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Introduction to Statistics
By
Dr. Vishal Singh Patyal

Learning Objectives
In this chapter, you will learn:

What is Statistics
Why Statistics
Basic vocabulary used in Statistics
How statistics is used in Business
The sources of data and its types used in Business
Types of Variables
Level of Management
Tabular and Graphical Presentation of Data

Introduction to Statistics

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Introduction to Statistics

What is Statistics?
The science of collecting, describing, and interpreting data.
Statistics is a way to get information from data
Statistics
Data

Data: Facts, especially

numerical facts, collected
together for reference or
information.

Information
Information: Knowledge
communicated
concerning some
particular fact.

Statistics is a tool for creatingIntroduction

new understanding
from a set of numbers.
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Why Study Statistics?

Decision Makers Use Statistics To:
Present and describe business data and information properly
Draw conclusions about large populations, using information
collected from samples
Make reliable forecasts about a business activity
Improve business processes

Introduction to Statistics

Types of Statistics
Statistics
The branch of mathematics that transforms data into
useful information for decision makers.

Descriptive Statistics

Inferential Statistics

Collecting, summarizing,
and describing data

Drawing conclusions
and/or making decisions
concerning a population
based only on sample data

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Descriptive Statistics
Collect data
ex. Survey
Present data
ex. Tables and graphs
Characterize data
ex. Sample mean = X i
n

Collect
Organize
Summarize
Display
AnalyzeIntroduction to Statistics

Inferential Statistics
Estimation
ex. Estimate the population
mean weight using the sample
mean weight
Hypothesis testing
ex. Test the claim that the
population mean weight is 120
pounds

Predict and forecast values

of population parameters
Test hypotheses about
values of population
parameters
Make decisions

Drawing conclusions and/or making decisions concerning a population

basedIntroduction
on sample
results.
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Example
A recent study examined the QUANT and VERBAL CAT scores of
students across the country.
Which of the following
statements are descriptive in nature and which are inferential.
The mean QUANT CAT score was 492. D
The mean VERBAL SAT score was 475. D
Students in the Northeast scored higher in QUANT but lower
in VERBAL. I
80% of all students taking the exam were headed for IIMs. I
32% of the students scored above 610 on the VERBAL CAT. D
The QUANT CAT scores are higher than they were 10 years
ago. I
Introduction to Statistics

Basic Vocabulary of Statistics

Population
A population consists of all the items or individuals about
which you want to draw a conclusion.
A population is the group of all items of interest to a
statistics practitioner.
frequently very large; sometimes infinite.
E.g. All 1.252 Billion Indian population i.e. census data.
Sample
A subset of the population.
A sample is a set of data drawn from the population.
Potentially very large, but less than the population.
E.g. a sample of 765 voters
exit polled on election day
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Basic Vocabulary of Statistics

Population
Sample

Subset

Statistic

Parameter
Measures used to describe
the population are called
parameters

Measures computed
from sample data are
called statistics

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Basic Vocabulary of Statistics

Variable
A variable is some characteristic of a population or sample.
E.g. student grades. Typically denoted with a capital letter: A,
B, C
The values of the variable are the range of possible values for
a variable.
E.g. student marks (0..100)
Data
Data are the observed values of a variable.
Data are the different values associated with a variable.
E.g. student marks: {67, 74, 71, 83, 93, 55, 48}
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Example
NICMAR Institute dean is interested in learning about the average
age of faculty. Identify the basic terms in this situation.
The population is the age of all faculty members at the Institute.
A sample is any subset of that population. For example, we might
select 10 faculty members and determine their age.
The variable is the age of each faculty member.
The data would be the set of values in the sample.
The parameter of interest is the average age of all faculty at the
Institute.
The statistic is the average age for all faculty in the sample.
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Why Collect Data?

A marketing research analyst needs to assess the
effectiveness of a new television advertisement.
A pharmaceutical manufacturer needs to determine whether
a new drug is more effective than those currently in use.
An operations manager wants to monitor a manufacturing
process to find out whether the quality of product being
manufactured is conforming to company standards.
An auditor wants to review the financial transactions of a
company in order to determine whether the company is in
compliance with generally accepted accounting principles.

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Sources of Data
Primary Sources:
The data collector is the one using the data for analysis
Data from a political survey
Data collected from an experiment
Observed data
Secondary Sources
The person performing data analysis is not the data collector
Analyzing census data
Examining data from print journals or data published on
the internet.
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Types of Variables
Data

Numerical

Categorical
Examples:
Marital Status
Political Party
Eye Color
(Defined categories)

Discrete

Continuous

Examples:

Number of Children
Defects per hour
(Countedtoitems)
Introduction
Statistics

Examples:

Weight
Voltage
(Measured characteristics)
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Types of Variables
Categorical
Qualitative variables have values that can only be placed into
categories, such as yes and no.
A variable that categorizes or describes an element of a
population.
Note: Arithmetic operations, such as addition and averaging, are not
meaningful for data resulting from a qualitative variable
Numerical
Quantitative variables have values that represent quantities.
A variable that quantifies an element of a population.
Note: Arithmetic operations such as addition and averaging, are
meaningful for data resulting from a quantitative variable.
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Example
Identify each of the following examples as attribute (qualitative) or
numerical (quantitative) variables.
The amount of CNG pumped by the next 10 customers at the local
hp PUMP . (Numerical)
The amount of radon in the basement of each of 25 homes in a
new development. (Numerical)
The color of the baseball cap worn by each of 20 students.
(Attribute)
The length of time to complete a mathematics homework
assignment. (Numerical)
The state in which each truck is registered when stopped and
inspected at a weigh station. (Attribute)
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Question?
Identify each of the following as examples of qualitative or
quantitative variables:
The temperature in Barrow, Alaska at 12:00 pm on any
given day.
The make of automobile driven by each faculty member.
Whether or not a 6 volt lantern battery is defective.
The weight of a lead pencil.
The length of time billed for a long distance telephone call.
The brand of cereal children eat for breakfast.
The type of book taken out of the library by an adult.

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Level of Measurement

Ratio
Interval
Ordinal

NOIR

Nominal

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Nominal scale
A nominal scale classifies data into distinct categories in
which no ranking is implied.

Categorical Variables

Categories

Personal Computer
Ownership

Yes / No
Growth, Value, Other

Type of Stocks
Owned

Microsoft Network /
AOL

Internet Provider

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Ordinal scale
An ordinal scale classifies data into distinct
categories in which ranking is implied

Categorical Variable

Ordered Categories

Student class designation

Freshman, Junior, Senior

Product satisfaction

Satisfied, Neutral, Unsatisfied

Faculty rank

Professor, Associate Professor,

Assistant Professor, Instructor

Standard & Poors bond ratings

AAA, AA, A, BBB, BB, B, CCC, CC,

C, DDD, DD, D

Student Grades

A, B, C, D, F
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Interval scale
An interval scale is an ordered scale in which the
difference between measurements is a meaningful
quantity but the measurements do not have a true zero
point.
Example:
the difference between 1 and 2 years of age is the
same amount as the difference between 21 and 22
years of age, or 50 and 51, or 65 and 66.
the difference between a height of 60 inches and a
height of 55 inches is the same amount of difference as
a height of 72 inches and a height of 67 inches.
NOTE: For interval level variables, it is mathematically legitimate to do arithmetic (add, subtract, multiple,
and divide) as well as count the values, and sort or rank the values.
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Levels of Measurement
A ratio scale is an ordered scale in which the difference
between the measurements is a meaningful quantity.
Ratio level variables have the additional property of
having a true zero value so that ratios between values are
meaningful, but practically speaking, ratio level data is
treated the same as interval level.
Example
number of clients in past six months
It is meaningful to say that ...we had twice as many
clients in this period as we did in the previous six months.

Example

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The Hierarchy of Levels

Nominal

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The Hierarchy of Levels

Nominal

Attributes are only named; weakest

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The Hierarchy of Levels

Ordinal
Nominal

Attributes are only named; weakest

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The Hierarchy of Levels

Ordinal
Nominal

Attributes can be ordered

Attributes are only named; weakest

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The Hierarchy of Levels

Interval

Ordinal
Nominal

Attributes can be ordered

Attributes are only named; weakest

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The Hierarchy of Levels

Interval
Ordinal
Nominal

Distance is meaningful

Attributes can be ordered

Attributes are only named; weakest

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The Hierarchy of Levels

Ratio
Interval

Ordinal
Nominal

Distance is meaningful

Attributes can be ordered

Attributes are only named; weakest

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The Hierarchy of Levels

Ratio

Interval
Ordinal
Nominal

Absolute zero

Distance is meaningful

Attributes can be ordered

Attributes are only named; weakest

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Level of Measurement :
Decision Tree

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Level of Measurement :
Characteristics

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Level of Measurement:
Statistical Tests

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Example
Identify each of the following as examples of (1) nominal, (2)
ordinal, (3) discrete, or (4) continuous variables:
The length of time until a pain reliever begins to work.
The number of chocolate chips in a cookie.
The number of colors used in a statistics textbook.
The brand of refrigerator in a home.
The overall satisfaction rating of a new car.
The number of files on a computers hard disk.
The pH level of the water in a swimming pool.
The number of staples in a stapler.
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Class Exercise
Q 1: Determine whether the variable is categorical
or numerical If numerical, determine whether the
variable is discrete or continuous .Determine the
level of measurement
Amount of money spent on clothing in past
month?
Favorite department store?
Most likely time period during which shopping for
clothing takes place?
Number of pairs of shoes owned?

Class Exercise
Q 2: A manufacturer of dog food was planning to
survey household in India to determine purchasing
habit of dog owners. Among the variables to be
collected are
The primary place of purchase of dog food?
Whether dry or moist food can be purchased ?
Number of dogs living in the household?
Whether the dog is pedigreed?

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Class Exercise
Q3 : Suppose the following information collected from
Mr X on his application for a home loan at the HDFC
bank Loan department
a. Monthly payment : Rs 25100
b. Annual Family income:
c. Marital status: Married
d. No of job changed in past 10 years: 2
Classify each of the response by type of data and level of
measurement.

Organizing and Visualizing

Categorical and Numerical Data

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Categorical Data Are Organized By

Utilizing Tables
Categorical Data
Tallying Data

One Categorical
Variable

Two Categorical
Variables

Summary Table

Contingency Table

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Organizing Categorical Data:

Summary Table
A summary table indicates the frequency, amount, or
percentage of items in a set of categories so that you can
see differences between categories.
How do you spend the holidays?

Percent

At home with family

45%

Travel to visit family

38%

Vacation

5%

Catching up on work

5%

Other

7%

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Chap 1-44

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Contingency Table
Used to study patterns that may exist
between the responses of two or more
categorical variables
Cross tabulates or tallies jointly the responses
of the categorical variables
For two variables the tallies for one variable
are located in the rows and the tallies for the
second variable are located in the columns
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Contingency Table - Example

A random sample of 400
Contingency Table Showing
invoices is drawn.
Frequency of Invoices Categorized
Each invoice is categorized as a By Size and The Presence Of Errors
small, medium, or large
No
Errors
Errors
Total
amount.
Small
170
20
190
Each invoice is also examined to
Amount
identify if there are any errors.
Medium
100
40
140
This data are then organized in
Amount
the contingency table to the
Large
65
5
70
Amount
right.
Total
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335

65

400
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Contingency Table Based on

% of Overall Total
No
Errors

Errors

Total

Small
Amount

170

20

190

Medium
Amount

100

40

140

Large
Amount

65

Total

335

42.50% = 170 / 400

25.00% = 100 / 400
16.25% = 65 / 400

No
Errors

Errors

Total

Small
Amount

42.50%

5.00%

47.50%

Medium
Amount

25.00%

10.00%

35.00%

Large
Amount

16.25%

1.25%

17.50%

83.75%

16.25%

100.0%

70

65

400

83.75% of sampled invoices have no

errors and 47.50% of sampled invoices
are for small amounts.

Total
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Contingency Table Based on

% of Row Totals
No
Errors

Errors

Small
Amount

170

20

190

Medium
Amount

100

40

140

Large
Amount

65

Total

335

5
65

89.47% = 170 / 190

71.43% = 100 / 140
92.86% = 65 / 70

Total

No
Errors

Errors

Total

Small
Amount

89.47%

10.53%

100.0%

Medium
Amount

71.43%

28.57%

100.0%

Large
Amount

92.86%

7.14%

100.0%

83.75%

16.25%

100.0%

70
400

Medium invoices have a larger chance

(28.57%) of having errors than small
(10.53%) or large (7.14%) invoices.

Total
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Contingency Table Based on

Percentage of Column Total
No
Errors

Errors

Small
Amount

170

20

190

Medium
Amount

100

40

140

Large
Amount

65

Total

335

50.75% = 170 / 335

30.77% = 20 / 65

Total

5
65

No
Errors

Errors

Total

Small
Amount

50.75%

30.77%

47.50%

Medium
Amount

29.85%

61.54%

35.00%

Large
Amount

19.40%

7.69%

17.50%

100.0%

100.0%

100.0%

70
400

There is a 61.54% chance that invoices

with errors are of medium size.

Total
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Tables Used For Organizing

Numerical Data
Numerical Data

Ordered Array

Frequency
Distributions

Introduction to Statistics

Cumulative
Distributions

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Organizing Numerical Data:

Ordered Array
An ordered array is a sequence of data, in rank order,
from the smallest value to the largest value.
Day Students
Age of
Surveyed
College
Students

16

17

17

18

18

18

19

19

20

20

21

22

22

25

27

32

38

42

Night Students

18

18

19

19

20

21

23

28

32

33

41

45

Introduction to Statistics

Chap 1-51

Organizing Numerical Data:

Frequency Distribution
The frequency distribution is a summary table in which the
data are arranged into numerically ordered class groupings.
You must give attention to selecting the appropriate number
of class groupings for the table, determining a suitable width
of a class grouping, and establishing the boundaries of each
class grouping to avoid overlapping.
The number of classes depends on the number of values in
the data. With a larger number of values, typically there are
more classes. In general, a frequency distribution should
have at least 5 but no more than 15 classes.
To determine the width of a class interval, you divide the
range (Highest valueLowest value) of the data by the
number of class groupings desired.
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Organizing Numerical Data:

Frequency Distribution Example
Example: A manufacturer of insulation randomly
selects 20 winter days and records the daily
high temperature
24, 35, 17, 21, 24, 37, 26, 46, 58, 30, 32, 13, 12, 38, 41,
43, 44, 27, 53, 27

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STEPS
1. Sort raw data in ascending order:
12, 13, 17, 21, 24, 24, 26, 27, 27, 30, 32, 35, 37, 38, 41, 43, 44
, 46, 53, 58
2. Find range: 58 - 12 = 46
3. Select number of classes: 5 (usually between 5 and 15)
4. Compute class interval (width): 10 (46/5 then round up)
5. Determine class boundaries (limits):
1. Class 1: 10 to less than 20
2. Class 2: 20 to less than 30
3. Class 3: 30 to less than 40
4. Class 4: 40 to less than 50
5. Class 5: 50 to less than 60
6. Compute class midpoints: 15, 25, 35, 45, 55
7. Count observations & Introduction
assign totoStatistics
classes
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Organizing Numerical Data:

Frequency Distribution Example
Data in ordered array:
12, 13, 17, 21, 24, 24, 26, 27, 27, 30, 32, 35, 37, 38, 41, 43, 44, 46, 53, 58
Class

10 but less than 20

20 but less than 30
30 but less than 40
40 but less than 50
50 but less than 60
Total

Midpoints

Frequency

15
25
35
45
55

3
6
5
4
2
20

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Organizing Numerical Data:

Relative & Percent Frequency
Distribution
Data in ordered array:
12, 13, 17, 21, 24, 24, 26, 27, 27, 30, 32, 35, 37, 38, 41, 43, 44, 46, 53, 58
Class

10 but less than 20

20 but less than 30
30 but less than 40
40 but less than 50
50 but less than 60
Total

Frequency

3
6
5
4
2
20

Relative
Frequency

Percentage

.15
.30
.25
.20
.10
1.00

15
30
25
20
10
100

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Organizing Numerical Data:

Cumulative Frequency
Distribution
Data in ordered array:
12, 13, 17, 21, 24, 24, 26, 27, 27, 30, 32, 35, 37, 38, 41, 43, 44, 46, 53, 58
Class

Frequency

Percentage

Cumulative
Frequency

Cumulative
Percentage

10 but less than 20

15%

15%

20 but less than 30

30%

45%

30 but less than 40

25%

14

70%

40 but less than 50

20%

18

90%

10%

20

100%

20

100

20

100%

50 but less than 60

Total

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Why Use a Frequency Distribution?

It condenses the raw data into a more useful form
It allows for a quick visual interpretation of the data
It enables the determination of the major
characteristics of the data set including where the data
are concentrated / clustered

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Frequency Distributions:
Some Tips
Different class boundaries may provide different
pictures for the same data (especially for smaller
data sets)
Shifts in data concentration may show up when
different class boundaries are chosen
As the size of the data set increases, the impact of
alterations in the selection of class boundaries is
greatly reduced
When comparing two or more groups with different
sample sizes, you must use either a relative
frequency or a percentage distribution
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Visualizing Categorical Data

Through Graphical Displays
Categorical Data
Visualizing Data
Contingency
Table For Two
Variables

Summary Table
For One Variable

Bar
Chart

Pareto
Chart

Side By Side Bar

Chart

Pie Chart
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Organizing Categorical Data:

Summary Table
In a bar chart, a bar shows each category, the length
of which represents the amount, frequency or
percentage of values falling into a category.
How Do You Spend the Holidays?
Other

7%

Catching up

5%

Vacation

5%

Travel to visit

38%

At home with

45%

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

Introduction to Statistics

50%

Chap 1-61

Organizing Categorical Data:

Pie Chart
The pie chart is a circle broken up into slices that
represent categories. The size of each slice of the pie
varies according to the percentage in each category.
How Do You Spend the Holiday's
5%

5%

7%

At home with family

45%

Travel to visit family

Vacation

38%

Catching up on work
Other
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Organizing Categorical Data:

Pareto Diagram
Used to portray categorical data
A bar chart, where categories are shown in
descending order of frequency
A cumulative polygon is shown in the same graph
Used to separate the vital few from the trivial
many
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Organizing Categorical Data:

Pareto Diagram

45%

100%

40%

90%

35%

80%
70%

30%

60%

25%

50%

20%

40%

15%

30%

10%

20%

5%

10%

0%

0%
Stocks

Bonds

Savings

Introduction to Statistics

cumulative % invested
(line graph)

% invested in each category (bar

graph)

Current Investment Portfolio

CD
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Visualizing Categorical Data:

Side By Side Bar Charts
The side by side bar chart represents the data from a contingency table.
No
Errors

Errors

Total

Small
Amount

50.75%

30.77%

47.50%

Medium
Amount

29.85%

61.54%

35.00%

Large
Amount

19.40%

7.69%

17.50%

100.0%

100.0%

100.0%

Invoice Size Split Out By Errors & No

Errors
Errors
No Errors
0.0% 10.0% 20.0% 30.0% 40.0% 50.0% 60.0% 70.0%
Large

Medium

Small

Total

Invoices with errors are much more likely to be of

medium size (61.54% vs 30.77% and 7.69%)
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Visualizing Numerical Data By

Using Graphical Displays
Numerical Data

Ordered Array

Stem-and-Leaf
Display

Frequency Distributions and

Cumulative Distributions

Histogram

Introduction to Statistics

Polygon

Ogive

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Organizing Numerical Data:

Stem and Leaf Display
A stem-and-leaf display organizes data into groups
(called stems) so that the values within each group
(the leaves) branch out to the right on each row.
Age of
Survey
ed
College
Studen
ts

Age of College Students

Day Students
16 17 17 18 18 18
19 19 20 20 21 22
22 25 27 32 38 42

Night Students
18 18 19 19 20 21

Day Students
Stem

Night Students

Leaf

Stem Leaf

67788899

8899

0012257

0138

28

23

15

23 28 32 33 41 45
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Organizing Numerical Data:

Stem and Leaf Display
A stem-and-leaf display organizes data into groups
(called stems) so that the values within each group
(the leaves) branch out to the right on each row.
Age of College Students
Day Students
Stem

Leaf

Night Students
Stem Leaf

1 67788899

1 8899

2 0012257

2 0138

3 28

3 23

4 2

4 15
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Visualizing Numerical Data:

The Histogram
A graph of the data in a frequency distribution is
called a histogram.
In a histogram there are no gaps between adjacent
bars.
The class boundaries (or class midpoints) are shown
on the horizontal axis.
The vertical axis is either frequency, relative
frequency, or percentage.
Bars of the appropriate heights are used to represent
the number of observations within each class.
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Visualizing Numerical Data:

The Histogram

10 but less than 20

20 but less than 30
30 but less than 40
40 but less than 50
50 but less than 60
Total

Frequency

3
6
5
4
2
20

Relative
Frequency

.15
.30
.25
.20
.10
1.00

Percentage

15
30
25
20
10
100

10

Histogram: Daily High

Temperature

Frequency

Class

0
5
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25

35

45

55 More
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Visualizing Numerical Data:

The Polygon
A percentage polygon is formed by having the
midpoint of each class represent the data in that class
and then connecting the sequence of midpoints at
their respective class percentages.
The
cumulative
percentage
polygon,
or
ogive, displays the variable of interest along the X
axis, and the cumulative percentages along the Y axis.
Useful when there are two or more groups to
compare
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Visualizing Numerical Data:

The Frequency Polygon

10 but less than 20

20 but less than 30
30 but less than 40
40 but less than 50
50 but less than 60
Total

Frequency

Relative
Frequency

3
6
5
4
2
20

.15
.30
.25
.20
.10
1.00

Percentage
15
30
25
20
10
100

10

Frequency Polygon: Daily High

Temperature

Frequency

Class

(In a percentage polygon

the vertical axis would be
defined to show the
percentage of observations
per class)

0
5

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15

25

35

45

55

More

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Organizing Numerical Data:

The Cumulative Percentage Polygon
Class

Lower
Boundary

% Less Than
Lower
Boundary

10<20

10

20<30

20

15

30<40

30

45

40<50

40

70

50<60

50

90

60

100

Cumulative Percentage

Ogive: Daily High Temperature

100
50
0
10

20

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40

50

60

73

Scatter Plots
Scatter plots are used for numerical data
consisting of paired observations taken from
two numerical variables
One variable is measured on the vertical axis
and the other variable is measured on the
horizontal axis
Scatter plots are used to examine possible
relationships between two numerical
variables
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Scatter Plot Example

Volume
per day

Cost per
day

23

125

26

140

146

33

160

38

167

42

170

50

188

55

195

60

200

Cost per Day

29

Cost per Day vs. Production

Volume

250
200

150
100

50
0
20

30

40

50

60

70

Volume per Day

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Time Series
A Time Series Plot is used to study patterns in the
values of a numeric variable over time
The Time Series Plot:
Numeric variable is measured on the vertical axis and
the time period is measured on the horizontal axis
Attendance (in millions) at USA amusement/theme parks from 2000-2005
Year

Year Number

Attendance

2000

317

2001

319

2002

324

2003

322

2004

328

2005

335
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Time Series Example

Attendance (in millions) at US Theme
Parks

Attendance

336
332
328
324
320

316
0

Year (Since 2000)

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Principles of Excellent Graphs

The graph should not distort the data.
The graph should not contain unnecessary
adornments (sometimes referred to as chart junk).
The scale on the vertical axis should begin at zero.
All axes should be properly labeled.
The graph should contain a title.
The simplest possible graph should be used for a
given set of data.
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Graphical Errors: Chart Junk

Bad Presentation
Minimum Wage

Good Presentation

1960: $1.00

Minimum Wage

1970: $1.60

2
1980: $3.10

0
1990: $3.80

1960

1970

1980

1990

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Graphical Errors:
No Relative Basis
Bad Presentation
As received by
students.

Freq.
300

20%

100

10%

0%
SO

JR

As received by
students.

%
30%

200

FR

Good Presentation

SR

FR

SO

JR

SR

FR = Freshmen, SO = Sophomore, JR = Junior, SR = Senior

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Graphical Errors:
Compressing the Vertical Axis
Bad Presentation
200

Quarterly Sales

50

100

25

0
Q1

Q2

Q3

Good Presentation
Quarterly Sales

Q4

Q1

Q2

Q3

Q4

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Class Exercise 1
The owner of the restaurant wanted to study the demand for
dessert. He decided that in addition to studying whether the desert
was ordered, he would also study the gender of individual. Data
were collected from 600 customers and organized in the following
contingency tables.

Dessert Ordered
Yes
No
Total

Gender
Male
Female
40
96
240
224
280
320

Total
136
464
600

a.Construct a contingency tables for row, column and total percentage?

b.Which type of percentage (row, column and total ), do you think more
informative for each gender?
c.What conclusions concerning the pattern of dessert ordering can the
restaurant owner reach?

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Class Exercise 2
The Following Table represents estimated green power sales
by renewable energy source 2008
Source

Geothermal
hydro
Landfill mass and biomass
Solar
Unreported
Wind

Percentage

2.8
11.3
28.1
0.2
2.5
55.1

a. Construct a bar chart, pie chart and Pareto chart

b. What conclusion can you reach about the sources of green
power
Source: National renewable energy laboratory,2008

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Calculate the following ?

a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
g.
h.

Divide the data into classes

Absolute frequency
Relative frequency
Percentages
Cumulative frequency
Cumulative percentage
Midpoints
Draw Histogram and relative frequency
polygon

THANKS

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