
means of attachment used in connec
ing eir hoses to the air line itself. For
very simple system a union and nut
all that is necessary. But manipulatir
them is a somewhat slow process an
cannot be compared with the facih
offered by the modern air-chuck, th;
enables a hose to be connected or di
connected in the matter of second
Those who feel that greater versatilil
will amply repay any slight extra co
may not grudge the few shilling
needed to obtain it.

Blowpipes
In the amateur workshops the a
supply can be used conveniently
1
feed the gas blowpipes needed in COI
nection
with the brazing heart!

DMPRESSED AIR IN THE

2,39

WORKSHOP

There Town Gas is the fuel, nothing

.ore elaborate than another tap is
:eded to control the air supply. But
ith bottled gas, as we have already
ten, this will not do, the sensitivity of
te apparatus to critical control of the
r pressure makes a reducing valve
;sential.

hose who have a supply of compresd air available may be interested in

le two pieces of equipment
illusated in Fig. 7 and Fig. 8 respectively,
le first illustration depicts a turbine
.iven driiling attachment capable of
le high speeds needed to drill very
nail holes. The second illustration
LOWSan air-driven handpiece suit?le for use with small grinding
heels. Both these pieces of equip.ent were made in the Duplex worklops in order to solve some machin,g ,problems posed by a government
(search department.
pray Painting
f all the uses that may be made of
jmpressed air in the amateur worklop, perhaps the ability to carry out
nay painting in some of its many
nms is the most important.
Practically
any pigment can be
prayed provided the correct type of
.m is employed. For the amateur
lere are two basic forms, the gravity
m and the suction gun. In the first
te paint is delivered to the nozzle by
.avity whilst in the second it is raised
om the container by suction. The
.avity gun is illustrated
in Fig. 9
here the paint container can be seen
rove the gun as opposed to the
action gun where the pigment is
.aced below the nozzle as seen in the
iustration Fig. 10.
The gravity fed gun is used for the
Fig. 10. The suction-feed

paint

gun

Fig. 9. A gravity-feed

paint

gun

more viscous fluids such as the

heavier stoving enamels whilst the
suction feed gun enables light fluids to
be handled rather more simply.
Both guns employ compressed air
to atomise the pigmtnt and deliver it
finely divided to the component being
painted.

240

THE AMATEURS

WOKKSHOI

located at the top of the handle am

operated by thumb pressure. The ai
then passes to the air nozzle where i
issues to atmosphere
through
th
combining cone thus causing a de
pression in the body of the gun itself
Paint is then drawn fromthecontaine
and delivered to the combining con
where it is finely atomised befor,
being sprayed on the work.
In order that the device shal
operate properly it is essential that tht
air nozzle is located centrally in thl
combining
cone, To ensure this i
centring device consisting of a smal
length of brass gearing, made a gooc
sliding fit in the body of the gun am
bored concentrically,
is sweated o:
brazed to the air tube itself.
In this way the air is suppliec
correctly to thecombiningcone
whils
thepigment,passingalongtheteetho
the centring device, also finds its wal
there. An illustration
showing tht
parts in question is given in Fig. 12.

The gravity feed gun is provided

with two valves. one. the upper valve
seen in the illustration, controls the
paint supply whilst the other, set in
the handle of the gun, deals with the
air supply.
The timing of the two valves is so
arranged that air is turned on in
advance of the paint supply. In this
way spitting or b!obbing of the paint
is avoided, the more so since the paint
valve has a tapered needle enabling
the pigment itself to be supplied in
graduallyr increasing quantities up to
a pre-set maximum amount.
Per contra, the suction fed gun, has
but one valve and this controls the air
supply. The quantity ofpaint supplied
is adlusted by the position of the
combining cone in relation to the air
nozzle seen in the illustration Fig. :I
where the detai!s of the various parts
are depicted diagrammatically.
The action of the gun is simple. Air
is supplied under the control of a valve

CQMBIffi COM
J

LOCK RING

,.i;;;
r

AIR TUBE

Fig. 11. Working

feed paint gun

PAINT IN

parts

of a suctil

)MPRESSED AIR

3. 12. The
: centring

IN THE WORKSHOP

combining
device

cone

and

air

We have already seen that almost

y form of paint can be applied by
:ans of compressed air, using the
Ivity gun for heax-y or viscous
uids whilst Ihe suction fed equip:nt is used to handle light fluids such
well-thinned cellulose or synthetic
;me;rts. The amateur, for the most
rt, will conrent himself with this
ISSof paint and it is worth noting, in
iS connection,
that many wellinned coats are preferable to a few
mparativeiy thick ones, the same
narks applying equally to oil based
ints where these are used. In this
y runs or tearscan be avoided.
,is is a process that enables the
:r to apply a harder and more
rable type of paint, and so is very

,. 13.
mplete
Jipment
we
smelling

for
I

24 I
suitable for finishing some of the
smaller items of equipment or mechanical devices that have been made in
the workshop.
Stove enamels are
made to give a hard glossy surface, or,
alternatively, to provide a wrinkled or
crackle finish to the work. These
latter enamels are somewhat viscous
and so need a gravity feed gun to
apply them. They must be used as
supplied and cannot be diluted, moreover, as they have a somewhat short
shelf life, they need to be emplojied as
fresh as possible or they will not
wrinkle uniformly.
As their name implies these enamels
need to be stoved in an oven in order
to cure them. This is work that can be
carried out in the domestic cooking
stove but is unlikely to find much
favour in the sight of the domestic
authorities.
Those readers who are
contemplating stove enamelling operations may consider the purchase of a
suitable oven worthwhile especially as
these are often obtainable at auction
very cheaply.
+
Mustrated in Fig. 13 the complete
set of equipment
needed to stove
enamel satisfactorily the sma.ll details
and components t,hat need this treatment. It will be observed that both
types ofpaint gun are used, the gravity

-l-EC AMATEURS
Fig. 14. i he interior

WORKSHO

of the enamellin

oven

iecd g!:n for the !~eavy ename!s that

c;ini:ot be diluted and the suction or
inject<>r gnn f!or use with small parts
needing several coats of thin paint.
The enamelling oven is of some
interest since it is almost ideal for this
type of work. It is run directly from the
domestic electrical supply under the
controi of a simmerstat switch enabling the temperature in the oven to be
adjusted and maintained at very close
limits. The oven is provided with a
thermometer
so that the operating
temperature can be seen at a glance.
The interior is almost perfect for the
nurpose in hand in tnat, as may be
seen from the illustration
Fig. 14,
there is a grating from which small
parts may be hung and a tray to catch
any surplus pigment that may inadvertently drip from the work during
the stoT:ing process.
As to the correct temperature for
successful stove-enamelling
this is a
matter related directly to the type of
pigment to be used ; queries concerning this matter should therefore be
addressed directly to the paint makers
who are a!ways ready to give advice.
One should perhaps, state, however,
that the temperature
range is from
100C to 2OOC and that these comparatively low temperatures
are, no
doubt, one of the reasons that an oven
bought some 30 years ago for 10
shi!lings is still in operation.

Preparing the Work

Parts that have been machined wi
need but little preparation,
but cas
ings and all rough surfaces should b
made as smooth as possible, using
filler followed by a surfacer-primer i
the case of cellulose or synthet
paints.
Work for stove enamelling
ma
sometimes need a filler and the pair
people should be consulted about th
aspect of the process.
However, before any pigment c
whatever type is applied, the wor
must be thoroughly degreased using
solvent such as tri-chlorethylene.
It
good practice to make sure that tr
work is thoroughiy dry beforz pain
ing otherwise occ!uded solvent c
grease may be driven out during tr
stoving oneration;
in this event tf
work will undoubtedly be spoilt an
will have to be stripped before beir
repainted. A light stoving in the ove
to dry the work before painting w
avoid this trouble.
According to the class of work ar
to the material from which the par
are made so the use of priming coa
will depend. It is really- not possible t
generalise about this so it is best
again ask the paint manufacturer f :
his advice.
However, it may be stated that (
the metals commonly
in use, mil
steel and cast iron pose no problem.
brass is somewhat
unpredictab
whilst the aluminium alloys are tl
most difficult needing an etch-prim{
to provide a good key for the paint.
When using a paint gun, unle:
large areas are being treated, it is be
to apply the pigment in short burst
The air. pressure used, whilst nc
critical, will vary from 30 to 40 p.s
for well-thinned paints to some 60 1
80 p.s.i. when heavy enamels at

CMPRE,SSEiI AIR

IN THE

WORKSHOP

meing appiird.
A1 all IiiTttS it is
sscnt~al thau the air supp!ied to the
~$1 is :~cc frc~\i71C<>ntftns;ltC <)r the
:~rk ~UI-~;ICL~
wiil be spotit.
iii evil! he 3klpiKiZ!tCd thal, when
aintine: an object by the spray protss. itI; not possible to control the
mils ccsered b>, the pigment unless
ertnin pr~~atrtions are taken. lf the
iorh is :o be rrzt:ed ::I1 over with a
ingle c&~i
t!ren ?h~
,_ 0~ precautions
, iit no! beriecessar;?,. but when two or
lore tints ale used. or some parts of
he work need to be left bare, then the
pork must be masked as it is termed.
orthtspurpose
m;isking tapeis used.
his is a highly aditrzive paper tape,
v~ailabie in a number of widths from
in. vj~ide to as much as 4 in. wide.
Imall objects are usuafly masked by
pplying the tape directly to them
whilst large surfaces such as the
&rdows of motor cars for example,
.re masked with newspaper held in
tlace by tape. If left on for any length
Iftime the tape. on removal from the

Fig. 15A.

Rotary

Fig. 15. Rotary

paint

paint

table

tables

243
work. tends to leave behind particles
tif its adhesive crrmpound. Petrol will
dissolve this unwanted
material if
applied wjith a piece of rag, but it is
inadvisable to use any other solvent or
the worksurfacemay
be spoilt.
When painting small or medium
sized components
a rotary table to
support the uork is an almost essential accessory. A table of this type
enables the work to be rotated to face
the gun step by step, or, if made heavy
enough,torevolveaimostcontinuously at a slow rate during the painting
operation.
The table shown in the
illustration
F/,e. /f/, has been in use
many years. It is employed as illustrated for step-by-step operation and
has an old heavy flywheel placed on it
whensiowalmostcontinuousrotation
is needed. Rotating. tables can be improvised in many ways, but it is important to make sure that the bearing
used is as free from friction as possible
otherwise the almost continuous rotation requirement will not be met.

Althnugh the. hand h~ksaw is essentiai for occasional use in the workshop
ths machine
backsaw has many ad:xi~tages. Not only is much Iabour
saved. but the accurate cutting means
iejj waste of malerial and leaves cut
suifci~tt-stha? need !itUe after-work for
the lil?zll linishing.
Moreo~rr, the accurate guidance of
the saw blade in a straight line sa\:es
blade breakage ar.d protects against
wear of the set of the saw teeth. The
machine hacksaw illustrated in Fig. It
made by Messrs. Coweil, is a robust
and accurate tool, capable of dealing
with work measuring 2 :x 2 in.
Relief of the cutting pressure on the
return stroke is provided
for in
accordance with the practice adopted
in. large commercial
machines. To
save expenditure the machine can be
supplied in the form of a set of partly

machined castings, which enable the

hacksaw to be completed in a 3+ in.
lathe.
A full set of working drawings is
included. If required, a switch can be
provided that automatically stops the
electric driving motor on completion
of the sawing operation.
The second machine, illustrated in
Figs. Z and 3, was designed and made
in the workshop
nearly 20 years
ago, since then it has given every
satisfaction and no alterations have
been needed. Before deciding on the
design and embarking on the construction, a test rig was set up to
determine the correct rate of stroke
and cutting pressure. In addition,
wear of the saw teeth was investigated
when no provision was made for relieving the cutting pressure on the
return stroke.
So little wear was found on the saw

Fig. 1.
The Cowell
machine
hacksaw

ftcr .J lengthy trial ;htt it was decided

) dispense with this added complicaon.
In fact, over this long period of use,
:newal of the saw blade has been a
are occurrence, in spite of the large
mount of work undertaken in makIg other machines ~.tid workshop
JO!S.
The saw operates at 90 strokes a
Gnute, and the primary drive from.
he i h.p. electric motor is by a V-belt
o a countershaft: From there the drive
D the crankshaft
by means of a
:onnecting rod, fitted at either end
Hith a bail bearing. The saw frame
;lides on a pivoted carrier-bar, and
Jrovision is made for ral. ing up wear
md ensuring adequate iubrication.
The height of thepivot bar can be
adjusted to set the saw blade for level
Fig. 2. Ttie workshop
hacksaw

Fig. 4. The
iig sew

workshop

Fig. 3. Showing
two-stage
drive

the

246

THE AMATEURS
Fig. 5. The machine

WORKSHOP

mechanism

automatic catch is provided for holding the saw in the raised position while
setting the work in place in the vice.
The catch is released by a pressbutton at the front ofthe machine. An
automatic
switch, mounted on the
machine table and fitted with a reset
button, stops the motor when the saw
reaches the end of its downward
travel. This allows the machine to be
left unattended during a protraN,:ted
cutting
operation
and, later, the
material will be found severed and the
machine stopped.
Those wishing to build this useful.
machine canobtain a full set of working drawings from Messrs. Model and
.Allied Publications, the publishers of
Model Engineer.
The Jig Saw

cutting, as may be required in various

machining operations.
Eclipse 12 in., high-speed steel, saw
blades are used. These, when divided
by the grinder cut-off disc wheel, make
two blades for the machine. The hole
already in the blade provides for one
fixing to the saw frame and, at the
other end, two notches are ground for
clamping the blade in the tensioning
device. A Myford machine vice of 18
in. capacity is pivoted to the steel
table of the machine so as to allow fcr
angular cutting. The cutting pressure
is exerted, and varied as necessary, by
a weight which slides on a rod attached
to the bar carrying the saw frame. An

The machine illustrated

in Fig. 5,
which was designed and built in the
workshop,
has proved capable of
carrying out a variety of work on
metals, plastics ar.d wood witb a high
degree of accuracy when the saw is
following either a curved or straight
path. As shown in the illustration Fig.
5, the drive from the $ h.p. motor is by
V-belt to the crankshaft of the machiile which drives a short, ball bearing,
connecting rod that is coupled to a
rocking lever, pivoted to a swing-link.
In this way, a reciprocating motion
is imparted to the cross head of the
spindle that carries the lower end of
the saw blade.

Fig. 6. The ripping

Fig. 7. The mitring

fence

fence

SOME ADDITIONAL

MACHiNE

Ai its vpper end, the saw b!ade is

atrached to a spring-loaded piston rod
working in a cylinder. The upward
movement of the piston causes air to
be blown through a norzic for the
purpose of clearing the saw dust.
Eclipse jis saw blades. 6 fin. ir, length
between the driving pins, are supplied
i,n a variety of widths and tooth
pitches to meet ail ordinary requirements for sawing both wood and
metais. For cutGng strips of material
to width or for cross-cutting in length,
the fence &. 6. is c!amped to the
machine table in the correct position.
As shown in the iilustrations,
an
ad.justable pressure-foot
is attached
to t,he machine to retain the work in
contact with the machine table while
the saw blade is risij;g.
Mitre-cutting
is carried out by
using the fence iiIust.rated i;~ Fig. 7.
The blade of the fence carries an
:, adjustable stope at one end and at its
:I<,other end is a clamping device that
:I:,,1holds the work in place and so ensures
, that the corresponding
sides of a
frame are cut to exactly equal length.
Fig 10.

The workshop

247

TOOLS

circular

sew

Fig. 8. A mitred

Fig. 9. Examples
in the machine

camera

of work

frame

done

248

THE AMATEURS

WORKSHOP

Fig. 11.
drive

The frame, forming part of a camera,

was made in tLs way, and Fig. 8 shows
that the joints, straight from the saw,
have been accurately cut and have
needed no hand-fitting.
Circular cutting of either discs or
holes is readily carried out in the
machine.
For this work, a coned
centre, on which the material rotates,
is attached to the spind!e carrying the
blower nozzle. This form of mounting
enables the radius of the cut circle to
be adjusted as required. A narrow saq~
blade should be used to negotiate the

Thes iew

circular path travelled. The circular

hole in the stand for a voltmeter shown
in Fig. 9 was cut in this way. Sheet
metal or metal strip can be cut in the
machine when a suitable saw blade is
fitted. To illustrate the capacity of the
jig-saw machine, the lathe fitting also
shown in Fig. 9, was slit through to the
bore of this mild steel part, which
meassres 14 in. in height.
The Circular Saw
The workshop
circular saw, illustrated in Figs. 10 and II, is mostly

249

SOMEADDITIONALMACHINETOOLS
used for cutting plastic materials and
wooden Darts. The drive IS by V-belt
from the> h.p. electric motor direct to
the saw spindle. The 4 in. high-speed
steel metal saw which is used for
cutting plastics leaves a good finish on
the work and subsequent
tubbing
with liquid metal polish establishes 2
high finish. A wood saw is also available, but the metal saw is often used
for small work of this kind. A slow
driving speed is purposely used to
avoid overheating when cllrting ~12%
tic material, but the speed can be
increased. if required, by changing
over the two beit puheys. substitution
which is allowed for in the design.
The saw spindle, which is lapped on
i:s two bearing surfaces, is carried in
an iron casting, Fig. 12. This casting
was trued up in the shaping machine
before the bearing bores were machined in the lathe. The bearings were
finally lapped to 2 close running fit for
the saw spindle. Plain healings have
the advantage ofquiet running at high
speeds and, in the present machine,
their diameter, which is smaller than

Fig. 12. The spindle bearing casting

that of ball bearings, also allows a
saw ofsmaller size to be used.
A detachable swarf-box is clamped
to the underside of the machine table
to catch the saw dust and prevent it
reaching the bearings.
The fence for ripping and crosscutting and also the mining fence are
of the same design as those described
for use with thejig saw.
With the exercise of a little ingenuity, and by using witable packing
strips, in conjunction with the machme fence, littie difficulty has been
found in cutting grooves, tongues and
rebates such as those illustrated in
Fig. 13.

S its name implies the back

toolpost is a suppori for a turning tool capable of being secured
to the rear of i!le lathe cross-slide
opposite to the more normal top slide.

By this means the lathe operator has

at his command an additional
tool
that may be brough: into use without
disturbing
any
equipment
already
secured to the top-slide.
However, tne use of the back toolpost need not be confined to mounting
a parting tool only. Those turners W!IO
regularly machine brass, and in particular the so-called screwingquality,
will not need to be reminded of its
capabilities for distributing swarf far
and wide. A rear mounted turning
tool largely eiiminates this nuisance
since the swarf is discharged downwards.
Boring tools may also be used, but
for the most part these need a special
mount because the toolposts commonly supplied are suitable only for
tools applied at right angles to the
work and not along the centre line.
One such toolpost is that fitted to
the Myford lathe. As may be seen from
the illustration Fig. 1.
The toolpost consists of a body
fitted with a hardened tilting boat
Fiy. 3. Prototype

Fig. 1. The
---

Myford

Fig. 2. Alternative

back toolpost
--

2-tool

back toolpost

toolpost

251

Fig. 4. Bask toolposts-types

enabling the tool itself to be adjusted

for height, though of course with
scmc adverse eRect on too! rake.
Errors in this matter, however. may be
corrected
by interposing
packing
where possible between the tool and
the boat. The body is secured to the
cross siide by a sing!e bolt. An alternative tcoipost is seen in the illustration Fig. 2.
This tcclpcst comprises a base that
may be bolted to the lathe cross-slide
and a toclpcst that is attached to the
base. The tcolpcst
may be swung
through 360 degrees thus facilitating
the mounting of any form of tool including bcripg tools. In point of fact
this toolpcst is one of a pair, the other
being designed to take the place of the
top slide for certain operations.
The rear too!pcst does not need to
be confined to the mounting
of a
single too!. If a simple turret i:, prcvided, two or more tools may be used
at the back ofthe lathe. When making
a number of repetitive parts there are
two operations
that recur; they are
chamfering
and parting off. Both

D and

operations
are well suited to rearmounted and inverted tools and can
most conveniently be performed with
a turret enabling the requisite tool to
be brought into play immediately.
The prototype back toolpost, iliustrated in Fig. 3, is cfbuilt-up construction preparatory to making it from an
iron casting in conformity with usual
engineering
practice. A casting ensures rigidity as well as materially
simplifying manufacturing
pcssibilities.
In the prototype
rigidity
was
attained by using a long central screw
securing the body to the base; this
screw is extended to carry the clamping lever locking the tool turret to the
body. When a casting is used, hcwever, the central screw is replaced by a
stud and the attachment secured to the
cross slide by two T-slot tools located
directly under the cutting point of the
tool. The location of these T-slot bolts
is an essential feature of the design.
The placing of them directly under the
toolpoint is intended to overcome the
tipping strain imposed on the attach-

THE AMATEURS

WORKSHOP

Fig. 5.
The turret-Part

Fig. 6.
The base-type

Fig. 7.
The base-Part
Part B
PART A
-~

\CK

TOOL

253

POST

ent when in operation. so it follows

at, when the back tooipcst is securI to the cross siide, care must be
ken to see that it is placed in such a
ay that thisdesign feature is satisfed.
he Toolpost
he two forms t>,ftoolpost are depicd in the iliustration Fig. 4. For the
ike of clarity t!rey have been dubbed
ye D and type M respective!y,
for the
pe D being suitable
Irunnnond lathe whilst type M is
te form applicable to the Myford
IL 7. This differentiation
is main,ined throughout the following des-iption and is applied to a!l relevant
rawincs and instructions.
As will be apparent from the illus,ation. where the toolposts are deicted isometrically, the main differXXJ. apart from some dimensional
hernatives, in the method used to
xure the two toolposts
to their

i
DRiL
11132
SPOTFACE
5/B
i

respective cross slides. The Myford

form has a long central bolt passing
thrc?ugh both the base and the turret
together, with a second and shorter
bolt holdingthe toeofthe basecasting
t,o the lathe cross-slide. Each of these
bolts normally engage a separate Tslot in the cross-slide. In the case of
the Drummond
toolpost,
however,
there is no central bolt, the base being
secured by two bolts passing through
its toe.The turret itselfis thenclamped
to the base by means of the stud seen
in dotted outline. Whilst this method
of securing the device may seem less
rigid than that used with the type M
no lack of stability has, in fact, been
found in practice.
The turrets for both types of back
toolpost are designed to accept the
standard 4 in. square high-speed steel
toolbits
now generally
available.
Accordingly
the dimensions
of the
tool housings are arranged to suit

JYPE
-,

1
I

THE AMATEURS

254

TYPE

WORKSHOI

PART C

L
JYPE

Fig. 8. Fixing

$.A
PART

bolts-type

1-

8 I

i OFF

-__

Fig. 9. Fixing

D
TYPE

PART

bolts-type

D
3dDIA --+II

2
TYPE

PART J

4CK

TOOL

255

POST

Fig. 10. Locking

!ever-part

iese toolbits and to permit a certain

nount of adjustment for height, if
scessary, when the tool is relarpened.
The two toois are designed for
arting-ofI and chamfering, and we
la11be discussing them fully later.
he Parts of the Toolpost
he turret. part A is common to both
iolposts D and M. It is machined to
te dimensions given in the illustraon Fig. 5. The tool seatings are best
rimed in a shaping machine when
ne is available but can also be endiilled in the lathe itself with the work
taunted on the top slide.
,The base part B detailed in Fig. 6
nd Fig. 7 was designed for machining
I the lathe, the work being caught in
re 4-jaw independent chuck. Casttgs for both main elements were once
vailable and it is ccnfidently hoped
rat this supply will berenewed.
,,The fixing bolts, nuts washers, and
:gister pins applicable to both types
f toolpost
are detailed
in the
lustrations Fig. 8 and Fig. 9. While
re locking lever, part H is illustrated
imensionally in Fig. IO. This part is,
f course, common to both types of
)OllX&.
001sfor the Back Toolpost
1 all probability the finished toolpost
611find a permanent location at the
:ar of the cross slide. In this event it
Gil be used to house those tools that
re employed in the last stages of
machining. The tools in question are
lepartingandchamfering
toolsillus.ated in Fig. II aud Fig. 12. They are
onveniently mad% from high-speed
:eel bits, ground to the forms depic:d in the illustrations.

Y Hi
q %%
Giul
Fig. 11. The parting

chsmferingw
tQQl

Fig. 12. The chamfering

@gy&
Fig. 13. Eclipse

blades

tool

SECTKIN

H&&&g
GROUND

tool

THE AMATEURS

Fig. ;4.
?OOi3

Turret

for

Eclipse

parting

For those who possess the Myford

back toolpost only this requirement is
satisfied by. using the special tool
holder provided by Messrs. Eclipse
themselves. This has the seating for
the blade machined to the correct
clearance angle and is provided with a
clamping bolt to secure the tool in
plac:e. We regularly use the Eclipse
partying tool mounted in the Myford
bacr toolpost and have found it in
every way satisfactory especially when
machining stainless steel that requires
both rigidity and adequate clearance
for good practical results.
Adopting LEclipse Parting Tools
to the Z-tool Back Toolpost
Those who wish to fit Eclipse parting
tools to the 2-tool back toolpost we
have been describing will need to
examine the illustration Fig. 14 and.
14A where the details of the special
turret to carry these tools are given
It will be seen that the turret (A) is
provided with a cap (B) carrying two
levelling screws (D) and that through
this cap two blade tension screws (C)

WORKSHO

are passed clamping the blade in plaa

In addition two blade position screw
threaded 6 BA are set in the side ofth
turret to ensure that the blade i
correctly mounted to give the neces
sary clearance in work.
On the opposite side of the turret
housing is formed for the combine
chamfering and facing tool which j
secured by a pair of alleu grub screw
in conformity with the provisions fc
the original 2-tool turret.
The blade position screws previous
ly referred to were designed to accotr
modate an Eclipse parting tool an:
set it correctly upright in a seatin
formed by an end-milling operatio
carri,ed out in the lathe since for th
majority of readers this was held to b
the most convenienl way of producin
the seatings.
Those with shaping machine faci:
ities however, will be able to machin
the seating at the correct angle c
3 degrees.
Fig. 14A.
tools

Turret

for

Eclipse

partins

SACK TOOL

POST

251

TURRET
,,

TA?

2JA

NOTE!

Fig. 15. Details

!iounting Eclipse Parting Tool

llades
)fthe many additional tools that may
e used in the back toolpost perhaps
re most important and useful are the
arrow Eclipse parting tool blades
is may be seen from an inspection of
le illustration
Fig. 13 these blades
re obtainable in either straight-sided

+HIS DlMENSlON

of the

MUST

BE RJU

turret

or hollow-ground
form and that, in
order to provide clearance
in the
work the blade is tapered in section.
This taper has an included angle of
approximately
3 degrees. It follows,
therefore that any mo,unting for the
blades must provide means of ensuring that the designed clearance is
maintained.

CH,4PTER

31

E4MEKS are used for opening

GIG!hoies !har have already been
drilled or machined somewhat
undersize. As an example, the fitting
of3 pin iill a hLiSiiset in a particular
componcn: is usually perfo;med with
;I 1rc3mer taking, out only a few
thousandths ofan Inch ofmateriai.
This is w\;ork that requires the use cf
the parallel reamer deoicted in the
illustration
Fig. 1. As its name imp!ies the t;:ol is parallel
for the
greater part of its length, but has a
very short taper lead to enable it to
enter the hole being sized. It is intended for hand operat;on when caught in
a suitab!e wrench, but is not designed
for the remov~al of large amounts of
metal. It may be used also in the lathe
held in the tailstock
chuck. The
straight-fluted
form shown in the
illustration
tend to reproduce their
pattern on the work and are now
generally replaced by reamers having
a helical form since these do not exhibit the same tendency.
Packing the Reamer
A parallel reamer can only form a hole
of the size to which it was originailv
ground uniess thepracticeofpacking
the tool is adopted. This isa somewhat
haphazard
procedure involving the
use of paper or thin card placed over
one or more of the blades in order to
Fig. 1.

increase the effective diameter of the

reamer as a whole. The same resul,
can also be obtained by. placing 2
length of round material Into one 0.
the flutes ofthe reamer.
Adjustable Reamers
In order to offset these difficulties twc
forms of adjustable reamer were in
traduced. The first of these, illustratec
in Fig. 2, was of one-piece construe
tion split down three or more of it:
flutes and drilled and tapped axially
to accept the expander screw used fol
adjustment
purposes. As might br
expected their range of expansion wac
somewhat limited, only a few thou.
sandths of an inch being possible, ant
they were also somewhat expensive
to produce; so to provide greatel
coverage the reamer seen in Fig. 3 wa:
developed.
This form of reamer has a body
slotted to accept its detachable blades
The blade seatings are tapered so that
when the blades themselves are movec
axially by means of the nuts at eact
end of the body, the effective diameter
of the reamer can be expanded or con,
tracted at will.
When using reamers of this type
grearcare must be taken to ensure thrt
they are not asked to cut heavily
Especially in the smaller sizes likely tc
be of interest to the amateur, for tot

Parallel Reamer

REAMEXS

Fig. 2. Adjustable

reamer

tapped

heavy a loading may irretrievably

damage them.
The rang? a\ailahle is considerable
and the coverage from anq given size
suficient to provide overlapping befween tl-e sizes.
The reamer illus:rated in Fig. 4 is intended for use in machines. In the
small workshop this will imply ,the
lathe and possibly the drilling machinc. In all cases machine reamers must
be accurately mounted or they will
tend to cut oversize. .As is common
with man:\- fixed reamers .*-hen new,
the machine reamer is usually made
somewhar oversize to allow for resharpening. Before making use. then,
of any non-adjustable
parallel reamer
,it should be measured with a micrometer to establish its exact size.
Taper Reamers
For the most part reamers of the type
illustrated in I-&. 5 are employed for
the purpose of sizing or dressing the
Morse Taper seatings of machine tool
spindles. This is an operation follow-

Fig. 3. Adjustable

axially

for expander

screw.

ine on directly from the boring of the

tape; seating-when the reameris held
in the tailstock chuck. Light cuts only
are taken with the reamer and the
work well lubricated to ensure that the
work surface remains smooth.
When dressing existing tapers that
may have suffered slight damage, the
reamer is held in the hand and turned
with a suitable wrench.
Taper Pin Reamers
If parts are to be held securely by
means ofa taper pin, not only must the
parts themselves be a good fit but t.he
seating for the taper pin that holds
them must be correctly formed or the
parts may start to work and bec,nme
loose.
To makecertain that the pin seating
is correctly formed, reamers ground to
the correct taper are used. Since in the
smaller sizes they are very delicate. for
the most part these tools are used by
hand, taking light cuts and cleaning
the reamer of swarf by withdrawing it
frequently
and oiling it before replacement.

Fiy. 4.

Machine

reamer

reamer

slotted

to accept

detachable

blades

THE AMATEURS

260
Taper pins hate a taper of 4 in. to
the foot. so the reamers are ground to
suit. An cxampie ofa taper pin reamer
isi!lustrared in f?x.h.
The tive-sided broach seen i,n Fig. 7
is somctimcs employed to seat small
taper pins. But its raie of stock removai is s!ow and its action that of
ruijbing ratner than cutting. Moreo\:er. a broach rends to wander out of
aiignmeni if undue pressure i; applied
to it during the reamifig operation.
Wevertheiess. used with care, broaches
form a useful and comparatively
cheap means ofobtaining satisfactory
pin seatings for the smaller sized taper
p113s.
In commercial
practice taper pin
reamers are used in quite large sizes,
but in the small or amateur workshop
the need will. for the most part, only
be for the smaller reamers in the
range. which has been designed so
that the reamers themselves form a
series. each one over!a,pping the next.
The table below gives the salient information about those sizes likely to
be of service in the small workshop.

WORKSHOP

Some Notes on Reaming

In order to avoid overloading
a
parallel
reamer, and to ensure a
smooth finish to the hole. it is important to ensure that only the correct
amount of material is left for removal.
Manufacturers
recommend
that
this should be fromO.006 in. to 0.010
in. for reamers up to 4 in. in diameter
and from 0.010 in. to 0,015 in. for
reamers from 4 in. to I in. diameter.
Mention has already been made
that new parallel reamers are purposely made somewhat
oversize. The
figures of tolerance in this respect are
general!y
in accordance
with the
followingtable:
Rra~ner diamete!
in.

High
in.

Low
in.

Under 0.3 in.

iO~ooO6 +0.0003
0.3 and under 0.6 in; +O~OOOS+0,0004
+O~OOOY
0.6and under 1 .O in. +O,OOl

Expansion
reamers of the type
illustrated in Fig. 2 have already been
mentioned as having a limited range
ofexpansion.
The small amount of expansion
permissible is not always appreciated
and often results in permanent damage to the tool. If the limits given in
the attached table are followed no
damage is likely to be caused :
Reamrr diarnerer
in.

: to +I in.
1 to $: in.
1 to 1% in.
12 to 2 in.

Permissible
,?I.
0.005 in.
0.008 in.

expansion

O-010 in.
0,012 in.

Ficallyafewwordsofcautionwhen
storing and using reamers. As it is of
the utmost importance to retain their
keeness reamers should always be

Fig. 6. Taper

pin reamer

251

REAMERS

Fig. 7.

Five-sided

kept either in stands similar to those

used for dril!s or in drawers or cases
\,..ilere thev can lie horizontally
and
arc separated from one another by
suitable partitions.
Nothing is calculated to harm their usefulness more
than to allow reamers to be jumbled
up iogethrr in a drawer with their
cutting edges in contact. It is also
essential to see that rxt cannot damage them. For this reason, when storing reamers, they should not be laid on
any substance likely to absorb moisture. For this reason stands are perhaps preferable
to drawers, uniess
some form of rust inhibitor can be
introduced to overcome the trouble.
When tising reamers they should
always be turned in the direction of
cut and never reversed on withdrawal,
for their cutting edges are liable to be
dulled if they are turned backwards.
Practica!ly
all reaming operations
:an. with advantage, be undertaken
with 3 lubricant of one form or an-

broach

other. The only materials

to be
reamed dry are cast iron. bakelite and
the magnesium alloys. For the rest.
apart from assisting the production of
a smooth finish, particularly
when
reaming in a machine. the lubricant. if
applied copiously helps to cool the
work. The attached table. based on
information received from the British
Steel Corporation
3s well as from
practical
experience,
will, perhaps
form a guide when using high-speed
steel reamers :
Material
Steel up to 80 t.p.s.i.
Stainless Steel
,Malleable iron
Aluminium

alloys

Brass
Copper

Phosphor bronze
Plastics

Lubricant
Sulphurised oil
Sulphurised oil
Mineral oil: soluble
oil or soda water
Soluble oil: Par&in
and lard oil or paraffin
Soluble oil or paraffin
and lard oil
Lard oil: paraffin
sulphurised oil or
soluble oil
Lard oil or soluble oil
Sol?lble oil or soapy
water

1A

ALBRLCNT Chuck, 45
Angular Grinding Rest, 83-84
Angle Plates, 197-198
Air, compressed, 235-241
Addiiioual Machine Tools, L-249
Adjusmble Reamers, 258-259

%
Benches, 14
%ench Grinder. 24-26
&It Drives, 49-54
R&s, Round, 49-51
elc Fasteners, 49-50,53--54
Belt Tensioning Devices, 54
Boring Tool, 79-80
%ack Tool Post. 81-82
Box, Clapper, 58
Bell Chuck, 65
Boring Work in the La?he. 94-96
Boring Tool with detachable cutters, 96
Boring Bar for small tools, 97
Back Facing, 98-T)
Boring Tool Holders, Two Simple, 100
%oring Work on theSaddle, IOO--101
BoringBar, 101-103
Buttons, Toolmakers, 115-l 17
Blocks, V, ! 99
Blowptpe, Self-blowing 226-227
Back Toolpost, 250-257
Back Toolpost, Tools for, 255-256
Broach, 260
&

Cable Support, 18
Cooling of Electric Motors, 22
Centres, 30-32
Chip Trays, 38--39
Chucks, 44--46,65-73
ChucLs, Albrecht, 45
Chucks, Jacobs, 45
Chucks, securing dril!, 44-45
Clapper Box, 58
Chucks, Bell, 65
Chucks, 4-Jaw Independent, 6546
Chucks, Self-centring, 66-67
Chucks, Collet, 67-69
Chucks, Keyless, 69-70
Chucks, care of, 71-72
Chuck Brace, 72-73
Collet Chucks, 6749
Chucks, Drilling Machine, 44-46
Cables, Electric,, 17-18
Centres, Mountmg Work Between, 92

Cutting Internal Keyways, 103

Circular Saws, I 12-124
Chucks, Drill, 150
Countersinking, 163-164
Counterboring, 164-165
Centring Device, I62
Combination Squares, 202
Centre Punches. 203-204
Case Hardening, 232,-234
Circumferential Dividing, 129-131
Compound Dividing. 131-132
Chl~3g~~eel Mounting, Lathe Mandrel,
Cutting Racks, 144-146
Cross-Drilling, l58,--ItI
Countersinking, 161
Counterboring, I61
Colleted Die Holder. 169
Change Wheel Gearjng, 18l-l 84
Change Wheel Gearing, Proving, 183-184
Callipers, Jenny, 202-203
Compressed Air, 235.-241
Circular Saw, 246-248

Drummond Lathe, 27-28

Drummond Toolpost, 28
Drilling Machine, The, 4048
Drilling Machine, Champion, 4043
Drilling Machine Mode! Engineer, 404
Drilling Machine CowelI, 4041, 44
Drilling Machine Pacera, 42
Drilling Machine, Driving the, 42-44
Drilling Machine Chucks, 44-46
Drilling Machine, Speed Changing
Arrangements, 43-44
Drilling Machine, High Speed .4ltachments,
4647
Drilling Machine, Testing the, 4748
Dividing Head, 64
Drilling Machme Setting Ring, 151-l 52
Drives, V-belt, 51-53
Depth Stops, 152-153
Drill Grinding, 153-157
Drilling from the Tailstock, 92-94
JIf~~9~eep
Holes, 94
Dividjne in the Lathe. 129-136
Dividing,-137-147

Dividing Compound, 131-132

Dividing with simple attachments, 134-136
Di;;idi~g,gtachment for the Headstock.
Dividing Attachment for the saddle,
141-142

INDEX
Dividing, Linear, 142-144
Drills and Drilling, 148-161
Drili Stands, 149-150
Drill Chucks. 150
Drill Point, 154-157
Drill Speeds, 157
Drill Lubricants, 158
Drill, Pin, 165
Die Ho!dw colle!ed. 169
Drilling Machine, Tapping in the. 176-177
202
Dial
Dividers,
indicator, 2 12-2 17
Dial Indicator Magnetic Base for, 212
Dial indicator, lnternai Attachment,
213.-214
E
Electric Power Supply, I7
Electric Cables, 17-18
Electric Plugs, 17
Electric Moto:cs. Cooling of. 22 r
Electric Drill, Low Voltage, 20
End Mills, lisrng. I27
Equipment Measuring 188-194
Errors in Marking Out, 1)6-197
Eclipse Magnetic Base, 212
Electiic !M.&ile,232~-234
Ename;ling, Stove, 241-2 $2
F
Furniture, Wxkshop, 15
From Tool, 78
Fasteners, Belt, 49-50,53-54
Ftycutting, 1I8~-120
Feed Screws, Icdependent, 223-224
c
Grinding Rest, Angular, 53-84
Grimiing Wheels. 84-86
Grinding Wheels, Tuning, 85-86
Grinder, Bench, 26.26
Guard, Leadscrew, 37
Grinding Drills, 154-157
Gearing, Change Wheel, I8i-184
Gear Train, Proving the, 183- 184
Gauges, Small Hole, 189--190
Gauges, Depth, 193
Gauges. Taper. 194
Gauges, Slide, 191--192
Gauges, Surface, 199-201
Gauges, Scribing, 201
H
Heating the Workshop, 15-16
Headstock Mandrel, 35
Hand Tools,82
Head. Dividmg, 64
Hand Knurl Wheel Holder, 87
Holes,
Drilling Deep, 94
Headstock Dividing Attachment, 137-141
Heads:ock Spindle, High Speed, 224-225

263
Hard Soldering, 228-229
Hard Soidering Equipment for, 229-230
Hardening, Case, 232-234
Hacksaw Machine, 244-246
I
Indicator, Thread, 18:)-1X1
Independent Feed Screws, 222-223
.I
Jacobs Chuck, 45
Jacks, Screw, 198~-199
Jenny Caliipers, 202-203
Jenny Callipers, use of, 205-207
Jigsaw, 246.-248
K
Knife Tool, 79
Keyless Chucks, 69-70
Kwrling, 87-9i
Knurl Wheel Holder, Hmd, 87
Knurling Tool, Single Wheel, 88
Kilurling Straddle, 88
Knurling Operation, Starting the, 89-90
Keyways, Cutting Internal, 103
Keyways, Marking out internal, 208-209
Keyways, Angular Location of, 208
L
Lighting the Workshop, i6--17
Low-Ve!?age Power Supply, 19-24
Low Voltage Electric Drill, 20
Lathes, 27-39
Leadscrew, 32-37
Lathe, Levelling the, 35-36
Lathe, caring for the, 36-39
Lathe, bearings, 37
Lathe, bed, 37
Leadscrew guard, 37
Lathe Tools, 78-86
Lathe, Drummond, 27-28
Lathe Operations, 92-103
Lapping, 110-i 14
Lapping of shafts, 110--i 11
Lapping, Internal, ii 1-I 13
Lapping compounds, 113
Lap, Boyar Schulze, ! 12
Lapping, Protection of Machine, 113-l 14
Lathe, Milling in the, 118-128
Lubrication, Oil Mist, 220
Lathe Overhead Drives, 22 l-225
La;:;_Mla3n4drelChange Wheel Mounting,
M
Motor generator, 20
Motors, cooling of, 22
Motors, internal connections, 22--23
Morse Taper, 34
Milling Machine, the, -64

264
Machine- Vices, 61
Machine Vices, errors in, 61~~-62
Machine Vices, testing, 62
Milling Machine, Tr,n Senior, t? -,-6J
Milling Machine, Vertical, 63
Mandrels.

-l---l1

Mandrels, Plain, 74
Mandrels, Expanding, 74-75
Mandrels, Stub, 75
Mandrels, Le Count, 74---75
Mandrels, Hollow, 76--.77
Mandrel, Headstock. ~:j
Milling in [ill- I~aihe. I i ill---128
Milling Attachments, 126-127
Mandrel Handle. 176
Micrometer, I88
Mizromeier Stands, I89
Micrometer-, Depth Gauge, 193
Measuring Eyuipment, I%+ !W
Marking Out, 1)5.~~~2111
Marking Out. Errors i:l, IXG ~117
Marking Out lntzrnni KC ywap. 1OEI--~209
Mist Lubrication Od, 2LO
Muffle. Elecstric, ,32-.~-~Xi3
Machine Toois. l~,ddiiional, 244~~-.249
Machine, Hacksaw, 241-246
Marking-out Tables, I97
Machine Reamers, ZL?
0
Oil Mist Lubricaiion, 220
Owl-head Dri\~es, Lathe, 221 .--225
Overhead Driws for Drummond Lathe, 22 I
Overhead Drives for Myford Lathe, 222
P
Power Supplj, 17-21
Parting Tools, 80--8 I
Plugs, Electric, 17
Power Supply, Low V&age, 19-24
Pin Drill, 165
Plates, Surface, 197
Plates, Angle, 197-198
Packing Strips, 198
Punches, Centre, 203-204
Painting, Spray, 239-240
Paint Tables, Rotary, 243

Q
R
Raw Material Siorage, i4
Rectifiers, 19,
hve&;g
Swtch, 23
Rotab Table, 64
Racks, Cutting, 144-146
Rotary Table, 146-147

Spot ~~rilling:~tta~hmcni, ZO
Switches, reversing, 23
Switches, Heavy Carrent, 23
Switches, Foot. 24
Steadies 2% 30
ShapingMachine, the. 55 --~-5%)
Shaping Machine, The Drummond Hand,
SC
Shaping Machine, The Cowell Hand,
SYNC
~36
Shaping Machine. The Acorn Tools Power,
56-m57
Shaping Machiw, Operating the, 57...-.58
Shaping Machine Tools, 57
Shaping Machine Toolholders, 58
Screw Cutting .Tools, 80
Self-centring chuck, 66~--~.67
Small Tools, Boring Bar for, 97
Saws Circular 122~G-124
Slides, Vertical, 123-124
Spotfacing, 166
Screw Threads, cutting, 167.--I77
Squares, 202
Squares Combination 202
Suds Equiprrtient,2 I&~220
Saddle, Boring work on the, 94-96
Smail Tools, Bo-ing Bar for, 97
Setting Rmg, Drilling Machine, I5 I-152
Stops, Depth, l52--153
Spotfacirig, I51
Screw Cutting Tools, 178-180
Screw Cutting, Practical, l84--187
Small Hole Gauges, 189-190
Steel Rules, 193- 194
Slide Gauge, 191-192
Surface Plates, 197
Screw Jacks, 188-189
Scribers, 203
Surface Gauge, use of, 207-208
Soldering and Brazing, 226-230
Solders and Fluxes, 226
Self-Blowing Blowpipe, 226-227
Soldering, Hard, 228-229
Spray Painting, 239--240
Stove Enamelltng, 241.-242
T

Tool Storage, I4
Toolposts, 29
Tool Turrett, 29

INDEX

U
V

Tooi!kds, B&k: 81-82

Trays, drip, 38-39
Toolpost, Drummoad, 28
Testing the Drilling Machine, 4748
Tools, Hand, 82

Vice mounting, 14
V-belt Drives, 51-53
Vertical Slides, 124-125
V-Blocks, 199

w
Taper Turning, 104-109
Taper Turning Attachments, 104-105
Tailstock, Adjusiab!e Centre for, 105-107
Tapers, setting v.ith Dial Indicator.
To&wakers. Butt&s, 115-l 17
Toolmakers Buttons, Setting, 115-l 17
Tap Wrenches, 170
Threading in the lathe, 170-!75
Tapping in the Drilling Machine. 176-177

1Speed, 224
, Toolpost, Back, ?56--;,:,Too:post, Back, Tools for, 255-256

Wheels, Grinding, 84-86

Workshop, Heating the, ISWorkshop, Lighting the, 16Workshop Furniture, 15
Wrenches, Tap, 170
Wobbler, 215-216