Descriptive Grammer of Pushto PDF

Anne Boyle David
Descriptive Grammar of Pashto and its Dialects
Brought to you by | provisional account

Unauthenticated | 94.189.186.140
Download Date | 5/27/14 5:32 PM
Mouton-CASL Grammar Series
Editors
Anne Boyle David
Claudia M. Brugman
Thomas J. Conners
Amalia Gnanadesikan
Volume 1

Anne Boyle David
Descriptive Grammar
of Pashto
and its Dialects
Edited by
Claudia M. Brugman
DE GRUYTER
MOUTON

Funding/Support: This material is based upon work supported, in whole or in part, with funding
from the United States Gouvernment. Any opinions, findings and conclusions, or recommendations expressed in this material are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the views
of the University of Maryland, College Park and/or any agency or entity of the United States
Gouvernment. Nothing in this report is intended to be and shall not be treated or construed as an
endorsement or recommendation by the University of Maryland, United States Gouvernment, or
the authors of the product, process, or service that is the subject of this report. No one may use
any information contained or based on this report in advertisements or promotional materials
related to any company product, process, or service or in support of other commercial purposes.
The Contracting Officers Representative for this project is John Walker, Gouvernment Technical
Director at CASL, (301) 226-8912, [email protected].
ISBN 978-1-61451-303-2
e-ISBN 978-1-61451-231-8
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
A CIP catalog record for this book has been applied for at the Library of Congress.
Bibliografische Information der Deutschen Nationalbibliothek
The Deutsche Nationalbibliothek lists this publication in the Deutsche Nationalbibliografie;
detailed bibliographic data are available in the Internet at http://dnb.dnb.de.
2014 University of Maryland. All rights reserved.
Cover photo: A Khan Mamdi carpet from Pakistan. Image graciously provided by Bunyaad Oriental
Rugs, committed to producing hand knotted Oriental rugs made by fairly paid adults
(http://rugs.tenthousandvillages.com).
Printing: Hubert & Co. GmbH & Co. KG, Gttingen
Printed on acid-free paper
Printed in Germany
www.degruyter.com


To my teacher, Eric P. Hamp


Foreword
It is remarkable that, in this age of unprecedented global communication and interaction, the majority of the worlds languages are as yet not adequately described. Without basic grammars and dictionaries, these languages and their communities of speakers are in a real sense inaccessible to the rest of the world. This state of affairs is antithetical to todays interconnected global mindset.
This series, undertaken as a critical part of the mission of the University of Maryland Center for Advanced Study of Language (CASL), is directed at remedying this
problem. One goal of CASLs research is to provide detailed, coherent descriptions
of languages that are little studied or for which descriptions are not available in English. Even where grammars for these languages do exist, in many instances they are
decades out of date or limited in scope or detail.
While the criticality of linguistic descriptions is indisputable, the painstaking work
of producing grammars for neglected and under-resourced languages is often insufficiently appreciated by scholars and graduate students more enamored of the latest theoretical advances and debates. Yet, without the foundation of accurate descriptions of
real languages, theoretical work would have no meaning. Moreover, without professionally produced linguistic descriptions, technologically sophisticated tools such as
those for automated translation and speech-to-text conversion are impossible. Such
research requires time-consuming labor, meticulous description, and rigorous analysis.
It is hoped that this series will contribute, however modestly, to the ultimate goal
of making every language of the world available to scholars, students, and language
lovers of all kinds. I would like to take this opportunity to salute the linguists at CASL
and around the world who subscribe to this vision as their lifes work. It is truly a noble
endeavor.
Richard D. Brecht
Founding Executive Director
University of Maryland Center for Advanced Study of Language


Series Editors Preface

This series arose out of research conducted on several under-described languages at
the University of Maryland Center for Advanced Study of Language. In commencing
our work, we were surprised at how many of the worlds major languages lack accessible descriptive resources such as reference grammars and bilingual dictionaries.
Among the ongoing projects at the Center is the development of such resources for
various under-described languages. This series of grammars presents some of the linguistic description we have undertaken to fill such gaps.
The languages covered by the series represent a broad range of language families
and typological phenomena. They are spoken in areas of international significance,
some in regions associated with political, social, or environmental instability. Providing resources for these languages is therefore of particular importance.
However, these circumstances often make it difficult to conduct intensive, in-country
fieldwork. In cases where such fieldwork was impractical, the authors of that grammar
have relied on close working relationships with native speakers, and, where possible,
corpora of naturalistic speech and text. The conditions for data-gatheringand hence
our approach to itvary with the particular situation.
We found the descriptive state of each language in the series to be different from
that of the others: in some cases, much work had been done, but had never been collected into a single overview; in other cases, virtually no materials in English existed.
Similarly, the availability of source material in the target language varies widely: in
some cases, literacy and media are very sparse, while for other communities plentiful
written texts exist. The authors have worked with the available resources to provide
descriptions as comprehensive as these materials, the native speaker consultants, and
their own corpora allow.
One of our goals is for these grammars to reach a broad audience. For that reason
the authors have worked to make the volumes accessible by providing extensive exemplification and theoretically neutral descriptions oriented to language learners as
well as to linguists. All grammars in the series, furthermore, include the native orthography, accompanied where relevant by Romanization. While they are not intended as
pedagogical grammars, we realize that in many cases they will supply that role as well.
Each of the grammars is presented as a springboard to further research, which
for every language continues to be warranted. We hope that our empirical work will
provide a base for theoretical, comparative, computational, and pedagogical developments in the future. We look forward to the publication of many such works.
Claudia M. Brugman
Thomas J. Conners
Anne Boyle David
Amalia E. Gnanadesikan


Preface
Pashto is a challenging language to study and describe, for several reasons. Its location in areas of rugged terrain, at the heart of a historical crossroad for traders, invaders, and migrating peoples, has led to alternating cycles of isolation and upheaval
in the various Pashto-speaking regions. Furthermore, Pashto, a member of the Iranian
language group itself, has undergone longterm influence from the many neighboring
Indo-Aryan languages. Centuries of political turmoil, demographic shifts, and complex contact situations have contributed to significant dialectal variation. In addition,
the current political situation makes in-country fieldwork highly problematic.
This grammar builds on the considerable previous work of many scholars, among
them J.G. Lorimer, Georg Morgenstierne, Herbert Penzl, D.N. MacKenzie, D.A. Shafeev,
Manfred Lorenz, Wilma Heston, Daniel Septfonds, Habibullah Tegey and Barbara Robson, Taylor Roberts, Farooq Babrakzai, Naseer Hoonar Pashtoon and Zeeya A. Pashtoon, and David Pate. Without their diligent scholarship we would not have been able
to begin this task. Among the features our grammar adds to the corpus of Pashto research are some new analyses of previously described data and coverage of all the
regional dialects in a single volume, along with a detailed exposition of the dialectal
situation, data presented in both native orthography and transcription, and finally, a
formal grammar which can be used to feed a morphological parser, available online
for download to purchasers of this volume.
The data for this grammar come from a wide range of printed resources, complemented by naturalistic corpora and work with native speaker consultants. We provide
extensive examples and full paradigms, complete with full interlinearization of the
example sentences: a native script line, a phonemic transcription, a morpheme-bymorpheme gloss line, and a free translation. Although native orthography is frequently
omitted from descriptive grammars, it is particularly useful not only to the language
expert but also to the language learner.
In our description we have attempted to be theory-neutral without being simplistic. Any abstract description of a language is necessarily informed by theory at some
level. We aim to be theoretically informed in as broad a way as possible, such that the
descriptions and explications contained within this grammar will be of use not only to
descriptive linguists, but also to those from a variety of theoretic backgrounds. However, our primary loyalty is to the language being described and not to a particular
theoretic approach to Language.
A descriptive grammar is never really finished. Two areas in particular that we
wish we could devote more time to are syntax and prosody, although the description
1 We have been made aware of a substantial literature on Pashto written in Russian (Lutz Rzehak,
p.c.), including Lebedev 1996, Lebedev 2003, and Grjunberg 1987; we have unfortunately been able
to consult Grjunberg only briefly and Lebedev not at all.

xii
Preface
of Pashto syntax provided here is more detailed than previous overviews available in
English and benefits from analyses of individual phenomena made by other scholars.
There remains much work to be done on Pashto, and we view this volume as a springboard for scholars to continue working on this fascinating language in all its varieties.
Many people have helped in the creation of this book. The authors would like to
thank all our colleagues at the University of Maryland Center for the Advanced Study of
Language for their supportin particular, CASLs Executive Director, Amy Weinberg,
and our founding Executive Director, Richard Brechtas well as Pashto language experts in the United States Government. Our colleague and patron David Cox, who is
much missed since his retirement, also deserves special mention for his assistance
in promoting the idea of this series and for his constant, infectious enthusiasm for
the enterprise of language description. Individuals who have had a part in producing
this manuscript or advising our research include Nikki Adams, Farooq Babrakzai, Evelyn Browne, Katherine Burk, James Caron, Thomas Conners, Amalia Gnanadesikan,
Wilma Heston, Mohammed Shahab Khan, Craig Kopris, Nathanael Lynn, Michael Marlo,
Zeeya Pashtoon, Tristan Purvis, Shawna Rafalko, Paul Rodrigues, and Tamara Wehmeir.
We also thank the generous native speakers of Pashto who worked with us patiently,
and without whom this volume would not exist.
And finally, I would like to thank my co-authors for devoting themselves so diligently to this sometimes frustrating, always stimulating project, for being willing to
disagree with me when I was wrong, and for never losing their senses of humor. I especially thank Claudia Brugman for her conscientious editing of this entire book and
Sarah Goodman for her tireless work finding and making sense of naturally occurring
example sentences. All of these people have worked with scrupulous care to ensure
that as few mistakes and misstatements crept into this book as possible; those that
remain fall to me alone.
Anne Boyle David

Contents
Foreword vii
Series Editors Preface ix
Preface xi
1
About this Grammar 1
1.1
Scope of this book 1
1.2
Orthography 1
1.3
Tables and examples 2
1.4
Abbreviations and symbols 4
2
2.1
2.2
2.2.1
2.2.2
The Pashto Language 7

Background 7
Population of speakers 7
History and classification 8
Dialectal variation 8
3
Phonology and Orthography 9
3.1
Phonetics and phonology 9
3.1.1
Consonants 9
3.1.1.1
Inventory 9
3.1.1.2
Elegant consonants 9
3.1.2
Vowels 10
3.1.2.1
Inventory 10
3.1.2.2
Vowel transcription 11
3.1.2.3
Elegant vowels 13
3.1.2.4
Middle dialect vowels 13
3.1.3
Stress 15
3.2
Orthography 15
3.2.1
The script 15
3.2.1.1
Letters unique to Pashto 16
3.2.1.2
Tables of letters and numerals 18
3.2.1.3
Representation of vowels 25
3.2.1.3.1
Word-initial vowels 25
3.2.1.3.2
Word-internal vowels 26

xiv
3.2.1.3.3
3.2.2
3.2.3
Contents
Word-final vowels 28
Rationale for transcription system 28
Orthographic variation 29
4
Pashto Dialects 31
4.1
Introduction 31
4.2
Characterizing Pashto dialects 31
4.2.1
Dialect marking in this work 34
4.2.1.1
Dialect marking in tables 34
4.2.1.2
Dialect marking in interlinear examples 34
4.3
The four dialects of General Pashto 35
4.3.1
International differences 36
4.4
The Middle dialects 37
4.4.1
Middle dialect vowels 37
4.4.2
Middle dialect consonants 39
4.5
Other approaches 40
4.5.1
Two dialects 40
4.5.2
Three dialects 42
5
Nouns 45
5.1
Inflection 45
5.1.1
Gender 45
5.1.2
Number 46
5.1.3
Case 47
5.1.3.1
Direct case 48
5.1.3.2
Oblique case 48
5.1.3.3
Ablative case 48
5.1.3.4
Vocative case 49
5.1.3.5
Split ergativity 50
5.1.4
Animacy 50
5.2
Inflectional affixation 51
5.2.1
Introduction 51
5.2.2
Stem allomorphy and other morphophonemic alternations 52
5.2.3
Class I 52
5.2.3.1
Overview 52
5.2.3.2
Class I masculine nouns 55
5.2.3.2.1
Masculine animate nouns in General Pashto 55
5.2.3.2.2
Masculine animate nouns in Waziri 61
5.2.3.2.3
Masculine inanimate nouns in General Pashto and Waziri 62
5.2.3.3
Class I feminine nouns in General Pashto and Waziri 67
5.2.3.3.1
General Pashto Class I feminine animate nouns 67
5.2.3.3.2
General Pashto Class I feminine inanimate nouns 69

Contents
5.2.3.3.3
5.2.4
5.2.4.1
5.2.4.2
5.2.4.3
5.2.5
5.2.5.1
5.2.5.1.1
5.2.5.2
5.2.5.2.1
5.2.5.2.2
5.2.5.3
5.2.5.3.1
5.2.5.3.2
5.2.5.4
5.2.6
5.2.6.1
5.2.6.2
5.3
5.4
5.4.1
5.4.1.1
5.4.1.2
5.4.2
5.4.3
Waziri Class I feminine nouns 71

Class II 73
Overview 73
General Pashto Class IIa 75
General Pashto Class IIb 79
Class III 80
Overview 80
Subclassification of Class III in General Pashto 80
Class IIIa 84
Masculine Class IIIa nouns 84
Feminine Class IIIa nouns 85
Class IIIb 87
Masculine Class IIIb nouns 87
Feminine Class IIIb nouns 88
Class III in Waziri 89
Irregular nouns and irregular patterns in General Pashto 92
Kinship terms 93
Arabic borrowings 95
Inflection and agreement of conjoined nouns 97
Derivational morphology and loanwords 98
Derivational morphology of nouns 98
Nouns derived with suffixes 98
Compounds 101
Reduplication of nouns 101
Loanwords 102
6
Adjectives and Other Noun Modifiers 103
6.1
Introduction 103
6.2
Inflectional classes in General Pashto and Waziri 103
6.2.1
Inflectional classes of General Pashto adjectives 103
6.2.1.1
General Pashto Class I 104
6.2.1.1.1
Case-marking suffixes 104
6.2.1.1.2
Stem allomorphy 104
6.2.1.1.3
Class I forms with stem allomorphy 105
6.2.1.1.4
Class I forms without stem allomorphy 107
6.2.1.1.5
Animacy in Class I adjectives 108
6.2.1.2
General Pashto Class II 109
6.2.1.2.1
Case-marking suffixes 109
6.2.1.2.2
Stem allomorphy 110
6.2.1.2.3
Class II forms with stem allomorphy 111
6.2.1.2.4
Class II forms without stem allomorphy 115
6.2.1.3
General Pashto Class III 116

xv
xvi
6.2.1.3.1
6.2.1.3.2
6.2.1.4
6.2.2
6.2.2.1
6.2.2.2
6.2.2.3
6.3
6.3.1
6.3.2
6.4
6.4.1
6.4.2
6.4.3
6.5
6.5.1
6.5.1.1
6.5.1.2
6.5.2
6.5.3
6.6
6.7
6.8
6.8.1
6.8.1.1
6.8.1.2
6.8.1.3
6.8.2
6.8.3
6.8.4
6.9
6.9.1
6.9.2
6.9.3
6.9.4
7
7.1
7.2
7.2.1
7.2.2
7.2.3
Contents
Class IIIa 116

Class IIIb 118
General Pashto Class IV (non-declining adjectives) 119
Inflectional classes of Waziri adjectives 121
Waziri Class I 121
Waziri Class II 122
Waziri Class III 122
Determiners and definiteness 124
Demonstrative determiners 124
The indefinite determiner /yaw/ one 130
Non-numerical noun quantifiers 130
The quantifier
/ol-/ all 130
The quantifier
/har/, /ar/ every 131
The quantifier
/he/ none 132
Number names 132
Cardinal numbers in Pashto 133
Morphology 133
Inventory 137
Ordinal numbers in General Pashto and Waziri 144
Reduplication of number names 146
Interrogative adjectives 147
Inflection of conjoined adjectives 149
Derivation of adjectives 150
Derivational suffixes 150
Some Class I derivational suffixes 150
Some Class IIIa derivational suffixes 152
Some Class IV (non-declining) derivational suffixes 152
Negators 152
Compound adjectives 153
Reduplication of adjectives 153
Usage 154
Attributive and predicative adjectives 154
Zero-derivation of nouns from adjectives 155
Comparatives and superlatives 156
Adjectives as adverbs 156
Pronouns 157
Overview 157
Strong personal pronouns 157
Forms in General Pashto and Middle dialects 157
Usage 161
Strong possessive pronouns 163

Contents
7.3
7.3.1
7.3.2
7.3.2.1
7.3.2.2
7.4
7.4.1
7.4.2
7.4.3
7.5
7.6
7.7
7.8
7.9
7.10
7.11
Weak personal pronouns 164

Forms 164
Usage 166
Occurrence restrictions 166
Possessive constructions 168
Deictoids: /r/,
/dr/, and
/wr/ 169
Oblique pronominal clitics 170
Directional verbal clitics 171
Deictic prefixes 172
Demonstratives 172
Interrogative pronouns 176
Indefinite pronouns 179
Relative pronouns 181
Expressions of coreference 181
Reciprocal pronouns 184
Other pro-forms 184
8
Verbs 185
8.1
Overview 185
8.1.1
Properties of verbs 185
8.1.2
Classifying verbs 186
8.2
Verb components 187
8.2.1
Structure of the verb 187
8.2.2
Personal suffixes 191
8.2.3
The infinitive 194
8.2.4
Simplex and complex verbs 196
8.2.4.1
Overview 196
8.2.4.2
a-initial verbs 196
8.2.4.3
Prefixed verbs 198
8.2.4.4
Denominal verb constructions 200
8.2.5
Conjugation classes 203
8.2.5.1
Overview of conjugation classes 203
8.2.5.2
First conjugation class in General Pashto 204
8.2.5.3
First conjugation class in Middle dialects 207
8.2.5.4
Second conjugation 209
8.2.5.5
Third conjugation 210
8.2.5.5.1
Forming the aorist in third conjugation verbs 210
8.2.5.5.2
A special case of third conjugation verbs: infinitive/past participle
+
/kedl/ 212
8.2.6
Stem classes and the four bases 212
8.2.6.1
The four verb bases 214
8.2.6.2
Weak verbs (one stem) 215

xvii
xviii
8.2.6.3
8.2.6.3.1
8.2.6.3.2
8.2.6.3.3
8.2.7
8.2.8
8.2.8.1
8.2.8.2
8.2.8.3
8.2.9
8.2.9.1
8.2.9.2
8.2.9.3
8.3
8.3.1
8.3.2
8.3.3
8.3.4
8.3.5
8.3.6
8.3.7
8.3.8
8.4
8.4.1
8.4.1.1
8.4.1.2
8.4.2
8.4.2.1
8.4.2.2
8.5
8.5.1
8.5.1.1
8.5.1.2
8.5.2
8.5.2.1
8.5.2.1.1
8.5.2.1.2
8.5.2.2
8.5.2.2.1
8.5.2.2.2
8.5.2.3
Contents
Strong verbs (more than one stem) 217

Strong verbs with two stems 218
Strong verbs with three or four stems 219
List of strong verbs 224
The causative morpheme 227
The auxiliary to be and the verbalizers
/kedl/ and
/kawl/ 228
Forms of to be 229
Forms of
/kedl/ to become 234
Forms of
/kawl/ to make; to do 239
Participles 246
Present participle 246
Past participle 247
Irregularities among past participles 249
Simple verb constructions 249
Present continuous 249
Present aorist 252
Past continuous 254
Past aorist 256
Continuous imperative 258
Aorist imperative 260
Continuous optative 261
Aorist optative 263
Compound verb constructions 265
Perfect constructions 265
Present perfect 265
Past perfect 267
Potential constructions 267
Present potential 268
Past potential 268
Verb usage 269
Uses of the verb to be 269
to be as a copula 269
to be as an auxiliary verb 270
Simple verb constructions 270
Present continuous 270
Negation of present tense verbs 272
Present continuous for expressing future events 273
Present aorist 274
Expressing the future with present aorist plus /b/ 275
Other uses of the present aorist 275
Past continuous 279

Contents
8.5.2.4
8.5.2.5
8.5.3
8.5.3.1
8.5.3.2
8.5.3.3
8.5.4
8.5.4.1
8.5.4.2
8.5.4.3
8.5.4.4
8.5.5
8.5.5.1
8.5.5.2
8.5.6
Past aorist 281

Imperative 283
Compound constructions: perfect 287
Present perfect 287
Past perfect 290
Negation of perfect tenses 291
Compound constructions: potential 293
Expressing potential present events 293
Expressing potential past events 294
Expressing potential future events 295
Negative 298
Infinitives 299
Infinitives as nouns 299
The periphrastic passive 300
Present participles 303
9
Adpositions 305
9.1
Overview 305
9.2
Adpositions and case assignment 306
9.2.1
Assignment of oblique case 307
9.2.2
Assignment of ablative case 308
9.2.3
Assignment of direct case 309
9.2.4
Mixed case-marking inside objects of adpositions 311
9.3
Prepositions 312
9.3.1
The prepositions /d/, /de/, /ye/, /e/ of 312
9.3.1.1
The General Pashto preposition /d/ 312
9.3.1.2
Complex adpositions using /d/ 313
9.3.1.3
The Middle dialect prepositions /de/, /ye/, /e/ 314
9.3.1.4
Middle dialect complex adpositions using /ye/ 315
9.3.2
The General Pashto preposition /l/ from 316
9.3.3
The preposition
/be/ without 317
9.3.4
9.3.4.1
9.3.4.2
9.3.4.3
9.3.4.4
9.3.5
9.3.6
9.4
9.4.1
9.4.2
9.4.3
The prepositions /p/, /pr/ 317

The locational /p/, /pr/ on 318
The instrumental /p/ with, by means of 319
The temporal /p/, /pr/ at, on 320
With aspectual verbs 322
The preposition /tr/ 'up to' 323
The preposition
/leka/ like 324
Postpositions 325
Overview 325
The postposition /ta/ to, for 326
The postposition
/sra/ with 327

xix
xx
9.4.4
9.4.5
9.4.6
9.4.7
9.4.8
9.5
9.5.1
9.5.1.1
9.5.1.2
9.5.1.3
9.5.2
9.5.2.1
9.5.2.2
9.5.3
9.5.4
9.5.5
9.6
9.6.1
9.6.2
9.7
9.7.1
9.7.2
9.7.3
9.7.4
9.7.5
Contents
The postposition
/zidi/ against 327
The postposition
/wnde/ before 328
The postposition
/unde/ like 328
The postposition
/bnde/ 328
Some additional postpositions in Middle dialects 329
Circumpositions 329
Circumpositions with /d/ 334
General Pashto simple circumpositions with /d/ 334
Middle dialect simple circumpositions with /ye/, /e/ 336
Complex circumpositions with /d/ 337
General Pashto circumpositions with /l/ 346
GP simple circumpositions with /l/ 346
GP complex circumpositions with
/l...na/ 350
Circumpositions with /p/ 353
Circumpositions with /tr/ 357
A Middle dialect circumposition with /w/ 359
Coalesced adpositional phrases 360
Pro-adpositional phrases 360
The adpositional phrase
/kara/ at the home of 361
Adposition usage 362
/na/ vs. ablative case-marking on object 363
/d/ and strong pronoun objects 363
/p/ and
/(p...) bnde/ used in a causative construction 363
Omission of pronoun objects of adpositions 364
Postpositions with oblique pronominal clitics 365
...
...
10
Other Lexical Elements 367
10.1
Particles 367
10.1.1
The existential particle
/ta/ 367
10.1.2
Modal particles 369
10.1.2.1
The modal clitic /b/ 369
10.1.2.2
The modal particles
/de/ and
/byad/ 372
10.1.2.3
The modal particle
/yi/ may; must 373
10.1.2.4
10.1.3
10.1.4
10.1.5
10.1.6
10.2
10.2.1
The optative particle /kke/ 373

Affirmation particles 374
The emphatic clitic
/xo/ 375
Vocative particles 375
Interjections 376
Adverbs 377
Adverbs of time 378

Contents
10.2.2
10.2.3
10.2.3.1
10.2.4
10.2.5
10.2.6
10.2.7
10.2.8
10.3
10.3.1
10.3.2
Adverbs of place 380

Adverbs of manner 382
The adverb
/sra/ 385
Adverbs of degree 386
Adverbs borrowed from Arabic 387
Adverbial interrogatives 388
Adjectives as adverbs 391
Reduplication of adverbs 392
Reduplication 393
Full (morphological) reduplication 393
Partial reduplication: echo words 393
11
Syntax 399
11.1
Overview 399
11.2
Phrasal syntax 399
11.2.1
Noun phrases 399
11.2.2
Adpositional phrases 400
11.2.3
Verb phrases 401
11.2.3.1
Light verb constructions 401
11.2.3.2
Elements in the verbal group 403
11.2.3.2.1 The verbal group in General Pashto 403
11.2.3.2.2 The verbal group in Middle dialects 405
11.2.3.2.3 Negative placement in the aorist verb phrase 406
11.3
Main clause sentence types 410
11.3.1
Declaratives 411
11.3.1.1
Order of elements in declaratives 411
11.3.1.2
Order of elements in ditransitive main clauses 413
11.3.1.3
Locative alternation 413
11.3.1.4
Adpositional phrases with oblique pronominal clitics 414
11.3.1.5
Passive clauses 414
11.3.2
Interrogatives 417
11.3.2.1
Yes-or-no questions with the particle
/y/ 417
11.3.2.2
Information questions with interrogative pronouns 418
11.3.2.3
Affirmation questions with the particle
/k na/ 419
11.3.3
Imperatives 419
11.3.3.1
The imperative verb form 419
11.3.3.2
The negative imperative particle
/m/ 420
11.3.4
Generic and existential sentences with
/ta/ 421
11.3.5
Other principles of word order in main clauses 421
11.3.5.1
Weak pronouns 421
11.3.5.2
Particles 424
11.3.5.3
Adpositional phrases in main clauses 424

xxi
xxii Contents
11.3.5.4
Interpretation of adpositional phrases headed by /d/ 424
11.4
Some subordinate clause types 425
11.4.1
Relative clauses 425
11.4.2
Noun complement clauses 428
11.4.3
Verb complement clauses 429
11.4.3.1
Reported speech 432
11.4.4
Subordinate clauses as modifiers 434
11.4.4.1
Subordinate clauses with time reference 434
11.4.4.2
Conditional and counterfactual clauses with
/k/ if 435
11.4.4.3
Subordinate clauses with
/ka/ because 436
11.4.4.4
Subordinate clauses expressing result 438
11.4.4.5
Subordinate clauses expressing reason 439
11.4.4.6
Subordinate clauses expressing purpose 439
11.4.4.7
Subordinate clauses of concession 440
11.5
Periphrastic causatives 440
11.6
Conjunction 442
11.6.1
Coordinating conjunctions 443
11.6.1.1
/aw/ and 443
11.6.1.2
/y/ or 444
11.6.1.3
/xo/ but 445
11.6.1.4
/(aw) by/ then 446
11.6.2
Correlative conjunctions 446
11.7
Principles of case-marking and agreement 448
11.7.1
Tense-based case-marking and split ergativity 448
11.7.2
Agreement of conjoined items 450
11.7.3
Concordant adverbs 450
11.7.4
Case-marking patterns of verbs of sensation or preference 450
11.7.4.1
Four denominal verbs of sensation 450
11.7.4.2
Denominal
/xwaxeg/ like, enjoy 451
11.7.4.3
Three more expressions of preference 452
11.7.5
An unergative or middle voice construction 453
A
Structure of this Grammar 455
A.1
Overview 455
A.2
Audience 456
A.3
More on uses of this grammar 457
A.3.1
The grammar as a basis for computational tools 457
A.3.1.1
Building a parser and generator 458
A.3.2
The grammar as a description 460
A.4
Spell correction 461
A.5
Grammar adaptation 462
A.5.1
Manual grammar building 462
A.5.2
Automated grammar adaptation 463
)(

List of Tables
A.6
Formatting the grammar for viewing 464
B
B.1
B.2
Sources of Pashto Data 467

Sources of interlinear examples taken from the web 467
List of web pages mined for language data 474
Bibliography 477
Index 487
List of Figures
4.1
4.2
Pashto dialects 32
Waziri metaphony 39
List of Tables
/spk/ light 3
/kawl/ to make, to do 4
1.1
1.2
Class I, stem alternation:

Present continuous of
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
3.6
3.7
3.8
3.9
3.10
3.11
3.12
Pashto consonants 9
Elegant, or formal, consonants 10
Pashto vowels 10
Pashto diphthongs 11
Comparison among vowel transcription systems 12
Comparison among M vowel transcription systems 14
Pashto retroflex letters with panak 16
Pashto letters with dot below and dot above 17
Pashto affricate letters based on 17
Pashto letters based on 17
Pashto alphabet 19
Positional variants of letters 22

xxiii
xxiv
List of Tables
3.13
3.14
3.15
3.16
3.17
3.18
Pashto (Eastern Arabic) numerals 24

Short vowel diacritics 25
Word-initial vowels 26
Pashto initial digraphs 26
Word-internal vowels 27
Word-final vowels 28
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5
4.6
4.7
4.8
4.9
4.10
4.11
Phonological variation among major Pashto dialects 33

Correspondence between /i/ and /e/ in closed-class words 33
Four dialects of General Pashto 35
Tribal and geographical associations by dialect 36
Waziri metaphony 38
Middle dialect consonantal deviation from GP 40
Alternative dialect codes 40
Names for components of a two-dialect analysis of Pashto 42
Eastern and Peshawar dialects compared 43
Three-dialect approach 44
Pronunciation of 44
5.1
5.2
5.3
5.4
5.5
5.6
5.7
5.8
5.9
5.10
5.11
5.12
5.13
5.14
5.15
5.16
5.17
5.18
5.19
5.20
5.21
5.22
5.23
GP Class I Masc. noun suffixes 53

Middle dialect Class I Masc. noun suffixes 53
GP Class I Fem. noun suffixes 54
Middle dialect Class I Fem. noun suffixes 54
GP Class I Masc. animatemorphophonemic alternations 56
GP Class I Masc. animate:
/wext/ hair 56
/band/ slave 57
/k/ bandit 57
/bz/ arm 58
/mirz/ clerk 58
/mm/ maternal uncle 59
/darz/ tailor 59
/plandr/ stepfather 60
/pil/ elephant 60
Waziri Class I Masc. animate: /grd/ student [male] 61
Waziri Class I Masc. animate: /mirz/ clerk 61
Waziri Class I Masc. animate: /kaz/ judge 62
Class I Masc. inanimatestem allomorphy 63
GP Class I Masc. inanimate:
/ar/ mountain 63
/daftr/ office 64
/wg/ ear 65
/ps/ sheep 65
Waziri Class I Masc. inanimate: /tar/ rug 65

List of Tables
5.24
5.25
5.26
5.27
5.28
Waziri Class I Masc. inanimate: /daftr/ office 66

Waziri Class I Masc. inanimate: /ps/ sheep 66
Waziri Class I Masc. inanimate: /ar/ mountain 66
GP Class I Fem. animatestem allomorphy 67
GP Class I Fem. animate:
/xwxe/ mother-in-law 68
5.29
5.30
5.31
5.32
5.33
5.34
5.35
5.36
5.37
5.38
5.39
5.40
5.41
5.42
5.43
5.44
5.45
5.46
5.47
5.48
5.49
5.50
5.51
5.52
5.53
5.54
5.55
GP Class I Fem. animate/inanimate:

/biz/ monkey 68
GP Class I Fem. animate/inanimate:
/brexn/ lightning 69
GP Class I Fem. inanimatestem allomorphy 69
Class I Fem. inanimate:
/spa/ mare 70
/mit/ mouth 70
/ra/ light 71
Waziri Class I Fem., consonant-final: /wradz/ day 72
Waziri Class I Fem., unstressed-vowel-final: /jrga/ council 72
Waziri Class I Fem., stressed-vowel-final: /an/ flag 72
GP Class IIa noun suffixes 74
GP Class IIb noun suffixes 74
GP Class IIastem allomorphy 75
GP Class IIa inanimate:
/plez/ kitchen garden 76
/pxtn/ Pashtun 76
/tanr/ oven 77
GP Class IIa animate/inanimate:
/al/ thief 78
GP Class IIa animate:
/melm/ guest 78
GP Class IIbstem allomorphy 79
GP Class IIb:
/duxmn/ enemy 80
GP Class IIIa Masc. noun suffixes 81
GP Class IIIa Fem. noun suffixes 82
GP Class IIIb Masc. noun suffixes 83
GP Class IIIb Fem. noun suffixes 83
GP Class IIIa Masc. animate:
/spy/ dog [male] 84
GP Class IIIa Masc. inanimate:
/gay/ feast 85
GP Class IIIa Fem. animate:
/spy/ dog [female] 86
GP Class IIIa Fem. animate:
/korany/ family 86
5.56
5.57
5.58
5.59
5.60
5.61
5.62
5.63
5.64
GP Class IIIa Fem. inanimate: /lki/ trickiness 87

GP Class IIIb Masc.: /malgray/ friend [male] 88
GP Class IIIb Fem.: /malgre/ friend [female] 89
Middle dialect Class IIIa Masc. noun suffixes 90
Middle dialect Class IIIb Masc. noun suffixes 90
Middle dialect Class III Fem. noun suffixes: /-y/ 90
Middle dialect Class III Fem. noun suffixes: /-o/ 91
Middle dialect Class III Fem. noun suffixes: /-y/ 91
Waziri Class IIIa Masc. animate: /xusy/ calf 91

xxv
xxvi List of Tables
5.65
5.66
5.67
5.68
5.69
5.70
5.71
5.72
5.73
5.74
5.75
Waziri Class III Masc. inanimate: /paty/ star 91

Waziri Class III Fem.: /aay/ woolen jacket 91
Waziri Class IIIa Fem. inanimate: /xamto/ cloth 92
Waziri Class IIIa Fem. inanimate: /guty/ ring 92
Irregular Fem. kinship noun:
/mor/ mother 93
Irregular Masc. kinship noun:
/wrr/ brother's son 94
Irregular Masc. kinship noun:
/zoy/ son 94
Irregular Fem. kinship noun:
/lur/ daughter 95
Masc. Arabic loanword:
/mujhd/ fighter 96
Masc. Arabic loanword:
/mawz'/ topic 96
Derived noun suffixes 98
6.1
6.2
6.3
6.4
6.5
GP Class I adjective suffixes 104

GP Class I, stem alternation:
/spk/ light 106
GP Class I,
/wr/ alternation:
/zawr/ brave 106
GP Class I,
/jn/ alternation:
/amjn/ sad 107
GP Class I, consonant-final adjective, no alternation:
/palwn/
fat 108
GP Class II adjective suffixes 109
GP Class II, --final adjective:
/ter/ sharp 111
GP Class II, back vowel lowering:
/pox/ cooked, ripe 112
GP Class II, back vowel lowering:
/und/ blind 112
GP Class II, back vowel breaking:
/tod/ hot; stem = /tawd/ 113
GP Class II, back vowel breaking:
/xo/ sweet; stem = /xwag/
or /xwa/ 114
GP Class II, Syncope II:
/sur/ red 114
GP Class II, Syncope II and epenthesis:
/trix/ bitter 115
6.6
6.7
6.8
6.9
6.10
6.11
6.12
6.13
6.14
6.15
6.16
6.17
6.18
6.19
6.20
6.21
6.22
6.23
6.24
6.25
6.26
GP Class II, consonant-final adjective, no stem allomorphy:

/um/
raw, green 116
GP Class IIIa adjective suffixes 117
GP Class IIIa:
/zalmy/ young 117
GP Class IIIb adjective suffixes 118
GP Class IIIb:
/sway/ burnt 119
GP Class IV:
/xyist/ pretty 120
GP Class IV:
/yawzi/ alone 120
GP Class IV:
/hos/ comfortable 121
Waziri Class I adjective suffixes 122
Waziri Class II adjective suffixes 122
Waziri Class III adjective suffixes 123
Waziri Class III adjective with Fem. suffix /-ay/: /lwanay/ mad 123
Waziri Class III adjective with Fem. suffix /-y/: /meranay/ matrilineally related 123

List of Tables
6.27
6.28
6.29
6.30
6.31
6.32
6.33
6.34
6.35
Proximal demonstrative /d/ 124

Proximal demonstrative
/da/ 126
Medial demonstratives 128
Distal demonstratives 129
GP /yaw/ one 133
Waziri /yaw/ one 134
GP
/dwa/ two 134
Waziri /dwa/ two 134
GP
/dre/ three 135
6.36
6.37
6.38
6.39
6.40
6.41
6.42
6.43
GP
/alor/ four 135
Waziri plural forms of declinable number names 137
GP numerals and number names 138
Waziri number names that differ from GP forms 144
GP Class I:
/lasm/ tenth 145
Waziri irregular ordinal number names 146
GP interrogative adjectives 147
Waziri interrogative adjectives 147
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.7
7.8
7.9
7.10
7.11
7.12
7.13
7.14
7.15
7.16
7.17
7.18
7.19
7.20
7.21
GP strong pronouns, 1st and 2nd person 158

Middle dialect strong pronouns, 1st and 2nd person 158
GP strong pronouns, 3rd person 158
Middle dialect strong pronouns, 3rd person 159
Distal 3rd person pronoun
/ha/ 159
Possessive pronouns 164
GP weak pronouns 165
Middle dialect weak pronouns 165
Distribution pattern for weak pronouns 166
Oblique pronominal clitics 171
GP proximal demonstrative /d/ 173
Middle dialect proximal demonstrative /d/ 173
GP proximal demonstrative
/da/ 174
Waziri proximal demonstrative /daa/ 174
Dzadrani proximal demonstrative /daa/ 174
GP medial demonstrative
/ha-/ 175
Waziri medial demonstrative /a/ 175
Dzadrani medial demonstrative /a/ 175
GP distal demonstrative
/hu-/ 176
GP human interrogative pronoun
/ok/ 177
Middle dialect human interrogative pronoun /ok/ 177
8.1
8.2
Structure of weak (one stem) verbs 188

Structure of strong (more than one stem) verbs 189

xxvii
xxviii
8.3
8.4
8.5
8.6
8.7
8.8
8.9
8.10
8.11
8.12
8.13
8.14
8.15
8.16
8.17
8.18
8.19
8.20
8.21
8.22
8.23
8.24
8.25
8.26
8.27
8.28
8.29
8.30
8.31
8.32
8.33
8.34
8.35
8.36
8.37
8.38
8.39
8.40
8.41
8.42
List of Tables
Stem shapes 190

GP verbs: personal suffixes 192
Waziri verbs: personal suffixes 193
Dzadrani verbs: personal suffixes 193
Infinitives 195
Deictic verb prefixes 198
Non-productive verb prefixes 199
Examples of prefixed verbs 200
Behavior of denominal verbs 202
Examples of denominal verbs 203
GP first conjugation verbs: present tense stems and aorist bases 205
GP a-initial verbs (first conjugation): aorist bases 206
Waziri verbs: forms corresponding to GP a-initial verbs 208
Dzadrani verbs: forms corresponding to GP a-initial verbs 208
Second conjugation verbs: aorist bases (present tense) 209
Contracted third conjugation verbs: aorist stems (present tense) 211
Verbs and their stems: strong and weak 213
Weak verb bases: first conjugation (transitive) 216
Weak verb bases: first conjugation (intransitive) 216
Weak verb bases: second conjugation 217
Strong verb bases: first conjugation (two stems) 218
Strong suppletive verb, first conjugation (two stems) 219
Strong verb bases: second conjugation (two stems) 219
Strong verb bases:
/kawl/ to do 220
Strong verb bases:
/wl/ to carry 221
Strong verb bases:
/biwl/ to lead away 221
Strong verb bases:
/ixodl/ to put 221
Strong verb bases:
Strong verb bases:
/tll/ to go 222
Strong verb bases:
/rtll/ to come 222
Waziri strong verb bases: /kawl/ to do 223
Dzadrani strong verb bases: /kawl/ to do 223
Waziri strong verb bases: /kedl/ to become 223
Dzadrani strong verb bases: /kedl/ to become 224
Strong verbs 224
Causative verbs 228
GP present continuous of to be 230
Waziri present continuous of to be 230
Dzadrani present continuous of to be 231
GP present aorist of to be (= present continuous except in 3rd person) 231

List of Tables
8.43
8.44
8.45
8.46
8.47
8.48
8.49
8.50
8.51
8.52
8.53
8.54
8.55
8.56
8.57
8.58
8.59
8.60
8.61
8.62
8.63
8.64
8.65
8.66
8.67
8.68
8.69
8.70
8.71
8.72
8.73
8.74
8.75
8.76
8.77
8.78
8.79
8.80
8.81
8.82
8.83
Waziri present aorist of to be (= present continuous except in 3rd

person) 231
Dzadrani present aorist of to be 232
GP past of to be 232
Waziri past of to be 233
Dzadrani past of to be 233
Imperative of to be 233
GP present continuous of
Waziri present continuous of /kedl/ to become 234
Dzadrani present continuous of /kedl/ to become 235
GP present aorist of
Waziri present aorist of /kedl/ to become 235
Dzadrani present aorist of /kedl/ to become 236
GP past continuous of
Waziri past continuous of /kedl/ to become 237
Dzadrani past continuous of /kedl/ to become 238
GP past aorist of
Dzadrani past aorist of /kedl/ to become 239
GP present continuous of
Waziri present continuous of /kawl/ to make; to do 240
Dzadrani present continuous of /kawl/ to make; to do 240
GP present aorist of
Waziri present aorist of /kawl/ to make; to do 241
Dzadrani present aorist of /kawl/ to make; to do 242
GP past continuous of
Waziri past continuous of /kawl/ to make; to do 243
Dzadrani past continuous of /kawl/ to make; to do 243
GP past aorist of
Waziri past aorist of /kawl/ to make; to do 245
Dzadrani past aorist of /kawl/ to make; to do 245
Present participles 246
Present participle: declension 247
Past participles 248
Past participle: declension 248
Past participles built on aorist bases 249
Present continuous, first conjugation (intransitive) 250
Present continuous, first conjugation (transitive) 250
Present continuous, second conjugation 251
Present continuous, third conjugation 251
Present aorist, first conjugation (intransitive) 252
Present aorist, first conjugation (transitive) 252
Present aorist, second conjugation 253

xxix
xxx
List of Tables
8.84
8.85
8.86
8.87
8.88
8.89
8.90
8.91
8.92
8.93
8.94
8.95
8.96
8.97
8.98
8.99
8.100
8.101
8.102
8.103
8.104
8.105
8.106
8.107
8.108
Present aorist, third conjugation 253

Past continuous, first conjugation (intransitive) 254
Past continuous, first conjugation (transitive) 255
Past continuous, second conjugation 255
Past continuous, third conjugation 256
Past aorist, first conjugation (intransitive) 256
Past aorist, first conjugation (transitive) 257
Past aorist, second conjugation 257
Past aorist, third conjugation 258
Continuous imperative, first conjugation 259
Continuous imperative, first conjugation (negative) 259
Continuous imperative, second conjugation 259
Continuous imperative, second conjugation (negative) 259
Continuous imperative, third conjugation 260
Continuous imperative, third conjugation, negative 260
Aorist imperative, first conjugation 260
Aorist imperative, second conjugation 261
Aorist imperative, third conjugation 261
Continuous optative forms 262
Aorist optative forms 264
Present perfect, first and second conjugations 265
Present perfect, third conjugation 266
Past perfect 267
Present potential 268
Past potential 268
9.1
9.2
Some GP simple circumpositions 331

Some Middle Dialect circumpositions in contrast with GP 333
10.1
10.2
10.3
10.4
10.5
10.6
10.7
Some adverbs of time 379

Some adverbs of place 381
Some adverbs of manner 384
Some adverbs of degree 386
Arabic adverbs in Pashto 388
Some other interrogative words 389
Some doublets and their base stems 397
11.1
11.2
11.3
11.4
11.5
11.6
Element ordering in negative future constructions 407

Negative placement 409
GP additional interrogative adverbs 418
Case-marking pattern for nouns 449
Case-marking pattern for human interrogative pronouns 449
Case-marking pattern for strong pronouns 449

About this Grammar
1.1
Scope of this book
This grammar covers the four standard dialects and the Middle dialectsincluding
Waziriof modern Pashto, with greatest emphasis on morphology. Morphological and
some lexical features specific to the Middle dialects are given their own sections, corresponding to their counterparts in General Pashto (the set of dialects that exist in
contrast to the Middle dialects, as described in Chapter 4). Where Middle dialects (abbreviated as M) and General Pashto (GP) are not known to differfor example, in
their syntaxonly one description is given. If no Middle-specific form of a particular
feature is described, we presume that it conforms to General Pashto. Chapter 4 contains a more complete description of the differences among Pashto dialects.
In order to describe the wide range of Pashto dialects with precision, we consulted
a variety of sources, including previously published grammars, publicly available data
on the internet, and consultations with native speakers. Pashto, as a living language
spoken in a politically volatile region, is constantly evolving, and our data collection
strategy enabled us to include examples from a wide swath of dialectal situations.
Native speakers from several dialect areas were consulted on issues ranging from
basic pronunciation to the appropriate use of complex syntactic constructions. After
providing detailed personal language background information, each speaker was recorded pronouncing single word examples from prescribed lists. Over the course of
several sessions, the speaking tasks increased in complexity. Speakers were asked to
provide complete paradigms and examples of usage. We were able to consult speakers
about phenomena that were insufficiently or inconsistently described in the literature,
asking for grammatical judgments about specific examples and more open-ended commentary on general issues.
1.2
Orthography
Except for the fact that written Pashto always uses the Perso-Arabic script, Pashto
writing varies significantly according to a number of factors such as region, influence
of other languages, and so on, and many words may have multiple widely-accepted
spellings. Additionally, apparent word boundaries can vary as well. For instance, some
writers orthographically treat forms we assert to be free forms as if they are bound
forms (e.g. by joining a preposition with the word it governs), or, conversely, treat
forms we believe to be bound forms as if they are free (e.g. by separating an aorist
prefix from its stem).
We present all authentic written examples as we found them, with their original
spellings and word boundaries; however, we represent words as consistently as possible from one transcription and morpheme-by-morpheme gloss to the next, which may
Brought to you by | New York University

Authenticated | 216.165.126.139
About this Grammar
result in examples in which a single word in the Pashto script is represented as multiple words in the gloss, or in which multiple words in the Pashto script are represented
as a single word in the gloss. Where the authentic text represents variance from what
we believe to be standard conventions of spelling or word boundaries, a standardized
version of the Pashto script is presented in an accompanying footnote.
Authentic spoken examples are represented in the dialect of the speaker and this
dialect information is indicated in subscript, when known. A complete table of the
transcription schema used in this book is given in Table 3.11.
Where we have cited examples from other scholarly works, we have retained as
much information as the original example provides. (If such an example does not contain script, we have not added it, unless we were certain of their transcription system.)
In some instances, we have adapted the Romanization system or the morpheme glossing used by the author in order to elucidate the point at hand.
1.3
Tables and examples
Table titles are marked, where relevant, with information about the dialect(s) concerned. Where there is no dialect information in the table title, the contents of that
table are presumed to hold for all dialects (General Pashto and Middle dialects).
To more easily represent widespread syncretism in Pashto grammatical forms, the
tables in this grammar use an empty cell to represent a form which is identical to the
form above it (or, if there is no form above it, or if the form above it is separated with
a horizontal line, identical to the form to its left). Forms whose existence is uncertain
are represented with a question mark; this is more likely in Middle dialects than in
General Pashto. The complete absence of a form is denoted by a dash in the cell. Where
different dialect forms exist, these are shown vertically, with the initial of the dialect
name in subscript after the form. Where no alternate forms are given, the form in the
table should be taken as applying to all dialects.
Table 1.1 and Table 1.2 are examples showing these table layouts.
In Table 1.1,
The masculine singular oblique form is the same as the masculine singular direct;
The masculine singular vocative form is the same as the masculine singular ablative;
The masculine plural ablative and vocative, the feminine singular ablative and vocative, and the feminine plural ablative and vocative forms are the same as the masculine plural oblique, the feminine singular oblique, and the feminine plural oblique,
respectively; and
The masculine plural direct form is the same as the masculine singular direct.
In Table 1.2,

Tables and examples
The third person feminine singular form is the same as the third person masculine
singular form, and
Both the third person plural forms are the same as the third person singular form.
Some of these forms are spelled the same but pronounced differently from one dialect
to the next, while other forms have different spellings as well as different pronunciations.
oe
Masculine
Singular
Direct
Feminine
Plural
Singular
spak E
spk W
spk-a E
spk-a W
Plural
spk-e E
spk-i W
Oblique
Ablative
Vocative
spk-a E
spk-a W
Table 1.1: Class I, stem alternation:
spk-o E
spk-o W
spk-o W
spk-e E
spk-i W
spk-o E
spk-o W
spk-o W
/spk/ light
Examples of Pashto words appear occasionally in text, with the Pashto script followed by the transcription in phonemic slashes and the gloss in single quotation marks:
/spk/ light.
Examples of phrases and complete sentences appear in numbered four-line interlinear examples, with the Pashto script in the first line, the transcription in the second,
the morpheme-by-morpheme gloss in the third, and the translation of the sentence in
the last line. 1.1 is a sample of an interlinear example.
(1.1)
!
xuwndz-ay
joawna-
insn-
joawna-
school-M.DIR building-F.DIR people-M.DIR building-F.DIR
da
be.CONT.PRS.3SG.F
Building schools means growing our youth!

About this Grammar
kawl to make, to
do
1st
Singular
Plural
kawm
2nd
kaw
3rd
kaw
kawy
kaw
Table 1.2: Present continuous of
/kawl/ to make, to do
When an interlinear example is used to illustrate a particular word or morphological concept, the term appears in bold type. The transcription and morpheme gloss are
always bolded in such instances, and the free translation may be bolded if the English
words clearly correspond to the Pashto. For ease of reading, the Pashto script is never
bolded.
1.4
Abbreviations and symbols
Where possible, morpheme glosses in this grammar follow the Leipzig Glossing Rules,
a set of formatting conventions widely adopted in the linguistics community.
Commonly used abbreviations in this grammar include the following:
*: non-existent or unacceptable form
: variation in forms (within or across dialects)
[ ]: non-overt element
: zero morpheme
1: first person pronominal clitic
1DVC: first person directional verbal clitic
2: second person pronominal clitic
2DVC: second person directional verbal clitic
3: third person pronominal clitic
1 http://www.eva.mpg.de/lingua/resources/glossing-rules.php

Abbreviations and symbols
3DVC: third person directional verbal clitic

ABL: ablative
ADJ: adjective
ADJZ: adjectivizer
ANIM: animate
AOR: aorist
C: consonant
COMIT: comitative
COMP: complementizer
CONT: continuous
DIR: direct
DZA: Dzadrani (dialect)
E: Eastern (dialects)
ECHO: echo word
EMPH: emphatic
EXT: existential particle
F: feminine
GP: General Pashto
INF: infinitive
IMP: imperative
INSTR: instrumental
LVC: light verb construction
M: (as diacritic) Middle (dialect)
M: (in glosses) masculine
N: noun
NE: Northeastern (dialect)
NEC: modal of necessity or obligation
NEG: negative particle
NMLZ: nominalizer
NW: Northwestern (dialect)
OBL: oblique
OPT : optative
PL: plural
PNG: person-number-gender
POSS: possessive
PRS: non-past
PTCP: participle
PST: past
Q: question particle
SE: Southeastern (dialect)
SG: singular
STR: strong

About this Grammar
SW: Southwestern (dialect)

V: vowel
VOC: vocative
W: Western (dialects)
WAZ: Waziri (dialect)
WAZ-L: Waziri (dialect); example comes from Lorimer
WK: weak
WOULD: modal of irrealis or habitual events

Anne Boyle David
The Pashto Language
2.1
Background
Pashto is considered to be the second-most important Iranian language, after Persian,

given its widespread use in Afghanistan and Pakistan, its official status in Afghanistan,
and its long literary tradition dating back to or before the 16th century (MacKenzie 1992;
Skjrv 1989). This section provides an overview of the Pashto language, including
demographic information, linguistic classification, dialectal variation, and available
linguistic resources.
2.2
Population of speakers
Pashto is an Indo-Iranian language of the East Iranian branch, spoken primarily in

Afghanistan and Pakistan. In Afghanistan it is predominantly spoken in the eastern
(Nangarhar, Laghman, Kunar), central (Kabul, Logar, Wardak), southeastern (Ghazni,
Khost, Paktiya, Paktika), southwestern (Kandahar, Helmand, Uruzgan, Zabul), and
western (Herat, Farah) regions. In Pakistan it is primarily spoken in the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (formerly North-West Frontier Province); the Federally Administered Tribal
Areas (including Waziristan); and in northeastern Balochistan, including the city of
Quetta. Communities of Pashto-speaking migrant laborers from Afghanistan and Pakistan are reportedly found in Iran and the United Arab Emirates, and small populations
of Pashto speakers have been documented in Tajikistan (Lewis, 2009).
Babrakzai (1999) notes that most estimates of the number of Pashto speakers in
available linguistic studies and encyclopedic descriptions are quite rough. Until recently, figures have tended to be outdated or otherwise underestimated, ranging from
13 million (a figure widely quoted from Penzl 1955; see e.g. Lockwood 1972; Lorenz
1982; MacKenzie 1987; MacKenzie 1992) to above 20 million (Inozemtsev 2001; Tegey
& Robson 1996). Austin (2008) sets the range at 3050 million speakers; this appears
to be a fairly sound figure when compared to the estimate of 41.3 million speakers that
can be derived from the World Factbooks population projections and ethnic percentage figures: 42% of Afghanistans 33.6 million inhabitants and 15.42% of Pakistans
total population of 176 million (Directorate of Intelligence 2009a; Directorate of Intelligence 2009b). At the upper end of this range, Ethnologue tentatively reports 49.5
1 Though itself dominated by neighboring languages such as Dari and Urdu in some spheres,
Pashto is a relatively dominant language, so it is reasonable to expect that Pashtun ethnicity
corresponds roughly with Pashto language acquisition. Furthermore, although there may be some
attrition through marriage, immersion in non-Pashto speaking urban settings, etc., the numbers are
probably more than offset by speakers of other languages who adopt Pashto as a second language.

The Pashto Language
million speakers of Pashto in all countries (Lewis, 2009). On the lower end, a posthumously updated version of MacKenzies description in The World's Major Languages
places the number at about 25 million (MacKenzie 2009, cf. MacKenzie 1987).
2.2.1
History and classification
Pashto belongs to the East Iranian branch of the Indo-Iranian language family, meaning it is closely related to other Iranian languages such as the Pamir languages (also
in the East Iranian branch) and Persian, Kurdish, and Balochi (in the West Iranian
branch). It is somewhat less closely related to the neighboring Nuristani languages
and to Indo-Aryan languages such as Urdu, Punjabi, and Sindhi; and more distantly
related to other Indo-European languages. Beyond the classification of Pashto as an
East Iranian language, there are competing views and descriptions regarding the exact subclassification of Pashto and the degree of affinity between Pashto and certain
related languages, especially Ormuri and Parachi.
2.2.2
Dialectal variation
Pashto can be divided into numerous dialects, or varieties, as described in more detail
in Chapter 4. Dialectal differences in Pashto are primarily phonological in nature. The
Southwest (Kandahar) dialect makes use of retroflex fricatives // and // and of the
dental affricates // and //. In other dialects, the retroflex fricatives, and sometimes
also the dental affricates, are replaced with other phonemes. For example, Southwest
// is elsewhere pronounced as //, //, or /x/, depending on dialect. One result of this
dialectal variation is the use of both Pakhto and Pashto as Romanized spellings of the
languages name. Another result is the assignment of several alternative values to the
pronunciation of the relevant Pashto letters, shown in Table 3.11 in Section 3.2.1.2. Dialectal variation in morphology has also been documented, especially for the dialects
classified as Middle (M) in Section 4.4, which differ more from other dialects of Pashto
than the other dialects do among themselves (Hallberg 1992, Lorimer 1902).
Attrition is more likely in Pakistan, where Pashto is a less dominant language, in which case the
World Factbooks estimated 8% Pashto language use would be a more conservative indicator than
the 15.42% ethnic population.

Corey Miller and Anne Boyle David
Phonology and Orthography
3.1
Phonetics and phonology
3.1.1
Consonants
3.1.1.1 Inventory
Pashto has consonants at seven possible places of articulation, as shown in Table 3.1.
Consonants not used by all speakers are parenthesized. The representation of these
segments in the written language is discussed in Section 3.2.
Labial
Dental
Palato- Retroflex Palatal

alveolar
Velar
pb
td
kg
Stops
Affricates
( )
j
()
Fricatives
(f)
sz
Nasals
Lateral
Approximants
( )
( )
Glottal
l
w
Table 3.1: Pashto consonants
3.1.1.2 Elegant consonants

Depending on how closely speakers wish to approximate Arabic sounds not otherwise
present in Pashto, they may use what are sometimes called elegant consonants. That
is, when speaking in what they regard as a formal situation, many educated speakers
will approximate the Arabic pronunciations of those consonants; these are listed in
Table 3.2.
Penzl (1955) did not seem to think that the voiced pharyngeal fricative was ever
pronounced in Pashto; however, Tegey & Robson (1996) reported 41 years later that it
does occur in some speakers formal speech. It is possible that this discrepancy is due

10
Arabic consonant
Educated, formal
Pashto
Uneducated or informal
Pashto
glottal stop
(not pronounced)
voiced pharyngeal fricative
or
(not pronounced)
voiceless pharyngeal fricative
h (or not pronounced)
voiceless uvular stop
Table 3.2: Elegant, or formal, consonants
to an ongoing linguistic change under Arabic influence or to a difference between the

dialects being reported on. Elfenbein (1997: 742) notes that /h/ is often dropped and is
only retained in some dialects as an elegance.

3.1.2
11
Vowels
3.1.2.1 Inventory
Most dialects of Pashto have seven vowels and seven diphthongs (Heston, 1992), as
shown in Table 3.3 and Table 3.4.
Front
High
Mid
Low
Central
Back
Table 3.3: Pashto vowels
Front
Central
High
Back
uy
Mid
Low
oy
ay y aw w
Table 3.4: Pashto diphthongs
3.1.2.2 Vowel transcription

For the sake of comparison with other sources, we provide the corresponding transcriptions of the vowel sounds in Table 3.5. Note that Tegey and Robsons distinction
between both /i/ and // (row 1) and /u/ and // (row 2) may correlate with the presence or absence of and respectively in the spelling of the word (see Section 3.1.2.3).
Penzl, who describes the Kandahari dialect, makes a distinction between /ey/ for
and /ei/ for , and does not include /oy/ in his inventory.

12
This grammar
Example
IPA
Penzl
Tegey and
Robson
imtihn test
i,
urdu army
u,
ye you are
ee
z I
or, wor fire
oo
las ten
kl year
aa
uy
duy they
uj
uy
uy
laky tail
ey, ei
oy
zoy son
oj
uy
oy
ay
saay man
aj
ay
ay
y place
aay
aw
yaw one
aw
aw
aw
wwra snow
aaw
Table 3.5: Comparison among vowel transcription systems

13
3.1.2.3 Elegant vowels

Persian or Arabic loanwords that contain an etymologically long // or // (spelled
with mrufa ye and ww, respectively) are sometimes pronounced with long vowels
by educated speakers, or speakers of the Northeastern dialect (Section 4.3). Like some
consonants in Arabic loanwords, these may be called elegant vowels. Due to variation in pronunciation, the short vowels /i/ and /u/ are now sometimes represented in
Pashto writing with and , despite the usual convention of not representing short
vowels in Arabic scripts.
3.1.2.4 Middle dialect vowels

The vowel inventory for the Middle dialects described in Chapter 4 differs slightly from
that described in Section 3.1.2.1 and Section 3.1.2.2. One issue is the phenomenon described as Waziri Metaphony in Section 4.4. In Table 3.6, we compare three treatments of the M vowel system, by Septfonds (1994), Lorimer (1902), and Hallberg (1992).
While the objects of study in each of those works are slightly different, they all fall under the M rubric as described in Chapter 4. In order to compare these treatments to
each other, we provide example words representing each class of sounds. For these,
we have provided Pashto script reflecting the General Pashto pronunciation; however,
to our knowledge, there exists no systematic representation of M pronunciation using
Pashto script.
There does not seem to be a reliable contrast in M between /o/ and /u/. Lorimer
and Hallberg distinguish between /a/ and //, whereas Septfonds does not. Septfonds
distinguishes between /y/ and /ay/, whereas Lorimer does not. As can be seen in Table 3.6, Lorimer makes some additional distinctions compared to the others. For example, Lorimer uses as a variant of his before /r/. Lorimers use of (presumably IPA
/y/) as a variant of /i/, and (presumably IPA //) as a variant of /e/ may reveal that
there existed midway points between the GP vowels and their metaphony targets
(see Section 4.4). We have provided two examples of the /e/ vowel: one that shares an
/e/ with other dialects of Pashto, and another that represents the metaphony target
corresponding with GP /o/. Lorimer also employs a sequence of two symbols, a, to
indicate //.

14
This grammar
i
e
Example
lir daughter
er many,
mer mother
IPA
Septfonds
Lorimer
Hallberg
i, ,
, ,
z I
e, , u
plor father
ay
aw
sar head
myt
month
wtap I
ai
saay
aj
ay
ai
aw
aw
au
close
lmasy
granddaughter
man
palaw side
Table 3.6: Comparison among M vowel transcription systems

i, i
Orthography
3.1.3
15
Stress
Word stress in Pashto is assigned lexically. In our transcription of Pashto, we indicate

stressed syllables by putting an acute accent mark over the vowel portion:
/say/
man,
/ba/ tongue. Some words differ only by the placement of stress, as with
the pronouns
/ha/ he/she/it vs.
/h/ that, or continuous versus aorist
forms among second and third conjugation verbs (Section 8.2.5.4 and Section 8.2.5.5).
In this grammar we generally only indicate stress in paradigms and on particular lexical items in example sentences where its placement sheds light on meaning, or when
relevant to the discussion .
3.2
Orthography
The languages of the world vary along a scale of the ease with which one may deduce pronunciation from orthography, or the spelling from the pronunciation. This
is known as orthographic depth (Sproat, 2000: 6). On a spectrum of depth, Spanish
may be considered fairly shallow, or easy to pronounce, and Chinese would be considered especially deep. Pashto would fall somewhere near English on such a scale,
though the difficulties of deducing pronunciation from spelling (and vice versa) are
somewhat different, as will be described below.
3.2.1
The script
Pashto is written primarily in the Perso-Arabic script, which includes modifications

made for Persian, as well as additions specific to Pashto. Like those scripts, and unlike, for example, the Devanagari script in which Hindi is written, the Pashto script
is in theory an abjad (Daniels & Bright, 1996), in which the letters represent only the
consonants of the language. However, like the Arabic and Persian scripts, the Pashto
alphabet deviates from the strict definition of an abjad in that some letters can also
be used to indicate vowel sounds. For example, the letter alif, which is used to write
both long // and an initial glottal stop in Arabic, is also used in Pashto to represent
the vowel //. The letter ww, which writes both /w/ and // in Arabic, can be used to
represent /w/, /u/, or /o/ in Pashto; and ye, which writes both /y/ and // in Arabic,
can be used in Pashto for /y/, /i/, and even (with modification to the letter), /e/ and
several other sounds, which can be seen in Table 3.10.
As with other Arabic-based writing systems, the Pashto script is written from right
to left, but numerals are written left to right. The script is cursive, and letters may have
1 More on issues that arise from a deep orthography, in particular variations in spelling, can be
found at Appendix A, Section A.4.

16
up to four allographs: the independent form, which is unconnected to other letters;

the initial form, connected only on the left; the medial form, connected on both sides;
and the final form, connected only on the right. (In most word processors, Unicode rendering automatically displays the proper positional form.) Some letters do not connect
to the letter to their left; in these cases the initial and independent forms are the same,
as are the medial and final forms. (See the tables of letters in Section 3.2.1.2.)
3.2.1.1 Letters unique to Pashto

Due to its particular consonant and vowel inventory, Pashto has innovated several letters not present in either Arabic or Persian. To represent the retroflexes / /, Pashto
employs a diacritic known as a
/panak/ or
/awanday/ ring on the
letters used for the dentals, as shown in Table 3.7.
Letter
Sound
Table 3.7: Pashto retroflex letters with panak
Pashto has innovated two letters employing a dot above and below and . These
letters represent retroflex sounds in the Kandahar (Southwest) dialect, but other sounds
elsewhere, as displayed in Table 3.8. Further pronunciations of these letters, particularly in the Northwest dialects, are discussed in Chapter 4.
The two letters in Table 3.9 are based on and represent the affricates // and
// in some dialects, but in others they have been simplified to the fricatives /s/ and
/z/, as discussed in Chapter 4.
Finally, Pashto employs a set of five letters based on , which have a range of
phonetic and morphological values, as expressed in Table 3.10. Note that in much text
encountered on the internet and elsewhere, or may be used in place of the other
forms, without affecting the expected pronunciation.

Orthography
Letter
Sound
Kandahar (Southwest), Quetta (Southeast), g Peshawar
(Northeast)
Kandahar (Southwest), Quetta (Southeast), x Eastern
Table 3.8: Pashto letters with dot below and dot above
Letter
Sound
(Southwest, Southeast), s (Northwest, Northeast)
(Southwest, Southeast), z (Northwest, Northeast)
Table 3.9: Pashto affricate letters based on
Letter
Sound
Function/comments
ay
word-finally
word-finally in some words derived from

Arabic, such as
hat even. This is
known as alif maqsura.
i, y
word-finally in feminine nouns and

adjectives
word-finally in verbal forms
not pronounced or
word-medially in some Perso-Arabic

borrowings such as
masala
problem
Table 3.10: Pashto letters based on

17
18
3.2.1.2 Tables of letters and numerals

The full list of Pashto letters is given in Table 3.11. Sources differ on some of the names
for Pashto letters, or give more than one. These differences are due in part to regional
variation in how the letters are pronounced and in part to variation in how the Pashto
has been Romanized. To aid in letter identification, we have listed a variety of possible
Romanized names. Where practical, we have indicated the most common pronunciations of the letters; where there is further variation we refer to the relevant sections.
The pronunciations listed in parentheses are the formal pronunciations described in
Section 3.1.1.2. Note that some of the symbols listed here (e.g.
alif mad and hehamza) are not considered separate letters from their counterparts without diacritics
(e.g. alif and he); we list them separately here for ease of reference. Letter names
that end in a vowel or diphthong are grammatically feminine, while letter names that
end in a consonant are grammatically masculine.
Following are some remarks on particular letters. alef tanwin appears word-finally
in adverbs derived from Arabic, e.g.

/taqriban/ approximately. The letter
ww is also transcribed as /v/ in some sources, such as Shafeev (1964). The letter
ww-hamza appears word-medially in Perso-Arabic borrowings such as
/swl,
suwl/ question. When appearing word-finally, the letter he may represent a vowel
such as /a/ or //. The letter ye is also commonly used when referring to the letter
ye in general, as in a section of a dictionary. It thus can be used to encompass . mrufa ye In this usage, it would be called simply ye. The name mrufa ye for the letter
means known ye, reflecting the fact that its sound, /i/, was known in Arabic. The
name majhula ye for the letter means unknown ye, reflecting the fact that its sound,
/e/, was unknown in Arabic. The names for the letter include the words for feminine (ina tnis, muanasa) and heavy (saqila). The names for the letter include
kwla and feli, meaning verbal, tazkir meaning masculine, and saqila meaning
heavy.
Some of the letters are used chiefly in Arabic loanwords, or in loanwords based on
Arabic. The halwa he, for example, appears in Arabic loanwords which are spelled
with this letter in Arabic, and in borrowings from Persian in which one of the morphemes is Arabic:
/purharrat/ ardent, emotional, which is composed of a
Persian prefix /pur/ full and an Arabic root
/harrat/ heat. The other /h/
sound, he, is used in native Pashto words, as well as in Arabic and Persian loanwords
which are spelled with this letter. Representing /s/, the letters
se and
sd are
found in the Arabic/Persian component of the vocabulary, while
sin is found in the
native component as well. Representing /t/, the letter
t is found in the Arabic/Persian component of the vocabulary, while
te is also found in the native component.
Finally, representing /z/, the letters zl,
zd, and
z are found in the Arabic/Persian component of the vocabulary, while ze is found in the native component
as well.

Orthography
Table 3.11: Pashto alphabet

Unicode
U+0627
U+0622
U+0627 |
U+064B
U+0628
U+067E
U+062A
U+067C
U+062B
U+062C
U+0686
U+0681
U+0685
U+062D
U+062E
U+062F
U+0689
U+0630
U+0631
U+0693
U+0632
U+0698
U+0696
U+0633
U+0634
Pashto
script
Name
IPA
Penzl
Tegey
and
Robson
This
grammar
alif
see Section 3.2.1.3
alif mad
aa
alif
tanwin
an
an
an
an
be
pe
te
tt
se
jim
e/im
ch
e/im/ze /z
/z
/s
/s
he/halwa
he
/h/()
/h/(h)
/h/()
/h/()
xe
kh
kh
dl
dd
zl
re
rr
ze
//z
zh
zh/j/z
/j/z
e/ge
///g
zz
///g
sin
in
sh
sh
e/im/se

19
20
Table 3.11: (continued)

Unicode
U+069A
U+0635
U+0636
Pashto
script
Name
IPA
Penzl
Tegey
and
Robson
This
grammar
in/xin
/x
ss
/x
sd/swd/
sxwt/sw
zd/zwd/
t/twe/
txwe/
toy/tw
z/zwe/
zwe/
zoy/zw
ayn/ayn
()/()
see
Section
3.2.1.3
and
Section
3.1.1.2
ayn
gh
gh
fe
qf/qaf
k/(q)
k/(q)
kf/kaf
gf
lm
mim
nun
un
nn
ww
w/o/u
w/u/o
w/u/o
wwhamza
/w
he/h
zxwt/zw
U+0637
U+0638
U+0639
U+063A
U+0641
U+0642
U+06A9
U+06AB
U+0644
U+0645
U+0646
U+06BC
U+0648
U+0624
U+0647
/w

Orthography

Unicode
Pashto
script
U+06C0
U+06CC
U+064A
U+06D0
U+06CD
U+0626
Name
IPA
Penzl
Tegey
and
Robson
This
grammar
he(/h)hamza/
zwarakai
(see
Section
3.2.3)
ye/y/
mulayana
ye
(/y)/prata
ye (/y)
aj
ay
ay
ay (see
Table
3.10)
saxt ye
(/y)
/klaka ye
(/y)
/mrufa
ye(/y)
i/y
i/y
i/y
i/y (see
Section
3.2.1.3)
pasta ye
(/y)
/majhula
ye (/y)
ee
ina
ye (/y)
/saqila/
de tnis
saqila ye
(/y)
/muanasa
saqila ye
(/y)
ei
kwla
ye (/y)
/ye (/y)hamza/
feli ye
(/y) /de
tazkir
saqila ye
(/y/)
ey

21
22
Positional variants for each letter are shown in Table 3.12. In keeping with the directionality of the script, the initial-position form is on the right. In addition to the
positional variants of individual letters, the script includes an obligatory digraph, ,
used for the sequence of lm + alif.
The Eastern Arabic numerals, which are used in Pashto, are given in Table 3.13.
Numeral forms of compound numbers are given along with the word-form number
names in Table 6.38.
Table 3.12: Positional variants of letters

Independent
form
Final
position
Medial
position
Initial
position

Orthography

Independent
form
Final
position
Medial
position
Initial
position
or

23
24

Independent
form
Final
position
Medial
position
Initial
position
Arabic numeral
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
Pashto (Eastern
Arabic) numeral
or
or
or
Unicode
U+06f0, U+0660
U+06f1, U+0661
U+06f2, U+0662
U+06f3, U+0663
U+06f4 or U+0664
U+06f5 or U+0665
U+06f6 or U+0666
U+06f7, U+0667
U+06f8, U+0668
U+06f9, U+0669
Table 3.13: Pashto (Eastern Arabic) numerals
2 This letter does not occur word initially, but may take initial form after a nonjoining letter.

Orthography
25
3.2.1.3 Representation of vowels

The Arabic script, upon which the Pashto alphabet is based, writes long vowels but
does not typically indicate short vowels. Most varieties of Pashto, as discussed in Section 3.1.2, distinguish only one long vowel, //. Words with etymologically long vowels are written with their original long vowels, but (except for //) usually pronounced
with vowels that are not distinctively long. For this reason, the vowel pairs /u/ and /o/,
and /i/ and /e/, are now often represented in Pashto writing with ww and forms of
ye respectively.
In many cases, however, the short vowels are not written. Such vowels can potentially be indicated with diacritics placed above or below the consonant letters, but
these are not used in ordinary writing. The short vowel diacritics, as shown in Table
3.14 with examples from Shafeev (1964), may occasionally be encountered in native
dictionaries or in learning materials. The same symbols are used in Arabic in such
contexts as well as in the Koran and some religious texts.
Symbol
Sound
Example
Pashto name
Arabic name
bad bad
zabar,
fatha
zer
kasra
u, o
pul bridge
pe, pex
pe
zamma
mis
copper
zwar
Table 3.14: Short vowel diacritics
3.2.1.3.1 Word-initial vowels

Words that begin with a vowel sound must begin with either alif, alif mad, or
ayn.
alif mad mostly occurs word-initially, and its sound is //. When alif or ayn begin
a word, they may take on various vowel sounds, as indicated in Table 3.15.
Word-initially, digraphs may be employed to indicate vowels. The following statements are general guidelines; it is often possible to find exceptions. When an initial
alif is followed by mrufa ye, the combination is pronounced /i/ or sometimes /ay/.
(Word initially, mrufa ye is pronounced /y/.) When an initial alif is followed by
majhula ye, the combination is pronounced /e/. When an initial alif is followed
by ww, the combination is usually pronounced either /o/ or /u/, but sometimes it

26
Sound
a
e
i
o
alif example
ayn example
abr cloud
estoniy Estonia
adas lentil
elwa addition
(uncommon)
(uncommon)
idra management
otorite authority
ilj cure
urdu army
uzwi organic
(uncommon)
u
Table 3.15: Word-initial vowels
is pronounced /aw/. (Word initially ww is pronounced /w/.) Table 3.16 summarizes

the most common pronunciation of these initial digraphs.
Initial digraph
Sound
Example
ob, ub water
irn Iran
e sticking out
u, o
i
e
Table 3.16: Pashto initial digraphs
3.2.1.3.2 Word-internal vowels

Vowels within words may be spelled with alif, ww,
mrufa ye,
majhula
ye, or
ayn, as shown in Table 3.17, or they may (with the exception of //) be un-
written, as is characteristic of abjads. Word-internal alif is generally pronounced //;

word-internal
majhula ye is pronounced /e/; and word-internal
ayn generally
lengthens a preceding /a/ to //. Word-internal ww and
mrufa ye can each represent either a consonant, a vowel, or a diphthong.

Orthography
Letter
Sound
Example
alif
xl birthmark
ww
o
u
w
aw
mrufa ye
( in its internal
SW
hi nothing
piyz onion
ay
payse money
tel oil
form)
majhula ye
( in its internal
oy bread
mu we
muwfiq favorable
paw army
form)
ayn
lengthens preceding
a to
mlum, mruf known
Table 3.17: Word-internal vowels

27
28
3.2.1.3.3 Word-final vowels

If a Pashto word ends in a vowel sound, it will be written with a final alif, ww,
he, or ye. See Table 3.10 and Table 3.11 for the pronunciation of forms of ye, and
Table 3.18 for other final vowels. If a written Pashto word ends in any other letter, the
spoken word will end in the consonant with which it is written, except in the case of
ayn, in which case the final sound is that of the previous letter.
Letter
Sound
Example
alif
haw air
he
ba tongue
t you
au fat [oblique plural]
zngo cradle
ww
Table 3.18: Word-final vowels
Note that a final he may also indicate a final /h/, as in the word
tain, although this is rare.
3.2.2
/kuh/ moun-
Rationale for transcription system
Pashto text may be rendered into Roman letters through transcription or transliteration. Transliteration is one-for-one mapping of a languages characters (or character
combinations) into corresponding Roman characters (or combinations); its goal is to
accurately represent the spelling of the language. Transcription maps phones; its goal
is to accurately represent how the language is pronounced.
Because the Pashto script possesses several distinct letters for each of several segments, no simple transliteration can preserve Pashto orthography solely through the
letters of the Roman alphabet. Several extra diacritics or other non-alphabetic characters would be necessary. A strict transliteration would also leave out the vowels that
are unwritten in Pashto, leaving the pronunciation unclear. Accordingly, we have chosen to use a broad phonemic transcription, rather than a transliteration. Pashto examples are transcribed in this version of traditional Pashto transcription, slightly modified to adhere more closely to the IPA. In this grammar, all non-M dialects of Pashto are

Orthography
29
written in both the Pashto script and our transcription. Examples in Waziri and other
M dialects may not include Pashto script, since these dialects do not have independent
orthographic representation.
3.2.3
Orthographic variation
The Pashto letter

/g/ gf is sometimes represented as
(U+06AF), as it is in
Persian and Urdu.
In Urdu, there are two letters whose forms appear differently word-finally from
standard Persian and Afghan Pashto, and may be encountered in Pashto emanating
from Pakistan. The Pashto letter ye in word-final position may appear as
(U+06D2)
for /ay/ or /e/, and the letter he in word-final position may appear as (U+06C1). Note
that these variants may occur in handwriting from various regions.
Some authors use he-hamza (U+06C0, referred to in the Unicode documents as
Heh with yeh above) instead of the more usual Heh (U+0647) in final position to indicate // as opposed to /a/, for example to distinguish the masculine direct singular
demonstrative
/haa/ that from the masculine oblique singular
/ha/. Although in this grammar we do make the //-/a/ distinction in our transcription, we use
he for both in the Pashto text.


Corey Miller
Pashto Dialects
4.1
Introduction
In this chapter, we describe a set of five dialects of Pashto in order to establish certain
generalizations as a matter of convenience, noting that we have not exhausted the
description of dialect differences for this language. We also compare our proposal with
other approaches that have come up with smaller numbers of dialects.
Note that Pashto dialects are connected to both geographical facts and tribal identity. According to Elfenbein (1997: 739), geographical classification alone does not
cannottake enough account of tribal distinctions...classification by tribe alone fails
to take into enough account the essential geographical facts.
4.2
Characterizing Pashto dialects
The approach we take in this work assumes five dialects: Southwest (SW), Southeast
(SE), Northwest (NW), Northeast (NE) and Middle (M). Waziri (WAZ) and Dzadrani
(DZA) are two subdivisions of Middle Pashto for which we have the most information;
others are discussed below. The general locations of these dialect areas are illustrated
in Figure 4.1. We explain the details of these dialects, as well as the marking of dialect
forms in this text, in the following sections. Here we seek to provide a convenient partition of the data that recognizes salient and reliable distinctions that correlate with
geography. So, for any given dialect, there may well be many subdialects, whose details we are not yet in a position to describe. In this way, we may refer to Middle or M
dialects, rather than the Middle or M dialect, since there may be several speech varieties sharing the general characteristics of Middle Pashto.

32
Pashto Dialects
Figure 4.1: Pashto dialects
Table 4.1 summarizes the major differences among the five dialects. Note that these
represent characteristic pronunciations rather than the only possible pronunciations
for these words in these regions. For specific pronunciations of individual words in
many cities, see Hallberg (1992), from which many of these forms were gathered.
Dialectal variation in morphology has also been documented, as in variable use
of two different stems
/kl/ and
/kawl/ for the verb do (Septfonds, 1989).
We also see dialectal variation in suffixes; for example, in the second person plural
suffixes for verbs:
/st/ in certain present tense forms and all past tense forms
in Southwest and
/y/ elsewhere (see Table 8.4).
As an example of variation in the realization of vowels, according to Elfenbein
(1997: 747), there is a tendency for final unstressed /e/ to be realized as /i/ in Southwest.
We have observed the following examples of this phenomenon in closed-class items,
which are often accompanied by the distinct spellings shown in Table 4.2. Note that
this process tends not to occur where it would eradicate distinctions; for example, the
second person singular verbal suffix /e/ contrasts in Southwest with the third person
singular /i/.

Characterizing Pashto dialects
Pashto word
SW
SE
NW
NE
Pashto
pato
pato
pato
paxto
pato
six
pa
pg
pag
pe
who
ok
ok
sok
sok
tsek, tsok
five
pn
pn
pinz
pinz
pinz
hand
ls
ls
ls
ls
los
daughter
lur
lur
lur
lur
lir
Table 4.1: Phonological variation among major Pashto dialects
SW
NW, NE
pori to
pore to
bndi on
bnde on
ki in
ke in
lndi under
lnde under
mi I, me
me I, me
di you
de you
tsi you
tse you
Table 4.2: Correspondence between /i/ and /e/ in closed-class words

33
34
Pashto Dialects
Another area where variation in vowels has been noted is in the realization of /i/
and /u/. Elfenbein (1997: 750751) notes that in the Northeast, /i/ and // are separate
phonemes, as are /u/ and //. MacKenzie (1987: 551) observes that this distinction has
been lost in most dialects, and in this grammar we represent only /i/ and /u/.
With regard to lexis, we have observed numerous differences across Pashto dialects. For example,
/om/ mosquito SW exists alongside
/mi/
mosquito NW . Hallberg (1992) provides examples of many basic words that differ by
region, and Pashtoon (2009) indicates when particular words are Eastern or Western
(see Section 4.5.1 on the use of these terms).
4.2.1
Dialect marking in this work
Where possible, we aim to associate Pashto forms with one of the five dialectsSW, SE,
NW, NE, Mas described in Table 4.1. In some cases, we refer to the four dialects SW,
SE, NW and NE as General Pashto (GP), in contrast to M. Some discussions of Middle dialects use the more specific notation, such as WAZ (for Waziri) and DZA (for Dzadrani)
when differences within Middle dialects can be or need to be specified (see Section 4.4
for additional dialect abbreviations within M). Note that in some cases, readers will encounter the notation E or W, standing for Eastern and Western. In such cases, we have
not been able to ascertain a more specific dialect attribution. Eastern generally refers
to both Northwest and Northeast, while Western refers to Southwest and Southeast.
4.2.1.1 Dialect marking in tables

In those sections covering General Pashto, our tables of morphological forms are restricted to the four non-M dialects SW, SE, NW, and NE. In such tables, or with example forms mentioned in the text, when no dialect is mentioned, that means that to the
best of our knowledge the form is acceptable in all four dialects. When we know that
a form is only acceptable or natural for a subset of those dialects, the dialects associated with that form are specified. In those sections covering the Middle dialects, if a
form is known to be acceptable in only DZA or WAZ, it is so labeled. When no dialect
is mentioned, that means either that the form is acceptable in both WAZ and DZA, or
we do not have sufficient information to attribute it to one or the other.
4.2.1.2 Dialect marking in interlinear examples

In this book, interlinear examples include Pashto script (except for some M-dialect examples), phonetic transcription, morpheme glosses, and English translations. These
are generally attested examples, and when possible, we indicate the dialect of the
speaker who provided the example. This does not necessarily mean that the example
is only acceptable or natural for that dialect. In the sections covering General Pashto,

The four dialects of General Pashto
35
when interlinear examples are derived from written textual material, such as may be
found on the internet, we have generally chosen to transcribe them as they might be
spoken in the Northeastern dialect.
4.3
The four dialects of General Pashto
MacKenzie (1959) provided an influential four-dialect analysis using the cardinal points:
Southwest, Southeast, Northwest, and Northeast. It is useful to note that Southwest
and Northwest appear to be in Afghanistan, while Southeast and Northeast appear to
be in Pakistan. He calls Southwest Kandahar, and Northeast Yusufzai, using the name
for the tribe centered in Pakistans Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (formerly Northwest Frontier) province. MacKenzie calls the Northwest dialect Central Ghilzai, after the name of
a tribe mainly found in the vicinity of Ghazni and Zabol provinces (Frye 2010, Hanifi
2001). Central Ghilzai may refer to the members of the tribe in those provinces, rather
than to those living in the northern provinces of Faryab and Badakhshan. The remaining dialect in MacKenzies model is Southeast, which he associates with Quetta, Pakistan. The Southeast dialect is characterized by a loss of retroflexion in
and with
respect to the Southwest dialect, resulting in the pronunciations // and //, respectively. Thus they are pronounced identically to the way the letters
and are pronounced in the Southeast dialect. Note that Kieffer (1974) associates this characteristic
with Ghazni in Afghanistan. Table 4.3, based on MacKenzie and its reprise by Skjrv
(1989), as well as Elfenbein (1997), lays out the principal phonological characteristics
of the four dialects comprising this approach. Henderson (1983) similarly presents a
Letter
Southwest
(SW)
Southeast
(SE)
Northwest
(NW)
Northeast
(NE)
Table 4.3: Four dialects of General Pashto
four-dialect approach, referring to the Kandahar, Quetta, Peshawar, and Northeast di-

36
Pashto Dialects
alects. Hendersons Northeast is akin to MacKenzies Northwest. Hendersons Northeast has /g/ for , with // restricted to Wardak province, a feature mentioned in Penzl.
It is also compatible with the Eastern dialect described in Penzl (1955) and with the
Central dialect described in Tegey & Robson (1996). Therefore, we may expect to see
both // and /g/ for in dialects labeled Northwest in our dialect schema.
Note that we have seen some variation in the description of the sounds corresponding to the letter . As noted in Table 4.3, Tegey & Robson (1996) have associated /z/ with
the Northwest dialect, while Elfenbein (1997: 744) describes some /z/ along with /j/
in the Northeast dialect. With respect to vowels and diphthongs, Skjrv (1989: 386)
notes that in Northeast, the diphthong /ay/ is monophthongized to //, while the diphthong /y/ is pronounced /ay/. Elfenbein (1997: 744) provides a substantial amount of
information on the quality of vowels and diphthongs across several dialects. Table
4.4 presents the tribal and geographical associations for each of these four dialects
according to Elfenbein (1997).
Dialect
Geography
Tribe
SW
Kandahar, Farah, Herat
South Ghilzai
SE
southern NWFP (Khyber

Pakhtunkhwa), Baluchistan
(includes Quetta)
Sherani, Bannu, Waziri, Kakari,

Achakzai, Tarin, Wanetsi
NW
east and northeast Afghanistan,

Jalalabad (?)
central Ghilzai, some Afridi
NE
Peshawar, part of Nangarhar

province (Afghanistan),
northern parts of NWFP (Khyber
Pakhtunkhwa)
Shinwari, Yusufzai, Mohmand,

northeast Ghilzay, Hazara,
Bangash, Orakzay, some Afridi
Table 4.4: Tribal and geographical associations by dialect
4.3.1
International differences
In her grammar, Heston (1992) sometimes distinguishes between Afghan and Pakistani
Pashto from the perspective of orthography. For example, in Afghanistan the Pashto
word for son is spelled
, while in Pakistan it can be spelled
, even though the
two variants are pronounced similarly. In the area of word choice, in addition to the
more distinctive Pashto convention for expressing thanks,
/mnn/ gratitude

The Middle dialects
37
(literally compliance, submission), Afghan Pashto speakers tend to use

/taakr/,
the Dari/Tajiki word for thanks, whereas Pakistani Pashto speakers are more inclined
to use
/ukrya/, the Urdu word; the Dari/Tajiki and Urdu words share the same
Arabic root. In general, the dialects of Afghanistan exhibit more loanwords and cognates from neighboring Persian/Dari and Turkic, while the dialects of Pakistan exhibit
more loanwords from Urdu.
4.4
The Middle dialects
Apart from the four dialects discussed in Section 4.3, there is another dialect group
which Kieffer (1974) refers to as intermediary or central, also using the Pashto term
/manany/ middle. We refer to this collection of middle dialects as M.
These dialects are primarily noted for differences in the pronunciation of vowels with
respect to the GP dialects. In this section, we describe the main vocalic and consonantal characteristics of M; succeeding chapters will describe its morphological and
syntactic features. We distinguish two main variants of M, based on available descriptions. One of these descriptions is Lorimer (1902), which describes Waziri (WAZ), a
dialect spoken in North and South Waziristan in Pakistans Federally Administered
Tribal Areas (FATA), and the Bannu District in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (formerly NorthWest Frontier Province, or NWFP). The other is Septfonds (1994), which describes Dzadrani (which we abbreviate DZA), spoken in the southwestern part of Khost Province
(Paktiya at the time of Septfonds writing) in Afghanistan. Hallberg (1992) discusses a
Central Group of dialects that correspond to M. He provides fieldwork data for Wana
(WAN) in South Waziristan, Miran Shah (MIR) in North Waziristan, and three sites in
adjoining areas of the NWFP: Lakki Marwat (LAK), Bannu (BAN) and Karak (KAR).
4.4.1
Middle dialect vowels
The Middle dialects are characterized by a phenomenon known as Waziri metaphony.

This phenomenon involves certain deviations from the vowel qualities attested in the
other dialects as described in Table 4.5.
The term metaphony for this phenomenon has been used at least since Kieffer
(1974). In this case, it seems to be a bit of a misnomer, given that metaphony, or umlaut,
is generally taken to be the modification of one vowel due to the influence of a neighboring vowel (perhaps with intervening consonants). Given the absence of neighboring vowels in the monosyllabic examples in Table 4.5, a more apt term might be vowel
shift, along the lines of processes described by Labov (1994) and others. However, we
use the term metaphony here in order to maintain a link with previous studies.
There are two phonetic processes that are involved in Waziri metaphony: raising
and fronting. In the case of GP //, it raises to /o/, while in the cases of GP /o/ and

38
Pashto Dialects
Correspondence
GP (NE, NW, SE, SW)
Waziri metaphony (M)
plr father
plor
oe
mor mother
mer
ui
lur daughter
lir
Table 4.5: Waziri metaphony
/u/, they front to /e/ and /i/, respectively. Three important observations with regard
to metaphony should be made: there may be words where it does not occur; it may be
optional (subject to sociolinguistic variation); and some speakers or locales may use
intermediate vowel realizations between segments identified as GP and the metaphony
targets described in Table 4.5. Lorimer (1902) provides good examples of all of these observations. He employs the symbol // in some words, such as
/myt/ month.
Indeed, for this word, Septfonds (1994) uses /a/ and Hallberg (1992) uses //, so none
of these sources indicates that metaphony has occurred in this word. For some words,
Lorimer (1902) provides two pronunciations, indicating that metaphony may be optional in particular words, such as /mioni, mini/ long purse.
As noted in Section 3.1.2.4, Lorimer occasionally employs the symbols and ,
which we believe correspond to IPA /y/ and // (see Figure 4.2), in words that in General Pashto would contain /u/ and /o/, respectively. Examples include
/mer, mr/
mother and
/pyn/ shepherd. As mentioned in Table 4.5, /i/ is the metaphony
target of GP /u/, while /y/ appears to represent an intermediate point between /u/ and
/i/. Along the same lines, /e/ is the metaphony target of GP /o/, while // appears to
represent an intermediate point between /o/ and /e/. Kieffer (1974) also describes several intermediate points between the metaphony targets that have been observed in
different locations in the Middle dialect area.

The Middle dialects
39
Figure 4.2: Waziri metaphony
4.4.2
Middle dialect consonants
While the two Middle subdialects Waziri and Dzadrani share certain characteristics
with each other that are not seen in the other Pashto dialects, they pattern differently
with respect to the consonantal distinctions that distinguish the other dialects. For example, Lorimer does not provide Pashto script, but we can infer from his vocabulary
that words spelled with
are pronounced with // in the Waziri dialect, while words
spelled with are pronounced with //. So this pattern aligns with the Southeast dialect. In contrast, in Dzadrani, is pronounced as a palatal //, while is pronounced
as a palatal //, a pattern that aligns with the Northwest dialect. Kieffer (1974: 25) mentions that other possibilities exist for Middle dialects, including /x/ for
and /g/ for
, thus aligning those dialects with the Northeast dialect.
Table 4.6, based on data from Septfonds (1994) and Lorimer (1902), illustrates
some other consonantal features of the Middle dialects. In some cases, Pashtoon (2009)
has identified the standard or GP terms as Eastern and the M terms as Western, indicating that these phenomena may not be exclusive to the Middle dialect area. Where
relevant, we have provided these indications in the table.

40 Pashto Dialects
Phenomenon
GP
bw
beg last night
wega, weg
nl
nmar sun (Eastern)
lmar (Western)
epenthetic n after m
moda, mudda time
minda
palatalization
lr road
lyar, lyr
Table 4.6: Middle dialect consonantal deviation from GP
4.5
Other approaches
One will encounter other less granular models of Pashto dialectology and it is useful
to be familiar with their terminology and how they are associated with the approach
described here. For example the ISO 6393 standard (Lewis, 2009) recognizes the following codes: pbt (Southern), pbu (Northern), and pst (Central), and Kieffer (1974) uses
the letters A, B, C and D. These codes are compared to our approach in Table 4.7.
This book
Kieffer
ISO 6393
NE, NW
pbu (Northern)
pst (Central)
SW, SE
C, D
pbt (Southern)
Table 4.7: Alternative dialect codes
4.5.1
Two dialects
Earlier approaches recognized only two dialects. For example, Darmesteter (1888) describes two dialects, north and south, based on the pronunciation of the letters and

Other approaches
41
. In the north, these are pronounced /x/ and /g/, respectively, while in the south, fol-
lowing his account, they are pronounced // and //. For the southern dialect, Darmesteter does not note the distinction between the southeastern palatal and southwestern
retroflex pronunciations of and , as subsequent researchers do (see Table 4.3). Note
that the name of the language itself reflects one of these distinctive alternations: in the
north it is
/paxto/ Pashto, while in the south it is
/pato/ Pashto. Geiger
(1895) also identifies two dialects that he calls northern and southern. He associates
the northern dialect with the tribes of Kabul, Peshawar, and Swat, and the southern
with the tribes of the west and south. He notes the same contrasts as Darmesteter, but
also adds that for the letter , where southern has //, northern has /j/, and the Ghilzai
tribe has /z/.
Grierson (1921: 7) refers to a northeastern and a southwestern dialect, again distinguishing on the basis of the pronunciation of the letters
and . He notes that the
most important nonstandard forms are the varieties of the northeastern dialect spoken
by the Ghilzais and the Afridis, and the variety of the southwestern dialect spoken by
the Waziris. In fact, Waziri is distinct enough from Northeastern and Southwestern that
he provides a standard word list for three varieties of Pashto: Northeastern (Peshawar),
Waziri (Waziristan), and Southwestern (Pishin and Kandahar). Grierson provides a colored map with the two dialectsnortheastern and southwesterndistinguished, and
a rather detailed description of their boundary:
... we may take the southern limit of the great Ghilzai tribe as the line in Afghanistan proper,
although the two dialects probably overlap to a certain extent... Ghilzais speak the northeastern dialect, while the southwestern one is spoken by all Afghans south of this line and westwards towards Herat. It is said to run from a stone bridge (Pul-e-Sang) at Asia Hazara, 12 miles
south of Kalat-i Ghilzai to just north of Maruf, and thence north of the Lowana country to the
Kundil-Kundar confluence, and then along the Kundar to the boundary line running in a northeasterly direction up to near Peshawar, so as to give the Waziris and Khataks to Pashto. In and
around the city of Ghazni the people speak Persian, but the Afghan dialect of the neighborhood is the Northeastern Pakhto.
Among more contemporary scholars, Shafeev (1964) refers to an eastern dialect

centered in Peshawar, and a western dialect centered in Kandahar. This is the same terminology employed by Raverty (1859: viii). Most adherents of the two-dialect approach
focus primarily on differences in the pronunciation of the letters
and . Table 4.8
summarizes some of the different names used for these two dialects, including C and
A, as explained above.
Interestingly, implicit proponents of a two-dialect approach as hard and soft
differ on their characterization of Ghilzai. For example, Caroe (1958: xvi) says the Ghilzai speak a soft dialect, like the Durranis, while Anderson (1975: 576) says they speak
a hard dialect.
The presence of distinct phonemes corresponding to distinct letters in the Southwestern dialect leads to two questions: which is the most prestigious dialect, and which
is the most conservative? Penzl (1955: 910) cites a few sources implying that Kanda-

42
Pashto Dialects
x, g
Southern
Northern
Western
Eastern
Southwestern
Northeastern
Pashto
Pakhto
soft
hard
Table 4.8: Names for components of a two-dialect analysis of Pashto
hari (Southwestern) is the most prestigious, and then goes on to call it the cradle of
the Pashto alphabet due to the correspondence between letters and phonemes, particularly
and with the retroflex // and // (which are in fact only represented by
those letters), in contrast to Northeastern where the pronunciations of those letters, /x/
and /g/, are shared with the letters and , respectively. However, MacKenzie (1959:
233) cites Morgenstiernes hypothesis (Morgenstierne, 1932) that at the time of the creation of the current alphabet in the 16th century, Northeastern dialects pronounced
and with the retroflex // and // as well, and that the Northeastern tribes were
probably the creators of Pashto literature.
4.5.2
Three dialects
There are two principal ways in which the Pashto-speaking regions have been divided
into three main dialects. One of these treats the three dialects as a continuum, with a
central dialect serving as intermediate between eastern and western. The other maintains the distinction between eastern and western and introduces a third category, the
Middle dialects, which are distinctive in ways beyond the treatment of individual consonants.
Penzl (1955: 8) distinguishes the following main types which approach regional
standards: Peshawar, Eastern, and Kandahar. The difference between such an approach and the two-dialect approach discussed in Section 4.5.1 is that the Eastern dialects of the two-dialect approach have been further subdivided along the Pakistan/

Other approaches
43
Afghanistan border into Peshawar and Eastern (Afghanistan), corresponding to our

NE and NW, respectively. Kandahar corresponds to our SW dialect, and Peshawar to
our NE. These are shown in Table 4.9. In some ways, the Eastern dialect can be seen
Letter
Kandahar (SW)
Eastern (NW)
Peshawar (NE)
Table 4.9: Eastern and Peshawar dialects compared
as an intermediate step in a continuum from Kandahar to Peshawar. For example, the

preservation of // in the Eastern dialect is akin to Kandahar Pashto, and the Eastern pronunciation of
as a palatal can be seen as an intermediate step between
the retroflex // of Kandahar and the velar /x/ of Peshawar. Penzl notes a few additional variants within the Eastern dialect. For example, in Wardak, is pronounced as
a palatal //, the voiced counterpart to //. In Logar, is /s/ as in Peshawar, and
in
the verb to be is /s/, as it is in Kandahar, rather than //:
/m, sm/ I am, I can
(see also Section 8.2.8.1).
Tegey & Robson (1996) also posit a three-dialect system. Like Penzl, they refer to
a Kandahar or Western dialect. However, they divide the other two slightly differently
from Penzl. They refer to a Kabul or Central dialect and a Nangarhar or Eastern dialect.
Based on the features associated with these, we can see that Penzls Peshawar dialect
is similar to Tegey and Robsons Eastern dialect, while Penzls Eastern dialect is similar to Tegey and Robsons Central dialect. So where Penzl subdivides the two-dialect
approachs Eastern dialect along the Afghanistan/Pakistan border (a roughly north/south line), Tegey and Robson subdivide it along an east-west line within Afghanistan.
Tegey and Robson ascribe their Central dialect to the provinces of Kabul, Logar,
Ghazni, and Parwan. They note that their Eastern dialect includes both the northeastern sections of Afghanistan and the Northwest Frontier Province of Pakistan (now
called Khyber Pakhtunkhwa). Table 4.10 summarizes the three-dialect nomenclature
of Penzl and Tegey and Robson.
Tegey & Robson (1996) also note a three-way dialect distinction for , which we
elaborate in Table 4.11, using our dialect labels:

44
Pashto Dialects
This book
Penzl
Tegey and Robson
SW
Kandahar
Kandahar, Western
NE
Peshawar
Eastern, Nangarhar
NW
Eastern
Central
Table 4.10: Three-dialect approach
SW
NE
NW
Table 4.11: Pronunciation of

Alina Twist and Anne Boyle David
Nouns
5.1
Inflection
Pashto nouns are inflected to show gender (masculine and feminine), number (singular and plural), and case (direct, oblique, ablative, and vocative). Agreement is found
on determiners and modifying adjectives, which agree in gender, number, and case,
while pronouns and verbal agreement markers reflect gender and number. Scholars
usually try to categorize Pashto nouns into inflectional classes; however, grammatical descriptions are in disagreement over the extent to which the organization of a
class system should be based on the nouns plural formation, its phonological shape
(especially the stem-final sound), or its case-marking patterns. Following a review of
the basic inflectional categories in the first three sections of this chapter, we present a
system of inflectional classes for nouns that largely coincides with that presented for
adjectives in Chapter 6. Our system differs from previous treatments in that we base
it solely on the suffixes each noun takes and treat stem allomorphy separately (see
Section 5.2.2).
5.1.1
Gender
Pashto nouns are categorized grammatically as either masculine or feminine. Broadly

speaking, the gender of a noun may often be distinguished by the ending of the noun
in its citation form, the direct singular word-form. (Regarding case forms, see Section
5.1.3 and also Chapter 8.) For example:
Typical masculine noun endings
(direct singular)
any consonant
ay (stressed or unstressed)
Typical feminine noun endings

(direct singular)
a or
y
e
There are, however, many exceptions to this patternsome predictable by other

criteria, others unpredictable. For animate nouns, grammatical gender is usually determined by biological sex, regardless of the nouns ending. So nouns like
/mor/
mother and
/lur/ daughter are grammatically feminine, even though they end in
consonants.

46 Nouns
Predicting grammatical gender based on sex primarily works for nouns that denote humans or animals whose sex is culturally important and readily apparent; for
example,
/sy/ man vs.
/a/ woman
/grd/ student (male) vs.
/grd/ student (female)
/wy/ bull vs.
/w/ cow
Many small animals and insects, on the other hand, are associated with an invariable grammatical gender assigned more or less arbitrarily (see Rishtin 1994, cited in
Khan 2006). So, for example, the word for spider in Pashto is often feminine:
// (pl.
//), and the word for fish is always masculine:
/kb/ (pl.
/kbn/).
Nouns like
/pi/ cat (female) and
/biz/ monkey are grammatically
feminine by default, and there is no strong cultural motivation to distinguish between
male and female counterparts. In rare circumstances, however, such words may be
inflected with a distinct opposite gender form, as in
/piay/ cat (male); or the
agreement patterns elsewhere in the utterance may reflect masculine as opposed to
feminine gender, as in
/a biz/ big monkey (male), where
/biz/
does not change, but the shape of the adjective indicates that the noun has masculine
reference.
Additional semantic clues may be helpful for a noun whose grammatical gender
cannot be predicted by the sex of its denotational class or by its final sound. For example, although nouns ending in /i/ can be either masculine or feminine, as a general rule, masculine nouns ending in /i/ denote professions (e.g.
/qz/ judge),
whereas /i/-final nouns denoting abstract concepts and inanimate objects are typically
feminine (e.g.
/duxman/ enmity).
5.1.2
Number
Pashto has several ways to form regular plurals, as may be seen in the tables in Section
5.2.3 and onwards. As with gender, number is often reflected in agreement on modifying adjectives, in coreferential pronouns, and in agreement markers on verbs.
Plural formation is one of the ways to distinguish feminine from masculine nouns.
For example, although nouns like
/mor/ mother and
/lur/ daughter look
masculine because they end with consonants, their plurals,
/mynde/ moth-
/le/ daughters, show the /e/ suffix that is typical of many feminine plurals, rather than the /n/ or /na/ suffixes that are characteristic of
ers and
consonant-final masculine nouns.

Certain mass nouns or collective nouns like
/ob/ water and
/gdn/
millet govern plural agreement in verbs. Similarly, consonant-final masculine nouns
that denote types of fruit or trees generally do not take any special plural suffixes, al-

Inflection
47
though the plural suffix

/n/ may be added in some cases, as illustrated in 5.1 and
5.2. Note that the verb is plural in both sentences, whether or not the noun has a plural
suffix.
(5.1)
.
er-
tut-
me
w-xu-l
many-PL.M.DIR mulberry-PL.M.DIR 1SG.WK AOR-eat.PST-PST.3PL.M
I ate many mulberries.
(5.2)
.
er-
tut-n
me
w-xu-l
(5.3)
.
m
ob-
w-k-l-e
1SG.STR.OBL water-PL.F.DIR AOR-drink-PST-PST.3PL.F
I drank water. (NW)
(5.4)
.
m
er-e
ob-
w-k-l-e
1SG.STR.OBL much-PL.F.DIR water-PL.F.DIR AOR-drink-PST-PST.3PL.F
I drank a lot of water. (NW)
(5.5)
.
m
gdn-
w-xo-l
1SG.STR.OBL millet-PL.M.DIR AOR-eat.PST-PST.3PL.M
I ate millet. (NW)
5.1.3
Case
Case is marked in Pashto by suffixes and, in some instances, by stem vowel ablaut.
Pashto nouns take one of four morphosyntactic cases: direct, oblique, ablative, or vocative. These are described individually in the following subsections. In most instances,

48
Nouns
case assignment criteria are identical across dialects, but the case assigned by adpositions may differ in the Middle dialects, as outlined in Section 9.2. Available data extends only for Waziri, and only to the direct and oblique cases, so we do not include
examples for ablative and vocative for the Waziri dialect.
Nouns that exist in both General Pashto and Waziri usually belong to analogous
inflectional classes, though the inflectional suffixes for each class differ between General Pashto varieties and Waziri. Accordingly, we present separate class information
for Waziri corresponding to each class paradigm for General Pashto.
Marking of case is not always visible or consistent in all domains in Pashto; however, the combination of inflectional patterns with certain nouns, plural forms of nouns,
adjectives, pronouns, and verbal agreement markers justifies the identification of the
four classes named above.
5.1.3.1 Direct case

The direct case form is used for noun phrases that fulfill nominative, accusative, or
absolutive functions, in present-tense and past-tense sentences, respectively. In the
present tense, grammatical function is indicated by word order, with subjects preceding objects.
5.1.3.2 Oblique case

In past-tense sentences, subject noun phrases appear in the oblique case form, in accordance with split ergativity; see Section 5.1.3.5. See also Chapter 7, on exceptions
involving first and second person pronouns, and Chapter 8.
The oblique case is used for objects of most adpositions, including the postpositions /t/ to and
/sra/ [comitative] with; the prepositions /d/ of and
/p/ at, plus any circumposition consisting of a postposition and one of these two
prepositions; and finally, the circumposition
/l ... na/ from (see Chapter
9).
...
5.1.3.3 Ablative case

The ablative case (sometimes also called Oblique II or Prepositional) is used when the
noun is an object of the prepositions
/p/ with in the instrumental usage, /l/
from or /tr/ from, originating from, or any circumposition or complex adposition
that contains one of these prepositions, except for the circumposition
/l ...
na/ from, which assigns oblique case to its object.
For masculine nouns, the ablative form is almost always identical to the vocative
form. For feminine nouns, it is usually identical to both the oblique and vocative forms.
Note that because of this overlapping of forms and because ablative forms are relatively
...

Inflection
49
infrequent, some grammatical descriptionsTegey and Robsons, for exampledo not

recognize the ablative as a separate case in Pashto.
According to Lorenz (1982) and Heston (1992), the ablative case can also be used
for consonant-final masculine nouns when they are modified by a cardinal number
greater than one, or by some other quantifier:
/somra mla/ how many
miles? NE ,
/dwa halka/ two boys,
/las kla/ ten years; however,
an informant of ours did not have this, giving, for example,
/salur uxn/
four camels NW , not *
/salur uxa/.
5.1.3.4 Vocative case

For masculine nouns, the vocative singular suffix in all noun classes is
/a/ or //,
except for those ending in /u/,
/i/, or // in the direct case form: in those nouns,
the vocative singular form is identical to the direct singular form. With some exceptions
(mainly kinship terms), the vocative singular form of feminine nouns is identical to the
oblique and ablative singular forms. The vocative plural form is always identical to the
other non-direct plural forms.
(5.6)
!
sa-aya
w-dar-eg-a
man-M.VOC AOR-stop-PRS-IMP.SG
Man, stop! (NW)
(5.7)

d zalm-i
kitb-
of Zalmay-M.OBL book-M.DIR
Zalmay's book (NW)
(5.8)
!
palwa-e
w-dar-eg-a
Palwasha-F.VOC AOR-stop-PRS-IMP.SG
Palwasha, stop! (NW)
(5.9)

d palwa-e
kitb-
of Palwasha-F.OBL book-M.DIR
Palwasha's book (NW)

50
(5.10)
Nouns
!
xor-e
w-dar-eg-a
sister-F.VOC AOR-stop-PRS-IMP.SG
Sister, stop! (NW)
(5.11)

d xor-
kitb-
of sister-F.OBL book-M.DIR
sister's book (NW)
5.1.3.5 Split ergativity

Pashto exhibits nominative-accusative alignment in the non-past tenses and ergativeabsolutive in the past tenses. Sentences 5.12 and 5.13 illustrate this split; 5.12 shows direct case-marking of and verbal agreement with the nominative argument, while 5.13
shows oblique case-marking of the subject and verbal agreement with the direct object.
(5.12)
.
za
er-
xwandawr- tut-n
1SG.STR.DIR many-PL.M.DIR tasty-PL.M.DIR mulberry-PL.M.DIR
-xor-m
CONT-eat.PRS-1SG
I am eating a lot of tasty mulberries. (NW)
(5.13)
.
m
er-
xwandawr- tut-n
1SG.STR.OBL many-PL.M.DIR tasty-PL.M.DIR mulberry-PL.M.DIR
w-xo-l
AOR-eat.PST-PST.3PL.M
I ate a lot of tasty mulberries. (NW)
5.1.4
Animacy
Another category involved in noun inflection is animacy. Most humans and some animals are represented by animate nouns, and most other things are not. This distinction
mostly affects which plural suffixes a noun takes; for example, consonant-final masculine nouns (Class I) that denote living beings typically take the plural suffix

Inflectional affixation
51
/gn/, whereas those that denote inanimate objects are more likely to take
/na/.
However, actual animacy of the denotational class is not a sure predictor of grammatical animacy in Pashto; for example,
/plr/ father and
/tr/ paternal uncle
are both inflected as inanimates. This grammar, therefore, treats animacy as a grammatical, rather than semantic, category. This approach is in contrast to most other
descriptions of Pashto.
Although the above-mentioned plural suffix
/gn/ occurs only in Class I, the
sequence
/n/ (with or without additional sounds such as initial /g/ as above) appears to be strongly associated with living (especially human) denotata: several nouns
denoting living beings in other inflectional classes have variant plural forms containing the sequence
/n/ in their suffix.
5.2
5.2.1
Introduction
The properties listed in the previous section are marked in the inflected forms of nouns
by a single suffix, which may be zero. This section describes the forms of affixes by
class. Our information on the Middle dialects is of variable reliability: the Waziri forms,
which come from Lorimer, were confirmed through elicitation; however, the Dzadrani
forms have been extracted from Septfonds and have not been confirmed.
Due to considerable gaps and overlap among inflectional patterns, there is no obvious solution nor clear consensus for classifying Pashto nouns and adjectives. Some
resources focus on the endings of nouns, others on the plural forms, still others on
apparent connections between male and female counterparts and parallels between
noun and adjective inflection.
The classification of Pashto inflectional classes presented in this grammar focuses
on the last two items in that it aims to build a unified inflectional class system for nouns
and adjectives and to provide a clearer understanding of the association between formally related masculine and feminine classes. The basis for these class groups is more
apparent for adjectives, whose plural forms show greater uniformity (see Chapter 6).
A striking feature of Pashto morphology is the fluidity of noun class membership.
In many instances, the same word can be inflected with different suffixes and hence
grouped by grammatical descriptions under different noun classes, depending on the
speaker and the dialect. Whether a noun takes animate or inanimate markers can also
vary with the dialect, and, as mentioned in Section 5.1.4, may not reflect the actual
biological status of the nouns denotatum.

52
5.2.2
Nouns
Stem allomorphy and other morphophonemic alternations
Many Pashto nouns undergo morphophonemic alternations when they inflect. These
alternations include stem allomorphy, as well as patterns involving both the stem and
suffix. They are predictable in some cases from the last sound of the stem, or from other
information about the form or meaning of the noun; however, their occurrence can be
erratic in other cases, as can be seen in Table 5.5. We depart from most other descriptions in that we do not consider stem allomorphy when classifying Pashto nouns, but
instead describe stem allomorphy and other morphophonemic patterns for each class
in the following sections.
5.2.3
Class I
5.2.3.1 Overview
Class I includes the majority of nouns in both General Pashto and Waziri. Nouns of
this class can be masculine or feminine, animate or inanimate. Most of them end in
a consonant. In some instances, which suffix a Class I noun takes is determined by
whether the stem ends in a vowel or a consonant. These differences are specified in
Table 5.1 and Table 5.3, which give a broad overview of the inflectional suffixes that
distinguish this class.

Singular
Plural
Animate
Direct
Inanimate
-gn
Oblique
-na
-gno
-no E
- W
Ablative
-
(vowel-stems)
-a
(consonant-stems)
Vocative
Table 5.1: GP Class I Masc. noun suffixes
Singular
Plural
Animate
Direct
Oblique
Inanimate
n WAZ
- WAZ
yn WAZ
ina
- DZA
-n DZA
- DZA
-yn DZA
- DZA
ne WAZ
ine WAZ
yne WAZ
-a WAZ
-ne DZA
- DZA
-yne DZA
Table 5.2: Middle dialect Class I Masc. noun suffixes

53
54
Nouns
Singular
Animate
Direct
Plural
Inanimate
Animate
-gne
Inanimate
-we W
(after // or
//)
-e
(elsewhere)
Oblique
-
(after or )
-gno
-wo W
(after or )
-e
(elsewhere)
-o
(elsewhere)
Ablative
Vocative
Table 5.3: GP Class I Fem. noun suffixes
Direct
Singular
Plural
-a WAZ
-e
-e WAZ
-we DZA
- WAZ
-o DZA
Oblique
Table 5.4: Middle dialect Class I Fem. noun suffixes

55
5.2.3.2 Class I masculine nouns

Most masculine nouns in this class end in a consonant, although there are also many
ending in // or //, //, //, or
//, and a few in
//,
/y/, or
/y/,
the latter derived from feminine nouns in // or
//; for example:
/wy/ bull < /w/ cow

/pi/ cat [male], a rare variant form < /pi/ cat [female].
However, the derivation of masculine nouns from feminine ones is much rarer than
the reverse process, described in Section 5.2.3.3.
The plural of Class I masculine animate nouns is formed with the suffix
/gn(o)/, as shown in Table 5.6 through Table 5.14, whereas
/na/ and
/no/ are used for inanimate masculine nouns, as can be seen in Table 5.19 through
Table 5.22.
()
-
5.2.3.2.1 Masculine animate nouns in General Pashto

Most nouns in this sub-group denote living beings.
GP plural suffix
/gn/
The plural suffix for animate Class I masculine nouns is

/gn/. However,
suffix-initial
/g/ frequently undergoes lenition, either becoming a glide or deleting, the latter when the second part of a consonant cluster. In some cases the stem
undergoes changes as well. These morphophonemic alternations apply to all nouns
whose citation form ends in
/i/ or in a consonant, and to some of those ending
in //, //, //, or // . Certain nounsfor example, those ending in

/u/are extremely fluid in the application of this /g/-deletion: for many, either possible form is allowed (e.g.
/k/ bandit+
/-gn/>
/kugn/or
/kwn/ bandits), but for others only one or the other occurs. Table 5.5
outlines these rules for Class I masculine animate nouns.
Sample paradigms
Table 5.6 through Table 5.14 give paradigms for each type of Class I masculine animate noun, indicating stem allomorphy, if any, in the top left cell of each table.
The subset of Class I nouns ending in //, shown in Table 5.12, is mostly composed of
words that denote professional titles or similar designations of a characteristic activity of the denoted class (e.g.
/ol/ drummer ,
/xrej/ foreigner
/bang/ hash-smoker ).
Note from the variant forms shown in Table 5.13 for the plural of this item that
/plandr/ stepfather can also be inflected as a Class IIb noun (Section 5.2.4).

56
Nouns
Final stem sound(s)
Suffix/Stem change
Forms
affected
Cg C
all plurals
Example

pil-gn piln
elephants
or a
1.
some plurals
or a /
[-stress]

wext-gn wextn
hairs
2. Cg C
ug w
some plurals

ku-gn kwn
bandits
g y/_
some plurals

mirz-gn mirzyn
clerks
ig y
all plurals
darz-gn darzyn
tailors
Table 5.5: GP Class I Masc. animatemorphophonemic alternations
or a
Singular
Plural
Direct
wext
wext-n
Oblique
wext-no
Ablative
Vocative
Table 5.6: GP Class I Masc. animate:
/wext/ hair

no stem change
Singular
Plural
Direct
band
banda-gn
Oblique
banda-gno
Ablative
Vocative
/band/ slave
uw
Singular
Plural
Direct
kw-n
ku-gn
Oblique
kw-no
ku-gno
Ablative
Vocative
/k/ bandit

57
58
Nouns
no stem change
Singular
Plural
Direct
bz
bzu-gn
Oblique
bzu-gno
Ablative
Vocative
/bz/ arm
no stem change
Singular
Plural
Direct
mirz
mirz-yn
Oblique
mirz-yno
Ablative
Vocative
/mirz/ clerk

no stem change
Singular
Plural
Direct
mm
mm-gn
Oblique
mm-gno
Ablative
Vocative
/mm/ maternal uncle
iy
Singular
Plural
Direct
darz
darzy-n
Oblique
darzy-no
Ablative
Vocative
/darz/ tailor

59
60
Nouns
Singular
Plural
Direct
plandr
plandr-n
plandr
Oblique
plandr
plandar-no
plandr-o
Ablative
plandr-a
Vocative
/plandr/ stepfather
no stem change
Singular
Plural
Direct
pil
pil-n
Oblique
pil-no
Ablative
pl-a
Vocative
/pil/ elephant

61
5.2.3.2.2 Masculine animate nouns in Waziri

Most nouns in this sub-group denote living beings.
Waziri plural suffix /n/, /-yn/
The direct plural suffix for animate Class I masculine nouns is /n/ for nouns that
end in a consonant or /yn/ for those that end in a vowel. The corresponding
oblique plural suffixes are /-ne/ and /yne/, respectively.
Sample paradigms
Table 5.15 through Table 5.16 give paradigms for each type of Class I masculine animate noun in Waziri.
no stem change
Singular
Plural
Direct
grd
grd-n
grd-ne
Oblique
Table 5.15: Waziri Class I Masc. animate: /grd/ student [male]
no stem change
Singular
Plural
Direct
mirz
mirz-yn
mirz-yne
Oblique
Table 5.16: Waziri Class I Masc. animate: /mirz/ clerk
As in General Pashto, the subset of Class I nouns ending in //, shown in Table 5.17,
is mostly composed of words that express professional titles or similar designations
of a characteristic activity of the referent (e.g. /kaz/ judge , /xorej/ foreigner ,
/bang/ hash-smoker ). These nouns exhibit a stem allomorphy between the final
// of the uninflected form and /y/ in the inflected form.

62
Nouns
iy
Singular
Plural
Direct
kazi
kazy-n
kazy-ne
Oblique
Table 5.17: Waziri Class I Masc. animate: /kaz/ judge
5.2.3.2.3 Masculine inanimate nouns in General Pashto and Waziri

As stated above, this subset of Class I comprises a greater number of nouns with inanimate denotation, although it does also include a few nouns that denote living beings.
For example, included within this group are kinship terms
/tr/ paternal uncle,
/nik/ grandfather,
/me/ husband, and
/wrr/ brother's sonand
(distinctive to Waziri) /plr/ father.
Class membership for Pashto nouns varies widely across dialects. For instance,
in General Pashto, /nik/ grandfather can alternatively be inflected like a Class I
animate noun with no stem allomorphy; i.e., with the plural suffix /-n/, giving plural
forms
/nikgn/,
/nikgno/. In Waziri, this form can similarly be
inflected as a Class I animate noun; i.e., with the plural suffix /-n/, giving the plural
form /nikn/. In General Pashto, the word
/me/ husband can be inflected
by some speakers with a stem change, similarly to the pattern in Table 5.19, where
the stem vowel /a/ is dropped, giving plurals
/mena/,
/meno/. In
Waziri, the word /nik/ fingernail can be inflected like either a Class I animate noun
with a plural form of /nikn/ or as a Class I inanimate noun, yielding a plural form of
/nikna/.
Stem allomorphy
Like animate masculine nouns of Class I, inanimate masculine nouns can also undergo stem allomorphy before suffixes are added, as shown in Table 5.18.
Sample paradigms for GP Class I masculine inanimate nouns
Table 5.19 through Table 5.22 give paradigms for each type of Class I masculine inanimate noun, indicating stem allomorphy, if any, in the top left cell of each table.
The first three tables give the patterns for consonant-final nouns, and the last one
illustrates vowel-final nouns.
The majority of nouns represented by Table 5.19 are monosyllabic (as in

/war/
door); however, multisyllabic nouns are included as well (as in
/ar/ rug).

Final stem
sound(s)
Stem change
Forms affected
Comment
VC
all plurals
mostly
monosyllabic
words
or a

ar-na
rna
mountains
oblique
singular; all
plurals
Example
daftar-na
daftrna
office
all plurals
psna
psna
sheep
Table 5.18: Class I Masc. inanimatestem allomorphy
Singular
Plural
Direct
ar
r-na
Oblique
r-no
Ablative
r-a
r-
Vocative
Table 5.19: GP Class I Masc. inanimate:
/ar/ mountain

63
64
Nouns
Some of the nouns in this set can also be inflected as Class II nouns (Section 5.2.4).
For example, the oblique form of
/ar/ mountain (Table 5.19) can also be heard
as
/r-/. Likewise,
/daftr/ office (Table 5.20) has variant forms that would
put it in Class IIb.
Singular
Plural
Direct
daftr
daftr-na
daftr
Oblique
daftr
daftr-no
daftr-o
Ablative
daftr-a
Vocative
/daftr/ office
Sample paradigms for Waziri Class I masculine inanimate nouns

Table 5.23 through Table 5.26 give paradigms for each type of Class I masculine inanimate noun, indicating stem allomorphy, if any, in the top left cell of each table.
Patterns of stem allomorphy are described in Section 5.2.3.2.3. The first two tables
give the patterns for consonant-final nouns, and the last two illustrate vowel-final
nouns.

no stem change
Singular
Plural
Direct
wg
wg-na
Oblique
wg-no
Ablative
wg-a
Vocative
/wg/ ear
Singular
Plural
Direct
ps
ps-na
Oblique
ps-no
Ablative
Vocative
Direct
/ps/ sheep
Singular
Plural
tar
tar-na
tar-ne
Oblique
Table 5.23: Waziri Class I Masc. inanimate: /tar/ rug

65
66
Nouns
Singular
Plural
Direct
daftr
daftr-na,
daftr-ne
Oblique
Table 5.24: Waziri Class I Masc. inanimate: /daftr/ office
Singular
Plural
Direct
ps
ps-na
ps-ne
Oblique
Table 5.25: Waziri Class I Masc. inanimate: /ps/ sheep
Singular
Plural
Direct
ar
r-na
r-ne
Oblique
Table 5.26: Waziri Class I Masc. inanimate: /ar/ mountain

67
5.2.3.3 Class I feminine nouns in General Pashto and Waziri

Most Class l feminine nouns end in (unstressed) /a/ or //, although some also end
in //, /e/, //, //, or a consonant. Some of those ending in /a/ or // are formed by
adding this sound to the direct singular form of the masculine counterpart, in which
case it reflects biological sex; for example:
/soy/ hare [male] >
/sya/ hare [female]
/mal/ friend [male] >
/mla/ friend [female]
/pun/ shepherd >
/pan/ shepherdess
As can be seen in the second and third examples, sometimes there is a stem change
as well.
5.2.3.3.1 General Pashto Class I feminine animate nouns

Animate feminine nouns of Class I have the same form for all case forms in the singular,
as can be seen in the list of suffixes in Table 5.3, as well as in the paradigms in Table
5.28 through Table 5.30.
Stem allomorphy
Table 5.27 describes the changes that take place for plural animate feminine nouns
of Class I.
Final stem
sound(s)
Suffix/Stem change
Forms affected
all plurals
1. g
2. e y/_
Example
xwxe-gne
xwxyne
mothers-in-law
Table 5.27: GP Class I Fem. animatestem allomorphy
Sample paradigms
Table 5.28 through Table 5.30 show examples of animate Class I feminine nouns.
Class I feminine nouns that end in // or // show some variability in plural suffixes,
as can be seen in Table 5.29 and Table 5.30. Penzl (1955) reports that the /w/ forms
are more common in Kandahari Pashto, although not exclusive to that dialect. Note

68
Nouns
ey
Singular
Plural
Direct
xwxe
xwxy-ne
Oblique
xwxy-no
Ablative
Vocative
Table 5.28: GP Class I Fem. animate:
/xwxe/ mother-in-law
that in taking the

/we/ or
/wo/ suffixes, the nouns are switching categories,
from animate to inanimate, and would decline exactly like the feminine inanimate
noun
/ra/ light in Table 5.34.
Direct
Singular
Plural
biz
bizo-gne
bizo-we
Oblique
bizo-gno
bizo-wo
Ablative
Vocative
Table 5.29: GP Class I Fem. animate/inanimate:
/biz/ monkey

Direct
Singular
Plural
brexn
69
brexn-gne
brexn-we
Oblique
brexn-gno
brexn-wo
Ablative
Vocative
Table 5.30: GP Class I Fem. animate/inanimate:
/brexn/ lightning
5.2.3.3.2 General Pashto Class I feminine inanimate nouns

Inanimate feminine nouns in Class I behave similarly to animate ones in the singular
when they end in // or //; that is, all singular forms are identical (see Table
5.3). Those that end in any other sounds have one form for the singular direct form
and another for the singular oblique, ablative, and vocative forms, as in Table 5.32 and
Table 5.33.
Stem allomorphy
Table 5.31 describes stem allomorphy for inanimate feminine nouns of Class I.
Final stem sound(s)
Stem change
Forms affected
or a
oblique singular, all

plurals
Example

spa-e spe
mares
Table 5.31: GP Class I Fem. inanimatestem allomorphy

70
Nouns
Sample paradigms
Table 5.32 through Table 5.34 show examples of inanimate Class I feminine nouns.
or a
Singular
Plural
Direct
spa
Oblique
sp-e
sp-e
sp-o
Ablative
Vocative
Table 5.32: Class I Fem. inanimate:
/spa/ mare
no stem change
Singular
Plural
Direct
mit
Oblique
mit-e
mit-e
mit-o
Ablative
Vocative
/mit/ mouth

Direct
Singular
Plural
ra
71
ra-we
Oblique
ra-wo
Ablative
Vocative
/ra/ light
5.2.3.3.3 Waziri Class I feminine nouns

Most Waziri Class I feminine nouns end in /a/, although some also end in //, /e/,
or a consonant. Some of those ending in // or // are derived by adding this sound to
the direct singular form of the masculine counterpart; for example:
/grd/ student [male] > /grd/ student [female)]
Regular inanimate and animate feminine nouns of Class I behave similarly. However, many animate feminine nouns, particularly those that are kinship terms, are irregular, as they are in General Pashto. These are addressed in Section 5.2.6.1. Stem allomorphy applies in Waziri as it does in General Pashto (see Table 5.31), that is, nouns
ending in an unstressed vowel lose the vowel when the inflected suffix is added. If the
final vowel carries stress in the uninflected form, the stress will remain with the suffix
in the inflected form, as shown in Table 5.37.
Sample paradigms
Table 5.35 through Table 5.37 show examples of Class I feminine nouns.

72
Nouns
stem = wradz-
Singular
Plural
Direct
wradz
wradz-e
Oblique
Table 5.35: Waziri Class I Fem., consonant-final: /wradz/ day
stem = jrga
Singular
Plural
Direct
jrga
jrg-e
Oblique
Table 5.36: Waziri Class I Fem., unstressed-vowel-final: /jrga/ council
stem = an
Singular
Plural
Direct
an
an-
Oblique
Table 5.37: Waziri Class I Fem., stressed-vowel-final: /an/ flag

5.2.4
73
Class II
5.2.4.1 Overview
General Pashtos Class II has no feminine nouns. It consists of two declension patterns,
subdivided according to these two patterns into Classes IIa and IIb. There is no animacy distinction in Class IIb, or, viewed another way, all Class IIb nouns are animate.
A comparison of the animate suffixes of IIa with IIb suffixes shows that they differ in
only two respects: first, in their oblique singular/direct plural suffixes (/-/ versus -),
and second, in the presence or absence of stress in the vocative singular suffixes.
Nouns in Class IIa can end in either a consonant or a stressed /a/. Most of those
that end in // appear to be nouns derived from the suffix
/b/ master, keeper, as
in
/uxb/ camel driver, from
/ux/ camel. These /-b/ derived nouns, as
well as the noun
/melm/ guest (Table 5.45), have alternate /-n/ and /-an/
suffixes in the plural. Suffixes for this class are given in Table 5.38.
Class IIb nouns all end in consonants. Most, perhaps all, of the nouns in this class
can also be declined according to other noun classes. Suffixes for this class are given
in Table 5.39.
We have not identified a distinct set of Class II nouns in Waziri. Most of the masculine nouns whose General Pashto forms are Class IIa nouns behave like Class I nouns,
like /plz/ kitchen garden, plural /pliz-na/, and /tanr/ oven, plural /tanurna/. At least one masculine noun that belongs to Class IIb in General Pashto may be
inflected in Waziri like a Class IIb noun, namely /nawr/ animal, plural /nawr/.
Another noun expected to belong to the same class, /mnwr/ shrinekeeper is inflected in Waziri as a Class I animate noun, plural /mnwar-n/. Feminine nouns
that belong to Class II in General Pashto typically behave like Class III nouns in Waziri,
e.g. /korany/ family, plural /koran-ej/. The data are too sparse to determine whether
Class II nouns simply do not exist in Waziri, or if an inflection pattern similar to that
of GP Class II may be an option for some nouns.

74 Nouns
Singular
Plural
Animate
Direct
Inanimate
na
(variant for
-stem only)
Oblique
no
(variant for
-stem only)
Ablative
Vocative
Table 5.38: GP Class IIa noun suffixes
Singular
Plural
Animate
Direct
Inanimate
Oblique
Ablative
Vocative
Table 5.39: GP Class IIb noun suffixes

75
5.2.4.2 General Pashto Class IIa

Stem allomorphy
Patterns of stem allomorphy for Class IIa nouns are given in Table 5.40.
Final stem
sound(s)
Stem
change
Forms affected
Noun type
Example
o/u + C
oblique
singular and
direct plural
animates
Va
/a + C
oblique,
ablative, and
vocative
plurals
V or
no change
all plurals
all plurals
pxtn-
pxtn
Pashtuns
pxtn-
pxtan
Pashtuns
inanimates

tanur-na
tanrna
ovens
all
monosyllables
everywhere but
direct singular
mostly -b
derived nouns

al-na lna
thieves

melm- melm
guests
Table 5.40: GP Class IIastem allomorphy
Sample paradigms
Paradigms of some typical Class IIa nouns are given in Table 5.41 through Table 5.45.
Some IIa nouns with the o/u alternation (Table 5.42) can also be declined as
Class I nouns.

76
Nouns
no stem change
Singular
Plural
Direct
plz
Oblique
plez-
Ablative
plez-na
plez-no
plez-
Vocative
Table 5.41: GP Class IIa inanimate:
/plez/ kitchen garden
o/u /a
Singular
Plural
Direct
pxtn
Oblique
pxtn-
Ablative
pxtn-
pxtan-o
pxtn-a
Vocative
/pxtn/ Pashtun

o/u
Singular
Plural
Direct
tanr
tanr-na
tanur-na
Oblique
tanur-
tanr-no
tanur-no
Ablative
tanr-a
Vocative
/tanr/ oven
All nouns of the type illustrated in Table 5.44 have monosyllabic stems.

77
78
Nouns
/a
Singular
Plural
Direct
al
l-
l-na
Oblique
l-
l-o
l-no
Ablative
l-a
Vocative
Table 5.44: GP Class IIa animate/inanimate:
/al/ thief
Singular
Plural
Direct
melm
melm-
melm-n
Oblique
melm-
melm-
melm-an
Ablative
melm-
Vocative
Table 5.45: GP Class IIa animate:
/melm/ guest

79
5.2.4.3 General Pashto Class IIb

This class is different from the others: it contains only a few nouns, and most, if not
all, of its members belong to Class I for some speakers. Adjectives whose final syllables
are
/gar/,
/war/,
/an/, or
/zan/ decline according to this class when
used with nominal function. The words in this class all end in /aC/; the consonant is
most often /n/ or /r/. Class IIb has no animate/inanimate distinction and includes the
nouns in the list below. Some authors treat these nouns as irregular, but in our view
there are enough to form a declension class:
/xagr/ plasterer (also Class I masculine animate)
/bazgr/ peasant (also Class I masculine animate)
/sxar/ stone
/naxtr/ pine tree
/mor/ car (also Class I masculine or feminine inanimate)
/dardmn/ sensitive one (also Class I masculine animate)
/wkmn/ ruler (also Class I masculine animate)
/mayn/ lover
/topk/ gun (also Class I masculine inanimate)
/xaunk/ hermaphrodite
/mlax/ locust (also Class I masculine animate)
The loanword
/mor/ car was probably put into this class by some speakers
on the analogy of the other Class IIb nouns that end in /r/. It is particularly indeterminate, in that as a Class I noun, it can also be either masculine or feminine.
Stem allomorphy
Patterns of stem allomorphy for Class IIb nouns are given in Table 5.46.
Final stem sound(s)
Stem change
Forms affected
a+C
oblique singular; all

plurals
Example

duxmn-
duxmn
enemies
Table 5.46: GP Class IIbstem allomorphy
Sample paradigms
The paradigm of a Class IIb noun is given in Table 5.47.

80
Nouns
Singular
Plural
Direct
duxmn
Oblique
duxmn
duxmn
duxmn-o
Ablative
duxmn-a
Vocative
Table 5.47: GP Class IIb:
5.2.5
/duxmn/ enemy
Class III
5.2.5.1 Overview
In both General Pashto and Waziri, Class III nouns exhibit no stem allomorphy. They
are distinguished by the endings of their direct singular forms: In General Pashto, for
masculines, this sound is
/ay/, and for feminines, it is either
/y/ or
/e/. In
Waziri, for masculines, this sound is /ay/, and for feminines, it is either /y/, /i/, /o/,
or /y/. Section 5.2.5.1.1 through Section 5.2.5.3 detail the facts for Class III in General
Pashto, while Section 5.2.5.4 summarizes the situation for Waziri.
5.2.5.1.1 Subclassification of Class III in General Pashto

The inflectional patterns of Class III nouns differ noticeably, depending on whether
the primary stress falls on the ultimate or the penultimate syllable. Hence the class is
divided into two subgroups, IIIa and IIIb, described in the following sections.
Another distinguishing feature of GP Class III nouns is that their direct singular
forms take a suffix, which means that the stem is not identical to the direct singular
form, unlike other Pashto nouns; and in fact, the stem can look rather odd, as with the
words for both male dog and female dog (see Table 5.52 and Table 5.54).
The suffixes for GP Class III nouns are shown in Table 5.48, Table 5.49, Table 5.50,
and Table 5.51.

Singular
Plural
Animate
Direct
Inanimate
in
Oblique
ino
Ablative
ya
Vocative
Table 5.48: GP Class IIIa Masc. noun suffixes

81
82
Nouns
Singular
Animate
Direct
Inanimate
Plural
Animate
Inanimate
ine
-yne
ine
-yne
ygne
Oblique
yo
ino
-yno
ygno
Ablative
Vocative
Table 5.49: GP Class IIIa Fem. noun suffixes

yo
ino
-yno
Direct
Singular
Plural
ay
Oblique
yo
Ablative
ya
Vocative
Table 5.50: GP Class IIIb Masc. noun suffixes
Direct
Singular
Plural
Oblique
yo
Ablative
Vocative
Table 5.51: GP Class IIIb Fem. noun suffixes
1 Penzl (1955) has the ending /-e/ for the Class IIIb masculine vocative singular in Kandahari (see
Table 5.57). This is the only source to suggest an alternative to the /-ya/ ending above.

83
84
Nouns
5.2.5.2 Class IIIa

Nouns of Class IIIa are inflected for case-marking as noted in Table 5.48 and Table 5.49.
As with other noun classes described earlier, the sequence
/n/ is optionally used
in plural formation, primarily with nouns denoting animate objects. Among Class IIIa
feminine nouns, it occurs among inanimate nouns as well as animate, as seen in Table
5.56. Animate denotations in this class include ethnic or tribal denominations such as
/apridy/ Afridi.
5.2.5.2.1 Masculine Class IIIa nouns

Sample paradigms
Paradigms of some typical masculine Class IIIa nouns are given in Table 5.52 and
Table 5.53.
stem = sp-
Singular
Plural
Direct
sp-y
sp-
sp-in
Oblique
sp-
sp-
sp-o
sp-ino
Ablative
sp-ya
Vocative
Table 5.52: GP Class IIIa Masc. animate:
/spy/ dog [male]

stem = stor-
Singular
Plural
Direct
ga-y
Oblique
ga-
ga-
Ablative
85
ga-
ga-ya
Vocative
Table 5.53: GP Class IIIa Masc. inanimate:
/gay/ feast
5.2.5.2.2 Feminine Class IIIa nouns

Note the wide variance in possible plural forms for Class IIIa feminine nouns. The various plural alternatives mentioned here are not always freely interchangeable, yet there
is no clear rule for which form is preferred.
Sample paradigms
Paradigms of some typical feminine Class IIIa nouns are given in Table 5.52 and
Table 5.53.

86
Nouns
stem = sp-
Singular
Plural
Direct
sp-y
sp-y
sp-ine
Oblique
sp-yo
sp-ino
Ablative
Vocative
Table 5.54: GP Class IIIa Fem. animate:
/spy/ dog [female]
stem = koran-
Singular
Plural
Direct
koran-y
koran-y
koran-yne
koran-ygne
Oblique
koran-yo
koran-yno
koran-ygno
Ablative
Vocative
Table 5.55: GP Class IIIa Fem. animate:
/korany/ family

stem = lk-
Singular
Plural
Direct
lk-
87
lk-y
lk-yne
Oblique
lk-y
lk-yo
lk-yno
Ablative
Vocative
Table 5.56: GP Class IIIa Fem. inanimate:
/lki/ trickiness
5.2.5.3 Class IIIb

Compared to Class IIIa nouns, there is little variation among plural Class IIIb nouns,
as reflected in Table 5.50 and Table 5.51. There is also no animacy distinction among
Class IIIb nouns.
5.2.5.3.1 Masculine Class IIIb nouns

Sample paradigms
Table 5.57 gives a sample paradigm for a masculine Class IIIb noun.

88
Nouns
stem = malgr-
Singular
Plural
Direct
malgr-ay
Oblique
malgr-i
malgr-i
malgr-o
malgr-yo
Ablative
malgr-ya
Vocative
Table 5.57: GP Class IIIb Masc.:
/malgray/ friend [male]
5.2.5.3.2 Feminine Class IIIb nouns

Sample paradigms
Table 5.58 gives a sample paradigm for a feminine Class IIIb noun.

stem = malgr-
Singular
Plural
Direct
malgr-e
89
malgr-e
Oblique
malgr-o
malgr-yo
Ablative
Vocative
Table 5.58: GP Class IIIb Fem.:
/malgre/ friend [female]
5.2.5.4 Class III in Waziri

As in General Pashto, Waziri Class III nouns are distinguished by the endings of their
direct singular forms: for masculines, this sound is /ay/, and for feminines, it is either /y/, /i/, /o/, or /ye/. Lorimer (1902) divides masculine nouns in this class into
two subgroups, depending on the form of the plural suffixes. We have found only one
form of the direct plural suffix and do not have any examples of Class III nouns in the
oblique plural, so we are unable to support Lorimers subdivision. We call Lorimers
subgroups Class IIIa and Class IIIb, but the subdivisions do not seem to be related
to stress patterns as they are in General Pashto. Feminine Class III nouns distinguish
themselves by being mostly invariable. Direct singular forms ending in // take the
/-y/ suffix in direct plural and oblique singular and plural, following the pattern of
/-y/-final nouns. Nouns of this class ending in /o/ or /y/ take the same ending
throughout the direct and plural cases, regardless of number.
The suffixes for Class III nouns as described by Lorimer (1902) are shown in Table
Sample paradigms
Abbreviated paradigms of some typical Class III nouns are given in Table 5.64 through
Table 5.68. We include only the direct case for the masculine nouns, as these are the
only forms we have been able to verify with native speakers.

90
Nouns
Direct
Singular
Plural
-na DZA
Oblique
y WAZ
y WAZ
-y DZA
Table 5.59: Middle dialect Class IIIa Masc. noun suffixes
Direct
Singular
Plural
on WAZ
-i DZA
Oblique
ion WAZ
-ye DZA
Table 5.60: Middle dialect Class IIIb Masc. noun suffixes
Direct
Oblique
Singular
Plural
y WAZ
ay WAZ
-y DZA
-ay WAZ
-y DZA
Table 5.61: Middle dialect Class III Fem. noun suffixes: /-y/

Singular
Direct
Plural
Oblique
Table 5.62: Middle dialect Class III Fem. noun suffixes: /-o/
Singular
Direct
Plural
Oblique
Table 5.63: Middle dialect Class III Fem. noun suffixes: /-y/
stem = xus-
Singular
Plural
Direct
xus-y
xus-
Table 5.64: Waziri Class IIIa Masc. animate: /xusy/ calf
stem = pat-
Singular
Plural
Direct
pat-y
pat-
Table 5.65: Waziri Class III Masc. inanimate: /paty/ star
stem = a-
Singular
Direct
a-ay
Plural
Oblique
Table 5.66: Waziri Class III Fem.: /aay/ woolen jacket

91
92
Nouns
stem = xamt-
Singular
Direct
xamt-o
Plural
Oblique
Table 5.67: Waziri Class IIIa Fem. inanimate: /xamto/ cloth
stem = gut-
Singular
Direct
gut-y
Plural
Oblique
Table 5.68: Waziri Class IIIa Fem. inanimate: /guty/ ring
5.2.6
Irregular nouns and irregular patterns in General Pashto
Pashto has many irregular morphological patterns among its nouns.

As mentioned in Section 5.2.1, many nouns that follow the patterns of one particular declension class can also have alternative plural forms, and the acceptability of
one alternative over another is not always predictable. The class membership of certain nouns is also not fixed, with some nouns optionally following the full inflectional
paradigm of more than one class.
In addition to such variation in the use of plural and oblique forms, some nouns,
especially loanwords, vary in gender assignment. For example, as mentioned in Section 5.2.4.3, the noun
/mor/ automobile can follow three different inflectional
patterns, depending on the speaker: Class I masculine inanimate, with plural form
/morna/ automobiles (by virtue of the consonant-final form), Class I feminine inanimate, with plural form
/more/ automobiles (presumably by association with the gender of the same noun in Urdu, from which it was borrowed), or
Class IIb, with plural form
/mor/.
Other nouns in Pashto follow entirely irregular patterns. A large number of these
come from kinship terms and Arabic borrowing, presented in the following subsections.

93
5.2.6.1 Kinship terms

Perhaps due to their frequent use and cultural importance, many kinship terms in
Pashto have irregular forms. One explanation for this phenomenon is that words used
most often, especially culturally significant ones, tend to retain morphological or phonological patterns that have been lost elsewhere in the language.
While several kinship terms do fit within the regular noun class paradigmsfor
example, Class I nouns
/plr/ father and
/tr/ paternal uncle even these
exhibit some oddity in that they represent a fairly exceptional set of nouns that denote
humans but that take inanimate suffixes. This section describes the more irregular
Pashto kinship terms.
The following feminine kinship terms have different stems in the singular and plural and follow the pattern illustrated in Table 5.69:
/mor/ mother; plural stem /mynd-/
/xor/ sister; plural stem /xwynd-/
/tror/ paternal aunt; plural stem /trynd-/
/ngor/ daughter-in-law; plural stem /ngynd-/
Direct
Singular
Plural
mor
mynd-e
Oblique
mynd-o
Ablative
mr-e
Vocative
Table 5.69: Irregular Fem. kinship noun:
/mor/ mother
The nouns
/wrr/ brother's son,
/zoy/ son and
/lur/ daughter
are also all irregular, as shown in Table 5.70, Table 5.71, and Table 5.72.

94
Nouns
Direct
Singular
Plural
wrr
wrer-na
Oblique
wrer-
wrer-no
Ablative
Vocative
Table 5.70: Irregular Masc. kinship noun:
Direct
/wrr/ brother's son
Singular
Plural
zoy
zmn
Oblique
zmn-o
Ablative
zoy-a
Vocative
Table 5.71: Irregular Masc. kinship noun:
/zoy/ son

Direct
Singular
Plural
lur
95
l-e
Oblique
l-o
Ablative
lr-e
Vocative
Table 5.72: Irregular Fem. kinship noun:
/lur/ daughter
5.2.6.2 Arabic borrowings

Another common source of irregular inflectional forms comes from Arabic borrowings
(or nouns perceived by speakers as Arabic), in which the Arabic plural form is borrowed as well. Three major plural patterns are associated with such Arabic loanwords:
/n/,
/t/, and the Arabic broken plural, as illustrated in Table 5.73 and Table
5.74. Although the suffix
/-t/ is a feminine inflectional form in Arabic, the class
of abstract nouns to which it applies is treated as masculine in Pashto.
In many cases, the inflectional patterns may either employ the Arabic plural forms
or may be adapted to one of the regular Pashto noun classes described in Section 5.2.3
through Section 5.2.5. For example, the word
/daftr/ office, whose paradigm as
Class I noun appears earlier in Table 5.20 (with plural form
/daftr-na/,
/daftr/), can also occur with the Arabic broken plural form
/daftar/ offices.

96
Nouns
Direct
Singular
Plural
mujhd
mujhid-n
Oblique
mujhid-n-o
mujhd-o
Ablative
mujhd-a
Vocative
Table 5.73: Masc. Arabic loanword:
Direct
/mujhd/ fighter
Singular
Plural
mawz'
mawzo'-w-t
Oblique
mawzo'-w-t-o
Ablative
Vocative
Table 5.74: Masc. Arabic loanword:
/mawz'/ topic

Inflection and agreement of conjoined nouns
5.3
97
Inflection and agreement of conjoined nouns
When nouns are conjoined, if they are both of the same gender, then an adjective which
modifies (or is predicated of) the conjoined nouns will be in the same gender, but in
the plural.
(5.14)
.
san-
aw madin-a
lewan-ine
Sana-F.DIR and Madina-F.DIR crazy-PL.F.ANIM.DIR
di
be.CONT.PRS.3PL.F
Sana and Madina are crazy.
However, if the conjoined nouns are of different genders, then the adjective must
be repeated and inflected to agree with the gender of each noun individually.
(5.15)
.
m
tor-
kitb-
aw tor-a
1SG.STR.OBL black-M.DIR book-M.DIR and black-F.DIR
kitba-
w-xist-a
notebook-F.DIR AOR-buy.PST-PST.3SG.F
I bought a black book and a black notebook.
Similarly, when a verb agrees with two conjoined nouns, then if the nouns are of
the same gender, the verb agrees in gender, but is plural:
(5.16)
.
ahmad-
aw mahmud-
gd-ed-l
Ahmad-M.DIR and Mahmoud-M.DIR dance-PST-PST.3PL.M
Ahmad and Mahmoud danced.

However, if the conjoined nouns are of different genders, then the corresponding
verb is usually masculine and plural when in non-past tense, but may be declined
to agree in gender and number with the last item in the list when in past tense. In
example 5.15 and 5.17, the verb is conjugated to agree in gender with the last of the
objects mentioned.
(5.17)
.
iw-e
aw bsin-
-xand-l
Diwe-F.OBL and Abaseen-M.OBL CONT-laugh-PST.3PL.M
Diwe and Abaseen were laughing.

98
Nouns
5.4
Derivational morphology and loanwords
5.4.1
Derivational morphology of nouns
This section discusses some derivational affixes in Pashto and a few of the nouns derived from them. Pashto has both more productive and less productive derivational
affixes.
5.4.1.1 Nouns derived with suffixes

The examples in this section do not necessarily contain nouns of note. They instead
highlight the relationship between derivational affixes and their stems, which may be
verbs, adjectives, or other nouns.
Table 5.75: Derived noun suffixes

Affix
Meaning
Applies to
Stem
place of
nouns,
including
verbal nouns
and adjectives
xowun(a)
teaching
()
ibdat
worship
state of being
tob
nouns and
adjectives
mum
child
xwandi safe
place of
tun
nouns and
adjectives
poh
expert
wokay
small
Derived form
xowuny
school
ibdaty
place of worship,
mosque, church,
temple
mumtob
childhood
xwanditob
safety
poxantun
university
woktun
kindergarten
woki
boy
tiy
abstract noun
native Pashto
adjectives
prx
vast
prxty
development


Affix
Meaning
Applies to
Stem
nimgay
insufficient
state of being
xt
adjectives,
including
verbal
adjectives
kam less
joa
built
oredl
to fall
mand
experiencer
/possessor
Dari nouns
rm
shame
honar art
agent
nouns
kr
-ness, abstract
noun
Dari adjectives
agent
nouns
wl
owner or
occupant
nouns
joxt
construction
orxt
precipitation
rmand
ashamed person
honarmand
artist
tajrabakr
adkr actor
awsoda
peaceful
gar
kamxt lack
expert
ganda
rotten
nimgitiy
insufficiency
tajraba
experience
ad
performance
gi
Derived form
randa
awsoda gi
peace
gandagi
trash
randagar
mill
miller
xaa mud
xagar mason
hai
shop
haywd
country
haiwl
shopkeeper
haywdwl
citizen

99
100
Nouns

Affix
Meaning
Applies to
scope, volume
nouns and
adjectives
wlay
Stem
er big
Derived form
erwlay
increase
kam short, kamwlay

small
ya
abstract noun
Arabic nouns
nazar
perspective
amal
action
iyat
abstract or
plural noun
nouns and
adjectives
mmur
official
masun
safe
abstract noun
nouns
mar
leader
duxman
enemy
state of being
verbs
verbs
masuniyat
security
mari
leadership
duxmani
animosity
xplwki
grni inflation
lrxowl to
direct
agent
mmuriyat
duty
look
unkay
amalya
implementation
independence
katl to
nazarya
opinion
xplwk
independent
grn
expensive
na
reduction
xowl
to teach
lawl
to manage
lrxowna
direction
katna sight
xowunkay
teacher
lawunkay
manager, driver

101

Affix
Meaning
Applies to
Stem
Derived form
kamedl to
lessen
kamedunkay decline
(n.)
5.4.1.2 Compounds
Many of Pashtos noun compounds originate from loanwords, mostly from Persian.
Some examples of compound nouns built from Pashto words are:
/orlaunay/ poker ( /or/ fire + /lal/ to stir)

/spiniray/ old man ( /spin/ white + /ira/ beard)
/lmarxt/ east ( /lmar/ sun + /xt/ rising)
More examples of compounds can be found in Section 6.8.3.
5.4.2
Reduplication of nouns
Pashto nouns denoting events can undergo reduplication to express duration or intensity of the event. These reduplicated nominals denote an event in either a causative
(5.18; 5.19) or a circumstantial (5.20) relationship to that denoted by the finite verb.
(5.18)
.
p
wh-l-o
wh-l-o
m-
INSTR beat-INF-PL.M.OBL beat-INF-PL.M.OBL dead-M.DIR
u-
become.AOR.PST-PST.3SG.M
He was beaten to death. (NW)
(5.19)
.
p
lik-l-o
lik-l-o
waxt-
r na
INSTR write-INF-PL.M.OBL write-INF-PL.M.OBL time-M.DIR 1 from
tr-
u-
passed-M.DIR become.AOR.PST-PST.3SG.M
I was so busy writing that I lost track of time. (NW)

102
Nouns
(5.20)
.
asad-
p
xand-
xand-
r-ta
Asad-M.DIR INSTR laugh-F.OBL laugh-F.OBL 1-to
w-way-l-
sinim-
ta m
AOR-tell.PST-PST-3PL.M COMP cinema-F.OBL to NEG
-a
go.CONT.PRS-IMP.SG
Asad laughed and said to me, 'Don't go to the movies.'
Nouns not derived from or related to verbs can also be repeated to indicate plurality or variety:
(5.21)
.
zmu
p maktab-
ki
rang-
rang-
1PL.STR.POSS in... school-M.OBL ...in color-M.DIR color-M.DIR
xalk-
di
people-PL.M.DIR be.CONT.PRS.PL.M
In our school there are all kinds of people [our school is very diverse]. (SW)
5.4.3
Loanwords
In addition to the irregular inflectional forms described in Section 5.2.6.2, Pashto has
many words originating in Arabic, Persian, or Urdu, and others from Russian or English, which are borrowed directly into Pashto and treated as if they were native Pashto
words in terms of inflection. For example:
/samvr/ samovar (Russian); pl. /samvruna/

/injinir/ engineer (English); pl. /injinirn/
/mirz/ clerk (Persian); pl. /mirzyn/

Melissa Fox and Alina Twist
Adjectives and Other Noun Modifiers
6.1
Introduction
This chapter describes the morphology of Pashto lexical noun modifiersthat is, adjectives, determiners, number terms, and interrogative adjectivescovering both casemarking and derivation. (For phrasal modifiers of nouns such as relative clauses, see
Chapter 11.) It ends with a section on usageattribution and predication, the use of
adjectives as nouns, comparison, and the adverbial use of adjectivesincluding a discussion of the typologically unusual feature of adverbial concord with nouns.
Pashto adjectives precede the nouns they modify and are generally inflected to
agree with those nouns in gender, case, and number, although some adjectives and
other noun modifiers are never inflected. A few Class I adjectives take animate suffixes
when modifying animate nouns (see Section 6.2.1.1.5). Demonstrative determiners can
represent two or three degrees of proximity, depending on the dialect: proximal/distal
or proximal/medial/distal.
Our analysis has four inflectional classes of adjectives and largely corresponds
with that presented for nouns in Chapter 5. Previous descriptions of inflectional classes
(for both nouns and adjectives) have usually included stem allomorphy among their
diagnostic features; we consider it separately and classify nouns and adjectives based
solely on their inflectional suffixes.
6.2
Inflectional classes in General Pashto and Waziri
As with nouns (Section 5.2), the inflectional patterns of Pashto adjectives have received
widely varying descriptive treatment. Other authors group the adjectives in four to
seven categories, depending on the features considered to be diagnostic. We group
the adjectives into four classes, based on the ending of the masculine direct singular
form and the alternation between the masculine direct singular and the masculine
oblique singular (which usually resembles the masculine direct plural form). Pashto
adjective paradigms generally have fewer forms than noun paradigms. The ablative
case (sometimes called oblique II or prepositional) seldom has a unique form: when it
differs from the oblique form, it is usually identical with the vocative form.
6.2.1
Inflectional classes of General Pashto adjectives
Classes I and II include all adjectives that end in consonants in their citation form (masculine direct singular); Class II also includes those that end in //. All such adjectives are stressed on the final syllable in this citation form. Classes III and IV comprise

104
adjectives ending in stressed and unstressed vowels other than //, which includes
diphthongs.
6.2.1.1 General Pashto Class I

6.2.1.1.1 Case-marking suffixes
Class I adjectives are consonant-final in their citation form, as in
/t/ empty or
/ne/ straight, direct, and keep the stress on the final syllable of the stem. They
are declined using the suffixes in Table 6.1.
Masculine
Singular
Direct
Plural
Feminine
Singular
-a
Plural
-e E
-i W
Oblique
-o
-e E
-o
-i W
Ablative
-a
Vocative
Table 6.1: GP Class I adjective suffixes
This is the most populous adjective class. Adjectives in Classes II-IV are frequently
regularized toward Class I by many speakers. This regularization is a major source of
dialectal variation.
6.2.1.1.2 Stem allomorphy

In the Western dialects, Class I adjectives with certain stem shapes will undergo one
of two processes of vowel mutation:

105
1. Vowel Harmony
o/_Co
Class I adjectives with the stressed stem vowel // (W), such as

/pln/
broad or
/dng/ tall, undergo regressive harmony in the feminine direct plural and in both oblique plural formswhen the suffix vowel is /o/as
shown in Table 6.2.
2. Centralization
/_C#
Class I adjectives for which the last syllable in the masculine direct singular
form is
/wr/,
/gr/,
/jn/, or
/mn/, as well as ordinal
numbers ending in
/m/, undergo a different vowel alternation: the vowel
// of the final syllable centralizes to // in feminine non-direct singulars and in
all plural forms, irrespective of gender, as shown in Table 6.3 and Table 6.4. (To
compare this stem allomorphy to that of Class IIb nouns, see Section 5.2.4.3.)
In other dialects these vowels do not mutate. Penzl (1955: 69.4) reports that some
Kandahari speakers have the // vowel in all case forms, so those speakers dialect
lacks the alternation.
6.2.1.1.3 Class I forms with stem allomorphy

The paradigm for the adjective
/spk/ light in Table 6.2 shows the Western dialects Vowel Harmony rule. Table 6.3 and Table 6.4 show paradigms for the adjectives
/zawr/ brave and
/amjn/ sad, illustrating the centralization rule
for the Western dialect.

106
Masculine
Singular
Direct
Feminine
Plural
Singular
spak E
spk W
spk-a E
spk-a W
Plural
spk-e E
spk-i W
Oblique
Ablative
Vocative
spk-o E
spk-o W
spk-o W
spk-a E
spk-a W
Table 6.2: GP Class I, stem alternation:
spk-e E
spk-i W
Masculine
zawr
spk-o E
spk-o W
spk-o W
/spk/ light
Singular
Direct
Feminine
Plural
zawr E
zawr W
Singular
zawr-a
Plural
zawr-e E
zawr-i W
Oblique
zawr-o E
zawr-o W
zawr-e E
zawr-i W
Ablative
zawr-a
Vocative
Table 6.3: GP Class I,
/wr/ alternation: /zawr/ brave

zawr-o E
zawr-o W
Masculine
Singular
Direct
amjn
107
Feminine
Plural
amjn E
amjn W
Singular
amjn-a
Plural
amjn-e E
amjn-i W
Oblique
amjn-o E
amjn-o W
amjn-e E
amjn-o E
amjn-o W
amjn-i W
Ablative
amjn-a
Vocative
Table 6.4: GP Class I,
/jn/ alternation: /amjn/ sad
6.2.1.1.4 Class I forms without stem allomorphy

The paradigm for Class I adjectives lacking stem allomorphy is shown in Table 6.5.

108
Masculine
Singular
Feminine
Plural
Singular
Direct
Plural
palwn
palwn-e E
palwn-i W
Oblique
palwn-o
palwn-e E
palwn-o
palwn-i W
Ablative
palwn-a
Vocative
Table 6.5: GP Class I, consonant-final adjective, no alternation:
/palwn/ fat
6.2.1.1.5 Animacy in Class I adjectives

When modifying animate nouns, some Class I adjectives may take the animate plural
suffixes of Class I nouns, subject to the changes described in Section 5.2.3.2.1 for stems
ending in a consonant (which all adjectives have); that is:
g /C_
Therefore the animate plural suffix on adjectives is realized as
/n/ (masc.dir.),
/ne/ (fem.dir.), or
/no/ (obl.), as in examples 6.1 and 6.2.
(6.1)

mr-n
orua
elder-PL.M.DIR brothers.M.DIR
older brothers

(6.2)
109
!
paxtan-o
mr-no
kr-no
malgr-o
Pashtoon-PL.M.VOC elder-PL.M.VOC younger-PL.M.VOC friend-PL.M.VOC
Pashtoon friends, both young and old!
See Section 6.9.2, Adjectives as Nouns, for further discussion of animate suffixes
on adjectives.
6.2.1.2 General Pashto Class II

Class II adjectives can end in either a consonant or a stressed schwa ( //). Except
for the masculine singular ablative and vocative suffixes, the suffixes of Class II are
inherently stressed. These stressed suffixes are the chief difference between Class I
and Class II, although there are a few differences in suffix shape as well. Whether a
consonant-final adjective belongs to Class I (stem-stressed) or Class II (suffix-stressed)
is a property of the lexeme and is not predictable.
6.2.1.2.1 Case-marking suffixes

The Class II suffixes are shown in Table 6.6.
Masculine
Singular
Direct
Plural
Ablative
Singular
Oblique
Feminine
Plural
Vocative
Table 6.6: GP Class II adjective suffixes
1 Standardized version of 6.2:

110
6.2.1.2.2 Stem allomorphy

Some GP Class II adjectives undergo stem allomorphy processes upon inflection, all
of them stress-conditioned. The first, Syncope I, affects the final vowels of //-final
Class II adjectives; the rest affect the stem vowels of consonant-final Class II adjectives
(which either lower or delete when unstressed). Lowering affects only back vowels,
but not all of them. It is not possible to predict which rule, Back Vowel Lowering or
Syncope II, applies to a given consonant-final adjective. The rules are:
1. Syncope I
V2 / V1 _
V1 / _V2
If suffixation results in two adjacent vowels and only one is stressed, the unstressed vowel deletes. If both are stressed, the first vowel deletes. This rule
applies to vowel-final adjectives, as seen in Table 6.7.
2. Back Vowel Lowering
V-stress] [+back, V[-high] / #C_
In most Class II consonant-final adjectives with non-initial back vowels, /o/,

/u/ lowers to /a/ when unstressed. This rule is illustrated in Table 6.8 and Table
6.9.
3. Monophthongization
a[+stress] w V-high] [+back,
wa[+stress] V-high] [+back,
In adjectives with /aw/ or /wa/ in the stem, those sequences simplify to /o/
when stressed. An example of each can be seen in Table 6.10 and Table 6.11.
Following application of this rule, any remaining /a/ is lengthened when the
following syllable contains //, according to rule 4.
4. Lengthening
a /_(C)C
Short /a/ lengthens to long // when the syllable following it contains //. This
rule affects those adjectives that undergo Back Vowel Lowering, as in Table 6.8
and Table 6.9, as well as those that undergo Monophthongization, as in Table
6.10 and Table 6.11. Note that rules (2)(4) must be ordered as stated above in
order to account for the resulting allomorphy.

111
5. Syncope II
V[-stress]
In a few consonant-final adjectives the stem vowel is deleted when not stressed,
as shown in Table 6.12.
6. Epenthesis
a/C_CC
If syncope results in a triple consonant cluster, an /a/ is inserted after the first
consonant, as in Table 6.13.
Note that ordering matters with these rules. Rule 2 feeds Rule 4, while Rule 3 bleeds it.
6.2.1.2.3 Class II forms with stem allomorphy

Vowel-final adjectives that end in stressed // in their citation form include
/sper/ light grey, dusty; see also Table 6.7 for
/ter/ sharp. These can be reliably
identified from this citation form as belonging to Class II; no other class has adjectives
ending in /-/. The final stem-vowel of these adjectives undergoes one or other of the
morphophonemic rules of Syncope I in Section 6.2.1.2.2.
Masculine
Singular
Direct
ter
Oblique
Feminine
Plural
Singular
Plural
ter-
ter-
ter-
ter-
ter-
ter-
Ablative
Vocative
Table 6.7: GP Class II, --final adjective:
/ter/ sharp
In most consonant-final adjectives where the stem vowel is a back vowel,

/o/,
/u/, it will undergo vowel lowering in unstressed position, followed by lengthening

112
oa
Masculine
Singular
Direct
Plural
pox
Oblique
px-
px-
Ablative
Feminine
pax-
Singular
Plural
pax-
pax-
pax-
pax-
px-a
Vocative
Table 6.8: GP Class II, back vowel lowering:
ua
Masculine
Singular
Direct
Singular
Plural
nd-
nd-
Ablative
Feminine
Plural
und
Oblique
/pox/ cooked, ripe
and-
and-
and-
nd-a
Vocative
Table 6.9: GP Class II, back vowel lowering:
/und/ blind

and-
and-
113
when the next syllable contains // (as shown in Table 6.8 and Table 6.9 for the adjectives
/pox/ cooked, ripe and
/und/ blind, respectively).
In adjectives with /aw/ or /wa/ in their stem, the vowel-glide combination simplifies to /o/ in stressed position, as expressed in Rule 4 and exemplified in Table 6.10
and Table 6.11.
owaw
Masculine
Singular
Direct
Plural
Singular
Plural
tod
Oblique
Feminine
twd-
twd-
tawd-
tawd-
tawd-
tawd-
tawd-
Ablative
td-a
Vocative
Table 6.10: GP Class II, back vowel breaking:
/tod/ hot; stem = /tawd/
Finally, some consonant-final adjectives unpredictably undergo rule 5, Syncope II

in unstressed position, as in Table 6.12, rather than lowering. Where this results in a
three-consonant cluster, epenthesis of /a/ applies, as in Table 6.13.
The patterns of stem allomorphy discussed above are lexical properties of particular adjectives; also, underlying stems vary from dialect to dialect. For example, more
Eastern- than Western-dialect adjectives undergo the monophthongization in Table
6.11, indicating that their underlying stems contain /aw/ or /wa/ rather than /o/. The
Eastern
/sor/ astride and
/xor/ scattered both follow this pattern, but in
the Western dialects these words (spelled and pronounced
/spor/ and
/xpor/) decline according to the pattern shown in Table 6.8 for
/pox/ cooked, ripe
and Table 6.9 for /und/ blind. On the other hand, /ko/ crooked, bent,
like /xo/ sweet, declines in both dialects according to the example shown in
Table 6.11.
Table 6.11 also reflects the EastWest dialectal correspondence g, traditionally
represented in both dialects by the letter (see also Table 3.8 and Chapter 4). In both
/ko/ and
/xo/, the Eastern realization of the consonant as [g] is so entrenched that the words may be spelled with
instead of the standard .

114
owwa
Masculine
Singular
Direct
Plural
Plural
xo W
xw- W
xwa- W
xwa- W
xw- W
xwa- W
xwa- W
xwa- W
xwg- E
xwg- E
Ablative
Singular
xog E
Oblique
Feminine
xwag- E
xwag- E
xwag- E
xwag- E
xwag- E
xg-a E
x-a W
Vocative
Table 6.11: GP Class II, back vowel breaking:
Masculine
Singular
Direct
Plural
Singular
Plural
sr-
Ablative
Feminine
sur
Oblique
/xo/ sweet; stem = /xwag/ or /xwa/
sr-
sr-o
sr-a
sr-e
sr-a
Vocative
Table 6.12: GP Class II, Syncope II:
/sur/ red

sr-e
sr-o
Masculine
Singular
Direct
trix
Oblique
tarx-
Ablative
115
Feminine
Plural
tarx-
tarx-
Singular
tarx-
tarx-
Plural
tarx-
tarx-
trx-a
Vocative
Table 6.13: GP Class II, Syncope II and epenthesis:
/trix/ bitter
6.2.1.2.4 Class II forms without stem allomorphy

Class II forms that do not have stem allomorphy are declined according to the pattern
illustrated in Table 6.14.

116
Masculine
Singular
Direct
um
Oblique
um-
Ablative
Feminine
Plural
Singular
um-
um-
um-
um-
Plural
um-
um-
m-a
Vocative
Table 6.14: GP Class II, consonant-final adjective, no stem allomorphy:
/um/ raw, green
6.2.1.3 General Pashto Class III

Class III adjectives in General Pashto end in what is etymologically a participial suffix,
/ay/, in their citation form, the masculine direct singular (see Section 8.2.9). This
suffix may be stressed or unstressed, and the stress does not shift in inflected forms;
thus these adjectives can be divided into two subclasses, according to stress position.
6.2.1.3.1 Class IIIa

Class IIIa contains adjectives in which the suffix
/ay/ is stressed, such as
/zy/ vacillating,
/kamky/ small, little, and
/gaandy/ quick.
The suffixes for these adjectives are shown in Table 6.15, and the declension is exemplified in Table 6.16 for
/zalmy/ young.
2 The word
/zalmy/ also occurs in Pashto as a masculine first name.

Masculine
Singular
Direct
Plural
-y
Oblique
Singular
Plural
-y
Feminine
-y
-o W
-o W
- E,W
- E,W
-yo E
-yo E
Ablative
Vocative
-ya
Table 6.15: GP Class IIIa adjective suffixes
Masculine
Singular
Direct
zalm-y
Oblique
zalm-
Feminine
Plural
Singular
zalm-
zalm-y
Plural
zalm-y
zalm-o W
zalm-o W
zalm- E,W
zalm-yo E
zalm- E,W
zalm-yo E
Ablative
Vocative
zalm-ya
Table 6.16: GP Class IIIa:
/zalmy/ young

117
118
6.2.1.3.2 Class IIIb

Class IIIb contains adjectives in which the suffix /ay/ is not stressed, such as
/piyway/ courteous, well-bred, able, strong,
/stay/ tired, or
/nay/
possible. The suffixes for these adjectives are shown in Table 6.17.
Masculine
Singular
Direct
Feminine
Plural
-ay
Singular
Plural
-e
-i
-y SW
-e NE
Oblique
-yo E
-i
-ye E
-o W
-e W
-yo E
-o W
Ablative
Vocative
-ya E
-o
-e
-o
-e W
Table 6.17: GP Class IIIb adjective suffixes
The masculine vocative singular form in GP Class IIIb varies by region: Heston
(1992: 1568), writing about Eastern dialects, gives it as /ya/, while Penzl (1955: 72.3),
writing about Kandahari (Western), gives it as
/e/. The latter form may be more
frequent, even in the east, but both occur and both are understood.
While all Class III adjectives have this historically participial suffix, most Class IIIb
adjectives are more transparently related to verbs than those in Class IIIa; for example,
it is easy to see that
/sway/ burnt, presented in Table 6.18, is related to
/swl/ burn.

Masculine
Singular
Direct
Oblique
Feminine
Plural
Singular
sw-ay
sw-i
119
sw-i
Plural
sw-e
sw-yo E
sw-o W
sw-ye E
sw-yo E
sw-e W
sw-o W
Ablative
Vocative
sw-ya E
sw-o
sw-e
sw-o
sw-e W
Table 6.18: GP Class IIIb:
/sway/ burnt
6.2.1.4 General Pashto Class IV (non-declining adjectives)

Class IV adjectives end in simple vowels, and may be stressed on the final vowel or
earlier in the word (unless the final vowel is //, in which event it is never stressed, as
adjectives ending in stressed // are Class II). Many adjectives borrowed from Arabic
and Persian, such as
/balbal/ glamorous, sparkling,
/bul/ obvious,
/masnu'/ artificial, and /ma'naw/ moral, spiritual, are members
of this class.
These adjectives generally do not decline, but some speakers use the oblique plural suffixes /o/,
/wo/ on these adjectives as they do in the other classes. This is
likely a result of regularization of the oblique /o/ suffix by these speakers. Examples
are shown in Table 6.19, Table 6.20, and Table 6.21.

120
Masculine
Singular
Direct
Oblique
Feminine
Plural
Singular
Plural
xyist
xyist
xyist
xyist
xyist
xyistwo E,W
xyistwo E,W
xyist W
xyist W
Ablative
Vocative
Table 6.19: GP Class IV:
/xyist/ pretty
Masculine
Singular
Direct
Oblique
Feminine
Plural
Singular
yawzi
yawzi
yawzi
yawzi
yawzo W
Ablative
Vocative
Plural
/yawzi/ alone

yawzi
yawzo W
Masculine
Singular
Direct
Oblique
121
Feminine
Plural
Singular
Plural
hos
hos
hos
hos
hos
hoswo E,W
hoso W
hoswo E,W
hoso W
Ablative
Vocative
6.2.2
/hos/ comfortable
Inflectional classes of Waziri adjectives
Waziri adjectives can be divided into classes based on the ending of their citation form,
but these classes do not align well with their GP counterparts. This section presents
Waziri adjectives in four classes based on their similarity to the GP adjective classes,
but we make no claim that the classes should be viewed as analogous. Most of the
information below comes from Lorimer (1902).
6.2.2.1 Waziri Class I

Class I includes the majority of Waziri adjectives. These adjectives end in a consonant,
an /e/ , or an /a/ in their citation form. The inflection patterns for Class I are shown
inTable 6.22.

122
Masculine
Singular
Plural
Feminine
Singular
Direct
-
-a
-a
Oblique
-
-a
-e
-e
Plural
-e
Table 6.22: Waziri Class I adjective suffixes
6.2.2.2 Waziri Class II

Class II adjectives end in // in the masculine direct singular. They retain this ending in
all cases except the plural oblique, in which they take the suffix /-e/ for both genders.
Masculine
Singular
Direct
Plural
Feminine
Singular
Plural
-i
Oblique
-e
-i
-e
Table 6.23: Waziri Class II adjective suffixes
6.2.2.3 Waziri Class III

Class III adjectives end in /ay/ in the masculine direct singular. Table 6.24 shows the
typical suffixes for adjectives of this type. Class III feminine adjectives may also follow
one of two alternative patterns. They may retain the /-ay/ suffix invariably, as shown
in Table 6.25, or they may exhibit an invariable form that adds the /-y/ suffix directly
to the /-ay/ suffix, as shown in Table 6.26.

Masculine
Singular
Plural
Direct
-ay
-i
Oblique
-i
-ye
Feminine
Singular
Plural
-ye
Table 6.24: Waziri Class III adjective suffixes
Masculine
stem = lewan-
Singular
Feminine
Plural
Direct
lewan-ay
lewan-i
Oblique
lewan-i
lewan-ye
Singular
Plural
lewan-ay
Table 6.25: Waziri Class III adjective with Fem. suffix /-ay/: /lwanay/ mad
Masculine
stem = meran-
Singular
Feminine
Plural
Direct
meran-ay
meran-i
Oblique
meran-i
meran-ye
Singular
Plural
meran-ay-ye
Table 6.26: Waziri Class III adjective with Fem. suffix /-y/: /meranay/ matrilineally related

123
124
6.3
Determiners and definiteness
In this section we treat only the lexical determiners; the possessive determiner phrase
is discussed in Section 9.3.1. Determination of Pashto nouns is optional. Demonstrative
determiners are used to convey definiteness as well as relative proximity; the use of the
number term /yaw/ one, alone or in combination, may convey indefinite specificity
or nonspecificity.
For the Middle dialects, it remains unclear whether demonstrative determiners
decline differently than demonstrative pronouns, as they do in General Pashto, so we
do not describe them separately here.
6.3.1
Demonstrative determiners
This section covers demonstratives acting as determiners; demonstrative pronouns are

discussed in Section 7.5. The two inventories consist of segmentally identical items that
differ in stress placement: disyllabic Pashto demonstrative determiners usually have
initial stress, whereas final stress can indicate either contrastive or anaphoric function.
Some Pashto dialects differentiate three levels of proximity: proximal, medial, and
distal. Demonstratives are inflected for gender, number, and case, to different degrees.
Penzl (1955: 80.5) remarks on a set of compound demonstratives which are found
in both Eastern and Western dialects (the latter only in writing) in which the emphatic
morpheme /ham/ is prefixed or procliticized to the demonstrative determiners. It appears that they are used either anaphorically or exophorically; his examples include
/hamda/ this [very] and /hama/ that [very].
Two forms are used to express the proximal demonstrative, one based on /d/,
and the other based on
/da/. /d/ does not inflect for gender or number but
does inflect for case, as in Table 6.27.
Direct
Oblique/Ablative
de
Table 6.27: Proximal demonstrative
/d/
The following examples of /d/ as a demonstrative determiner with masculine,

feminine, singular, and plural nouns illustrate the direct case form:

(6.3)
125

d
halk-
this.DIR boy-M.DIR
this boy (SW)
(6.4)

d
njl-y
this.DIR girl-F.DIR
this girl (SW)
(6.5)

d
xalk-
these.DIR people-PL.M.DIR
these people (SW)
(6.6)

d
njun-i
these.DIR girl-PL.F.DIR
these girls (SW)
The following examples of

oblique case form,
/de/:
(6.7)
/d/ as a demonstrative determiner illustrate the
p de
kitb-
ki
in... this.OBL book-M.OBL ...in
in this book (SW)
(6.8)

p de
kitb-e
ki
in... this.OBL notebook-F.OBL ...in
in this notebook (SW)
(6.9)

p de
b-uno
ki
in... these.OBL garden-PL.M.OBL ...in
in these gardens

126
(6.10)

p de
kot-o
ki
in... these.OBL room-PL.F.OBL ...in
in these rooms
The other proximal demonstrative,
/da/, does not have distinct forms showing gender or number in the direct case form. In the oblique case form, there is a difference between masculine and feminine in the singular, but not in the plural, as shown
in Table 6.28.
Note that the proximal demonstrative
/da/ and the medial demonstrative
/ha/ in Table 6.29 have initial stress. They contrast with similar forms having
final stress that serve as alternative strong pronouns, as described in Section 7.2.
Singular
Masculine
Direct
Plural
Feminine
da
d
d
Oblique
de E
do
de E
do
do
di W
du W
Table 6.28: Proximal demonstrative
/da/
These phrases illustrate the demonstrative determiner

forms:
(6.11)
/da/ in its direct case

d
kalam-
this.DIR pen-M.DIR
this pen (SW)

(6.12)
127

d
piyla-
this.DIR cup-F.DIR
this cup (SW)
(6.13)

d
kalam-una
these.DIR pen-PL.M.DIR
these pens (SW)
(6.14)

d
piyl-e
these.DIR cup-PL.F.DIR
these cups (SW)
The following phrases illustrate the demonstrative determiner

oblique case forms:
(6.15)
/da/ in its

d da
sa-i
of this.OBL man-M.OBL
of this man
(6.16)

d de
-e
of this.OBL woman-F.OBL
of this woman
(6.17)

d do
halk-no
of this.OBL boy-PL.M.ANIM.OBL
of these boys
(6.18)

d do
njun-o
of this.OBL girl-PL.F.OBL
of these girls

128
The medial and distal demonstratives exhibit the same patterning as

/da/
with respect to gender, number, and case (Table 6.29). The multiple forms represent
the considerable variation found in descriptions of these demonstratives in the literature. The presence or absence of /h/ in some forms may reflect the variation noted by
Elfenbein 1997; see Section 3.1.1.2. The variation between /o/ and /u/, and between /a/
and //, has been noted throughout this grammar, as has the /i/ ending characteristic
of Western dialects.
Singular
Masculine
Direct
Plural
Feminine
h
ha
a
Oblique
e E
ho
ho
hi W
hu W
hi W
Table 6.29: Medial demonstratives
The distal demonstrative has two variants,

/h/ and
/h/. Both
of these inflect in a manner similar to
/da/ and
/ha/, as shown in Table
6.30.

Singular
Masculine
Direct
Plural
Feminine
h
a
h
h
ha
Oblique
he
ho
he
ho
hi W
Table 6.30: Distal demonstratives

129
130
6.3.2
The indefinite determiner
The number term

sentences:
(6.19)
/yaw/ one
/yaw/ one serves as an indefinite determiner, as in the following
.
nmlum-o
waslawl-o
p khost- ke d yaw
unknown-PL.M.OBL armed-PL.M.OBL in... Khost-M ...in of one
koran-y
ol-
-i
family-F.DIR all-PL.M.DIR member-PL.M.DIR
-wa-l-i
CONT-kill-PST-PTCP.PL.M.DIR
Unknown armed individuals killed all members of a family in Khost.
(6.20)
.
yaw-a
koran-y
kaw-l-ay
one-F.DIR family-F.DIR do.CONT-PST-OPT
-i
become.AOR.PRS-PRS.3[SG.F]
p bank- ke hisb-
prniz-i
in... bank-M ...in account-M.DIR AOR\open.PRS-PRS.3[SG.F]
A family can open up an account at the bank.
Note that the determiner may or may not be inflected. The morphology of /yaw/
one is discussed in Section 6.5.
Babrakzai (1999: 2728) asserts that /yaw/ one may compose with an indefinite
quantifier to render a quantified indefinite noun phrase.
6.4
Non-numerical noun quantifiers
Noun quantifiers equivalent to English all, every, and none exist in Pashto, and as is the
case for other languages, these quantifiers may also exist in construction with items
other than nouns.
6.4.1
The quantifier
/ol-/ all
The quantifier
/ol-/ all appears to be multifunctional as both a noun and a determiner. When functioning as a noun, it triggers verb agreement and can function as the
complete object of an adposition. It appears that under those conditions, its holonym
may precede it, as we see in example 6.21. Its use in our data is predominantly as a

Non-numerical noun quantifiers
131
determiner, where it precedes its noun and is the target, rather than the trigger, of
agreement morphology. This can be seen in 6.22.
(6.21)
.
p
lan- awal-
lik-l
w-ay
INSTR short-M manner-M write-INF become.AOR.PST-PTCP.PL.M.DIR
tr
tso
ol-
lwustunk-i
tre
istafda-
up.to some all-PL.M.DIR reader-PL.M.DIR up.to.3 usage-F.DIR
w-k-ay
-i
AOR-do.AOR-OPT become.AOR.PRS-PRS.3[PL.M]
[The articles] have been written concisely so that all readers are able to make
use of them.
(6.22)
.
qq-i
e ol-
mulk-ina
e por-a
e
smuggling-F.DIR of all-PL.M.DIR nation-PL.M.DIR of sake-M.ABL of
tabh-i
liyr-
do
destruction-F.OBL path-F.DIR be.CONT.PRS.3SG.F
Smuggling is a path to destruction for all nations. (WAZ)
6.4.2
The quantifier
As shown in 6.23,
it modifies:
(6.23)
/har/, /ar/ every
/har/, /ar/ every patterns as an adjective, preceding the noun

.
da
ur-
b
p har-o
15 wra-o
this.DIR council-F.DIR WOULD in... every-PL.OBL 15 day-PL.F.OBL
ke wada-
kaw-i
aw d mum-
d
...in meeting-F.DIR do.CONT-PRS.3[SG.F] and of child-M.OBL of
adabi-to
d prxtiy-
lr-e
re
literature-PL.M.OBL of development-F.OBL path-PL.F.DIR ECHO
b
-e-
WOULD CONT-investigate-PRS.3[SG.F]
The council will be meeting every 15 days and will be looking at ways to
develop children's literature.

132
It can combine with the indefinite pronouns to express the effect of everyone or
everything, as shown in examples 7.56 and following.
6.4.3
The quantifier
/he/ none
Similarly, the quantifier

/he/ (also pronounced /hits/) can combine with the
indefinite pronouns, as shown in 6.24 and further exemplified in Section 7.7:
(6.24)
.
hets tsok
wl-
n
o-
none who.DIR gone-M.DIR NEG become.AOR.PST-PST.3SG.M
No one was gone. (NW)
It can also quantify other nominals, as shown in 6.25:

(6.25)
.
z
b
ha
p
hits awal-
ham
1SG.STR.DIR WOULD 3SG.STR.DIR INSTR none manner-M also
yawze pr
n
gd-m
alone AOR\abandon NEG abandon.PRS-1SG
I wont ever leave him alone.

Notice the concordant negative in the main clauses of both examples.
6.5
Number names
As is typical of many languages in northern South Asia, Pashto number names show
great complexity and variation in formation of the number names over ten. They include both additive and subtractive forms, as well as two systems of formation, one
based on 10 and one based on 20. The terms in Table 6.38 are based on original fieldwork; to our knowledge these data comprise the most complete picture of Pashto number names collected thus far.
3 These forms were elicited by Michael Marlo in 2010 with native speaker informants resident in the
US.

Number names
6.5.1
133
Cardinal numbers in Pashto
6.5.1.1 Morphology
Number names all end in either stressed // or a consonant and are difficult to sort into
the regular nominal and adjectival classes. Previous descriptions of number name inflection are not comprehensive and contradict each other in places. For example, some
sources report that only
/yaw/ one and
/dwa/ two encode gender and case,
while our data show this to be erroneous. The tables and statements in this section are
a summary of what our data reveal; they hold for both adjectival and nominal uses of
number names. Table 6.31, Table 6.33, Table 6.35 , and Table 6.36 show the optional
inflectional suffixes for numbers one through four in General Pashto, while Table 6.32
and Table 6.34 contrast the Waziri suffixation forms with those of General Pashto.
Direct
Masculine
Feminine
yaw
yaw
yaw
yaw
Oblique
yaw
yaw
yaw
Ablative
Vocative
Table 6.31: GP
/yaw/ one
Inflectional suffixes, while common, are optional on number names, as can be

seen in sentences 6.26 and 6.27, where four takes a feminine plural direct suffix in the
first example but is uninflected in the second. Inflection tends to be more frequent with
/yaw/ one and
/dwa/ two: compare the forms for four and one in sentence
6.28, where both tokens of four are uninflected while one is inflected. (Note these are
nominal, not adjectival, uses.) The number name /yaw/ one takes singular suffixes
and all other number names take plural ones.

134
Masculine
Feminine
Direct
yo
yaw
Oblique
yaw
yaw
Masculine
Feminine
Table 6.32: Waziri /yaw/ one
Direct
dwa
du
dwa
dwe
du
Oblique
dwa
du
dwo
Ablative
Vocative
Table 6.33: GP
Masculine
Feminine
Direct
dwa
dw
Oblique
dw
dw
/dwa/ two
Table 6.34: Waziri /dwa/ two

Number names
Masculine
Feminine
Direct
dre
Oblique
dre
dro
Ablative
Vocative
Table 6.35: GP
/dre/ three
Direct
Masculine
Feminine
alor
alor
alore
Oblique
alor
aloro
Ablative
Vocative
Table 6.36: GP
/alor/ four

135
136
(6.26)
.
kompyuar-
kaw-l-ay
-i
e
computer-M.DIR do.CONT-PST-OPT become.CONT.PRS-PRS.3[SG.M] COMP
lnde alor-e
bansaiz-e
dand-e
sar
ta
below four-PL.F.DIR basic-PL.F.DIR task-PL.F.DIR head to
w-rasaw-i
AOR-deliver-PRS.3[SG.M]
A computer can perform the four basic tasks below.
(6.27)
.
zahn-
alor dand-e
sar
ta -rasaw-
brain-M.DIR four task-PL.F.DIR head to CONT-deliver-PRS.3[SG.M]
The brain performs four tasks.
(6.28)

.
p rawn-
kl ki
p ul-a
hawza-
ki
nha d
in... current-M.OBL year ...in in... all-F.DIR area-F.DIR ...in nine of
poliyo pex-e
sabt
w-e
Polio event-PL.F.DIR registration become.AOR.PST-PTCP.PL.F.DIR
di
e
alor ye
p helmand- alor p
be.CONT.PRS.3PL.F COMP four 3.WK in... Helmand-M four in...
kandahr- aw yaw-a
p farh- walyat- ki
Kandahar-M and one-F.DIR in... Farah-F province-M ...in
da
be.CONT.PRS.3SG.F
So far this year, nine cases of polio have been recorded in the region, of which
four were in Helmand, four were in Kandahar, and one was in Farah.
As in General Pashto, Waziri number names are difficult to categorize into regular
nominal or adjectival classes. The number name /yaw/ one is inflected for both gender and case, while /dwa/ two is inflected only for gender. Other declinable cardinal
number names are /l/ twenty, /sl/ hundred, and /zr/ thousand, which are
declined as masculine nouns as shown in Table 6.37.

Number names
Direct
l twenty
sl hundred
zr thousand
l-ina
saw-a
zr-gina
saw-e
zr-gine
137
sl-gina
Oblique
l-ine
sl-gine
Table 6.37: Waziri plural forms of declinable number names
6.5.1.2 Inventory
The words for two through ten, and all the tens afterward (20, 30, 40, etc.), must simply
be learned. Compound number names are usually constructed as follows:
for numbers 1119, a form of the relevant single number name plus a form of
/las/ ten;
for numbers 2129, a form of the relevant single number plus, rather than
twenty, a different form,
/wit/ twenty;
/l/
for numbers 31 and above, a form of the relevant single number combined phrasally
with
/der/ thirty,
/alwxt/ forty,
/pans/ fifty, and
so on.
Between 11 and 19 and between 21 and 29, the ones part of the compound often undergoes some change. Between 31 and 69, alternate forms of two and three may be used
(so,
/dwa/ two but
/du der/ thirty-two or
/dwa der/ thirtytwo,
/dre/ three but
/dri der/ thirty-three), but other ones do
not change; between 71 and 99,
/pag/ six undergoes a vowel change in compounds; for example,
/pg awy/ seventy-six. The word
/sl/ hundred
has an irregular plural
/swa/ hundreds; above one hundred, number names
are combined without further irregularity.
Variants on this basic system exist. Many speakers of Pashto, instead of (or as an
alternative to)
/alwext/ forty, may use
/dwa le/ two score NE (
or
/dwe li/ two score
SE
). Above 20, multiples of 20 may have this alternate
-score form; some speakers also have half-score forms for multiples of 10, such as
/pg nemi li/ six and a half score (130), and one or another special form
for ninety, either
/en alor nimi li/ four and a half score or
/ls km sl/ ten less [than a] hundred.

138
In further variations of the basic counting system, larger numbers ending in -nine
are often given as, for example,
/yo km panos/ one less [than] fifty
rather than as
/n alwext/ forty-nine. Some speakers have this subtractive form as far back as numbers that end in -seven, going from
/pg
der/ thirty-six to
/dre kam alwxt/ three less [than] forty. Finally, some large number names can be given in terms of which large round number
they exceed, as in
/naha d psa sl/ nine above a hundred for 109
(or even
/at d psa alor nimi sli/ eight above four and
a half score that is, 98). Further research will be required to identify which groups
of Pashto speakers use which counting systems and under what circumstances.
Table 6.38 shows the number names through 20 and some of the variation in larger
number names for General Pashto. It also includes the numerals in Pashto script, previously shown in Table 3.13; notice that although Pashto words are written right to left,
numbers with more than one digit are written from left to right, so
71 and
17.
Some forms of Waziri that contrast with those of General Pashto are given in Section 6.5.1.2.
Table 6.38: GP numerals and number names

Arabic
numeral
Pashto
numeral
Additive and
10-based forms
or
or
or
1
2
3
4
7
8
9
10
11
Subtractive and
20-based forms
yaw one
dwa two
dre three
lr four W
slr E
pinz five
pin SW
p six W
pg E
uw seven
at eight
n nine W
nh E
las ten
ywlas
eleven

Number names

Arabic
numeral
Pashto
numeral
12
13
14
15
18
19
16
17
20
21
29
Additive and
10-based forms
30
31
Subtractive and
20-based forms
dwlas
twelve W
dlas E
duolas SW
dwolas SE
dyrlas
thirteen
wrlas
fourteen
pinzlas
fifteen
pinlas SW
pas sixteen
owlas
seventeen
atlas
eighteen
nnas
nineteen W
nlas E
l twenty
[one] score
y-wit one [and] twenty W

ywi E
nh-wit nine
[and] twenty
n-wit SE,NW
yo km der
one less [than]
thirty
yo km ders
one less [than]
thirty SE
der thirty
ders SE
yaw-der one
[and] thirty

139
140

Arabic
numeral
Pashto
numeral
37
38
39
40
49
88
89
50
60
70
80
Additive and
10-based forms
Subtractive and
20-based forms
w-der seven
[and] thirty
at-der eight
[and] thirty
nh-der nine
[and] thirty
alwext forty
nh-alwext
nine [and] forty
dwa km
alwext two
less [than] forty
yo km alwext
one less [than]
forty
dwa li two
score
yo km panos
one less [than]
fifty
panos fifty
pet sixty
dre li three
score
awy seventy
aty eighty
at-aty eight
[and] eighty
nh-aty nine
[and] eighty
nwi ninety
alor li four
score
dwa km alor
nimi li two
less [than] four
and a half score
yo km alor
nimi li one
less [than] four
and a half score
90
dre km
alwext three
less [than] forty
ywols km
sl eleven less
[than a]
hundred
alor nimi li
four and a half
score

Number names
141

Arabic
numeral
Pashto
numeral
Additive and
10-based forms
Subtractive and
20-based forms
98
at-nwi eight
[and] ninety
99
100
101
110
120
121
129
nh-nwi nine
[and] ninety
las km sl ten
less [than a]
hundred
dwa km sl
two less [than
a] hundred
at d psa
alor nimi li
eight above four
and a half score
yo km sl one
less [than a]
hundred
sl [a]
hundred
yo slu yo one
hundred one
yo d psa sl
one above a
hundred
yo slu las one
hundred ten
las d psa sl
ten above a
hundred
yo slu l one
hundred twenty
yo slu
yaw-wit one
hundred one
[and] twenty
yo slu
nh-wit one
hundred nine
[and] twenty
pg li six
score
yo d psa pg
li one above
six score
yo km yo slu
der one less
[than] thirty and
a hundred

142

Arabic
numeral
Pashto
numeral
Additive and
10-based forms
Subtractive and
20-based forms

130
139
yo sl der one
hundred thirty
yo sl
nh-der one
hundred nine
[and] thirty
199
200
1000
)(
1001
2000
10,000
100,000
yo sl
nh-nwi one
hundred nine
[and] ninety
yo km pg
nimi li one
less [than] six
and a half score
pg nimi li
six and a half
score
yo km yo slu
alwext one
hundred [and]
one less [than]
forty
yo km uw li
one less [than]
seven score
yo km dwa
swa one less
[than] two
hundred
dwa swa two

hundred
(yo) zr (one)
thousand
yo zr yo one
thousand one
yo d psa zr
one above a
thousand
dwa zra two
thousand
las zra ten
thousand
sl zra [a]
hundred
thousand

Number names
143

Arabic
numeral
Pashto
numeral
Additive and
10-based forms

1,000,000
10,000,000
Subtractive and
20-based forms
yo lak one
hundredthousand
las laka ten
hundredthousand
yo kror one
ten-million
sl laka [a]
hundred
hundredthousand
The inventory of Waziri cardinal number names is very close to that of GP dialects
described in Section 6.5.1.2. Forms that differ are listed in Table 6.39.
In Middle dialects as in General Pashto, the number /l/ twenty can be used
to count by scores, as in /dre kam owa la/ three less than seven score [137] or
/pz bondi owa l/ six over seven score [146]. The word /l/, meaning hundred
thousand in General Pashto, is not used to express an exact number; rather, it denotes
some unspecified large number.

144
Number
General Pashto
1
7
8
18
19
40
70
Waziri
yaw one
yo
uw seven
owa
at eight
wota, otan
atlas eighteen
wotalas
nnas nineteen W
ninas
alwext forty
alwet
awy seventy
avia
Table 6.39: Waziri number names that differ from GP forms
6.5.2
Ordinal numbers in General Pashto and Waziri
According to Tegey & Robson (1996: 83), there is no conventional way to express ordinal numbers using numerals. Ordinal number names, however, are formed by adding
the suffix
/-m/ ( /-m/ in the Western dialect) to the cardinal number name, as
in
/alr/ four:
/alorm/ fourth. (Penzl 1955: 76.2creports in addition
the allomorphs /ym/ and /hm/ f.) Unlike most cardinals, ordinals inflect for number
and gender, as well as case. They decline according to the special vowel-stem alternation paradigm in Class I, as discussed in Section 6.2.1.1.2 and shown in Table 6.40 for
/lasm/ tenth.
If the cardinal number name ends in a vowel, this vowel is dropped before the
suffix is added
/at/ eight:
/atm/ eighthbut the vowels on a few number
names are not dropped; instead, an epenthetic glide or sometimes an /h/ is added:
/dwa/ two:
/dwaym, dwahm/ second
/dre/ three:
/dreym, drehm/ third
/n/ nine:
/nm/ ninth;
/nhm/ ninth (but
/nh/ nine)
/nm/,
/nhm/ ninth
/awy/ seventy: /awyym/ seventieth

/nwi/ ninety: /nwiym/ ninetieth
The ordinal first is entirely irregular; it may appear as

/wumby/,
/lumy/, or the Arabic
/awl/. Each of these declines as a regular member of Class
IIIa (in the case of
/wumby/ and
/lumy/) or Class I (in the case of
/awl/).

Number names
Masculine
Singular
Direct
lasm
Feminine
Plural
lasm E
Singular
lasma
Plural
lasme E
lasm W
lasmi W
Oblique
lasmo E
lasmo W
lasme E
lasmo E
lasmo W
lasmi W
Ablative
lasma
Vocative
Table 6.40: GP Class I:
/lasm/ tenth

145
146
Ordinal numbers in Waziri are formed as in General Pashto, with a few exceptions.
As in Pashto, the Waziri ordinals for first, second, and third show irregular forms, as
does ninth; these are shown in Table 6.41.
Masculine
Feminine
awwal
awwala
dwayam
dwayama
dweyam
dweyama
dwawam
dwawama
third
dreyam
dreyama
ninth
nem
nemma
first
second
Table 6.41: Waziri irregular ordinal number names
6.5.3
Reduplication of number names
The full reduplication of number names denotes iteration of individuals or groups (see
Babrakzai 1999: 48).
(6.29)
.
grd-n
dre
dre
r-l
student-PL.M.ANIM.DIR three three come.AOR.PST-PST.3PL.M
The students came in threes. (NW)
(6.30)
.
za
har
waxt pin pin kalam-n
1SG.STR.DIR every time five
five
pen-PL.M.ANIM.DIR
-grzaw-m
CONT-carry-1SG
I always carry five pens. (SW)

Interrogative adjectives
6.6
147
Interrogative adjectives
The interrogative adjectives that occur in Pashto are shown in Table 6.42. They do not
inflect for case or number. Only the first two forms show gender concord, and
/kum/ which? does so optionally.
Interrogative adjectives of Waziri are described in Table 6.43.
GP
Translation
kum (masculine); kum or kum (feminine)

owm (masculine) owm (feminine)

tso
umra, omra
which?
which [number]?
what?
how many?
how much?
ona
Table 6.42: GP interrogative adjectives
Waziri
Translation
kim (masculine); kim or kima (feminine)
which?
owm, sowm (masculine) owm, sowm (feminine)
which [number]?
tso, so
how many?
ura, sura
how much?
Table 6.43: Waziri interrogative adjectives
/kum/ which? and

/sowm/ which [number]?. The answer to a /kum/ which?
Pashto has two words corresponding to English which?:
/owm/,
question would focus on some attribute (e.g., the brown one), while the answer to a
/owm/, /sowm/ which [number]? question would include an ordinal num-
ber (e.g., the fifth one). The interrogative
/kum/ which? is optionally invariant

148
with respect to gender or may take the feminine form

/kum/ which? (feminine), while
/owm/, /sowm/ which [number]? has the feminine form
/owm/, /sowm/ which [number]? (feminine).
Some examples of their use are shown in sentences 6.31 through 6.35.
(6.31)

kum-
sp-ay
de
w-lid-
which-M.DIR dog-M.DIR 2.WK AOR-see.PST-PST.3SG.M
Which dog did you see? (NW)
(6.32)

sowm-
kas-
de
pkr day
which-M.DIR [number] person-M.DIR 2.WK need be.CONT.PRS.3SG.M
Which [number] person do you need? (NW)
(6.33)
bal-
axt
w-i
INSTR what catastrophe-F.OBL affected become.AOR.PST-2SG
What catastrophe happened to you? (SW)
Pashto interrogative adjectives distinguish between count nouns and mass nouns.
The former is
/tso/, /so/ how many?. The latter is
/tsumra/, /sumra/ how
much?.
(6.34)

so
sp-i
de
w-lid-l
how.many dog-PL.M.DIR 2.WK AOR-see.PST-PST.3PL.M
How many dogs did you see? (NW)
(6.35)

sumra
wrij-e
de
w-xwa-e
how.much rice-PL.F.DIR 2.WK AOR-eat.PST-PST.3PL.F
How much rice did you eat? (NW)

Inflection of conjoined adjectives
6.7
149
Inflection of conjoined adjectives
In the present aorist form of denominal verbs based on an adjectival root, the adjectival
portion may be inflected in various ways when it governs conjoined objects of different
genders. The adjective may be declined to reflect the default value of masculine plural,
as seen in example 6.36, or it may be declined to agree with only the last item of the
set, as in example 6.37.
(6.36)

.
rwk-i
-wy-
e
d kuna-
official-PL.M.DIR CONT-tell.PRS-PRS.3[PL.M] COMP of Kunar-M.OBL
walyat-
rwk-i
b
yawdzy
province-M.OBL official-PL.M.OBL WOULD together
w-io
marawr-o
oruo
t
become.AOR.PST-PTCP.PL.M.OBL offended-PL.M.OBL brothers.M.OBL to
xwandi wand-
aw d kr-
kaw-l-o
safe
life-M.DIR and of work-M.DIR do-INF-PL.M.OBL
sntiy-we
barbr-
k-i
facility-PL.F.DIR prepared-PL.M.DIR do.AOR-PRS.3[PL.M]
Officials say that Kunar officials will provide the reunited offended brothers
with a safe life and facilities for working.

.

150
(6.37)
...
.
arb-o
hewd-uno
t pkr
day
west-PL.M.OBL country-PL.M.OBL to necessary be.CONT.PRS.3SG.M
e
... hawi
t de
talim-
d astogn-e
COMP ... 3PL.STR.OBL to NEC education-M.DIR of residence-F.OBL
y-
d k-l-o
l
pr-a
sahi
place-M.DIR of drink-INF-PL.M.OBL from sake-M.ABL healthy
oba-
aw d saht-
sntiy-we
water-F.DIR and of health-M.OBL facility-PL.F.DIR
barbr-e
k-i
prepared-PL.F.DIR do.AOR-PRS.3[PL.M]
Western nations need to provide them with education, a place of residence,
clean drinking water, and health facilities.
6.8
Derivation of adjectives
Pashto has several derivational suffixes and two prefixes that can be used to derive adjectives from nouns or verbs. They can affix to either native or borrowed words, as seen
in the examples below. Adjectives can also form compounds, usually with nouns, to
derive a new adjective. Descriptions and examples of all of these derived forms follow.
6.8.1 Derivational suffixes

Adjectives formed by the addition of suffixes vary as to which declension class they
belong to. The examples below are arranged by class.
6.8.1.1 Some Class I derivational suffixes
/man/
/stundza/ problem /stundzman/ troublesome, problematic,

difficult
/wk/ power /wkmn/ powerful

...
.

151
/qdar/ quantity; honor, merit /qadarmn/ esteemed

/iz/
/sla/ peace /slayiz/ peaceful
/pohna/ knowledge; education /pohniz/ academic
/in/
This suffix applies most often to nouns denoting a material.
/pam/ wool /pamn/ woolen

/zar/ precious metal; gold /zarn/ golden; gilded
/m/ /m/
E
This suffix forms ordinal number names from cardinals. See Section 6.5.2 for more
detail.
/pinz/ five /pinzm/ fifth

/jn/
/zahr/ poison /zahrjn/ poisonous
/am/ sorrow /amjn/ sad
/dr/
/b/ water /bdr/ watery
/sarmy/ capital /sarmyadr/ wealthy
/(a)war/
/zor/ strength, force /zorawr/ strong
/xwand/ taste /xwandawr/ tasty
/xwul/ mouth; lips /xwulawr/ eloquent; sharp-tongued
/nk/
/xatr/ [Arabic] danger; risk /xatarnk/ dangerous
/himmat/ [Arabic] magnanimity; mercy /himmatnk/ magnanimous; noble
/wl/
/wasl/ weapon /waslawl/ armed

152 Adjectives and Other Noun Modifiers
6.8.1.2 Some Class IIIa derivational suffixes
/(a)ny/
This suffix is usually affixed to words having to do with time or location.
/ba/ haste; urgency /biny/ urgent; emergency [ADJ]

/kl/ year /klany/ annual
/y/
This suffix is usually affixed to place names to describe a denizen of that place.
/jpn/ Japan /jpny/ Japanese

6.8.1.3 Some Class IV (non-declining) derivational suffixes
//
This suffix is added to nounsoften loanwords, as in the first example belowor

names of countries.
/dm/ permanence [Arabic] /dim/ permanent

/ne/ intoxication /neay/ addictive
/amrik/ America /amrik/ American
/wl/
/pnga/ wealth /pngwl/ wealthy
6.8.2 Negators
The first of these negators are prefixes.
/be/ without; -less

This prefix, from Persian, is affixed to nouns; the resultant form is an adjective often translatable into a phrase governed by without or into an English adjective with
the suffix -less.
/be/ is generally, but not always, written as a separate word,
reflecting its origins as an adposition (see Section 9.3.3 for a description and some
examples of this usage); however, the two morphemes function as a single word.
Adjectives formed in this way can fall in either Class I or Class IV. With the addition
of the
/i/ suffix, these derived adjectives can further form Class IIIa nouns (see
Section 5.4.1).
/b/ honor /beb/ shameless; dishonored

153
/awld/ [Arabic] child /beawlda/ childless

/kor/ house /bekra/ homeless
/ak/ doubt /beaka/ irrefutable
/n/ not; un-

This prefix attaches to adjectives and negates them; adjectives thus derived remain
in the same declension class.
/raw/ permitted; acceptable /nraw/ not allowed; improper

/dostn/ friendly /ndostn/ unfriendly
The postposition
/zidi/ against, anti- (see Section 9.4.4) can govern an
adpositional phrase that can be used attributively or predicatively to modify nouns:
(6.38)
.
d
dwr-a
islmi zidi
padid-e
this.DIR both-PL.DIR Islamic against phenomenon-PL.F.DIR
di
be.CONT.PRS.3PL.F
These events are both contrary to Islam.
6.8.3 Compound adjectives

Adjective and noun pairs can combine into a single compound adjective; the resulting
form usually inflects as a Class IIIb adjective (Section 6.2.1.3.2). The order of the elements in the compound can be either nounadjective or adjectivenoun, and they
may be written separately.
/plr/ father + /m/ dead
/plrmay/ fatherless; orphaned
(Cf.
/beplra/ fatherless, which uses the negative prefix /be/.)

/spin/ white +
/mx/ face
honest; innocent
/spinmxay/ white-faced;
6.8.4 Reduplication of adjectives

Full reduplication of adjectives in Pashto may quantify over events rather than (or in
addition to; see Babrakzai 1999: 48) intensifying the quality denoted.

154
(6.39)
.
m
xwg-
xwg-
yr-n
1SG.STR.OBL sweet-PL.M.DIR sweet-PL.M.DIR friend-PL.M.ANIM.DIR
-lar-l
CONT-have-PST.3PL.M
I had many good friends. (NW)
To intensify an adjective, Pashto also uses

(6.40)
/er/ much.
.
m
er-
xwg-
yr-n
1SG.STR.OBL much-PL.M.DIR sweet-PL.M.DIR friend-PL.M.ANIM.DIR
-lar-l
CONT-have-PST.3PL.M
I had very good friends. (NW)
6.9
Usage
6.9.1
Attributive and predicative adjectives
Adjectives may be used attributively or predicatively. Predicative adjectives are always

used in intransitive constructions, usually with a form of the verb to be, so they always
appear in the direct case form; but they do agree in gender and number with the subject
of the intransitive construction in which they appear.
(6.41)
.
mr-n
wrua
me
rl-l
older-PL.M.DIR brothers.M.DIR 1SG.WK come.AOR.PST-PST.3PL.M
My older brothers arrived.
(6.42)
.
pohantun-
nde dy
university-M.DIR near be.CONT.PRS.3SG.M
The university is nearby. (W)

Usage
(6.43)
155
.
a-
way-i
kar-e
ka
k-a
big-M.OBL bull-M.OBL cart-F.DIR pulled do.AOR-PST.3SG.F
The big bull pulled the cart.
(6.44)
.
way-ay
a-
day
bull-M.DIR big-M.DIR be.CONT.PRS.3SG.M
The bull is big.
(6.45)
.
w-
a-a
da
cow-F.DIR big-F.DIR be.CONT.PRS.3SG.F
The cow is big.
6.9.2
Zero-derivation of nouns from adjectives
Pashto adjectives may be used as if they were nouns. When this occurs the adjective
may be declined normally, as if there were a noun present; or, reflecting a gradual nominalization of such an adjective by speakers, it may be declined as if it were a noun, in
which event it will take the suffixes of the noun class most closely resembling the adjective class to which it originally belonged. For example, Class I adjectives used nominally may take the animate plural suffixes
/n/ (masc.dir.),
/ne/ (fem.dir.),
/no/ (obl./abl./voc.), when they denote animates:

(6.46) .
kum
w-we
de
w-xist-l-e
a-a
which cow-PL.F.DIR 2.WK AOR-buy.PST-PST-PST.3PL.F big-F.DIR
me
w-xist-l-a
1SG.WK AOR-buy.PST-PST-PST.3SG.F
Which cows did you buy? I bought a big [one].
(6.47)
.
ha
a-e
kar-i
ka
k-a
this.OBL big-F.OBL cart-F.DIR pulled do.AOR-PST.3SG.F
This big [one] pulled the cart.

156 Adjectives and Other Noun Modifiers
Adjectives in the vocative case form can be used on their own, without nouns, as
noted above:
/nda/ blind [one]! When used in a noun phrase, vocative adjectives are uninflected, and the nouns take the vocative form:
/und saya/
blind man!
6.9.3
Comparatives and superlatives
Adjectives in Pashto do not have derived comparative or superlative forms. Comparison is accomplished with the use of adpositional phrases such as
/l ... na/,
/d ... na/,
/d ... exa/, or /tr/ up to, from, than. The superlative uses the phrase from/of all, formed by using one of the comparative phrases
and adding
/olo/ all or
/ol/ whole. Both are used with the ordinary predicative form of the adjective. See Section 9.3.5 and Section 9.5.2.1 for more discussion
of comparative and superlative adpositional phrases.
...
...
(6.48)
...
.
l
ha
na
er-
st-ay
melm-a
from... that.OBL ...from more-M.DIR tired-M.DIR guest-M.DIR
rl-o
come.AOR.PST-PST.3SG.M
The guest more tired than him arrived.
(6.49)
.
l
ol-o
na
er-
st-ay
melm-a
from... all-PL.M.OBL ...from more-M.DIR tired-M.DIR guest-M.DIR
rl-o
come.AOR.PST-PST.3SG.M
The most tired guest of all arrived.
6.9.4
Adjectives as adverbs
Sometimes adjectives are used verbal or sentential modifiers. When used adverbially,
however, they still show concord with the absolutive argument. See Section 10.2.7 for
more discussion and some examples.
7 There are two special comparative adjectives in Pashto, both of which are Persian borrowings.
These are
/behtar/ better and
/batar/ worse.

Anne Boyle David
Pronouns
7.1 Overview
In all varieties, Pashto pronouns generally inflect for person, gender, number, and
case; only the direct and oblique cases are distinguished. The cases are used slightly
differently in pronouns than in nouns and adjectives: unlike nouns, pronominal direct
objects take the oblique, not the direct case form.
The pronouns of the Middle dialects behave similarly to those of General Pashto,
but differ somewhat in form. Tables of Middle dialect forms, where they are known,
follow the corresponding GP tables. Unless otherwise indicated in the table title or
next to the form itself, the forms below can be assumed to be common to both Waziri
and Dzadrani.
Pashto has two sets of personal pronouns, which we term strong and weak, following Tegey & Robson (1996: 65ff.). Strong pronouns are not restricted in their occurrence, while weak pronouns may only occur in functions where they do not agree with
the verb. (See Section 7.3 for more details.)
7.2 Strong personal pronouns

7.2.1 Forms in General Pashto and Middle dialects
Called simply personal pronouns by Penzl (1955), Shafeev (1964), and Heston (1992),
strong personal pronouns distinguish between direct and oblique case in the singular,
but not in the plural. As in many languages, the plural second person forms are also
used for formal second-person address. Only the third person singular forms distinguish gender. In the singular first and second persons, the strong personal pronouns
appear in the oblique case in the direct object of present tense sentences, unlike nouns,
which appear in the direct case in this position.
An additional pronoun,
/ha/, can be used with distal third person reference.
It is related to the medial demonstratives described in Section 7.5, but unlike them it
has final stress.
/ha/ does not inflect in either gender in the singular direct, and
these singular forms are also the same in the masculine singular oblique. Feminine
singular oblique, plural direct, and plural oblique each have their own forms.
1 Penzl (1955) and Heston (1992) analyze personal pronouns as only occurring in the first and
second persons, with the function of third person personal pronouns being filled by a subset of the
demonstratives.

158 Pronouns
1st
2nd
Singular
Plural
Direct
tse E
tsi W
mug E
mu W
Plural
mung E
mun W
Oblique
Singular
tsu
tso
mung E
mun W
Table 7.1: GP strong pronouns, 1st and 2nd person
1st
Singular
Direct
Oblique
mo
2nd
Plural
Singular
mi
mi(a) DZA
ts(e) E
to
Table 7.2: Middle dialect strong pronouns, 1st and 2nd person
Singular
Masculine
Direct
day
Oblique
Plural
Feminine
Plural
duy
do
de
Table 7.3: GP strong pronouns, 3rd person

Strong personal pronouns
Singular
Masculine
Plural
Feminine
Direct
day
do
Oblique
di
de
dy
derde WAZ
doy DZA
Table 7.4: Middle dialect strong pronouns, 3rd person
Singular
Masculine
Direct
Oblique
Feminine
ha
ha
h
a
a
Plural
hay
ay
ha
a
hay
ay
ha
a
Table 7.5: Distal 3rd person pronoun
/ha/

159
160
Pronouns
Another pronoun,
/da/, inflects just like
/ha/. It appears to connote
something about information status; for example, perhaps the speaker cannot remember the name of the person or thing intended, or wishes to conceal it. Forms with
/da/ may also serve as discourse-anaphoric elements, as in 7.1 and 7.2:
(7.1)
...
da
mi
-way-l
this.DIR 1SG.WK CONT-tell.PST-PST.PL.M
I was saying...
In 7.1, the speaker is not really focusing on what he was going to say. In contrast,
in 7.2, the speaker is communicating specifically about what he was going to say:
(7.2)
.
ha
mi
-way-l
that.DIR 1SG.WK CONT-tell.PST-PST.PL.M
That is what I was going to say.
As mentioned, demonstratives and strong pronouns have many overlapping forms.

For forms that are segmentally identical we have said that the strong pronouns are
stressed on the last syllable, while the demonstratives are stressed on the first syllable.
Penzl (1955) and Heston (1992) provide an additional perspective on this stress alternation. Forms with final stress can be said to be anaphoric. In contrast, forms with initial
stress can be said to be anticipatory, emphatic, or exophoric.
Examples 7.3 and 7.4 illustrate final-stressed anaphoric pronouns:
(7.3)

pas l
ha-
after from that-M.OBL
after that
(7.4)

w ha-
y-
t
to... that-M.OBL place-M.OBL ...to
to that place
In contrast, consider 7.40 and 7.41, which show initial-stress indexical usage: they
introduce something new.

161
7.2.2 Usage
Pashto is known as a pro-drop language. Since Pashto verbs show person agreement,
strong pronouns can carry redundant information, and may therefore be omitted when
they agree with the verb. For example, either 7.5, with an explicit pronoun, or 7.6, without one, is correct; context will usually determine whether or not to omit the pronoun.
Including the pronoun might be done when starting a conversation or otherwise introducing new information, or for emphasis, as in 7.7:
(7.5)
.
z amrikyi ym
1SG American be.CONT.PRS.1SG
I'm American.
(7.6)
.
amrikyi ym
American be.CONT.PRS.1SG
I'm American.
(7.7)
.
z
w-ay
n
ym
xu
1SG.STR.DIR hungry-M.DIR NEG be.CONT.PRS.1SG but
day
w-ay
dy
aw
3SG.M.STR.DIR hungry-M.DIR be.CONT.PRS.3SG.M and
d
t-y
d
3SG.F.STR.DIR thirsty-F.DIR be.CONT.PRS.3SG.F
I'm not hungry, but he is hungry and she is thirsty. (SW)
In accordance with split ergativity, the Pashto verb agrees with the subject in the
present tense, and with the direct object or intransitive subject in past tense sentences;
see Section 5.1.3.5 and Chapter 8.
Strong pronouns distinguish direct and oblique case forms. As with nouns, direct
case forms are used for subjects in present tense sentences, as shown in 7.5, and for
direct objects in past tense sentences:
(7.8)
.
z
l
awk-y
jg-d-m
1SG.STR.DIR from chair-F.OBL tall-become.CONT.PST-1SG
I was getting up from the chair.

162
Pronouns
In past tense transitive sentences, the subject takes the oblique case form and the
direct object takes the direct case form:
(7.9)
.
t
z
w-lid-m
2SG.STR.OBL 1SG.STR.DIR AOR-see.PST-1SG
You saw me.

Note that the direct object pronoun, which is the trigger of agreement, can be omitted from sentence 7.10:
(7.10)
.
t
w-lid-m
2SG.STR.OBL AOR-see.PST-1SG
You saw me.

But the subject argument cannot, as shown by the ungrammatical example 7.11:
(7.11)
.*
z
w-lid-m
1SG.STR.DIR AOR-see.PST-1SG
You saw me.

The oblique case form of the first and second persons in the singular is also used
for the direct object in present tense sentences. Note that this use of the oblique case
for a direct object is particular to these strong personal pronouns and does not occur
in nouns or adjectives, where direct objects take direct case suffixes:
(7.12)
.
t
-win-m
2SG.STR.OBL CONT-see.PRS-1SG
I see you. (SW)
(7.13)
.
m
-wraw-
1SG.STR.OBL CONT-distress-2SG
You disturb me. (SW)

The third person strong personal pronouns take the direct case form when serving
as accusative arguments in present tense sentences. This reflects the normal behavior
of the direct case in Pashto:

(7.14)
163
.
t
day
-win-
2SG.STR.DIR 3SG.M.STR.DIR CONT-see.PRS-2SG
You see him.
7.2.3 Strong possessive pronouns

There is a paradigm of strong personal pronouns that serve genitive functions. These
forms exist only for the first and second person and appear to derive historically from
the preposition /d/ followed by the oblique forms of the pronouns (Babrakzai, 1999:
30). In most dialects, the /d/ is lenited to a fricative and assimilated in the first and
second persons, so that
/s/ appears before /t/ and /z/ appears before /m/. In
the Eastern dialects (or, according to Tegey & Robson 1996: 70, all dialects but their
Central or Kabul group), these forms may appear unreduced with a /di/ or /d/. Since
there is no third person form, strong possessive pronouns do not distinguish gender.
These forms may appear in any position that would admit the corresponding phrase
with /d/, including as the object of what otherwise would be a circumposition containing /d/ (see 8.22 for an example).
(7.15)
.
zm
mor-
birun
wl-
dy
1SG.STR.POSS car-M.DIR outside standing-M.DIR be.CONT.PRS.3SG.M
My car is standing outside. (SW)
(7.16)

st
kor-
erta dy
2SG.STR.POSS house-M.DIR where be.CONT.PRS.3SG.M
Where is your home? (SW)
Compare 7.17 with the weak pronoun in 7.28; although either a weak or a strong
pronoun is possible, the strong form can be used for emphasis while the weak form
cannot.
(7.17)
.
d
zm
kitb-
dy
this.DIR 1SG.STR.POSS book-M.DIR be.CONT.PRS.3SG.M
This is my book. (SW)
An alternative way of expressing possession with strong pronouns (and the only
way, in some dialects) is to use the construction /d/ + Strong Pronoun, as in 7.18.
See Section 9.3.1.1 for more discussion.

164
Pronouns
1st
Singular
Plural
zm
zmung E
zmun W
zmug E
zmu W
zmung E
2nd
st
stse E
stsi W
stsu E
stso W
Table 7.6: Possessive pronouns
(7.18)

d de
num-
dy
of 3SG.F.STR.OBL name-M.OBL what be.CONT.PRS.3SG.M
What is her name? (SW)
7.3 Weak personal pronouns

7.3.1 Forms
The weak personal pronouns are also called uninflected pronominal particles (Penzl,
1955: 87) and enclitic pronominal particles (Heston, 1992: 1574). They are unstressed
pronouns that do not inflect for case and cannot govern agreement with the verb, a
constraint that restricts where they may occur (see Section 7.3.2 for more discussion
and examples). Note that the third person uses the same form for singular and plural,
and the first and second person plural each use a single form.

Weak personal pronouns
1st
Singular
Plural
me E
mo E
mu W
mi W
am W
2nd
de E
di W
3rd
ye
Table 7.7: GP weak pronouns
Singular
Plural
1st
me DZA
be DZA
mi WAZ
()m DZA
2nd
de DZA
di WAZ
3rd
(y)e
Table 7.8: Middle dialect weak pronouns

165
166
Pronouns
7.3.2 Usage
Weak pronouns may not appear in positions in which they would agree with the verb.
From this fact it follows that (1) they never occur with intransitive verbs, and (2) with
transitive verbs, they only occur in an accusative role in the present tense and an ergative role in the past. Thus they do not occur in either the nominative or absolutive slot.
Table 7.9 summarizes the positions in which weak personal pronouns may occur or
not; this pattern parallels the case-marking pattern exhibited by strong pronouns, as
outlined by Table 11.6. Sentences in Section 7.3.2.1 (some of which come from Tegey &
Robson 1996) illustrate these restrictions.
Non-past tenses
Transitive Subject
DOES NOT OCCUR
Intransitive Subject
Direct Object
Past tenses
MAY OCCUR
DOES NOT OCCUR

MAY OCCUR
Table 7.9: Distribution pattern for weak pronouns
With the above occurrence restrictions, weak pronouns are used for subjects, direct objects, and (without further marking) possessive determiners, but not as objects
of adpositions, and they do not inflect for case. In contrast with nouns, which will be
in the direct case when the object of a present tense sentence and in the oblique case
when the subject of a past tense transitive sentence, the weak pronouns will have the
same form in these two positions.
Weak pronouns are second-position clitics - see Section 11.2.3.2 and Section 11.3.5.1
for discussion. Section 11.3.5.1 also gives examples of various positions of weak pronouns in a clause.
7.3.2.1 Occurrence restrictions

The example in 7.19 shows that a weak personal pronoun may express an accusative
argument in the present tense, but the unacceptable sentences in 7.20 and 7.21 shows
that it may not be in the nominative slot.
2 Roberts (2001a: 127153) offers a different analysis.

Weak personal pronouns
(7.19)
167

wali me
ma-aw-
why 1SG.WK kiss-do.CONT-PRS.3[SG.M]
Why is he kissing me? (NW)
(7.20)
.*
ye
ma-aw-
mi
3.WK kiss-do.CONT-PRS.3[SG.M] 1SG.WK
He is kissing me.
(7.21)
.*
nn
ye
-g-g-i
today 3.WK CONT-dance-PRS-PRS.3[SG.M]
Today he is dancing. (NW)
The sentence in 7.22 shows the acceptability of a weak pronoun as a subject in the
past tense:
(7.22)
.
ma-aw-l-m
ye
kiss-do.CONT-PST-1SG 3.WK
He was kissing me.
On the other hand, the unacceptable sentences in 7.23 and 7.24 show that a weak
personal pronoun may not express an intransitive subject or a direct object:
(7.23)
.*
parun
mi
ma-aw-l-m
ye
yesterday 1SG.WK kiss-do.CONT-PST-1SG 3.WK
Yesterday he was kissing me. (SW)
(7.24)
.*
parun
ye
-g-d-
yesterday 3.WK CONT-dance-PST-PST.3SG.M
Yesterday he was dancing. (SW)
Published sources (Tegey & Robson, 1996: 156) and our research indicate that
weak pronouns cannot be the objects of adpositions. Example 7.25 shows a phrase
where the weak pronoun is simply omitted. Example 7.26, which is unacceptable, and

168
Pronouns
7.27, which is acceptable, show that the weak pronoun cannot appear as the object of
an adposition.
(7.25)
.
tr
pori
wl-m
up.to... ...up.to go.AOR.PST-1SG
I went up to it. (SW)
(7.26)
.*
pr di
-xej-m
on 2.WK CONT-step.PRS-1SG
I step on you. (SW)
(7.27)
.
pr t
-xej-m
on 2SG.STR.OBL CONT-step.PRS-1SG
I step on you. (SW)
7.3.2.2 Possessive constructions

Weak pronouns are also used in possessive constructions (except in conditions of coreference; see Section 7.9), so long as the weak pronouns do not occur in sentence-initial
position:
(7.28)
.
d
mi
kitb-
dy
this.DIR 1SG.WK book-M.DIR be.CONT.PRS.3SG.M
That is my book. (SW)
(7.29)
.
zuy-
mi
-g--i
son-M.DIR 1SG.WK CONT-dance-PRS-PRS.3[SG.M]
My son is dancing. (SW)
In possessive constructions with weak pronouns, the pronouns are sometimes

written attached to the word they follow, and the /y/ in
/ye/ may be elided in pro-
nunciation (Tegey & Robson, 1996):

Deictoids:
(7.30)
/r/, /dr/, and /wr/
169
kitb-
e
book-M.DIR 3.WK
his book
This pronunciation is in fact standard in the spoken dialects of the Northeast, and
before recent reforms in orthography, the pronoun was regularly spelled with a hamza
instead of a ye; in fact, it still is by some speakers. Furthermore, many speakers when
asked for the pronoun in isolation will offer a spelling pronunciation based on the
hamza, pronouncing it with a glottal stop: [e].
Possessive constructions are also formed with strong personal pronouns, as discussed in Section 7.2.3.
7.4 Deictoids:
/r/, /dr/, and /wr/
Pashto has three sets of deictic morphemes that closely resemble each other formally
and semantically, to the extent that most authors classify these forms under one rubric.
They are variously called pronominal prefixes (Penzl, 1955: 8788), directive pronouns
(Shafeev 1964: 33 and Babrakzai 1999: 33), directional particles (Lorenz 1982: 66
Richtungspartikelsand Skjrv 1989: 393), independent pronominal particles (Heston,
1992: 1574) and verbal clitics (Roberts, 2000: 105ff). In addition to being homophones
or near-homophones, these sets of forms share two other qualities: first, they encode
either personal or directional deixis; and second, they are bound to some extent, either as clitics or as prefixes. Some authors specifically refer to at least some of them as
proclitics (Roberts 2000: 106; Pate 2012: 17, 19); however, more research is required
before definitive statements of their morphological status can be made.
In recognition of the fact that these morphemes are so frequently and so easily
conflated (and also of their probable diachronic relationship), we refer to them with
the umbrella term deictoids, which we use to signify that these forms can be either
person-deictic or spatial-deictic. Then adapting two different, binary distinctions from
Tegey (1977) and Pate (2012) respectively, we divide them into three types, which we
describe in the following sections.
Both Tegey (1977: 105ff.) and Penzl (1955: 87) report two forms for the second and
third person:
/dr, dar/ you (sg/pl), and
/wr, war/ him/her/it/them. Tegey
specifies that the forms in are what he calls deictic preverbs (corresponding to, we
believe, both our oblique pronominal clitics and our directional verbal clitics). Those
in a are what he (and we) call the deictic prefixes. Because the /a distinction only
holds for stressed vowels (and two of the three types of deictoids never bear stress),

170
Pronouns
and because most descriptions do not mention these different forms for the deictoids,
we cannot be sure how real or how general this vowel variation is.
7.4.1 Oblique pronominal clitics
As oblique pronominal clitics, the forms /r/ me/us,

/dr/ you (sg/pl), and
/wr/ him/her/it/them occur as objects of postpositions in place of strong pronouns
or noun phrases. They distinguish person, but not number or gender (and thus are
glossed only by a person numeral1, 2, or 3). In this role, Tegey (1977) considers them
to be a type of weak personal pronoun and sometimes refers to them as weak oblique
pronouns or (see also Pate 2012) oblique clitic pronouns. They cannot take stress, and
they occur only with postpositionsnot with prepositions or circumpositions:
(7.31)
.
asad-
peawar-
t r sra
-
Asad-M.DIR Peshawar-M.OBL to 1 COMIT go.CONT.PRS-PRS.3[SG.M]
Asad is going to Peshawar with me. (SW)
(7.32)
.
kitb-
mi
dr na
w-xist-
book-M.DIR 1SG.WK 2
from AOR-take.PST-PST.3SG.M
I took the book from you. (SW)
(7.33)
.
kitb-
mi
wr bndi i-y
book-M.DIR 1SG.WK 3
on
CONT\put.PST-PTCP.M.DIR
dy
be.CONT.PRS.3SG.M
I put the book on it. (SW)
These sorts of adpositional phrases almost always directly cliticize to the verb. If
the postposition is monosyllabic, the adpositional phrase bears no stress, but if it is
disyllabic and the phrase is in construction with unstressed forms of the copula, the
second syllable of the postposition will be stressed:
(7.34)
.
r sar da
1 with be.CONT.PRS.3SG.F
It's with me [lit. I have it].

Deictoids:
/r/, /dr/, and /wr/
Person
Form
1st
171
2nd
dr
3rd
wr
wur E
Table 7.10: Oblique pronominal clitics
7.4.2 Directional verbal clitics

Directional verbal clitics can occur with a variety of verbs, although usually ones that
indicate movement (see Section 8.2.4.3) or transport/transfer of an object, often with
a locative goal of here (near me), there (near you), or there (yonder; near him, her, or
them). They never receive stress: if the verb they are in construction with expresses the
aorist aspect, the aorist is encoded with the /w/ prefix. This is the chief difference
between directional verbal clitics and deictic prefixes.
(7.35)
.
z
ye
r
-w-m
1SG.STR.DIR 3.WK 1DVC CONT-want.PRS-1SG
I send for him.
(7.36)
.
k r-e
za
b
album-
dr-kr
if come.AOR.PRS-2SG 1SG.STR.DIR WOULD album-M.DIR 2DVC-clear
k-m
do.AOR-1SG
If you come I will show you the album. (SW)
The following sentence, from Tegey (1977: 46), illustrates the functional difference
between oblique pronominal clitics and directional verbal clitics. In it,
/wr/ is in

172
Pronouns
the role of the former, and /r/ the latter. Note that /wr/ unambiguously denotes
a person, and /r/ denotes a location that is indexed deictically to a person.
(7.37)
xual-
yaw topak
wr ta ra-w-leg-
Khoshal-M.DIR one gun-M.DIR 3
to 1DVC-AOR-send.PST-PST.3SG
Khoshal sent him a gun where I am [lit. here/to me].
7.4.3 Deictic prefixes

Deictic prefixes also occur with verbs, but only the four verbs or verb stems in the list
below. Furthermore, they behave like bound morphemes with respect to their verbs,
rather than like clitics: they take the stress that encodes aorist forms, and only clitics
and negative particles may intervene between them and the verb stem.
/wl/ to carry;
for example, /r-wl/ to bring here/to me
/tll/ to go;
for example, /dar-tll/ to go there/to you
/kawl/ to make; to do;
for example, /war-kawl/ to give to him
/-wast/;
for example, /r-wastl/ to transport here/to me
These forms usually express a deictic goal. See Section 8.2.4.3 for more about them.
7.5 Demonstratives
As described in Section 6.3.1, there is significant formal overlap between demonstrative
pronouns and demonstrative determiners in Pashto, with the only difference being
in stress placement: demonstrative pronouns have final stress. They are covered in
this section; Section 6.3.1 contains examples of demonstrative determiners. To express
the proximal demonstrative, there are two forms, one based on /d/, and the other
based on
/da/. /d/ does not inflect for gender or number, but does differ by
case, as illustrated in Table 7.11, reproduced from Table 6.27 in Section 6.3.1.
The following examples show the use of these forms as a demonstrative pronoun
in the direct and oblique cases, respectively:

Demonstratives
173
Direct
Oblique
de
Table 7.11: GP proximal demonstrative
/d/
Direct
(d)
Oblique
de
Table 7.12: Middle dialect proximal demonstrative
(7.38)
/d/
.
d
dy
this.DIR nice be.CONT.PRS.3SG.M
This is nice.
(7.39)

pas l
de
after from this.OBL
after this
The other proximal demonstrative,
/da/, does not have distinct forms showing gender or number in the direct case. In the oblique case, there is a difference
between the masculine and feminine forms in the singular, but not in the plural, as
shown in Table 7.13.
Note that the proximal demonstrative pronouns
/da/ and the medial demonstrative
/ha/ in Table 7.16 have final stress. They contrast with similar forms with
initial stress that serve as demonstrative determiners as described in Section 6.3.1.
The medial and distal demonstratives illustrate the same patterning with respect
to gender, number, and case as
/da/; this is shown in Table 7.16.

174
Pronouns
Singular
Masculine
Direct
Oblique
Plural
Feminine
da-
da-
d-
da- E
d- E
da-
d-
do-
d- W
Table 7.13: GP proximal demonstrative
/da/
Singular
Masculine
Direct
da(-a)
Oblique
da(-a)
Plural
Feminine
da-e
da-e
Table 7.14: Waziri proximal demonstrative /daa/
Singular
Masculine
Direct
da-a
Oblique
da-e
de(-e)
da-
Plural
Feminine
da-e
de-e
da-e
de-e
Table 7.15: Dzadrani proximal demonstrative /daa/

Demonstratives
Singular
Masculine
Direct
Oblique
Plural
Feminine
ha-
ha-
a-
a-
h-
ha- E
a- E
ha-
a-
h-
h- W
ha- W
Table 7.16: GP medial demonstrative
/ha-/
Singular
Masculine
Direct
(h)a-a
Oblique
(y)a-a
ha
Plural
Feminine
(y)a-e
ha-e
(y)a-e
ha-e
Table 7.17: Waziri medial demonstrative /a/
Singular
Masculine
Direct
a-a
a-
Oblique
a-
Plural
Feminine
ye-e
ye-e
Table 7.18: Dzadrani medial demonstrative /a/

175
176
Pronouns
The following (from Tegey & Robson 1996) are illustrations of the General Pashto
demonstrative pronoun in its various word forms. Note that the gender of the understood yet absent noun affects the gender of the pronoun:
(7.40)
!
pr ha-
w-xej-a
on that-M.OBL AOR-step-IMP.SG
Step on that! [referring to masculine item, like a rug, bridge, etc.]
(7.41)
!
pr ha-
w-xej-a
on that-F.OBL AOR-step-IMP.SG
Look at that! [referring to feminine thing, like a rock, an insect, etc.]
The General Pashto distal demonstrative has two variants,

/hu/ and
/h/. Both of these inflect in a manner similar to
/da/ and
/ha/.
Singular
Masculine
Direct
Oblique
Plural
hu-
u-
ho-
h- E
h- E
hu-
u-
h-
Feminine
Table 7.19: GP distal demonstrative
hu-
u-
h-
/hu-/
7.6 Interrogative pronouns

The set of Pashto interrogative pronouns reflects the usual human vs. non-human attribute of the potential referent.

Interrogative pronouns
177
Table 7.20 and Table 7.21 show the forms for the human interrogative and indefinite
pronoun, for General Pashto and for the Middle dialects respectively. This pronoun
inflects for case, but not for number or gender.
Case
Form
Direct
ok
Oblique
Table 7.20: GP human interrogative pronoun
/ok/
Case
Form
Direct
ok WAZ
ik DZA
ek MIR
Oblique
Table 7.21: Middle dialect human interrogative pronoun /ok/
The direct case form is used for nominatives and accusatives of present tense sentences, and for direct objects in past tense sentences. Questions in Pashto do not use
a different word order than statements.
(7.42)

ok
r-ay
who.DIR come.AOR.PST-PTCP.M.DIR
Who came?

178
Pronouns
(7.43)

ok
rz-
who.DIR come.CONT.PRS-PRS.3[SG.M]
Who is coming? (NW)
(7.44)

ok
-win-
who.DIR CONT-see.PRS-2SG
Whom do you see? (SW)
(7.45)

zalm-i
ok
w-wh-
Zalmay-M.OBL who.DIR AOR-hit-PST.3SG.M
Whom did Zalmay hit?
The oblique case form is used for objects of adpositions and subjects of transitive
verbs. As noted in Section 7.3.2, the personal pronoun that agrees with the verb is generally dropped, whether it be the subject (as in the present tense example at 7.46) or
the object (as in the past tense example at 7.47):
(7.46)
t -wy-
who.OBL to CONT-talk.PRS-2SG
Whom are you talking to? (SW)
(7.47)
w-lid-m
who.OBL AOR-see.PST-1SG
Who saw me? (SW)

The possessive interrogative whose? is expressed by using the oblique form
// who with the preposition /d/ of (example from Tegey & Robson 1996):
(7.48)
a
d
kitb-
day
that.DIR of who.OBL book-M.DIR be.CONT.PRS.3SG.M
Whose book is that?
For nonhuman referents,
// what is used. It is invariant: it has the same
form regardless of case, gender, or number.
// can act pronominally, appearing

Indefinite pronouns
179
alone as in 7.49, or adjectivally, appearing with a noun as in 6.33 of Section 6.6. In 7.50
the word order reflects the requirement that weak pronouns appear in second position.
(7.49)

d de
num-
dy
of 3SG.F.STR.OBL name-M.DIR what be.CONT.PRS.3SG.M
What is her name? (SW)
(7.50)
mi
w-k-
what 1SG.WK AOR-do.AOR-PST.3SG.M
What did I do? (SW)

While
// does not inflect for number, it tends to be interpreted as plural, so
a verb agreeing with it will often be in the plural:
(7.51)
-arw-ed-l-i
di
2SG.STR.OBL what CONT-hear-PST-PTCP.PL.M.DIR be.CONT.PRS.3PL.M
What [things] have you heard? (SW)
7.7 Indefinite pronouns

In Pashto, indefinite pronouns are identical in form to interrogative pronouns (examples 7.52 and following from Tegey & Robson 1996). In order to distinguish sentences
with indefinites from questions, /yaw/ one may be added, to yield
/yaw
ok/ someone and
/yaw / something.
(7.52)
ok
r-ay
who.DIR come.AOR.PST-PTCP.M.DIR
Someone came.
(7.53)
.
kitb-
t wrk-a
book-M.DIR who.OBL to give.AOR-IMP.SG
Give the book to someone.

180
Pronouns
(7.54)
me
n
di
k-i
what 1SG.WK NEG be.CONT.PRS.3PL.M do.AOR-PTCP.PL.M.DIR
I haven't done anything. (SW)
(7.55)
.
yaw tsok
d malgr-i
kor-
ta d o-y
one who.DIR of friend-M.OBL house-M.OBL to of food-F.DIR
xo-l-o
pr waxt- wr-ay
eat-INF-PL.M.OBL on time-M come.AOR.PST-PTCP.M.DIR
Someone showed up at my friend's house during mealtime.
When /har/, /ar/ every precedes the indefinite pronouns, the combination can
mean everyone, everything, as in 7.56 and 7.57 (after Tegey & Robson 1996). A similar
meaning can also be conveyed by
/har yaw/ each one.
(7.56)
.
har-
ok
rl-l
every-PL.M.DIR who.DIR come.AOR.PST-PST.3PL.M
Everyone came.
(7.57)
.
har-
me
k-i
every-PL.M.DIR what 1SG.WK do.AOR-PTCP.PL.M.DIR
di
be.CONT.PRS.3PL.M
I have done everything. (SW)
(7.58)
.
m
har-
yaw-
w-lid-
1SG.STR.OBL every-M.DIR one-M.DIR AOR-see.PST-PST.3SG.M
I saw each one. (NW)

The phrase
/har / can also express an indefinite pronoun meaning whatever; anything and everything:

Expressions of coreference
(7.59)
181
!
har-
ye
sam-aw-ma
n
every-M.DIR what 3.WK correct-do.CONT-1SG NEG
sam-g-i
correct-become.CONT.PRS-PRS.3[PL.M]
However much I [try and] straighten them out, they just don't straighten!
The negative indefinites (analogous to no one/anyone, nothing/anything) are formed

using
/he/ any with the indefinite pronoun. The verb is also negated.
(7.60)
.
m
he-
s
w n
lid-
1SG.STR.OBL none-M.DIR what AOR NEG see.PST-PST.3SG.M
I didn't see anything. (NW)
(7.61)
.
hets tsok-
me
w n
lid-
none who.DIR 1SG.WK AOR NEG see.PST-PST.3SG.M
I didn't see anyone. (NW)
(7.62)
.
hets tsok
wl-
n
o-
none who.DIR gone-M.DIR NEG become.AOR.PST-PST.3SG.M
No one was gone. (NW)
7.8 Relative pronouns
The interrogative/indefinite pronouns

/ok/ and
// can be employed with
the complementizer
// to form relative clauses (as in 11.78). This is discussed at
greater length in Section 11.4.1.
7.9 Expressions of coreference

Pashto uses two kinds of items for expressing coreference: the emphatic adjective (Tegey,
1979)
/xpl/ own (masculine),
/xpl/ own (feminine), and the reflexive
pronoun
/n/ self (oblique form
/na/).
/xpl/ inflects as a Class
I adjective (Section 6.2.1.1), while
/n/ inflects for case only.

182
Pronouns
The emphatic adjectives function as possessives in conditions of coreference, in

complementary distribution with the weak pronouns (see Section 7.3; these examples
are from Tegey & Robson 1996):
(7.63)
.
ahmad-
xpl-
kitb-
rwo-
Ahmad-M.OBL own-M.DIR book-M.DIR AOR\bring.PST-PST.3SG.M
Ahmad brought his [own] book [here].
(7.64)
.
ahmad-
ye
kitb-
rwo-
Ahmad-M.OBL 3.WK book-M.DIR AOR\bring.PST-PST.3SG.M
Ahmad brought his [another's] book [here].
In keeping with the items grammatical category of adjective, the gender of the
emphatic possessive agrees with the object possessed, not with the possessor:
(7.65)
.
ahmad-
xpl-
kitba-
rw-a
Ahmad-M.OBL own-F.DIR notebook-F.DIR AOR\bring.PST-PST.3SG.F
Ahmad brought his [own] notebook.
(7.66)
.
maryam-
xpl-
kitb-
rwo-
Maryam-F.OBL own-M.DIR book-M.DIR AOR\bring.PST-PST.3SG.M
Maryam brought her [own] book.
/xpl/ expresses distributed possession.

.
When reduplicated, the adjective

(7.67)
parun
p jumt-
ki
har-
yesterday in... mosque-M.OBL ...in every-M.OBL who.OBL

xpl-
xpl-
jy-
namz-una
own-PL.M.DIR own-PL.M.DIR place-M.DIR prayer-PL.M.DIR
rw-i
w
bring.CONT.PST-PTCP.PL.M.DIR be.CONT.PST.3PL.M
Yesterday each person in the mosque brought his own prayer rug. (SW)
The item
/n/ (/on/ in Waziri: see 7.70) signals coreference with another
nuclear term, and may appear in direct object and adpositional object positions. As
shown in the examples that follow, person information may, but need not, be expressed

Expressions of coreference
183
in the form of a weak pronoun (see also examples 8.12 and 8.42). Tegey (1979) suggests
that the weak pronoun precedes the emphatic, but all of the examples we have found
show the order emphatic > weak pronoun.
(7.68)
.
dzn-
me
n
o-
self-M.DIR 1SG.WK NEG become.AOR.PST-PST.3SG.M
ing-aw-l-ay
tight-do.CONT-PST-OPT
I couldn't pull myself together.
(7.69)
.
ha
p
bia-
n-
tr
irin-y
3SG.M.STR.OBL INSTR haste-F.DIR self-M.DIR up.to Shiranai-M.OBL
-rasaw-l-u
AOR-deliver-PST-PST.SG.M
He hurriedly got himself near Shirinai.
(7.70) dzon-
ye
badl-
k-
self-M.DIR 3.WK changed-M.DIR do.AOR.PST-PST.3SG.M
He disguised himself. (WAZ-L)
(7.71)
.
d
rup-y
w-xl-a
n-a
ta
this.DIR rupee-F.DIR AOR-take.PRS-IMP.SG self-M.OBL for
tsapl-y
ham w-xl-a
sandals-F.DIR also AOR-take.PRS-IMP.SG
Take the money and buy some sandals for yourself.
The emphatic and reflexive may appear in combination:

(7.72)

d xpl-
n-
d
pr-a
of own-M.DIR self-M.DIR from sake-M.ABL
for oneself

184
Pronouns
7.10 Reciprocal pronouns
In Pashto, the reciprocal relationship can be expressed by

/yaw aw bl/ one
and other, or by the shorter
/yaw bl/ one other. Depending on context, the
reciprocal can also be expressed by
/yaw l bl/ one from other. These
reciprocal expressions do not inflect for person or gender. Case inflection does occur,
as the word
/bl/ other in
/yaw l bl/ one from other is in the ablative
case.
Another way of expressing reciprocal relationships can be found in Section 10.2.3.1.
(7.73)
.
ahmad-
aw mahmud-
yaw bl-
t sra
Ahmad-M.DIR and Mahmoud-M.DIR one other-M.OBL to COMIT
-gur-
CONT-look.PRS-PRS.3[PL.M]
Ahmad and Mahmoud see each other. (SW)
(7.74)
.
ahmad-
aw mahmud-
yaw l
bl-
xafa
Ahmad-M.DIR and Mahmoud-M.DIR one from other-M.ABL angry
di
be.CONT.PRS.3PL.M
Ahmad and Mahmoud are angry at each other. (SW)
Pashto has at least one other strategy for conveying reciprocal referencesee Section 10.2.3.1.
7.11 Other pro-forms

See Section 9.6 for a description of some other pro-forms in Pashto.

Anne Boyle David and Sarah Goodman
Verbs
8.1 Overview
8.1.1 Properties of verbs
As Grjunberg (1987: 111) observes, Pashto verbal morphology is uncharacteristically
complex compared to the verbs of other Iranian languages. Probably for this reason,
among others, descriptions of Pashto verbs vary widely both in the way they analyze
and explain verbal forms and also in the data they present. In this chapter we try to
reconcile the data and information in those descriptions, supplementing it with advice from Pashto language experts and data obtained from native speakers we have
interviewed. In doing so, we have also reorganized, to some degree, the way Pashto
verbs have been presented previously, taking from each approach the aspects that we
believe have the strongest empirical foundation.
The morphology of verbs in the Middle dialects does not differ significantly from
that of General Pashto verbs. Some suffixes show variant forms, as do the verb to be and
the verbalizers. The differences are covered in Section 8.2.2, Section 8.2.8.1, Section
8.2.8.2, and Section 8.2.8.3.
Verb constructions in Pashto encode the following categories morphologically:
tense (present, past)
Pashto has no morphological future tense. We agree with Penzl (1955: 93) that the
clitic
/b/ is not strictly a future clitic, but a modal one. See Section 10.1.2.1 for
more discussion of what it conveys.
aspect (continuous, aorist)

What we call continuous and aorist are usually called imperfective and perfective in
other descriptions of Pashto. See Section 8.2.5.1 for an explanation of our change in
terminology.
mood (indicative, imperative, optative)
person (first, second, third)
number (singular, plural)
gender (masculine, feminine): but only in: (1) third person past tense forms of all
verbs and (2) third person singular (past and present) forms of the verb to be
These features are encoded in verb forms by means of affixes or stress placement; however, not all verb constructions are marked for all properties. For example, infinitives
are not marked for any of the above features; and participles for only some of them.

186
Verbs
Person, number, and gender (which we abbreviate to PNG in this grammar) are
features that mark agreement with noun phrases in the clause. Which noun governs
this agreement is determined in accordance with Pashtos system of split ergativity,
which is discussed in more detail in Section 5.1.3.5 and Section 11.7.1.
Pashto verbs are all built on one of four possible building blocks, called bases in
this grammar, which vary in shape according to two parameters: tense (present/past)
and aspect (continuous/aorist).
present continuous (= present imperfective or present I/1 in some grammars)
present aorist (= present perfective or present II/2 in some grammars)
past continuous (= past imperfective or past I/1 in some grammars)
past aorist (= past perfective or past II/2 in some grammars)
These four base types are described and exemplified below in Section 8.2.6.
Pashto verbs are a closed class. As is common in the South Asian linguistic area,
new verbs enter the language via light verb constructions of the form Noun/Adjective
+ Verb. As will be described below, some of these light verb constructions have become
partly lexicalized. (see Section 8.2.4.4 and Section 11.2.3.1).
There are also several functions or modalities encoded periphrastically, with the
use of particles or auxiliary verbs. These include negation, a passive-like construction,
expression of future events, and expressions of ability.
8.1.2 Classifying verbs

Based on its morphological and syntactic behavior, a Pashto verb can be classified in
three ways, according to
1. how it forms the aorist (i.e., conjugation class; see Section 8.2.5)
2. whether it has stem allomorphy (i.e., stem class-classweak or strong; see Section 8.2.6)
3. whether the stem is simplex or complex (i.e., morphological structure; see Section 8.2.4)
1 The standard descriptions of Pashto verbs set out by Shafeev (1964), Tegey & Robson (1996), and
Pashtoon (2009) refer to derivative verbs. We use the broader term complex verb, because in our
description, this group also includes verbs with separable prefixes; what they call derivative verbs
are a subset of what we call complex verbs.

Verb components
187
Previous descriptions of Pashto do not clearly distinguish among the above verb groupings, but a thorough analysis of Pashto verbs requires that we take all three into account. Conjugation class and stem class membership both reflect morphological behavior; and whether a verb is simplex or complexand if complex, what type of complex verb it isdetermines its syntactic behavior. We follow Tegey & Robson (1996)
(as well as grammatical tradition) in focusing primarily on conjugation class as a way
of classifying verbs, but also make reference to stem allomorphy and morphological
structure where relevant.
The following sections of the grammar describe the parts of the various Pashto
verbal constructions and how these constructions are formed, the three ways of categorizing Pashto verbs, paradigms of inflected verbs, and some aspects of verbal usage.
8.2 Verb components

This section describes the structure of Pashto verbs and all the building blocks for
forming Pashto verb constructions.
8.2.1 Structure of the verb

Pashto verbs are largely agglutinative, as can be seen in Table 8.1 and Table 8.2, which
illustrate Pashto verb structure for weak and strong verbs respectively. The difference
between weak and strong verbs lies in whether they exhibit stem allomorphy (Section
8.2.6). These tables cover both inflectional and derivational morphology. Parentheses
around column heads indicate that morphemes in that column may or may not appear
on a given verb construction; the only component that is part of every construction is
the stem. However, no verb form can consist of only a stem; every verb also has to have
at least one suffix from among suffixes 1, 2, or 3.
2 Although they are not explicit about it, Tegey & Robson (1996) classify verbs into three groups,
according to a combination of our (1) and (3)aorist formation ( /w/ prefixation versus stress
shift) plus one element of morphological structure (prefixed versus denominal verbs). Penzl (1955)
and Heston (1992) arrive at their five-way classification of verbs using our (2) and (3)allomorphy
and morphological structure. The analysis of Grjunberg (1987: 111193) is the most detailed: his
carefully thought-out system incorporates all three of the above criteria, as well as one we do not
take into account (the
/g-/ and
/ed/ tense markers of intransitive first conjugation verbs)
but differs from ours in a number of ways, chiefly in that he gives primacy to morphological structure
of the stem rather than to conjugation class.
3 With complications introduced by morphologically complex verbs such as denominal verbs.


CAUSATIVE:
aw
(See Table 8.3 for

possible stem
shapes.)
(Suffix 1)
Stem
Table 8.1: Structure of weak (one stem) verbs
AORIST:
w
u- E
or
stressed derivational
prefix
CONTINUOUS:
or
unstressed derivational
prefix
Prefix
Verbal base
INFINITIVE:
l
INFINITIVE:
ed-l
(often optionalsee
Section 8.2.6.1)
PAST:
l-
PRESENT:
-
Transitive
(often optionalsee
Section 8.2.6.1)
PAST:
ed(-l-)
PRESENT:
g-
Intransitive
(Suffix 2)
PAST PARTICIPLE:
Class IIIb adjectival
suffixes
PRESENT PARTICIPLE:
-unk- + Class
IIIb adjectival
suffixes
(see Table 6.17)
IMPERATIVE:
a (SG)
y (PL)
st SW, SE (PL)
OPTATIVE:
(for all persons and
numbers)
y SW, SE
ay NW
e NE
PNG (see Table 8.4.)
(Suffix 3)
188
Verbs

Stem
(See Table 8.3 for possible

stem shapes)
Table 8.2: Structure of strong (more than one stem) verbs
AORIST:
w
u- E
or
stressed derivational prefix
CONTINUOUS:
or
unstressed derivational prefix
Prefix
Verbal Base
CAUSATIVE:
aw
(Suffix 1)
INFINITIVE:
l
(often optionalsee
Section 8.2.6.1)
PAST:
l-
(Suffix 2)
PAST PARTICIPLE:
Class IIIb adjectival
suffixes
adjectival suffixes
(see Table 6.17)
unk + Class IIIb
PRESENT PARTICIPLE:
IMPERATIVE:
a (SG)
y (PL)
st SW, SE (PL)
OPTATIVE:
(for all persons and
numbers):
y SW, SE
ay NW
e NE
PNG (see Table 8.4)
(Suffix 3)
Verb components
189
190
Verbs
Verb stem shapes and examples are given in Table 8.3. Note that Pashto verb stems
cannot be vowel-final.
Stem shape
Examples
Stem
Infinitive
kedl to become
CC
tl
tll to go
CVC
ta
tal to tie
VC
ud
udl to weave, knit
VCC
ist
istl to pull (out)
VCVC
ixod
ixodl to put
CVCC
ut
utl to want
CCVC
drum
drumedl to march
CCVCC
nt
ntl to wrap up
CVCVC
rniw
rniwl to buy (up)
CVCVCC
peand
peandl to know
VCVCC
awuxt
awuxtl to overturn,
VCCVC
alwut
alwutl to fly
climb over
Table 8.3: Stem shapes
Note in Table 8.1 and Table 8.2 that the suffixes for past and infinitive are identical.
The infinitive (Section 8.2.3) is the citation form of the verb.

Verb components
191
Under some conditions, some Pashto verbs are separable into two parts: certain
particles may occur between the prefixed components (of Column 1 in Table 8.1 and
Table 8.2) and the rest of the verb; that is, the stem and any suffixes (see Section 11.2.3.2).
Certain instances of this phenomenon are the reason for the claim that Pashto is one of
the few languages that has endoclisis (Kaisse 1981; Kopris & Davis 2005; Kopris 2009;
David 2011). The derivational prefixes mentioned in column 1 of Table 8.1 and Table
8.2 can be seen in Table 8.8 and Table 8.9.
8.2.2 Personal suffixes

The suffixes in Table 8.4 are those that reflect the categories of person, number, and
gender (PNG suffixes). PNG suffixes are not inherently stressed, but can carry stress in
the past tense, as described below.
PNG suffixes can be attached to the bases described in Section 8.2.6 to form finite
verbs, with some exceptions to be described below. With the exception of the irregular
verb to be, PNG suffixes differ between the tenses only in the third person, as the past
tense third person suffixes encode gender and person, while present tense ones do not,
as can be seen in Table 8.4 through Table 8.6. Note also that despite the orthographic
similarity of the past singular suffixes for masculine and feminine forms ( ), the realizations differ, the masculine being // and the feminine being /a/. Table 8.4 through
Table 8.6 give the personal suffixes for verbs in General Pashto, Waziri, and Dzadrani.
The first person singular suffix
/ma/ is heard most often in poetry, where
meter determines which whether the monosyllabic or bisyllabic allomorph is used, but
it is not uncommon in spoken General Pashto.
Notes on Table 8.5 and Table 8.6:
1. The Waziri and Dzadrani first person singular suffixes /m/ and /ma/ are in
free variation. They occur in both poetic and non-poetic contexts, in contrast
with GP dialects, where the suffix /ma/ occurs more often in poetry. As in
GP, meter determines which form is used in the poetic contexts, but Septfonds
(1994: 81) speculates that even in non-poetic speech, the melody of discourse
can play a role in which form is used.
2. Lorimer (1902: 18ff.) reports the Waziri second person plural suffix as /-ay/ (/-ai/
in his Romanization), but it does not occur in any of our field data. This discrepancy could be due to the vowel /a/ having changed to // over the past hundred
years or to Lorimers transcription methods, which predate phonological theory.
3. The third person present suffix /-o/, while heard frequently in both Waziri and
Dzadrani, only occurs on one verb, the root /k-/ of the verbalizer /kawl/ to
make; to do. It is frequent because /kawl/ forms part of so many third conjugation verbs.

192
Verbs
1st
Singular
Plural
m(a) SW
2nd present
st (verb bases
ending in
y SW )
2nd past
st SW
3rd
present
F
3rd past
y SW
-o NE
E
Table 8.4: GP verbs: personal suffixes

Verb components 193
1st
Singular
Plural
m(a)
2nd
y
(-ay)
3rd
present
i
o
F
3rd past
-
F
(l)a
(l)e
Singular
Plural
1st
m(a)
2nd
Table 8.5: Waziri verbs: personal suffixes
oy
3rd
present
i
o
F
3rd past
(l)
ay
F
(l)a
(l)e
Table 8.6: Dzadrani verbs: personal suffixes

194
Verbs
4. The third person past masculine suffix /-ay/ of Dzadrani only occurs on a few
verbs: for example, certain second conjugation verbs containing the roots /tll/
to go and /wl/ to place.
5. As in General Pashto, the third person suffixes encode tense.
8.2.3 The infinitive

The infinitive in Pashto is the citation form of the verb and formally equivalent to the
verbs past continuous base (see Section 8.2.6), with /l-/. It can be used as a noun
and takes masculine plural agreement on the verb.
Formation: past continuous stem + /l-/
The stress is always on the final syllable. Examples of infinitives from all three
conjugation classes are in Table 8.7.
4 Some grammars, such as Tegey & Robson (1996), use the present continuous base as the citation
form, arguing that because of stem allomorphy, the present base is not always obvious. However, we
use the infinitive, both because it is traditional Pashto grammatical practice, and because this is the
form used as headword in dictionaries.

Verb components 195
Conjugation
First
Second
Third
Contracted
Uncontracted
Past continuous stem
Infinitive
xwa eat
dar-d stop
gr-d walk
aaw pour, throw
xwal to eat
daredl to stop
gredl to walk
aawl to pour, to
nna-wat enter
r-tl come
nnawatl to enter
rtll to come
azd-d go free
azd-aw set free
azdedl to go free
azdawl to set free
xyista k-ed
become pretty
throw
xyista kedl
to become pretty
Table 8.7: Infinitives

196
Verbs
8.2.4 Simplex and complex verbs

8.2.4.1 Overview
Pashto verbs may be either simplex or complex. The chief difference between simplex
and complex verbs is a morphosyntactic one: unlike simplex verbs, complex verbs are
separable; that is, under some conditions, they resolve into two parts, with certain
restricted classes of words intervening between them (see Section 11.2.3.2).
Simplex verbs are all those verbs whose base consists of a single morpheme, such
as:
/wahl/ to hit, with base
/wah/+ infinitive suffix
/l/;
while complex verbs have a base with two morphemes (or what were once two
morphemes). There are three kinds:
a-initial verbs (Section 8.2.4.2)
/astawl/ to send
(not synchronically bi-morphemic, but probably < Proto-Iranian *-staH- ; Cheung
2007)
prefixed verbs (Section 8.2.4.3)
/r-wl/ to bring here/to me

= /r/ here, to me + /wl/ to carry
denominal verbs (Section 8.2.4.4)
/azd-awl/ to set free

= /azd/ free + /(k)awl/ to make; to do
These three groups correspond closelybut not entirelyto the three conjugation
classes (Section 8.2.5): prefixed verbs comprise the second conjugation, and denominal verbs the third. The only difference is that a-initial verbs form only a small part
of the first conjugation; the greater part of it consists of simplex verbs. This crucial
difference illustrates why it is important to recognize this second way of classifying
verbs: Pashto verbs may cluster in one way based on their inflectional behavior, but
in another way based on their morphosyntactic behavior. All three types of complex
verb will be discussed in the following sections.
8.2.4.2 a-initial verbs

Most verbs that begin with /a/ fall into the class of complex verbs known as a-initial
verbs. There are only about a dozen or so members of this class; it does not include
5 Note that simplex is used to mean the opposite of complex; this distinction is not to be confused
with the distinction between simple and compound verb constructions (Section 8.3 and Section 8.4).

Verb components
197
denominal verbs (Section 8.2.4.4) whose complement happens to have an initial /a/,
and there are a few other verbs that, although they have initial /a/, nevertheless do
not fall into this special class; for example,
/aawl/ to gather.
We consider these a-initial verbs complex because their syntactic behavior resembles that of prefixed verbs: the initial /a/ can separate from the rest of the verb as
though it were a prefix, even though /a/ is not a morpheme in the usual sense of the
word, since it is not meaningful by itself. These verbs are also unusual, in thatunlike
most other Pashto verbstheir stress is variable in the continuous aspect: it can be either initial or non-initial. Most verbs cannot have initial stress in continuous forms.
While morphosyntactically similar to prefixed verbs, a-initial verbs differ in that
they take the prefix /w/ for aorist forms, as can be seen in what we believe to be a
comprehensive list of a-initial verbs, presented in Table 8.14 as part of our discussion of
the first conjugation. This inflectional feature places them in the morphological class
of first conjugation (Section 8.2.5.2), which otherwise comprises only simplex verbs.
The following sentences illustrate the separability of a-initial verbs; they can separate either when the initial /a/ is optionally stressed in the continuous or in the aorist
aspect, where initial stress is obligatory. In each instance this separation occurs only
in the presence of certain clitics or the negative morphemes (Section 11.2.3.2).
With initial stress, separated:
(8.1)
.
-
me
xist-l-
CONT-buy 1SG.WK buy.PST-PST-3PL.M
I was buying them.
versus non-initial stress, not separated:

(8.2)
.
-axist-l-
me
CONT-buy.PST-PST-3PL.M 1SG.WK
I was buying them.
In the aorist:
(8.3)
.
w-
me
xist-l
AOR-buy 1SG.WK buy.PST-PST.3PL.M
I bought them.
6 Most likely the initial /a/ was once a prefix historically, and for this reason it still behaves like one
(David, 2011).
7 Examples taken from Kopris (2009).

198
Verbs
As mentioned earlier, this separating behavior of a-initial verbs has led some linguists to assert that Pashto is among a handful of languages in the world that undergo
endoclisis. (See Kaisse 1981, Kopris & Davis 2005, Kopris 2009, and David 2011 for attempts to account for it, both synchronically and diachronically.)
8.2.4.3 Prefixed verbs

Prefixed verbs, called doubly irregular verbs by Tegey & Robson (1996: 114), coincide
with our second conjugation (Section 8.2.5.4). They take the form of a derivational prefix plus a verb base, although in a few instances, either the first or the second of these
does not appear in any other context in the language. However, as with the a-initial
verbs, because these pseudo-prefixed verbs behave like other prefixed verbs, we have
chosen, with Tegey & Robson (1996) and Grjunberg (1987), to group them all under the
same category. The derivational prefixes are shown in Table 8.8 and Table 8.9.
The prefixes
/r/,
/dr/, and
/wr/ of Table 8.8 correspond historically and semantically to the oblique pronominal clitics and directional verbal clitics
described in Section 7.4, hence we class them all as what we call deictoids. However,
as elements of complex verbs, their role is not pronominal, and we therefore refer to
them in this context as deictic prefixes. They occur with only four verb stems (see Section 7.4.3) and frequently incorporate meanings of to me/to him, here/there, etc., into
the verb of which they are a part.
In the Dzadrani forms, the first person deictic prefix is reduced to /r/ in the continuous aspect (i.e., when it is unstressed) and appears in its full form, /ro/, in the aorist
(when it is stressed). Past aorist forms of /der-tll/ to go there/to you and /wer-tll/
to go there/to him/her/it/them have an epenthetic a between the prefix and the stem
in Dzadrani; for example, /dra-lm(a)/ I joined you.
Person
GP prefix
Waziri prefix
Dzadrani
prefix
Gloss
r-
r(o)-
'here; to me'
dr, dar-
dar-
der-
'there; to
you'
wr, war-
war-
wer-
'there
(yonder); to
him/her/it/them'
Table 8.8: Deictic verb prefixes

Verb components
199
Although the prefixes in Table 8.9 exist in the same position class as the deictic
prefixes, and are subject to the same rules of stress movement to encode aorist aspect,
as well as to separation from the rest of the verb by negative morphemes and second
position clitics, they do not necessarily have meanings that are synchronically separable from the verbal lexeme of which they are a part. The glosses given should therefore
be thought of as the glosses of their etymons, not as synchronic glosses.
Prefix
Gloss of etymon
kxe
'in; on'
ki- W
kxi ke ki-
nna
'into'
pori
'across; over; on'
pr
pre
'off; away'
ter
'past'
Table 8.9: Non-productive verb prefixes
Some examples of prefixed verbs can be seen in Table 8.10 in their infinitival forms
(see Section 8.2.3), and in the sentences 8.4 and 8.5. In sentence 8.4 the prefix is separated from the verb stem by a second position clitic.
(8.4)
.
wr
ye
k-
give... 3.WK ...give.AOR-IMP.SG
Give it to her/him/them. (SW)

200
Verbs
Prefix
Verb
Prefixed verb
r here
nna into
kxe in; on
tll to go
watl to leave, depart
watl to leave, depart
rtll to come
nnawatl to enter
kxewatl to fall or
drop into; to slip or slide
Table 8.10: Examples of prefixed verbs
(8.5)
.
za
wrust l
t
nnwat-l-m
1SG.STR.DIR after
from 2SG.STR.OBL AOR\enter-PST-1SG
I entered after you.
8.2.4.4 Denominal verb constructions

Denominal verbs are light verb constructions of the form Noun/Adjective + Verb, where
the verb is either
/kedl/ to become (to form intransitives) or
/kawl/ to
make; to do (to form transitives). We refer to the adjective or noun as the complement
and to the verb as the verbalizer. As a light verb, denominal verb encodes a single
event, deriving its semantics from the complement, while the verbalizer carries categories such as PNG, tense, and so on. (See Section 11.2.3.1 for more on light verb
constructions in Pashto.)
There are two versions of this construction; the difference between them has to do
with the degree to which the verb fuses phonologically with its noun or adjective complement in the continuous aspect. We can therefore speak of contracted and uncontracted denominal verb constructions. In the uncontracted one, the verbal construction is always a two-word phrase, with the verb occurring in its full form as a separate
word from the substantive that gives the overall construction its meaning.
8 These forms are variously referred to in other grammars of Pashto as derivative, compound,
complex, or denominative verbs.
9 Most other Pashto grammars use the term auxiliary, but see Butt (2003) for a clear differentiation
between light verbs and auxiliary verbs.

Verb components
201
In a contracted denominal verb, the k is deleted in continuous forms, leaving the

verb in a shortened form:
/edl/ (intransitive), or
/awl/ (transitive). In written Pashto, contracted verbal constructions are represented as single words. Generally
speaking, this contraction only occurs when the complement is a consonant-final adjective. If the first element is a vowel-final adjective or if it is a noun of any sort, the verbal construction usually does not contract, but remains two separate words throughout the paradigm. However, there are a few contracted verb forms with nouns as the
first element; for example:
/rangawl/ to paint (from the noun /rang/ paint, color)

/hisbawl/ to account, calculate (from the noun /hisb/ calculation, count)
Note that both these nouns are consonant-final, while the majority of Pashto nouns
are vowel-final. It therefore appears that /k/-deletion reflects a tendency against the sequence /Ck/, since it applies to C-final adjectives and some C-final nouns, but this is a
tendency only.
Among denominal verbs with adjective complements, both the contracted and the
uncontracted constructions behave like single words:
Continuous forms do not allow other wordssuch as negatives or weak pronouns
between the adjective and verbalizer.
Adjective complements are uninflected in the continuous aspect (whereas adjective
complements in the aorist aspect, and all noun complementsin both aorist and
continuousmay inflect for case). This is described and exemplified in Section 6.7.
So we see a spectrum of behavior among third conjugation verbs, from word-like,
or lexicalized, to phrase-like, as summed up in Table 8.11. The forms with a consonantfinal adjective complement (column 2) are the most lexicalized, because the adjectival
and verbal components of the construction together behave as one word, while those
with a vowel-final noun complement (column 4), as well as all aorist forms (column 5),
are the least so.
The small number of contracted verb forms that have noun complements fall in between the contracted adjectival and the uncontracted nominal third conjugation verbs
in their morphological and syntactic behavior:
Unlike uncontracted denominal verbs with noun complements, they allow a separate direct object.
Also unlike uncontracted denominal verbs with noun complements, when negated
they must be preceded by the negative marker; it cannot occur between the complement and verb.

202
Verbs
However, like uncontracted denominal verbs with noun complements, they can take
morphological material on the end of the complement; however, it is optional.
The situation is complex and suggests that what we are seeing is a change in progress.
The contracted denominal verbs contradict the claim by Butt & Lahiri (2002) and Butt
(2003) about light verbs and grammaticalization; namely, that light verbs do not enter the grammaticalization cline, at all, but rather remain form-identical to a main
verb. These Pashto forms instead provide additional evidence for the argument in
Bowern (2008) that complex predicates arent necessarily stable but can in fact lenite
phonologically and are subject to reanalysis. David & Goodman (2012) discusses these
points at length.
With all types of denominal verbs, this contracted/uncontracted distinction only
holds in the continuous aspect: among aorist forms, all third conjugation verbs are
fully separate from their noun or adjective complement.
Adjective complements that inflect for case usually do so as Class I adjectives, unless they end in /ay/; for example, the adjective complement
/stay/ tired in
/stay kawl/ to tire, exhaust, which behaves like a Class III adjective.
In denominal verbs formed from adjectives, the adjective agrees with the undergoer
of the action, if there is one, and with the subject if there is none, in both present and
past tenses.Table 8.11 summarizes the morphosyntactic behavior of the different types
of denominal verbs.
CONTINUOUS
AORIST
C-final
adjective
complement
V-final
adjective
complement
Noun
complement
Verb in full
form?
Intervening
lexical
material
permitted?
Inflected
complement
permitted?
Table 8.11: Behavior of denominal verbs

Verb components
203
Table 8.12 gives some examples of denominal verbs. The one in the first row is uncontracted; those in the second and third rows are contracted. Contracted transitive
denominals (those in
/awl/column 3) formally resemble historical causatives
(Section 8.2.7); however, there are two differences: causatives have a verb stem, rather
than a noun or adjective, as their first element, and, unlike transitive denominals,
causatives form aorists according to first conjugation rules, with a /w/ prefix (Section 8.2.5.1). But in the continuous aspect, transitive contracted denominals do conjugate identically with causatives. Likewise, intransitive contracted denominal verbs
(those in
/edl/ to becomecolumn 2) conjugate identically with intransitive
first conjugation verbs (Section 8.2.5.2).
Substantive base
Verb (intransitive)
xyista pretty
xyista kedl
to become pretty
xyista kawl
to make pretty, to beautify
azd free
azdedl to go
azdawl to set free
obl wound
obledl to be
oblawl to injure

free
injured
Verb (transitive)
Table 8.12: Examples of denominal verbs
8.2.5 Conjugation classes

8.2.5.1 Overview of conjugation classes
Pashto verbs can be classified into three conjugation classes according to how they
inflect for the aorist aspect. For General Pashto as well as the Middle dialects, first conjugation verbs form the aorist through the addition of the prefix /w/, second conjugation verbs through stress shift to the first syllable, and third conjugation verbs
denominal constructions allthrough stress shift to the complement, plus use of the
irregular aorist form of the verbalizer. In Dzadrani, there is a phonologically conditioned rule that changes /w/ to // when followed by a bilabial consonant, as in:
/-be-gri/ we will walk
Most first conjugation verbs are simplex, but a fewthe a-initial verbsare complex, while all second and third conjugation verbs are complex (Section 8.2.4).
Before describing these classes in detail, an explanation is called for as to why
we use the term aorist rather than the more common perfective. Most descriptions of

204
Verbs
Pashto recognize an aspectual dichotomy reflected in both the morphology and the
semantics of Pashto verbs. The usual terms in those descriptions for the two categories
are imperfective and perfective; however, we are not the first to have misgivings over
the aptness of those words. Penzl (1955) and Heston (1992) both substitute the Roman
numerals I and II respectively, and Septfonds (1994) uses the numerals 1 and 2, but
we reject their terminology as liable to confusion and not descriptive enough. We have
instead decided on the terms continuous and aorist. The reason for using continuous
is probably clear enough: both imperfective and continuous suggest the verbs action
is unfinished or ongoing.
As for our term for the aspect contrasting with continuous, one possible substitute
for perfective might have been non-continuous, but our use of the term aorist follows
the twentieth-century Pashto grammarian Khan (2002)s usage as cited by Penzl (1951).
Aorist, from a Greek word meaning without boundaries or indeterminate, comes, appropriately, from the Indo-European grammatical tradition and refers to a simple event,
without reference to internal structure; that is, without specifying whether it was completed, is continuing, etc.
We have decided the following facts justify a change in terminology:
1. Use of the terms imperfective and perfective could lead, as it often does in other
linguistic descriptions, to confusion with the different term perfect, which most
descriptions of Pashto, including our own, use for another verbal category.
2. In addition to following Khan (2002)s terminology, aorist is also a better gloss of
traditional Pashto grammarians Pashto terms for this category,
/mutlq/
or
/mujarad/ as they are reported in Penzl (1951).
3. We believe aorist, with its sense of indeterminate, is a more accurate term for
the Pashto verbal category under discussion than perfective, which connotes
completion.
8.2.5.2 First conjugation class in General Pashto

Aorist formation: add stressed prefix /w/; subsequent syllables are unstressed
General Pashto first conjugation verbs consist of all simplex verbs, plus the ainitial verbs (see Section 8.2.4.2). They can be recognized by their aorist forms, which
begin with the prefix /w/, which carries an inherent stress, as shown in Table 8.13.
In a-initial verbs, the aorist prefix
/w/ coalesces with the /a/ to form a prefix
/w/, as in Table 8.14. Most, but not all, first conjugation verbs with initial /a/ are
of this type. Note that denominal verbs beginning with /a/ do not belong to the first
conjugation (see Section 8.2.4.4).
The verbs
/kedl/ to become and
/kawl/ to make; to do have two
sets of aorist forms. As independent verbs, they belong to the first conjugation, because
they form the aorist with the prefix
/w/, as can be seen in their General Pashto

Verb components
Verb
(Present) stem
Aorist base
legl to send
pel to wind, to twist
gaedl to dance
ball to consider
xodl to show
katl to see
kedl to become
kawl to make; to do
leg
pe
ga
bol
xy
gor

)(k()
wleg
wpe
wgag
wbol
wxy
wgor
w
)(wk()
205
Table 8.13: GP first conjugation verbs: present tense stems and aorist bases
forms in the last two rows of Table 8.13 and, for example, in the sentence
/z byad d wk()m/ I must do this. However, when acting as verbalizers in
denominal verbs (see Section 8.2.8), they form the aorist irregularly, as discussed in
Section 8.2.8.2 and Section 8.2.8.3.

206
Verbs
Verb
Present
continuous base
Past aorist base
aawl to pour, to throw

axistl to buy, take, seize
aratl to break wind
arwedl to hear
aawl to move, turn over
azmeyl to test
astawl to send
axxl to knead
austl to put on (clothing)
alwutl to fly
alwuzawl to make fly, blow up
alwoyl to burn
anawl to compel (someone), to pacify
awuxtl to overturn, climb over
aaw
axl
arat
)(awr(eg)
aw
azmey
astw
axg awand
alwaz
alwuz-w
alwoy
anw
aw
waw
wxist
wrat
wrwed
ww
wzmey
wstw
wxx wust
wlwut
wlwuzaw
wlwoy
wnw
wwuxt
Table 8.14: GP a-initial verbs (first conjugation): aorist bases

Verb components
207
8.2.5.3 First conjugation class in Middle dialects

The morphology of the first conjugation verbs in the Middle dialects is similar to that
of first conjugation verbs in the General Pashto dialects, with a few exceptions. These
are noted below.
The Waziri and Dzadrani counterparts of the so-called a-initial verbs differ from
those of General Pashto. While it is clear that both dialects do have verbs that correspond to the a-initial verbs of the General Pashto dialects, our data are sparse, so we
cannot offer a full description, nor can we supply a full list of corresponding forms.
What we are able to say is that the initial syllables in the forms we do have differ from
General Pashto forms. We find four initial syllables among these verbs: /a/, //, /o/,
and /wo/. The latter comes from Lorimer and with two exceptions ( /woxestl/ to
take; to buy and /woestl/ to put on (clothing)), appears to be due to his misinterpreting some aorist forms as continuous, thus leading to the aorist prefix /w/ being
taken as part of the verb stem. The two verbs whose citation forms begin with /wo/ are
perhaps examples of metaphony (// /o/) plus typical Waziri insertion of a /w/ glide
before an initial /o/.
The forms for which we have data are in Table 8.15 and Table 8.16. In one instance
Waziri to hearwe provide forms from the Miran Shah dialect (MIR) of northern
Waziri and the Wana dialect (WAA) of southern Waziri, as reported by Hallberg. Other
than those, the Waziri forms are from Lorimer (1902) and/or our native speaker, and
the Dzadrani forms are from Septfonds (1994). A dash in the cell indicates that we do
not have an attested form.

208
Verbs
Verb
Present continuous base
Past aorist base
awl to throw
aaw
woaw
woxestl to take; to buy
wx()l
wxest
arwedl to hear
arwed
wrwed
owred MIR
warwed WAA
awl to overturn
(intrans)
wov-
wuew-
owa
woawwiwet-
awl to overturn (trans)
woestl to put on
(clothing)
aw-
wu-aw-
wow-
woaw-
wound-
west
Table 8.15: Waziri verbs: forms corresponding to GP a-initial verbs
Verb
Present continuous base
Past aorist base
awl to throw
o-oww-oww-aw-
(o)xostl to take, catch
(o)x(w)l
xwst
(o)r(w)edl to hear
(o)r(w)
rwed
(a)awl to reverse,
overturn (trans)
aaw-
wu-aw-
(o)wstl to dress
(o)wnd
()west
(o)wxtl to cross, go to
(o)w
wxt-
woaw-
Table 8.16: Dzadrani verbs: forms corresponding to GP a-initial verbs

Verb components
209
8.2.5.4 Second conjugation

Aorist formation: shift stress to prefix
Second conjugation verbs in Pashto are complex verbs (Section 8.2.4); they are
all of the form prefix + stem, although not all of those so-called prefixes have a recognizable meaning. We call them all prefixes because they all behave the same way
morphosyntactically: they undergo stress shift to form the aorist, and they can be separated from the stem by a second-position clitic or the negative morpheme (Section
11.2.3.2.2).
Although the forms may differ, second conjugation verbs in the Middle dialects
behave similarly to those of the GP dialects.
Pashto second conjugation verbs form the aorist by shifting the stress to their prefix, as in Table 8.17. If the prefix has more than one syllable, the stress goes on the first
syllable.
Verb
Stem
pore-wahl to push
pre-mindzl to
wash
dr-kawl to give to
you
Present aorist base
pore-wah
pre-mindz
dr-k
pre-wah
prmindz
dr-k
Table 8.17: Second conjugation verbs: aorist bases (present tense)
There are two kinds of prefixed verbs: those formed with one of the three deictic
prefixes (see Section 7.4)
/r/ here; to me,
/dr/ there; to you, and
/wr/
there; to him/her/them, and those with other types of prefixes. They are sometimes
written as one word and sometimes as two.
10 We differ from both Penzl (1955) and Heston (1992) in not grouping
/kedl/ to become
and
/kawl/ to make; to do with the prefixed verbs under one conjugation class. Our reason is
that they do not fit our criteria: when they occur as independent verbs (see Section 8.2.5.2), their
aorist formation puts them with first conjugation verbs; when they occur as verbalizers (see Section
8.2.8), they do not fit into any conjugation class because they form the aorist irregularly.

210
Verbs
8.2.5.5 Third conjugation

8.2.5.5.1 Forming the aorist in third conjugation verbs
Aorist formation: shift stress from verb to complement and use irregular aorist
forms of
/kawl/ or
/kedl/
(All forms are uncontracted in the aorist aspect.)
Third conjugation verbs are the most common and the most complicated of Pashto
verb types. They consist of the majority of denominal verbs (Section 8.2.4.4)all of
those with adjective complements and most of those with noun complements. Among
the denominal verbs whose complement is a noun, however, there are some that are
less lexicalized and form the aorist with
/w/; they therefore belong to the first
conjugation.
Third conjugation verbs form the aorist by:
shifting stress from the second element (the verbalizer) to the first element (the noun
or adjective complement), according to the lexical stress of that complement
using the irregular aorist forms of the verbalizer (rather than the forms with
/w/)
Although many third conjugation verbs are contracted in the continuous aspect, in
aorist constructions, the complement is always separate from the verbalizer. (See Section 8.2.8.2 and Section 8.2.8.3 for these aorist forms.) The forms in Table 8.18 illustrate
some separated aorist forms of contracted denominal verbs.

Verb components
Noun or
adjective
Intransitive
verb
Transitive verb
Present aorist
(intrans.)
Present aorist
(trans.)
jo whole
palwn
jo-edl to be
made/built
jo-awl to
build
k()
fat
palwand-edl
to become fat
palwan-awl
to fatten
twd
twd
pyl
pyl
tawd
warm
ihss
feeling,
sensation
uap
mouthful,
drink
payl
beginning
tawd-edl to
become warm
ihss-edl to
be felt, be
experienced
uap-edl to
be swallowed,
gulped down
payl-edl to
be begun
tawd-awl to
make warm
ihss-awl to
feel, to sense
uap-awl to
swallow, to
drink in gulps
payl-awl to
begin
palwn
ihss
up
palwn k()
k()
ihss k()
up k()
k()
Table 8.18: Contracted third conjugation verbs: aorist stems (present tense)

211
212
Verbs
8.2.5.5.2 A special case of third conjugation verbs: infinitive/past participle +

/kedl/
Sometimes the complement of a third conjugation verb with
/kedl/ is an infinitive or a past participle. This construction is often referred to by other grammars
of Pashto as the Pashto passive, because it is best translated with an English passive
construction:
/wahl/ to beat, strike

/wahl kedl/ to be beaten
/wahlay kedl/ to be beaten
/likl/ to write
/likl kedl/ to be written
/liklay kedl/ to be written
/lidl/ to see
/lidl kedl/ to be seen
/lidlay kedl/ to be seen
However, because these constructions parallel the structure of other third conjugation
verbs and because there are many other Pashto intransitive verbsboth simplex and
complexthat can be translated by the English passive, we see no reason to place
infinitive +
/kedl/ constructions in a special category. For these reasons, we
classify them as denominal verbs. See Section 8.5.5.2 for discussion and examples.
For example sentences using this construction, see Section 11.3.1.5.
8.2.6 Stem classes and the four bases

Pashto verbs fall into two stem classes depending on how many stem allomorphs they
have. Some descriptions have referred to all Pashto verbs with stem allomorphy as irregular; however, we feel this term is inaccurate, as many of them share somewhat
regular patterns in their formation, and furthermore, their number is too large to consider them out of the ordinary, as irregular also implies. Drawing on Indo-European
grammatical tradition, we call verbs with no stem allomorphy weak verbs, and those
with stem allomorphy of any degree, strong verbs. As can be seen in Table 8.19, strong
Pashto verbs can have as many as four stems.
11 For example: the simplex verbs

/pzedl/ to be wounded, and
/uledl/ to be
deceived; and the complex (denominal) verbs
/azdedl/ to be freed and
/joedl/ to be made/built.

Verb components
213
Stem
class
Verb
Present
aorist
stem
Present
continuous
stem
Past
continuous
stem
Past
aorist
stem
Strong
bz-
biwl
to
lead
away
wl
to
carry
xatl
to
rise
Weak
biw-
bt-
byy-
ys-
wr-
yw-
xe-
xat-
tal
to
tie
ta-
ras-
rasedl
to arrive
aaw-
aawl
to
throw
Table 8.19: Verbs and their stems: strong and weak

214
Verbs
These stems are the basis for the four morphological building blocks upon which
all Pashto verbs are formed. (See Section 8.1.1 and Section 8.2.6.1.) Most Pashto grammars extend the term stem to include these building blocks, but since, strictly speaking, the stem of a verb includes only derivational material, while the building blocks
also contain inflectional materialfor tense and aspectwe prefer to avoid this looser
terminology and instead refer to the latter as bases. We confine our use of stem to forms
that include only (1) a plain verbal form or one with derivational affixes, as for example
prefixed verbs (Section 8.2.4.3); or (2) a nominal complement-verb construction, in the
case of contracted denominal verbs (Section 8.2.4.4). We do so in order to distinguish in
our descriptions the more elemental stems from the partially inflected building blocks.
Two comments are pertinent here. First, one could probably speak theoretically
of Pashto verb roots in addition to stems and basesand certainly so in a historicalcomparative discussionbut the concept is not necessary to a synchronic description.
Second, the term base is frequently used as a synonym for root; we therefore acknowledge we are co-opting it for this new sense; however, there is no loss to the accurate
description of Pashto in doing so.
8.2.6.1 The four verb bases

Pashto verb bases are formed according to the two parameters of tense (present/past)
and aspect (continuous/aorist). In Pashto, the past tense of weak verbs is indicated
by either the suffix /l-/ (for transitive verbs) or
/ed(-l-)/ (for intransitives),
and the present tense either by the absence of this suffix (transitives), or by the suffix
/g-/ (intransitives), while the past tense of strong verbs is indicated by stem allomorphy. The aorist aspect is indicated by the stressed prefix /w/ or (in the case
of complex verbs) by stress on the prefix or complement, and the continuous aspect
by the absence of /w/ or stress on the verb itself rather than the prefix or complement. The result of these two binary choices, present/past and continuous/aorist, is
the following four-way contrast of bases:
1. present continuous
2. present aorist
3. past continuous
4. past aorist
To these bases can be added either:
a PNG suffix
12 Although see Section 8.3.3 for a more complete discussion of how past tense is encoded in the
morphology.

Verb components
215
an imperative or optative suffix, or

an adjectival suffix (to form a participle)
The result is a fully inflected Pashto verb. See Table 8.1 and Table 8.2 for a schematization of verb formation. Both present and imperative forms are formed on present
bases; past, optative, and infinitive forms are formed on past bases. Three of the four
bases are also used as the base of participles (see Section 8.2.9). The way the four bases
are formed from the stems of the verb is described in the following sections. In a few
cases of strong verbs with four stem allomorphs, the stems and bases may coincide.
The
/l-/ suffix of the past base is sometimes optional or even disallowed: it
is required only in weak transitive verbs (see Section 8.2.6.2), whose past continuous
base would otherwise be identical to the present continuous base. For all other verbs,
whose past and present stems differ , the /l-/ suffix is optional in first and second
person forms and is prohibited in third masculine singular forms. Conversely, in third
plural masculine forms,
/l-/ is usually present, and the PNG suffix is encoded
therein. Because they share an identical suffix, the past continuous base of any Pashto
verb is formally identical to its infinitive.
8.2.6.2 Weak verbs (one stem)

Weak verbs have a single stem from which all four bases are predictable. Among weak
verbs, intransitives and transitives have different, though predictable, shape: the bases
of intransitive verbs have an extra affix after the stem, one for present and one for past
tense. Examples are given in Table 8.20 through Table 8.22.
Formation of bases for weak verbs, first conjugation:
Transitive (see Table 8.20):
present continuous base = stem
/w/ + stem
past continuous base: stem + /l-/(suffix obligatory)
past aorist base: /w/ + stem + /l-/(suffix obligatory)
present aorist base:
Intransitive (see Table 8.21):
/eg/
present aorist base: /w/ + stem + /eg/
past continuous base: stem + /ed/ (+ /l-/prohibited in 3SGM; optional
present continuous base: stem +
elsewhere)

216
Verbs
tal to tie
Stem
Continuous base
Aorist base
Present
ta
Past
ta
ta-l
w-ta
w-ta-l
Table 8.20: Weak verb bases: first conjugation (transitive)
rasdl to
Stem
Continuous base
Aorist base
Present
()
()
arrive
ras
Past
ras-eg
ras-ed(-l)
w-ras-eg
w-ras-ed(-l)
Table 8.21: Weak verb bases: first conjugation (intransitive)

Verb components
past aorist base:

/w/ + stem +
optional elsewhere)
/ed/( +
217
/l-/ prohibited in 3SGM;
Formation of bases for weak verbs, second conjugation (see Table 8.22):
present continuous base = stem
present aorist base: stressed prefix + stem
/l-/(suffix obligatory)
past aorist base: stressed prefix + stem + /l-/(suffix obligatory)
past continuous base: prefix + stem +
In the second conjugation, aorists are formed by a shift of stress to the existing
prefix, rather than the addition of the /w/ prefix. Note that
/w-l/ to carry
is weak when it is the stem of a prefixed verb and strong when it occurs alone. See
Table 8.27.
rwl to
Stem
Continuous base
Aorist base
Present
bring (to me)
r-w
Past
r-w
r-w
r-w-l
r-w-l
Table 8.22: Weak verb bases: second conjugation
8.2.6.3 Strong verbs (more than one stem)

It is not feasible at this time to provide an exhaustive list of the Pashto strong verbs.
Forms vary tremendously across dialects; furthermore, what is strong in one area may
be weak in another; for example, the verb
/xatl/ to rise, which has a strong
aorist masculine singular base in most dialects (
/wxot-/), has
/wxat-/
for a base in NE Pashto.

218
Verbs
8.2.6.3.1 Strong verbs with two stems

These verbs have two different stems; present bases are predictable from one stem, and
past bases from the other. The two stems have no predictable similarity to each other,
although many can be grouped loosely together according to shared initial sound or
sounds (see Table 8.37); others are simply suppletive (see Table 8.24). Examples are
given in Table 8.23 through Table 8.25.
Formation of bases for strong verbs, first conjugation (two stems) (see Table
8.23):
present continuous base = present stem
/w/ + present stem

past continuous base: past stem (+ /l-/ prohibited in 3SGM; optional else-
present aorist base:
where)
past aorist base:

elsewhere)
/w/ + past stem (+ /l-/ prohibited in 3SGM; optional
xatl to rise
Stem
Continuous base
Aorist base
Present
)(
)(
Past
xot
w-xe
xot(-l)
w-xot(-l)
Table 8.23: Strong verb bases: first conjugation (two stems)
Formation of bases for strong verbs, second conjugation (two stems) (see Table 8.25):
present continuous base = present stem
present aorist base: stressed prefix + present stem
past continuous base: prefix + past stem (+
tional elsewhere)
/l-/ prohibited in 3SGM; op-
13 Equivalent to Penzls Class II (excluding the intransitives with -eg- and -ed-) and Class III and to
Hestons second conjugation/irregular verbs.

Verb components
lidl to see
Stem
Continuous base
Aorist base
Present
)(
)(
win
Past
lid
win
219
w-win
lid(-l)
w-lid(-l)
Table 8.24: Strong suppletive verb, first conjugation (two stems)
past aorist base: stressed prefix + past stem (+

optional elsewhere)
/l-/ prohibited in 3SGM;
pre-wat-l to
Stem
Continuous base
Aorist base
Present
)(
)(
fall
pre-wz
Past
wat
pre-wz
pre-wat(-l)
pr-wz
pr-wat-(-l)
Table 8.25: Strong verb bases: second conjugation (two stems)
8.2.6.3.2 Strong verbs with three or four stems

In verbs with three or four stems, the four bases are not predictable from each other.
There are six simplex multi-stem verbs; note that three of them form the base for deictic
prefixed verbs. The last table therefore gives the a paradigm of the combining forms for
/tll/ to go when it forms the base of a prefixed verb with the deictic prefixes. The
prefixed verbs based on
/kawl/ to do use its irregular forms (listed elsewhere
14 Equivalent to Penzls Class IV and Hestons fourth conjugation/double verbs.

220
Verbs
in Section 8.2.8.3), and those based on the otherwise multi-stem verb

/wl/ to
carry, use its weak stem (as illustrated by Table 8.22).
Formation of bases for strong verbs (three or four stems) (see Table 8.26 through
Table 8.32):
Present continuous base = (present) continuous stem
/w/ + present aorist stem

Past continuous base: (past continuous) stem + ( /l-/prohibited in 3SGM;
Present aorist base:
optional elsewhere)
Past aorist base:

/w/ + past aorist stem + (
optional elsewhere)
/l-/prohibited in 3SGM;
The bases and stems for the six simplex members and one complex member of
this class of multi-stem strong verbs are listed in Table 8.26 through Table 8.32. The
first four verbs in these tables are transitive; the remaining three are intransitive. Note
that two of these seven verbs,
/kawl/ to do and
/kedl/ to become, are
also used as verbalizers (Section 8.2.4.4), and when they are, their aorist forms are
not formed with the first conjugation prefix /w/, but are irregular. The paradigms
for these verbs in their verbalizer role are in Section 8.2.8. The parenthetical // in
the present aorist base of
/kawl/ to do indicates that it is frequently elided in
speech.
kawl to do
Continuous
Stem
Present
kaw
Past
Aorist
Base
Base
kaw-
kaw-l
Table 8.26: Strong verb bases:
Stem
k()
w-k()
w-k-l
/kawl/ to do
The verb bases of /kawl/ to do and /kedl/ to become in the Middle dialects
are in Table 8.33 through Table 8.36. Notice that in both Waziri and Dzadrani, the stem
of the past tense reduces when taking /-/ as a suffix: /k-/ /k-/ and /w-/ /-/.

Verb components
wl to carry
Continuous
Stem
Present
Aorist
Base
ys
w-l
Continuous
away
Stem
Base
()
)(
byy
biw-l
bz
bt(l)
bz
bt(l)-l
/biwl/ to lead away
ixodl to
Continuous
put
Stem
Aorist
Base
Stem
Base
)(
)(
(i)gd
Past
Stem
biw
Present
yw-l
Aorist
Base
byy
Past
yw
ys
/wl/ to carry
biwl to lead
Present
Base
w-
Past
Stem
ixod/kxxod
(i)gd-
kxgd
kxxod
kxgd
kxexod-l
ixodl/kxxod-l
/ixodl/ to put

221
222
Verbs
kedl to
Continuous
become
Stem
Present
Base
)(
kg
ked-l
w-w-l
Aorist
Base
Stem
Base
)(
)(
()
)(
)(
)(
tl
(w)l
tl-(l)
(w)l
(w)l
(w)l-l
/tll/ to go
rtll to come
Continuous
Stem
Aorist
Base
Stem
Base
()
()
Past
w-
Continuous
Stem
Present
/kedl/ to become
tll to go
Past
Base
ked
Present
Stem
kg
Past
Aorist
rtl
r-
rtl-(l-)
/rtll/ to come

r-(l-)
Verb components
Continuous
kawl to do
Root
Present
Past
Aorist
Base
kaw-
kaw-
k-
k-
kaw-
kaw-l-
k-
k(-l)-
Root
Base
k-
w-k
k-
w-k(-l)-
Table 8.33: Waziri strong verb bases: /kawl/ to do
Continuous
kawl to do
Root
Aorist
Base
Root
Base
Present
k-
k-
k-
w-k
Past
kr-
k(-l)-
w-k(-l)-
Table 8.34: Dzadrani strong verb bases: /kawl/ to do
Continuous
kedl to become
Root
Present
Past
Aorist
Base
ke-
ke-
ked-
ked(-l)-
w-
w(-l)-
Root
Base
w-
w-
w-w(-l)-
Table 8.35: Waziri strong verb bases: /kedl/ to become

223
224
Verbs
Continuous
kedl to become
Root
Aorist
Base
Root
Base
Present
w-
Past
w-
w(-l)-
w-
w-w(-l)-
Table 8.36: Dzadrani strong verb bases: /kedl/ to become
8.2.6.3.3 List of strong verbs

Table 8.37 shows some strong Pashto verbs, grouped according to similarity of morphological patterns.
Table 8.37: Strong verbs

Infinitive
3rd sg. pres.
3rd sg. masc. past aorist
alwotl to fly [away]

prewatl to fall
poriwatl to cross
nnawatl to enter
watl to go out
lwozi
prewzi
poriwzi
nnawzi
wzi
wlwot
prwot
priwot
nnawot
wwot
peandl to know
pani
wpend
kindl, kinl to dig
kni
wkind
istl to pull [out]
bsi
wist, wyust
preistl to throw, pack
prebsi
prist
nnaistl to introduce
nnabsi
nnaist,
nnayust
15 Adapted from Shafeev (1964).

Verb components 225

Infinitive
3rd sg. pres.
awutl to turn over

utl to want
tl to twist
ntl to wrap up
awoi
wi
a
ni
wwut
wut
wt
wnt
arwedl to hear
iedl to boil
rwi
i
wrwed
wied
breedl to shine,
bri
wbreed
drumedl to march
drmi
wdrumed
zeedl to be born
zi
wzeed
axl to mix up
mul to rub
ax
mu
wax
wmu
rniwl to buy [up]
rnisi
rniw
niwl to take, seize
nsi
wniw
axistl to take, get
xli
wxist
rwustl to bring
rwli
rwust
lwastl to read
lwli
wlwast
astl to run
al
wst
rkl to extract
kl to pull
rki
ki
rwki
wki
austl to dress
udl to weave, knit
aund
wi, yi
wgust
wud
iodl to lay down
di
kod
ball to call, count
bli
wbl
appear

226
Verbs

Infinitive
3rd sg. pres.
biwl to lead, steal
bi
bot
prnitl to open
prnii
prnit
preodl to leave, allow

perodl to buy
tll to go
prdi
pri
i
prod
wperod
wl
udl to split
awl to blow up
kl to smoke
aw
aw
ki
wud
ww
wkw
akl to drink, taste
ak
wak
xatl to ascend
rtll to arrive
xi
ri
wxot
ry
rudl to suck [out]

sktl to cut [off]
rwi
sk
wrud
wskt
swl, swal to burn
swa
wsu
owl to show
yi
wow
katl to look
kekl to rub
kenastl to sit [down]
gri
keki
kni
wkot
kekod
knost
kawl to do
kedl to become
larl to have
lidl to see
kaw
ki
lar
wni
wk
wsu
darlod
wlid
mindl to find
mmi
wmind
ntl to stick to
nli
wnt
[down]

Verb components
227

Infinitive
3rd sg. pres.
wl to take [away]
wal to kill, execute
wi
wni
yuw
ww
witl to shoot
wli
wwit
wayl to speak
wi
wwy
8.2.7 The causative morpheme

As shown in Table 8.1 and Table 8.2, causative verbs consist of verb stem plus an affix
/aw/. The result is a verb with the meaning to make (someone/something) do X,
where do X is the original verb. In the case of verbs with more than one stem, some
causative forms use the present and some the past stem, depending on the verb. Our
data do not suggest a rule for which stem is used, and in some cases, both forms exist,
as can be seen in the fourth example in Table 8.38. Causative verbs belong to the first
conjugation (see Section 8.2.5.2).
The causative suffix is no longer productive. In modern Pashto, a caused event can
be expressed periphrastically rather than derivationally, with a phrase that consists of
a verb meaning to force; to compel plus either an infinitive or present aorist form of
the verb that represents the event being caused. (See Section 11.5.) Since the outcomes
of causative affixation are lexicalized, we do not gloss it in our interlinear examples.

228
Verbs
Present stem
Past stem
Causative
lwal read
lwast read
lwal-aw-l to teach
alwuz fly
alwut fly
alwuz-aw-l to make
xe climb
xat climb
xe-aw-l to make
aund dress
aust dress
aund-aw-l to
[lit. to cause to read]
fly, to explode
climb
make dress
aust-aw-l to
make dress
xnd laugh
xand laugh
xand-aw-l to make
zng rock, swing
zang rock, swing
zang-aw-l to rock
laugh
[e.g., in a cradle]
Table 8.38: Causative verbs
8.2.8 The auxiliary to be and the verbalizers
/kedl/ and /kawl/
The three Pashto verbs to be,

/kedl/ to become, and
/kawl/ to make; to
do are all used with other verbs to form morphologically complicated verb constructions. The verb to be is used in compound verb constructions (Section 8.4), while
/kedl/ and
/kawl/ are used to form denominal verbs (Section 8.2.4.4). Most
Pashto grammars refer to all three as auxiliary verbs, but properly speaking, only to be
is an auxiliary. This grammar therefore adopts the term verbalizer for
/kedl/
and
/kawl/ when used as light verbs in denominal constructions. (See the second footnote of Section 8.2.4.4.)
The uses of these three verbs will be described later; for now we are only providing
tables of their inflected forms, as they are irregular and are among the building blocks
necessary to form verb constructions. The verbalizers have double sets of aorist forms:
one with the aorist prefix
/w/ and one without; the stems remain identical. The
tables in this section list the irregular forms; that is, those without /w/, because
they are the forms used as verbalizers. When
/kedl/ and
/kawl/ are used
as main verbs, they have regular aorist forms that take /w/.

Verb components
229
The Middle dialects use the three Pashto verbs to be, /kedl/ to become, and
/kawl/ to make; to do in the same way as the General Pashto dialects do, but some
of the forms differ. Tables of their respective paradigms are in the following sections.
Some authors describe the existential particle
/ta/ as an alternative form of
to be. We treat it as a sentence-level operator: see Section 10.1.1.
8.2.8.1 Forms of to be
As is typical of Indo-European languages, the verb to be in Pashto is irregular. Indeed,
alone among Pashto verbs, the verb to be does not even have a standard infinitive or
citation form, so in English it is commonly referred to by the infinitive of its English
gloss, to be, or sometimes by its first person singular present continuous form,
/ym/. It also has suppletive stems; for example,
/y/ for first and second person
present continuous forms, but /d/ for third person present continuous. In addition,
in General Pashto and Waziri, to be does not have separate aorist forms, with the exception in General Pashto of the third person present form
/wi/ he/she/it is, they
are. In the first and second person, speakers will use either present continuous forms
of to be or present aorist forms of
/kedl/ to become where one might expect
present aorist forms, as in 8.43 below. Dzadrani does have distinct forms of to be for
the present continuous and present aorist. There is no aspectual distinction in the past
tense of to be of any of the dialects; i.e., there are no past aorist forms for to be.
In Pashto to be may act as the copula and also as an auxiliary verb in a compound tense construction (see Section 8.5.3). The forms of to be are shown in Table
Imperative forms of the verb to be are built from the present aorist base
/-/.
The singular uses a special form,
/a/ be!, while the plural uses the second person
plural form,
/y/ be!:

230
Verbs
to be
Singular
Plural
1st
ym
2nd
ye
yu
ysty
yy (E)
yst (S)
3rd
day (E)
di
da (E)
dy (W)
da; d(W)
Table 8.39: GP present continuous of to be
to be
Singular
Plural
1st
ym(a)
yi
y
2nd
3rd
ye
ysty
day
di
do
Table 8.40: Waziri present continuous of to be

Verb components
to be
Singular
Plural
1st
ym(a)
yi
2nd
ye
yy
day
di
do
3rd
Table 8.41: Dzadrani present continuous of to be
to be
Singular
Present continuous forms of

to be, or present aorist forms
of
kedl to become
(see text)
1st
2nd
3rd
Plural
wi
Table 8.42: GP present aorist of to be (= present continuous except in 3rd person)
to be
Singular
Present continuous forms of

to be, or present aorist forms
of kedl to become (see
text)
1st
2nd
3rd
Plural
wi
Table 8.43: Waziri present aorist of to be (= present continuous except in 3rd person)

231
232
Verbs
to be
Singular
Plural
1st
wm(a)
wi
2nd
we
wy
wi
? (Septfonds
is unclear on
this form.)
to be
Singular
Plural
1st
3rd
Table 8.44: Dzadrani present aorist of to be
wm
2nd
we
wu
wasty
wy E
wst SW
3rd
wl
wa
we
w SW
Table 8.45: GP past of to be

Verb components
to be
Singular
Plural
1st
wm(a)
wi
w
2nd
we
wsty
wi
wa
we
to be
Singular
Plural
1st
wm(a)
wi
2nd
we
wy
wi
wa
we
3rd
Table 8.46: Waziri past of to be
3rd
Table 8.47: Dzadrani past of to be
to be
Singular
Plural
2nd
Table 8.48: Imperative of to be

233
234
Verbs
8.2.8.2 Forms of
/kedl/ to become
The present continuous forms of the intransitive verbalizer
are shown in Table 8.49, Table 8.50, and Table 8.51.
/kedl/ to become
kedl to become
Singular
Plural
1st
kgm
2nd
kge
3rd
kgu
kgy
kgi
Table 8.49: GP present continuous of
/kedl/ to become
kedl to become
Singular
Plural
1st
km(a)
ki
ke
2nd
3rd
ke
M
ky
ki
Table 8.50: Waziri present continuous of /kedl/ to become
The present aorist forms of

/kedl/ to become are shown in Table 8.52,
Table 8.53, and Table 8.54. They are often pronounced with an initial /s/ in ordinary
speech in the Southwest dialect, although speakers may have // in reading and careful

Verb components
kedl to become
Singular
Plural
1st
kgm(a)
kgi
2nd
kge
kgy
3rd
kgi
Table 8.51: Dzadrani present continuous of /kedl/ to become
kedl to become
Singular
Plural
1st
2nd
e
3rd
Table 8.52: GP present aorist of
/kedl/ to become
kedl to become
Singular
Plural
1st
m(a)
2nd
3rd
e
M
Table 8.53: Waziri present aorist of /kedl/ to become

235
236
Verbs
kedl to become
Singular
Plural
1st
m(a)
2nd
3rd
Table 8.54: Dzadrani present aorist of /kedl/ to become
speech. In General Pashto and Waziri, the first and second person forms are identical
to those of the present aorist forms of to be (Table 8.42).
The past continuous forms of
/kedl/ to become are shown in Table 8.55
and Table 8.57. Our reading of Lorimer is that Waziri does not distinguish aspect for
/kedl/ to become in the past tense, so we have only past forms for that dialect (Table
8.56). Although Septfonds does not list any past forms of /kedl/ to become with the
past tense affix /-l-/, in his discussion of Dzadrani verbs in general, he does say that
it serves only to relieve ambiguities (Septfonds, 1994: 141), which implies that it may
also appear in forms of /kedl/ to become. Moreover, as can be seen elsewhere in
this grammar, /-l-/ is used in both General Pashto and Waziri forms of /kedl/ to
become. However, we have no data to confirm this supposition, so we are not listing
forms with /-l-/ for Dzadrani.
The past aorist forms of
/kedl/ to become are shown in Table 8.58 and
Table 8.59. See Table 8.56 for past forms of Waziri
/kedl/ to become, which
may not distinguish aspect.

Verb components 237
kedl to become
Singular
Plural
1st
)(
)(
)(
)(
()
)(
)(
ked(l)m
2nd
ked(l)
3rd
ked
ked(l)
Table 8.55: GP past continuous of
ked(l)
ked(l)y
kedl()
ked(l)
/kedl/ to become
kedl to become
Singular
Plural
1st
w(l)m(a)
w(l)i
sw(l)
2nd
3rd
w(l)e
w(l)y
wl
w(l)a
w(l)e
Table 8.56: Waziri past continuous of /kedl/ to become

238
Verbs
kedl to become
Singular
Plural
1st
kedm(a)
kedi
2nd
kede
kedy
ked
ked(l)
keda
ked
3rd
Table 8.57: Dzadrani past continuous of /kedl/ to become
kedl to become
Singular
Plural
1st
)(
)(
)(
)(
()
)(
)(
w(l)m
2nd
w(l)e
3rd
w(l)
Table 8.58: GP past aorist of
w(l)u
w(l)y
wl()
w(l)
/kedl/ to become

Verb components 239
kedl to become
Singular
Plural
1st
wm(a)
wi
2nd
we
wy
w(l)
wa
we
3rd
Table 8.59: Dzadrani past aorist of /kedl/ to become
8.2.8.3 Forms of
/kawl/ to make; to do
Table 8.60 , Table 8.61, and Table 8.62 illustrate the formation of the present continuous
of the transitive verbalizer
/kawl/ to make; to do.
kawl to make; to
do
1st
Singular
Plural
kawm
2nd
kaw
3rd
kaw
kawy
kaw
Table 8.60: GP present continuous of

240
Verbs
kawl to make; to do
Singular
Plural
1st
kawm(a)
kaw
kaw
2nd
3rd
kaw
M
kawy
kaw
Table 8.61: Waziri present continuous of /kawl/ to make; to do
kawl to make; to do
Singular
Plural
1st
kawm(a)
kaw
2nd
kaw
kawy
3rd
kaw
Table 8.62: Dzadrani present continuous of /kawl/ to make; to do

Verb components
241
The aorist forms of the transitive verbalizer (used with denominal verbs) are irregular, and are therefore best analyzed as fully inflected forms. Table 8.63, Table 8.64,
and Table 8.65 illustrate them.
kawl to make; to
do
1st
Singular
Plural
km
ku
ke
ky
km
2nd
ke
3rd
ku
ky
ki
ki
Table 8.63: GP present aorist of
kawl to make; to do
Singular
Plural
1st
km(a)
ki
k
2nd
3rd
ke
M
ky
ki
ko
Table 8.64: Waziri present aorist of /kawl/ to make; to do

242
Verbs
kawl to make; to do
Singular
Plural
1st
km(a)
ki
2nd
ke
ky
3rd
ko
Table 8.65: Dzadrani present aorist of /kawl/ to make; to do
The // in present aorist forms is usually written, and is always pronounced in

careful speech, but is unpronounced in ordinary speech in many dialects.
Table 8.66, Table 8.67, and Table 8.68 illustrate the formation of the past continuous of the transitive verbalizer.
kawl to make; to
do
1st
Singular
Plural
kawlm
2nd
3rd
kawlu
kawle
kawly
()
kaw
kawl()
kw
kawla
kaw
Table 8.66: GP past continuous of
kawle
kaw

Verb components
kawl to make; to do
Singular
Plural
1st
kawlm(a)
kawli
243
kawl
2nd
3rd
kawle
kawly
kaw
kawl
kow
F
kawla
kawle
kaw
kaw
Table 8.67: Waziri past continuous of /kawl/ to make; to do
kawl to make; to do
Singular
Plural
1st
kawlm(a)
kawli
2nd
kawle
kawly
kow
kaw(l)
kawla
kawle
3rd
Table 8.68: Dzadrani past continuous of /kawl/ to make; to do
Table 8.69, Table 8.70, and Table 8.71 illustrate the formation of the past aorist of
the transitive verbalizer.
Although the past aorist forms of the General Pashto transitive verbalizer without
the
/l/ suffix are orthographically identical to the present aorist forms, the fact
that in the present aorist the // is often not pronounced means that in speech the
bases are often not identicalso the
/l/ suffix is not always required to differentiate the tense. In past third person forms, even the // can be dropped, since the
personal suffixes differ from those in the present: past /-, -a/ versus present
/-
i/; thus encoding tense without need of either /l/ or //. In Waziri and Dzadrani,
244
Verbs
kawl to make; to
do
1st
Singular
Plural
km
klm
2nd
ke
3rd
klu
ky
kle
kly
ku
ka
ka
kl
kl
kle
ke
kla
Table 8.69: GP past aorist of

Verb components
245
the longer forms that show /-l-/ in Table 8.70 and Table 8.71 are rarer than the short
forms.
kawl to make; to do
Singular
Plural
1st
km
ki
klm
kli
ke
ky
kle
kly
kl
ka
kle
kla
ke
2nd
3rd
Table 8.70: Waziri past aorist of /kawl/ to make; to do
kawl to make; to do
Singular
Plural
1st
km(a)
ki
klm(a)
kli
ke
ky
kle
kly
k(l)
ka
kle
kla
ke
2nd
3rd
Table 8.71: Dzadrani past aorist of /kawl/ to make; to do

246
Verbs
8.2.9 Participles
There are two kinds of participles in Pashto, present and past. These participles are
both formed on past bases and declined as Class IIIb adjectives (Section 6.2.1.3.2). They
are described in more detail in the sub-sections below.
8.2.9.1 Present participle

Formation: past continuous base (without
/l/) +
/unk/ + Class IIIb
adjectival suffixes
The present participle is declined like a Class IIIb adjective (Section 6.2.1.3.2).
Some examples are given in Table 8.72.
Verb class
Verb
Present participle
First Conjugation
wahl to beat
wah-unk-ay
bowl to take
bow-unk-ay
Second Conjugation
Third Conjugation
away
xals-edl to
become free
xals-awl
to liberate
xals-ed-unk-ay
xals-aw-unk-ay
Table 8.72: Present participles
An example of a declined present participle is given in Table 8.73.

Verb components
rawl to
Masculine
247
Feminine
threaten
Singular
Direct
rawnkay
Oblique
rawnki
Plural
Singular
Plural
rawnki
rawnke
rawnke
rawnko
rawnko
Ablative
Vocative
rawnkaya
Table 8.73: Present participle: declension
8.2.9.2 Past participle

Formation:
(First and Second conj.) past continuous base + Class IIIb adjectival suffixes
(Third conj.) Noun/Adj. + past aorist base of
Class IIIb adjectival suffixes
/kedl/ or
/kawl/ +
In these forms, the suffix

/l-/ may be dropped. Past participles are then declined using the Class IIIb adjective suffixes (Section 6.2.1.3.2). They are used to form
the perfect constructions for first and second conjugation verbs (see Section 8.4.1).
Some examples are given in Table 8.74, and an example of a declined past participle
is given in Table 8.75.

248
Verbs
Verb class
Verb
Past participle
First Conjugation
wahl to beat
wah-l-ay
bowl to take
bow-l-ay
xals
Second Conjugation
Third Conjugation
away
xals-edl to be
liberated
xals-awl
to set free
way
xals
kay
Table 8.74: Past participles
Masculine
tll to go
Singular
Direct
Plural
Singular
tlle
tlle
tle
tle
tlli
tlay
tli
tlli
tli
tllo
tlo
Ablative
Vocative
Plural
tllay
Oblique
Feminine
tllya
tlya
Table 8.75: Past participle: declension

tllo
tlo
Simple verb constructions
249
8.2.9.3 Irregularities among past participles

The verbs
/kedl/ and
/kawl/ (Section 8.2.8) form their past participles
from the past aorist base, rather than the past continuous, and these participles are
used to form the perfect constructions for third conjugation (denominal) verbs. The
prefixed verbs built from
/tll/ to go
/rtll/ to come,
/drtll/ to
go (to you), and
/wrtll/ to go (to him)also form their past participles from
their past aorist base. All of these atypical forms are shown in Table 8.76.
Infinitive
Aorist participle
kedl to become
way
kawl to make; to do
kay
rtll to come
rlay
drtll to go (to you)
dralay
wrtll to go (to him)
wralay
Table 8.76: Past participles built on aorist bases
8.3 Simple verb constructions

Formation rules for each type of verb construction are given in terms of the verb components described above in Section 8.2.
8.3.1 Present continuous

Formation: present continuous base + present PNG

250 Verbs
rasedl to arrive
Singular
Plural
1st
rasgm
2nd
rasge
3rd
rasgu
rasgy
rasgi
Table 8.77: Present continuous, first conjugation (intransitive)
niwl to catch
Singular
Plural
1st
nism
2nd
nis
3rd
nis
nisy
nis
Table 8.78: Present continuous, first conjugation (transitive)

prewatl to fall
Singular
Plural
1st
prewzm
2nd
prewze
3rd
prewzu
prewzy
prewzi
Table 8.79: Present continuous, second conjugation
roxnawl to
enlighten
1st
Singular
Plural
roxnawm
2nd
roxnaw
3rd
roxnaw
roxnawy
roxnaw
Table 8.80: Present continuous, third conjugation

251
252
Verbs
8.3.2 Present aorist

Formation: present aorist base + present PNG
rasedl to arrive
Singular
Plural
1st
wrasegm
2nd
wrasege
3rd
wrasegu
wrasegy
wrasegi
Table 8.81: Present aorist, first conjugation (intransitive)
niwl to catch
1st
Singular
Plural
wnism
2nd
wnise
3rd
wnisu
wnisy
wnisi
Table 8.82: Present aorist, first conjugation (transitive)

prewatl to fall
Singular
Plural
1st
prwzm
2nd
prwze
3rd
prwzu
prwzy
prwzi
Table 8.83: Present aorist, second conjugation
roxnawl to
enlighten
1st
Singular
Plural
)(
)(
)(
)(
roxn k()m
2nd
roxn k()e
3rd
roxn k()u
roxn k()y
)(
roxn k()i
Table 8.84: Present aorist, third conjugation

253
254
Verbs
8.3.3 Past continuous

Formation: Past continuous base + past PNG
As mentioned earlier, the past tense affix /-l-/ does not occur uniformly throughout the paradigm: it is optional in any verbs with other morphological markers of tense.
These groups would include first and second person forms of first conjugation intransitive verbs, as well as those of third conjugation verbs, because both types redundantly
encode tense with the affixes
/-eg-/ and
/-ed-/; and likewise any strong verbs,
as they encode tense through allomorphic stems. The past tense affix is prohibited in
the third person masculine singular for all of the above classes, and obligatory in third
plural masculine forms. These constraints prevent homophony between the singular
and plural forms of masculine verbs, as the PNG suffix is the same for both:
/-/.
The PNG suffix /-/ can thus be omitted in plural masculine forms, resulting in the
tense affix becoming a portmanteau morpheme that encodes tense as well as person,
number, and gender.
rasedl to arrive
Singular
Plural
1st
)(
)(
)(
)(
()
)(
)(
rased(l)m
2nd
rased(l)
3rd
rased
rased(l)
rased(l)
rased(l)y
rasedl()
rased(l)
Table 8.85: Past continuous, first conjugation (intransitive)

niwl to catch
Singular
Plural
1st
)(
)(
)(
)(
()
)(
)(
niw(l)m
2nd
niw(l)
3rd
niw
niw(l)
niw(l)y
niwl()
niw(l)
niw(l)
Table 8.86: Past continuous, first conjugation (transitive)
prewatl to fall
Singular
Plural
1st
)(
)(
)(
)(
()
prewat(l)m
2nd
prewat(l)
3rd
prewt
prewat NE
prewat(l)
prewat(l)y
prewatl
()
prewt() NE
)(
prewatla
prewatle
Table 8.87: Past continuous, second conjugation

255
256
Verbs
roxnawl to
enlighten
1st
Singular
Plural
roxnawlm
2nd
roxnawle
3rd
roxnaw
roxnaw(l)
roxnawlu
roxnawly
roxnawl
roxnaw(l)
Table 8.88: Past continuous, third conjugation
8.3.4 Past aorist

Formation: Past aorist base + past PNG
rasedl to arrive
Singular
Plural
1st
)(
)(
wrased(l)u
wrased(l)m
2nd
)(
)(
()
)(
)(
wrased(l)e
3rd
wrased
wrased(l)a
wrased(l)y
wrasedl()
wrased(l)e
Table 8.89: Past aorist, first conjugation (intransitive)

niwl to catch
Singular
Plural
1st
)(
)(
)(
)(
()
)(
)(
wniw(l)m
2nd
wniw(l)e
3rd
wniw
wniw(l)a
wniw(l)u
wniw(l)y
wniwl()
wniw(l)e
Table 8.90: Past aorist, first conjugation (transitive)
prewatl to fall
Singular
Plural
1st
)(
)(
)(
)(
()
prwat(l)m
2nd
prwat(l)e
3rd
prwot
prwat NE
prwat(l)u
prwat(l)y
prwatl
()
prwat(o) NE
)(
prwatla
prwatle
Table 8.91: Past aorist, second conjugation

257
258
Verbs
roxnawl to
enlighten
1st
Singular
Plural
)(
)(
)(
)(
)(
)(
roxn
k(l)m
2nd
roxn k(l)e
3rd
roxn k
roxn k(l)u
roxn k(l)y
roxn kl
roxn k(l)a
roxn k(l)e
Table 8.92: Past aorist, third conjugation
8.3.5 Continuous imperative

Formation: Present continuous base + -a (sg.)/-y (pl.)
Imperative verbs do not encode the categories of person or tense; however, they do
have both continuous and aorist forms. The difference is illustrated below in Section
8.5.2.5. In continuous imperatives, stress is located according to the lexical stress of
the verb. Imperatives are negated with the particle
/m/, which takes the primary
stress for the verbal construction, as illustrated in Table 8.94, Table 8.96, and Table
8.98. Only the continuous imperative is used in negation. Note that NE Pashto treats
negative forms differently for prefixed verbs, placing the negative particle before the
entire verb (Heston 1992: 1589), whereas other dialects place it between the prefix and
the stem (Table 8.96).

niwl to catch
Singular
Plural
2nd
nis
nisy
Table 8.93: Continuous imperative, first conjugation
niwl to catch
Singular
Plural
2nd
m nisa
m nisy
Table 8.94: Continuous imperative, first conjugation (negative)
prekawl to
cut
2nd
Singular
Plural
prekaw
prekawy
Table 8.95: Continuous imperative, second conjugation
prekawl to
cut
2nd
Singular
Plural
pre m kawa
m prekawa NE
pre m kawy
m prekawy NE
Table 8.96: Continuous imperative, second conjugation (negative)

259
260
Verbs
roxnawl
to enlighten
Singular
Plural
2nd
roxnaw
roxnawy
Table 8.97: Continuous imperative, third conjugation
roxnawl
to enlighten
Singular
Plural
2nd
m roxnawa
m roxnawy
Table 8.98: Continuous imperative, third conjugation, negative
8.3.6 Aorist imperative

Formation: Present aorist base + -a (sg.)/-y (pl.)
Aorist imperative forms are used only in the affirmative. To negate an imperative,
the continuous form is used.
niwl to catch
Singular
Plural
2nd
wnisa
wnisy
Table 8.99: Aorist imperative, first conjugation

prekawl to
Singular
Plural
2nd
261
cut
prka
prky
Table 8.100: Aorist imperative, second conjugation
Singular
Plural
2nd
roxnawl
to enlighten
roxn ka
roxn ky
Table 8.101: Aorist imperative, third conjugation
8.3.7 Continuous optative
Formation: past continuous base +

/y/ (SW,SE),
/ay/ (NW), or
/e/
(NE)
Some examples of continuous optative verbs are shown in Table 8.102. Optative
verb forms do not show agreement.
Optative forms occur after the conditional particle
/k/ if and the counterfactual particle
/kke/ if only; see Section 10.1.2.4 for an example. Continuous
optative forms can also be used in combination with the aorist forms of
/kedl/
to become to yield a verb construction meaning can X, able to X (see Section 8.2.8.2
for the aorist forms of
/kedl/ and Section 8.5.4 for examples).

262
Verbs
Conjugation
Verb
Continuous optative
First (intransitive)
rasedl to arrive
)(rased(l)y
)(rased(l)ay
)(rased(l)e
SW,SE
NW
NE
Second (intransitive)
prewatl to fall
)(prewat(l)y
)(prewat(l)ay
)(prewat(l)e
SW,SE
NW
NE
Third (intransitive)
paxedl to ripen; to
mature
)(paxed(l)y
)(paxed(l)ay
)(paxed(l)e
SW,SE
NW
NE
First (transitive)
niwl to catch
)(niw(l)y
)(niw(l)ay
)(niw(l)e
SW,SE
NW
NE
Second (transitive)
prekawl to cut
)(prekaw(l)y
)(prekaw(l)ay
)(prekaw(l)e
SW,SE
NW
NE
Third (transitive)
roxnawl to
enlighten
)(
roxnaw(l)y SW,SE
)(roxnaw(l)ay
)(roxnaw(l)e
Table 8.102: Continuous optative forms

NW
NE
263
8.3.8 Aorist optative

Formation: past aorist base + /-y/ (SW,SE), /-ay/ (NW), or /-e/ (NE)
Some examples of aorist optative verbs are shown in Table 8.103.
Aorist optative forms can be used in combination with the aorist forms of
/kedl/ to become to yield a verb construction meaning could X, was able to X (see
Section 8.2.8.2 and Section 8.5.4); however, in the case of third conjugation intransitive
verbs, the light verb
/w-/ is omitted. Therefore instead of the incorrect *
/pox way i/, we would see /pox i/ could ripen; could mature.

264
Verbs
Verb type
First conjugation,
intransitive
Verb
Aorist optative
rasedl to arrive
)(
wrased(l)y SW,SE
)(wrased(l)ay
)(wrased(l)e
Second conjugation,
intransitive
prewatl to fall
)(prwat(l)y
)(prwat(l)ay
)(prwat(l)e
NW
NE
SW,SE
NW
NE
Third conjugation,
intransitive
paxedl to ripen; to
mature
( )pox (wy)
( )pox (way)
( )pox (we)
SW,SE
NW
NE
First conjugation,
transitive
niwl to catch
wniwy
wniway
wniwe
SW,SE
NW
NE
Second conjugation,
transitive
prekawl to cut
prkawy
prkaway
prkawe
SW,SE
NW
NE
Third conjugation,
transitive
roxnawl to
enlighten
roxn ky
roxn kay
roxn ke
SW,SE
NW
NE
Table 8.103: Aorist optative forms

Compound verb constructions
265
8.4 Compound verb constructions

There are two kinds of compound verb construction: those that convey the perfect and
those that convey a sense of potential or ability.
8.4.1 Perfect constructions

8.4.1.1 Present perfect
Formation: past participle + present continuous of to be
Table 8.104 and Table 8.105 illustrate the forms of the present perfect. Alignment
is usually ergative in both present and past perfect constructions; it therefore appears
to be governed by the matrix verb, which is built on a past stem. Dialectal variants can
be inferred from the various dialectal forms of to be, seen in (Table 8.39), so they are
not provided here.
rasedl to arrive
1st
Singular
Plural
rasedlay
ym
F
2nd
3rd
rasedle ym
rasedle yu
rasedlay ye
rasedli yy
rasedle ye
rasedle yy
rasedlay day
rasedli yu
rasedli di
rasedle da
rasedle di
Table 8.104: Present perfect, first and second conjugations
With the addition of the modal clitic /b/ and present aorist, rather than present
continuous, forms of to be, the construction expresses future perfect, as in:

266
Verbs
paxedl to ripen;
to mature
1st
Singular
Plural
pox way
ym
F
paxa we
ym
2nd
3rd
paxe we yu
pox way ye
px wi yy
paxa we ye
paxe we yy
pox way
day
F
px wi yu
paxa we da
px wi di
paxe we di
Table 8.105: Present perfect, third conjugation

Compound verb constructions
267
/b rasedlay ym/ I [m.] will have arrived

/b rasedle wi/ she/they will have arrived
8.4.1.2 Past perfect

Formation: past participle + past continuous of to be
Table 8.106 illustrates the forms of the past perfect.
rasedl to arrive
1st
Singular
Plural
rasedlay
wm
F
2nd
rasedle wm
rasedle wu
rasedlay we
3rd
rasedli wy
rasedle we
rasedle wy
rasedlay w
rasedli wu
rasedli w
rasedle wa
rasedle we
Table 8.106: Past perfect
8.4.2 Potential constructions

These constructions express ability: the present potential, translatable as can X; be
able to X, and the past potential, translatable as could X, was able to X. Future potential is expressed by means of the modal clitic /b/ in construction with the present
potential.

268
Verbs
8.4.2.1 Present potential

Formation: continuous optative + present aorist of
rasedl to
arrive
1st
Singular
Plural
)(
)(
)(
)(
rased(l)y m
2nd
3rd
/kedl/ to become
rased(l)y u
rased(l)y e
rased(l)y y
)(
)(
rased(l)ay i
rased(l)ay i
Table 8.107: Present potential
8.4.2.2 Past potential

Formation: aorist optative + past aorist of
rasedl to
arrive
1st
/kedl/ to become
Singular
Plural
)( )(
)( )(
)( )(
)( )(
)( )(
()( )
wrased(l)ay w(l)m
2nd
wrased(l)ay w(l)e
3rd
wrased(l)ay w(l)
wrased(l)ay w(l)u
wrased(l)ay w(l)y
wrased(l)ay wl()
Table 8.108: Past potential

Verb usage
269
8.5 Verb usage

Example sentences in this section come from our native speaker informants, the Internet, and also from data in Lorimer (1902), Lorenz (1982), and Septfonds (1994).
8.5.1 Uses of the verb to be

8.5.1.1 to be as a copula
The verb to be is used in copular constructions in the present tense to represent a
present and continuing state:
(8.6)
.
asad-
pilo-
dy
Asad-M.DIR pilot-M.DIR be.CONT.PRS.3SG.M
Asad is a pilot. (SW)
(8.7)
.
zm
loy-a
gan-
d
da
1SG.STR.POSS large-F.DIR sin-F.DIR this.DIR be.CONT.PRS.3SG.F
e
paxtn-
ym
COMP Pashtoon-M.DIR be.CONT.PRS.1SG
A great sin of mine is that I am Pashtoon.
It is likewise used in copular constructions in the past tense to express past states:
(8.8)
.
nasima-
parun
p kor-
ki
wa
Nasima-F.DIR yesterday in... house-M ...in be.CONT.PST.3SG.F
Nasima was home yesterday. (SW)
(8.9)

tsi
dabndi wst
2PL.STR.DIR outside be.CONT.PST.2PL
Were you outside? (SW)

270
Verbs
8.5.1.2 to be as an auxiliary verb

The verb to be is used as an auxiliary verb with participles to form compound verb
constructions we characterize as perfect (Section 8.4.1):
(8.10) mi
y-ina
-aaw-l-i
1PL.STR.DIR goods-PL.M.DIR CONT-throw-PST-PTCP.PL.M.DIR
wi
be.CONT.PST.3PL.M
We've thrown the trash away/left the goods behind. (WAZ)
(8.11) dzke
e
doy
p
daa
bonde er-a
because COMP 3PL.M.OBL on... this.DIR ...on much-F.DIR
ziyot-a
kry-a
-wxst-e
wi
much-F.DIR fee-F.DIR CONT-take.PST-PTCP.F.DIR be.AOR.PRS.3SG.F
Because they have already gotten a lot of money as carriage charges for that.
(WAZ)
(8.12) p w-ye
man-a
e
bl-a
wredz-
ta
on AOR-3.WK accept-IMP.SG COMP other-F.OBL day-F.OBL to
mo
a
p xeb-
dzon-
-aw-l-ay
1SG.STR.OBL also on sleep-M self-M.DIR CONT-throw-PST-PTCP.M.DIR
n
wi
NEG be.AOR.PRS.3SG.M
You can bet that tomorrow I won't pretend to sleep [lit. that I won't have
thrown myself into sleep]. (DZA)
8.5.2 Simple verb constructions

8.5.2.1 Present continuous
The present continuous form expresses the present tense. It covers states and conditions as well as ongoing actions, both in progress and habitual.
(8.13)
. ) (
astrliy-
p afnistn-
ke d pi ar i im-
Australia-F.DIR in... Afghanistan-M ...in of P R T team-M.DIR
jo-aw-
built-do.CONT-PRS.3[SG.F]
Australia is establishing a P[rovincial] R[econstruction] T[eam] team in
Afghanistan.

Verb usage
(8.14)
271
.
magar d nwaa
aw alat-o
kr-uno
but
of improper and mistaken-PL.M.OBL work-PL.M.OBL
paa-
p m
-aaw-
blame-F.DIR on 1SG.STR.OBL CONT-throw-2SG
But you're blaming me for the misdeeds.
(8.15)
.
pkistni sander-e
rm-e
aw xabar-e
Pakistani song-PL.F.DIR drama-PL.F.DIR and word-PL.F.DIR
anel-una
ye
z
-gor-m
channel-PL.M.DIR 3.WK 1SG.STR.DIR CONT-see.PRS-1SG
I watch their Pakistani music, TV, and discussion channels.
(8.16)
.
numw-ay
min-
d n-y
p
aforementioned-M.DIR machine-M.DIR of world-F.OBL on...
ga-
mir-
b-o
bnde
numerous-M number-M language-PL.F.OBL ...on
xadmt-
kaw-
services-PL.M.DIR do.CONT-PRS.3[SG.M]
The aforementioned device functions in a large number of the world's
languages.
(8.17) z
ipak-
wis n
wxl-
1SG.STR.DIR gun-M.DIR now NEG CONT\take.PRS-1SG
I'm not using the gun now. (WAZ)
(8.18) da
mol-ina
ile
nde
this.DIR goods-PL.M.DIR here near
xarts--i
ka bahar ta
sold-become.CONT.PRS-PRS.3[PL.M] if outside to
drim-i
go.CONT.PRS-PRS.3[PL.M]
Are these goods sold here or are they sent outside? (WAZ)

272
Verbs
(8.19) de nor-e
mlk-e
a
ay-ina
ce
of other-PL.M.OBL country-PL.M.OBL this.DIR thing-PL.M.DIR COMP
wole arzn-
wi
ile
grn-
there cheap-PL.M.DIR be.AOR.PRS.3PL.M here expensive-PL.M.DIR
wi
ro-o-
aw
be.AOR.PRS.3PL.M 1-bring.CONT.PRS-PRS.3[PL.M] and
xarts-aw-
ye
sold-do.CONT-PRS.3[PL.M] 3.WK
They bring and sell things that are cheap in other countries and expensive
here. (WAZ)
8.5.2.1.1 Negation of present tense verbs

The present tense is negated by placing /n/ before the verb. Note that the negative
particle bears the stress of the verb phrase. For example:
(8.20)

wd-
t atiy-
n
-lar-m
wedding-M.OBL for need-F.DIR NEG CONT-have-1SG
Don't I need a wedding?
(8.21)

wali p xost-
ke dari-
xuwun-ay
n
why in... Khost-M ...in Dari-M.DIR school-M.DIR NEG
jo-eg-i
built-become.CONT.PRS-PRS.3[SG.M]
Why isn't a Dari school being built in Khost?
(8.22)

ta
wali zm
sr dse xabar-e
n
2SG.STR.DIR why 1SG.STR.POSS with such word-PL.F.DIR NEG
kaw-e
do.CONT-2SG
Why don't you talk about such things with me?
When an a-initial verb is negated,

ens to //.
/n/ is prefixed to the verb and the /a/ length-

Verb usage 273
(8.23)
.
mor-
n--xl-m
car-M.DIR NEG-CONT-buy.PRS-1SG
I'm not buying a car.
8.5.2.1.2 Present continuous for expressing future events

The present continuous may be used to express a future event:
(8.24)
.
dre
badje b
drdz-m
three o'clock WOULD arrive.CONT.PRS-1SG
I'll come to you at 3 o'clock.
In addition, the modal clitic /b/ may accompany the present continuous form
to express a future event, particularly in the NE dialect, and especially if words like
tomorrow or next week are present or when the speaker is contrasting future actions.
However, see Section 8.5.2.2.1 for a more common way to express the future.
(8.25)
.
d de
xalk-o
am-
r-sr
of this.OBL people-PL.M.OBL sorrow-M.DIR 1-COMIT
day
aw am-
b
ye
be.CONT.PRS.3SG.M and sorrow-M.DIR WOULD 3.WK
-xor-m
CONT-eat.PRS-1SG
I feel these peoples sorrow, and I am going to take care of it. [lit. the sorrow
of these people is with me, and I will eat [their] sorrow.]

274
(8.26)
Verbs

.
da
ur-
b
p har-o
15 wra-o
this.DIR council-F.DIR WOULD in... every-PL.M.OBL 15 day-PL.F.OBL
ke wada-
kaw-i
aw d mum-
d
...in meeting-F.DIR do.CONT-PRS.3[SG.F] and of child-M.OBL of
adabi-to
d prxtiy-
lr-e
re
literature-PL.M.OBL of development-F.OBL path-PL.F.DIR ECHO
b
-e-
WOULD CONT-investigate-PRS.3[SG.F]
The council will be meeting every 15 days and will be looking at ways to
develop children's literature.
(8.27) yes ye
dee
sra
be
sar-
now COMIT... him.OBL ...COMIT WOULD head-M.DIR
spin-aw-ma
white-do.CONT.PRS-1SG
I will grow old with him. [lit. I will whiten my hair with him.] (DZA)
(8.28) ts
be
-k-
ts
be
n
what WOULD CONT-do.PRS-2SG what WOULD NEG
-k-
CONT-do.PRS-2SG
Oh, what you will do! What you will not do! (DZA)
8.5.2.2 Present aorist

According to Penzl (1955: 114), in many of their occurrences present [aorist] forms
express a subjunctive mood rather than a perfective aspect. This is true, although
we believe the term irrealis to be more apt. In construction with the modal clitic
/b/, present aorist forms express future events that are expected to occur; by themselves or in construction with other modal particles, they express a variety of other
events whose realization is not established in fact, but is desired, requested, doubted,
required, and so on. These uses for perfect aorist forms are described in the following
two sections.

Verb usage 275
8.5.2.2.1 Expressing the future with present aorist plus /b/

Pashto does not have a morphological future tense. When used with the modal clitic
/b/, the present aorist form of the verb expresses an unrealized event that is expected
to happen, as in sentence 8.29. For more examples of expressing the future, see Section
10.1.2.1.
(8.29)
.
d
b
xownk-e
s-i
3SG.F.STR.DIR WOULD teacher-F.DIR become.AOR.PRS-PRS.3[SG.F]
She will become a teacher. (SW)
8.5.2.2.2 Other uses of the present aorist

Present aorist forms are also used for wishes; curses; conjectures; gentle commands;
expressions of necessity; probable, customary, or usual events; and questions expressing doubt; some of these uses will be in construction with modals such as
/de/,
/kke/ if only, /byad/ must, should and so on. Most frequently of all,
the present aorist is used in subordinate clauses beginning with the complementizer
// (when that clause expresses an event with irrealis semantics) or the conditional particle
/k/ if. The sentences below give examples of some of these uses
of present aorist forms.
As mentioned earlier (Section 8.2.8.1), there is only one unique present aorist form
of to be: the third person form
/wi/, which does not encode gender or number. Otherwise speakers either default to present continuous forms or else use present aorist
forms of
/kedl/, as in 8.31 and 8.43 below. (Examples 8.36 and 8.47 are from
Shafeev 1964: 46.)
(8.30)
.
os
hila-
kaw-m
e
ta
l-ay
now hope-F.DIR do.CONT-1SG COMP 2SG.STR.DIR quiet-M.DIR
-e
become.AOR.PRS-2SG
I hope you'll be quiet now.

276
Verbs
(8.31)
! :
e
kala muxmux sterg-e
pre w-lag-ed-e
COMP when direct
eye-PL.F.DIR on.3 AOR-hit-PST-PST.3PL.M
musab-
ta ye
w-way-l
xwr-
Musab-M.OBL to 3.WK AOR-tell.PST-PST.3PL.M miserable-M.DIR
-e
musab-a
become.AOR.PRS-2SG Musab-M.VOC
As he looked directly at Musab, he said to him, 'May you be miserable,
Musab!'
(8.32)
.
xyi
ktar-
abdla-
d mili
jubhay-e
maybe doctor-M.DIR Abdullah-M.DIR of national front-F.OBL
kndid-
wi
candidate-M.DIR be.AOR.PRS.3SG.M
Maybe Doctor Abdullah will be a candidate for the United National Front.
(8.33)

.
d nuk-no
uw-l-
xyi
of fingernail-PL.M.ANIM.OBL bite-INF-PL.M.DIR maybe
msum-no
t d tawi-uno
aw xwbd-io
child-PL.M.ANIM.OBL for of concern-PL.M.OBL and sadness-PL.F.OBL
d argand-aw-l-o
yaw-a
lr-
of revealed-do-INF-PL.M.OBL one-F.DIR path-F.DIR
wi
be.AOR.PRS.3[PL.M]
Biting the fingernails may be a way for children to express concerns or
distress.

Verb usage
(8.34)
277
.
xye
d bansa-uno
d biy raawn-e
l
maybe of foundation-PL.M.OBL of then building-F.DIR from
pr-a
jdi
pmlarna-
sake-M.ABL serious attention-F.DIR
w--i
AOR-become.AOR.PRS-PRS.3[SG.F]
Maybe they will take a serious look at rebuilding [our social] foundations.
(8.35) m-y
ro-sra w-k-e
food-F.DIR 1-COMIT AOR-do.PRS-2SG
Have some food with me. (WAZ)
(8.36) mu
byd kr-
w-k-u
1PL.STR.DIR NEC
work-M.OBL AOR-do.PRS-1PL.
We must work.
(8.37)

wali ye
byad zda
k-i
why 3.WK NEC
learned do.AOR-PRS.3[PL.M]
Why do they have to learn it?
(8.38)
.
n
poh-g-m
p
kum-
lafaz- de
NEG learned-beome.CONT.PRS-1SG INSTR which-M word-M NEC
mor-e
yd
k-m
mother-F.VOC memory do.AOR-1SG
I don't know which words I should use to remember you, mother.
(8.39) kala kala e r-

bagra-
w-nis-i
when when of city-M.OBL manual.harvest(?)-F.DIR AOR-gather.PRS-1PL
aw kala biy ripl-
n
kor-
wxl-i
and when then reaper-M.OBL from work-M.DIR AOR\take.PRS-1PL
Sometimes we gather village people for harvesting by hand, and sometimes
we use the reaper. (WAZ)

278
Verbs
(8.40)
.
kala kala zmung
p sterg-o
ke uxk-e
when when 1PL.STR.POSS in... eye-PL.F.OBL ...in tear-PL.F.DIR
wi
e
mung
d
sandera-
be.AOR.PRS.3PL.F COMP 1PL.STR.DIR this.DIR song-F.DIR
-wy-o
CONT-say.PRS-1PL
Sometimes we get teary-eyed when we sing this song.
The customary usage of the present aorist can also be expressed with the present
continuous:
(8.41)
.
kala kala zmung
tr
mandz-
lahfzi xra-
when when 1PL.STR.POSS up.to center-M.OBL oral dispute-F.DIR
ham mandz ta rdz-
also center to come.CONT.PRS-PRS.3[PL.F]
Sometimes we argue, too. [lit. Sometimes verbal disputes are created between
us, too.]
(8.42) ars-
liy afin-
e
dzon-
sra
marijuana-M.DIR or opium-M.DIR INSTR... self-M.OBL ...INSTR
pa
k-i
hidden AOR\place.PRS-1PL
They [often] hide marijuana or opium on themselves (WAZ)
(8.43)

z
p
xand-
s-m
1SG.STR.DIR INSTR laugh-F.OBL become.AOR.PRS-1SG
Should I laugh? (SW)
18 The glossing of /bagra-/ as manual.harvest is uncertain.

Verb usage
279
(8.44) e
e
polis-
na
xlos-
COMP from... police-M.OBL ...from free-PL.M.DIR
-i
biy kn-i
arm-
become.AOR.PRS-1PL then AOR\sit.PRS-1PL peace-M.DIR
w-k-i
AOR-do.PRS-1PL
After getting rid of the police, we sit down and rest. (WAZ)
(8.45) kla e
dy
yer-
de se
when COMP 3PL.STR.DIR fire-M.DIR 2 after
w-aw-i
ne
e
AOR-throw-PRS.3[PL.M] then COMP
der-be-i-i
2-near-become.CONT.PRS-PRS.3[PL.M]
When they put the fire after you and they approach you... (DZA)
(8.46)
.
xl-i
wis-
l
ol-o
hewd-uno
mister-M.OBL Wisa-M.OBL from all-PL.M.OBL country-PL.M.OBL
w-uxt-l
e
d
stunz-o
sr
AOR-want.PST-PST.3PL.M COMP COMIT... problem-PL.F.OBL ...COMIT
muqbala-
w-k-i
resistance-M.DIR AOR-do.AOR-PRS.3[PL.M]
[Governor] Mr. Wesa wanted all nations to battle [these] issues.
(8.47) ka ha
n
rs-i
no
z
if 3SG.M.STR.DIR NEG come.AOR.PRS-3[SG.M] then 1.SG.STR.DIR
b
wl-s-m
WOULD AOR\go-go-1SG
If he does not come, then I will go.
8.5.2.3 Past continuous

The past continuous is used for continuous or habitual events in the past:

280
Verbs
(8.48)
.
sar-i
ol-
p mela-
ke
man-PL.M.DIR all-M.DIR in... picnic-F.DIR ...in
-ga-d-
CONT-dance-PST-PST.3SG.M
All the men were dancing at the picnic OR, all the men used to dance at
picnics.
(8.49)
.
l
dzn-a
sr
ag-d-
COMIT... self-M.OBL ...COMIT voice-PST-PST.3SG.M
xand-d-
aw ga-d-
laugh.PST-PST-PST.3SG.M and dance-PST-PST.3SG.M
He was talking with himself, laughing, and dancing.
(8.50)
.
p
xls-o
sterg-o
ye
xob-una
INSTR open-PL.F.OBL eye-PL.F.OBL 3.WK sleep-PL.M.DIR
-lid-l
CONT-see.PST-PST.3PL.M
He was sleeping with his eyes open.
(8.51)

.
kala e
b
tlibn-o
d xdz-o
p
when COMP WOULD Taliban-PL.M.OBL of woman-PL.F.OBL on
wnde kum-
gm-
porta kw-
no
before which-M.DIR step-M.DIR above do.CONT-PST.3SG.M then
tol-e
n-y
b
nr-e
all-F.OBL world-F.OBL WOULD shout-PL.F.DIR
-wah-l-e
CONT-beat-PST-PST.3PL.F
Whenever the Taliban would take steps against women, the entire world
would cry out.

Verb usage
281
(8.52) p ha
r-
ke er-a
binga-
mi
in... that.DIR affair-F ...in much-F.DIR wealth-F.DIR 1SG.WK
jo-aw-l-a
built-do.CONT-PST-PST.3SG.F
I was making great gains in that business. (WAZ)
(8.53) p da
domra
wredz- ke ye
n
in... this.DIR so.much day-F.DIR ...in 3.WK NEG
mr-kaw-l-e
killed-do.CONT-PST-2SG
All day long, he did not [want to] kill you. (DZA)
(8.54) e
di
xwl-
r -aw-l-a
COMP 3SG.F.STR.OBL mouth-F.DIR 1 CONT-throw-PST-PST.3SG.F
When she was taking me in her mouth [lit. when she threw her mouth upon
me]. (DZA)
8.5.2.4 Past aorist

The past aorist verb form expresses actions with focus on completion, or on the event
per se rather than its duration or multiple instances of the event.
(8.55)

.
d britny-
hakumat-
parun
d irn-
d
of Britain-F.OBL government-M.DIR yesterday of Iran-M.OBL of
atomi progrm-
l
amal-a
pr da hewd-
atomic program-M.OBL from sake-M.ABL on this country-M
nuw-i
bandiz-una
w-lagaw-l
new-PL.M.DIR sanction-PL.M.DIR AOR-hit-PST.3PL.M
Yesterday the British government placed new sanctions on Iran in response to
their nuclear program.

282
(8.56)
Verbs
.
sa-ay
p xpl- dzy- kxnst-
aw nor
ham
man-M.DIR on own-M place-M AOR\sit-PST.3SG.M aw other also
sa o-
angry become.AOR.PST-PST.3SG.M
The gentleman took his seat but was angry.
(8.57)
.
mina-
me
p-a
k-l-a
love-M.DIR 1SG.WK hidden-F.DIR do.AOR-PST-PST.3SG.F
I hid my affection.
(8.58)
.
d afn
zindn-ino
d xlsun-
l
of Afghan prisoner-PL.M.ANIM.OBL of release-M.OBL from
pr-a
bayrn met-o
afn-no
lryun-
sake-M.ABL Bayern settled-PL.M.OBL Afghan-PL.M.OBL protest-M.DIR
w-k-
AOR-do.AOR-PST.3SG.M
Afghans living in Bayern [Germany] protested for the release of Afghan
prisoners.
(8.59) e sakol-
silab-
ts
naqsn-
of this.year-M.OBL flood-M.DIR what damage-M.DIR
drk-
give.AOR.PST-PST.3SG.M
Did the flooding cause any damage this year? (WAZ)
(8.60) ye
r-
na
-wet-
d
ye
from... city-M.OBL ...from AOR-leave.PST-PST.3SG.M this.DIR of
op-i
p
sar-
n
bya wer-ta knost-
hill-F.OBL on... head-M ...on the 3-to
AOR\sit.PST-PST.3SG.M
He has left the town to go wait at the top of the hill, sitting near it. (DZA)

Verb usage
283
(8.61) e
yenn p daa-
ke w-lg-ed-
COMP inside in... threshold-F.DIR ...in AOR-hit-PST-PST.3SG.M
yenn wer-nnawet-
when inside 3-AOR\enter.PST-PST.3SG.M
He landed on the inside, at the entrance. He penetrated the interior. (DZA)
(8.62) a
kisa-
ye mo
p da
wa-
this story-F.DIR of 1SG.STR.OBL on this.DIR ear-M
nnawet-a
AOR\enter.PST-PST.3SG.F
This story fell into my ear. (DZA)
8.5.2.5 Imperative
Imperative forms convey commands (Section 8.3.5; Section 8.3.6).
(8.63)
.
l
wr-
kor-a
rdz-
loy-
from small-M.OBL house-M.ABL come.CONT.PRS-IMP.SG big-M.OBL
jahn-
sr
an -a
universe-M.OBL COMIT friend become.AOR.PRS-IMP.SG
Step outside your comfort zone and get to know the wide world out there.
(8.64)
!
ta
biy ha
zulm-una
tikrr-aw-l-
2SG.STR.DIR then this.DIR abuse-PL.M.DIR repeated-do-INF-PL.M.DIR
-wr-e
r-
-y
CONT-want.PRS-2SG healthy-M.DIR become.AOR.PRS-IMP.PL
You want to repeat those horrors? Get a clue!
(8.65)
. .
er-a
er-a
manana-
nor-e
vidio-gne
many-F.DIR many-F.DIR thanks-F.DIR other-PL.F.DIR video-PL.F.DIR
ham w-aw-a
also AOR-throw-IMP.SG
Thanks a lot. Please post more videos.

284
Verbs
(8.66)
.
eb-e
me
prgd-a
e
x
moment-PL.F.DIR 1SG.WK AOR\abandon-IMP.SG COMP good
w-r-ma
AOR-cry-1SG
Leave me alone for a little bit so I can have a good cry.
(8.67)
.
xpl-
zher-
ta de
pura
pm-
own-M.DIR appearance-M.OBL to 2.WK complete attention-M.DIR
w-k-a
AOR-do.AOR-IMP.SG
Pay full attention to how you look.
(8.68)
.
ka be
be
aql-i
ye
w-k-a
if without without intelligence-F.DIR 3.WK AOR-do.AOR-PST.3SG.F
p
yaw-a
marm-y
ye
arm-
k-a
COMIT one-F.DIR bullet-F.DIR 3.WK calm-M.DIR do.AOR-IMP.SG
If he does anything stupid, calm him with a single shot. [i.e., kill him]
(8.69) dse nim-a

gena-
r-sra kn-y
such half-F.DIR hour-F.DIR 1-with AOR\sit.PRS-IMP.PL
Sit with me, like so, for half an hour. (WAZ)
(8.70)
waxt-
kam-
day
mo
ta
good time-M.DIR little-M.DIR be.CONT.PRS.3SG.M 1SG.STR.OBL to
ijaza-
rk-a
permission-M.DIR give.AOR.PRS-IMP.SG
Okay. Time is short. Let me leave now. (WAZ)
(8.71) mo
ta nan-e
w-k-e
1SG.STR.OBL for popcorn-PL.F.DIR AOR-do.PRS-2SG
Make me some popcorn! (DZA)
Present continuous stems may be used to form commands as well, thus intensifying them, imparting a sense of urgency, continuation, or repetition:

Verb usage 285
(8.72)
.
paxto-
-wy-
paxto-
Pashto-F.DIR CONT-tell.PRS-IMP.SG Pashto-F.DIR
-lwal-
paxto-
-lik-
CONT-read.PRS-IMP.SG Pashto-F.DIR CONT-write-IMP.SG
Keep speaking Pashto, reading Pashto, and writing Pashto.
(8.73)
.
har-a
oradz-
lg lg d xwx-e
p o-y
every-F.DIR day-F.DIR few few of mother.in.law-F.OBL in... food-F
ke -aaw-
...in CONT-throw-IMP.SG
Add a little bit [of poison] to your mother-in-law's food every day.
(8.74)
.
p
xwx-e
de
-xor-
INSTR mother.in.law-F 2.WK CONT-eat.PRS-IMP.SG
Get your mother-in-law to eat [it].
(8.75)
. !
pm-
kaw-
d
jumt-
attention-M.DIR do.CONT-IMP.SG this.DIR mosque-M.DIR
day
d xudy kor-
day
be.CONT.PRS.3SG.M of God
house-M.DIR be.CONT.PRS.3SG.M
Behave yourself! This is a mosque; it's a holy place.
(8.76)
.
p
lasgun-o
xalk-
-wan-
aw
INSTR dozen-PL.M.OBL people-M.DIR CONT-kill.PRS-IMP.SG and
l
wand-a
ye
xls-aw-
from life-M.ABL 3.WK freed-do.CONT-IMP.SG
Kill dozens of people and release them from this life.
(8.77) sarkor-
ta ajiz-i
kaw-a
government-M.OBL to helpless-NMLZ do.CONT-IMP.SG
Humbly submit to the government! (WAZ)

286
Verbs
All types of commands, whether using continuous or aorist forms, are negated
by
/m/, which usually occurs before the verb but can also be after it. Negative
commands almost always use continuous forms, except in certain stock phrases like
8.78.
(8.78)
!
sda m s-a
naive NEG become.PRS.AOR-IMP.SG
Don't be naive!
(8.79)
!
zoy-a
d bel-
d
pr-a
dzn-
m
son-M.VOC of other-M.OBL from sake-M.ABL self-M.DIR NEG
-wan-
CONT-kill.PRS-IMP.SG
Son, don't kill yourself for the sake of another!
(8.80)
.
d nn
kr-
sab-
ta m
of today work-M.DIR tomorrow-M.DIR to NEG
pregd-
CONT\abandon.PRS-IMP.SG
Don't put off till tomorrow what you can do today.
(8.81)
!
d
bel-
tsx d manan-e
hila-
from... other-M.OBL who.OBL ...from of thanks-F.OBL hope-F.DIR
m kaw-
NEG do.CONT-IMP.SG
Don't expect thanks from someone else!
(8.82)
.
ka t
n
pn-i
m xapa
if 2SG.STR.DIR NEG AOR\recognize.PRS-PRS.3[SG.M] NEG sad
kg-a
become.CONT.PRS-IMP.SG
Don't get upset if he doesn't recognize you.

Verb usage
287
8.5.3 Compound constructions: perfect

Agreement in present and past perfect constructions is governed by the main verb. This
means that in transitive constructions the main verb, the auxiliary, andin the case
of third conjugation verbsthe adjectival complement agree with the undergoer of the
action, as can be seen in the sentences below. Perfect constructions in Pashto encode
relative tense, and are generally best translated using the respective English present
and past perfect forms, as can be seen in the example sentences in the following two
sections.
8.5.3.1 Present perfect

First and second conjugation verbs form this tense with the past continuous participle and the present continuous of to be, as illustrated above in Section 8.4.1.1. Third
conjugation verbs use the aorist participle and the present continuous forms of to be.
(8.83)
.
afnistn-
ke im-i
zor-
Afghanistan-M in winter-M.OBL force-M.DIR
-axist-y
day
CONT-take[PST]-PTCP.M.DIR be.CONT.PRS.3SG.M
Winter has taken hold in Afghanistan.
(8.84)
.
tlibn-o
p qatar- ke d siysi
daftar-
d
Taliban-PL.M.OBL in... Qatar-M ...in of political office-M.OBL of
prnist-l-o
xabara-
-man-l-e
open-INF-PL.M.OBL word-F.DIR CONT-accept-PST-PTCP.F.DIR
da
be.CONT.PRS.3SG.F
The Taliban have confirmed that they will be opening a political office in
Qatar.
(8.85)
.
duny-
-man-l-ay
ye
world-F.OBL CONT-accept-PST-PTCP.M.DIR be.CONT.PRS.2SG
The world has accepted you.

288
(8.86)
Verbs
.
os
de
faysal-e
ta ras-ed-l-ay
now this.OBL decision-F.OBL to arrive-PST-PST-PTCP.M.DIR
ym
e
tarjuma-
kaw-l-
be.CONT.PRS.1SG COMP translation-F.DIR do-INF-PL.M.DIR
ayb-
n
day
defect-M.DIR NEG be.CONT.PRS.3SG.M
I've finally come to the conclusion that doing translations isn't so bad.
(8.87)
!
z
p yaw xli
kor-
ki
1SG.STR.DIR in... one empty house-M ...in
nnwat-l-e
ym
aw os
d
CONT\enter-PST-PTCP.F.DIR be.CONT.PRS.1SG and now this.DIR
zm
kor-
day
n
st
1SG.STR.POSS house-M.DIR be.CONT.PRS.3SG.M NEG 2SG.STR.POSS
I've entered an empty house, and now it's mine and not yours!
(8.88)
.
dw-o
d difah-
wazir-no
p
both-PL.M.OBL of defense-F.OBL minister-PL.M.ANIM.OBL in...
afnistn-
kxe d paudz-
sty-
ihss
Afghanistan-M ...in of force-M.OBL exhaustion-F.DIR feeling
k-e
da
do.AOR-PTCP.F.DIR be.CONT.PRS.3SG.F
Both Defense Ministers have seen how exhausted troops in Afghanistan are.
(8.89)
.
zarona-
ye
os
majbur-a
kr-e
Zarghoona-F.DIR 3.WK now forced-F.DIR do.AOR-PTCP.F.DIR
da
e
wd-
w-k-i
be.CONT.PRS.3SG.F COMP marriage-M.DIR AOR-do.AOR-PRS.3[SG.F]
Now he's forced Zarghuna to get married.

Verb usage
(8.90)
289
.
t
pr m
bnde alat
fikr-
2SG.STR.OBL on... 1SG.STR.OBL ...on
mistaken thought-M.DIR
k-ay
day
do.AOR-PTCP.M.DIR be.CONT.PRS.3SG.M
You've got me all wrong.
The modal particles

/b/ or
/de/ in combination with the present perfect
construction express a supposition about a future event, as in 8.91, 8.92, and 8.93, or
doubt or uncertainty about one, as in 8.94. Because of the irrealis semantics of this
construction, the present aorist form
/wi/ is used as the third person auxiliary.
(8.91)
ham b
ye
gaa-
k-e
also WOULD 3.WK benefit-F.DIR do.AOR-PTCP.F.DIR
wi
dzk
e
ham b
ye
xpl-
be.AOR.PRS.3SG.F because COMP also WOULD 3.WK own-M.DIR
trbur-
-wa-l-ay
wi
cousin-M.DIR CONT-kill-PST-PTCP.M.DIR be.AOR.PRS.3SG.M
He will also have benefited because he will have killed his cousin.
(8.92)
.
d swat-
ayr
tamadun-o
paxtan-o
of Swat-M.OBL without civilization-PL.M.OBL Pashtoon-PL.M.OBL
b
d tlibn-o
no-i
WOULD of Taliban-PL.M.OBL mark-PL.M.DIR
-ist-l-i
wi
CONT-remove.PST-PST-PTCP.PL.M.DIR be.AOR.PRS.3PL.M
Those heathen Pashtoons in Swat will have eradicated any trace of the
Taliban.
(8.93)
.
tr
er-a
had-a
b
mo
stunza-
up.to very-M.ABL border-M.ABL WOULD 1PL.WK problem-F.DIR
hl
k-e
wi
solution do.AOR-PTCP.F.DIR be.AOR.PRS.3SG.F
We will have more or less resolved the issue.

290
Verbs
(8.94)
.
ha
b
z
-lid-l-y
3SG.STR.OBL WOULD 1SG.STR.DIR CONT-see.PST-PST-PTCP.M.DIR
ym
be.CONT.PRS.1SG
He may have seen me. (SW)
8.5.3.2 Past perfect

As with the present perfect, in this construction, first and second conjugation verbs
employ the past continuous participle, and third conjugation verbs employ the aorist
participle. All use the past continuous of to be as the auxiliary. (See Section 8.4.1.2.)
(8.95)
.
z
rl-m
dzk
e
t
1SG.STR.DIR come.PST.AOR-1SG because COMP 2SG.STR.OBL
-bal-l-ay
wm
CONT-invite-PST-PTCP.M.DIR be.CONT.PST.1SG
I came because you had invited me.
(8.96)
.
dwa kis-e
xo
me
ye
d
mx-a
p
two story-PL.F.DIR EMPH 1SG.WK 3.WK from face-M.ABL in...
yaw-a
mujala-
ke -lwst-e
one-F.DIR magazine-F.DIR ...in CONT-read.PST-PTCP.PL.F.DIR
we
be.CONT.PST.3PL.F
I had previously read two stories of his in a magazine.
(8.97)
.
p fesbuk-
ke ye
d mrast-e
yaw pem-
in... Facebook-M ...in 3.WK of help-F.OBL one message-M.DIR
prexud-l-ay
w
CONT\leave-PST-PTCP.M.DIR be.CONT.PST.3SG.M
She had posted a message on Facebook asking for help.

Verb usage
291
(8.98)
de
dzast-o
du-e
j-e
this.OBL run-PL.M.OBL sand.storm-PL.F.DIR built-PL.F.DIR
k-e
we
do.AOR-PTCP.PL.F.DIR be.CONT.PRS.3PL.F
Their steps had given rise to sandstorms.
(8.99)
zmung
imokrt-no
dost-no
dwa
1PL.STR.POSS democrat-PL.M.ANIM.OBL friend-PL.M.ANIM.OBL two
kl-a
p xw- bodija-
taswb-
year-M.OBL on side-F budget-F.DIR approval-M.DIR
k-ay
w
do.AOR-PTCP.M.DIR be.CONT.PST.3SG.M
Our friends the Democrats had passed a budget two years ago.
(8.100)
dawlat-
ham d
duy
sr
d pm
government-M.OBL also COMIT... 3PL.STR.OBL ...COMIT of attention
wa
mrast-e
k-e
we
worthy help-PL.F.DIR do.AOR-PTCP.PL.F.DIR be.CONT.PST.3PL.F
The government had also helped them significantly.
8.5.3.3 Negation of perfect tenses

When compound tenses are negated, the negative particle
/n/ immediately precedes the auxiliary verb and forms a constituent phrase with it. With first and second
conjugation verbs, the participle can occur before this negated verb phrase, as in 8.101
and 8.103, or after it, as in 8.102 and 8.104. Likewise, in perfect constructions with third
conjugation verbs, the light verb construction can occur either before the negated verb
phrase, as in 8.105 and 8.106, or after it, as in 8.107.
(8.101)
. .
mazal-
kaw-ma
tr
manzil-
l
distance-M.DIR do.CONT-1SG up.to encampment-M.OBL yet
-ras-ed-l-ay
n
ym
CONT-arrive-PST-PST-PTCP.M.DIR NEG be.CONT.PRS.1SG
I'm in transit. I haven't gotten as far as the station.

292
Verbs
(8.102)
tr
os-a
l da
lwa-
armn-
ta n
up.to now-M.ABL yet this.OBL high-M.OBL desire-M.OBL to NEG
ym
-ras-ed-l-ay
be.CONT.PRS.1SG CONT-arrive-PST-PST-PTCP.M.DIR
I still haven't had my dream come true.
(8.103)
nn
ye
xabar-o
ta prexd-ay
n
today 3.WK word-PL.F.OBL to CONT\permit.PST-PTCP.M.DIR NEG
ym
be.CONT.PRS.1SG
He hasn't let me talk today.
(8.104)
xudy pk insn-
p xpl- hl-
n
God
clean person-M.DIR in own-M condition-M NEG
day
prexd-ay
be.CONT.PRS.3SG.M CONT\abandon.PST-PTCP.M.DIR
God hasn't left mankind behind.
(8.105)
d tlibn-o
id-gne
nor-o
sarin-o
of Taliban-PL.M.OBL claim-PL.F.DIR other-PL.F.OBL source-PL.F.OBL
tyid
k-e
n
di
confirmation do.AOR-PTCP.PL.F.DIR NEG be.CONT.PRS.3PL.M
Other sources haven't confirmed the Taliban's assertions.
(8.106)
zmung
masibat-
dzpl-i
walas-
d
1PL.STR.POSS disaster-M.DIR torn-PTCP.M.DIR people-M.OBL this.DIR
oradz-
hr-a
k-e
n
day-F.DIR forgotten-F.DIR do.AOR-PTCP.F.DIR NEG
wa
be.CONT.PST.3SG.F
Our war-torn nation hadn't forgotten that day.

Verb usage 293
(8.107)
pxw me
hits kala p dan
flt-
ke n
before 1SG.WK none when in... this.same activity-M ...in NEG
day
gaun-
k-ay
be.CONT.PRS.3SG.M participation-M.DIR do.AOR-PTCP.M.DIR
I've never done this type of thing before.
8.5.4 Compound constructions: potential
Optative verb forms are used in a construction with aorist forms of the verb
/kedl/ to become to express potential. These verbs are sometimes analyzed as participles in these constructions (Tegey & Robson, 1996: 146), but unlike participles, they
do not take agreement suffixes, and should therefore be regarded as optatives. See Section 8.3.7 and Section 8.3.8 for the formation of optative verbs.
8.5.4.1 Expressing potential present events

The present tense of the potentiality construction is formed with the present optative
form of the matrix verb and the present aorist form of
/kedl/ to become:
(8.108)
nizar-
me
l
kr-
kaw-
aw l
sight-M.DIR 1SG.WK still work-M.DIR do.CONT-PRS.3[SG.M] and still
ham -lik-l-ay
-m
also CONT-write-PST-OPT become.AOR.PRS-1SG
My vision still works and I can still write.

294
Verbs
(8.109)
tso
d xpl-
elefun-
mira-
2PL.STR.DIR of own-M.OBL telephone-M.OBL number-F.DIR
mung
ta p
agiz-a
toga-
aw d brixn
1PL.STR.OBL to INSTR vocal-F.DIR manner-F.DIR and of electricity
lik-
p
awal-
ham prexud-l-ay
letter-M.OBL INSTR manner-M also CONT\leave-PST-OPT
-y
become.AOR.PRS-2PL
You can also leave us your telephone number over the phone or by email.
(8.110)
.
mung
p
a-a
pemna-
xalk-o
ta
1PL.STR.DIR INSTR large-F.DIR measure-F.DIR people-PL.M.OBL to
din-
xapar-aw-l-ay
-u
religion-M.DIR spread-do.CONT-PST-OPT become.AOR.PRS-1PL
We can proselytize on a large scale.
8.5.4.2 Expressing potential past events

The past tense of the potentiality construction is formed from the optative forms of the
matrix verb and past aorist forms of
/kedl/ to become. The aorist optative is
used for an event that was actually carried out:
(8.111)

ta
hlta pr waxt-
w-ras-ed-l-ay
2SG.STR.DIR there on time-M.DIR AOR-arrive-PST-PST-OPT
w-e
become.AOR.PST-2SG
Were you able to get there on time?
If the continuous optative is used in this construction, the connotation is that the
event either did not take place, translatable into English with might (Tegey & Robson,
1996: 148), or was carried out over an extended period of time in the past:

Verb usage 295
(8.112)
.
mung
tera hafta jwr- -kar-l-ay
1PL.STR.OBL last week corn-M CONT-plant-PST-OPT
sw-
We might have been able to plant the corn last week [if you had brought the
seeds].
(8.113)
. ...
d xatiz-
jermani-
xalk-o
d lowediz-
of east-M.OBL Germany-M.OBL people-PL.M.OBL of west-M.OBL
berlin-
... televizyoni progrm-una
-lid-l-ay
Berlin-M.OBL ... televised program-PL.M.DIR CONT-see.PST-PST-OPT
w-l
become.AOR.PST-PST.3PL.M
People in East Germany were able to watch TV shows from West Berlin.
(8.114)
.
afn-no
l
mung
sr
er-a
Afghan-PL.M.ANIM.OBL COMIT... 1PL.STR.OBL ...COMIT very-F.DIR
lg-a
mrasta- kaw-l-ay
w-a
little-F.DIR help-F.DIR do.CONT-PST-OPT become.AOR.PST-PST.3SG.F
The Afghans were able to help us very little [as they were busy with their
own armed conflict].
8.5.4.3 Expressing potential future events

Potential future events are expressed using the modal clitic /b/, either a continuous
or an aorist optative form of the matrix verb, and present aorist forms of
/kedl/
to become. Using the aorist optative implies that the event is expected by the speaker
to take place (Tegey & Robson, 1996: 146).

296
Verbs
(8.115)
.
d xabar-o
l
lr-e
b
d afnistn-
of word-PL.F.OBL from side-F.OBL WOULD of Afghanistan-M.OBL
las kaln-a
jaga-
py-
ta w-rasaw-l-ay
ten year.old-F.DIR war-F.DIR end-M.OBL to AOR-arrive-PST-OPT
-i
become.AOR.PRS-PRS.3[PL.M]
With diplomacy, [they]'ll be able to end the 10 year-old war in Afghanistan.
(8.116)
.
xalk-o
d
-ga-l-e
people-PL.M.OBL this.DIR CONT-consider-PST-PTCP.F.DIR
da
e
duy
b
yawze p
be.CONT.PRS.3SG.F COMP 3PL.STR.DIR WOULD only
INSTR
dumra
way-l-o
prxud-l-ay
so.much say-INF-PL.M.OBL AOR\permit-PST-OPT
-i
People thought that they would be allowed to pass only by talking enough
[to convince us].
(8.117)
.
p
lan- awal-
lik-l
w-ay
INSTR short-M manner-M write-INF become.AOR.PST-PTCP.PL.M.DIR
tr
tso
ol-
lwustunk-i
tre
istafda-
up.to some all-PL.M.DIR reader-PL.M.DIR up.to.3 usage-F.DIR
w-k-ay
-i
AOR-do.AOR-OPT become.AOR.PRS-PRS.3[PL.M]
[The articles] have been written concisely so that all readers are able to make
use of them.

Verb usage
297
(8.118)
ay walas mer-
karz-ay
b
p dohm- bon
Q
people leader-M.DIR Karzai-M.DIR WOULD in... second-M Bonn
konferans- ke wrk-i
tazmin-una
conference-M ...in give.AOR-PTCP.PL.M.DIR guarantee-PL.M.DIR
amli
k-ay
-i
implemented do.AOR-OPT become.AOR.PRS-PRS.3[SG.M]
Will President Karzai be able to implement the assurances he made at the
Second Bonn Conference?
If the continuous optative is used in this construction with the future particle, the
connotation is that the action is not necessarily probable, translatable into English
with might (Tegey & Robson, 1996: 148).
(8.119)
layl-
b
lik-
sab-
ta
Layla-F.DIR WOULD letter-M.DIR tomorrow-F.DIR on
-leg-l-ay
s-i
CONT-send-PST-OPT become.AOR.PRS-PRS.3SG.F
Layla might be able to send the letter tomorrow. (NW)
(8.120)
ta
b
p hamde
moxa-
kr-
2SG.STR.DIR WOULD on this.same goal-F.DIR work-M.DIR
kaw-l-ay
-e
do.CONT-PST-OPT become.AOR.PRS-2SG
You may be able to work on [achieving] this same goal.
(8.121)
.
bel-
tsok
n
ta e
dse yaw ay-
other-M.DIR who.DIR NEG EXT COMP such one thing-M.DIR
jo-aw-l-ay
w--i
built-do.CONT-PST-OPT AOR-become.AOR.PRS-PRS.3[SG.M]
There's no one else who could build such a thing.
The following two sentences suggest that either a continuous or an aorist optative
can be used to express an a repeated event with future time reference:

298
Verbs
(8.122)
tr
tso
xalk-
l
kum-e
stunz-e
prata
up.to some people-M.DIR from which-F.OBL problem-F.OBL without
tag rtag-
kaw-l-ay
go come-M.DIR do.CONT-PST-OPT
w--i
AOR-become.AOR.PRS-PRS.3[PL.M]
So that the people can come and go without issue.
(8.123)
nto-
de
maraki-ian
tlibn-
NATO-M.DIR NEC representative-PL.M.ANIM.DIR Taliban-PL.M.DIR
prgd-i
e
p
xls-a
pxa-
tag
AOR\permit-PRS.3[SG.M] COMP INSTR open-F.DIR foot-F.DIR go
rtag-
w-kaw-l-ay
-i
come-M.DIR AOR-do-PST-OPT become.AOR.PRS-PRS .3[PL.M]
NATO should allow the Taliban delegates to be able to come and go as they
please.
8.5.4.4 Negative
The negative particle must precede the auxiliary verb in a potential construction, but
the optative form may come before or after the negated verb phrase (Tegey & Robson,
1996: 145147):
(8.124)
.
tr
os-a
me
xpl-
aw d plr-
up.to now-M.ABL 1SG.WK own-M.DIR and of father-M.OBL
num-
n
o-
-lik-l-ay
name-M.DIR NEG become.AOR.PST-PST.3SG.M CONT-write-PST-OPT
Until now, I wasn't able to write either my name or my father's.

Verb usage
299
(8.125)
qalam-
ka mt-
-i
ts
pen-M.DIR if broken-M.DIR become.AOR.PRS-PRS.3[SG.M] what
-lik-l-ay
n
-u
CONT-write-PST-OPT NEG become.AOR.PRS-1PL
You can't write anything with a broken pen.
(8.126)
.
dzn-
me
n
o-
self-M.DIR 1SG.WK NEG become.AOR.PST-PST.3SG.M
ing-aw-l-ay
tight-do.CONT-PST-OPT
I couldn't pull myself together.
!!! /
(8.127)
d kbul- pohntun-
d 9 11 p aa-
of Kabul
university-M.OBL of 9 11 on topic-F.DIR
kum-
simpoziyom- jo-
n
which-PL.M.DIR seminar-M.DIR built-M.DIR NEG
o-
k-ay
become.AOR.PST-PST.3SG.M do.AOR-OPT
The University of Kabul wasn't able to offer any seminars on 911!!!
(8.128)
.
p kona- ke ktar-no
sam-
in... Kunar-M ...in doctor-PL.M.ANIM.OBL correct-M.DIR
taxis-
w-n
o-
k-ay
diagnosis-M.DIR AOR-NEG become.AOR.PST do.AOR-OPT
The doctors in Kunar couldn't give a correct diagnosis.
8.5.5 Infinitives
8.5.5.1 Infinitives as nouns
Infinitives show the default masculine plural agreement (see Section 11.4.3 and Section
11.7.5); non-direct forms take the /o/ oblique/ablative plural suffix used on declension Class II nouns (see Section 5.2.4), as in 8.129. Like other event nominals, infinitives

300
Verbs
may take their own complements. Infinitival phrases may serve as a subject, object, or
object of an adposition.
(8.129)
m
l
rdyo-
tsx d hakumat-
d
1SG.STR.OBL from... radio-F.OBL ...from of government-M.OBL of
mrast-e
kaw-l-o
xabar-e
w-rw-ed-e
help-PL.F.DIR do-INF-PL.M.OBL word-PL.F.DIR AOR-hear.PST-PST.3PL.F
I heard on the radio about the government's helping out.
(8.130)
ay d zukm-
l
pr-a
tiyrk-
Q
of head.cold-M.OBL from sake-M.ABL opium-M.DIR
xo-l-
jyiz-
di
eat-INF-PL.M.DIR legal-PL.M.DIR be.CONT.PRS.3PL.M
Is it legal to take opium for a head-cold?
(8.131)
.
d madani oln-e
danda- d
dawlat-
of civilized society-F.OBL job-F.DIR COMIT... government-M.OBL
sr
mrasta- kaw-l-
di
...COMIT help-F.DIR do-INF-PL.M.DIR be.CONT.PRS.3PL.M
Helping the government is a duty in an advanced society.
8.5.5.2 The periphrastic passive

As described in Section 8.2.5.5.2, infinitives and past participles can be used as the
nominal component of a third conjugation verb with
/kedl/ to form a verbal
construction that is often referred to as the Pashto passive. Both infinitival and participial complements of
/kedl/ can optionally have the aorist prefix /w/in
aorist forms of this construction, in addition to an aorist form of
/kedl/, as in
8.132, 8.133, and 8.135.

Verb usage 301
(8.132)
x
bal-l
kg-i
e
good consider-INF become.CONT.PRS-PRS.3[PL.M] COMP
maa-
l
pok-i
sra
w-xo-l-a
apple-F.DIR COMIT... skin-M.OBL ...COMIT AOR-eat-INF-F.DIR
-i
It is considered good to eat an apple along with its peel.
(8.133)
w-ta-l
s-m
AOR-tie-INF become.AOR.PRS-1SG
[that] I be tied
(8.134)
.
-ta-l
kg-m
CONT-tie-INF become.CONT.PRS-1SG
I am being tied.
. )(
(8.135)
w-ta-l
sw(l)-m
AOR-tie-INF become.AOR.PST-1SG
I was tied.
(8.136)
. )(
-ta-l
ked(l)-m
CONT-tie-INF become.CONT.PST-1SG
I was being tied.
/w/ is not obligatory, however:

.
The prefix
(8.137)
p brid-
kxe 200 tan-a
waz-l
in... attack-M ...in 200 person-PL.M.DIR kill-INF
w-l
Two hundred people were killed in the attack.

302
Verbs
If a participle rather than an infinitive is used, it agrees with the undergoer, as can
be seen in examples 8.138 - 8.142. In Dzadrani, however, the participle does not show
agreement but remains masculine direct regardless of the gender and number of the
subject, as in 8.143 and 8.144:
(8.138)
day
-wah-l-ay
3SG.M.STR.DIR CONT-beat-PST-PTCP.M.DIR
kg-i
become.CONT.PRS-PRS.3[SG.M]
He is being beaten.
(8.139)
d
-wah-l-e
kg-i
3SG.F.STR.DIR CONT-beat-PST-PTCP.F.DIR become.CONT.PRS-PRS.3[SG.F]
She is being beaten.
(8.140)
duy
-wah-l-i
3PL.STR.DIR CONT-beat-PST-PTCP.PL.M.DIR
kg-i
become.CONT.PRS-PRS.3[PL.M]
They are being beaten.
(8.141) de sten-e
p
sim- ob-e
n
of needle-SG.F.OBL INSTR eye-M water-PL.F.DIR NEG
-mnd-e
ke-i
CONT-find.PST-PTCP.PL.F.DIR become.CONT.PRS-PRS.3[PL.F]
Not a needle's eyeful of water is [to be] found. (WAZ-L)
(8.142) p-e
ye
wa
w-tik-l-e
feet-PL.F.DIR 3.WK WOULD AOR-injure-INF-PTCP.PL.F.DIR
--i
CONT-become.PRS-PRS.3[PL.F]
His feet will be injured. (WAZ)

Verb usage
303
(8.143) ndera- -wa-l-ay

-w-a
drum-F.DIR AOR-beat-INF-PTCP.M.DIR CONT-become.PST-PST.3SG.F
A drum was struck. (DZA)
(8.144) nder-e
-wa-l-ay
drum-PL.F.DIR AOR-beat-INF-PTCP.M.DIR
-w-e
CONT-become.PST-PST.3PL.F
Drums were struck. (DZA)
For more example sentences using the periphrastic passive, see Section 11.3.1.5.
8.5.6 Present participles

Present participles can be used to modify nouns, as in:
(8.145)
europay-i
uln-a
byad d -xlas-nk-i
Europe-ADJZ society-F.DIR NEC
of CONT-liberate-PTCP-SG.M.OBL
sawda-gar-iz-e
taglar-e
wra
business-NMLZ-ADJZ-PL.F.DIR policy-PL.F.DIR considered
k-i
do.AOR-PRS.3SG.F
The European Union must consider commercial rescue policies.
or to form a verbal noun:
(8.146)
.
d europay-i
uln-e
-kat-nk-i
p
of Europe-ADJZ society-F.OBL CONT-see-PTCP-SG.M.OBL in...
ukren-
ke p kr-
payl-
Ukraine-M.OBL ...in on work-M.OBL beginning-M.DIR
k-y
do.AOR-PTCP.M.DIR
A European Union observer has begun work in the Ukraine.


Claudia M. Brugman
Adpositions
9.1
Overview
Pashto exhibits three categories of adposition: prepositions, postpositions, and circumpositions.

The class of circumpositions is the most difficult to describe exhaustively, for several reasons:
First, though for a given variety the inventory of prepositions and postpositions is
fixed, some circumpositions appear to be semi-productive combinations of prepositions and postpositions or prepositions and adverbs (as asserted by Babrakzai
1999).
Second, some items that function as circumpositions are complex in one component, typically the postpositional component, as is shown in Example 9.74. The postpositional component in such cases may be a lexicalized meronymic expression. We
call these phrasal adpositions complex adpositions.
Finally, there is a set of principles that we understand only in part, which require or
allow one or the other component of a circumposition to be deleted, rendering the
effect of independent prepositions or (more typically) postpositions. In this chapter
we discuss those principles that we understand.
In the general style of Indo-European, the functions of adpositions in Pashto range
from quite abstract relationships to very specific spatial, temporal, or causal relationships, and generally the interpretation of any given adposition will depend on the context, as reflected in the glossing or translation. Where two components of a circumposition together express a single relation, the first component will have an ellipsis (...)
after the gloss, and the second will have an ellipsis before the gloss. Sentence 9.1 gives
an example of this glossing convention.
The Middle dialects vary from General Pashto in the inventory of adpositions, in
the pronunciation of individual items, and in some case assignments. Much of the description provided of Middle dialect adpositions originates in Septfonds (1994), which
1 These items are referred to in other grammars as pre-post-positions (Tegey & Robson, 1996) or
ambipositions (Heston, 1987). The term circumposition more transparently denotes a single
discontinuous lexeme; Hewson & Bubenik (2006: 109) use this term as well. Throughout this chapter,
and in the examples throughout this book, attested examples show that Pashto also has
ambipositions, i.e. adpositions that may occur either before or after their objects.
2 Circumpositions in Persian, including cognates, are mentioned by Heston (1987), Lazard (1963)
and Phillott (1919).
3 The translation into English of this work was provided by Melissa Fox.

306
Adpositions
is a description of the Dzadrani dialect; however, example sentences and descriptions

may reflect other Middle varieties. Our own research suggests the existence of both
similarities and differences between Dzadrani (as Septfonds describes it) and Waziri,
as described more briefly by Lorimer (1902: 3940), but a dearth of information prevents us from making any substantive claims about how they differ from each other.
Furthermore, it is possible that some of the features noted here for Dzadrani and Waziri
may be found in varieties of Pashto outside of the Middle dialect group as well.
Three other points should be remembered about Pashto adpositions:
Items that are identified (in this grammar or elsewhere) as adverbs may in fact function as adpositions. For instance, we identify
/wrusta/ after, later as an adverb in Table 10.1, concurring with other grammars, and based on the fact that from
our information it only governs an object when it is a component of a complex circumposition (see Example 9.120); however, it is possible that there are varieties of
Pashto that treat it as a simple adposition. Conversely, the item
/... sra/ is
identified here primarily as a postpositional component of a circumposition; however, in its function outlined in Section 10.2.3.1, it does not take even a notional
object, and is therefore properly classified as an adverb. The same can be said for
some items identified in this grammar as adverbs of place in Table 10.2.
...
As expected, adpositions in Pashto may govern objects other than noun phrases, including strong pronouns and oblique pronominal clitics. In addition, the object in
an adpositional phrase may be more or less clausal: one possibility is an infinitive
verb and its local argument, both of which may be case-marked according to the
requirements of the governing adposition (see 9.72 and 9.73). Many of the subsections of Section 11.4.4 give examples of different adpositions in construction with
the complementizer
//, where the adpositions object is a subordinate clause.
Finally, 9.32 gives an example with a case-marked adjectival object.
Some adpositions are subject to dialect-based pronunciation variation as exemplified in Table 4.2. This is in addition to some dialect-based variation in the specific
combinations of adpositions into complex adpositions or circumpositions.
Individual adpositions are often described as clitics; this is reflected in some written
examples by the lack of space between the adposition and its object.
9.2
Adpositions and case assignment
For all varieties of Pashto, adpositions generally govern either oblique or ablative case
assignment to their objects. However, L. Rzehak (p.c.) suggests that the direct case
may be becoming the preferred case assignment for some adpositions as well, claiming that the use of the oblique form may sound dated to some speakers. Furthermore,

307
the picture is somewhat complicated by several issues: first, sometimes case-marking

can vary (usually between direct and oblique) without difference in meaning; in other
situations, however, the difference in case-marking is associated with a difference in
meaning. In addition, this grammar recognizes an ablative case, where some other
grammars do not, so descriptions of the same facts may not line up. The ablative case
is governed by a small number of adpositions; again, however, in some situations either ablative or oblique case may appear in construction with a particular adposition.
Some speakers have reported that vocative case-marking may be assigned; this matter
deserves more study.
For Dzadrani in particular, Septfonds (1994) asserts that an adposition may assign direct, oblique, or ablative case to its object when the object is singular in number; however, when the object is plural, the case assignment is always oblique. Our
research suggests that Waziri does not observe this constraint: singular or plural objects of /e/ may be case-marked direct (as shown in example 9.19). Also for Dzadrani,
Septfonds (1997: 8.3.2) claims that the comparative postposition /tr/ than can assign either oblique or direct case to its object. Septfonds (1994: 262) notes further that
circumpositions whose first component is /ye/ or /tr/ may assign the oblique or the
ablative case to their objects.
In Waziri, according to Lorimer (1902: 40), /p/ on, in preferentially assigns direct case but may also assign oblique case. Our own research on Waziri confirms that
assignment of direct case predominates.
There may be varieties of Pashto for which oblique is the only case-marking form
governed by adpositions (as is claimed in, e.g., Dessart 1994: 52). This includes the
appearance of the fused genitive strong pronoun (see Section 7.2.3) as the object of the
adposition, as shown in sentence 9.3.
9.2.1
Assignment of oblique case
Our research suggests that the object of an adposition is most often assigned the oblique
case. In particular, the preposition
/tr/ up to and circumpositions of which it is
the prepositional component always assign the oblique case to their objects.
(9.1)
.
d zarng-i
zoy-
p farns-e
ki
of Zartsangay-M.OBL son-M.DIR in... France-M.OBL ...in
-os--i
CONT-live-PRS-PRS.3[SG.M]
Zartsangay's son lives in France. (SW)

308
(9.2)
Adpositions
.
zm
no-una
p kitb-e
ke
1SG.STR.POSS note-PL.M.DIR in... notebook-F.OBL ...in
di
be.CONT.PRS.3PL.M
My notes are in the notebook.
(9.3)
.
la
m
sr
p kixt-ey ke er-
COMIT... 1SG.STR.OBL ...COMIT in... boat-F ...in much-PL.M.DIR
sr-
aw spin-
zar-
di
red-PL.M.DIR and white-PL.M.DIR metal-PL.M.DIR be.CONT.PRS.3PL.M
There is a lot of gold and silver in the boat with me. (SW)
9.2.2
Assignment of ablative case
Some adpositions assign the ablative case to their object, most notably GP /l/ and
complex adpositions that contain it. The ablative case is discussed in Section 5.1.3.3.
The ablative case-marking suffix is apparently historically related to the postposition /na/; for instance,
/psa/ top.ABL in example 9.17 is historically derived
from
/pas/ top plus the postposition
/na/ from. In this work, we nevertheless treat the ablative suffix as a case-marker and /na/ as a postpositional element,
unlike other sources (e.g. Tegey & Robson 1996) that treat /a/ as simply a variant of
/na/.
(9.4)
.
l
plr-a
r-l-y
ym
from father-M.ABL come.AOR.PST-PST-PTCP.M.DIR be.CONT.PRS.1SG
I have come from father. (NW,SW)
(9.5)
.
d al-qed-
-i
l
afnistn-a
of al-Qaida-M.OBL member-PL.M.DIR from Afghanistan-M.ABL
w-taxt-ed-l
AOR-flee-PST-PST.3PL.M
The members of al-Qaida fled from Afghanistan.

309
Other adpositions can assign either oblique or ablative case to the object, without
a difference in meaning.
(9.6)
.
be
sa-i
kor-
xli
wi
without man-M.OBL house-M.DIR empty be.AOR.PRS.3SG.M
Without a man, the house is empty. (SW)
(9.7)
.
be
sa-aya
kor-
xli
wi
without man-M.ABL house-M.DIR empty be.AOR.PRS.3SG.M
Without a man, the house is empty. (SW)
For some other adpositions, assigning ablative as opposed to oblique case affects
the meaning of the phrase; for instance with /d/, which is normally associated with
possession (see Section 9.3.1.1), having the object marked in the ablative case gives the
sense of (motion) away from:
(9.8)
.
d
kor-a
rl-m
from house-M.ABL come.AOR.PST-1SG
I came from home.

There may also be dialectal variation as to whether the oblique or the ablative case
is assigned by a particular adposition. In some dialects or in different styles, there is
apparently synchronic alternation between the ablative suffix and the postposition
/na/ from.
9.2.3
Assignment of direct case
In General Pashto, the adpositions
/p/ on, in and ... /p...ke/ in, at may
assign direct or oblique case to their objects (Tegey & Robson, 1996: 158); our own
research on current usage is that direct case may be gaining ground, while Tegey &
Robson (1996) identify the use of the direct form as literary or formal. Example 9.9
shows the feminine noun
/koa/ room appearing in the oblique form, while
9.10 demonstrates it in direct form. Likewise, examples 9.11 and 9.12 contain the same
alternation, this time using the masculine noun
/xr/ city. In example 9.11, the
noun is in direct plural form; in 9.12, it is in the oblique plural form. We have not found
this difference in case-marking to correspond to a difference in meaning.

310
(9.9)
Adpositions
.
zm
wror-
p ko-e
ki
nst-
1SG.STR.POSS brother-M.DIR in... room-F.OBL ...in sitting-M.DIR
dy
be.CONT.PRS.3SG.M
My brother is sitting in the room. (SW)
(9.10)
.
zm
wror-
p ko-a
ki
nst-
1SG.STR.POSS brother-M.DIR in... room-F.DIR ...in sitting-M.DIR
dy
be.CONT.PRS.3SG.M
My brother is sitting in the room. (SW)
(9.11)

.
d malgr-o
mlit-uno
d zyi
mowd-o
of friend-PL.M.OBL nation-PL.M.OBL of nutritional items-PL.M.OBL
progrm-
n
yuwaze p kal-io
balki
p
program-M.DIR NEG only
in... village-PL.M.OBL but.also in...
xr-una
ke ham xorki
mowd-
xalk-o
city-PL.M.DIR ...in also nutritional items-PL.M.DIR people-PL.M.OBL
ta -we-
to CONT-distribute-PRS.3[SG.M]
The United Nations' Food Program is distributing food items to people not
only in villages, but also to those in cities.

(9.12)
311

.
d afnistn-
d pohn-e
wizrat-
of Afghanistan-M.OBL of education-F.OBL ministry-M.DIR
-wy-
e
-w-
d
CONT-tell.PRS-PRS.3[SG.M] COMP CONT-want.PRS-PRS.3[SG.M] of
yunsko p
mrasta- d hewd-
p xr-uno
aw
UNESCO INSTR help-F.DIR of country-M.OBL in... city-PL.M.OBL and
kal-io
ke d zdakawunk-o
l
pr-a
village-PL.M.OBL ...in of student-PL.M.OBL from sake.M.ABL
yaw-
n
rozniz-a
zamina-
barbr-a
one-M.DIR similar educational-F.DIR opportunity-F.DIR prepared-F.DIR
k-i
do.AOR-PRS.3[SG.M]
Afghanistan's Ministry of Education says that it wants to provide similar
educational opportunities to students in both cities and villages with the help
of UNESCO.
9.2.4
Mixed case-marking inside objects of adpositions
Inside the objects of adpositions, case-marking is not particularly consistent. Modifiers of the noun inside the adpositional object may fail to agree on case with the governing noun, as shown for adjectives in sentence 9.13 and for demonstratives in 9.14.
Conjoined noun phases inside the adpositional object may fail to agree with each other,
as shown in example 9.11.
(9.13)
.
ntsgr-n
leka d wand-i
dancer-PL.M.ANIM.DIR like... of alive-PL.M.DIR
qz-no
unde di
goose-PL.M.ANIM.OBL ...like be.CONT.PRS.3PL.M
The dancers are like energetic geese.
(9.14)

p
h-
mawzo-to
bnde
on... that-PL.M.DIR topic-PL.M.OBL ...on
on those topics

312
9.3
Adpositions
Prepositions
According to most analyses, Pashto has three prepositions: /d/ of,

/p/ on,
by means of, and
/tr/ up to. We describe here several additional prepositions;
however, some of them alternate with circumpositions, so it is possible that what appear to be independent prepositions are circumpositions with omitted postpositional
components. Besides their independent functions as prepositions, each of them may
also appear as components of various circumpositions, which we treat separately in
Section 9.5. The additional prepositions listed in that section may be associated with
different varieties of Pashto.
9.3.1
The prepositions /d/, /de/, /ye/, /e/ of
The GP preposition /d/appears to alternate with the items /de/, /ye/, and /e/ characteristic of the Middle dialects. The Middle items appear to vary with relative freedom
within the dialect group, while the GP item /d/alternates distributionally with the
GP item /l/, which is nevertheless discussed separately in Section 9.3.2. This group
of items expresses functions that are in other languages associated with genitive case
marking.
9.3.1.1 The General Pashto preposition /d/

The preposition /d/ is used to express any of a wide range of functional relationships between its object and other elements in the sentence. As a determiner (see also
Section 6.3), it expresses typical possessive and meronymic relations, and is used also
to mark the complements of transitive nominalizations or gerunds, as well as the subjects of intransitive nominalizations or gerunds.
There appears to be a high degree of variation in the pronunciation of /d/: this
same orthographic form may be pronounced as /d/ or /di/ in construction with the
first and second person pronouns, while /da/ is additionally attested for
in construction with the third person pronouns. Other scholars analyze the different pronunciations in terms of dialect differences: Penzl (1955) identifies the pronunciation /da/
with the Eastern dialect, and Tegey & Robson (1996) identify the pronunciation /di/
with what they call the Central dialect, the geographic area including Kabul (labeled
Northwest in this grammar).
Some examples of common relationships expressed using /d/ are given here.
Notice that phrases governed by /d/precede their governing noun irrespective of
4 Hewson & Bubenik (2006) refer to /d/ as the genitive marker, while acknowledging its
grammatical status as a preposition.

Prepositions
313
the functional relationship between the twofor instance, the nominal complement
in sentence 9.15 and the true possessive in 9.16 are both in phrase-initial position.
/d mxm storay/ the evening star NW

/d blpox lastuay/ the coat sleeve
/d dil xplwn/ Adil's relatives
/d dost spay/ the friend's dog
/d watan stna/ protection of the country
NW
/de yespone aply/ sandals of iron DZA (Septfonds, 1994: 4.0.2.2)
(9.15)

d tir-o
intixbt-o
d natyij-o
of past-PL.M.OBL elections-PL.M.OBL of result-PL.M.OBL
lawa-
kaw-l
cancellation-M.DIR do-INF
invalidating the results of the past elections
/d/ can govern the objects of deverbal nouns, as in the example

/d
watan stna/ protection of the country. In such uses, it is common to find multiple
instances one after another. In example 9.16, we consider each phrase consisting of
/d/ and its object to be a simple prepositional phrase, except for the final one, which
is a circumpositional phrase with
/d ... la mxe/.
(9.16)
...

d afnistn-
d korn-yo
r-o
d
of Afghanistan-M.OBL of internal-PL.F.OBL affair-PL.F.OBL of
wazir-
d wayn-
la
mx-e
minister-M.OBL of speech-F.OBL from direction-F.OBL
according to Afghanistan's Minister of the Interior
In many dialects, when /d/ governs a strong pronoun, the /d/ has reduced
to a single consonant; the result is a set of coalesced or fused forms that are identified
in Section 7.2.3 as pronouns expressing genitive functions. Examples of these items are
found in examples 9.2 and 9.9. In other dialects, the phrase is pronounced with distinct
preposition and object (Penzl, 1955: 77.3a).
9.3.1.2 Complex adpositions using /d/

In general, /d/ governs the item denoting the possessor or the holonym of which
another adpositional phrase may denote the possessed item or be the meronym. An
apparently independent condition requires the phrase governed by /d/ (or the possessive pronoun mentioned above) to be the first element in the larger phrase it belongs
to. With the lexicalization of meronyms, this produces the effect of a circumposition,

314
Adpositions
as exemplified in 9.17. (See also Table 6.38 for a variant on this construction, used in
some additive number name forms.) These collocations are fixed and idiomatic to varying degrees; the glosses reflect the translation of their components, while the sentence
translations reflect the meaning of the phrase as a whole.
/d...l psa/,
/d...d psa/ above, over, on top of
...
...
(9.17) .
d kil-i
l ps-a
silw-
of village-M.OBL of top-M.ABL flood-M.DIR
rl-ay
dy
come.AOR.PST-PTCP.M.DIR be.CONT.PRS.3SG.M
The flood came from above the village. (E)
(9.18)
.
d mez-
d
ps-a
kitb-una
zm
of table-M.OBL from top-M.ABL book-PL.M.DIR 1SG.STR.POSS
n
day
NEG be.CONT.PRS.3SG.M
The books on top of the table are not mine.
This situation results in constructions that function as circumpositions, in that

the elements together all govern one object. Other common phrases with /d/ that
function as complex circumpositions are discussed below in Section 9.5.1.3.
Section 6.5.1.2 and Table 6.38 describe how, in an apparently extragrammatical
way (because the construction appears without either /d/ or
/l/governing the
grammatical object), this circumposition can be used in number names.
9.3.1.3 The Middle dialect prepositions /de/, /ye/, /e/

In their prepositional uses, these items appear to vary freely with each other. /de/, the
form closer in pronunciation to General Pashto, is found less often in Dzadrani than
its variant /ye/. Lorimer (1902: 39) lists only /de/ and /e/, not /ye/, for Waziri. These
two variant forms fulfill functions very similar to the corresponding items /d/ and
/l/ in General Pashto. As is the case for General Pashto, a phrase governed by /de/
or /ye/is often found in pre-clausal position.
5 In example 9.17, the

/silw/ is an Eastern-dialect variant. In Western dialects it is
/slb/.
.
.

Prepositions
(9.19)
315
.
qq-i
e ol-
mulk-ina
e por-a
e
smuggling-F.DIR of all-PL.M.DIR nation-PL.M.DIR of sake-M.ABL of
tabh-i
liyr-
do
destruction-F.OBL path-F.DIR be.CONT.PRS.3SG.F
Smuggling is a path to destruction for all nations. (WAZ)
(9.20) da
ye to
p oro ke mi
prot-
this.DIR of 2SG.STR in... land ...in 1PL.STR.DIR located-PL.M.DIR
yi
be.CONT.PRS.1PL
We are on your land. (DZA)
(Example 9.20 is from Septfonds 1994: 269.)
In Dzadrani, according to Septfonds (1997: 8.2.1), the contracted forms discussed
in Table 7.6 do not exist; the uncontracted forms with the governing preposition /ye/
and the strong pronoun objects are found instead.
9.3.1.4 Middle dialect complex adpositions using /ye/

Septfonds notes that the placement of these phrases before the phrase they modify
has resulted in the effect of circumpositions, due in part to the lexicalization of the
meronym. This is analogous to the situation in General Pashto (see Section 9.3.1.2 and
Section 9.5.1.1), but Septfonds records different combinations which result in different
circumposition-like phrases. The following are constructions mentioned specifically
in Septfonds (1994: 258) for Dzadrani:
/ye ... p sar/ at the top of, above (compare 9.17)
/ye ... p manj ke/ in the middle of
/ye ... p o/ at the top of, above
/ye ... xo ta/ next to
/ye ... ye pora/ after
A number of phrases are based on the combination of /ye/ (in its use indicating
motion away fromsee 9.8) with two nouns in succession, both of which are marked
ablative. The second noun is always /liri/ or /lerya/ direction. Again in these cases,
the entire phrase governs a single object. Compare the GP examples with
/mx/
direction (9.16), and with
... /d...p lor/ towards (9.89).

316
Adpositions
/ye ... p liri/ towards

(9.21) ye... ker
...p liri
of... house ...on direction
toward the house (DZA)
/ye ... brya lerya/ from ... above [lit. from ... top direction]
/ye ... ta lerya/ from ... behind [lit. from ... back direction]
/ye ... posa lerya/ from ... above, on top [lit. from ... top direction]
/ye ... kiza lerya/ from ... below [lit. from ... bottom direction]
In addition to these combinations, the circumposition /ye...na/ from governs the
standard of comparison where the compared item is the object of /tr/ than (compare
General Pashto: see Section 9.3.5).
9.3.2
The General Pashto preposition
/l/ from
Most grammars treat the element

/l/ only as part of a circumposition. However,
/l/ can function as a preposition of ablative function or of origin, when its object
appears with ablative case marking. Some sources treat /l/ as a variant of /d/,
reflecting the fact that they are interchangeable as components of many circumpositions. While we are neutral as to that issue, we should nonetheless note that the two
items may differ in meaning when appearing as independent prepositions. In particular, the preposition
/l/ does not have the possessive interpretation exemplified
in Section 9.3.1.1. On the other hand, if there are two circumpositions that contain the
same postpositional element and vary between /d/ and /l/, they are apparently
synonymous or reflect dialectal differences. The preposition /l/ should not be confused with the postposition
/la/ to , which exists in some dialects (see Section
9.4.2).
(9.22)
.
l
plr-a
rl-y
ym
from father-M.ABL come.AOR.PST-PTCP.M.DIR be.CONT.PRS.1SG
I have come from father. (NW,SW)
The GP variant /l/ is claimed to be nonexistent in Dzadrani; however, our own

consultants dispute this, acknowledging that it is relatively rare; for Waziri, Lorimer
(1902: 39) cites it as part of the circumposition /l...na/ from and /be l...na/ without.

Prepositions
9.3.3
The preposition
317
/be/ without
Alone or in construction with the preposition
/l/ from,
/be/ without may
govern an object which is typically assigned the ablative case. Both variants are cited
by Lorimer (1902: 39) for Waziri; he does not discuss case assignment, but he does
mention the presumably cognate circumposition /be ... la na/ (suggesting that /l/
is an ambiposition). See also examples 9.6 and 9.116.
(9.23)
. )(
be
(l)
xor-a
wror-
yawzi wi
without (from) sister-F.ABL brother-M.DIR lonely be.AOR.PRS.3SG.M
A brother without a sister is lonely. (NW)
(9.24)
.
m
d d
be
harkat-a
aw
1SG.STR.OBL of 3SG.M.STR.OBL without movement-M.ABL and
d-ay
way jsad-
w-lid-
shredded-M.DIR ECHO corpse-M.DIR AOR-see.PST-PST.3SG.M
I saw his lifeless and broken body.
Some scholars (e.g. Penzl 1955) suggest that
/be/ can be thought of as an affix
rather than a preposition; Lorimer (1902: 39) gives the same analysis for Waziri. By
contrast, we treat the prefix and the preposition as two separate, but related, items
based on the lexical class of the item governed by
/be/. See Section 6.8.2 for a
brief description of its use as an affix deriving adjectives. Note that in sentence 9.24,
the prepositional phrase is attributively modifying a noun, fulfilling the function of
an adjective; this shows the relationship to the derivational affix.
Our analysis of the corresponding Dzadrani item differs from that of Septfonds
(1994: 269) in that he identifies the /be/ with the future marker (the /b/ of General
Pashto). We treat it as corresponding to GP
/be/ without. The object shows abla-
tive case-marking, as it normally does in General Pashto (see Section 9.3.3). Septfonds
(1994: 5.1.1.4) claims that the governing of ablative case-marking by /be/ is limited to
singular nouns whose stems are consonant-final.
9.3.4
The prepositions
/p/, /pr/
Scholars disagree as to whether Pashto synchronically possesses one polyfunctional

word with two pronunciations, /p/, /pr/, or two words, /p/ and /pr/. Arguments

318
Adpositions
can be made in both directions, and spelling and pronunciation variation does not line
up neatly with differences in function.
Here we note that the more frequent pronunciation of these items in Dzadrani is
/p/ (Septfonds, 1997). Below, we describe three functions of the prepositions /p/,
/pr/. This item can also be the first component in several circumpositions, which
are discussed in Section 9.5.3. See Section 9.6.1 for a variant of this preposition that
incorporates its object.
9.3.4.1 The locational /p/, /pr/ on

Either the preposition
/p/, /pr/ on or a circumposition containing it may be
used to express location. Compare example 9.25 with 9.128.
(9.25)
.
p mez- qalam-una
di
on table-M pen-PL.M.DIR be.CONT.PRS.3PL.M
There are pens on the table. (E,W)
Example 9.26 shows a circumpositional phrase containing
/p/.
.
... /p...ke/, mod-
ified by a prepositional phrase headed by

(9.26)
p afnistn-
p dxt-o
aw ar-uno
in... Afghanistan-M in... desert-PL.F.OBL and mountain-PL.M.OBL
ki
tajriba-
kaw-
...in experiment-F.DIR do.CONT-PRS.3[PL.M]
They are performing experiments in the deserts and mountains in
Afghanistan.
Note again the possibility, in at least the NW and SW dialects, that either oblique
or direct case may be assigned to the object, as shown in examples 9.28 and 9.27.
(9.27)
.
pr kitb-e
me
qalam-
kxod-
on notebook-F.OBL 1SG.WK pen-M.DIR AOR\place.PST-PST.3SG.M
I put a pen on the notebook. (NW)
8
/p/ is cognate with Persian /ba/ in, to , while /pr/ is cognate with Persian /bar/ on
(Heston, 1987: 166167). Lorenz (1982) takes the position implied here, that there are two words.

Prepositions
(9.28)
319
.
pr kitba-
me
qalam-
kxod-
on notebook-F.DIR 1SG.WK pen-M.DIR AOR\place.PST-PST.3SG.M
I put a pen on the notebook. (NW)
9.3.4.2 The instrumental /p/ with, by means of

One use of the preposition /p/ (but not /pr/) indicates instrumentality or means
(compare with example 9.136). Note too the use of
/p/ with an inflected adjective
complement (9.32).
(9.29)
.
za
o-y
p
k- -xor-m
1SG.STR.DIR food-F.DIR INSTR knife-M CONT-eat.PRS-1SG
I eat with a knife. (SW)
(9.30)

.
rago rm-
e
d hind-
d sunat-
p
Rago Ram-M.DIR COMP of India-M.OBL of industry-M.OBL in...
kanfrns- ke d iner-y
d barx-e
paxwn-ay
conference-M ...in of energy-F.OBL of part-F.OBL former-M.DIR
salkr-
day
-wy-
e
advisor-M.DIR be.CONT.PRS.3SG.M CONT-tell.PRS-PRS.3[SG.M] COMP
da
stunza-
b
d xosusi sektor-
d
this.DIR problem-F.DIR WOULD of private sector-M.OBL of
a-o
pnga awn-o
p
mrasta- hl
large-PL.M.OBL wealth tossing-PL.F.OBL INSTR help-F.DIR solved
-i
Rago Ram, who is a former energy advisor in India's Industrial Federation,
says that this problem will be solved by means of significant investments
from the private sector.
/p/ may govern an event nominal, often in infinitival form, which indicates an
event that has a causative or circumstantial relationship to the event denoted in the
finite verb. The examples in Section 5.4.2 show this usage.

320
Adpositions
When the object of /p/ is animate, the sentence takes on the sense of a causative
construction in which the grammatical subject denotes an ultimate cause of an event
expressed through the rest of the sentence: the actor of the caused event is expressed
as the prepositional object. Compare 9.31 with 9.154; the animacy value of the prepositional object prompts the interpretation as denoting an intermediate agent or an instrument.
(9.31)
.
sa-ay
p
ras-y s-
-ta-i
man-M.DIR INSTR rope-F horse-M.DIR CONT-tie-PRS.3
The man ties the horse up with a rope.
An example of
/p/ conveying manner can be seen in the following examples
(see also 9.93 and 9.94). In this usage, it may be found in construction with an adjectival, rather than nominal, object (as shown in example 9.32; see also Section 10.2.3).
(9.32)
.
daa
kas-n
p
asn-a
d
this.DIR person-PL.M.ANIM.DIR INSTR easy-M.ABL of
nor-o
hukm-
n
-axl-
other-PL.M.OBL order-M.DIR NEG CONT-take.PRS-PRS.3[PL.M]
These people don't easily take orders from others.
(9.33)
.
ts
p
gran-a
mi
k-i
what INSTR difficult-M.ABL 1SG.WK do.AOR-PTCP.PL.M.DIR
I did something with great strain.
(9.34)
.
p
xa-a
paxtun-
d-ay
INSTR mud-F.DIR Pashtoon-M.DIR be.CONT.PRS-3SG.M
He is Pashtoon by origin.
The preposition
/p/ can appear in a number of idioms indicating manner.
These lexicalized phrases differ across dialects.
9.3.4.3 The temporal /p/, /pr/ at, on

The prepositions
/p/ ,
/pr/ at, on can govern a noun that refers to a time of
day, as shown in 9.35 and 9.36; see also 9.81 for a temporal collocation with /p/.

Prepositions
(9.35)
321
.
ahmad-
p ha
pa-
der-
nea
Ahmad-M.DIR at that.DIR night-F.DIR very-M.DIR drunk
wo
be.CONT.PST.3SG.M
Ahmad was very drunk on that night. (SW)
(9.36)

.
ha
farmn-
e
d dxila
r-o
aw d
that.DIR order-M.DIR COMP of internal affair-PL.F.OBL and of
mazhabi umur-o
d wazir-no
aw d de
religious affair-PL.M.OBL of minister-PL.M.ANIM.OBL and of this.OBL
haywd-
d loy-
ranwl-i
l
xw-
d
country-M.OBL of large-M.OBL attorney-M.OBL from side-F.OBL of
doanb-e
p p-e
ls
lik
Monday-F.OBL at night-F.OBL hand letter
w-ay
day
p ha-
ke
become.AOR.PST-PTCP.M.DIR be.CONT.PRS.3SG.M in... that-M.OBL ...in
d
ahmadiy-e
na
uxtna-
from... Ahmadiya-F.OBL ...from request-F.DIR
w-e
da
e
d
become.AOR.PST-PTCP.F.DIR be.CONT.PRS.3SG.F COMP of
xpl-o
qyid-o
d
xpar-aw-l-o
own-PL.M.OBL beliefs-PL.M.OBL from... broadcasted-do-INF-PL.M.OBL
na
aa-
w-k-i
...from side-F.DIR AOR-do.AOR-PRS.3[SG.F]
In the order that was written on Monday night by the ministers of Internal
Affairs and of Religious Affairs, as well as by the nation's Attorney General, it
was requested that Ahmadiya refrain from proselytizing its beliefs.

322
Adpositions
It may also be used with number terms in time expressions to mean at X o'clock.
In this construction, the numbers can appear either in the oblique form, as expected
after a preposition, or in the direct form. Compare 9.37 and 9.38, which also show that
the object can appear as either singular or plural:
(9.37)
.
p dw-o
baj-o
o-y
-xor-m
at two-PL.F.OBL hour-PL.F.OBL food-F.DIR CONT-eat.PRS-1SG
I eat at two o'clock.
(9.38)
.
p dw-a
baj-a
o-y
-xor-m
at two-F.DIR hour-F.DIR food-F.DIR CONT-eat.PRS-1SG
I eat at two o'clock.

In some dialects, both pronunciations of the preposition can be found with this
meaning:
(9.39)
.
z
pr/p dw-e
baj-e
o-y
1SG.STR.DIR at
two-PL.F.DIR hour-PL.F.DIR food-F.DIR
-xwar-m
CONT-eat.PRS-1SG
I eat at two o'clock. (SW)
9.3.4.4 With aspectual verbs

Described for Dzadrani (Septfonds, 1994: 269), and found also in General Pashto, is
a use of
/p/ in construction with aspectual verbs to indicate the beginning of the
process.
(9.40) da
me
we-ta w-niw-
brid-
me
this.DIR 1SG.WK 3SG-to AOR-take.PST-PST.3SG.M attack-M.DIR 1SG.WK
p
w-k-
TMP AOR-do.PST-PST.3SG.M
I took it to her and started [to milk]

Prepositions
(9.41)
323

.
armal-
oror-a
d
xo
de
dumra
Armal-M.DIR brother-M.VOC this.DIR EMPH this.OBL so.much
a-
az-
p
w-k-
e
big-M.DIR shot-M.DIR TMP AOR-do.AOR-PST.3SG.M COMP
sklan-ino
b
p sklan- ke
Scottish-PL.M.ANIM.OBL WOULD in... Scotland-M ...in
-wr-ed-l-ay
wi
lol
CONT-hear-PST-PST-PTCP.M.DIR be.AOR.PRS.3SG.M LOL
Armal, brother, he took such a large shot right then that the Scots must have
heard it in Scotland. LOL
9.3.5
The preposition
/tr/ 'up to'
The preposition
/tr/ often appears as the first component of several circumpositions; it is also found as an independent preposition with a meaning of 'up to, across'
(Hewson & Bubenik, 2006: 156)see 9.93 for an example of this use.
Example 9.53 gives an example of /tr/ in a common idiom. For a reduced form
of this preposition in construction with the weak third-person pronoun, see Section
9.6.1.
As part of a pair of correlative adpositions from...to, /tr/ pairs with the circumposition
/de ... na/ from, and can govern the assignment of ablative or direct
case marking to its object.
...
(9.42)
.
d
karai-
na
tr
Kabul-a
d
from... Karachi-M.OBL ...from up.to Kabul-M.ABL of
paxtan-o
hl-
Pashtoon-PL.M.OBL situation-M.DIR
the state of Pashtoons from Karachi to Kabul

In the SW dialect, the circumposition
/tr ... (a) pore/ up to, until
is claimed to have an optional second component, as indicated by the parentheses in
examples 9.135 and 9.136.
/tr/ also functions as a preposition in comparative and superlative constructions (see also examples 9.109 through 9.113 for an alternative form for comparatives
and superlatives). Across dialects
/tr/ may assign direct or oblique case to its ob-
)( ...

324
Adpositions
ject; for Dzadrani, Septfonds (1997: 8.3.2) claims that

or direct case to its object.
(9.43)
/tr/ can assign either oblique
.
afnistn-
tr
frns-e
a-
dy
Afghanistan-M.DIR than France-M.OBL big-M.DIR be.CONT.PRS.3SG.M
Afghanistan is larger than France.
(9.44)
.
d mahmud-
kor-
tr
ol-o
lw-ay
of Mahmoud-M.OBL house-M.DIR than all-PL.M.OBL large-M.DIR
day
be.CONT.PRS.3SG.M
Mahmoud's house is the biggest [of all].
(9.45)

.
d pkistn-
p kar-y
ke d polis-o
pr
of Pakistan-M.OBL in... Karachi-F.OBL ...in of police-PL.M.OBL on
yaw-
merkaz- d brid-
p tra-
ke tr
yaw
one-M.OBL center-M of attack-M.OBL in... interval-M ...in than one
nim sl-o
er-o
xalk-o
ta mrg
half one.hundred-PL.M.OBL more-PL.M.OBL people-PL.M.OBL to death
obl-a
-awuxt-
da
injury-F.DIR CONT-cross.over.PST-PTCP.F.DIR be.CONT.PRS.3SG.F
More than 150 people were injured or killed during an attack on a police
station in Karachi, Pakistan.
A circumposition, which he transcribes as /pa...na/, is cited by Lorimer (1902: 12)

as the marker of comparison for Waziri; the entire circumpositional phrase precedes
the adjectival head.
9.3.6
The preposition
/leka/ like
The preposition
/leka/ like may appear independently or may be part of a circumposition (see 9.13).

Postpositions
(9.46)
325
.
alwl-i
hatsa-
k-e
dzn-
p
mass-PL.M.DIR effort-F.DIR do.AOR-PTCP.F.DIR self-M.DIR INSTR
xkl-i
num-uno
singr
k-i
leka
beautiful-PL.M.DIR name-PL.M decoration do.AOR-PRS.3[PL.M] like
tair-
aw umed-
Taghir-M.DIR and Ahmed-M.DIR
Everybodys been trying to doll themselves up using fancy names, like Taghir
and Umed.
(9.47)
.
dse mws-
jo-
w-ay
leka
such mouse-M.DIR built-M.DIR become.AOR.PST-PTCP.M.DIR like
ls
pox-e
awast-l kg-i
hand cover-F.DIR wear-INF become.CONT.PRES-PRS.3[SG.F]
A [computer] mouse has been made to be worn like a glove.
The preposition can also be used in construction with the complementizer

//,
with scope over the corresponding proposition, indicating an epistemic judgment:
(9.48)
.
leka
duy r-i
like COMP 3PL come.PRS.CONT-PRS.3
It seems like they are coming. (SW)
9.4
Postpositions
9.4.1
Overview
Some other grammars indicate only one postposition for Pashto overall,
/ta/ to.
However, many items treated in other works as adverbs take objects; accordingly, some
of them are listed in this section. In any case, the claim that
/ta/ is the only independent postposition may be true for only some dialects: Hewson & Bubenik (2006:
153) claim that
/ke/ can appear independently in Eastern and Western dialects;
also, Tegey & Robson (1996) indicate that /na/ can appear as an independent postposition in NW and NE dialects, as exemplified below. Although they do not identify
the associated dialects, Hewson & Bubenik (2006: 153) also identify the independent

326
Adpositions
postposition
/bnde/ up, above, whose cognate /bondi/ atop, above we here
identify with Middle varieties, after Lorimer (1902).
There are several morphosyntactic conditions under which the first component
of a circumposition is omitted. To the extent we can discern, we consider these cases
of incomplete circumpositions, rather than cases of complete postpositions. See Section 9.7.5, in particular the discussion preceding sentences 9.162 and 9.164. In practical
terms, it is often difficult to decide whether an item is a postposition, or a circumposition with its first component omitted.
9.4.2
The postposition
/ta/ to, for
/ta/ is the postposition most commonly described as functioning independently. It
governs arguments denoting destinations (9.49) and recipients (9.50), and may also
govern beneficiary arguments, as in 7.71. Its object appears in the oblique case form.
Note that
/ta/ can also function as the second component of a circumposition, in
construction with the preposition /w/. This form, however, appears to be much
less common; we have found it described for Dzadrani (see Table 9.2), while it was
marked as archaic by Lorimer (1902) for Waziri; Pate (2012: 18) cites the circumposition
as possible for the Kandahari dialect, with the postposition preferred.
(9.49)
.
mu
owndz-i
ta -
1PL.STR.DIR school-M.OBL to go.CONT.PRS-1PL
We are going to school
(9.50)
.
ahmad-
ta kitb-
wrk-a
Ahmad-M.OBL to book-M.DIR give.AOR-IMP.SG
Give the book to Ahmad.
(9.51)
.
d
rup-y
w-xl-a
n-a
ta
this.DIR rupee-F.DIR AOR-take.PRS-IMP.SG self-M.OBL for
tsapl-y
ham w-xl-a
sandals-F.DIR also AOR-take.PRS-IMP.SG
Take the money and buy some sandals for yourself.
Several sources (Skalmowski 1996, Shafeev 1964) claim that /la/and

/lara/
are variants of /ta/. There is little agreement as to which variant is more character-

Postpositions
istic of which dialect group; however, among these,

in everyday use.
9.4.3
The postposition
327
/lara/ appears to be the rarest
/sra/ with
Though more common as a component of a circumposition (see examples 9.66 and

9.99),
/sra/ [comitative] with can be found as an independent postposition:
(9.52)
.
mull-
mohammed-
omar-
afghan
Mullah-M.OBL Mohammed-M.OBL Omar-M.OBL Afghan
hukumat-
sra
xabr-e
rd
government-M.OBL COMIT word-PL.F.DIR rejection
ke-l-e
do.AOR-PST-PST.3PL.F
Mullah Mohammed Omar rejected talks with the Afghan government.
This situation is sometimes described as a dialect-dependent optional omission of

the first component of a circumposition (Tegey & Robson, 1996: 155156).
9.4.4
The postposition
/zidi/ against
The postposition
/zidi/ against, anti- (also pronounced /zed-e/) denotes opposition. It can also be used to govern a predicate or modifier, with the approximate
meaning contrary (see Section 6.8.2), and the stem as a nominal with the approximate
meaning opposite.
(9.53)
. -
tlibn-o
-uxt-l
e
d kbl-
Taliban-PL.M.DIR CONT-want.PST-PST.3PL.M COMP of Kabul-M.OBL
jallbad-
pr lra-
dawlat-
zidi
Jalalabad-M.OBL on road-F.DIR government-M.OBL against
fliyat-una
tr sar-
k-i
activity-PL.M.DIR on head-.M.ABL do.AOR-PRS.3[PL.M]
The Taliban wanted to undertake anti-government activities on the road from
Kabul to Jalalabad.

328
9.4.5
Adpositions
The postposition
/wnde/ before
Although it has not been described as a postposition by other Pashto scholars,

/wnde/ before fits our definition of a postposition that governs ablative case on its
object. See 9.54 for an example.
(9.54)

.
o
wra-e
wnde d muhasil-ino
aw
some day-F.OBL before of student-PL.M.OBL and
wn-no
newal-e
uln-e
l
young-PL.M.ANIM.OBL international-F.OBL society-F.OBL from
xw-
yaw-
kanfrns-
t bal-l
side-F.OBL one-M.OBL conference-M.OBL to invite-INF
w-ay
wm
become.AOR.PST-PTCP.M.DIR be.CONT.PST.1SG
A few days ago, I was invited to a conference by the International Society of
Students and Young People.
9.4.6
The postposition
/unde/ like
Both this postposition and the preposition

/leka/ like may independently govern
an object, or may be combined into the circumposition exemplified in sentence 9.13.
(9.55)
.
arbat-
unde ye
p k-a
alcohol-SG.M.OBL like
3.WK gulp do.AOR-IMP.SG
Chug it like a beer.
9.4.7
The postposition
/bnde/
...
For some dialects,

/bnde/ can function with a range of meanings similar to
those of
/p...bnde/; see Section 9.5.3 for more information.
A use of postposition /bondi/ in Waziri that we have not found in General Pashto
is within number names; an example is given in Section 6.5.

Circumpositions 329
9.4.8
Some additional postpositions in Middle dialects
In apparent contrast to GP, /pse/ after may be used as an independent postposition

in Dzadrani. For Waziri, Lorimer (1902: 39) lists the independent postpositions /kxe/
on, /londi/ beneath, /pere/ across, among others, as independent postpositions.
This conflicts with most claims about General Pashto that they are only components
of circumpositions; however, some speakers of Northern dialects have reported that
they can be found in those dialects as well.
Attested examples suggest an even larger inventory of items that can be used as independent postpositions; some of these may represent dialect differences, and some
may exemplify constraints that resemble those of General Pashto, such as the constraint against weak pronouns inside circumpositions:
Example 9.56 gives an example of /na/ used as a postposition, and 9.57 shows
/(p)se/ used as a postposition.
(9.56) kala kala e r-
bagra-
w-nis-i
when when of city-M.OBL manual.harvest(?)-F.DIR AOR-gather.PRS-1PL
aw kala biy ripl-
n
kor-
wxl-i
and when then reaper-M.OBL from work-M.DIR AOR\take.PRS-1PL
Sometimes we gather village people for harvesting by hand, and sometimes
we use the reaper. (WAZ)
(9.57) kla e
dy
yer-
de se
w-aw-i
when COMP 3PL.STR.DIR fire-M.DIR 2 after AOR-throw-PRS.3[PL.M]
ne
e
der-be-i-i
then COMP 2-near-become.CONT.PRS-PRS.3[PL.M]
When they put the fire after you and they approach you ... (DZA)
9.5
Circumpositions
The majority of adpositions in Pashto are circumpositions. According to many grammarians of Pashto, each circumposition can be analyzed as a combination of a preposition and a postposition. Our analysis is somewhat different in two ways. First, some
of the elements found in circumpositions do not function as independent prepositions
11 The glossing of /bagra-/ as manual.harvest is uncertain.

12 Some authors, such as Heston (1987: 169) and Dessart (1994), go further and state or hint that
the circumpositions are the result of free combinations of prepositions and postpositions and are not
completely conventionalized. We nevertheless find it useful to treat the most commonly occurring
circumpositions as (discontinuous) lexical items.

330
Adpositions
or postpositions (though perhaps most do). Second, we want to emphasize that although they consist of separate parts that are in some cases identifiable as independent words, circumpositions function as single relations governing a single complement. Other studies treat the components as separate words, and variability noted
throughout this section constitutes some evidence in favor of this view.
Since an adpositional phrase can take an adpositional phrase rather than a noun
phrase as an object, it is not always easy to tell whether an item is a true circumposition, according to the definition above, or is (for instance) a preposition with a postpositional phrase as its object. When we are in doubt as to this question, we list the
sequence as if it were a circumposition, on the grounds that such phrases may be in the
process of lexicalization. Table 9.1 shows many of the simple circumpositions we have
found for General Pashto, either through our own research or in other sources. Other
dictionaries and descriptions show additional combinations or alternative orderings;
apparently there is some freedom in how the elements are combined, and there is not
full consensus on even which are the most frequent. It is evident that this is also an
area of dialectal variation: besides there being differences in pronunciation associated
with dialects, there are also differences in which combinations are to be found as circumpositions. Some of those differences are reflected in Table 9.2, showing common
circumpositions of Dzadrani and Waziri.
In many of the Northern dialects of Pashto, as well as in some Middle dialects, the
first component of some circumpositions appears to be fairly freely omissible, rendering the effect of a postposition. Of the circumpositions listed in Table 9.1, the second
component of many of these may appear independently with approximately the meaning of the circumposition.

...
tr ...
...
l...na
from 9.104
...
d...na
from 9.59
...
... na
...
Table 9.1: Some GP simple circumpositions
p...ke
in, at, on
9.123
p ...
...
... ke
...
...
pr ...,
l ...
...
d ...
...
first
component
second
component
tr...lnde
under
9.139
...
l...lnde
under
9.100
...
d...lnde
under 9.61
...
... lnde
...
p...pse
after,
behind
9.124
...
d...pse
after
...
... pse
...
tr...pore
until, up to
9.134
...
pr...pore
with
...
d...pore
up to,
across 9.65
...
... pore
...
p...bnde
on top of, by
means of
9.128
...
... bnde
...
p...sra
with 9.132
...
l...sra
with 9.99
...
d...sra
with 9.66
...
... sra
...
l...xa
from 9.101
...
d...xa
from 9.63
...
... xa
...
Circumpositions

331
332
Adpositions
Table 9.2 shows the circumpositions cited for Middle dialects (Septfonds 1994;
Lorimer 1902), in positions corresponding largely to the ones in Table 9.1. The first row
of Table 9.2 may be understood as corresponding to the first two rows of that table,
since in the Middle dialects, /ye/ and /de/ may vary freely in circumpositions. Some of
these forms may also be found in GP dialects, and some of them may vary with forms
found also in General Pashto (e.g. /p...bnde/ (9.58) in contrast with /p...nde/).
(9.58) ke
e
doy
p
daa
bonde er-a
because COMP 3PL.M.OBL on... this.DIR ...on much-F.DIR
ziyot-a
kry-a
-wxst-e
wi
much-F.DIR fee-F.DIR CONT-take.PST-PTCP.F.DIR be.AOR.PRS.3SG.F
Because they have already gotten a lot of money as carriage charges for that.
(DZA)

p...kxe
in, at, on
8.61
... kxe (xe)
tr...na
from, with
y...na
from, with
8.44
... na
tr...londe
under
p...londi
under
y...londe
under
... londe
Table 9.2: Some Middle Dialect circumpositions in contrast with GP
wa...
tr ...
p ...
(y) ...
first
component
second
component
p...pse
in, after
9.127
... (p)se
tr...pera
until, up to
p...pera
with
y...pera
until
... pera
p...nde
on top
9.130
...nde,
...bondi
p...sra
with
y...sra
with 8.42
... sra
wa...ta
to
...ta
Circumpositions 333

334
9.5.1
Adpositions
Circumpositions with
/d/
9.5.1.1 General Pashto simple circumpositions with /d/

The preposition /d/ can combine with a number of postpositions to form simple
circumpositions. The ones we have found are exemplified in this section.
... /d...na/ from, out of
In this construction, oblique case is assigned to the object. Compare example 9.8
with 9.60.
(9.59)
.
d
kbl-
na
rl-ay
from... Kabul-M.OBL ...from come.AOR.PST-PTCP.M.DIR
ym
be.CONT.PRS.1SG
I came from Kabul.
(9.60)
.
d
kor-
na
rl-m
from... house-M.OBL ...from come.AOR.PST-1SG
I came from home.
... /d...lnde/ under

(9.61)
.
d
sy-e
lndi
nst-
ym
under... shadow-F.OBL ...under sitting-M.DIR be.CONT.PRS.1SG
I am sitting in the shade. (SW)
(9.62)
.
d
l-y
lnde
ob-
d.i
under... carpet-F.OBL ...under water-PL.F.DIR be.CONT.PRS.3PL.F
There is water under the carpet.
13 Tegey & Robson (1996: 154ff.), who claim to describe a Northwest, Kabuli variety of Pashto, do
not list /d/ as a component of circumpositions, recognizing only the variant /l/ as a possible
components. Babrakzai (1999: 44), who claims to be describing the same variety, does give
examples of circumpositions with /d/.

Circumpositions 335
This can also be expressed with
...
/tr...lnde/ (see 9.139), and with
... /l...lnde/ (see 9.100).

... /d...tsxa/ from, on account of. For dialectal variants, see 9.102; for a
postpositional use of /xa/, see 9.64.
(9.63)
.
d
larg-i
xa -ber--m
from... stick-M.OBL ...from CONT-fear-PRS-1SG
I am afraid of a beating [lit. I am afraid of the stick.] (SW)
(9.64)
.
m
exa dre
x
kitb-una
ta
1SG.STR.OBL from three good book-PL.M.DIR EXT
I have three good books. (NE)
... /d...pore/ up to
(9.65)
.
d
dost-
pore
p mor-
ke wl-m
up.to... friend-M.ABL ...up.to in... car-M.OBL ...in go.AOR.PST-1SG
I went to my friend by car (NW)
This relation can also be expressed with

9.133 - 9.135.
...
/tr...pore/, as in examples
... /d...sra/ [comitative] with

(9.66)
.
d
ahmad-
sra
kampyur-
n
ta
COMIT... Ahmad-M.OBL ...COMIT computer-M.DIR NEG EXT
Ahmad doesn't have a computer. (SW)
...
Note too the apparently synonymous phrase

/l...sra/, which is exemplified in Section 9.5.2.1.
The following sentence exemplifies the common joining with use of
/d...sra/, as well as the idiomatic phrase
/la de sra/ with this , best
translated as nonetheless or thereby (see also Section 11.4.4.7):
...

336
Adpositions
(9.67)

.
l
de
sra
b
pkistn-
COMIT... this.OBL ...COMIT WOULD Pakistan-M.DIR
w-tawan-eg-i
e
d
hindustn- sra
l
AOR-able-PRS-PRS.3[SG.M] COMP COMIT... India-M.OBL . ..COMIT from
pul-e
xpl-
paw-in
d
border-F.OBL own-PL.M.DIR force-PL.M.ANIM.DIR COMIT...
fnistn-
sra
ugd-a
sarhad-
ta
Afghanistan-M.OBL ...COMIT long-M.OBL border-M.OBL to
w-staw-i
AOR-send-PRS.3[SG.M]
Nonetheless, Pakistan will be able to send their forces from the border with
India to the long border with Afghanistan.
The particle
/sra/ can appear independently and without an overt object,
with interpretation determined by context. See Section 10.2.3.1 for more discussion and
some examples.
9.5.1.2 Middle dialect simple circumpositions with /ye/, /e/

A local variant of the GP preposition /d/ is Middle /de/, and it is the first component
in many of the same circumpositions. However, it is less common in the Middle dialects
than the variants /ye/ and /e/, which apparently vary freely with each other. Because
the /de/ form is the less common, we are showing here the circumpositions using the
more common variants /ye//e/.
/...sra/ [comitative] with

Septfonds (1994: 5.1.2.4) notes that the postpositional component of this item can
be heard as /sra/ and, less often, /sa/.
14 Standardized version of9.67:

Circumpositions
337
(9.68) kla kla xo

e sar-
xatr-
when when EMPH of head-M.OBL danger-M.DIR
wi
yane e
marg-
sra
mxmx
be.AOR.PRS.3SG.M that.is COMIT... death-M.OBL ...COMIT facing
-i
Sometimes their head is in danger, that is, they are faced with death. (WAZ)
He notes further that this item fulfills the a broad range of functions including association, accompaniment, possession, and means.
/ye...n/
The circumposition /ye...n/ can be used with various functions associated with
separation or differentiation, including marking the standard of comparison (compare GP 9.109):
(9.69) e
to
na
kr-
da
than... 2SG.STR.OBL ...than young-M.DIR be.CONT.PRS.3SG.M
Is he younger than you? (WAZ)
Septfonds notes that this circumposition can work as in a malefactive-type construction, to mark a participant who is involuntarily involved in and affected by an event.
/ye ... kra/ at the home of
This distinctive circumposition is translated as chez in Septfonds (1994: 267) and
cited also by Lorimer (1902: 39) as /de ... kra/. We conjecture that this use, exemplified here, is related to GP phrases using forms of
/kor/ house, as exemplified
in sentences 9.151 and 9.8:
(9.70) ye
de mlo-
kra
wolma day
at... of mullah-M.OBL ...the. home invited be.CONT.PRS.3SG.M
He is invited to the mullah's. (DZA)
9.5.1.3 Complex circumpositions with /d/

As discussed in Section 9.3.1.2, the rule about positioning a phrase with
/d/ at
the beginning of its noun phrase often results in the effect of a circumposition. As
these examples show, the second component consists of an adpositional phrase with
a complement-taking, often abstract or relational, nominal; the first component is that
complement marked by /d/.
... /d...d pra/ , ... /d...l pra/ for, for the sake of
338
Adpositions
(9.71)
.
mahmud-
d ahmd-
de
pr-a
Mahmoud-M.DIR of Ahmad-M.OBL from sake-M.ABL
darmaltun-
ta wl-
darmal-
pharmacy-M.OBL to go.AOR.PST-PST.3SG.M COMP medicine-M.DIR
w-xl-i
AOR-buy.PRS-PRS.3[SG.M]
Mahmoud went to the pharmacy to buy medicine for Ahmad. (SW)
Verbal nouns within adpositional phrases may express the complements of verbs
or, as in this example, nominalizations. Here the circumpositional phrase containing
/d...l pra/ is the complement of
/preka/ decision:
...
(9.72)
.
afnistn-
ta d dir
zr-a
izfi
Afghanistan-M.OBL to of thirty thousand-PL.M.DIR additional
sartir-i
d leg-l-o
l
pr-a
soldiers-M.OBL of send-INF-PL.M.OBL from sake-M.ABL
preka-
ye
d jamhuri riysat-
p dawra-
ke
decision-F.DIR 3.WK of national office-M.OBL in... term-F.DIR ...in
tr
ul-o
saxt-a
preka-
wa
up.to all-PL.M.OBL difficult-F.DIR decision-F.DIR be.CONT.PST.3SG.F
The decision to send an additional thirty thousand soldiers to Afghanistan
was the hardest decision of his presidential term.
(9.73)

.
d nuk-no
uw-l-
xyi
of fingernail-PL.M.ANIM.OBL bite-INF-PL.M.DIR maybe
msum-no
t d tawi-uno
aw xwbd-io
child-PL.M.ANIM.OBL for of concern-PL.M.OBL and sadness-PL.F.OBL
d argand-aw-l-o
yaw-a
lr-
of revealed-do-INF-PL.M.OBL one-F.DIR path-F.DIR
wi
be.AOR.PRS.3[PL.M]
Biting the fingernails may be a way for children to express concerns or
distress.

Circumpositions
... /d...p bra ke/ about

(9.74)
.
d ahmad-
p bra-
ki
er-e
of Ahmad-M.OBL in... subject-F.DIR ...in many-PL.F.DIR
maql-e
lik-l
w-i
article-PL.F.DIR write-INF become.AOR.PST-PTCP.PL.F.DIR
di
be.CONT.PRS.3PL.F
Many articles have been written about Ahmad. (SW)
(9.75)
.
day
d mubiq-e
p bra-
ke
3SG.M.STR.DIR of contest-F.OBL in... subject-F.DIR ...in
-a--i
e
m
anga
CONT-speak-PRS-PRS.3[SG.M] COMP 1SG.STR.OBL how
w-ga-l-
AOR-win-PST-PST.3SG.F
He is talking about how I won the race. (SW)
... /d...p bb/ about

(9.76)

tso
wunk-i
t d zalm-i
p
2PL.STR.OBL teacher-M.OBL to of Zalmay-M.OBL on
bb-
ts
-way-l-i
subject-M what CONT-tell.PST-PST-PTCP.PL.M.DIR
di
be.CONT.PRS.3PL.M
What have you said about Zalmay to the teacher? (SW)
... /d...p y/ instead of

339
340
(9.77)
Adpositions
.
d kbul p y
kandahr ta l
of Kabul in place.SG.M.DIR COMP Kandahar to go.PRS.AOR
u
b
wi
be.PRS.AOR.1PL good WOULD be.AOR.PRS.3SG.M
It will be better to go to Kandahar instead of Kabul. (SW)
(9.78)
.
d zi-
p y- bal-
kas-
muqarar-
of Zia-M.OBL on place-M other-M.DIR person-M.DIR assigned-M.DIR
w-ay
dy
become.AOR.PST-PTCP.M.DIR be.CONT.PRS.3SG.M
Someone else has been appointed instead of Zia. (SW)
... /d...p mx ke/ in front of

This circumposition has more and less literal uses:
(9.79)
!
d ahmad-
p mxke
m
ta
m
of Ahmad-M.OBL in... face-M ...in 1SG.STR.OBL to what NEG
-wy-y
CONT-tell-IMP.PL
Don't tell me anything in front of Ahmad!
(9.80)
.
d sinf-
p mxke
w-dar-id-
of class-M.OBL in... face-M ...in AOR-stop-PST-PST.3SG.M
He stood in front of the class.

Septfonds (1994) translates the Dzadrani collocation /p mx/ as immediately;
a corresponding item in Waziri can be found in 9.81 below; note the variation in the
location of the genitive phrase:

Circumpositions 341
(9.81) d
mol-ina
e
kala ile
r-
this.DIR goods-PL.M.DIR COMP when here much-PL.M.DIR
-i
biy da
qbar
become.AOR.PRS-PRS.3[PL.M] then this.DIR smuggling
xalk-
da
mol-ina
p max- e
people-PL.M.DIR this.DIR goods-PL.M.DIR on face-M of
mlk-
country-M.OBL
nor-e
str-e
r-e
ta
other-PL.M.OBL large-PL.M.OBL city-PL.M.OBL to
e rasaw-l-e
ko-
-k-
of send-INF-PL.M.OBL effort-M.DIR CONT-do.PRS-PRS.3[PL.M]
When these goods become excessive in their area, then smugglers
immediately try to send these goods to other big cities in the country. (WAZ)
)( ... /d...(p) xw ke/ alongside

(9.82)
. )(
mor-
d ahmad-
(p) xw- ki
tr-
car-M.DIR of Ahmad-M.OBL in... side-F ...in passed-M.DIR
u-
A car passed beside Ahmad. (SW)
Both the version with the postposition and that without were acceptable to our
speaker.
... /d...l amala/ because of (see also 9.84; 9.85)

(9.83)
.
d ahmad-
l
amal-a
m
ta zyn-
of Ahmad-M.OBL from cause-M.ABL 1SG.STR.OBL to loss-M.DIR
w-ras-ed-
AOR-arrive.PST-PST-PST.3SG.M
I have suffered much loss because of Ahmad.

342
(9.84)
Adpositions
.
d jang-
l
amal-a
p afnistn-
ke
of war-M.OBL from cause-M.ABL in... Afghanistan-M.OBL ...in
amniat-
n
ta
security-M.DIR NEG EXT
There is no security in Afghanistan because of the war.
(9.85)

.
loy-y
ranwl-y p intixbt-o
ke d
large-F.OBL lawyer-F.OBL in... elections-PL.M.OBL ...in of
w-io
prx-o
dral-io
l
become.AOR.PST-PTCP.PL.F.OBL vast-PL.F.OBL fraud-PL.F.OBL from
amal-a
l
str-e
mahkam-e
reason-M.ABL from high-F.OBL court-F.OBL
-uxt-
e
natyij-
ye
CONT-want.PST-PTCP.PL.M.DIR COMP results-PL.M.DIR 3.WK
bt-l
eln
k-i
invalidate-INF announcement do.AOR-PRS.3[SG.F]
The Attorney General wanted the Supreme Court to declare the election
results invalid due to widespread fraud.
... /d...p n/ like

(9.86)
.
d jn-
p
n-
asad-
ham pi
of John-M.OBL INSTR manner-M Asad-M.DIR also wounded
w-ay
dy
Like John, Asad too has been wounded.
(9.87)
!
d ahmad-
p
n-
ke-a
of Ahmad-M.OBL INSTR manner-M become.CONT.PRS-IMP.SG
m
NEG.IMP
Don't be like Ahmad! (SW)

Circumpositions
343
... /d...p er/ like

(9.88)
.
d mahmud-
p
er- ahmad-
ham xa
of Mahmoud-M.OBL INSTR sort-M Ahmad-M.DIR also good
kr-
n
kaw-
work-M.DIR NEG do.CONT-PRS.3[SG.M]
Like Mahmoud, Ahmad does not do good work.
... /d...p lor/ towards

(9.89)
.
d amrik-
p lor-
rawn-
of America-F.OBL on direction-M in.motion-M.DIR
w-ay
dy
He is heading towards America.
(9.90)
.
afnistn-
d taraq-y
p lor-
Afghanistan-M.DIR of development-F.OBL on direction-M
rawn-
w-ay
dy
in.motion-M.DIR become.PST.AOR-SG.M.DIR be.CONT.PRS.3SG.M
Afghanistan has been moving towards development.
... /d...l xw/ by
This circumposition may be used to mark the agent of an action when it is not the
subject, as in denominal verb constructions (see Section 8.2.5.5.2 and Section 11.3.1.5).
This is exemplified in 9.91 and 9.92 below. It may also mark the agent of a nominalized
form of a verb, as in sentence 9.94.
(9.91)
.
d polis-
l
xw-
kor-
ye
mahsra
of police-PL.M.DIR from side-F.OBL house-M.DIR 3.WK surrounded
w-
His house was surrounded by police.

344
Adpositions
(9.92)
.
d mazhabi l-o
l
xw-
wr t sal
of religious group-PL.F.OBL from side-F.OBL 3
to advice
mawar-a
wrkaw-l kg-i
advice-SG.M.DIR give-INF do.PRS-PRS.3[SG.F]
Advice is being given to them from religious groups.
(9.93)
.
ha
p
bia-
n-
tr
irin-y
3SG.M.STR.OBL INSTR haste-F.DIR self-M.DIR up.to Shiranai-M.OBL
-rasaw-l-u
AOR-deliver-PST-PST.SG.M
He hurriedly got himself near Shirinai.
(9.94)

.
d rusiy-e
jumhor-
rais-
p
mustaqima-
of Russian-F.OBL republic-M.OBL president-M.OBL INSTR direct-F.DIR
toga-
d mosko-
d mokrs-y
d sbq-e
manner-F.DIR of Moscow-M.OBL of democracy-F.OBL of history-F.OBL
p a-
d amrik-
l
xw-
d
on topic-F.DIR of America-F.OBL from side-F.OBL of
intiqd-uno
yadawna-
w-n
k-a
criticism-PL.M.OBL statement-F.DIR AOR-NEG do.AOR-PST.3SG.F
Criticisms from America regarding Moscow's history with democracy were
not directly mentioned by the Russian president.
This circumposition may also express origin:

(9.95)
.
d
lik-
d ahmad-
l
xw-
this.DIR letter-M.DIR of Ahmad-M.OBL from side-F.OBL
rl-ay
dy
This letter came from Ahmad. (SW)

Circumpositions
345
... /d...l lure/ by

Like ... /d l xw/ by, this circumposition can also be used to indicate
an agent.
(9.96)
ter-
kl-
d malgr-o
milat-uno
d
passed-M.DIR year-M.DIR of friend-PL.M.OBL nation-PL.M.OBL of
amniat ur-
l
lur-e
d irn-
d atomi
security council-F.OBL from side-F.OBL of Iran-M.OBL of atomic
fliat-o
l
kabl-a
pr de
haywd- ke
activities-PL.M.OBL from cause-M.ABL in... this.OBL country-M ...in
wz
wu-l
established become.AOR.PST-PST.3PL.M
[The sanctions] were implemented last year in Iran by the United Nations
Security Council.
(9.97)
yaw-
sarrf-
d l-o
l
lur-e
one-M.DIR banker-M.DIR of thief-PL.M.OBL from side-F.OBL
w-wa-l
u-
AOR-kill-INF become.AOR.PST-PST.3SG.M
A banker was killed by thieves.

346
Adpositions
(9.98)
britny-
d irn-
l
lur-e
ha
Britain-F.OBL of Iran-M.OBL from side-F.OBL this.DIR
xpura-
uw-e
widiowi
paa-
broadcast-F.DIR become.AOR.PST-PTCP.F.DIR videotaped document-F.DIR
e
p ke niw-l
w-i
15
COMP in... ...in seize-INF become.AOR.PST-PTCP.PL.M.DIR 15
britnawi samandari sartir-i
xud-l
British
marine
soldier-PL.M.DIR show-INF
kg-i
mahkm
k-a
become.CONT.PRS-PRS.3[PL.M] condemned do.AOR-PST.3SG.F
Britain condemned a video tape broadcast by Iran in which 15 captured Naval
soldiers were shown.
9.5.2
General Pashto circumpositions with
/l/
Many grammars describe /l/ as a variant of /d/ that can appear in circumpositions. The postpositional component is the one to look to for the meaning information,
as shown in Examples 9.99 - 9.102.
9.5.2.1 GP simple circumpositions with /l/

What follows are the most commonly encountered simple circumpositions starting
with /l/.
... /l...sra/ [comitative] with

(9.99)
l
ahmad-
sra
me
xabr-e
COMIT... Ahmad-M.OBL ...COMIT 1SG.WK word-PL.F.DIR
w-k-e
AOR-do.AOR-PST.3PL.F
I talked with Ahmad.

Circumpositions
347
In NE and NW dialects, it is possible to omit the prepositional component, leaving

the postposition
/sra/ (Tegey & Robson, 1996: 155156). Compare also the function of
/sra/ that appears without an object; see Section 10.2.3.1.
... /l...lnde/ under, from below

(9.100)
pkistn-
d haml-o
l
fir-uno
lnde
Pakistan-M.DIR of attack-PL.F.OBL under... pressure-PL.M.OBL ...under
di
be.CONT.PRS.3SG.M
Pakistan is under pressure of attack.
...
preposition
(9.101)
/l...xa/ from, on account of. See also 9.103. For a variant with the
/d/, see 9.63.
l
kbl-
xa rl-ay
from... Kabul-M.OBL ...from come.AOR.PST-PTCP.M.DIR
ym
be.CONT.PRS-1SG
I have come from Kabul.
(9.102)
l
larg-i
tsx -r-g-m
from... stick-M.OBL ...from CONT-fear-PRS-1SG
I am afraid of a beating [lit. I am afraid of the stick]. (NW)
(9.103)
h-
mahmud-
l
sar-
xe
tj-
Shah-M.OBL Mahmud-M.OBL from... head-M.OBL ...from crown-M.DIR
ista
k-
aw hits waxt p ahi taxt-
removed do.AOR-PST.3SG.M and none time on royal stage-M
kx-ne-nst-
AOR\sit-NEG-sit.PST-PST.3SG.M
Shah Mahmud disavowed his royal birthright and never assumed the throne.

348
Adpositions
... /l...na/ from

The circumposition ... /l...na/ is the most common simple circumposition
starting with /l/, and it is also used with complex circumpositions, as shown
in Section 9.5.2.2. It typically indicates motion away or separation from. The following two examples show how the postposition
/n/ alternates with the ablative
case-marker /-a/: the two items may not co-occur.
(9.104)
l
kor-
na
rl-m
from... house-M.OBL ...from come.AOR.PST-1SG
I came from home.
(9.105)
l
kor-a
rl-m
from house-M.ABL come.AOR.PST-1SG
I came from home.
In the NE and NW dialects, it is possible to omit the prepositional component of this
circumposition in informal speech (Tegey & Robson, 1996: 155). Compare 9.106 and
9.107.
(9.106)
kl-i
mi
l
mor-
na
clothes-M.DIR 1SG.WK from... car-M.OBL ...from
w-xist-
AOR-take.PST-PST.3SG.M
I took the clothes out of the car.
(9.107)
kl-i
mi
mor-
na
w-xist-
clothes-PL.M.DIR 1SG.WK car-M.OBL from AOR-take.PST-PST.SG.M
I took the clothes out of the car. (NE,NW)
In sentence 9.108, which is ungrammatical, the ablative marker cannot appear without an adposition governing it.
17 For Babrakzai (1999: 42), this circumposition is unacceptable; only the two forms
/d...na/ and
/l/ exist.

...
Circumpositions
(9.108)
349
.*
kl-i
mi
mor-a
w-xist-
clothes-PL.M.DIR 1SG.WK car-M.ABL AOR-take.PST-PST.3SG.M
I took the clothes out of the car.
...
The full form of the circumposition

/l...na/ is also the most common way to
make comparative statements in Pashto; for another construction, see the examples
in Section 9.3.5 (from Tegey & Robson 1996: 162).
(9.109)
afnistn-
l
frns-e
na
a-
Afghanistan-M.DIR from... France-M.OBL ...from big-M.DIR
dy
be.CONT.PRS.3SG.M
Afghanistan is larger than France.
Quantitative comparatives such as more than and less than are created using the
circumposition
/l...na/ followed by
/zyt/ more ,
/der/ very or
/lg/ less, few.
...
(9.110)
z
l
mahmud-
na
l-
1SG.STR.DIR from... Mahmoud-M.OBL ...from few-PL.M.DIR
kitb-una
-lar-m
book-PL.M.DIR CONT-have.PRS-1SG
I have fewer books than Mahmoud.
(9.111)
z
l
mahmud-
na
er-i
1SG.STR.DIR from... Mahmoud-M.OBL ...from many-PL.F.DIR
zyt-i
pays-e
-lar-m
more-PL.F.DIR coin-PL.F.DIR CONT-have.PRS-1SG
I have much more money than Mahmoud.
...
Similarly, the circumposition

/l...na/ can be used in Pashto to create superlative constructions. For the superlative construction, the object of the circumposition must be preceded by a universal quantifier such as
/olo/ all. The
object appears in the oblique case (Tegey & Robson, 1996: 155).

350
Adpositions
(9.112)
mahmud-
l
ol-o
na
poh-
Mahmoud-M.DIR from... all-PL.OBL ...from smart-M.DIR
dy
be.CONT.PRS.3SG.M
Mahmoud is the smartest of all/Mahmoud is smarter than all [of them].
(9.113)
d mahmud-
kor-
l
ol-o
na
of Mahmoud-M.OBL house-M.DIR from... all-PL.OBL ...from
lw-ay
dy
big-M.DIR be.CONT.PRS.3SG.M
Mahmoud's house is the biggest/Mahmoud's house is bigger than all [other
houses].
...
9.5.2.2 GP complex circumpositions with

/l...na/
The circumposition
/l...na/ frequently combines with other adpositions or
adverbs to form complex circumpositions. Together they govern the item between the
two sets of ellipses. Most of the time,
/l...na/ does not contribute any meaning
beyond the meaning of the other element. Furthermore, it may assign case somewhat
irregularly. Traditionally, the postposition /na/ governs oblique case-marking on its
object; however, this object may sometimes appear in the ablative case form.
...
...
... /l...na pxw/ before [ /pxw/ before ]

(9.114)
ahmad-
l
m
na
pxw
Ahmad-M.DIR from... 1SG.STR.OBL ...from before
rl-ay
dy
Ahmad has come before me.
... /l...na bahar/ out of, outside of [ /bahar/ outside ]

Circumpositions
(9.115)
351
ahmad-
l
kor-
na
bahr
Ahmad-M.DIR from... house-M.OBL ...from outside
-watl-ay
dy
CONT-leave.PST-PTCP.M.DIR be.CONT.PRS.3SG.M
Ahmad has come out of the house.
... /be l...na/ without [ /be/ without ]

(9.116)
be
l
t
na
wl-m
without from... 2SG.STR.OBL ...from go.AOR.PST-1SG
I went without you.
... /prata l...na/ except for [ /prata/ except ]

(9.117)
prata l
ahmad-
na
me
bl-
except from... Ahmad-M.OBL ...from 1SG.WK other-PL.M.DIR
ok-
w-n
lid-l
who.DIR AOR-NEG see.PST-PST.3PL.M
I didn't see anybody except for Ahmad.
()... /wrusta l...(na)/ after [ /wrusta/ after, later; See Table

10.1]
The item
/wrusta/ after, later exemplifies some of the complexity of the
system of adpositions. Besides being identifiable as an adverb, it appears to be an
ambiposition in that it can appear as either a prepositional or a postpositional component of circumpositions. We find
/wrusta l...(na)/ next to
/l...(na) wrusta/, as well as /d...(na) wrusta/ (see 9.118 and 9.119).
()...

352
Adpositions
(9.118)
d
ry-e
gir-
na
wrusta ye
d
from... vote-F.OBL collection-F.OBL ...from after
3.WK of
ag-i
bragi aw rawat-
xo-i
p
aa-
cheat-M.OBL ECHO and bribe-M.OBL eating-F.OBL INSTR topic-F.DIR
d tahqiq-to
masuliat-
p
a-
of research-PL.M.OBL responsibility-M.DIR INSTR neck-F.DIR
darld-
have.AOR.PST-PST.3SG.M
He had the responsibility of investigating bribery and cheating after the
election.
(9.119)
l
de
wrusta b
d irn-
l
lur-e
from this.OBL after
WOULD of Iran-M.OBL from side-F.OBL
tl-
ward-
n
k-u
fuel-M.DIR imported-M.DIR NEG do.AOR-1PL
After this, we won't import fuel through Iran.
As the parentheses indicate, the element /na/ is apparently optional in all three
versions. See also 9.140 and the examples that follow it for another variant using
the adposition
/wrusta/.
(9.120)
za
wrust l
t
nnwat-l-m
1SG.STR.DIR after
from 2SG.STR.OBL AOR\enter-PST-1SG
I entered after you.

Circumpositions 353
(9.121)
d he
nxt-e
p tra-
ke e
... d
of that.OBL dispute-F.OBL in... interval-M ...in COMP ... of
polis-o
pr yaw post-e
d balwgar-o
l
police-PL.M.OBL on one post-F.OBL of attacker-PL.M.OBL from
brid-
wrust r-mn ta w-a
dwa
attack-M.OBL after
1-center to become.AOR.PST-PST.3SG.F two
tan-a
balwgar-
w-wa-l
person-PL.M.DIR attacker-PL.M.DIR AOR-kill-INF
w-l
Two insurgents were killed in a fight which broke out after they attacked a
police station.
The following example shows the usual form of clausal complements of adpositions:
a demonstrative head and an embedded clause introduced by the complementizer
//.
(9.122)
wrusta l
de
od-y
mo
after
from this.OBL COMP food-F.DIR 1PL.WK
w-xo-a
sinim-
ta b
l-
AOR-eat.PST-PST.3SG.F cinema-F.OBL to WOULD gone-PL.M.DIR
-u
become.AOR.PRS-1PL
We will go to the movies after we eat dinner. (SW)
9.5.3
/p/
/p/ denote an entitys relationship to anothers; these relations may be physical, temporal, or causal. A selection of circumpositions with /p/
follows:

354
Adpositions
... /p...ke/ in, into, on, at

In addition to the variation that one can find in the pronunciation of the prepositional component, the postpositional component
/ke/ is also subject to substantial variation in pronunciation: various scholars have cited /kxe/, /ke/ (Henderson,
1970) and /ki/.
This very common circumposition indicates a very wide range of relative locations
of juxtaposition (Hewson & Bubenik, 2006: 150); mostly, the specific relationship
must be inferred from the context. It appears not to permit direct case-marking on
its object. See 9.121 for a temporal meaning of this circumposition, and see 9.160
for an example of this circumposition in construction with an omitted object. The
example 9.98 shows this circumposition with a null object, introducing a relative
clause.
(9.123)
mahmud-
p sinf-
ke dy
Mahmoud-M.DIR in... class-M.OBL ...in be.CONT.PRS.3SG.M
Mahmoud is in class.
Example 9.26 shows the use of the circumposition
... /p...ke/ and the prepo-
sition
/p/ in the same clause, where the prepositional phrase is modifying the
circumpositional phrase.
Hewson & Bubenik (2006: 153) claim that
/ke/ in, into can function indepen-
dently as a postposition, a claim that is supported by our research. There is evidence,

however, that it is much rarer than the circumposition (given that it lacks separate
description), that it is restricted to the Eastern dialects (Pashtoon, 2009), or that its
appearance is restricted to certain kinds of usage.
GP
... /p...pse/ after

(9.124)
p
m
ps
r-
after... 1SG.STR.OBL ...after come.CONT.PRS-IMP.SG
Come after me!

Circumpositions
(9.125)
355
p
m
pse
er-e
xabr-e
m
after... 1SG.STR.OBL ...after many-PL.F.DIR word-PL.F.DIR NEG
kaw-
do.CONT-IMP.SG
Don't backbite me!
For a variant of this form in which
/pes/ acts as a preposition, see 9.126.
The Dzadrani item /p...se/ after, because of corresponds to the GP
...
/p...pse/ after (Septfonds, 1994).

(9.126)
pas l
de
after from this.OBL
after this
(9.127) z
xo
p madrasa-
e
tadris dars-
1SG.STR.DIR EMPH in... mosque-F.DIR ...in study study-M.DIR
-k-
CONT-do.PRS-1SG
I am studying in the mosque school. (WAZ)
GP
... /p...bnde/
Septfonds (1994) transcribes the second component /bonde/, and this variant apparently exists in other varieties of Pashto as well; see notes at example 9.130 for
conditions on its appearance in Dzadrani.
Hewson & Bubenik (2006: 151) gloss this circumposition as an adverb up, but our
research has not substantiated this meaning.
This circumposition may also appear with the variant
(9.128)
/pr/ as its first component.
p
mez-
bnde er-
qalam-una
on... table-M.OBL ...on
many-PL.M.DIR pen-PL.M.DIR
di
be.CONT.PRS.3PL.M
There are many pens on the table.

356
Adpositions
An instrumental/means/manner function of
in 9.129 below.
(9.129)
... /p...bnde/ is exemplified
no
biy p
ts
werk-a
p
ts
therefore then INSTR what exchange-F.DIR INSTR... what
rok-a
bonde
faysl-a
exchange-F.DIR ...INSTR decision-F.DIR
w--i
AOR.PRS-become.AOR.PRS.-PRS.3SG.F
The matter is resolved by give-and-take.
The Middle dialect circumposition /p...nde/ at, on (also pronounced /p...ne/)
corresponds to GP
/p...bnde/; the latter is found in poetic registers in
these Middle varieties, according to Septfonds (1994).
...
(9.130) e
d
p
elot-on
nde
COMP 3SG.M.STR.OBL on... excutioner-PL.M.DIR ...on
ag-
-k-
voice-M.DIR CONT-do.PST-PST.3SG.M
Him, he got ready to call the executioners. (DZA)
A meaning related to this one involves an animate object of this circumposition. Under these conditions, the object of
/p...bnde/ designates the proximal
actor of the named activity, while the grammatical subject designates a causer or enabler of the entire event. See Section 9.7.3 for more discussion and an example.
...
There are dialects in which the first component /p/ may be omitted, so /bnde/
functions as a postposition. See 9.131 for an example of the locative meaning, and
9.157 for an example of the instrumental function.
(9.131)
kitb-
mi
wr bndi i-ay
book-M.DIR 1SG.WK 3
on
CONT\put.PST-PTCP.M.DIR
dy
be.CONT.PRS.3SG.M
I put the book on it. (SW)
... /p ... sara/ [instrumental] with

Circumpositions
(9.132)
357
zm
zawn-y
wl-
kaw-i
p
1SG.STR.POSS youth-F.DIR manner-M.DIR do.CONT-PRS.3[SG.F] INSTR...
paxtunwla sara
Pashtunwali ...INSTR
My youth manifests itself in Pashtunwali. (NE)
9.5.4
/tr/
The form /tr/ is most often found as the first component of several circumpositions
that indicate a movement up to a terminal point in time or space. For a discussion of
ablative case assignment to its object, see Section 5.1.3.3. For a variant of /tr/ , see
Section 9.6.1.
)( ... /tr...pore/ up to, until

Where Standard Pashto uses )( ... /tr...pore/, the corresponding circum-
position in Dzadrani is pronounced /tr... pera/ or /tr ... pere/ (Septfonds, 1997).
This is in keeping with the alternation between GP /o/ and M /e/ that is illustrated
in Table 4.5.
(9.133)
tr
sab-
pore
d xod pmn-
until... morning-F.OBL ...until of God with.protection-M.DIR
See you tomorrow! [lit. until tomorrow, with God's protection].
(9.134)
tr
kbl-a
pore
up.to... Kabul-M.ABL ...up.to
as far as Kabul
In the Western dialects, the postposition

/pori/ may be omitted from this circumposition in speech, rendering a prepositional phrase.
20 Our thanks to James Caron for this example, which he attributed to the Jalalabad poet Malang
Jan.
21 Henderson (1970) additionally cites hence as a translation of this term.

358
Adpositions
(9.135)
. )(
tr
sa-i
(pore)
di
w-armaw-l-m
up.to... man-M.OBL (...up.to) 2.WK AOR-shame-PST-1SG
You shamed me in front of the man. (NW)
(9.136)
. )(
tr
plr-a
(pori)
p
mna- wl-m
up.to... father-M.ABL (...up.to) INSTR run-F.DIR go.AOR.PST-1SG
I ran to my father. (SW)
/tr o / ; /tr haa / until

These two expressions both convey temporal relations, and both can introduce subordinate clauses: see 9.137 and 9.138. The translation until incorporates the negated
assertion in the subordinate clause.
(9.137)
za
ha
ta lik-
n
-le-m
1SG.STR.DIR 3SG.F.STR.OBL to letter-SG.M.DIR NEG CONT-send-1SG
tr
o
m
ta telifn-
w-na
up.to how.much COMP 1SG.STR.OBL to telephone-M.DIR AOR-NEG
kr-i
do.AOR-PRS.3[SG.F]
I am not writing to her until she calls me. (SW)
(9.138)
tr
ha
i
t
n
ye
up.to this.OBL COMP 2SG.STR.DIR NEG be.CONT.PRS.2SG
rl-ay
o-y
n
-xur-m
come.AOR.PST-PTCP.M.DIR food-F.DIR NEG CONT-eat.PRS-1SG
Until you have arrived, I will not eat. (SW)
)( ... /tr...lnde/ under

Circumpositions
(9.139)
359
sa-ay
tr
pl-a
lnde
nst-
man-M.DIR under... bridge-M.OBL . ..under sitting-M.DIR
dy
be.CONT.PRS.3SG.M
The man is sitting under the bridge.
...
The Dzadrani circumposition /tr...londe/ corresponds to the GP item

/tr...lnde/ under, and is attested in Dzadrani as appearing both with and without
an object, i.e. as both an adposition and an adverb (see also Table 10.2).
...
/tr ... wrusta/ after (Hewson & Bubenik, 2006). These authors
provide the following examples in comparing this item with the circumposition /l
... wrusta/ exemplified herein; see also 9.121 and 9.120.
(9.140) tr
dwa alwit kal-uno
wrusta
after... two forty
year-PL.M.OBL ...after
after forty-two years
(9.141) wrusta tr
pag-o
myt-o
after
after six-PL.F.OBL month-PL.F.OBL
after six months
(9.142) tr
xwar-l-o
wrusta
after... eat-INF-PL.M.OBL ...after
after eating
9.5.5
A Middle dialect circumposition with
/w/
The independent preposition /w/ is not discussed here, since it has been described
as obsolescent (Trumpp, 1873: 85) or only poetic (Skalmowski, 1996).
There appears to be only one circumposition with /w/ (also sometimes transcribed as /vu/see Section 3.2.1.2) as its first component, and it is not common in
General Pashto, although it is cited by Lorimer (1902) as a variant of the postposition
/ta/. Skalmowski (1996) cites another variant, the compound postposition
/w
ta/.

360
(9.143)
Adpositions
.
daase
xalk-o
ta w xr-
ta
d
those.same people-PL.M.OBL to to... city-M.OBL ...to of
nnwat-l-o
ejza-
n
warkaw-l-a
enter-INF-PL.M.OBL permission-F.DIR NEG give-INF-SG.F.DIR
kg-i
become.CONT.PRS-PRS.3[SG.F]
Permission to enter the city is not being given to those [same] people.
9.6
Coalesced adpositional phrases
9.6.1
Pro-adpositional phrases
Tegey (1977: 35ff.) lists three adpositions that may govern null objects:
/p ke/
on.3 ( /pke/ in the Kandahar dialect, according to Pate 2012),
/p/ /pre/
/pe/ on.3, and /tre/ up.to.3. Tegey terms these Pro-Pre/Postpositional Phrases
and analyzes them as incorporating third person definite objects, an analysis which
reflects the requirement that the incorporated object be recoverable from the discourse
or extralinguistic context. Pate (2012: 23), in contrast, analyzes these items as weak
pronouns that are constrained to function as non-nuclear terms.
There is apparently dialect-based variation on the inventory of these items: Pate
(2012) additionally lists the Kandahari form /dzine/ from.3 as an object-incorporating
form corresponding to the circumposition
/d ... xa/ from.
The pronunciation /pe/ instead of
/pre/ (Section 9.6.1) is cited by Lorimer
(1902: 40) as a characteristic of Waziri.
...
(9.144)
.
zm
tre
na
bad ra-
1SG.STR.POSS up.to.3... ...up.to bad come.CONT.PRS-PRS.3[SG.M]
I don't like him.
(9.145)
.
tre
pori
wl-m
up.to.3.. ...up.to go.AOR.PST-1SG
I went up to it. (NW)

Coalesced adpositional phrases
361
The following examples show that both

/pre/ and /pr/ are possible in the
same context; this suggests that there is a lexical distinction between the fused forms
and the forms that allow a null object.
(9.146)
.
za
pre spor-
ym
1SG.STR.DIR on.3 sitting-M.DIR be.CONT.PRS.1SG
I am sitting on it.
(9.147)
.
z
pr spor-
ym
1SG.STR.DIR on sitting-M.DIR be.CONT.PRS.1SG
I am sitting on it. (SW)
The relative order of the pro-adpositional phrase and the negative in examples
9.148 and 9.149 lends support to the alternative analysis given by Pate (2012) of these
forms as essentially pronominal rather than essentially adpositional, since the form incorporating the third person assumes second position, as is characteristic of the weak
pronouns:
(9.148)
.
z
pe
n
-poh-e-m
1SG.STR.DIR on.3 NEG CONT-learned-PRS-1SG
I don't understand it.
(9.149)
.
z
n
p -poh--m
1SG.STR.DIR NEG on CONT-learned-PRS-1SG
I don't understand it. (SW)
9.6.2
The adpositional phrase
/kara/ at the home of
/kara/ is a pro-adpositional phrase related to the noun

/kor/ house that
may appear just in case the houses possessor is identified or recoverable. This form
optionally replaces
/kor ta/. Compare sentences 9.150 and 9.151; see 9.70 for the
corresponding construction in Dzadrani.

362
(9.150)
Adpositions
.
zmu
kor-
ta mihmn-n
1PL.STR.OBL house-M.OBL to guest-PL.M.ANIM.DIR
rl-i
di
come.AOR.PST-PTCP.PL.M.DIR be.CONT.PRS.3PL.M
Guests came to our house.
(9.151)
.
zmu
kar-a
mihmn-n
1PL.STR.OBL house-M.ABL guest-PL.M.ANIM.DIR
rl-i
di
come.AOR.PST-PTCP.PL.M.DIR be.CONT.PRS.3PL.M
Guests came to our house.

Additionally, the special form
/kara/ can be used instead of
/p
kor ke/, as shown in this pair.

(9.152)
.
ahmad-
d mahmud-
p kor-
ke
Ahmad-M.DIR of Mahmoud-M.OBL in... house-M.OBL ...in
dy
be.CONT.PRS.3SG.M
Ahmad is at Mahmoud's house.
(9.153)
.
ahmad-
d mahmud-
kar-a
dy
Ahmad-M.DIR of Mahmoud-M.OBL house-M.ABL be.CONT.PRS.3SG.M
Ahmad is at Mahmoud's house.
9.7
Adposition usage
Throughout this chapter and others, we describe various exceptional or idiosyncratic

interactions of adpositions with particular pronouns and nouns that they govern. We
summarize some important ones here.

Adposition usage
9.7.1
363
/na/ vs. ablative case-marking on object
Elsewhere we observe that the postpositional component

/na/ alternates in usage
with ablative case-marking on the noun object. Compare sentences 9.8 and 9.60.
9.7.2
/d/ and strong pronoun objects
In Section 9.3.1.1, we observed that in some dialects the preposition /d/ assimilates
to a following strong pronoun in the first and second persons. In those dialects, the
sequence of /d/ and the pronoun is unacceptable and the fused form is the only
possible form. This is discussed in Section 7.2.3.
9.7.3
/p/ and ... /(p...) bnde/ used in a causative construction
In Section 11.5 we describe a causative construction that involves one or another verb
of causation and a subordinate clause describing the caused event. However, there is
also a use of
/p/ and
/p...bnde/ that requires a causative interpretation of the sentence it appears in, even though there is no overt expression of causation, either with another verb or with an affix. In Pashto, the object of
/p...bnde/ refers to the proximate agent, and the grammatical subject, if present,
refers to ultimate agent.
...
...
(9.154)
.
sa-ay
p
m
s-
-ta-i
man-M.DIR INSTR 1SG.STR.OBL horse-M.DIR CONT-tie-PRS.3
The man makes me tie up the horse.
(9.155)
.
sa-i
p
m
bnde
s-
man-M.OBL INSTR... 1SG.STR.OBL ...INSTR horse-M.DIR
w-ta-
AOR-tie-PST.3SG.M
The man made me tie up the horse.
(9.156)
.
p
xwx-e
de
-xor-
INSTR mother.in.law-F 2.WK CONT-eat.PRS-IMP.SG
Get your mother-in-law to eat [it].

364
Adpositions
In some dialects, the first part of the circumposition is optional; in this case, the
postposition alone can fulfil the same function in this construction.
(9.157)
ha
bnde me
cay-
w-ak-l-
3SG.STR.OBL INSTR 1.SG.WK tea-M.DIR. AOR-drink-PST.PST.3SG.M
I got him a cup of tea to drink. (NE)
9.7.4 Omission of pronoun objects of adpositions

As noted in Section 7.3.2, weak pronouns may not appear as objects of adpositions. The
following examples demonstrate that weak pronouns cannot appear as the object of
an adposition as shown in the ungrammatical example 9.158; compare this with the
acceptable 9.159, using the strong pronoun.
.*
(9.158)
pr di
-xej-m
on 2.WK CONT-step.PRS-1SG
I step on you. (SW)
(9.159)
pr t
-xej-m
on 2SG.STR CONT-step.PRS-1SG
I step on you. (SW)
The object can be omitted entirely if it is known or can be recovered from the context, as in 9.160.
(9.160)
.
p
ke
ob-
w-aw-a
on... ...in water-PL.F.DIR AOR-pour-IMP.SG
Pour water in it!
23 One speaker reports that a weak pronoun may be placed after the circumposition; we have not
verified this with other speakers or sources.

Adposition usage
365
9.7.5 Postpositions with oblique pronominal clitics

Some postpositions may govern the oblique pronominal clitics discussed in Section
7.4.
(9.161)
mahmud-
kitb-
r ta -axl-
Mahmoud-SG.M.DIR book-M.DIR 1 for CONT-buy.PRS-PRS.3[SG.M]
Mahmoud is buying me a book.
(9.162)
xalak-
dr pore -xand-
people-PL.M.DIR 2
up.to CONT-laugh-PRS.3[PL.M]
People are laughing at you.
Oblique pronominal clitics cannot be governed by circumpositions; compare the
unacceptable 9.163 with the acceptable 9.164 (and note the claim in Babrakzai 1999:
34 that prepositions also may not take oblique pronominal clitic objects; we have not
found a counterexample to this claim in any dialect). The postpositional component
of a circumposition will cooccur with the directive pronoun.
.*
(9.163)
za
l
wr sra
b-
ta wal-m
1SG.STR.DIR COMIT... 3
...COMIT park-M.OBL to go.AOR.PST-1SG
I went to the park with them.
(9.164)
.
za
wr sra
b-
ta wal-m
1SG.STR.DIR 3
COMIT garden-M.OBL to go.AOR.PST-1SG
I went to the park with them.


Melissa Fox and Anne Boyle David
10
Other Lexical Elements
This chapter provides an overview of lexical categories not treated elsewhere in this
grammar.
10.1 Particles
We have classified as particles any lexically free item that does not host inflection and
that does not function as the argument or complement of a verb or adposition. This
second criterion rules out some elements called particles in other works, notably
the various pronoun forms. Some particles are formally clitics.
10.1.1 The existential particle
/ta/
The particle
/ta/ marks existential clauses in Pashto (including Waziri: Lorimer
1902: 32). The negative form of
/ta/ is
/n ta/. Though derived from an
archaic third person singular form of the verb to be in Pashto,
/ta/ is no longer
inflected. Another example of this construction is found in example 10.1. In example
10.3 the particle is found at the end of the clause with a relative clause following it.
(10.1)
.
d
ahmad-
sra
kampyur-
n
ta
COMIT... Ahmad-M.OBL ...COMIT computer-M.DIR NEG EXT
Ahmad doesn't have a computer. (SW)
(10.2)
.
d jang-
l
amal-a
p afnistn-
ke
of war-M.OBL from cause-M.ABL in... Afghanistan-M.OBL ...in
amniat-
n
ta
security-M.DIR NEG EXT
There is no security in Afghanistan because of the war.

368
(10.3)
.
ham dse ansir-
ta e
n
also such elements-PL.M.DIR EXT COMP NEG
-w-i
haqiqat-
argnd-
CONT-want.PRS-PRS.3[PL.M] reality-M.DIR revealed-M.DIR
-i
become.AOR.PRS-PRS.3[SG.M]
There are also those parties who dont want the truth the come to light.
In the Northern and Middle dialects, the existential particle may exist in construction with the copula, exhibiting third person masculine singular agreement.
(10.4)
.
zlm-n
ta day
d
abuser-PL.M.ANIM.DIR EXT be.CONT.PRS.3SG.M this.DIR
-man-m
CONT-accept-1SG
There are bad guys around, I get that.
The existential particle will often be used over the phone to ask or tell someone if
a person is at home (Tegey & Robson, 1996).
(10.5)

zalm-ay
ta
Zalmay-M.DIR EXT
Is Zalmay there?
(10.6)
.
n
ha
n
ta
NEG 3SG.STR.DIR NEG EXT
No, he is not here.
In clauses containing the phrase

/n ta/, a concordant negative particle
may but need not appear within the clause in scope; contrast 10.7, which contains a
concordant negative, with 10.8, which does not:

Particles
(10.7)
369
.
hets dse szmn-
aw y marja-
n
ta
none such organization-M.DIR and or authority-F.DIR NEG EXT
e
l
amrik-
wr-ta ikyat-
COMP from America-F.OBL 3-to
complaint-M.DIR
w--i
AOR-become.CONT.PRS-PRS.3[SG.M]
There's no organization that one may complain to about America.
(10.8)
.
d fan-uno
d idi-
l
pr-a
kum-
of fund-PL.M.OBL of claim-F.OBL from sake-M.ABL which-M.DIR
dreym-
fariq-
n
ta
third-M.DIR party-M.DIR NEG EXT
Theres no third party claiming the money.
10.1.2 Modal particles

In the Indo-European style, Pashto sometimes fulfills modal functions by means of
uninflected sentence-level modifiers. The clause within the scope of the particle may
appear as a main clause or as a finite subordinate clause, though given the optionality of the complementizer
// under some conditions, it is difficult to discern a
difference between thesecontrast 10.22 with 10.23.
10.1.2.1 The modal clitic /b/

As noted in the Verbs chapter (Section 8.5.2.2), the modal clitic /b/ often appears in
constructions with irrealis semantics. It is used to convey future time reference, speculation, or doubt when it occurs with a present aorist verb and can also express the
future with present continuous forms (see Section 8.5.2.1.2) if the verb refers to an event
that is to be repeated or ongoing. With a past continuous verb form, however, /b/
conveys habitual, previous action, as in 10.15. We try to capture its apparent polysemy
by glossing this modal clitic as WOULD, since its irrealis and past habitual uses parallel two of the uses of English would, as in That would be Mary arriving at the front door
and Every day last summer the girls would play in the park.

370
As a second-position clitic (Section 11.2.3.2),

/b/ must appear after the first
stressed element of the clause. If other clitics are present, these follow a particular
order discussed in Section 11.3.5.
The following sentences illustrate the uses of
/b/. (10.14 is taken from Pate
2012: 26):
(10.9)
ngr-e
mahkma- b
kniz-e
qazy-e
special-F.DIR court-F.DIR WOULD selected-PL.F.DIR case-PL.F.DIR
w-e-i
AOR-investigate-PRS.3[SG.F]
A special court will investigate these cases.
(10.10)
.
d de
tun-
l
mx-e
b
of this.OBL contract-M.OBL from direction-F.OBL WOULD
numwa-ay
arkat-
d de
pro-e
aforementioned-M.DIR company-M.DIR of this.OBL project-F.OBL
sarw-e
tr
sar-
k-i
survey-F.DIR up.to head-M.ABL do.AOR-PRS.3[SG.M]
According to the contract, the aforementioned company will complete a

survey of this project.
(10.11)
.
ka z
isay
-m
no
zm
if 1SG.STR.DIR Christian become.AOR.PRS-1SG then 1SG.STR.POSS
korn-y
b
m
prgd-i
family-F.DIR WOULD 1SG.STR.OBL AOR\abandon.PRS-PRS.3[SG.F]
If I become a Christian, then my family will abandon me.
.
.

Particles
(10.12)
371
.
mung
b
l
bahar-a
mrasta-
1PL.STR.DIR WOULD from outside-M.ABL help-F.DIR
w-w-u
AOR-want.PRS-1PL
We'll ask for help from the outside [i.e. foreign aid].
(10.13)
.
d
loy-
mr-
b
xmr-
this.DIR large-M.DIR snake-M.DIR WOULD dragon-M.DIR
-i
become.AOR.PRS-PRS.3[SG.M]
This big snake will turn into a dragon.
(10.14) dwud b
rl-ei
wi
Davud WOULD come.PTCP-3MSG be.AOR.PRS.3[PL.M]
Davud might have come.
Davud should have come [but I'm not sure].
(10.15)

.
kala e
b
tlibn-o
d xdz-o
p
when COMP WOULD Taliban-PL.M.OBL of woman-PL.F.OBL on
wnde kum-
gm-
porta kw-
no
before which-M.DIR step-M.DIR above do.CONT-PST.3SG.M then
tol-e
n-y
b
nr-e
all-F.OBL world-F.OBL WOULD shout-PL.F.DIR
-wah-l-e
CONT-beat-PST-PST.3PL.F
Whenever the Taliban would take steps against women, the entire world
would cry out.
See also Section 8.5.3.1 and Section 8.5.4.3 for more examples of the uses of

/b/.
372
10.1.2.2 The modal particles

/de/ and
/byad/
The particle
/de/ (
/di/ in the Western dialects) functions most frequently as
a deontic modal, in construction with the present aorist form of the verb:
(10.16)
ha
di
wl-
-i
3SG.STR.DIR NEC gone-M.DIR become.AOR.PRS-PRS.3[SG.M]
He should go! (SW)
(10.17)
nrina di
p lnde ko-u
ke kn-i
men
NEC in... below room-PL.OBL ...in AOR\sit.PRS-PRS.3[PL.M]
aw -e
di
p porta ko-u
ke
and woman-PL.DIR NEC in... above room-PL.OBL ...in
Let the men sit in the downstairs rooms and the women in the upstairs
rooms. (W)
(10.18)
nor-
de
l
xudy-a
aw l
rasul-a
other-PL.M.DIR NEC from God-M.ABL and from Prophet-M.ABL
w-arm-eg-i
AOR-shame-PRS-PRS.3[PL.M]
The others should be ashamed in front of God and the Prophet Mohammed.
(10.19)
aljazira-
televisyon- de
d bahrayn-
p aa-
Al-Jazeera-M.DIR television
NEC of Bahrain-M.OBL on topic-F.DIR
xabar-una
snsr-
k-i
news-PL.M.DIR censored-PL.M.DIR do.AOR-PRS.3[SG.M]
The Al-Jazeera network should censor reports on Bahrain.
(10.20)
.!
jln-a
x
mz-ay
de
w-k-e
Jalan-M.VOC good haste-M.DIR NEC AOR-do.AOR-2SG
Hey Jalan, you'd better hustle!
5 According to Babrakzai,
/de/ functions as an enclitic.

Particles
The particle
of the verb.
373
/byad/ is also found in construction with the present aorist form
! :
(10.21)
w ye
way-l
z
byad dzn-
AOR 3.WK tell.PST-PST.3PL.M 1SG.STR.DIR NEC
self-M.DIR
m-
k-m
killed-M.DIR do.AOR-1SG
He said: I should just kill myself!
10.1.2.3 The modal particle
/yi/ may; must
This particle is positioned sentence-initially and may appear in construction with the
complementizer
//.
(10.22)
yi za day
p wngn ke w-win-m
must 1SG be.3SG.M in... Washington ...in AOR-meet.PRS-1SG
I should meet him in Washington. (SW)
(10.23)
.
yi
wror
mi
sab
ta
maybe COMP brother.SG.M.DIR 1SG.WK tomorrow to
kor
ta r-i
house.SG.M.OBL to come-PRS.3
It is possible that my brother will come home tomorrow. (SW)
10.1.2.4 The optative particle

Pashto uses the particle
/kke/
/kke/ if onlyalso /kki/, /kake/,
/kaki/to introduce clauses expressing a wish or desire that something would

happen or would have happened. It can be used one of two ways:
with an optative verb, to express a counterfactual wish
with a present aorist verb, to express a polite request

374
The verb in a sentence with counterfactual meaning must appear with optative
mood marking (see Section 8.3.7 and Section 8.3.8 for the formation of these verbs):
(10.24)
!
kaki waxti rl-y
wy
if.only early come.AOR.PST-PTCP.M.DIR be.CONT.PST.OPT
I wish you had come earlier! [lit. If only you had come earlier!] (SW)
In the second use, a polite request, the speaker is stating a hope that the event will
take place. The verb in a sentence with this meaning must appear with present aorist
marking, which expresses an irrealis event (see Section 8.3.2 for the formation of these
verbs):
(10.25)
!
kaki t
zm
kor-
t rs-e
if.only 2SG.STR.DIR 1SG.STR.POSS house-M.OBL to come.AOR.PRS-2SG
Please come to my house! [lit. If only you would come to my house!]
It is also possible to use the form

/k/ if plus the optative to achieve this
counterfactual effect; see 11.103 for an example of this use.
10.1.3 Affirmation particles

In Pashto, affirmation questions and statements contain an affirmation particle. The
most common of these particles is
/k na/, a phrase that translates literally
as 'or not. It appears to be found more frequently in affirmation questions than in
affirmation statements. In speech, intonation differentiates the question use from the
affirmation use.
(10.26)

ph-
w-e
k na
learned-M.DIR become.AOR.PST-2SG or not
You understood, didn't you? (SW)

(10.27)
.
wo k na
yes or not
Yes, of course. (SW)

Particles
(10.28)
375
r-w-dar-eg-a
ka n z
nor
p
1DVC-AOR-stand-PRS-IMP.SG or not 1SG.STR.DIR more after...
t
pse
n
-m
-tl-l-ay
2SG.STR.OBL ...after NEG become.AOR.PRS-1SG CONT-go.PST-PST-OPT
Stop, OK? [because] I can't follow you any longer.
10.1.4 The emphatic clitic

The particle
(10.29)
/xo/
/xo/ is a second-position clitic and expresses emphasis.

!
d
xo
zm
wror-
day
d
this.DIR EMPH 1SG.STR.POSS brother-M.DIR be.CONT.PRS.3SG.M of
bel-
sa-i
wror-
n
other-M.DIR man-M.OBL brother-M.DIR NEG
He is in fact my brother, not some other man's brother!
10.1.5 Vocative particles

A vocative particle may introduce a noun in the vocative case form (see Section 5.1.3.4).
In Pashto, the vocative particles are called
/d nd adt/ call particles.
Examples of vocatives in Pashto are:
! / saaya/ Hey, man!

! / saaya/ Hey, man!
! /ay eu/ Hello there, women!
... /w .../
... /o .../
. !
/xo/ is considered to be different from the conjunction /xo/ but.

7 The emphatic

376
10.1.6 Interjections
Below are some common interjections:
/ax/, /hy hy/, /wy

wy/, /w/, /of/, /wx/, /h/
To express grief or pain (Ouch!, Oh!):
To express admiration or praise (Bravo!):

/aki/
/farin/, /prin/, /b/,
/w w/, /rixty/
To express regret (For shame!): /apss/, /afsos/, /armn/ What
a pity!, /toba/
For corroboration or agreement (Yes!, All right!): /ho/, /bale/, /bale
h/ Yes!, /xayr/
For contradiction or disagreement (No!): /na/, /na na/; /ya/, /ya
To express surprise (Wow!, Really?!):
ya/ E (Penzl, 1955: 44)
To threaten or caution (Whoa!):
/u/
A number of interjective particles are used, usually in fully-reduplicated form, for

calling or urging various domesticated animals. They include:
/ku ku/
To shoo a dog: /ia ia/
To make a camel kneel: /ex ex/
To call a cat: /pi pi/
To shoo a cat: /pite pite/
To call a dog:
/aa aa/
To call a donkey: /kuru kuru/
To urge on a horse: / /
To call sheep: /drhey/
To urge on oxen: /aw aw/
To urge on a donkey:
Another set of interjections is onomatopoetic:

Adverbs
377
/ek ek/
Whispering: /pes pes/
Water: /ap ap/
Gunfire: /ez ez/
Knocking:
There is also a set of interjections borrowed directly from Arabic for religious reasons and used in certain cultural contexts.
Said after praising someone to ward off the evil eye:
God willed
Said in relief or in thanks:
/maallh/ what
/alhamdulillh/ praise to God
Said when beginning something such as a speech or starting a journey:

/bismillh/ in the name of God
Said when talking about an action to be completed in the future:
lh/ if God wills
/inal-
Said after swearing, after saying or doing something inappropriate, or when being
modest:
/astafarallh/ I ask God for forgiveness
10.2 Adverbs
For the purposes of this grammar, we have classified adverbs in terms of both lexical and functional properties. Functionally, adverbs comprise modifiers of adjectives,
verbs or verb phrases, and sentences; we have excluded style disjunctsterms that
have scope over the entire proposition or speech act; these are classified in this work
as particles (Section 10.1). As is often the case, it is less straightforward to find lexical
properties that differentiate adverbs from other word classes; we have not found mentioned in the literature or from our own research any derivational morphology that
results in lexical adverbs.
Our criteria for eliminating an item from the class of adverbs are these:
If a word has an adjectival function, we have classified it as an adjective.
If a word is uninflected (and therefore not a verb) but governs an object, we have
classed it as an adposition.
Both of these points deserve further clarification:

378
Two circumstances exist in which adjectives function adverbially: when they modify
other adjectives, and when they modify verbs. We treat both circumstances as adjectival modification, as discussed in Section 10.2.7. Unlike adjectives functioning
adverbially, the adverbs discussed in the current section are never inflected. However, since some classes of adjectives in Pashto do not undergo inflection, it may
not be possible to tell whether an adjective is being used adjectivally or adverbially
without looking at the overall syntax and interpretation of the sentence.
Because adpositional phrases are substantially adverbial in their functions, and
because of the numerous conditions under which adpositions can appear without
an overt object, there is a fair amount of uncertainty as to whether a particular item
has a distinct function as an adverb. The position that we take here is that an item
is an adverb if, acting alone, it modifies one of the constituents listed above.
Adverbs can generally be divided into the traditional semantic classes of time,
place, manner, and degree. They can appear in any position in the clause that precedes the verb.
In Pashto as in many other languages, some items are multifunctional: adverbs of
degree may also be nominal quantifiers (e.g. /lg/ a little); adverbs of place or time
may also take complements and under those conditions are classified as adpositions
(e.g.
/wrusta/ after, later). In this last case, many of the terms here listed as
adverbs but not listed as adpositions may in fact (or in addition) be adpositions.
In addition, some adverbs refer anaphorically and may therefore be classified as
pro-forms (e.g.
/ham/ thus; see also Septfonds, section 4.2.2 on
/xpl/ own
as an adverb with reflexive reference); however, since our chapter on pro-forms has
been confined to pronouns, we have placed the adverbial pro-forms in this section.
Similarly, some adverbs listed here are exophoric in their reference and can therefore
be classified as demonstratives (e.g.
/hlta/ there).
10.2.1 Adverbs of time

Adverbs of time include both adverbs with time reference and quantifier-like items. Table 10.1 contains a list of some common Pashto adverbs of time; beginning with 10.30,
find examples of their use in sentences.
(10.30)
tl
de
wi
afnistn-
always NEC be.AOR.PRS.3[SG.M] Afghanistan-M.DIR
May it always be Afghanistan!

Adverbs
Adverb
Gloss
tl
always
hamea
any time
har kala
whenever (see Section 7.7)
( )
hi kala (na)
never
kala
sometimes
os
now
aknun
ilhl
nn
today
parun
yesterday
sab
tomorrow
waxti
early
wrusta
after (11.89; see also Section

9.5.2.2)
mxke
before
yet
pas
later, then
Table 10.1: Some adverbs of time

379
380
(10.31)
.
za
hamia kr-
kaw-m
1SG.STR.DIR always work-M.DIR do.CONT-1SG
I always work.
(10.32)
t
l o-y
n
da
2SG.STR.OBL yet food-F.DIR NEG be.CONT.PRS.3SG.F
-xwo-l-e
CONT-eat.PST-PST-PTCP.F.DIR
Haven't you eaten yet?
10.2.2 Adverbs of place

Table 10.2 contains a list of some common Pashto adverbs of place; sentences beginning with 10.33 provide examples of their use in sentences. Some items mentioned
here as adverbs also function as adpositions.
(10.33)
halta kn-a
there AOR\sit.PRS-IMP.SG
Sit there!
(10.34)
dlta r-a
here come.AOR.PRS-IMP.SG
Come here!
(10.35)
.
kitab-
me
porta prot-
dy
book-M.DIR 1SG.WK above lying-M.DIR be.CONT.PRS.3SG.M
My book is lying on top. (W)
8 Notice that
/dlta/ and
/halta/ follow the same d/h alternation for proximal vs. distal
reference as the demonstrative pronouns (Section 7.5).
9 Also:
/bhar/

Adverbs
Adverb
Gloss
dlta
dale
here
dele, dolata WAZ
halta
hale
porta
psa
)(
(d)nna
inside
dabndi
outside
bahar
bnde
on top
lnde
down, below
nde
near
pori
around
lare
far (away)
kt
below, underneath
hiare
nowhere
hiarta
there
above, upon
Table 10.2: Some adverbs of place

381
382
(10.36)
.
dnna wal-
sy
dbnde brn-
inside gone-M.DIR become.AOR.PRS-IMP.SG outside rain-M.DIR
dy
be.CONT.PRS.3SG.M
Go inside! It is raining outside. (W)
10.2.3 Adverbs of manner

Table 10.3 contains a list of some common Pashto adverbs of manner; in examples
10.38 and following, find examples of their use in sentences.
The preposition /p/ can be used with an adjective object, to render an adverbial
phrase (10.37). This stands next to the more usual construction of /p/ with a noun
object, also used to convey manner, as discussed in Section 9.3.4.2).
(10.37)

.
ktar-
kabir-
stori-
ka p
fiziki
lhz-
doctor-M.DIR Kabir-M.DIR Stori-M.DIR if INSTR physical side-M.OBL
d de
nimg-i
wand-
l
madr-a
of this.OBL insufficient-M.OBL life-M.OBL from orbit-M.ABL
w-wuxt-
aw l
de
na-y
x
AOR-cross.over.PST-PST.3SG.M and from... this.OBL world-F.OBL ...from
ye
kaa-
w-k-l-a
magar d
3.WK movement-F.DIR AOR-do.AOR-PST-PST.3SG.F but
of
paxto-
d adab-
p
hask-
ke l
d
pashto-M.OBL of literature-M.OBL in.... height-M ...in still of
de
lnd-
stur-i
ra-
zmung
pr
this.OBL shining-M.OBL star-M.OBL light-F.DIR 1PL.STR.POSS on
sar-
da
head-M be.CONT.PRS.3SG.F
Even though Dr. Kabir Stori has physically turned away from movements of
his meager life and left this world, in the heights of Pashto literature, the light
of his shining star is still above our heads.

Adverbs
(10.38)
383
mr-n
e
nst-
wi
wro
elder-PL.M.ANIM.DIR COMP sitting-PL.M.DIR be.AOR.PRS.3[PL.M] slow
wro xabr-e
w-k-a
slow word-PL.F.DIR AOR-do.AOR-IMP.SG
Talk softly when there are elders present!
(10.39)
melm-n
ye
npa kor-
ta wr
guest-PL.M.ANIM.DIR 3.WK sudden house-M.OBL to 3DVC
nnawat-l
AOR\enter.PST-PST.3PL.M
Their guests suddenly entered their home.
(10.40)
wr-ta w-wy-a
e
jil
rs-i
3-to
AOR-tell.PRS-IMP.SG COMP quick come.AOR.PRS-PRS.3[SG.M]
Tell him to come quickly!

.
11 Also: /d si/
12 Also: /abla/

384
Adverb
Gloss
er
p laat
jalta
jil
wro
hista
n-pa
be-fa
n-gh
d hasi
thus
d rang
in this manner
sra
together (with)
baham
zablah
ham
also, too
be-j
improperly
quickly
slowly
suddenly
Table 10.3: Some adverbs of manner

Adverbs
385
10.2.3.1 The adverb

/sra/
Across Pashto varieties,
/sra/ (otherwise an adposition) can appear without an
overt object. In this usage, it has a number of potential meanings, generally determined through context.
/sra/ may indicate a reciprocal reading of the predicate, subject to predictable

semantic conditions:
(10.41)
p dohm- paw- ke b
sra
siyl-i
in... second-M stage-M ...in WOULD together competition-SG.F.DIR
w-k-i
AOR-do.AOR-PRS.3[PL.M]
They will compete with [each other] in the second round.
(10.42)
.
p hao
lr-o
ar-o
mo
bahs-
in... that.OBL road-PL.F.OBL affair-PLF.OBL 1PL.WK discussion-M.DIR
sra
k-ay
day
together do.AOR.PST-PTCP.M.DIR be.CONT.PRS.3SG.M
We discussed those efforts [among ourselves].
Often, the verb that allows this usage of

/sra/ is a denominal verb, and when
it is, the adverb can appear either preceding the substantive word or may occur between the substantive and the verbalizer, as shown in 10.41 and 10.43.
A second likely interpretation involves the null object of
reference:
(10.43)
/sra/ having anaphoric

e
kala sr
mxmx-
-i
COMP when COMIT facing-[PL.M.DIR] become.AOR.PRS-1PL
whenever we come face to face with [them]

Note too that the omitted, understood object need not be animate; in that instance,
a translation into English might include the particle along.

386
10.2.4 Adverbs of degree

Often adverbs of degree will be used to modify adjectives or verbs to denote intensity or
emphasis, and they strongly tend to precede the modified element. Table 10.4 contains
a list of some common Pashto adverbs of degree; their use in sentences can be seen in
examples beginning with 10.44.
Adverb
Gloss
lg
a little
er
very
zxt
xwar
tan(h)
serf
mze
bixi
kwr
axo
only
completely
slightly
Table 10.4: Some adverbs of degree
13 Also:
14 Also:
/sirp/, as a corruption of the Persian /sirf/(Raverty, 1867)

/a pa/(Raverty, 1867)

Adverbs
(10.44)
387
parun
me
l
w-ast-l
yesterday 1SG.WK little AOR-run-PST.3PL.M
I ran a little yesterday.
(10.45)
d maram-io
a-
mum-
xwar
of bullet-PL.F.OBL voice-M.OBL child-M.DIR very
w-berw-
AOR-scare-PST.3SG.M
The gunfire scared the child immensely.
(10.46)
xpl-
nan-ay
kr-
me
a
pa
own-M.DIR daily-M.DIR work-M.DIR 1SG.WK complete ECHO
xls-
k-
finished-M.DIR do.AOR-PST.3SG.M
I completely finished my work for today.
10.2.5 Adverbs borrowed from Arabic

A number of adverbs in Pashto have been borrowed from Arabic and have retained
their Arabic morphology. These adverbs are recognizable because they end in the Arabic accusative case marker
adverbs.
/an/. Borrowings from Arabic include all categories of
15 Similarly, a number of adverbs have also been borrowed from Persian and Urdu (Shafeev, 1964:
50), though since these borrowings do not have a peculiar morphology, they are listed among the
Pashto adverbs.

388
Adverb
Gloss
taqribn
approximately
rasmn
officially
dafatn
suddenly
fawrn
immediately
kamiln
completely
Table 10.5: Arabic adverbs in Pashto
(10.47)
kla
mum-no
xpl-
plr-
when COMP child-PL.M.ANIM.OBL own-M.DIR father-M.DIR
w-lid-
no dafatan p
xand-
AOR-see.PST-PST.3SG.M that suddenly INSTR laugh-F.DIR
w-l
The children suddenly started laughing when they saw their father.
10.2.6 Adverbial interrogatives

Other interrogative words fill the positions of adverbials . They words are summarized
in Table 10.6 and exemplified beginning with 10.50. In many cases there is a shorter
form as well as a longer (sometimes two word) form starting with
//, /s/ what.
See 10.48 and 10.49 for examples with
/wli/ why, suggesting from the variable
position of the weak pronoun clitic that this element may be outside the clause.
(10.48)
wli ma-aw-
me
why kiss-do.CONT-PRS.3[SG.M] 1SG.WK

Adverbs
GP
Translation
wli
wle
why?
kla
(e) kla
when?
waxt, s waxt
waxt, s waxt
when (what time)?
eri, ere
where?
erta
erta
where?
anga, sanga
anga, sanga
how?
ranga, sranga
rga, srga
how (what manner)?
eri, ere
are
Table 10.6: Some other interrogative words
(10.49)
wli me
ma-aw-
(10.50)
kla rl-e
when come.AOR.PST-2SG
When did you come? (NW)
(10.51)

s
waxt-
rl-e
what time-M.DIR come.AOR.PST-2SG
When did you come? (NW)

389
390
(10.52)
ere
z-y
where go.CONT.PRS-2PL
Where are you going? (NW)
(10.53)
erta z-y
where go.CONT.PRS-2PL
Where are you going? (NW)
(10.54)

najr-
sanga mez-
ju-aw-
carpenter-M.DIR how table-M.DIR built-do.CONT-PRS.3[SG.M]
How is the carpenter making the table? (NW)
(10.55)
najr-
sranga mez-
ju-aw-
carpenter-M.DIR how
table-M.DIR built-do.CONT-PRS.3[SG.M]
How is the carpenter making the table? (NW)
As with interrogative pronouns, these interrogatives also may be used with indefinite meanings, as in Example 10.56. The reduplication of the question word gives the
sense that the eating events are distributed over time. See Section 10.3 for more on
reduplication.
(10.56)
.
kla kla z
p restorn-
ki
-xwar-m
when when 1SG.STR.DIR in... restaurant-M ...in CONT-eat.PRS-1SG
Sometimes I eat in restaurants. (SW)

(10.57)
.
har
kala r-y
every when come.AOR.PRS-IMP.PL
You are always welcome [lit. Come anytime!].
Also like interrogative pronouns, these interrogatives, when being used indefinitely, can occur with
/har/ /ar/ every, as in
/har kla/ whenever; anytime
and
/har ere/ wherever; everywhere.
Negative statements with
/hets/, /hes/ any also occur with other interrogatives/indefinites, as shown in 10.58.

Adverbs
391
(10.58)
z
hes
ere
wl-
n
w-m
1SG.STR.DIR none where gone-M.DIR NEG become.AOR.PST-1SG
I didn't go anywhere. (NW)
(10.59)
hi
kala eybat-
m kaw-a
never when backbiting-M.DIR NEG do.CONT-IMP.SG
Never backbite!
10.2.7 Adjectives as adverbs

Many adjectives can also be used as verbal or sentential modifiers. According to Tegey
& Robson (1996: 87), when playing this adverbial role they show agreement with the direct object if there is one, and with the subject if not. This unusual type of concord has
been observed in the Caucasian language Avar, as well as certain western Indo-Aryan
languagesfor example, Bhitrauti, Gujarati, Punjabi, and Kashmiri (Hook & Chauhan
1988b, Hook & Joshi 1991, Hook & Koul 2008). Notably, the Pashto-speaking region is
situated between the regions in which Avar is spoken (western Dagestan, northwest
Azerbaijan, and Kazakhstan) and those of the western Indo-Aryan languages, and is,
in fact, contiguous with Punjabi areasa fact which suggests that adverbial concord
is an areal feature. While it has been briefly described elsewhere, concord in Pashto
adverbs is a subject ripe for further linguistic investigation.
Some adjectives that frequently modify verbs are:
/x/ good (adjective), well
(adverb);
/er/ many (adjective), very (adverb);
/xyist/ pretty (adjective), very (adverb);
/zyt/ heavy (adjective), many (adverb). The following
examples use the adjectives
/post/ soft and
/sxt/ hard:
(10.60)
d
ux-
p lra-
post-
this.DIR camel-M.DIR on road-F.DIR soft-M.DIR
-
go.CONT.PRS-PRS.3[SG.M]
This camel rides very comfortably [lit. goes soft]. (NW)

392
(10.61)
d
uxa-
p lra-
past-a
this.DIR camel-F.DIR on road-F.DIR soft-F.DIR
-
go.CONT.PRS-PRS.3[SG.F]
This she-camel rides very comfortably [lit. goes soft]. (NW)
(10.62)
d
ux-n
p lra-
pst-
this.DIR camel-PL.M.DIR on road-F.DIR soft-PL.M.DIR
-
go.CONT.PRS-PRS.3[PL.M]
These camels ride very comfortably [lit. go soft]. (NW)
(10.63)
m
da
ux-
sxt-
el
1SG.STR.OBL this.DIR camel-M.DIR hard-M.DIR pushed
k-
do.AOR-PST.3SG.M
I pushed this camel hard. (NW)
(10.64)
m
da
uxa-
sxt-a
el
1SG.STR.OBL this.DIR camel-F.DIR hard-F.DIR pushed
k-l-a
do.AOR-PST-PST.3SG.F
I pushed this she-camel hard. (NW)
10.2.8 Reduplication of adverbs

Degree adverbs may undergo full reduplicaton to indicate increased intensity of the
action.

Reduplication
(10.65)
393
.
fatma-
zr
zr
-
Fatima-F.DIR quick quick go.CONT.PRS-PRS.3[SG.F]
Fatima went very quickly. (NW)
10.3 Reduplication
10.3.1 Full (morphological) reduplication
In Pashto, full reduplication is a morphological process with effects dependent on the
lexical class of the word reduplicated. Nouns, number names, adjectives, adverbs, and
interjections are subject to full reduplication; the functions of reduplication for each of
these are found in Section 5.4.2, Section 6.5.3, Section 6.8.4, Section 10.2.8, and Section
10.1.6 respectively.
10.3.2 Partial reduplication: echo words

Partial reduplication (resulting in a doublet that consists of a lexeme plus an echo word)
typically involves the alteration of only the initial sound; the quality of this altered
segment is conventionalized for the particular stem. The meanings of these doublet
words are similarly conventionalized, though some patterns exist. For instance, if the
noun refers to an object, the doublet construction may be a generalized plural, as in
examples 10.66 and 10.67. The doublet may convey intensity if the repeated element
refers to an action (example 10.69).
Echo words are an areal phenomenon throughout South Asia, where they occur in
Indo-Aryan, Dravidian, Tibeto-Burman, and Austroasiatic languages. It seems reasonable to assume that their existence in Pashto is due to areal influence. Some attested
examples are given here, and Table 10.7 gives a list of some more doublet words and
the stem from which they are derived (Pashtoon, 2009).,

394
(10.66)
gul-n
muln de
flower-PL.M.ANIM.DIR ECHO 2.WK
xwx-g-i
sweet-become.CONT.PRS-PRS.3[PL.M]
Do you like flowers and such things? (NW)
(10.67)

.
d
ry-e
gir-
na
wrusta ye
d
from... vote-F.OBL collection-F.OBL ...from after
3.WK of
ag-i
bragi aw rawat-
xo-i
p
aa-
cheat-M.OBL ECHO and bribe-M.OBL eating-F.OBL INSTR topic-F.DIR
d tahqiq-to
masuliat-
p
a-
of research-PL.M.OBL responsiblity-M.DIR INSTR neck-F.DIR
darld-
He had the responsibility of investigating bribery and cheating after the

election.
(10.68)
d malry-
nro-i
aw d mxniw-i
of malaria-F.OBL sickness-F.DIR and of prevention-M.OBL
lr-e
re ye
path-PL.F.DIR ECHO 3.WK
The Disease of Malaria and the Ways to Prevent It

Reduplication
(10.69)
395

.
da
be
huyat-a
aw be
pat-a
this.OBL without identity-M.ABL and without honor-M.ABL
mr-no
zmung
d grn-
hewd-
elder-PL.M.ANIM.OBL 1PL.STR.POSS of dear-M.OBL country-M.OBL
plazmena- kbul-
dumra
wij-
aw
capital-F.DIR Kabul-M.DIR so.much destroyed-M.DIR and
d-ay
way k-
e
zmung
shredded-M.DIR ECHO do.AOR-PST.3SG.M COMP 1PL.STR.POSS
trix-
p dw-o
saw-o
kal-uno
history-M.DIR in... two-PL.M.OBL hundred-PL.M.OBL year-PL.M.OBL
ke sr-ay
n
-lar-i
...in example-M.DIR NEG CONT-have-PRS.3[SG.F]
These nameless and honorless leaders destroyed Kabul, the capital of our
dear country, and tore it to such pieces that our history has had no such
example in two hundred years.
(10.70)

.
hind-
o
l-i
d brixn-
d
India-M.DIR some time-PL.M.DIR of electricity-F.OBL of
fbrik-o
p jo-aw-l-o
ke xpl-
factory-PL.M.OBL in... built-do-INF-PL.M.OBL ...in own-M.OBL
k-l
w-i
hadaf-
t p
select-INF become.AOR.PST-PCTP.M.OBL goal-M.OBL to in...
ras-d-o
ke t
pt
arrive-become-PL.M.OBL ...in behind ECHO
sw-ay
day
become.AOR.PST-PTCP.M.DIR be.CONT.PRS.3[SG.M]
A couple of times now, India has fallen behind in its desired goal of building
power plants.

396
(10.71)
.
mung
b
d
amrik-
aw malgr-o
1PL.STR[DIR] WOULD with... America-F.OBL and friend-PL.M.OBL
sr
ye
hi
awal-
xabar-e
atere w n
...with 3.WK nothing manner-M.DIR word-PL.F.DIR ECHO AOR NEG
k-u
do.AOR-1PL
We will not hold talks with America or any of its allies.

Reduplication
Doublet
397
Stem
poxtna utna
questioning
poxtna question
pene ajane
gloss unknown
pena familiarity,
wr pr
through and
through
nsta pasta
social
intercourse
recognition
war time, turn

nsta sitting
conduct
tt pt
disordered
tt confused
confused
a pa
very big
a large
la pa
soiled
la sluggish
besmirched
xuin pin
boiled very soft
xuin boiled soft,

overcooked
overripe
king ping
curved
king curve, bend
bent
sust pust
quite listless, lax,

non-diligent
xal pal
gloss unknown
hali zali
effort
sust listless
xal faith, confidence
hala attach;
worry, alarm
zila
Table 10.7: Some doublets and their base stems


Claudia M. Brugman and Anne Boyle David
11
11.1
Syntax
Overview
This grammar has concentrated on Pashto word-formation and phrase-formation. The

current chapter covers some aspects of Pashto sentence construction, focusing on questions of word and phrase order, and case-marking and agreement. It is not a comprehensive treatment of Pashto syntax, which has been described in various degrees of
detail by Babrakzai (1999), Lorimer (1902), Pate (2012), Penzl (1955), and Tegey (1979),
among others. Most of the description in this chapter has been synthesized from these
works. For the most part, the research we conducted with native speakers rendered
differences in lexical forms or case-marking patterns, not in the general properties of
Pashto syntax; however, our field research on syntax was more limited than that on
other aspects of Pashto grammar.
Pashto exhibits strong head-final order in noun phrases and verb phrases. A set of
apparent exceptions to the general order of elements in a clause results from the large
inventory of second-position clitics, described in Section 11.2.3.2.1.
There is at least one phrasal position outside the clause, before the subject. It is
used for a variety of purposes including, but not restricted to, a focus function. Because
it apparently fulfills many independent grammatical requirements of Pashto, we refer
to this position as pre-clausal position, rather than as a Focus position. In addition,
there is a phrasal position outside the clause after the verb phrase, which is similarly
used for a variety of functions. We refer to this position as the post-clausal position.
Pashto is a pro-drop language: the pronoun coreferential with the agreement marker
on the verb may be omitted under the conditions detailed in Section 7.2.2.
11.2
Phrasal syntax
11.2.1
Noun phrases
Pashto noun phrases generally exhibit the internal order Determiner - Quantifier - Adjective - Noun. A genitive determiner (headed either by /d/ or by a fused strong
formsee Section 7.2.3) is generally phrase-initial, irrespective of its function (see Section 9.3.1.1 for more examples).
Because weak pronouns are second-position clitics, when they are used as genitive
determiners (which is indicated only by their proximity to the noun), they may follow
1 We use this term in its traditional sense of a noun and its complements, modifiers, and
determiners; in generative terminology, this is called the Determiner Phrase or DP.

400
Syntax
their head. This is exemplified in 11.1. They may also precede their head, as is shown
in 11.2.
(11.1)
.
dzangal-una
mo
w-wah-l
w-l
biy
jungle-PL.M.DIR 1PL.WK AOR-hit-INF become.AOR.PST-PST.3PL.M then
ye
hits
ham am-
w-n
xo-
3.WK none who.OBL also sorrow-M.DIR AOR-NEG eat.PST-PST.3SG.M
Our forests were destroyed, and nobody even cared.
(11.2)
.
d
mi
kitb-
dy
this.DIR 1SG.WK book-M.DIR be.CONT.PRS.3SG.M
That is my book. (SW)
Participial phrases modifying nouns pattern as adjective phrases and tend to precede their heads, as shown in 11.3:
(11.3)
.
p far-
ke
txtaw-l
w-i
in... Farah-M ...in kidnap-INF become.AOR.PST-PTCP.PL.M.DIR
krgar-n
xe
w-l
worker-PL.M.ANIM.DIR released become.AOR.PST-PST.3PL.M
The workers kidnapped in Farah were released.
Relative-clause modifiers appear after their heads in the same phrase, as shown in
example 11.76, but may also appear in the post-clausal position, as shown in example
11.75.
11.2.2
Adpositional phrases
The salient exception to the head-final principle can be found in adpositional phrases,
given the existence of prepositions, postpositions, and circumpositions. A number of
additional conditions obtain on the internal structure of adpositional phrases, having
to do with the interrelationships between weak pronouns or oblique pronominal clitics
and adpositions; these are discussed in Section 9.7.4 and Section 9.7.5, respectively.

Phrasal syntax
11.2.3
401
Verb phrases
Generally, head-final order is found also in the verb phrase, with the verb, if any, as
the final element. Relative clauses and sentence-level modifiers may appear in postclausal position, as described by Tegey (1979) and Pate (2012).
11.2.3.1 Light verb constructions

Like many other languages of the Western Asian and South Asian areas, Pashto has a
robust system of light verb constructions (LVC), two-word expressions that are semantically interpretable as a single predicate. Only one of the two canonical typesthose
of the form Noun/Adjective + Verb (N-V)appears in our data and has been described
by other authors as occurring in Pashto. See Section 8.2.4.4 for a detailed description
of their morphosyntactic behavior.
As for the other type of LVCVerb + Verb (V-V)since it is abundant in South Asian
languages of both the Indo-Aryan and Dravidian families, and has recently been reported for Persian (Kshanovski, 2011), it would not be surprising to find it in Pashto as
well. For that reason we will not say definitively that V-V LVCs do not occur in Pashto;
further investigation is necessary.
As verbs are a closed class in Pashto, the LVC is the only means of creating new
verbal forms in the language; it is also used as a way of importing loanwords, with
the borrowed word filling the complement slot; the morphosyntactic requirements on
the complement are discussed in Section 8.2.4.4. LVCs are so prominent and productive in Pashto that they serve as simplex predicates for further syntactic purposesfor
example, they can license further complementation. (See Section 11.5 for examples.)
The inventory of light verbs in Pashto should not surprise anyone familiar with
LVCs. In addition to the verbs
/kedl/ to become and
/kawl/ to make;
to do, which we refer to as the intransitive and transitive verbalizers when they act as
light verbs, Pashto uses the verbs
/axistl/ to take,
/wahl/ to beat,
/niwl/ to seize; to grasp, and
/istl/ to throw out as light verbs, as in the
following examples:
/pa axistl/ to stride < /pa/ (f.) foot

/s axistl/ to breathe < /s/ (f.) breathing, respiration
/el wahl/ to push, shove (one another) < /el/ (m.) push, shove
/bbozay wahl/ to fan < /bbzay/ (m.) fan
/kangal niwl/ to freeze (intr.) < /kangl/ (m.) ice
/kut niwl/ to wrestle < /kut/ (f.) wrestling

402
Syntax
/a istl/ to compel < /a/ obstacle; compelled

While LVCs with /kedl/ and /kawl/ are by far the most common and
extremely productive, we do not know how productive the other verbs in the above
examples are as light verbs. In addition, there are likely more light verbs in Pashto, but
again, further research in this area is needed. A few examples follow of typical LVCs;
as these are so common in Pashto, many more can be seen throughout this book.
Contracted LVC:
(11.4)
. " "
astrliy-
p afnistn-
ke d "pi ar i" im-
Australia-F.DIR in... Afghanistan-M ...in of "P R T" team-M.DIR
jo-aw-
built-do.CONT-PRS.3[SG.F]
Australia is establishing a 'P[rovincial] R[econstruction] T[eam]' team in
Afghanistan.
(11.5)
.
p
lasgun-o
xalk-
-wan-
aw
INSTR dozen-PL.M.OBL people-M.DIR CONT-kill.PRS-IMP.SG and
l
wand-a
ye
xls-aw-
from life-M.ABL 3.WK freed-do.CONT-IMP.SG
Kill dozens of people and release them from this life.
Uncontracted LVC:
(11.6)
.
numw-ay
min-
d n-y
p
aforementioned-M.DIR machine-M.DIR of world-F.OBL on...
ga-
mir-
b-o
bnde xadmt-
numerous-M number-M language-PL.F.OBL ...on
services-PL.M.DIR
kaw-
do.CONT-PRS.3[SG.M]
The aforementioned device functions in a large number of the world's
languages.

Phrasal syntax
(11.7)
403
.
l
de
wrust b
d irn-
l
lur-e
from this.OBL after
tel-
ward-
n
k-u
(11.8)
.
a-
way-i
kar-e
ka
k-a
big-M.OBL bull-M.OBL cart-F.DIR pulled do.AOR-PST.3SG.F
The big bull pulled the cart.
Adjective complements of N-V LVCs always show agreement with the undergoer
of the action of the verb, which is in turn marked in accordance with Pashtos system
of split ergativity. Nominal complements are usually treated as the direct object of the
verb, and are therefore also case-marked according to split-ergative alignment. The
undergoer of the action, on the other hand, cannot be a direct object, as the verb can
have at most two arguments; it is instead indicated by an adposition and accordingly
case-marked oblique.
11.2.3.2 Elements in the verbal group

11.2.3.2.1 The verbal group in General Pashto
Certain particles can be inserted between:
The aorist prefix
/w/and its verb.
A prefix or pseudo-prefix and its verb. (This includes both the a-initial complex
verbs and second conjugation, or prefixed, verbs.)
The complement of a denominal verb and its verbalizer.
The particles that interact with verbs in this way are:
The modal clitics
/b/ and /de/
The weak personal pronouns, or pronominal clitics

and
/mo/
/me/ , /de/ , /ye/ ,
3 However, some nominal complements behave like part of the verb lexeme and allow a direct
object, similarly to adjective complements; see Section 8.2.4.4 for a discussion of these exceptions.

404
Syntax
/xo/ and /no/

The negatives /n/ and /m/
The adverbial clitics
Modals, weak personal pronouns, and adverbials are all second-position clitics.
They also obey strict rules of ordering relative to each other. Tegey (1977) reports the
following ordering of enclitics between verbal components:
/xo/> /b/> {
/mo/|
/me/|
/de/|
/ye/} > /no/
If the first syllable of the verb does not carry stress (that is, if it is a non-aorist
form), the negative precedes the verb, and the clitics follow the negative. Also, if an
aorist form is negated, the negative markernot the initial syllable of the verbtakes
the stress.
Some examples of these phenomena follow (examples are from Kopris 2009 and
Tegey 1977 ).
With aorist prefix /w/:
(11.9)
w me
wh-
AOR 1SG.WK beat-PST.3SG.M
I beat him.
With
/w/ (< /w/+ /a-/):
(11.10)
w-
me
xist-l
AOR-buy 1SG.WK buy.PST-PST.3PL.M
I bought them.
With second conjugation (= prefixed) verb:
(11.11)
.
b
b
me
n
z-e
take.AOR.PRS WOULD 1SG.WK NEG take-2SG
You won't take me.

With a-initial verbs, but only when the /a/ is stressed (the a-initial verbs are unusual in that they have variable stress placement):
(11.12)
.
-
me
xist-l-
CONT-buy 1SG.WK buy.PST-PST-3PL.M
I was buying them.

versus:

Phrasal syntax
(11.13)
405
.
-axist-l-
me
CONT-buy.PST-PST-3PL.M 1SG.WK
I was buying them.
With denominal verbs:

(11.14)
.
warn-
me
k-
worse-M.DIR 1SG.WK do.AOR-PST.3SG.M
I made it worse.
A negated aorist form (note stress on negative):
(11.15)
.
baxt-
wr-sra yr-i
w-n
k-a
fate-M.OBL 3-COMIT friendship-F.DIR AOR-NEG do.AOR-PST.3SG.F
Fate didn't befriend him.
The pair below with the second conjugation verb

/amlawl/ to knock
down shows that the choice of pronoun is optional: either the strong pronoun may
precede the intact inflected verb, or the weak pronoun clitic may cliticize to the initial
stressed syllable of the verb.
(11.16)
.
m
mlaw-l
1SG.STR.OBL AOR\knock.down-PST.3PL.M
I knocked them down.
(11.17)
me
mlaw-l
AOR\knock.down 1SG.WK knock.down-PST.3PL.M
I knocked them down.
11.2.3.2.2 The verbal group in Middle dialects

Particles in the Middle dialects interact with verbs similarly to those in the General
Pashto dialects. They differ somewhat in form, as illustrated below.
The Waziri particles take the following forms:
The modal clitics /wa/ and /de/

406
Syntax
The weak personal pronouns, or pronominal clitics /mi/ , /di/ , /(y)e/ , and /mo/
The adverbial clitics /xo/ (see Section 10.1.4) and /nu/
The negative morphemes /n/ and /m/
The Dzadrani particles take these forms:
The modal clitics /be/ and /de/
The weak personal pronouns, or pronominal clitics /me/ /be/, /de/ , /ye/ , and
/m/
The adverbial clitic /xo/
The negative morphemes /n/ and /m/
We do not have information on the ordering of Waziri clitics, but Septfonds reports
Dzadrani ordering as follows:
adverbial clitics > pronominal clitics > modal clitics
Note that this ordering distinguishes between modal /de/ and pronominal /de/
you , in contrast to General Pashto dialects, where the two occupy the same slot.
11.2.3.2.3 Negative placement in the aorist verb phrase

The negative particle /n/ nearly always precedes the verb and is placed as close to
the verb stem as possible. In aorist constructions, it therefore follows the aorist marker
/w/ for simplex verbs, and either initial /a/, the prefix, or the light verb complement
for complex verbs. Because it carries an inherent stress, it takes the main stress in an
aorist verb phrase:
(11.18)
.
m
wu n
lwast-l
1SG.STR.OBL AOR NEG read-PST.3PL.M
I didn't read [them] over.
(11.19)
.
dzangal-una
mo
w-wah-l
w-l
biy
jungle-PL.M.DIR 1PL.WK AOR-hit-INF become.AOR.PST-PST.3PL.M then
ye
hits
ham am-
w-n
3.WK none who.OBL also sorrow-M.DIR AOR-NEG
xo-
eat.PST-PST.3SG.M
Our forests were destroyed, and nobody even cared.

Phrasal syntax
(11.20)
407

.
h-
mahmud-
l
sar-
tsxe tj-
Shah-M.OBL Mahmud-M.OBL from... head-M.OBL ...from crown-M.DIR
ista
k-
aw hits waxt p ahi taxt-
removed do.AOR-PST.3SG.M and none time on royal stage-M
kx-ne-nst-
AOR\sit-NEG-sit.PST-PST.3SG.M
Shah Mahmud disavowed his royal birthright and never assumed the throne.
(11.21)
hae
xpl-a
atr-y
xls-a
n
3SG.F.STR.OBL own-F.DIR umbrella-F.DIR opened-F.DIR NEG
k-a
do.AOR-PST.3SG.F
She didn't open her umbrella.
(11.22)
baxt-
wr-sra yr-i
w-n
k-a
fate-M.OBL 3-COMIT friendship-F.DIR AOR-NEG do.AOR-PST.3SG.F
Fate didn't befriend him.
Because /b/ is a second-position clitic and therefore must follow the first stressed
word in the clause or sentence, when negating future time reference, the order of the
other elements depends on the presence of a subject and object or both, as indicated
in Table 11.1.
Condition
Order of elements
subject OR object expressed
subject/object +
subject AND object expressed
subject +
NEITHER subject NOR object expressed
w + b + n+ verb
b + w + n+ verb
b + object + w + n+ verb
Table 11.1: Element ordering in negative future constructions

408
Syntax
In the case of simplex verbs (i.e., all first conjugation verbs except a-initial ones;
see Section 8.2.4), the negated verb is simply /n/ + inflected verb stem, as in 11.23
through 11.28, examples of the orderings in Table 11.1 (Tegey & Robson, 1996: 128).
(11.23)
.
d orgd-i
lr-
b
yawze p balx-
of train-M.OBL path-F.DIR WOULD only
in... Balkh-M
walyat- ke py t w-n
ras-eg-i
province-M ...in end to AOR-NEG arrive-PRS-PRS.3[SG.F]
Only in Balkh Province will the railroad not be completed.
(11.24)
.
kum-a
fyida-
b
dr-t w-n
rasaw-i
any-F.DIR benefit-F.DIR WOULD 2-to
AOR-NEG deliver-PRS.3[SG]
It won't do you any good.
(11.25)
.
d
awal-
dsis-e
b
d duy
this.DIR manner-M.DIR conspiracy-PL.F.DIR WOULD of 3PL.STR.OBL
orband-
t ziyn-
w n
rasaw-i
cease.fire-M.OBL to damage-M.DIR AOR NEG deliver-PRS.3[SG.M]
This type of conspiracy won't hurt the cease-fire. [lit. This type of conspiracy
won't bring damage to their cease-fire.]
(11.26)
.
tr
h
waxt-
b
numwa-ay
xpl-e
up.to that.OBL time-M.ABL WOULD aforementioned-M.DIR own-F.OBL
mox-e
t w n
ras-eg-i
goal-F.OBL to AOR NEG arrive-PRS-PRS.3[SG.M]
Even now, he won't reach his goals.

Phrasal syntax
409
(11.27)
w-ba
n
-m
k-y
d
AOR-WOULD NEG become.AOR.PRS-1SG do.AOR-OPT of
prlamn-
l
lr-e
xadmat-
w-k-m
parliament-M.OBL from path-F.OBL service-M.DIR AOR-do.AOR-1SG
I won't be able to serve in Parliament.
(11.28)
w b
n
mir-l
-i
AOR WOULD NEG count-INF become.AOR.PRS-PRS.3[PL.M]
[The votes] won't be counted.
With complex verbs (i.e., a-initial verbs, second conjugation verbs, and third conjugation verbs; see Section 8.2.4), the negative particle is inserted between the first
element and the verb stem. Note that the prefix /w/ occurs only in a-initial verbs.
Table 11.2 describes the relative position of the elements. See also Section 11.2.3.2.
Verb type
Positioning
a-initial verbs
w + (note lengthening) +
verb
Second conjugation verbs
prefix +
Third conjugation verbs
noun or adjective +
n + rest of
n + rest of verb
n + verbalizer
Table 11.2: Negative placement
Consider 11.29 through 11.31, examples of this negative placement. Note that in
these constructions, /b/ always appears after the first stressed element of the sentence:
a-initial verb
/axistl/ to take; to buy:

410
Syntax
(11.29)
no
biy b
ham z
d
de
kr-
then then WOULD also 1SG.STR.DIR from... this.OBL work-M.OBL
x
ls-
w-
n
xl-m
...from hand-M.DIR AOR-take NEG take.PRS-1SG
Then I also won't quit my job.
second conjugation verb
(11.30)
/prexud-l/ to abandon:
z
b
ha
p
hits awal-
ham
1SG.STR.DIR WOULD 3SG.STR.DIR INSTR none manner-M also
yawze pr
n gd-m
alone AOR\abandon NEG abandon.PRS-1SG
I wont ever leave him alone.
third conjugation verb
(11.31)
/wredawl/ to take:
.
l
de
wrust b
d irn-
l
lur-e
from this.OBL after
tel-
wrd-
n
k-u
11.3
Main clause sentence types
Pashto is a pro-drop language: it often lacks overt marking of arguments, both because the direct case marker is often zero, and because the direct case reflects nominative, accusative, and absolutive functions (see Section 5.1.3.1 and Section 5.2). This
affects word order in that subjects may be expressed through verb agreement suffixation alone.
.
.


11.3.1
411
Declaratives
11.3.1.1 Order of elements in declaratives

Subject to several more specific conditions, the order of elements in main clauses in
Pashto is S - O - V. In addition to verb agreement, word order contributes to interpretation in present-tense clauses where both subject and object are case-marked as direct.
In example 11.32, the nominal
/mmurin/ officials is the first of the two directmarked nouns, and is the head of the subject noun phrase.
(11.32)
.
p sl-o
ke nuw-i
dawlati
in... one.hundred-PL.M.OBL ...in ninety-PL.M.DIR governmental
mmur-in
rawat-
-xor-
official-PL.M.DIR bribe-F.DIR CONT-eat.PRS-PRS.3[PL.M]
Ninety percent of government officials take bribes.
There are various exceptions to the basic S-O-V principle. One is that the required
second position of a weak pronoun may result in a violation of the S-O-V order. Compare examples 11.60 and 11.61.
Babrakzai (1999: 1314) notes that outside of a strict verb-final condition, Word
order within a clause is very flexible. The following example shows that (for some
speakers at least) the object may precede the subject, for emphasis or contrast, providing that the larger context supports the interpretation:
(11.33)
.
turki
injinir-n
d duy
Turkish engineer-PL.M.ANIM.DIR of 3PL.STR.OBL
kas-no
n
di
person-PL.M.ANIM.OBL NEG be.CONT.PRS.3PL.M
-taxtaw-l-i
CONT-kidnap-PST-PTCP.PL.M.DIR
Their people didn't kidnap the Turkish engineers.
In the following attested example, the first translation is the intended one, in keeping with the strong preference for the subject to precede the object. The second one,
however, has been confirmed by speakers as a possible interpretation. According to
our sources, the second possible translation (O-S-V) would require a supporting context and would, in speech, be signaled through special intonation (including a heavy
pause), suggesting that the pre-clausal position is being used in this case for focus.

412
(11.34)
Syntax

d mili
urdu-
sartir-i
wale baharni
of national army-M.OBL soldier-PL.M.DIR why foreign
pwdz-in
-wan-
force-PL.M.ANIM.DIR CONT-kill.PRS-PRS.3[PL.M]
Why are the nation's soldiers killing foreign fighters?
Why are foreign fighters killing the nation's soldiers?
Roberts (2000: 1112) claims that O-S-V order such as is shown in 11.34 is much
more likely in past tense sentences, where the ergative-absolutive case-marking pattern provides disambiguation; he claims further that in such cases, no special intonation is associated with the O-S-V word order. According to Roberts, present-tense
sentences with O-S-V order instantiate a construction that contains a pronoun coreferential with the object, as shown in 11.35, where the weak pronoun co-refers with the
noun /spay/; this lends support to the view that the object noun phrase is in a preclausal position.
(11.35) sp-ay
pio-
ye
xog-aw-
dog-M.DIR cat-F.DIR 3.WK hurt-do.CONT-PRS.3[SG]F
The dog, the cat is hurting him.
Penzl (1955: 133) provides a present-tense example for Kandahari with O-S-V word
order, which he claims places focus on the object. Note that this example contrasts
with the previous one in that only one direct object expression appears. We leave to
future research whether these somewhat contradictory claims reflect dialect variation,
or register or stylistic variation.
(11.36) t
z
-win-m
2SG.STR.OBL 1SG.STR.DIR AOR-see-1SG
It's you I see!
Because Pashtos denominal verbs place the verbs complement in the direct object position, the undergoer of the expressed action is often given in an adpositional
phrase (highlighted in example 11.37). The agreement suffix on the verb reflects that
/mrasta/ help is the grammatical direct object. In these constructions, the
adpositional phrase containing the undergoer precedes the denominal verb.

(11.37)
413
.
p
afnistn-
bnde d haml-o
pr waxt- ye
on... Afghanistan-M ...on
of attack-PL.F.OBL at time-M 3.WK
d
pkistn-
sr
mrasta-
COMIT... Pakistan-M.OBL ...COMIT help-F.DIR
w-k-l-a
AOR-do.AOR-PST-PST.3SG.F
He helped Pakistan when Afghanistan was under attack.
11.3.1.2 Order of elements in ditransitive main clauses

There is in Pashto no double-object ditransitive construction; indirect objects are always marked with an adposition. Roberts (2000: 13) demonstrates that in sentences
that have a subject, a direct object, and an indirect object marked with the postposition /ta/ to, any order of arguments is possible, as long as the grammatical functions of the arguments are clear from context or case-marking [and] ... the verb appears
finally. Shafeev (1964: 55) claims that the indirect object preferentially precedes the
direct object in the Kandahari dialect.
11.3.1.3 Locative alternation

Takahashi (2008) explores the phenomenon of locative alternation in Pashto. She shows
that three-argument predicates such as load, spray, and smear, which express the
caused movement of material into or onto a location, allow either the undergoer of
the activity or the location affected to appear as a nuclear term; the remaining argument appears in an adpositional phrase. This is in keeping with Pashtos limit of two
distinct noun phrases per clause.
(11.38) Bill lar-y
d...
bus-o
...na
Bill wagon-SG.F[DIR] from... hay-PL.M.OBL ...from
br-aw-i
load-do.CONT-PRES.3[SG.M]
Bill is loading the wagon with hay.
(11.39) Bill bus-
p lar-y
br-aw-i
Bill hay.DIR[PL.M] on wagon-SG.F[DIR] load-do.CONT-PRES.3[SG.M]
Bill is loading hay onto the wagon.
She shows further that whichever argument appears in the direct object function
is the trigger of verb agreement in the past tense, and that either argument may also

414
Syntax
appear as the subject of the construction that Babrakzai (as cited by Takahashi) identifies as passive (see Section 11.3.1.5), with both the actor argument and the other oblique
argument available to appear in their respective adpositional phrases.
(11.40) lar-y
d...
Bill ...laxw
p bus-o
br
wagon-SG.F[DIR] from... Bill from.side on hay-PL.M.OBL loaded
ew-i
d
become.AOR.PST-PTCP.SG.F.DIR be.CONT.PRS.3SG.F
The wagon has been loaded with hay by Bill.
(11.41) bus-
d...
Bill ...laxw
p lar-y
br
hay-DIR[PL.M] from... Bill from.side on wagon-SG.F[DIR] loaded
ew-i
di
become.AOR.PST-PTCP.PL.M.DIR be.CONT.PRS.3PL.M
The hay has been loaded onto the wagon by Bill.
11.3.1.4 Adpositional phrases with oblique pronominal clitics

According to Tegey & Robson (1996: 172), if an adpositional phrase includes an oblique
pronominal clitic as its object, that adpositional phrase will generally precede the verb
immediately, with the pronominal cliticizing to the verb.
11.3.1.5 Passive clauses

Pashto does not have a clearly distinguishable morphological or periphrastic passive.
Descriptions produced well into the 20th century (including Penzl 1955) often confound Pashtos split ergativity with the existence of a passive construction. Grammars
produced later usually do not include this confound; however, they may identify the
construction described here as a passive, a position we do not concur with. Like us,
Tegey (1979) explicitly denies the existence of a distinct passive construction.
The construction identified by some contemporary linguists as a passive comprises
a special case of denominal verbs, a phenomenon discussed at greater length in Section 8.2.5.5.2. The verbal part of the construction consists of a form of the verbalizer
/kedl/ to become and a verbal complement. This complement appears in the
infinitive form, as shown in the examples that follow. This construction does have the
properties characteristic of passives that it alters the canonical termhood of actors and
undergoers. The undergoer of the action is expressed as the grammatical subject of the
9 The form /i/ for the participial endings originates with Takahashi, and is one we have not
otherwise encountered. Similarly, we have not otherwise seen the long // of the be-verb in 11.40.

415
sentence, and that noun is case-marked direct and triggers verb agreement (in both
tenses); or, as with active sentences, the subject may be expressed through the verb
agreement suffix alone, as in example 11.46.
(11.42)
.
h
sa-ay
aw ha
xa-
dw-a
that.DIR man-M.DIR and that.DIR woman-F.DIR both-PL.M.DIR
byad w-wa-l
-i
NEC
AOR-kill-INF become.AOR.PRS-PRS.3[PL.M]
Both that man and that woman must be killed.
(11.43)
.][
[ka] uxtn-e
mo
w-n
man-l
[if] request-PL.F.DIR 1PL.WK AOR-NEG accept-INF
-i
muzhr-o
ta b
become.AOR.PRS-PRS.3[PL.F] protest-PL.F.OBL to WOULD
dawm-
wrk-u
continuation-M.DIR give.AOR-1PL
If our requests are not accepted, we will continue our protests.
(11.44)
.
p kuna- ke d dw-o
wdn-yo
in... Kunar-M ...in of two-PL.F.OBL building-PL.F.OBL
bnsa-
kexud-l o-
foundation-M.DIR place-INF become.AOR.PST-PST.3SG.M
The foundations of two buildings were laid in Kunar.
The actor, if expressed, will most likely appear in an adpositional phrase governed
by the circumposition
/d...l xw/ or
/d...l lure/(as seen
in examples 11.45 and 11.46 and in Section 9.5.1.3). However, Tegey (1979) asserts that
there is no dedicated means of marking an agent within this construction, and James
Caron has remarked (p.c.), any [adposition] that gets the semantic job [of marking the
agent] done is a suitable candidate.
...
...

416
(11.45)
Syntax
.
wnde w-e
tarha-
d walas
before become.AOR.PST-PTCP.F.DIR draft-F.DIR of people
mr-
Karz-i
l
lur-e
man-l
elder-M.OBL Karzai-M.OBL from side-F.OBL accept-INF
w-e
become.AOR.PST-PTCP.F.DIR
The presented drafts have been accepted by President Karzai.
(11.46)

.
o
wra-e
wnde d muhasil-ino
aw
some day-F.OBL before of student-PL.M.OBL and
wn-no
newal-e
uln-e
l
young-PL.M.ANIM.OBL international-F.OBL society-F.OBL from
xw-
yaw-
kanfrns-
t bal-l
side-F.OBL one-M.OBL conference-M.OBL to invite-INF
w-ay
wm
become.AOR.PST-PTCP.M.DIR be.CONT.PST.1SG
A few days ago, I was invited to a conference by the International Society of
Students and Young People.
An embedded instance of this construction may modify a noun; like most noun
modifiers, it precedes the head:

(11.47)
417

.
d ktar-
zkir-
nayak-
l
lur-e
of doctor-M.OBL Zakir-M.OBL Nayak-M.OBL from side-F.OBL
lik-l
w-i
sar-o
p
write-INF become.AOR.PST-PTCP.PL.M.DIR writing-PL.M.OBL in...
wn- khol-
ke xor minawl-
young-M generation-M ...in many admirer-PL.M.DIR
-mund-l-i
CONT-find.PST-PST-PTCP.PL.M.DIR
The works that were written by Dr. Zakir Naik have become popular with
young people.
11.3.2
Interrogatives
Pashto uses the same word order for questions as for statements, with interrogative
elements, if any, in the place where they would be expected if they were not interrogatives. Questions in Pashto can be differentiated from statements through the presence
of the particle associated with yes-or-no and affirmation questions, or of the interrogative pronouns used for information questions, or, in speech, through intonation.
11.3.2.1 Yes-or-no questions with the particle

/y/
Pashto uses the interrogative particle
/y/ to introduce yes-or-no questions. It is
thought to be more characteristic of Western dialects than others.
(11.48)

y t
o-y
-xwa-l-e
Q
2SG.STR.OBL food-F.DIR CONT-eat.PST-PST-PTCP.F.DIR
da
be.CONT.PRS.3SG.F
Have you eaten yet? (SW)

418
Syntax
In addition, the existence or presence of something may be queried by means of

the existential particle
/ta/; 11.49 is an example.
(11.49)
zalm-ay
ta
Zalmay-M.DIR EXT
Is Zalmay there?
11.3.2.2 Information questions with interrogative pronouns

As discussed in Section 7.6, the human interrogative pronoun is
/ok/ (direct)
or
// who? (oblique), and Table 11.3, reproduced here from Section 10.2.6, lists
other interrogative terms.
Pashto
Translation
wali
why?
kla
when?
waxt, s waxt
when (what time)?
eri, ere
where?
erta
where?
anga, sanga
how?
ranga, sranga
how (what manner)?
Table 11.3: GP additional interrogative adverbs
Example 11.50 shows that interrogative elements appear in the position characteristic of their grammatical function; here, the identity of the undergoer of the action is
being asked about, and the interrogative element appears in direct object position.
(11.50)

zalm-i
ok
w-wh-
Zalmay-M.OBL who.DIR AOR-hit-PST.3SG.M
Whom did Zalmay hit?

419
Example 11.51 shows that verb agreement sanctions the omission of the subject
noun for questions just as it does for statements.
(11.51)

ok
-win-
who.DIR CONT-see.PRS-2SG
Whom do you see? (SW)
Section 7.7 explains the use of the number name

/yaw/ one to differentiate
between indefinite statements and information questions, given that there may be no
word order difference between them.
11.3.2.3 Affirmation questions with the particle

/k na/
Affirmation questions are formed through use of the particle
/k na/. This is
exemplified in Section 10.1.3, which shows that both the question and its answer may
be marked with the same particle, and both show normal Pashto word order.
11.3.3
Imperatives
11.3.3.1 The imperative verb form

Pashto utilizes an imperative verb form. This is described in Section 8.5.2.5 and Table
8.48, with associated word forms summarized in Section 8.3.5 and Section 8.3.6. The
addressee subject is generally omitted from the sentence, although a name may be
used, case-marked vocative, as in 11.52:
(11.52)
!
zalm-aya
w-dar-eg-a
Zalmay-M.VOC AOR-stop-PRS-IMP.SG
Zalmay, stop! (NW)
(11.53)
!
ta
biy ha
zulm-una
tikrr-aw-l-
2SG.STR.DIR then this.DIR abuse-PL.M.DIR repeated-do-INF-PL.M.DIR
-wr-e
r-
-y
CONT-want.PRS-2SG healthy-M.DIR become.AOR.PRS-IMP.PL
You want to repeat those horrors? Get a clue!
Use of the imperative verb form is not the only way to express a command. Suggestions or polite commands may be conveyed with the use of the second person present
aorist form of the verb; see Section 8.5.2.2 for more explanation and examples.

420
Syntax
11.3.3.2 The negative imperative particle

/m/
Normally /m/ precedes a verb in the imperative form to create a negative command.
See also example 11.54, in which the particle
/m/ instead appears sentence finally.
In example 11.55, the negative imperative appears inside a direct quotation.
(11.54)
!
d ahmad-
p
n-
ke-a
of Ahmad-M.OBL INSTR manner-M become.CONT.PRS-IMP.SG
m
NEG.IMP
Don't be like Ahmad! (SW)
(11.55)
.
asad-
p
xand-
xand-
r-ta
Asad-M.DIR INSTR laugh-F.OBL laugh-F.OBL 1-to
w-way-l-
sinim-
ta m
AOR-tell.PST-PST-3PL.M COMP cinema-F.OBL to NEG
-a
go.CONT.PRS-IMP.SG
Asad laughed and said to me, 'Don't go to the movies.'
Notice that example 11.56 exhibits negative concord.

(11.56)
!
hi
kala eybat-
m
kaw-
never when backbiting-M.DIR NEG.IMP do.CONT-IMP.SG
Never backbite!
(11.57)
!
d xpl-
wror-
p bb-
alat-
of own-M.OBL brother-M.OBL on subject-M wrong-PL.M.DIR
fikr-una
m
kaw-y
thought-PL.M.DIR NEG.IMP do.CONT-IMP.PL
Don't think badly about your brother!

11.3.4
Generic and existential sentences with
/ta/
Generic and existential sentences are formed using the clause-final particle
as outlined in Section 10.1.1.
(11.58)
421
/ta/,

.
ka
p duny- ke umra
b-e
e
because in... world-M ...in so.many language-PL.F.DIR COMP
di
xo p duy
ke dse yaw-a
ham n
be.CONT.PRS.3PL.F but in... 3PL.STR. ...in such one-F.DIR also NEG
ta e
be
mn-
wi
EXT COMP without meaning-F.OBL be.AOR.PRS.3SG.F
While there are many languages in the world, there is not one that is without
meaning.
(11.59)
.
m
exa dre
x
kitb-una
ta
1SG.STR.OBL from three good book-PL.M.DIR EXT
I have three good books. (NE)
11.3.5
Other principles of word order in main clauses
11.3.5.1 Weak pronouns

Because weak pronouns must appear in second position in the clause, the order of
two pronouns may violate the basic S - O - V ordering in main clauses. In sentences
11.60 and 11.61, the weak pronoun is in second position irrespective of its role in the
sentence; verb agreement allows for unambiguous interpretations.
(11.60)
.
z
de
-wah-m
1SG.STR.DIR 2.WK CONT-beat-1SG
I am hitting you.

422
(11.61)
Syntax
.
z
de
-wah-l-m
1SG.STR.DIR 2.WK CONT-beat-PST-1SG
You were hitting me.
Similarly, in example 11.62, the verb must precede the pronoun, in contrast with
11.63, where the strong pronoun can occur before the verb, because it is not prohibited
from appearing in clause-initial position. Compare the unacceptable 11.64.
(11.62)
.
-win-m
di
CONT-see.PRS-1SG 2.WK
I see you. (SW)
(11.63)
.
t
-win-m
2SG.STR.OBL CONT-see.PRS-1SG
I see you. (SW)
(11.64)
.*
di
-win-m
2.WK CONT-see.PRS-1SG
I see you. (SW)
When a weak pronoun is the subject of a past tense transitive verb (see Section
7.3.2), it may follow a direct object, as in example 11.65; an adpositional phrase, as in
example 11.66; an adverb, as in example 11.67; or the complement of a denominal verb,
as in example 11.68.
(11.65)
.
aw xr-
ye
prxud-
and city-M.DIR 3.WK AOR\leave.PST-PST.3SG.M
And they abandoned the city.
(11.66)
.
p isryel-o
ye
ag-
k-ay
on Israeli-PL.M.OBL 3.WK voice-M.DIR do.AOR-PTCP.M.DIR
They have called upon the Israelis.

(11.67)
423
.
pxw me
d jihd-
niyat-
before 1SG.WK of Jihad-M.OBL intention-M.DIR
darld-
Previously, I intended [to undertake] a Jihad.
(11.68)
...
aw ziyt-a
ye
k-a
e
and more-F.DIR 3.WK do.AOR-PST.3SG.F COMP
And he added that...

Example 11.69 shows that the weak pronoun may be the next element after an entire noun phrase, and may therefore not be the second word. It contrasts with sentence
11.70, which shows that the sentence-initial position for pronouns may acceptably be
filled with a strong pronoun.
(11.69)
.
er-
tt-
me
w-xu-l
(11.70)
.
m
ob-
w-k-l-e
1SG.STR.OBL water-PL.F.DIR AOR-drink-PST-PST.3PL.F
I drank water. (NW)

Given that a weak pronoun cannot appear sentence-initially, it may instead appear in post-clausal position. This is shown in example 11.71, to be contrasted with the
unmarked order of 11.72.
(11.71)

wli ma-aw-
me
why kiss-do.CONT-PRS.3[SG.M] 1SG.WK

424
(11.72)
Syntax

wli me
ma-aw-
11.3.5.2 Particles
Section 11.2.3.2 provides a comprehensive discussion of the order of particles with respect to verbs. See also Table 11.1 and Table 11.2 for summaries of the order of negative
particles with respect to other segments of the verb. Other discussions of particle order
are found throughout Chapter 8.
11.3.5.3 Adpositional phrases in main clauses

Adpositional phrases may be governed by verbs, nouns, and deverbal nouns. In general, adpositional phrase modifiers precede the element they modify, as shown above
in the contrast between example 11.3, and 11.73.
(11.73)
.
txtaw-l
w-i
krgar-n
kidnap-INF become.AOR.PST-PTCP.PL.M.DIR worker-PL.M.ANIM.DIR
p far-
ke
xe
w-l
in... Farah-M ...in released become.AOR.PST-PST.3PL.M
The kidnapped workers were released in Farah.
11.3.5.4 Interpretation of adpositional phrases headed by /d/

As shown in Section 9.3.1.1, noun modifiers governed by /d/ of are extremely common and may be nested within one another. Another feature of these phrases is that
any such phrase may appear in pre-clausal position. Example 11.57 shows this, and
shows also that this may result in the effect of a complex circumpositional phrase. Example 11.145 shows that a phrase governed by /d/ may appear extracted from its
governing phrasein this case, the phrase governed by the circumposition. The appearance of such a phrase in this pre-clausal position does not necessarily put that
phrase in focus.
14 Roberts (2000: 121ff.) discusses the separation of possessive clitics from their possessee
phrases in terms of an apparent possessor raising construction. That concept could account for this
phenomenon, too, aside from the fact that /d/ of encodes a much wider range of relations than
possession.

Some subordinate clause types
11.4
425
The complementizer
//also /e/ in Eastern and /i/ in Western dialects
can introduce numerous types of subordinate clauses, including relative clauses, reported speech, verb-governed subordinate clauses, and adverbial clauses. All tensed
subordinate clauses except verb complements require the complementizer (Pate, 2012).
11.4.1
Relative clauses
According to Babrakzai (1999), as cited by Pate (2012: 79ff), non-restrictive relative

clauses are signaled prosodically by pauses, orthographically by commas (though this
does not always differentiate them from restrictive relative clauses), and syntactically
by allowing a second position clitic to intervene between the head noun and the relative clause:
(11.74) ahmad b,
os
p... jarmani ...ki
Ahmad WOULD COMP now in... Germany ...in
os-i-i,
reside-PRS-3[SG.M]
sab
zm
kor-
ta rs-i
tomorrow 1SG.STR.OBL house-M.OBL to come.AOR.PRS-3[SG.M]
Ahmad, who now lives in Germany, will come to my house tomorrow.
The rest of this section concerns restrictive relative clauses. Relative clauses in
Pashto all employ the complementizer
//, sometimes combined with another
item (which may be classifiable as a resumptive element). The analysis of relative clauses
in Tegey & Robson (1996: 206208) implies that the head noun must be definite; we
believe rather that the condition is for specificity, not definiteness (sentence 11.78 has
a specific indefinite item in the determiner position); the general condition accords
with Pates claim (Pate, 2012) that all finite subordinate clauses are determiner (i.e.
complementizer) phrases with noun-phrase complements.
(11.75)
.
ha
b-
ta -m
that.OBL garden-M.OBL to go.CONT.PRS-1SG COMP

tut-
-lar-
mulberry-PL.M.DIR CONT-have.PRS-PRS.3[SG.M]
I am going to the garden that has the mulberries.

426
(11.76)
Syntax

ha
kor-
darwza- ye
n-a
that.DIR house-M.DIR COMP door-F.DIR 3.WK blue-F.DIR
da
be.CONT.PRS.3SG.F
the house the door of which is blue

Relative clauses that modify subjects generally follow their subjects immediately;
however, relative clauses that modify objects appear in the post-clausal position (Tegey
& Robson, 1996: 208), as shown in 11.75 and 11.77; contrast these with 11.79, where the
relative clause immediately follows its head.
(11.77)
...
.
be
pilo-a
alotek-o
... 252 trhagr-
without pilot-M.ABL airplane-PL.M.DIR ... 252 terrorist-PL.M.DIR
ye
w-wa-l
e
d hawi
l
jaml-e
3.WK AOR-kill-PST.3PL.M COMP of 3PL.STR.OBL from... total-F.OBL
ex
12 kas-n
p al-qeda-
pori
...from 12 person-PL.M.ANIM.DIR on Al-Qaida-M.OBL complete
-t-l-i
w
CONT-tie-PST-PTCP.PL.M.DIR be.CONT.PST.3PL.M
Drones killed 252 terrorists, of whom twelve were definitively tied to Al-Qaida.
Notice too that in sentence 11.77, the full noun phrase identifying the actor is apparently in pre-clausal position, with a resumptive weak pronoun appearing before
the verb (see also Roberts 2000: 176177 for a fuller description of the conditions on
the appearance of resumptive pronouns).
(11.78)
.
ok
x
kr-una
kaw-
who.DIR COMP good work-PL.M.DIR do.CONT-PRS.3[SG.M]
ha
p min-
hm
3SG.M.STR.DIR in death-F.DIR also
yd--i
remembered-become.CONT.PRS-PRS.3[SG.M]
He who does good deeds is remembered even after his death. (SW)

427
(11.79)
xul-
ha
a-
zarang-
sara
Xushal-M.OBL that.DIR woman-F.DIR COMP Zarang-M.OBL COMIT
-ag-g-i
n
w-lid-a
CONT-speak-PRS-PRS.3[SG.F] NEG AOR-see-PST.PST.3SG.F
Xushal didn't see the woman who was talking with Zarang. (SW)
(11.80)
.
ha
hlk-
bzr-
ta
that.DIR boy-M.DIR COMP market-M.OBL to
tl-l-y
w
d gabina-
go.CONT.PST-PST-PTCP.M.DIR be.CONT.PST.3SG.M of Gabina-F.OBL
wrr-
dy
nephew-M.DIR be.CONT.PRS.3SG.M
The boy who went to the market is Gabina's nephew. (SW)

Among others studying relativization, Pate (2012) shows that any argument type
subjects, direct objects, and adpositional objects, regardless of nominative-accusative
or ergative-absolutive alignmentmay relativize (under conditions discussed below).
His analysis shows also that relative clauses employ resumptive pronouns whose distribution reflects split ergativity: in present-tense relative clauses relativizing on nominative arguments, no overt resumptive pronoun appears, while accusative arguments
require an overt pronoun (see also Babrakzai 1999 and Roberts 2000: 152ff). In pasttense relative clauses, direct objects and intransitive subjects do not have a corresponding overt resumptive pronoun, while transitive subjects do (as in 11.81). This follows
from the occurrence restrictions described in Section 7.3.2.1; see Table 7.9.
(11.81)
.
dwa belbel-o
wdn-o
16 kas-n
two separate-PL.F.OBL explosion-PL.F.OBL 16 person-PL.M.ANIM.DIR
w-wa-l
e
er
ye
mulk-in
AOR-kill-PST.3PL.M COMP many 3.WK civilian-PL.M.ANIM.DIR
wl
be.CONT.PST.3PL.M
Two separate explosions killed 16 people, many of whom were civilians.

428
Syntax
Pate (2012) reanalyzes the assertion in Tegey (1979) that ergative subjects cannot
head relative clauses. Fully nominal, ergative arguments cannot co-occur with restrictive relative clause modifiers; instead, the subject function is filled with a pronoun (or
by agreement), and the coreferential nominal, case-marked direct and with its relative
clause modifier, appears in pre-clausal position, as evidenced by the second-position
clitic /b/ (example is from Pate 2012: 80); contrast this with sentence 11.74 above:
(11.82) ha sei
lungota ye
pr sar-
kr-e
that man.DIR COMP turban 3.WK on head-M.DIR do.PTCP-SG.F
d
sab
b
rs-i
be.3SG.F tomorrow WOULD come.PRS.-PRS.3[SG.M]
That man who is wearing a turban will come tomorrow.
When the subordinate clause relativizes on a location expression,

// is often
preceded by the interrogative adverb
/rta/ where or followed by the locative
adverbial
/hlta/ there (see sentence 11.83).
(11.83)
.
p har-o
lum-ayo
kl-o
ke e
in... every-PL.M.OBL first-PL.M.OBL year-PL.M.OBL ...in COMP
istixdm-
kg-i
byad p kbul-
hired-PL.M.DIR become.CONT.PRS-PRS.3PL.M NEC
in... Kabul-M.OBL
ke yaw-
maax-
aw masun-
ay-
...in one-M.DIR private-M.DIR and safe-M.DIR place-M.DIR
w-lar-u
e
hlta p lum-ayo
do-
AOR-have.PRS-1PL COMP there in... first-PL.M.OBL two-PL.M.OBL
miyt-o
ke xpl-e
mil-i
b-e
month-PL.M.OBL ...in own-PL.F.DIR comrade-ADJZ language-PL.F.DIR
zd-
k-
learned-PL.F.DIR do.AOR-PRS.3PL.M
In the first years in which they are hired, we must have a private and safe
place in Kabul where they will study their national languages for the first two
months.
11.4.2
Noun complement clauses
Nouns that denote states or events (such as

/tajraba/ experience in 11.84) can
govern a subordinate clause expressing the content of that state or event. As is the case

429
for the heads of relative clauses, heads of complement clauses must have a determiner.
Here the complement clause appears in post-clausal position.
(11.84)
... ... ...

.
d asiy-
tymz-
d de
matlab-
likwl-
of Asia-F.OBL Times-M.OBL of this.OBL study-M.OBL author-M.DIR
... d
tajraba-
-lar-l-e
... this.DIR experience-F.DIR CONT-have-PST-PTCP.F.DIR
da
e
... nrina ... biy d x-o
be.CONT.PRS.3SG.F COMP ... men
... then of woman-PL.F.OBL
aw njun-o
pr zid-
d jagr-e
yaw-a
jabhha-
and girl-PL.F.OBL on opposite-M of war-F.OBL one-F.DIR front-F.DIR
prnist-l-e
da
CONT\open.PST-PST-PTCP.F.DIR be.CONT.PRS.3SG.F
The author of the Asia Times study has had the experience that men have
started another war against women and children.
Complements of nouns may also take the form of infinitive verbal nouns governed
by adpositions; see sentence 11.85.
(11.85)

.
afnistn-
ta d dir
zr-a
izfi
Afghanistan-M.OBL to of thirty thousand-PL.M.DIR additional
sartir-i
d leg-l-o
l
pr-a
soldiers-M.OBL of send-INF-PL.M.OBL from sake-M.ABL
preka-
ye
d jamhuri riysat-
p dawra-
ke
decision-F.DIR 3.WK of national office-M.OBL in... term-F.DIR ...in
tr
ul-o
saxt-a
preka-
wa
up.to all-PL.M.OBL difficult-F.DIR decision-F.DIR be.CONT.PST.3SG.F
The decision to send an additional thirty thousand soldiers to Afghanistan
was the hardest decision of his presidential term.
11.4.3
Verb complement clauses
Verb complement clauses, sometimes called subordinate noun clauses, are also introduced with the complementizer
// that. When a subordinate clause is an ar-

430
Syntax
gument of the predicate, it is likely to appear in post-clausal position. In this case the
demonstrative pronoun /d/ may appear in the usual position of the subject (Tegey
& Robson, 1996: 199200), as shown in sentences 11.86 and 11.87.
(11.86)
.
xatarnk-
wu
yawzi w-gr-ed-e
danger-M.DIR be.CONT.PST.3SG.M COMP alone AOR-walk-PST-2SG
It was dangerous that you were walking alone. (SW)
(11.87)
.
d
xatarnk-
wu
yawzi
this.DIR danger-M.DIR be.CONT.PST.3SG.M COMP alone
w-gr-ed-e
AOR-walk-PST-2SG
It was dangerous that you were walking alone. (SW)
It is more common to find verb-governed a subordinate clause as the internal argument:

(11.88)
.
tso
puh--y
sr-
2PL.STR.DIR learned-become.CONT.PRS-2PL COMP gold-PL.M.DIR
zar-
x
grn-
ay-
precious.metal-PL.M.DIR very expensive-M.DIR thing-M.DIR
di
be.CONT.PRS.3PL.M
You know that gold is a very expensive thing. (SW)
When the main clause verb is in the past tense, split ergativity dictates that the
agreement be with the subordinate clause, which by convention is marked third person
plural masculine (this default agreement registration also holds of infinitive verbal
noun arguments; see sentence 11.85). Example 11.89 shows a past tense transitive verb,
/wayl/ to tell, in the past continuous aspect, and with the agreement suffix for
the subordinate clause.

(11.89)
431
.
wrusta b
me
mor-
-way-l
later
WOULD 1SG.WK mother-F.OBL CONT-tell.PST-PST.3PL.M
e
wrusta oro oro d mn-y
fz-
COMP later
slow slow of house-F.OBL atmosphere-F.DIR
mjan-a w-a
sad-F.DIR become.AOR.PST-PST.3SG.F
Afterwards my mother would say that the house's atmosphere slowly grew
sorrowful.
When appearing with control verbs such as
/w/ to want and
/koi kaw/ to try, the embedded verb will be in the present aorist as in 11.90 (see
Section 8.3.2). An example showing the main subject controlling the embedded subject
is found in 11.91.
(11.90)

.
loy-y
ranwl-y p intixbt-o
ke d
large-F.OBL lawyer-F.OBL in... elections-PL.M.OBL ...in of
w-io
prx-o
dral-io
l
become.AOR.PST-PTCP.PL.F.OBL vast-PL.F.OBL fraud-PL.F.OBL from
amal-a
l
str-e
mahkam-e
reason-M.ABL from high-F.OBL court-F.OBL
-uxt-
e
natyij-
ye
CONT-want.PST-PTCP.PL.M.DIR COMP results-PL.M.DIR 3.WK
bt-l
eln
k-i
invalidate-INF announcement do.AOR-PRS.3[SG.F]
The Attorney General wanted the Supreme Court to declare the election
results invalid due to widespread fraud.

432 Syntax
(11.91)

.
d afnistn-
d pohn-e
wizrat-
of Afghanistan-M.OBL of education-F.OBL ministry-M.DIR
-wy-
e
-w-
d
CONT-tell.PRS-PRS.3[SG.M] COMP CONT-want.PRS-PRS.3[SG.M] of
yunsko p
mrasta- d hewd-
p xr-uno
UNESCO INSTR help-F.DIR of country-M.OBL in... city-PL.M.OBL
aw kal-io
ke d zdakawunk-o
l
and village-PL.M.OBL ...in of student-PL.M.OBL from
pr-a
sake-M.ABL
yaw-
n
rozniz-a
zamina-
one-M.DIR similar educational-F.DIR opportunity-F.DIR
barbr-a
prepared-F.DIR
k-i
do.AOR-PRS.3[SG.M]
Afghanistan's Ministry of Education says that it wants to provide similar
educational opportunities to students in both cities and villages with the help
of UNESCO.
// may also introduce a subordinate clause serving as the second element
in a copular construction.
(11.92)
.
omed-
day
sola-
b
hope-M.DIR be.CONT.PRS.3SG.M COMP peace-F.DIR WOULD
r-i
come.AOR.PRS-PRS.3[SG.F]
The hope is that peace will come.
11.4.3.1 Reported speech

Verbs of speaking may govern clausal complements. Pashto accepts both direct and indirect forms of reported speech (although Penzl 1955: 141 claims that only direct speech
is found in Kandahari). The complementizer
// is optional for introducing direct
speech, as sentence 11.93 demonstrates, but it is obligatory for indirect speech, as in
sentences 11.94 and 11.95. Note the use of the present-tense form of the verb in the subordinate clause in 11.95 rather than a relative-tense expression. In example 11.55, the
verb form is present-tense and imperative, as we would expect of quoted speech.

(11.93)
433
.
yaw sa-i
w-way-l
z
tr
one man-M.OBL AOR-tell.PST-PST.3PL.M 1SG.STR.DIR up.to...
os-a
pure
n
ym
xat
now-M.ABL ...up.to who.OBL NEG be.CONT.PRS.1SG mistake
k-ay
do.AOR-PTCP.M.DIR
A man said, 'No one has tricked me yet'.
(11.94)

.
d
w-way-l
e
d afnistn-
3SG.M.STR.OBL AOR-tell.PST-PST.3PL.M COMP of Afghanistan-M.OBL
l
walas mr-
sr
yawzy hatsa-
COMIT... people elder-M.OBL ...COMIT together effort-F.DIR
kaw-
e
d sol-e
aw
do.CONT-PRS.3[SG.M] COMP of peace-F.OBL and
paxlyn-e
prosa-
baryl-e
reconciliation-F.OBL process-F.DIR successful-F.DIR
-i
He said that he and the president of Afghanistan are working together to
make the peace and reconciliation process a success.
(11.95)
.
pxw xalq-u
b
d
-way-l
before people-PL.M.OBL WOULD this.DIR CONT-tell.PST-PST.3PL.M
zmka-
da wy-i
p xkr- wal-a
COMP earth-F.DIR of ox-M.OBL on horn-M standing-F.DIR
da
be.CONT.PRS.3SG.F
Formerly people would say that the earth rested on the horn of an ox. (E)

434
11.4.4
Syntax
Subordinate clauses as modifiers
11.4.4.1 Subordinate clauses with time reference

Clausal modifiers take the usual form of complementizer
// and tensed clause.
In some cases, the subordinate clause is the object of an adposition such as
/wrusta l...(na) / after (as in 11.96).
)( ...
(11.96) .
wrusta l
de
o-y
mo
after
from this.OBL COMP food-F.DIR 1PL.WK
w-xo-a
sinim-
ta b
l-
AOR-eat.PST-PST.3SG.F cinema-F.OBL to WOULD gone-PL.M.DIR
-u
become.AOR.PRS-1PL
We will go to the movies after we eat dinner. (SW)
/kla / when
(11.97)
kla
iwa-
d toryl-
p xor-
when COMP Diwa-F.DIR of Toryal-M.OBL on sister-F.OBL
xbr-a
sw-a
samdasti
d
informed-F.DIR become.AOR.PST-PST.3SG.F immediately of
duy
kor-
ta l-
3PL.STR.DIR house-M.OBL to go.AOR.PST-PST.3SG.F
When Diwa heard about Toryal's sister she immediately went to their house.
(SW)
This relationship may sometimes be expressed with the complementizer alone:

(11.98)
jahz-
rq-
su-
no
COMP ship-M.DIR sinking-M.DIR become.AOR.PST-PST.3SG.M then
xalaq-
wur sara
rq-
people-PL.M.DIR 3
COMIT sinking.PL.M.DIR
w-l
When the ship sank, people were drowned along with it. (NE)

435
/nga / as soon as
(11.99)
nga
day
r-i
how
COMP 3SG.M.STR.DIR come.AOR.PRS-PRS.3[SG.M]
za
b
l-
-m
1SG.STR.DIR WOULD gone-M.DIR become.AOR.PRS-1SG
I will leave as soon as he comes. (SW)
/haa waxt / when

(11.100)
ha
waxt-
wuls mr-
obm-
this.DIR time-M.DIR COMP people leader-M.OBL Obama-M.OBL
xabr-e
kaw-l-y
ol-o
waz-
word-PL.M.DIR do.CONT-PST-PST.3PL.F all-PL.M.OBL ear-M.DIR
-niw-l-ay
wu
CONT-seize.PST-PST-PTCP.M.DIR be.CONT.PST.3SG.M
When President Obama was speaking everyone was listening. (SW)
11.4.4.2 Conditional and counterfactual clauses with

/k/ if
Conditional clauses in Pashto are marked by the particle
/k/ if. The conditional
clause generally precedes the main clause, which may begin with the particle /no/
then (Tegey & Robson, 1996: 216). This construction requires that the verb in the antecedent clause appear in the present or past aorist; see Section 8.3.2 and Section 8.3.4
for the appropriate verb forms.
/k/ may also appear as an element of a correlative conjunction (see Section
11.6.2).
(11.101)
k r-e
za
b
album-
dr-kr
if come.AOR.PRS-2SG 1SG.STR.DIR WOULD album-M.DIR 2DVC-clear
k-m
do.AOR-1SG
If you come I will show you the album. (SW)
/k/ may also combine with other particles to introduce conditional clauses.

436
Syntax
/k eri/ if
(11.102)
ke eri
asad-
w-n
ga-e-i
no
if where Asad-M.DIR AOR-NEG dance-PRS-PRS.3[SG.M] then
za
b
ye
w-gaaw-m
1SG.STR.DIR WOULD 3.WK AOR-cause.dance-1SG
If Asad does not dance, I will make him dance. (SW)
A counterfactual interpretation of an antecedent clause in construction with a
main clause is possible when both the main and the antecedent clause have optative
verb forms and the main clause additionally contains the irrealis /ba/.
As shown in sentence 11.103, a counterfactual interpretation of the conditional
clause relies on the verb appearing in the optative form, even when there is no main
clause:
(11.103)
k mung
imam-
fi-
unde
if 1PL.STR.OBL imam-M.OBL Shafi-M.OBL like
mr-n
darld-ay
leader-PL.M.DIR.ANIM have.AOR.PST-OPT
If only we had leaders like Imam Shafi!
11.4.4.3 Subordinate clauses with

/ka/ because
/ka/ because, therefore may mark either the cause clause or the result clause.
Note the following variants of word order of
/ka/, its correlative /no/, and their
respective complements.
(11.104)
ka
ha
mel-e
ta
because COMP 3SG.STR.DIR picnic-F.OBL to
-
no
za
ham -m
go.CONT.PRS-PRS.3[SG.F] then 1SG.STR.DIR also go.CONT.PRS-1SG
Since she is going to the picnic, then I am going too. (SW)

(11.105)
437
za
nro-
ym
ka
no
dktr-
1SG.STR.DIR sick-M.DIR be.CONT.PRS.1SG because then doctor-M.OBL
ta -m
to go.CONT.PRS-1SG
I am sick so I am going to the doctor. (SW)
(11.106)
yaw-
watl-i
stor-i
arux-
xn-
one-M.OBL famous-M.OBL star-M.OBL Sharukh-M.OBL khan-M.OBL
-way-l-i
di
ye
ka
CONT-tell.PST-PST-PTCP.PL.M.DIR be.CONT.PRS.3PL.M 3.WK because
p amrik- ke -niw-l-ay
e
muslmn
in... America-F ...in CONT-seize.PST-PST-PTCP.M.DIR COMP muslim
day
be.CONT.PRS.3SG.M
A famous celebrity, Sharukh Khan, has said that they arrested him in America
because he was Muslim.
It may be rarely that punctuation is used to delimit a subordinate clause in Pashto.
Example 11.107 shows three instances of
/e/ , bearing three different relation-
ships to the sentence as a whole. The first introduces a relative clause that modifies
its head noun; the second introduces the sentential complement of
/wy-/ say;
the third introduces the complement of the quantifier
/sumra/ so much.

438
Syntax
(11.107)
da
mahram-
asnd-
e
p kbul-
this.DIR secret-PL.M.DIR documents-PL.M.DIR COMP in... Kabul-M
ke d amrik-
safrat-
barbr-
...in of America-F.OBL embassy-M.OBL prepared-PL.M.DIR
k-i
di
-wy-
do.AOR-PTCP.PL.M.DIR be.CONT.PRS.3PL.M CONT-tell.PRS-PRS.3[PL.M]
e
d afnistn-
p hakumat-
ke rawat
COMP of Afghanistan-M.OBL in... government-M ...in bribe
xor-i
dumra
ziyt-a
da
e
ra
eating-F.DIR so.much more-F.DIR be.CONT.PRS.3SG.F COMP affair
sz-i
ye
er-a
grn-a
wellness-F.DIR 3.WK very-F.DIR difficult-F.DIR
malum-g-i
known-become.CONT.PRS-PRS.3[SG.F]
The secret documents that were prepared at the American Embassy in Kabul
say that the bribery within Afghanistan's government is so extensive that
resolving it has turned out to be very difficult.
11.4.4.4 Subordinate clauses expressing result

The particle /no/ , most often used in conditional sentences, may also be used alone
to introduce a result clause; see sentence 11.108 for an example.
(11.108)
kla
mum-no
xpl-
plr-
when COMP child-PL.M.ANIM.OBL own-M.DIR father-M.DIR
w-lid-
no
dafatan p
xand-
AOR-see.PST-PST.3SG.M then suddenly INSTR laugh-F.DIR
w-l
The children suddenly started laughing when they saw their father.
// may introduce clauses that show the direct result of an action or a state of
being. Often, but not always, the main clause in such constructions uses the complement-

439
taking quantifier
/dumra/ so much (although Penzl (1955: 80.5) claims that this
form is not colloquial among Kandahar speakers); see also example 11.107.
(11.109)
m
dumra
o-y
-xwa-l-e
1SG.STR.OBL so.much food-F.DIR CONT-eat.PST-PST-PTCP.F.DIR
d
i
-wl-ed-l-ay
n
be.CONT.PRS.3SG.F COMP CONT-stand-PST-PST-OPT NEG
-m
become.AOR.PRS-1SG
I have eaten so much that I cannot stand up. (SW)
11.4.4.5
Subordinate clauses expressing reason
/p de / because
(11.110)
p de
l-e
wa
mor-
in this.OBL COMP fog-PL.F.DIR be.CONT.PST.3SG.F car-M.DIR
me
wro w-alaw-u
1SG.WK slow AOR-manage-PST.3SG.M
I had to drive slowly because of the fog. (SW)
/wale / because
(11.111)
za
p
mana-
rl-m
wale
1SG.STR.DIR INSTR running-F.DIR come.AOR.PST-1SG because
wz-ay
wm
COMP hungry-M.DIR be.CONT.PST.1SG
I came running because I was hungry. (SW)
11.4.4.6 Subordinate clauses expressing purpose

Pashto purpose clauses require the use of the complementizer
//; the embedded
verb in the subordinate clause appears in the present aorist form, as shown in 11.112.

440 Syntax
(11.112)
mahmud-
d ahmd-
de
pr-a
Mahmoud-M.DIR of Ahmad-M.OBL from sake-M.ABL
darmaltun-
ta wl-
darmal-
pharmacy-M.OBL to go.AOR.PST-PST.3SG.M COMP medicine-M.DIR
w-xl-i
AOR-buy.PRS-PRS.3[SG.M]
Mahmoud went to the pharmacy to buy medicine for Ahmad. (SW)
11.4.4.7
Subordinate clauses of concession
/sara l d / despite, notwithstanding

(11.113)
ha
sara l
d
gw-l
3SG.STR.DIR with from this.OBL COMP threaten-INF
sw-ay
w
pr xpl-a
become.AOR.PST-PTCP.M.DIR be.CONT.PST.3SG.M on own-F.DIR
taglra-
ingr-
kw-
policy-F.DIR emphasis-M.DIR do.CONT-PST.3SG.M
He persisted in going his own way, despite the warning. (SW)
/agar / although
(11.114)
agar
za
t-ay
ym
xo
although COMP 1SG.STR.DIR thirsty-M.DIR be.CONT.PRS.1SG but
ob-
n
-m
--l-y
water-PL.F.DIR NEG become.AOR.PRS-1SG CONT-drink-PST-OPT
Although I am thirsty, I cannot drink. (SW)
11.5
Periphrastic causatives
As noted in Section 8.2.7, morphological production of causative predicates is no longer

productive in Pashto; we present here commonly-encountered forms of periphrastic

Periphrastic causatives
441
causatives. One such construction encountered in Pashto uses the instrumental circumposition
/p...bnde/, or its simple adpositional variants, with no additional verb of causation: see Section 9.7.3.
A different construction involves the light verb constructions
/majborawl/ force and
/a istl/ compel (see Section 8.2.4.4 and Section 11.2.3.1),
along with a complement denoting the caused event. The sentences 11.115 and 11.116
show the construction with
/majborawl/ force. The caused event may be
expressed either with an infinitive object of the postposition /ta/ to (11.115) or with
a present aorist clause introduced by
// that (11.116here found in post-clausal
position). The actor of the caused event must have animate reference: it is odd to use
this construction with a true instrument, as shown in the unacceptable 11.117.
...
(11.115)
z
sar-i
d s-
ta-l-o
ta
1SG.STR.DIR man-M.OBL of horse-M.DIR tie-INF-PL.M.OBL to
majbr-
k-l-m
forced-M.DIR do.AOR-PST-1SG
The man made me tie up the horse. (SW)
(11.116)
z
sar-i
majbr-
k-l-m
e
1SG.STR.DIR man-M.OBL forced-M.DIR do.AOR-PST-1SG COMP
s-
w-ta-m
horse-M.DIR AOR-tie-1SG
The man made me tie up the horse. (SW)
(11.117)
.*
sar-i
ras-y
d s-
ta-l-o
ta
man-M.OBL rope-F.DIR of horse-M.DIR tie-.INF-PL.M.OBL to
majbr-a
k-l-a
forced-F.DIR do.AOR-PST-PST.3SG.F
The man made the rope tie up the horse. (SW)
The lexical causative

/a istl/ compel shows the same two forms of embedded predication as seen in 11.115 and 11.116: 11.118 with the infinitive (in this example, the infinitive affix has been omitted), and 11.119 with the present aorist subordinate clause.

442
Syntax
(11.118)
ha
ye
pa-a
xola-
kxenst-
ta a
3SG.STR.DIR 3.WK hidden-F.DIR mouth-F.DIR sit-PL.M.OBL to forced
-ist-
CONT-remove.PST-PST.3SG.M
They made him sit quietly.
(11.119)
d de
xalk-o
xabar-o
de
ta a
of this.OBL person-PL.M.OBL word-PL.F.OBL this.OBL to forced
-ist-m
c
d
mawzo-
la
CONT-remove.PST-1SG COMP this.DIR topic-F.DIR COMIT...
grn-o
hewwl-o
sra
ark-a
great-PL.M.OBL countryman-PL.M.OBL ...COMIT shared-F.DIR
k-m
do.AOR-1SG
I was forced to share these people's words with my esteemed countrymen.
11.6
Conjunction
In Pashto, clauses, verbs, and nouns can be conjoined using similar markers. Apposition is also found, frequently expressing simple coordination but also other relationships, as in the following example of simple apposition expressing a causal relationship:
(11.120)
ahmd-
n
r-
xapa
Ahmad-M.DIR NEG come.CONT.PRS-PRS.3[SG.M] sad
day
be.CONT.PRS.3SG.M
Ahmad isn't coming; he is sad. (SW)

Conjunction
11.6.1
443
Coordinating conjunctions
11.6.1.1
/aw/ and
The particle
/aw/ and is used to connect two words, phrases, or clauses that perform the same function inside a sentence.
(11.121)
za
kor-
t rl-m
aw o-y
1SG.STR.DIR house-M.OBL to come.AOR.PST-1SG and food-F.DIR
me
w-xo-a
1SG.WK AOR-eat.PST-PST.3SG.F
I came home and ate [dinner].
(11.122)
za
kandahr-
t -m
aw axtar-
1SG.STR.DIR Kandahar-M.OBL to go.CONT.PRS-1SG and feast-M.DIR
halta tr-aw-m
there pass-do.CONT-1SG
I'll go to Kandahar and spend the feast of Eid there.
Example sentences in Tegey & Robson (1996: 191194) suggest that when one of
the conjoined words is a pronoun, the pronoun comes first:
(11.123)
t
aw xeybar-
er-
nde
2SG.STR.DIR and Khaibar-M.DIR very-PL.M.DIR close
malgr-i
wst
friend-PL.M.DIR be.CONT.PST.2PL
You and Khaibar were very good friends.
Two verb phrases with the same subject may be conjoined. Most often the phrases
are joined by simple apposition; however, the conjunction /aw/ and may be used:
(11.124)
mahmud-
bzr-
t -
aw d
Mahmoud-M.DIR market-M.OBL to go.CONT.PRS-PRS.3[SG.M] and of
arm-e
o-y
-xor-
noon-F.OBL food-F.DIR CONT-eat.PRS-PRS.3[SG.M]
Mahmoud is going to the market and having lunch.

444 Syntax
(11.125)
ahmad-
od-y
-xor-
aw ob-
Ahmad-M.DIR food-F.DIR CONT-eat.PRS-PRS.3[SG.M] and water-F.DIR
-i-i
CONT-drink-PRS.3[SG.M]
Ahmad eats food and drinks water.
11.6.1.2
/y/ or
This conjunction may conjoin items of many classes, including nouns, noun phrases,
and adjectives:
(11.126)
ma
t ob-
y rbat-
rk-a
1SG.STR.OBL to water-F.DIR or juice-M.DIR give.AOR-IMP.SG
Give me water or juice.
(11.127)
spin-
y tor-
kl-i
white-PL.M.DIR or black-PL.M.DIR clothing-PL.M.DIR
w-und-a
AOR-wear.PRS-IMP.SG
Wear a white or black suit!
It may also conjoin two verb phrases. When used to join phrases,
bine with the conjunction /aw/ to express disjunction.
(11.128)
/y/may com-
. )(
za
sahr
d
xob-a
rken-m
1SG.STR.DIR COMP morning from sleep-M.ABL AOR\arise.PRS-1SG
spor-
t -m
(aw) y kitbxn-e
t
sport-M.OBL to go.CONT.PRS-1SG (and) or library-F.OBL to
-m
go.CONT.PRS-1SG
When I wake up in the morning I go to the gym or to the library.
18 Shafeev (1964) additionally cites /ka/ as a disjunction marker.

Conjunction 445
Unlike with /aw/ and , when the two elements conjoined by /y/ or differ in
gender, the verb must agree with the last element (examples are from Tegey & Robson
1996: 194):
(11.129)
amn-
y layl-
w-gaed-a
Aman-M.DIR or Layla-F.DIR AOR-dance.PST-PST.3SG.F
Aman or Layla danced.
(11.130)
layl-
y amn-
w-gaed-
Layla-F.DIR or Aman-M.DIR AOR-dance.PST-PST.3SG.M
Layla or Aman danced.
11.6.1.3
/xo/ but
The conjunction
/xo/ in Pashto functions similarly to its English counterpart but.
(Tegey & Robson, 1996: 196).
(11.131)
za
kor-
t drtl-m
xo mor-
1SG.STR.DIR house-M.OBL to come.CONT.PST-1SG but car-M.DIR
me
xarb-
so-
1SG.WK bad-M.DIR become.AOR.PST-PST.3SG.M
I was coming to your home, but my car broke down. (SW)
(11.132)
hol-
dy
xo o-y
ye
this.DIR good hotel-M.DIR be.CONT.PRS.3SG.M but food-F.DIR 3.WK
xarb-a
da
bad-F.DIR be.CONT.PRS.3SG.F
This is a good hotel, but its food is awful. (W)
19 In 11.131,
/so/ is the Kandahari pronunciation of
but may sometimes be spelled with
instead.
/w/; this is usually spelled with ,

446
Syntax
)( /(aw) by/ then

/by/ may be used to express the sequencing of events.
(11.133) .
11.6.1.4
The adverb
za
awl maz-e
t wl-m
by kor-
1SG.STR.DIR first shop-F.OBL to go.AOR.PST-1SG then house-M.OBL
t rl-m
to come.AOR.PST-1SG
First I went to the store, then I came home.
The conjunction
1996):
(11.134)
/aw/ and optionally accompanies /by/ (Tegey & Robson,
o-y
pax-
kr-a
aw by ye
food-F.DIR cooked-F.DIR do.AOR-IMP.SG and then 3.WK
w-xor-a
AOR-eat-IMP.SG
Cook and then eat!
11.6.2
Correlative conjunctions
Elements conjoined in a correlative structure are generally of the same phrasal class.
... /ham...aw ham/ both...and

(11.135)
mahmud-
ham mor-
-alaw-y
aw ham
Mahmoud-M.OBL also car-M.DIR CONT-manage-PST.3SG.M and also
ye
xabr-e
kaw-l-i
3.WK word-PL.F.DIR do.CONT-PST-PST.3PL.F
Mahmud was driving and also was talking [on the phone].
... /n yawze...balk/ not only...but also

Conjunction 447
(11.136)
mahmud-
n
yawze mor-
-alaw-y
Mahmoud-M.OBL NEG only
car-M.DIR CONT-manage-PST.3SG.M
balk
xabr-e
ye
ham kaw-l-i
but.also word-PL.F.DIR 3.WK also do.CONT-PST-PST.3PL.F
Mahmud was not only driving but was also talking [on the phone].
... /y ... y/ either...or

(11.137)
y dlta o-y
w-xor-a
y wl-
or here food-F.DIR AOR-eat-IMP.SG or gone-M.DIR
s-a
become.AOR.PRS-IMP.SG
Either eat here or go.
... /n...n/ neither...nor

(11.138) .
n
o-y
-xor-m
aw n
ob-
NEG food-F.DIR CONT-eat.PRS-1SG and NEG water-PL.F.DIR
--m
CONT-drink-1SG
I neither eat nor drink.
Although we have not found this attested elsewhere, a single example in Bilal, Khan,
Ali & Ahmed (2011: 57) suggests that one instance of the negative particle
/n/
in the second conjunct of a correlative construction has a possible reading of wide
scope, negating both clauses.
... /k...no/ if...then

/k/ if introduces the antecedent clauses of conditionals, and may or may not
appear in construction with the particle /no/ then, so. These two components
are discussed respectively in Section 11.4.4.2 and Section 11.4.4.4.
... /k e ham ... xo/ even if, although

448
Syntax
(11.139)
k e
ham day
-xnd-
xo p
if how.much also 3SG.M.STR.DIR CONT-laugh-PRS.3[SG.M] but in...
zr-a
ki
xpa day
heart-M ...in sad be.CONT.PRS.3SG.M
Although he is laughing, he is sad deep inside. (SW)
11.7
Principles of case-marking and agreement
In this section we provide some of the principles that underlie case-marking and agreement patterns. In Section 11.7.1, we present a summary of the expressions of split ergativity. In Section 11.7.4 and Section 11.7.5, we describe briefly a few constructions in
which the general nominative-accusative or ergative-absolutive agreement patterns
are not found.
11.7.1 Tense-based case-marking and split ergativity

Pashto uses two strategies for case-marking nouns: the nominative-accusative alignment familiar from Western European languages is used in the non-past tenses, and
the ergative-absolutive alignment is used in the past tenses. That is, Pashto is a morphologically split ergative language. In this section we summarize the morphosyntactic expressions of this property.
By contrast with many familiar nominative-accusative languages that mark nominative and accusative cases differently on nouns, Pashto instead uses the direct form
for both. In the past tenses, the two-way distinction between ergative and absolutive
is realized on nouns in the differential use of oblique vs. direct case suffixes. Table 11.4
shows this.
Table 11.5 shows a similar pattern for human interrogative pronouns, as described
in Section 7.6.
A somewhat different pattern, also reflecting split ergativity, can be found for the
personal pronoun systems. Table 11.6 shows how the two-way split is manifested in
the pattern of case-marking for strong pronouns.
Essentially the same pattern is found for resumptive pronouns (see Section 11.4.1)
and for the distribution constraints on weak pronouns, as shown in Table 7.9.

Non-past tenses
(nominative-accusative
alignment)
Transitive subject
Past tenses
(ergative-absolutive
alignment)
OBLIQUE
DIRECT
Intransitive subject
DIRECT
Direct object
Table 11.4: Case-marking pattern for nouns
Non-past tenses
Transitive subject
Past tenses
OBLIQUE
DIRECT
DIRECT
Direct object
Table 11.5: Case-marking pattern for human interrogative pronouns
Non-past tenses
Transitive subject
DIRECT
Direct object
Past tenses
OBLIQUE
DIRECT
OBLIQUE
Table 11.6: Case-marking pattern for strong pronouns

449
450
Syntax
11.7.2 Agreement of conjoined items

Section 5.3 and Section 6.7 summarize agreement properties for conjoined elements in
noun phrases.
11.7.3 Concordant adverbs

See Section 10.2.7.
11.7.4 Case-marking patterns of verbs of sensation or preference

In the following sections, we discuss two constructions that show case-marking strategies other than those outlined elsewhere, though they can be compared to similar constructions in other languages.
A brief description is given by Tegey & Robson (1996: 184) of a set of collocations
expressing preference or sensation. In these constructions, the experiencer is expressed
by means of a genitive phrase, i.e. a phrase governed by /d/ or a possessive pronoun.
The thing experienced may be expressed as the accusative argument, as among the
predicates discussed in Section 11.7.4.1, or as the complement to the denominal verb in
Section 11.7.4.2.
We present the group in subcategories as determined by case-marking or agreement patterns associated with the construction.
11.7.4.1 Four denominal verbs of sensation

Three verbs in this group consist of the verbalizer
/keg/ become with a noun; the
construction resembles a denominal verb construction, except that the experiencer is
expressed in a genitive phrase (recall that weak pronouns appearing in apposition to
their heads may express a genitive relation).
/garm keg/ feel hot

(11.140)
d zalm-i
garm-i
ked-
of Zalmay-M.OBL heat-F.DIR become.CONT.PST-PST.3SG.F
Zalmay was feeling hot.
/sr keg/ feel cold

(11.141)
451
s-
de
kg-i
cold-PL.M.DIR 2.WK become.CONT.PRS-PRS.3[PL.M]
You feel cold.
A third collocation uses the verb
/da/ be as an auxiliary. Again, the experiencer is expressed in a genitive phrase; the thing experienced governs agreement.
/tba d/ have a fever

(11.142)
tba-
ye
da
fever-F.DIR 3.WK be.CONT.PRS.3SG.F
He has a fever.
/zr keg/ feel like
This idiomatic expression consists of the verbalizer plus the word

/z/ heart.
The thing experienced is expressed inside an adpositional phrase governed by /ta/
to, for or, if the thing experienced is expressed through a clause, it will take the usual
form of a tensed complement (Tegey & Robson, 1996).
(11.143)
tortwd-
t me
z-
kg-i
pilau-PL.M.DIR to 1SG.WK heart-M.DIR become.CONT.PRS-PRS.3[PL.M]
I am craving pilau.
11.7.4.2 Denominal
- /xwaxeg/ like, enjoy
A fifth denominal verb, generally written as one word, derives from the verbalizer
/keg/ become plus
/xwax/ sweet, pleasant. The thing experienced is expressed as a noun, and the experiencer appears as a genitive phrase. Verb agreement
is governed by the noun expressing the thing experienced.
(11.144)
zm
amriki
o-y
xwax-g-i
1SG.STR.POSS American food-F.DIR sweet-become.CONT.PRS-PRS.3[SG.F]
I like American food.

452
Syntax
11.7.4.3 Three more expressions of preference

The expression
/bad r/ dislike is an idiom, according to Tegey & Robson
(1996). The verb component always carries third person plural agreement inflection.
The thing experienced is expressed as the object within the circumpositional phrase
/l...na/, and the experiencer appears as a phrase governed by the preposition
/d/, or, as in 11.146, a strong possessive pronoun.
...
(11.145)
d mahmud-
d kimy-
l
dars-
of Mahmoud-M.OBL of chemistry-F.OBL from... lesson-M.OBL
na
bad rl-l
...from bad come.AOR.PST-PST.3PL.M
Mahmoud didn't like his chemistry class.
(11.146)
zm
tre
na
bad ra-i
1SG.STR.POSS up.to.3... ...up.to bad come.CONT.PRS-PRS.3[PL.M]
I don't like him.
The expressions
/bad yis/ dislike and
/x yis/ like are idioms
made up of
/bad/ bad or
/x/ good plus
/yis/ seem. Unlike the preceding example,
/bad/ bad and
/x/ good in these expressions show variable
agreement inflection: both these and the verbal component agree with the noun expressing the thing experienced.
(11.147)
d san-
me-
ye
bad -yis-i
of Sana-F.OBL husband-M.DIR 3.WK bad CONT-seem-PRS.3[SG.M]
He doesn't like Sana's husband.
(11.148)
de har-
iw-e
xa
-yis-i
of every-M.OBL who.OBL Diwe-F.DIR good CONT-seem-PRS.3[SG.F]
Everyone likes Diwe.

453
11.7.5 An unergative or middle voice construction

A number of authors (Babrakzai 1999; Septfonds 1997; Septfonds 2006; Tegey & Robson 1996) describe a set of verbs (called anti-impersonals by Septfonds) which, though
formally intransitive, nevertheless trigger oblique case marking on their subjects in
past tenses. The verb itself exhibits PNG marking of third person masculine plural,
the default agreement value in Pashto. The verbs that exhibit this case-marking pattern comprise a small set of vocalization verbs and a small number of activity verbs:
/xandl/ to laugh;
/apl/ to bark;
/trapl/ to jump;
/zarl/
to cry;
/lambl/ to bathe;
/uxl/ to cough.
Functionally, this construction resembles a middle voice construction. It occurs
only with past tense verbs, according to Septfonds. Though Septfonds research reports on Dzadrani, and we have also found examples of this construction in General
Pashto, we have not through our own research been able to confirm the existence of
this case-marking pattern in Waziri.
Recall that the oblique case form is expressed through the presence of the weak
pronoun in 11.149 and 11.150.
(11.149)
nn
me
er
w-xand-l
today 1SG.WK much AOR-laugh-PST.3PL.M
I laughed a lot today.
(11.150)
x
er
me
-r-l-i
good much 1SG.WK CONT-cry-PST-PTCP.PL.M.DIR
I was crying my eyes out.
(11.151)
iw-e
aw bsin-
-xand-l
Diwe-F.OBL and Abaseen-M.OBL CONT-laugh-PST.3PL.M
Diwe and Abaseen were laughing.


Michael Maxwell and Anne Boyle David
Structure of this Grammar
A.1
Overview
This book is a descriptive grammar of Pashto. The electronic form of the grammar,
written in the Extensible Markup Language XML, is supplemented by a formal grammar, also in XML, which encapsulates the morphological and phonological part of the
descriptive grammar, and which may be used to build a morphological parser. This
formal grammar is available for download from deGruyter Mouton.
This appendix describes how the grammar is conceptualized. Included is a brief
description of the structure of the formal grammar, and the twin processes for converting the XML document into a descriptive grammar (specifically, a PDF) and into a
morphological parser.
As an XML document, the grammar is structured into two separate but largely parallel grammars: one is a traditional linguistic description in English, in a form that a
researcher with a minimum of training in descriptive linguistics would understand
i.e., this book. The other grammar is a formal grammar of morphology and phonology,
suitable for automatic extraction and conversion into a form usable by a computer program. The XML-based descriptive grammar is converted into a PDF for people, and the
XML-based formal grammar is converted into a computational form for morphological
parsers.
When the grammar is converted into a PDF for on-line viewing or printing, the
parts containing the formal grammar can be (and have been, in the printed version)
omitted. The mechanism for producing the PDF (or other output formats) in these two
forms is sketched in Section A.6.
The formal grammar may be used in several ways:
As a grammar which is easily converted into computational tools, such as morphological parsers.
As a template for writing similar grammars of other languages.
As a resource for automated grammar adaptation to related languages.
These intended uses are described in more detail in Section A.3.
It is also possible to use the technique called Literate Programming (Knuth, 1992)
to convert both the descriptive and the formal grammars into a single PDF for readers
who wish to see both. Literate Programming was developed as a way of improving the
documentation of computer programs by allowing the programmer to embed pieces
of a computer program into a prose document describing the program, in an order and
arrangement that would make sense to the human reader, rather than an arrangement
that might be required by the computer languages compiler program.

456
Weaving together the two grammars allows the strengths of each to support the
weaknesses of the other. In particular, a descriptive grammar written in a natural language such as English tends to be ambiguous, whereas the formal grammar should
be unambiguous. In the form in which both are woven together, where the English description is (unintentionally) ambiguous, referring to the formal grammar should disambiguate the intended meaning. Conversely, a weakness of formal grammars (and
particularly formal grammars that are computer-readable, as is ours) is that they tend
to be difficult for people to comprehend. Again, our intention is that the meaning of
the formal grammar will be clarified by the descriptive grammar. The descriptive and
formal grammar sections on a given topic are written in parallel fashion, making it
easy to perform such disambiguation or clarification.
A.2
Audience
The multi-use grammar is in a format which is expected to be useful to linguists ten

years or a hundred years from now, whether they wish to understand the structural
properties of Pashto, or to use the grammar or parser on a new platform or computer
environment.
One intended user is a computational linguist. Since the formal grammar is especially concerned with morphology, and in particular with supporting the creation
of morphological analysis tools, this application assumes that the computational linguist is knowledgeable about technology for morphological analysis, and conversant
in basic linguistic terminology for morphology and phonology. For such a user, both
the descriptive grammar and the formal grammar will be of interest, although the sections on usage of the descriptive grammar will probably be of less concern.
In addition, the examples in the paradigm tables and the examples of usage can
serve as tests of parser implementations, supplementing the use of corpora for parser
testing. This is particularly important since some paradigm cells are likely to be sparsely
attested in typical corpora. But since the complete paradigms of exemplar words are
provided in this descriptive grammar, the parser can be tested on those more rarely
used parts of the paradigm.
Of course, people who wish to learn about the grammarlinguists and learners
of Pashtoform the primary audience of this book. Since these users are largely concerned with understanding how the grammar works, and with the functional meaning
of constructions, the formal grammar may be of less interest. This is why we have presented the formal grammar separately.
Another audience we have tried to keep in mind is the linguist who is charged with
describing the grammar of another language, particularly of a related language. Such
a person may wish to adopt the model given here to this other language. Depending on
the purpose, the descriptive grammar, the formal grammar, or both, may be of interest
to those users. For the sake of all audiences, we have kept the terminology and the

More on uses of this grammar
457
linguistic analysis itself as basic as possible, avoiding as much as possible theoretical

constructs which do not correspond directly to observable linguistic phenomena.
A.3
In this section we describe in more detail the potential applications we see for this
grammar, beginning with computational uses.
The Extensible Markup Language XML is a computer representation of text in which
the function of pieces of text is indicated by tags. It provides a mechanism for describing the structure (as opposed to the display format) of documents. Specifically, the
descriptive grammars source document is structured as a DocBook XML document;
DocBook is a form of XML that has been developed for book- and article-like documents, particularly technical documents like this one. The DocBook formalism, and
the modifications to that formalism that we have used in this project, are described in
more detail in the documentation supporting the formal grammar. The XML source of
this grammar is available.
For some purposes (such as converting the grammar into a form suitable for use
with computational tools, as described in the next sub-section), the native XML is the
appropriate format. But for other purposes, such as reading the grammatical description, it is convenient to format the text for viewing by converting the XML tags into
formatting appropriate to the printed page. This can be done by a variety of means,
since the DocBook XML format is a widely used format, and many tools are available
for conversion. We describe in Section A.6 the method we have used to convert it to
camera-ready copy as PDF.
In the following section, we describe how the XML document is converted into
software.
A.3.1
The grammar as a basis for computational tools
As we have discussed, because this document is intended as a description of the grammar of Pashto which will be simultaneously unambiguous and understandable, it is
suitable for implementation as a computational tool, and in particular as a morphological parser or generator. We describe the method for converting this grammar, and
1 We use DocBook version 5, with some extensions described later.

2 Finite State Transducers (FSTs) combine parsing and generation capabilities. Therefore, if the
morphological parsing engine being used is an FST (such as the Xerox or Stuttgart Finite State
Transducer tools), the parsing engine serves both as a parser and as a generator. Technically, we
should therefore use the term transducer for the computational program which uses our grammar,
but we continue to refer to this as a parsing engine for reasons of familiarity.

458
in particular the formal grammar of Pashto morphology and phonology, into a form
usable by computational tools in Section A.3.1.1.
The descriptive grammar also describes basics of Pashto syntax. However, there is
no formal grammar of the syntax, largely because it is difficult to define a formal grammar mechanism for syntax which would be as generic and a-theoretic as the formal
grammar schema for morphology and phonology.
In theory, a grammar intended to be used by a computer would not need a descriptive component, written in natural language; a formal grammar, written in some
unambiguous format, would suffice. In fact, such formal grammars have already been
written for a variety of natural languagesand in many programming languages. We
have opted instead to blend our XML formal grammar with a descriptive grammar, using the technology of Literate Programming (briefly described in Section A.1), thereby
making this grammar understandable by humans, as well as unambiguous to computers. Our goal in this is to make it more portable to future computing environments by
extensively documenting in English each construct of the formal grammar. The result
should be that a computational linguist who is unfamiliar with our formal grammar
schema should be able to understand the meaning of the formal grammar itself by
referring to the descriptive grammar.
A.3.1.1 Building a parser and generator

Using this grammars source document to produce computational implementation (a
parser) requires several steps. In the first step, the formal grammar is extracted from
the grammatical description as a whole (including the descriptive grammar). This operation has been programmed as a simple XSLT (Extensible Stylesheet Language Transformation), which operates on the complete XML grammar to extract the formal grammar in its XML format.
Second, this extracted XML grammar is translated into the programming language
of the chosen morphological parsing engine. This conversion could be done by any program which can parse XML and convert the result into other formats. We have implemented our converter in the Python programming language. We chose Python because
it allows the use of an object-oriented programming approach, in which each linguistic
structure expressed as an element in the XML grammar corresponds to a class. For example, there are elements in the XML grammar corresponding to classes in the Python
converter for linguistic objects such as affixes, phonological rules, and allomorphs. This
part of the converter program is analogous to the front end of a programming language
compiler: it ensures that the formal grammar is syntactically correct, and if so generates an intermediate representation in terms of Python objects.
3 An example of a piece of this formal grammar structure in XML form is given in Section A.3.2.

459
The other half of the converter is specific to the particular morphological parsing
engine being targeted, and it rewrites the grammar into that programming language.
This half is thus analogous to the back end of a programming language compiler: it
translates from the intermediate representation of the grammar as Python objects, into
the target programming language.
Our converter currently targets the Stuttgart Finite State Transducer tools. Targeting a different parsing engine would require rewriting this half of the converter for the
new parsing engine. The converter program is generic in terms of the language being
described: that is, the same converter will work for a grammar of any language for
which an XML grammar conforming to the schemas has been written.
The final step of the conversion process is to use the parsing engine to compile the
converted grammar together with an electronic dictionary of the language.
In summary, the XML-based grammars serve as a stable way to define the morphological analysis of natural languages, so that the grammars can be used by different
parsing engines. The converter can be used for any language for which the morphology
has been described using the formal grammar. When a new and better parsing engine
is developed, and the grammar needs to be ported to that new parsing engine, only
part of the converter needs to be changed; the grammatical description can be re-used
without change.
4 Modern programming language compilers often include a middle end, where optimization is
done. This is not directly relevant to our converter, since any optimization is highly dependent on the
target programming language. In fact, the back end of our converter currently does do some
optimization for the Stuttgart Finite State Transducer (SFST). In particular, SFSTs own compilation
phase becomes very slow and memory-intensive under certain circumstances. In order to avoid this,
our converter breaks large compilation steps into shorter ones. This affects only SFSTs compilation;
the final morphological transducer would be virtually the same regardless of this optimization.
5 The Stuttgart Finite State Transducer is an open source program, available from
http://www.ims.uni-stuttgart.de/projekte/gramotron/SOFTWARE/SFST.html; it supports the kinds of
constructions needed for most languages.
6 While the converter accounts for the morphological constructions needed for Pashto, there are
some linguistic constructs in other languages, such as infixes and reduplication, which are allowed
in the formal grammar schema but are not yet handled by the converter.
7 Normally, an electronic dictionary is a required resource. Fortunately, dictionaries are almost
always more easily obtained than grammars, at least grammars of the sort required for
morphological parsing. Electronic dictionaries will, however, require effort to convert them into the
form required by the parsing engine. For some languages, this work will be simply extracting words
belonging to the various parts of speech into separate files; for other languages, including Pashto,
more information is required, including declension classes (for nouns and adjectives) and stem class
allomorphy. The details of how this information needs to be represented will vary, depending on the
particular parsing engine.

460
A.3.2
The grammar as a description
This grammar may of course be read as simply a linguistic description of the Pashto
language. By linguistic description we mean a description that uses such traditional
linguistic constructs as allomorph and morphosyntactic features.
The formal grammar also constitutes a description, and in fact one which may
help disambiguate the descriptive grammar. In its current format as an XML document, however, it is difficult for people to read. It is possible, in order to make the
formal grammar more accessible to linguists (particularly to linguists who are not familiar with the XML notation), to add to our XML-to-PDF conversion process the capability of converting the XML formal grammar notation into a notation more similar to a
traditional linguistic description. For example, the XML representation of inflectional
affixation in agglutinating languages uses a structure which (in somewhat simplified
form) looks like the following (this example is based on Turkish):
<Ln : PartOfSpeech name="noun">
<Ln : a f f i x S l o t s >
<Ln : I n f l A f f i x S l o t i d ="slotNumber '>
<Ln : I n f l e c t i o n a l A f f i x i d r e f =" a f S i n g u l a r "/ >
<Ln : I n f l e c t i o n a l A f f i x i d r e f =" a f P l u r a l "/ >
</Ln : I n f l A f f i x S l o t >
<Ln : I n f l A f f i x S l o t i d =" s l o t C a s e ">
<Ln : I n f l e c t i o n a l A f f i x i d r e f =" afNominative "/ >
<Ln : I n f l e c t i o n a l A f f i x i d r e f =" a f G e n i t i v e "/ >
<Ln : I n f l e c t i o n a l A f f i x i d r e f =" a f D a t i v e "/ >
<Ln : I n f l e c t i o n a l A f f i x i d r e f =" a f A c c u s a t i v e "/ >
<Ln : I n f l e c t i o n a l A f f i x i d r e f =" a f A b l a t i v e "/ >
<Ln : I n f l e c t i o n a l A f f i x i d r e f =" a f L o c a t i v e "/ >
</Ln : I n f l A f f i x S l o t >
</Ln : a f f i x S l o t s >
<Ln : a f f i x T e m p l a t e s >
<Ln : I n f l A f f i x T e m p l a t e >
<Ln : r e f S u f f i x S l o t s >
<Ln : S u f f i x S l o t name="Number" i d r e f ="slotNumber "/ >
<Ln : S u f f i x S l o t name="Case "
i d r e f =" s l o t C a s e "/ >
</Ln : r e f S u f f i x S l o t s >
</Ln : I n f l A f f i x T e m p l a t e >
</Ln : a f f i x T e m p l a t e s >
</Ln : PartOfSpeech>
For a linguist, a more useful (and more readable) display of this XML structure
might be the following table, in which the slots have been treated as columns in a
table of affixes, and the individual affixes are displayed as a pairing of a gloss and a

Spell correction
461
form, rather than a reference to the definition of the affix elsewhere (the idref in the
above XML code):
Stem
Number suffix slot
Case suffix slot
- -Singular
- -Nominative
-in -Genitive
(Noun)
-e -Dative
-ler -Plural
-i -Accusative
-den -Ablative
-de -Locative
We emphasize that this is a matter of how the XML structure is displayed, not
a change in the underlying XML. This particular step (the conversion process from
our XML-based grammar to a display in the form of tables or other forms familiar
to linguists) is not implemented yet. However, the use of an XML formalism for both
the descriptive and formal grammars means that when the display mechanism is programmed, we will be able to produce versions of this grammar as PDFs and other formats which incorporate the new display, without changing the underlying XML documents.
A.4
Spell correction
A morphological parser constitutes a spell checker. That is, in the absence of special
rules allowing for spelling variation, a parser requires that words be spelled in a particular way in order to be parsed. Failure of a word to parse can therefore be construed
to mean that the word is misspelled (although in fact, many parse failures can be attributed to other errors, such as a missing lexeme in the dictionary).
However, it is frequently the caseparticularly in less documented languages
that spelling conventions are not as fixed as they are for languages like English. This
can be a problem. In particular, there is considerable variation in the spelling of Pashto,
as we have noted in Chapter 1. However, Pashtos extensive orthographic variation is
not well documented in the literature. This could obviously be important in the application of computer processing to printed texts, because while a morphological parser
acts as a spell checker, it does not by itself constitute a spell corrector. That is, when
a word fails to parse, the parser cannot suggest a corrected spelling. However, it is
possible to build a spell corrector on top of a morphological parser.

462
Spelling variation may in fact result from several different causes. In the absence
of spelling standardization, some, but not all, variations can be termed errors; but regardless, all variation can cause problems for morphological parsing. Spell correction
is therefore an important technology that can complement morphological parsing. We
do not treat spelling variation in the formal grammar. However, the finite state technology currently used for morphological parsing can also be used to encode spelling
variation rules.
A.5
Grammar adaptation
There are hundreds of languages for which one might want to build morphological
parsers.All of these, we believe, can benefit from grammar writing using the multiuse framework we have developed. There are two major ways that our work could be
leveraged so as to make grammars of a large number of languages, and tools built on
those grammars, available: by having it serve as a model or template for other grammar
writers; and by automatically or semi-automatically adapting the formal grammar of
one language to another language. The two sub-sections below discuss each of these
approaches in turn.
A.5.1
Manual grammar building
The traditional way to produce morphological parsers is to rely on highly trained linguists and computational linguists to learn the programming language for some morphological parsing engine (or to write ones own parsing engine), learn the grammar
and perhaps the writing system of the target language, and then use the former knowledge to encode the latter knowledge. An obvious impediment to this approach is that
it is difficult to find one person who combines all these skills. Another difficulty, discussed above, is that parsing engines tend to be replaced with newer and better engines after a few years, rendering the parser that was built with so much expert effort
obsolete.
The multi-use grammar method which we have developed provides a way to avoid
the first problem: to the extent that the descriptive and formal grammars are separable,
they can be written by people who bring either of two skill sets: one, knowledge of the
8 Ideally, such rules are given weights which encode the likelihood that a given spelling variation
will be found. Some finite state tools allow the use of such weights.
9 There are in the neighborhood of 7000 languages in the world today (http://ethnologue.org is the
standard reference on languages of the world). Of these, perhaps 1500 to 2000 are written
languages, and probably the majority of these have non-trivial inflectional morphologies. Over 300
languages have at least a million speakers.

Grammar adaptation
463
grammar (and writing system) of the target language; the other, experience in computer programming. It is, we believe, easier to find two different people (or perhaps
two teams of people), one with each of these skill sets, than it is to find one person
with both skills. We have in fact employed this division of labor in writing our grammars, and it has become clear that this approach to grammar writing makes it easier
to build teams that can construct grammars and morphological parsers.
The two grammars must still be written collaboratively, which calls for a close
working relationship between the descriptive grammar writer and the formal grammar writer. While the authors of this pair of descriptive and formal grammars have
worked in nearby offices, we believe that this working relationship can probably be
more remote; e.g., it might be mediated by email or other collaborative technologies,
allowing a descriptive grammar writing team from the linguistics department located
in the country where a language is spoken, together with a formal grammar writing
team from a computer science department, perhaps in a different country.
It may be possible to further reduce the expertise needed to write grammars, if new
grammars can be modeled after existing grammars. To some extent, this Pashto grammar re-uses the model of earlier grammars we have written using this same framework,
although we have introduced some new techniques with each new language.
Using grammars as models might work best if the new grammars were for languages related to the ones already described, since the typology of the languages would
be similar. But the use of model grammars may prove useful for unrelated languages
as well.
We have also developed grammar testing tools based on the information in the descriptive grammar. In particular, these tools use the example sentences and paradigm
tables of the descriptive grammar as a source of parser test cases. Such testing of course
needs to be supplemented by testing against corpora, which may reveal morphological
constructions not previously described.
A.5.2
Automated grammar adaptation
Rather than writing grammars by hand, another approach to grammar adaptation

would be to create a computer program that could automatically adapt an existing formal grammar to work for another language, related to the initial target language. (A
computer could not be expected to adapt a descriptive grammar, since that would require understanding of an English grammatical description, something which is well
beyond the current state of the art.) This task might be done with various sorts of resources in the third language: corpora, bilingual corpora in the third language and
English, bilingual corpora in the third language and the initial target language, dictionaries of the third language, etc. In particular, the Bible is available in nearly every
written language and therefore constitutes a parallel corpus (Resnik, Olsen & Diab,
1999). While the vocabulary of the Bible is not always useful in a modern context, there

464
is no reason good Bible translations in two related languages could not serve as the basis for converting the formal grammar of the morphology of one language into a formal
grammar of the other languages morphology.
Some work on automatic grammar adaptation has been described in Yarowsky
(2002) and Feldman & Hana (2010).
A.6
Formatting the grammar for viewing
This section describes the method we have used to convert this grammar into a format
readable by people.
The primary method for formatting XML DocBook documents is through the use
of XSL-FO (XSL Formatting Objects, see Stayton 2005). While this method would work
(provided it was supplemented with the XSL transformations needed for our literate
programming and interlinear text extensions), we were not satisfied that any of the
available XSL-FO processors would do a good job of typesetting the Arabic script required for Pashto and other languages.
Fortunately, there is an alternative typesetting method in the form of XeTeX, a
Unicode-aware version of TeX and LaTeX, and developed by Jonathan Kew. (XeTeX
is released under a free license; the latest distribution is currently included in the
TeX Live distributions; see http://tug.org/texlive/.) Perhaps in part because Kew had
worked with Arabic scripts, the result is, we believe, quite pleasing.
It remained to find a way to convert our DocBook XML files into XeTeX. Fortunately,
we found the dblatex program, which was designed to convert DocBook into LaTeX
(and now into XeLaTeX). The author, Benot Guillon, has been very helpful in modifying it to work well with XeTeX. Again, this is an open source program, available from
Sourceforge (http://sourceforge.net/projects/dblatex/). We have tweaked it slightly to
allow for the conversion of the literate programming constructs and interlinear text;
the latter was made easier by the existence of Michael Covingtons LaTeX macros for
interlinear text. Again, these are freely licensed, and available in the same Tex Live
distribution as XeTeX.
One might ask why we did not write the grammar in LaTeX directly (or XeTeX). The
main reason for this is that XML is a content markup system, while LaTeX is a presentation markup system. In part because of this, XML is now recognized as a standard
for long term preservation of documents, particularly linguistic documents (see e.g.
Borghoff, Rdig, Scheffczyk & Schmitz 2006 and Bird & Simons 2003). Content markup
means that not only is the markup easily extensible, but by means of the judicious use
of tags, we can extract elements for various purposes. For example, as mentioned in
Section A.5.1, we can automatically extract all the words in both interlinear examples
and example words in text, and use them to test a parser.
In outline, the steps we have used to format this grammar are the following:

Formatting the grammar for viewing
465
1. Combine the various files of the descriptive and formal grammars into a single
file, using the xsltproc program and the XSL weave stylesheet.
2. Run dblatex to convert this file into a XeLaTeX file. Any non-DocBook standard
elements, such as interlinear text and inline examples, must be provided with
special code to convert them into the format expected by XeLaTeX.
3. For all sequences of characters which require a special font (e.g. characters in
the Arabic block of Unicode), we wrap the sequences in a special tag, telling
XeLaTeX to use the appropriate font for these characters. Special care needs to
be taken at this point with punctuation marks, which can interact badly with
right-to-left scripts.
4. Run XETEX (in its LATEX form, XeLaTeX) to produce a PDF.


Sources of Pashto Data
B.1
Sources of interlinear examples taken from the web
Chapter 1: About this Grammar

1. 1.1 http://www.miliehsas.com/
Chapter 6: Adjectives and Other Noun Modifiers
1. 6.19 http://www.benawa.com
2. 6.20 http://eqtisad.bloguna.tolafghan.com
3. 6.25 http://www.afghanjirga.net/
4. 6.26 http://www.benawa.com
5. 6.27 http://www.aryen.bloguna.tolafghan.com
6. 6.28 http://www.shamshadtv.tv
7. 6.36 http://www.sada-e-azadi.net
8. 6.37 http://www.aminzay.com
Chapter 7: Pronouns
1. 7.55 http://www.facebook.com/PashtoJokes/
Chapter 8: Verbs
1. 8.13 http://www.pajhwok.com/
2. 8.14 http://www.sporghay.com/
3. 8.15 http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Hw08YbmNFLo/
4. 8.16 http://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/
5. 8.20 http://eslahonline.net/
6. 8.21 http://www.tolafghan.com/
7. 8.22 http://larawbar.com/
8. 8.25 http://www.facebook.com/
9. 8.26 http://sangaar.com/

468
10. 8.30 http://khabarial.com/

12. 8.32 http://www.pajhwok.com/en/photo/96113
13. 8.33 http://www.bloguna.com/
14. 8.34 http://www.bosa.blogsky.com/
15. 8.37 http://www.facebook.com/video/video/php?v=180813528650225/
16. 8.38 http://awakening.bloguna.tolafghan.com/
17. 8.40 http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UxcFrUw1ybQ/
18. 8.41 http://bloguna.com/Zhwand/
19. 8.46 http:/kandahartv-gov.com/
20. 8.49 http://www.mirmanbaheer.org/
21. 8.50 http://www.mirmanbaheer.org/
22. 8.51 http://iwpr.net/ps/
23. 8.55 http://www.bakhtarnews.com.af/
24. 8.56 http://www.baheer.com/
25. 8.57 http://www.khyberwatch.com/
26. 8.58 http://www.afghan-german.net/
27. 8.63 http://dailyshahadat.com/
29. 8.65 http://www.youtube.com/all_comments?v=xjHs06bOo/
30. 8.66 http://www.s-rohi.com/
32. 8.68 http://www/;arawbar.org/
33. 8.73 http://www.rohi.af/
34. 8.74 http://www.facebook.com/israrahmadzai/posts/246413462138948/

35. 8.75 http://taand.com/

36. 8.76 http://www.dawatfreemedia.org/
37. 8.79 http://www.jahanionline.com/
38. 8.80 http://www.ahena.blogfa.com/
39. 8.81 http://www.pashtunforums.com/
40. 8.82 http://bloguna.com/
41. 8.83 http://www.facebook.com/PashtunUnity/posts/318701911484713/
42. 8.84 http://khaibarial.com/
43. 8.85 http://ghazal.bloguna.tolafghan.com/
44. 8.86 http://yahyaghafoorzai.blogfa.com/
45. 8.87 http://www.benawa.com/
46. 8.88 http://www.scprd.com/
48. 8.90 http://pushtu.cri.cn/
50. 8.92 http://www.afghanjirga.com/
51. 8.93 http://pashtu.irib.ir/
52. 8.95 http://sporghay.com/
53. 8.96 http://www.baheer.com/
54. 8.97 http://www.s-rohi.com/
55. 8.98 http://www.h-obaidi.com/
56. 8.99 http://www.voanews.com/pashto/
57. 8.100 http://afghan-warlods.blogspot.com/
58. 8.101 http://didanona.com/
59. 8.102 http://scprd.com/

469
470
60. 8.103 http://waak.bloguna.tolafghan.com/

61. 8.104 http://ghorzang.net/
63. 8.106 http://www.meenapukhto.blogfa.com/
65. 8.108 http://baheer.com/
66. 8.109 http://khabarial.com/
67. 8.110 http://nunn.asia/
68. 8.111 http://quizlet.com/
69. 8.113 http://www.pashtoonkhwa.com/
70. 8.114 http://iwpr.net/
71. 8.115 http://wolas-ghag.com/
72. 8.116 http://islam-iea.com/
74. 8.118 http://nunn.asia/
75. 8.120 http://afghanfoundation.net/
76. 8.121 http://www.destaar.com/
77. 8.122 http://www.bbc.co.uk/pashto/world//
78. 8.123 http://afghanjirga.net/
79. 8.124 http://www.voanews.com/pashto/
80. 8.125 http://www.esalat.org/
81. 8.126 http://aryen.bloguna.tolafghan.com/
82. 8.127 http://rohi.af/
84. 8.130 http://taleemulislam-radio.com/

471
85. 8.131 http://www.acsf.af/

Chapter 9: Adpositions
1. 9.11 http://afg-liberal-party.blogfa.com/
3. 9.14 http://www.baheer.com
4. 9.15 http://pa.azadiradio.org/
5. 9.24 http://lashkargah.bloguna.tolafghan.com/
6. 9.26 http://sporghay.com/
7. 9.32 http://www.voanews.com/
8. 9.33 http://www.facebook.com/Israratal/posts/193484757403886/
10. 9.41
http://www.fbjs.facebook.com/afghanistancricketboard/posts/245676592129372/

13. 9.47 http://www.mashriqsoft.net/
15. 9.92 http://lokrana.bloguna.tolafghan.com/
16. 9.94 http://da.azadiradio.org/
17. 9.96 source: from a 12/22/2010 Azadi Radio Broadcast.
18. 9.97 http://www.wakht.com/
20. 9.121 http://www.sada-e-azadi.net/
Chapter 10: Other word classes
1. 10.3 http://www.facebook.com/

472
5. 10.9 http://www.gma.com.af/
7. 10.11 http://www.gotquestions.org/
8. 10.12 http://khyberwatch.com/
9. 10.18 http://www.khabarial.com/
10. 10.19 http://bowraa.com/
11. 10.20 http://s-rohi.com/
12. 10.21 http://www.afghanijokes.com/
13. 10.28 http://www.talafghan.com/
14. 10.42 http://sola.bloguna.tolafghan.com/
16. 10.68 http://lifeinafghanistan.wordpress.com/
17. 10.69 http://wepakhtoons.blogspot.com/
Chapter 11: Syntax
2. 11.19 http://khedmatgar.com/
3. 11.20 http://www.kitabtoon.com/
4. 11.21 http://thanda.bloguna.tolafghan.com/
7. 11.24 http://www.khost-web.net/

9. 11.26 http://peshgaman.blogfars.com/
11. 11.29 http://www.tatobay.com/
12. 11.31 http://www.loyafghanistan.af/
13. 11.32 http://origin-pa.azadiradio.org/
14. 11.34 http://loyafghanistan.af/
15. 11.37 www.tolafghan.com/
16. 11.42 http://www.pashtozeray.org/
17. 11.43 http://www.dailyshahadat.com/
22. 11.65 http://lawaghar.com/
25. 11.77 http://www.khabarial.com/
26. 11.81 http://www.surgar.net/
31. 11.93 http://www.afghanijokes.com/
32. 11.106 http://www.bbc.co.uk/

473
474 Sources of Pashto Data
B.2
List of web pages mined for language data
1. http://afg-liberal-party.blogfa.com/
2. http://www.afghanijokes.com/
3. http://www.afghanjirga.net/
4. http://www.afghanistanonlineforums.com/
5. http://www.afghanistantoday.org/
6. http://www.afghanistanvotes.com/
7. http://www.aminzay.com/
8. http://da.azadiradio.org/
9. http://origin-pa.azadiradio.org/
10. http://pa.azadiradio.org/
11. http://www.baheer.com/
12. http://bakhtarnews.com.af/
13. http://www.bbc.co.uk/
14. http://www.benawa.com/
15. http://nojavan.blogfars.com/
16. http://peshgaman.blogfars.com/
17. http://wepakhtoons.blogspot.com/
18. http://lokrana.bloguna.tolafghan.com/
19. http://www.bloguna.com/
20. http://www.dailyshahadat.com/
21. http://eslahonline.net/
22. http://www.facebook.com/
23. http://www.ghatreh.com/
24. http://ghorzang.net/

List of web pages mined for language data
25. http://www.gma.com.af/
26. http://www.gotquestions.org/
27. http://graanafghanistan.com/
28. http://iwpr.net/
29. http://www.kabirstori.com/
30. http://khatez.net/
31. http://www.khost-web.net/
32. http://khyberwatch.com/
33. http://kw.af/
34. http://larawbar.com/
35. http://lawaghar.com/
36. http://www.loyafghanistan.af/
37. http://www.mohe.gov.af/
38. http://www.ntm-a.com/
39. http://www.pajhwok.com/
40. http://www.pashtozeray.org/
41. http://pashtu.irib.ir/
42. http://www.qamosona.com/
43. http://rohella-pashto-forum.com/
44. http://rohi.af/
45. http://www.sada-e-azadi.net/
46. http://www.spenghar.com/
47. http://sporghay.com/
48. http://www.surgar.net/
49. http://www.tatobay.com/

475
476
50. http://cricket.tolafghan.com/
51. http://www.tolafghan.com/
52. http://tolo.tv/
53. http://tolonews.com/
54. http://www.voanews.com/
55. http://www.wakht.com/
56. http://article.wn.com/
57. http://www.wranga.com/
58. http://lifeinafghanistan.wordpress.com/
59. http://www.zarlakht.net/
60. http://zwand.com/

Bibliography
Ahmed, Tafseer. 2008. Instrument as path: reconciling the semantic usages of Urdu se and Pashto
pa. In Workshop on Morphosyntactic aspects of Instruments and Instrumentals. Sydney.
Ali, Rahman, Mohammad Abid Khan & Mushtaq Ali. 2009. Reflexive anaphora resolution in Pashto
discourse. In Proceedings of the Conference on Language & Technology, 2009.
Anderson, Jon. 1975. Tribe and community among the Ghilzai Pashtun. Anthropos 70. 575601.
Anonymous. 2002. Introduction to Pushtu. University of Minnesota Libraries Learning Resources
Center, http://lrc.lib.umn.edu/pushto.htm.
Anonymous. 2008. Tribe, clan and ethnic genealogies. Naval Postgraduate School, http://www.nps/
edu/Programs/CCs/FamilyTrees.html.
Anonymous. n.d. Ghilzai. http://www.khyber.org/pashtotribes/g/ghilzai-a.shtml. Khyber.org.
Askar, Umar Gul (ed.). 1972. Wanechi. Quetta: Pashto Academy, Balochistan.
Austin, Peter K. (ed.). 2008. Living, endangered, lost: One thousand languages. Berkeley and Los
Angeles: University of California Press.
Babrakzai, Farooq. 1999. Topics in Pashto syntax. Ph.D. thesis, University of Hawai'i.
Backstrom, Peter C. & Carla F. Radloff. 1992. Languages of Northern Areas. In Clare F. O'Leary (ed.),
Sociolinguistic survey of northern Pakistan. Islamabad: National Institute of Pakistan Studies,
Quaid-i-Azam University and Summer Institute of Linguistics.
Bashir, Elena. 2006. Evidentiality in South Asian languages. In LFG06 Conference, Workshop on
South Asian Languages.
Bauer, Erhard. 1998. Several groups of Pashto-speakers in Pakistan's northern areas: Different ways
of dealing with multilingual surroundings (Preliminary results of field research). Culture Area
Karakorum Scientific Studies 4(2). 627640.
Beka, Ji. 1969. A study in Pashto stress. Prague: The Oriental Institute in Academia, Publishing
House of the Czechoslovak Academy of Sciences.
Bellew, Henry Walter. 1867. A grammar of the Pukkhto or Pukshto language. Peshawar, Pakistan:
Saeed Book Bank & Subscription Agency.
Bellew, Henry Walter. 1901. A dictionary of the Pukkhto or Pukshto language: In which the words are
traced to their sources in the Indian and Persian languages. Lahore: Rai Sahib M. Gulab Singh &
Sons, 2nd edn.
Bielmeier, Roland. 1989. Yaghnobi. In Rdiger Schmitt (ed.), Compendium Linguarum Iranicarum,
480488. Wiesbaden: Dr. Ludwig Reichert Verlag Wiesbaden.
Bilal, M., M. Abid Khan, R. Ali & R. Ahmed. 2011. An adaptive approach of syntactic ambiguity resolution in Pashto. African Journal of Mathematics and Computer Science Research 4(2). 5563.
Bird, Steven & Gary Simons. 2003. Seven dimensions of portability for language documentation and
description. Language 79(3). 557582.
Borghoff, U.M., P. Rdig, J. Scheffczyk & L. Schmitz. 2006. Long-term preservation of digital documents: Principles and practices. Berlin: Springer.
Bowern, Claire. 2008. The diachrony of complex predicates. Diachronica 25(2). 161185.
Butt, M. 2003. The Light Verb jungle. In G. Aygen, C. Bowern & C. Quinn (eds.), Harvard Working
Papers in Linguistics, 149. GSAS/Dudley House workshop on light verbs.
Butt, Miriam & Aditi Lahiri. 2002. Historical stability vs. historical change. Unpublished manuscript.
Bynon, Theodora. 2005. Evidential, raised possessor, and the historical source of the ergative construction in Indo-Iranian. Transactions of the Philological Society 103(1). 172.
Caroe, Sir Olaf Kirkpatrick. 1958. The Pathans: 550 B.C.-A.D. 1957. London: Macmillan.
Chavarria-Aguilar, O.L. 1962a. Pashto basic course. Prepared under Contract No. SAE-8888 between
The University of Michigan and the United States Office of Education.

478
Bibliography
Chavarria-Aguilar, O.L. 1962b. A short introduction to the writing system of Pashto. Prepared under Contract No. SAE-8888 between The University of Michigan and the United States Office of
Education.
Cheung, Johnny. 2007. Etymological dictionary of the Iranian verb. Leiden, Netherlands and Boston:
Brill Academic Publishers.
Daniels, Peter & William Bright (eds.). 1996. The world's writing systems. Oxford: Oxford University
Press.
Darmesteter, James. 1888. Chants populaires des Afghans [Afghan popular songs]. Paris: Impremerie Nationale.
David, Anne. 2011. On the evolution of Pashto endoclitics. Fourth International Conference on Iranian
Linguistics.
David, Anne & Sarah Goodman. 2012. The grammaticalization of Pashto Light Verb Constructions.
New Reflections on Grammaticalisation 5 conference, Edinburgh, Scotland.
Davis, Mark & Martin Drst. 2008. Unicode normalization forms. Unicode standard annex #15. Unicode Consortium, http://www.unicode.org/reports/tr15/tr15-37.html, version 29 edn.
Decker, Kendall D. 1992. Languages of Chitral (Sociolinguistic Survey of Northern Pakistan 5). Islamabad: National Institute of Pakistan Studies, Quaid-i-Azam University and Summer Institute of
Linguistics.
Dessart, Laurent. 1994. Parlons Pachto: Langue et culture de l'Afghanistan [Let's speak Pashto:
Language and culture of Afghanistan]. Paris: L'Harmattan.
Directorate of Intelligence. 2009a. The World Factbook - Afghanistan. Washington, DC: Central
Intelligence Agency.
Directorate of Intelligence. 2009b. The World Factbook - Pakistan. Washington, DC: Central Intelligence Agency.
Dixon, Robert M.W. 1997. The rise and fall of languages. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Dost, Ascander. 2007. A domain-based approach to 2P clitics in Pashto. In F. Hoyt, N. Seifert,
A. Teodorescu, J. White & S. Wechsler (eds.), Texas Linguistic Society IX: The Morphosyntax of
Underrepresented Languages, 89110. Stanford: CSLI Publications.
Dryer, Matthew S. 2006. Descriptive theories, explanatory theories, and basic linguistic theory. In
F.K. Ameka, A.C. Dench & N. Evans (eds.), Catching language: The standing challenge of grammar writing, Trends in Linguistics. Studies and Monographs [TiLSM] Series, 207232. Berlin: De
Gruyter.
Elfenbein, Josef H. 1972. Waneci. Afghanistan 25(1). 2873.
Elfenbein, Josef H. 1984. The Wanetsi connexion. Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain
& Ireland 5476.
Elfenbein, Josef H. 1997. Pashto phonology. In Alan S. Kaye (ed.), Phonologies of Asia and Africa
(including the Caucasus), vol. 2, 733760. Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns.
Feldman, Anna & Jirka Hana. 2010. A Resource-Light Approach to Morpho-Syntactic Tagging, Language and Computers: Studies in Practical Linguistics, 70. Amsterdam: Rodopi.
Frye, R. N. 2010. Ghalzay. In P. Bearman, Th. Bianqius, C. E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel & W. P. Heinrichs (eds.), Encyclopaedia of Islam. University of Maryland: Brill Online. URL http://www.brillonline.
nl/subscriber/uid=2015/entry?entry=islam_SIM-2453.
Geiger, Wilhelm. 1895. Die Sprache der Afghanen, das Pasto [The language of the Afghans, Pashto].
In Wilhelm Geiger & Ernst Kuhn (eds.), Grundriss der iranischen Philologie [Outline of Iranian
philology], 201206. Strassburg, Germany: K.J. Trbner.
Glatzer, Bernt. 2002. The Pashtun tribal system. In G. Pfeffer & D. K. Behera (eds.), Concept of Tribal
Society, 265282. New Delhi: Concept Publishers.
Grierson, George A. 1921. Linguistic Survey of India: Volume X, Eranian Languages. Calcutta, India:
Government Press.

Bibliography
479
Grjunberg, Aleksandr L. 1987. Oerk grammatiki afghanskogo jazyka (Pato) [A sketch of the grammar of the Afghan language (Pashto)]. Leningrad, USSR (St. Petersburg, Russia): Nauka.
Hallberg, Daniel G. 1992. Pashto, Waneci, Ormuri (Sociolinguistic Survey of Northern Pakistan 4).
Islamabad: National Institute of Pakistan Studies, Quaid-i-Azam University and Summer Institute
of Linguistics.
Hanifi, M. Jamil. 2001. ilz. In Encyclopaedia Iranica. Online Edition. URL http://www.iranica.com/
articles/gilzi- .
Henderson, Michael M.T. 1970. Some 'Indic' features in Pashto. Wisconsin Papers in Linguistics: 1.1.
Henderson, Michael M.T. 1983. Four varieties of Pashto. Journal of the American Oriental Society
103(3). 595597.
Heston, Wilma L. 1987. Pashto ambipositions and historical antecedents. In Elena Bashir, Madhav M.
Deshpande & Peter E. Hook (eds.), Select papers from SALA-7 / South Asian Languages Analysis
Roundtable Conference, 163181. Bloomington, Indiana: Indiana University Linguistics Club.
Heston, Wilma L. 1992. A dictionary of basic Pashto, frequency lists I, project description and samples, and frequency list II. Washington, DC: Office of International Education.
Hewson, John & Vit Bubenik. 2006. From case to adposition: The development of configurational
syntax in Indo-European languages. Amsterdam, Philadelphia: John Benjamins.
Hook, Peter E. 1989. Natural absolutivity in Indo-Aryan. In Proceedings of the fourth meeting of the
Pacific Linguistics Conference, 256265. Eugene, Oregon: University of Oregon.
Hook, Peter E. & M. M. Chauhan. 1988a. On the functions and origin of the extended verb in Southern Rajasthani. Gaveshana 51-52. 3957.
Hook, Peter E. & M. M. Chauhan. 1988b. The perfective adverb in Bhitrauti. WORD 39(3). 177186.
Hook, Peter E. & Dayashankar M. Joshi. 1991. Concordant adverbs and postpositions in Gujarati.
Indian Linguistics 52. 114.
Hook, Peter E. & Omar N. Koul. 2008. Concordant adverbs and discordant adjectives in Kashmiri and
other Indo-Aryan languages. In Omar N. Koul (ed.), Indo-Aryan Linguistics, 6586. Mysore, India:
Central Institute of Indian Languages (CIIL).
Hussain, Sarmad, Nadir Durrani & Sana Gul. 2005. Survey of language computing in Asia. Lahore,
Pakistan: Center for Research in Urdu Language Processing, National University of Computer and
Emerging Sciences.
Ingham, Bruce. 1994. The language situation in Afghanistan. In R. E. Asher (ed.), The encyclopaedia
of language and linguistics, 4647. Oxford, New York, Seoul, Tokyo: Pergamon Press.
Inomkhojayev, Rahmon. 2009. Pashto: An elementary textbook. Indiana: Indiana University, Center
for Languages of the Central Asian Region.
Inomkhojayev, Rahmon. 2011. Pashto: An elementary textbook. Washington: Georgetown University
Press.
Inozemtsev, Igor. 2001. Pashto. In Jane Garry & Carl Rubino (eds.), Facts About the World's Languages: An encyclopedia of the world's major languages: Past and present, 543547. New York:
H.W. Wilson.
Jehani, Carina. 1986. Notes on Pashto grammar and orthography. Uppsala, Sweden: Uppsala University.
Kaisse, Ellen M. 1981. Separating phonology from syntax: A reanalysis of Pashto cliticization. Journal
of Linguistics 17(2). 197208.
Kathol, Andreas, Kristin Precoda, Dimitra Vergyri, Wen Wang & Susanne Riehemann. 2005. Speech
translation for low-resource languages: The case of Pashto. In Interspeech-2005, 22732276.
Khan, Mohammad Abid. 2006. The computational morphology of Pashto nouns the classification.
In 19th European conference on modern South Asian studies. Leiden.
Khan, Mohammad Abid & Fatima-Tuz-Zuhra. 2005. Pashto verbs in the past tense a computational
view. Scientific Khyber 18(2). 243274.

480
Bibliography
Khan, Qazi Rahimulla. 2002. Introduction to Pushtu: An official language of Afghanistan: Romanized.
New York: Hippocrene Books, Inc. Formerly published as The Modern Pushtu Instructor, Peshawar,
1938.
Kieffer, Charles M. 1974. L'Etablissement des cartes phonetiques: premiers resultats [Establishment
of phonetic maps: first results]. Switzerland: Universitt Bern Institut fr Sprachwissenschaft.
Kieffer, Charles M. 1989. Le Pareci, l'Ormuri et le groupe des langues Iraniennes du Sud-Est [Parechi,
Ormuri and the Southeast Iranian language group]. In Rdiger Schmitt (ed.), Compendium Linguarum Iranicarum, 445455. Wiesbaden: Dr. Ludwig Reichert Verlag Wiesbaden.
Knuth, Donald E. 1992. Literate programming (CSLI Lecture Notes 27). Stanford: Center for the Study
of Language and Information.
Kopris, Craig A. 2004. Rapid MT experience in an LCTL (Pashto). In R.E. Frederking & K.B. Taylor
(eds.), Compendium Linguarum Iranicarum, 130133. Berlin and Heidelberg: Springer-Verlag.
Kopris, Craig A. 2009. Endoclitics in Pashto: Can they really do that? In CAASL-3 - third workshop on
computational approaches to Arabic script-based languages, MT Summit XII.
Kopris, Craig A. & Anthony R. Davis. 2005. Endoclitics in Pashto: Implications for lexical integrity.
MMM 5 abstractFrjus 15-18 Sept. 2005.
Kreyenbroek, Philip G. 1994. Pashto. In R.E. Asher (ed.), Encyclopaedia of language and linguistics,
29592960. Oxford: Pergamon Press.
Kshanovski, Oleh. 2011. Verb serialization in modern Persian. In 4th International Conference on
Iranian Linguistics (ICIL 4). Uppsala University, Sweden.
Labov, William. 1994. Principles of linguistic change: Internal factors. Oxford: Blackwell.
Lazard, Gilbert. 1963. La langue des plus anciens monuments de la prose persane [The language of
the oldest monuments of Persian prose]. Paris: Librairie C. Klincksieck.
Lebedev, K.A. 1996. Sintaksis sovremennogo jazyka pushtu [Syntax of modern Pashto]. Moscow:
Izdatel'stvo 'Vostochnaja literature'.
Lebedev, K.A. 2003. Grammatika jazyka pushtu [Grammar of Pashto]. In Afghanistan: jazyki, literatura, etnografija [Afghanistan: Languages, literature, ethnography], 5304. Moscow: Muravej.
Lebedev, K.A. 2004. Prepositions and postpositions in modern standard Pashto. Anatolian Journal of
Clinical Investigation 578. 162166.
Lewis, M. Paul (ed.). 2009. Ethnologue: Languages of the world. Dallas, TX: SIL International, 16th
edn.
Lockwood, W.B. 1972. A panorama of Indo-European languages. London: Hutchinson University
Library.
Lorenz, Manfred. 1982. Lehrbuch des Pashto (Afghanisch) [Pashto (Afghan) textbook]. Leipzig: VEB
Verlag Enzyklopdie.
Lorimer, J. G. 1902. Grammar and vocabulary of Waziri Pashto. Calcutta, India: Office of the Superintendent of Government Printing.
MacKenzie, D.N. 1959. A standard Pashto. Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies
22(1/3). 231235.
MacKenzie, D.N. 1987. Pashto. In Bernard Comrie (ed.), The world's major languages, 547565. New
York: Oxford University Press.
MacKenzie, D.N. 1992. Pashto. In William Bright (ed.), International encyclopedia of linguistics,
vol. 3, 165170. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
MacKenzie, D.N. 2009. Pashto. In Bernard Comrie (ed.), The world's major languages, 460475.
Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2nd edn.
Masica, Colin P. 1976. Defining a linguistic area: South Asia. University of Chicago Press.
Maxwell, Michael. 2007a. Final technical report M.1: Current morphological methods. College Park,
MD: Center for Advanced Study of Language.

Bibliography
481
Maxwell, Michael. 2007b. Final technical report M.5: Standards for lexical and morphological interchange. College Park, MD: Center for Advanced Study of Language.
Maxwell, Michael. forthcoming. A grammar formalism for computational morphology.
Minorsky, V. 1940. The Turkish dialect of the Khalaj. Bulletin of the School of Oriental Studies 10(2).
417437.
Miran, Mohammad Alam. 1969. Major problems of Dari speakers in mastering Pashto morphology.
Master's thesis, University of Texas at Austin.
Miran, Mohammad Alam. 1975. Naming and address in Afghan society. University of Texas at Austin.
Mirdeghan, Mahinnaz. 2010. Persian, Urdu, and Pashto: A comparative orthographic analysis. Writing Systems Research 2(1). 923.
Morgenstierne, Georg. 1932. Report on a linguistic mission to North-Western India. Cambridge, MA:
Harvard University Press.
Morgenstierne, Georg. 1942. Archaisms and innovations in Pushto morphology. Norwegian Journal
of Linguistics XII. 88114.
Morgenstierne, Georg. 2003. Beitrge zur Iranistik [Contributions to Iranian]. In Josef H. Elfenbein, D.N. MacKenzie & Nicholas Sims-Williams (eds.), Band 23: A new etymological vocabulary of
Pashto. Wiesbaden: Dr. Ludwig Reichert Verlag.
Morgenstierne, Georg & A. Lloyd-James. 1928. Notes on the pronunciation of Pashto (Dialect of the
Hazara district). Bulletin of the School of Oriental Studies 5(1). 5362.
Nyrop, Richard F. & Donal M. Seekins (eds.). 1986. Afghanistan: A country study. Claitor's Publishing
Division.
Pashtoon, Naseer Hoonar & Zeeya A. Pashtoon. 2006. A handbook of Pashto verbal conjugation.
Hyattsville, MD: Dunwoody Press.
Pashtoon, Zeeya A. 2009. Pashto-English dictionary. Hyattsville, MD: Dunwoody Press.
Pate, David M. 2012. Second position clitics and subordinate te clauses in Pashto. Master's thesis,
Graduate Institute of Applied Linguistics.
Patil, V. T. 2004. Dictionary, English-Pushto, language of the Afghans = Inglisi-Pushtuqamus revised
edn. New Delhi: Star Publications.
Payne, John R. 1987. The Iranian languages. In Bernard Comrie (ed.), The world's major languages,
514522. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Payne, John R. 1989. Pamir languages. In R. Schmitt (ed.), Compendium Linguarum Iranicarum,
Pence, James Monroe. 1968. A tagmemic grammar of Pashto clause structure. Ann Arbor Michigan,
University Microfilms.
Penzl, Herbert. 1951. Afghan descriptions of the Afghan Pashto verb. Journal of the American Oriental Society 71(2).
Penzl, Herbert. 1955. A grammar of Pashto: A descriptive study of the dialect of Kandahar,
Afghanistan. Washington, DC: American Council of Learned Societies.
Penzl, Herbert. 1959. Standard Pashto and other dialects of Pashto. Afghanistan 14(3). 814.
Penzl, Herbert. 1961. Western loanwords in modern Pashto. Journal of the American Oriental Society
81(1). 4352.
Phillott, D.C. 1919. Higher Persian Grammar VI: for the use of the Calcutta University. Baptist Mission
Press: Calcutta, India.
Rabbi, Ihsan, Mohammad Khan & Rahman Ali. 2008. Developing a tagset for Pashto part of speech
tagging. In Second international conference on electrical engineering. Lahore, Pakistan: University of Engineering and Technology.
Raverty, Henry G. 1859. A grammar of the Pukhto, Pushto, or language of the Afghans: In which
the rules are illustrated by examples from the best writers both poetical and prose; together with
translations from the Articles of War; and remarks on the language, literature, and descent of the

482
Bibliography
Afghan tribes. Calcutta: Baptist Mission Press, 2nd edn. Reprinted by Asian Educational Services,
2001.
Raverty, Henry G. 1867. A dictionary of the Puk'hto, Pus'hto, or language of the Afghans: with remarks on the originality of the language, and its affinity to the Semitic and other Oriental tongues.
London: Williams and Norgate. Reprinted by Asian Educational Services, 2001.
Raverty, Henry G. 1880. The Pushto manual: Comprising a concise grammar, exercises and dialogues,
familiar phrases, proverbs, and vocabulary. London: W. H. Allen & Co.
Redard, Georges. 1974. Etat des travaux et publication. quelques cartes onomasiologiques [State of
travels and publication. Some onomasiological maps.]. L'Atlas linguistique des parlers iraniens:
Atlas de l'Afghanistan 13. 719.
Rensch, Calvin R., Sandra J. Decker & Daniel G. Hallberg. 1992. Languages of Kohistan. In Clare F.
O'Leary (ed.), Sociolinguistic survey of northern Pakistan. Islamabad: National Institute of Pakistan Studies, Quaid-i-Azam University and Summer Institute of Linguistics.
Resnik, Philip, Mari B. Olsen & Mona Diab. 1999. The Bible as a parallel corpus: Annotating the
Book of 2000 tongues. Computers and Humanities 33. 129153.
Rishtin, P. S. 1994. Pashto grammar. Peshawar: University Book Agency, Khyber Bazar.
Roberts, Taylor. 1997. The optimal second position in Pashto. In Social Sciences and Humanities
Research Council of Canada and the MIT Working Papers in Linguistics.
Roberts, Taylor. 1998. Pashto dictionary. http://www.yorku.ca/twainweb/troberts/pashto/pashlex1.html.
Roberts, Taylor. 2000. Clitics and agreement. Ph.D. thesis, MIT.
Roberts, Taylor. 2001a. Deriving second position. Canadian Journal of Linguistics 46(1/2). 127153.
Roberts, Taylor. 2001b. Split-agreement and ergativity in Pashto. Kurdica 5.3.
Ruhlen, Merritt. 1987. A guide to the world's languages. volume 1: Classification. Stanford: Stanford
University Press.
Septfonds, Daniel. 1989. Du Pashto standard au Wanetsi: /kawl/ ou /kl/? note de dialectologie Pashto [From standard Pashto to Wanetsi: /kawl/ or /kl/? Pashto dialectology note].
In Charles-Henri de Fouchcour & Philippe Gignoux (eds.), tudes irano-aryennes offertes
Gilbert Lazard [Irano-Aryan studies offered for Gilbert Lazard], 297313. Paris: Association pour
L'avancement des tudes Iraniennes.
Septfonds, Daniel. 1994. Le Dzadrni: Un parler pashto du Paktya (Afghanistan) [Dzadrani: a Pashto
dialect of Paktya (Afghanistan)]. Louvain, Paris: Peeters.
Septfonds, Daniel. 1997. Anti-impersonal constructions in Pashto. Studi Italiani di Linguistica
Teorica e Applicata 26(2).
Septfonds, Daniel. 2006. Pashto. In Keith Brown (ed.), Encyclopedia of language & linguistics,
231235. Boston: Elsevier.
Shafeev, D. A. 1964. A short grammatical outline of Pashto. Bloomington: Indiana University.
Skalmowski, Wojciech. 1996. Dative counterparts in Pashto. In William van Belle & Willy van Langendonck (eds.), The dative, volume 1, descriptive studies, 395406. Amsterdam and Philadelphia:
John Benjamins.
Skjrv, Prods O. 1989. Pashto. In Rdiger Schmitt (ed.), Compendium Linguarum Iranicarum,
Spain, James W. 1962. The way of the Pathans. London: Robert Hale Limited.
Sproat, Richard. 2000. A computational theory of writing systems. Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press.
Stayton, Bob. 2005. DocBook XSL: The complete guide. Santa Cruz: SageHill Enterprises, 3rd edn.
Takahashi, Naoko. 2008. Split ergativity in Pashto. Journal of School of Foreign Languages 35. 129
152.
Tegey, Habibullah. 1977. The grammar of clitics: evidence from Pashto and other languages. Ph.D.
thesis, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign.

Bibliography 483
Tegey, Habibullah. 1979. Ergativity in Pushto (Afghani). In I. Rauch & G. Carr (eds.), Linguistic
Method: Essays in honor of Herbert Penzl, vol. 79, Janua Linguarum Series Maior, 369418. The
Hague: Mouton.
Tegey, Habibullah & Barbara Robson. 1992. Pashto reader passages in transcription. Washington,
D.C.: Center for Applied Linguistics.
Tegey, Habibullah & Barbara Robson. 1993a. Beginning Pashto: Textbook & workbook revised edition.
Washington, D.C.: Center for Applied Linguistics.
Tegey, Habibullah & Barbara Robson. 1993b. Intermediate Pashto: Textbook & workbook revised
edition. Washington, D.C.: Center for Applied Linguistics.
Tegey, Habibullah & Barbara Robson. 1993c. Pashto-English glossary for the CAL Pashto materials.
Washington, D.C.: Center for Applied Linguistics, Office of International Education.
Tegey, Habibullah & Barbara Robson. 1996. A reference grammar of Pashto. Center for Applied
Linguistics.
Trumpp, Ernest. 1873. Grammar of the Pt or language of the Afghns, compared with the rnian
and North-Indian idioms. London: Messrs. Trbner & Co.
Walsh, Norman & Leonard Muellner. 1999. DocBook: the definitive guide. Sebastopol, CA: O'Reilly &
Associates, Inc.
Watt, Shah Mahmood Ghazi. 2003. Afghan transitional Islamic administration ministry of communications: Computer locale requirements for Afghanistan. United Nations Development Programme.
Weinreich, Matthias. 2001. Die Pashto-Sprecher des Karakorum: Zur Migrationsgeschichte einer
ethno-linguistischen Minderheit [The Pashto speakers of the Karakoram: Toward a migration
history of an ethno-linguistic minority]. Iran & the Caucasus 5. 107132.
Weinreich, Matthias. 2005. Pashto im Karakorum: Zur Sprachsituation und Sprache einer ethnolinguistischen Minderheit [Pashto in the Karakorum: On the language and linguistic situation of an
ethno-linguistic minority]. Iran & the Caucasus 9(2). 301330.
Wikipedia. 2010. Pashtun tribes. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pashtun_tribes.
Wilber, Donald N. 1962. Afghanistan: Its people, its society, its culture. New Haven: HRAF Press.
Yapp, M. E. 2010. Ysufzay. In P. Bearman, Th. Bianqius, C. E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel &
W. P. Heinrichs (eds.), Encyclopaedia of Islam. University of Maryland: Brill Online. URL
http://www.brillonline.nl/subscriber/entry?entry=islam_SIM-8051.
Yarowsky, David. 2002. Modeling and learning multilingual inflectional morphology in a minimally
supervised framework. Ph.D. thesis, Johns Hopkins.
Zuhra, Fatima & Mohammad Abid Khan. 2009. A corpus-based finite state morphological analyzer
for Pashto. In Conference on language & technology 2009.
Zyar, M. A. 2000. A English-Pashto dictionary of prepositions & postpositions, expressions, idioms,
translation & comparison. Peshawar: Sopi's Center of Pashto Research and Development.
Zyar, M. A. 2003. Pashto grammar. Peshawar: Danish Publishing Association, Qissa Khwani Bazar.

Index
Abbreviations 4
Adjectives 103
as adverbs 391
as complements of denominal verbs
201
as nouns 155
animacy of 155
inflection of 79
attributive vs. predicative 154
Class I 104
animate 109
derivational suffixes 150
dialect variation 104
ending in /-gr/ 105
ending in /-jn/ 105
ending in /-mn/ 105
ending in /-wr/ 105
forms with stem allomorphy 104, 105
forms without stem allomorphy 107
in Middle dialects 121
regularization toward 104, 119
Class II 109
diphthongization 113
forms with stem allomorphy 110, 111
forms without stem allomorphy 115
Class III 116
Class IIIa derivational suffixes 152
IIIa 116
IIIb 118, 246, 247
Class IV 119
derivational suffixes 152
loanwords 119
comparative 156
with /l...na/ 349
with /tr/ 323
compound 153
derivation of 150
by compounding 153
Class I suffixes 150
Class IIIa suffixes 152
Class IV suffixes 152
from loanwords 152
from participles 116
from verbs 118
in conjunctive constructions 97
inflection 45, 103
comparable to noun inflection 103
inflectional classes see Adjectives;
Class I, etc.
interrogative 147
count and non-count 148
negative
derived with /be-/ 152
derived with /n/ 153
number names see Number names
participles as
past 247
present 246, 303
predicative 154
reduplication of 153
superlative 156
see also Adjectives; comparative
usage 154
verbs derived from 200, 202
Adpositions 305
/be/ 317
/be (n)/ 317
/be l...na/ 351
/bondi/ 329
/bnde/ 328
/de/ 314
/de ... kra/ 337
see also Location; constructions with
/kara/

Index
possessive use 313

see also Adpositions; /d/
/d/ 312
/d d...pra/, /d...l pra/ 337
/d...lnde/ 334
/d...l amala/ 341
/d...l lure/ 345
/d...l psa/ 314
/d...l xw/ 343
/d...na/ 156, 334
/d...pore/ 335
/d...p bbi/ 339
/d...p bra ke/ 339
/d...p lor/ 343
/d...p mx ke/ 340
/d...p n/ 342
/d...p y/ 339
/d...p er/ 343
/d...sra/ 335
/d...tsxa/ 335
/d...xa/ 156
alternation with /l/ 316
expressing possession 163
fusion with pronouns 313, 363
in complex adpositions 313
in possessive interrogatives 178
in postpositional phrases 334
variant /l/ see Adpositions; /l/
with ablative case 309
word order of /d/ clauses 424
/e/ 314
/e...sra/ 336
/kxe/ 329
/la/, /lara/
as variants of /ta/ 326
/leka/ 324
modal constructions with /e/ 325
/londi/ 329
/l...na/ 348
assigns oblique case 48
complex circumpositions with 350
485
in comparatives 349
in superlatives 349
/l/ 316, 346
/l...lnde/ 347
/l...na bahar/ 350
/l...na pxw/ 350
/l...na/ 156, see Adpositions; /l...na/
/l...sra/ 346
/l...xa/ 347
alternation with /d/ 316
assigns ablative case 48
in expressions of preference 452
/na/ 329
vs. ablative case-marking 363
/prata l...na/ 351
/pre/ see Adpositions; /p/; variant
/pre/
/pse/ 329
/p/
/p...bnde/ 355, 441
/p...ke/ 354
/p...nde/ 356
/p...pse/ 354
causative with animate objects 320,
356, 363
in aspectual constructions 322
in circumpositions 353
in manner phrases 320
instrumental use 319
locational use 318
manner adverbs 382
temporal use 320
variant /pre/ 360
variant /pr/ 317
/sra/ 327
reciprocal constructions with 385
/ta/ 326
elided in /kara/ 361
/tre/ see Adpositions; /tr/; variant /tre/
/tr/ 323
/tr...londe/ 357

486
Index
/tr...lnde/ 358
/tr...pere/ 357
/tr...pore/ 357
in circumpositions 357
in comparatives 156, 323
variant /tre/ 360
/wrusta/
/wrusta l...(na)/ 351
/w/ 359
/wnde/ 328
/ye/ 314
/ye...n/ 337
in complex phrases 315
/zidi/ 327
as negator 153
/unde/ 328
adpositional phrases
overview of syntax 424
structure of 400
word order 424
ambipositions 305
and case assignment 306
as adverbs 306
circumpositions 305, 329
complex 337
complex circumpositional constructions with /d/ 313
incomplete 326
oblique pronominal clitics not governed by 365
omission of preposition 348
table of circumpositional elements
330
table of Middle vs. Standard forms
333
with /d/ 334
with /l/ 346
with /p/ 353
complex 305
with /d/ 313
in comparatives and superlatives 156
objects of
in ablative case 48, 308
in direct case 309
in oblique case 48, 307
mixed case-marking inside 311
omission of pronoun objects 364
postpositions 305, 325
postpositional phrases 334
with oblique pronominal clitics 365
prepositions 305, 312
omitted from circumpositions 348
usage 362
vs. /kara/ 361
weak pronouns not allowed as objects
of 167
Adverbs
adjectives as 391
adpositions as 306
agreement of 391
Arabic loanwords 387
interrogatives as 388
of degree 386
of manner 382
of place 380
of time 378
with // 438
Affixes 209
/-(a)war/
derived Class I adjective 151
/-(w)o/
Class IV oblique plural adjective (variant) 119
/-(y)n/
Class I masculine direct singular animate noun (M) 61
/-a/, /-/
feminine Class I derived noun 71
feminine Class I noun 67

Index
/-an/
Arabic adverbs 387
/-aw-/
causative verb 227
/-ay/
masculine Class III direct singular
adjective 116, 122
masculine Class III direct singular
noun 80
/-ba/
derived nouns: master, keeper 73
/-e/
Class II oblique plural adjective (M)
122
masculine Class III vocative singular adjective (W) 118
/-e/, /-ye/
masculine Class I derived noun 55
/-ed, edl-/
past tense intransitive verb 214
/-eg/
present tense intransitive verb 214
/-in/
/-iz/
/-jn/
/-man/
/-ya/
masculine Class III vocative singular adjective (E) 118
/-y/
Class III oblique plural and feminine
adjective (M) 122
/-m/
ordinal numbers 105, 144, 151
/-/
Class II adjective (M) 122
/-n/
masculine plural Arabic noun 95
487
/-na/
masculine Class I plural inanimate
noun 51, 52
/-n/
masculine direct singular animate
adjective 108
/-ne/
feminine direct singular animate adjective 108
/-no/
oblique animate adjective 108
/-t/
masculine plural Arabic noun 95
/-ma/
first person singular (poetic) 191
/-y/
feminine Class III direct singular noun
80
/-l-/
infinitive verb 194
optional/prohibited in some past bases
215
past tense transitive verb 214, 254
second conjugation infinitive verb
199
/-m/
ordinal numbers (W) 144, 151
/be-/
derived negative adjective 152
/n/
derived negative adjective 153
/w-/
first conjugation aorist verb 197, 204
on infinitive in periphrastic passive
300
/(a)ny/
derived Class IIIa adjective 152
/dr/
/gn/, /-n/
masculine Class I plural animate noun
51, 52, 55

488
Index
/nk/
/wl/
/wl/
derived Class IV adjective 152
/y/
derived Class IIIa adjective 152
//
derived Class IV adjective 152
//
masculine Class II singular or direct
plural adjective 111
adjectival derivational suffixes 152
Middle dialect personal endings 194
table of derivational noun suffixes 98
table of verbal affixes 187
verbal prefixes
as second-position clitics 209
deictic 172, 198
derivational 191, 198
Allomorphy
of adjectives
Class I 104, 105
Class II 110, 111
of nouns 45, 52
Class I 55, 62, 67, 69
Class IIa 75
Ambipositions see Adpositions; ambipositions
Animacy 50
grammatical vs. natural 51
human vs. nonhuman objects 176
in adpositional constructions with /p/
320, 356, 363
of adjectives
Class I 109
used as nouns 155
of nouns 50
and gender 45
and stem allomorphy 55
Class II 73
grammatically inanimate 62
kinship terms 93
switching animacy categories 68
Aspect 185
aorist
as subjunctive with present base 252
contracted denominal verbs separable in 202
definition 203
first conjugation base 204
negative placement in 406
no negative imperatives in 260
of a-initial verbs 197
periphrastic passive in 300
position of enclitics 404
second conjugation base 209
third conjugation base 210
aorist optative 263
constructions with /p/ 322
continuous
contracted vs. uncontracted denominal verbs in 202
definition 204
continuous optative 261
imperfective see Aspect; continuous
perfective see Aspect; aorist
Case
ablative 48
instrumental usage 48
objects of adpositions in 48, 308,
317
of adjectives 103
vs. postposition /na/ 363
accusative
expressed with the oblique 162
in Arabic loanwords 387
adpositions and
case assignment 306

Index
mixed case-marking in adpositional

objects 311
direct 48
identical to ablative in feminine nouns
48
in present tense 48
in strong pronouns 157
objects of adpositions in 309
predicative adjectives in 154
strong pronouns and 162
with intransitive verbs 48
ergativity and 448
instrumental
causative with instrumental circumposition 441
expressed by /p/ 319
oblique 48
in objects of adpositional phrases
334
in past tense 48
in possessives 163
in pronominal phrases 365
marking direct object 162
objects of adpositions in 48, 307
with transitive verbs 48
syntax of case-marking 448
vocative 49
identical to ablative in masculine nouns
48
of adjectives used as nouns 156
particles assigning 375
variant forms in Class III adjectives
118
weak pronouns and 166
with verbs of sensation 450
Causation see Verbs; causative
Circumpositions see Adpositions; circumpositions
489
Clauses
subordinate see Subordinate clauses
Comparative see Adjectives; comparative
Conditionals see Subordinate clauses;
with /k/; conditional clauses
Conjunctions 442
coordinating 443
/aw/ 'and' 443
/by/ 'then' 446
/xo/ 'but' 445
/y/ 'or' 444
omission of in conjoined verb phrases
443
correlative 446
/ham...aw ham/ 'both...and' 446
/k...no/ 'if...then' 447
/n yawze...balki/ 'not only...but
also' 446
/n...n/ 'neither...nor' 447
/y...y/ 'either...or' 447
exclusive 447
inclusive 446
subordinating
// see Particles; subordinating; //
compounds with // 440
Consonants
elegant see Pronunciation; consonants;
elegant
Determiners
demonstrative 124
distal 128
medial 127
proximal 124
indefinite 130
quantifiers see Quantifiers
Dialect
about Pashto dialects 31
approaches used in this book 34
Central
adposition /d/ in 312

490
Index
Eastern 41
adposition /d/ in 312
Class II adjectives 113
Class IIIb adjectives 118
forms of particle // 425
unreduced strong possessive pronouns 163
five-dialect approach 32
four-dialect approach 35
international differences 36
map of dialect regions 32
Middle 37
a-initial verbs 207
adjectives 121
adposition /l/ unattested in 316
aspectual constructions 322
circumposition /w ... ta/ 326
circumpositions 332
consonants 39
existential constructions 368
independent postpositions 329
omission of first circumpositional
component 329, 330
pronouns 157
vowels 13
Waziri metaphony 37, 357
Northeast 35
elision of weak pronouns 169
negative imperatives 258
component 347, 348
Northern 41
existential constructions 368
component 330
Northwest 35
case marking with /p/, /pr/ 318
negative imperatives 258
component 347, 348
soft vs. hard 41
Southeast 35
Southern 41
Southwest 8, 35
case marking with /p/, /pr/ 318
circumposition /tr ... pore/ 323
present aorist forms of /kedl/ 236
three-dialect approach 42
two-dialect approach 40
variation 8, 32
cardinal numbers 137
circumpositional combinations 330
independent postpositions 326, 330
morphology 32
noun class membership 62
Western 41
forms of particle // 425
interrogative particle 417
omission of postposition /pori/ 357
ordinal numbers 144
vowel mutation in Class I adjectives
104, 105
vowel mutation in ordinal numbers
105
Dictionaries 459
Distance
distal demonstratives 176
distal strong pronoun 157
medial demonstratives 173
proximal demonstratives 172
Dzadrani see Dialect; Middle
Echo words see Reduplication
Emphasis
emphatic particle 375
marked by strong pronouns 161
Ergativity 50, 186
and case 448
see also Verbs
Existential

Index
491
particle /ta/ 367

see also Particles; existential
questions 418
statements 421
future
with modal clitic /b/ 274, 369
optative
with optative particle /kke/ 374
Gender
lack of gender distinction
in demonstratives 172
in interrogative pronouns 177
in number names 133
in optative 261
in proximal demonstratives 124, 126
of nouns 45
in Class III 80
irregular 92
loanwords 95
plural formation 46
see also Nouns; gender
of verbs 185
Human vs. non-human distinctions see
Animacy
Loanwords 102
adjectives derived from 152
Arabic
adjectives 119
adverbs 387
interjections 377
nouns 95
gender assignment 92
Hindi/Urdu
as dialect signifier 37
Persian
adjectives 119
as dialect signifier 37
Location
adverbs of place 380
constructions with /kara/ 361
constructions with /p/, /pr/ 318
in relative clauses 428
locative alternation 413
Indirect discourse see Reported speech

Infinitive see Verbs; infinitive
Instrumental see Case; instrumental
Interjections see Particles; interjections
Interrogation
adverbial interrogatives 388
as indefinites 390
affirmation questions 374, 419
existential questions 418
interrogative adjectives 147
interrogative particle /y/ 417
interrogative pronouns 176
in temporal clauses 434
with interrogative pronouns 418
word order 417
Irrealis
counterfactual
with subordinating particle /k/ 436
Manner
adverbs of 382
constructions with /p/ 320
Modals
/kedl/ as modal auxiliary 293
constructions with /leka e/ 325
in present aorist constructions 275
Mood 185
imperative 258
continuous vs. aorist 260
negative 258, 286
of to be 229
positive commands in present continuous 284
syntax of commands 419
usage 283
optative

492
Index
aorist 294
of kinship terms 93
continuous 294
counterfactual constructions with /kaki/ Class I 52
373
animate 55
expressing potential 293
derived feminine nouns 71
lack of PNG distinction in 261
derived masculine nouns 55
particle /kke/ 261, 373
feminine nouns 67
inanimate 62
Negative
inflected as Class II 64
adjectives
kinship terms in // 62
derived with /be-/ 152
overlap with Class IIb 79
derived with /n/ 153
plural formation 55
aorist phrases 406
professional titles 55, 61
correlative conjunctions 446
sample paradigms: feminine animate
existential 367
67
future tense 407
sample paradigms: feminine inani infixation in 409
mate 70
imperative 258
sample paradigms: masculine ani only in continuous aspect 260
mate 55
with particle /m/ 286
sample paradigms: masculine inan indefinite pronouns 181, 390
imate 62
of perfect constructions 291
sample paradigms: Middle dialects
of potential constructions 298
61, 64, 71
particles 404
stem allomorphy in 55, 62, 67, 69
/m/ 258, 420
/m/ 286
Class II 73
/n/ 404
alternate inflection of Class I nouns
/n ta/ 367
64
present tense 272
animacy of 73
quantifiers 132
gender of 73
with /zidi/ 153
IIa 73, 75
Nominalization see Nouns; deverbal
IIb 73, 79
Nouns 45
abstract 46
sample paradigms: class IIa 75
adjectives as 155
sample paradigms: class IIb 79
inflection of 79
stem allomorphy: class IIa 75
animacy 50
stem allomorphy: class IIb 79
and gender 45
Class III 80
and stem allomorphy 55
gender of 80
Class I nouns 55
IIIa 84
of grammatically inanimate nouns
IIIa: ethnic denominations 84
62
IIIa: feminine 85

Index
IIIb 87
IIIb: feminine 88
IIIb: masculine 84, 87
sample paradigms: IIIa feminine 85
sample paradigms: IIIa masculine
84
sample paradigms: IIIb feminine 88
sample paradigms: IIIb masculine
87
sample paradigms: Middle dialects
89
stress 80, 89
collective see Nouns; mass
compound 101
derivation of 98
by compounding 101
by suffixes 98
feminine nouns in /a/, // 71
from adjectives 155
masculine nouns in /-e/, /-ye/ 55
deverbal 313
formation of
deverbal 313
feminine nouns in /a/, // 67
gender 45
in Class II 73
in Class III 80
of abstract nouns 46
of derived nouns 55
of irregular nouns 92
of loanwords 95
plural formation 46
governing relative clauses 428
infinitives as 194, 300
inflection 45
irregular 92
kinship terms 93
Class I in // 62
493
loanwords
class and gender assignment 92
from Arabic 95
mass 46
interrogative adjectives specifying
148
noun classes 51
dialectal variation in class membership 62, 92
of irregular nouns 92
number of 46
quantifiers as 130
reduplication 101
stem allomorphy in 45, 52
subordinate noun clauses 429
used for reported speech 432
syntax of noun phrases 399
verbs derived from 200
contracted vs. uncontracted denominal verbs 201
Number
in loanwords 95
lack of number distinction
in demonstratives 172
in interrogative pronouns 177
in optative 261
in proximal demonstratives 124
in weak pronouns 164
of nouns 46
Arabic loanwords 95
irregular plural forms 92
mass nouns 46
of verbs 185
Number names 132
/yaw/ as indefinite determiner 130
cardinal 133
counting 137
inventory 137
morphology 133

494
Index
in time expressions with /p/, /pr/

322
ordinal 144
declined like Class I adjectives 105
Orthography see Spelling
Participles 185, 246
agreement of 265
aorist 249
in future perfect tense 289
in past perfect tense 290
verbs using 249
as adjectives 116
declension of 246
past 247
as adjectives 247
irregular forms 249
present 246
as adjectives 246
as noun modifiers 303
Particles 367
adverbial
/no/ 404
/xo/ 404
affirmative
/k na/ 374, 419
deictoids 169
deictic prefixes 172, 198
directional verbal clitics 171
oblique pronominal clitics 170, 365
emphatic
/xo/ 375
enclitics 403
existential
/n ta/ 367
/ta/ 367, 418
future
/b/ 274, 275, 369, 403
in separable verb constructions see Particles; enclitics

interjections 376
Arabic loanwords 377
onomatopoetic 376
to call animals 376
to express emotion 376
interrogative
/y/ 417
modal 369
/byad/ 373
/de/ 372, 403
/yi/ 373
see also Particles; future; /b/
negative
/m/ 258, 404, 420
/m/ 286
/n/ 404
/n ta/ 367
optative
/kaki/ 373
/kke/ 261
pronominal see Pronouns, weak
second-position clitics 404
modal clitic /b/ 369
verbal prefixes 209
weak pronouns 166
subordinating
/k/ 435, 436
/no/ 438
/p de / 439
/wale / 439
/e/ 325
// 181, 425
/ka 436
vocative 375
weak personal pronouns 403
word order 424
dialectal variation 258
in separable verb constructions 404
Pashto

Index
about 7
dialects 8
see also Dialect
history 8
phonology 8
speakers 7
variation 8
Passive 414
adpositional constructions
with /d... l lure/ 345
with /d... l xw/ 343
periphrastic with infinitive 212
as third conjugation verb 212
Person
lack of person distinction
in optative 261
in weak pronouns 164
of verbs 185, 191
Phonology 9
dialectal variation 8, 32
consonants in Middle dialects 39
glide insertion 207
lenition of possessive /d/ 163
Waziri metaphony 37
of denominal verbs 201
vowel variation in deictoids 170
see also Allomorphy
see also Pronunciation
Plurality see Number
Possession
constructions with strong pronouns
163
constructions with weak pronouns 168
in conditions of coreference 182
in interrogatives 178
with /d/ 313
Postpositions see Adpositions; postpositions
Prepositions see Adpositions; prepositions
Pro-drop 161
495
Pronouns 157
coreferential 181
/xpl/ 182
vs. possessive 181
demonstrative 172
as dummy subject 430
distinguished from distal strong pronoun 157
proximal 172
vs. determiners 172
indefinite see Pronouns; interrogative;
as indefinites
indexical vs. anaphoric 160
interrogative 176
as adverbials 388
as indefinites 179, 390
as relatives 181
human 176
in temporal clauses 434
non-human 178
possessive 178
omission of 161
ergativity and 448
in adpositional phrases 364
see also Pro-drop
overview 157
personal see Pronouns; strong
reciprocal 184
vs. adpositional constructions 385
relative 181
interrogative pronouns as 181
subordinating particle // 425
resumptive 426
strong 157
agreement 161
as emphatics 161
distal 157
fusion with /d/ 313, 363
in past tense 161
in present tense 161

496
Index

possessive 163, 313
replacing verbal enclitic 405
vs. demonstratives 160
weak 164
agreement 166
in past tense 166
in possessive constructions 168
in present tense 166
lack of case distinction in 166
not allowed as objects of adpositions
167
omission of 166
person and number syncretism in
164
position in sentence 411
see also Particles; enclitics
resumptive pronouns 426
see also Pronouns; resumptive
sentential stress and 166
with transitive verbs 166, 422
word order 404, 421
Pronunciation 37
consonants 9
elegant 9
vowels 11
dialectal variation 32
elegant 13
Waziri metaphony 37
see also Phonology
Prosody see Stress
Purpose see Subordinate clauses; with
//; purpose clauses
Quantifiers 130
as determiners 131
as nouns 130
Reduplication
echo words 393
full vs. partial 393
in interjections
onomatopoetic 376
to call animals 376
of adjectives 153
of adverbs 392
of coreferential pronoun /xpl/ 182
of interrogatives 390
of nouns 101
of number names 146
Relative clauses see Subordinate clauses;
with //; relative clauses
// + interrogative 181
Reported speech 432
Script 15
representation of vowels 25
Spelling 1, 15
international differences 36
Pashto-specific letters 16
transcription 28
table of characters 18
variation 29
Split ergativity see Ergativity
Stem allomorphy see Allomorphy
Stress 15
sentential
and weak pronouns 166
negative aorist phrases 406
with future particle /b/ 370
word
Class I and Class II adjectives 103
Class III nouns 89
Class IIIa adjectives 116
Class IV adjectives 119
demonstrative determiners 124, 126
demonstratives 172
in deictoids 170

Index
negatives 272
second conjugation aorist base 209,
217
strong pronouns vs. demonstratives
160
third conjugation aorist base 210
verbal group 404
with directional verbal clitics 171
with oblique pronominal clitics 170
Subordinate clauses 425
with /k/
conditional clauses 435
irrealis clauses 275
with /no/
result clauses 438
with // 425
adverbial clauses 438
irrealis clauses 275
noun clauses 429
other subordinating conjunctions 440
purpose clauses 439
relative clauses 181, 425, 427
reported speech 432
temporal clauses 434
word order 437
with /ka/
reason, cause, and result clauses
436
see also Particles; subordinating
Superlative see Adjectives; comparative
Syntax
adpositional phrases 424
agreement 448
commands 419
conjunction 442
noun phrases 399
passive clauses 414
sentence types 410
subordinate clauses 425
see also Subordinate clauses
verb phrases 401
497
Tense 185
and case-marking 448
future
negative 407
with particle /b/ 275
with present aorist + /b/ 275
with present continuous + /ba/ 273
future perfect 289
past
/-l-/ in past bases 215
ergativity and 50
expressing potential in 294
oblique case and 48
oblique case in 48
strong pronouns in 161
weak pronouns in 166
past aorist 256
usage 281
past continuous 254
usage 279
past perfect 267, 290
past potential 268
perfect constructions
future perfect 289
negatives in 291
past perfect 290
present perfect 287
present
direct case in 48
ergativity and 50
expressing potential in 293
strong pronouns in 161
weak pronouns in 166
present aorist
expressing obligation with 373
in imperatives 229
irrealis constructions in 274
polite requests in 373
usage 274
with purpose clauses 440
present continuous 249

498
Index
in imperatives 284
usage 270
present perfect 265, 287
present potential 268
Time
adverbs of 378
constructions with /p/, /pr/ 320
subordinate clauses of 434
Transcription see Spelling; transcription
Transitivity see Verbs
Verbs 185
/biwl/
table of bases 221
/ixodl/
table of bases 221
/kawl/
as independent verb 204
as verbalizer 200, 228, 229
forms of 239
in light verb constructions 401
table of bases 220
tables of bases in Middle dialects
220
/ked/
in light verb constructions 401
/kedl/
as independent verb 204
as verbalizer 200, 228, 229
forms of 234
in periphrastic passive 212
table of bases 222
tables of bases in Middle dialects
223
/rtll/
table of bases 222
/tll/
table of bases 222
/wl/
table of bases 221
agreement of
in perfect constructions 287

with conjoined subjects 97, 444
with subordinate noun clauses 430
aorist see Aspect; aorist
auxiliary 200
to be see Verbs; to be
see also Verbs, verbalizers
base 186
base vs. stem 214
first conjugation 204
formation from stem 215
of a-inital verbs 204
of weak verbs 215
second conjugation 209
third conjugation 210
types of verbal base 214
causative 227
/a istl/ 441
/constructions with /p 320
constructions with /p/ 356, 363
periphrastic constructions 440
vs. contracted denominals 203
classification 186
a-initial 204
conjugation classes 203
complex
a-initial 196, 204
definition 196
denominal 200
see also Verbs; denominal
in negative future tense 409
prefixed 198, 209
compound 228, 265
future perfect 289
negatives in 291
past perfect 267, 290
past potential 268
potential 293
potential constructions 267
present perfect 265, 287
present potential 268
conjoined verb phrases 443

Index
continuous see Aspect; continuous

denominal 200
adjective agreement in 202
and word order 412
aspect of 202
contracted 200
in first conjugation 210
in imperative constructions 202
lexicalization of 201
negation of 409
of sensation 450
omission of light verb in aorist optative 263
periphrastic passive 212
phonology of 201
uncontracted 200
with adjective complements 201
with conjoined objects 149
with enclitics 405
derivation of 186
a-initial 196
denominal 200
from denominal constructions 200
from nouns or adjectives 200
light verb constructions 401
prefixed verbs 198
first conjugation 196, 204
a-initial 197, 204
causatives 227
formation of aorist base 204
with enclitics 404
see also Verbs; complex; a-initial
imperative see Mood; imperative, see
Mood; imperative
infinitive 185, 194
as citation form 190
as nouns 300
as objects of adpositions 306
formation of 194
in periphrastic passive 212
inflected 300
499
intransitive
denominal 263
direct case and 48
ergativity and 50
formation of denominal 200
predicative adjectives and 154
irregular
past participles 249
to be 229
light verb constructions 401
agreement in 403
denominal 200
middle voice constructions 453
of preference 452
of sensation 450
participles see Participles
passive see Passive
personal endings 191
root see Verbs; base
second conjugation 196, 209
prefixed 198
with enclitics 404
see also Verbs; complex; prefixed
simple verb constructions
aorist optative 263
continuous optative 261
imperative continuous 258
past aorist 256
past continuous 254
present aorist 252
simplex 196
stem
multi-stem verbs 219
one-stem verbs 215
stem classes 212
stem vs. base 214
strong vs. weak verbs 212
table of stem shapes 190
two-stem verbs 218

500
Index
strong
base formation 218, 219
list of 224
multi-stem 219
tables of multi-stem verbs 220
two-stem 218
structure of 187
subjunctive 252
present aorist as 252, 374
see also Irrealis
syntax of noun phrases 401
third conjugation 196, 210
see also Verbs; denominal
to be 228, 229
as copula 269
imperative 229
in existential statements 421
past continuous 269
present aorist 275
transitive
ergativity and 50
formation of denominal 200
locative alternation in three-argument
predicates 413
past tense 48
verbalizers 234
unergative 453
verbalizers 200
/kawl/ 228, 229, 239
/kedl/ 228, 229, 234
aorist participles of 249
transitive 234
weak 215
Vowels
elegant see Pronunciation; vowels; elegant
Word order
denominal verbs and 412
in existential constructions 367
in imperatives 419
in negatives 420
negative aorist phrases 406
negative future 407
in noun phrases 399
in questions 177, 417
in statements 411
ditransitive 413
with multiple pronouns 421
in verb phrases 401
locative alternation 413
of /d/ clauses 424
of adpositional phrases 400
of particles 424
of relative clauses 426
of subject and object 48
of weak pronouns 166
Pashto as verb-final language 410
second-position clitics 166, 404
subordinate clauses 425, 437
Waziri see Dialect; Middle


Descriptive Grammer of Pushto PDF

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Descriptive Grammer of Pushto PDF

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Descriptive Grammer of Pushto PDF

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

What is the book about?

What is the book about?

What topics does it cover regarding Pashto grammar?

What topics does it cover regarding Pashto grammar?

Anne Boyle David

Descriptive Grammar of Pashto and its Dialects

Brought to you by | provisional account

Mouton-CASL Grammar Series

Brought to you by | provisional account

Anne Boyle David

Brought to you by | provisional account

Brought to you by | provisional account

Brought to you by | provisional account

Brought to you by | provisional account

Brought to you by | provisional account

Brought to you by | provisional account

Series Editors Preface

Brought to you by | provisional account

Brought to you by | provisional account

Brought to you by | provisional account

Anne Boyle David

Brought to you by | provisional account

The Pashto Language 7

Brought to you by | provisional account

Brought to you by | provisional account

Waziri Class I feminine nouns 71

Brought to you by | provisional account

Class IIIa 116

Brought to you by | provisional account

Weak personal pronouns 164

Brought to you by | provisional account

Strong verbs (more than one stem) 217

Brought to you by | provisional account

Past aorist 281

The prepositions /p/, /pr/ 317

Brought to you by | provisional account

The optative particle /kke/ 373

Brought to you by | provisional account

Adverbs of place 380

Brought to you by | provisional account

Brought to you by | provisional account

Formatting the grammar for viewing 464

Sources of Pashto Data 467

Class I, stem alternation:

Brought to you by | provisional account

Pashto (Eastern Arabic) numerals 24

Phonological variation among major Pashto dialects 33

GP Class I Masc. noun suffixes 53

Brought to you by | provisional account

Waziri Class I Masc. inanimate: /daftr/ office 66

GP Class I Fem. animate/inanimate:

GP Class IIIa Fem. inanimate: /lki/ trickiness 87

Brought to you by | provisional account

xxvi List of Tables

Waziri Class III Masc. inanimate: /paty/ star 91

GP Class I adjective suffixes 104

GP Class II, consonant-final adjective, no stem allomorphy:

Brought to you by | provisional account

Proximal demonstrative /d/ 124