AERO212/215 Aircraft Performance

DJ Walker
School of Engineering
University of Liverpool
Liverpool L69 3GH

February 2016

Contents
Introduction ................................................................................................................................... 4

1.
1.1

Aerofoil Geometry ..................................................................................................................... 4

1.2

Aspect Ratio, Taper, and Sweepback....................................................................................... 5

1.3

Fundamentals of Lift and Drag.................................................................................................. 5

1.4

Lift Coefficient ........................................................................................................................... 6

1.5

Drag Coefficient and Drag Polar ............................................................................................... 8

2.

Straight and Level Flight ............................................................................................................... 8

2.1

Lift to Drag Ratio (aerodynamic efficiency) ............................................................................... 8

2.2

Stall Speed................................................................................................................................ 9

2.3

Minimum Drag and Minimum Drag Speed (Vmd)....................................................................... 9

2.4

Minimum Drag in terms of CL .................................................................................................. 11

2.5

Equivalent Air-Speed .............................................................................................................. 11

2.6

Power Required and Minimum Power Speed (Vmp)................................................................ 11

2.7

Maximum Speed Jet Aircraft................................................................................................ 12

2.8

Absolute Ceiling for Jet Aircraft............................................................................................... 14

2.9

Maximum Speed Prop Aircraft ............................................................................................. 15

3.

Climb Performance ..................................................................................................................... 16

3.1

Steady Climb........................................................................................................................... 16

3.2

Accelerative (none-steady) Climb: Energy Height .................................................................. 20

3.3

Removing the small-angle assumption ................................................................................... 25

3.4

Steady Shallow Climb with Head-Wind................................................................................... 27

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Introduction

4.

Aerofoil Geometry

Glide Performance...................................................................................................................... 29
4.1

Glide Angle.............................................................................................................................. 29

4.2

Rate of Descent ...................................................................................................................... 30

5.

Cruise Performance.................................................................................................................... 30
5.1

Range...................................................................................................................................... 30

5.2

Cruise Calculations Jet Aircraft............................................................................................ 31

5.3

Range and Endurance of Jet Aircraft...................................................................................... 33

5.4

Jet Case: SAR in terms of CL and CD ..................................................................................... 33

5.5

Jet Case: SE in terms of CL and CD ........................................................................................ 33

5.6

Cruise Climb............................................................................................................................ 34

5.7

Program 2 Constant Lift Coefficient and Density.................................................................... 37

5.8

Program 3 Constant Speed and Density ................................................................................ 38

6.

Correctly Banked Level Turn ...................................................................................................... 41

6.1

Load Factor n .......................................................................................................................... 41

6.2

CL in Correctly Banked Level Turn.......................................................................................... 41

6.3

Maximum Turn Rate................................................................................................................ 42

6.4

Tightest Turn ........................................................................................................................... 43

6.5

Centripetal Acceleration .......................................................................................................... 43

6.6

Drag During Turn .................................................................................................................... 44

6.7

Minimum Turning Radius ........................................................................................................ 46

7.

Steady Banked Climb - Jet Aircraft............................................................................................. 47

7.1

Steepest Climb........................................................................................................................ 48

7.2

Best Rate of Climb .................................................................................................................. 48

8.

Turn at Constant Thrust and CL .................................................................................................. 51

9.

Take-off Performance................................................................................................................. 52
9.1

Basic Estimate of Takeoff Run................................................................................................ 52

9.2

Refined Estimate..................................................................................................................... 55

9.3

Multi-Engine Aircraft Take-Off Performance Considerations Balance Field Length............ 56

Notation
a

Local sonic speed. For an idea gas, a = (airRT).

Lift curve slope (a = dCL/d)

Wing span

Chord

cf

Thrust specific fuel consumption

(2/58)

Introduction

Aerofoil Geometry

CL

Lift coefficient

CLmax

Maximum lift coefficient (dependent on aerofoil section).

CD

Drag coefficient

CM

Pitching moment coefficient

Drag

Altitude

He

Energy Height

Lift

M, m

Aircraft mass

mf

Fuel mass

M=

V a

Mach Number

Pitching moment

Gas constant for air ( = 287.1 J.kg-1.K-1)

Re =

Vc = Vc

Reynolds Number

Reference area: wing plan-form (projected)

P0

ISA sea level static pressure

T0

ISA sea-level air temperature

True airspeed

Vstall

Stall speed

Aircraft weight (W = mg)

Air temperature (absolute)

Thrust

WAT

Weight, altitude, temperature

w = Mg/S = wing loading

air

Angle of attack (AoA)

Angle of sideslip
Ratio of specific heats for air ( = 1.4)

Air density

ISA sea-level air density

Thrust-to-weight ratio

ISA sea-level dynamic viscosity

Dynamic viscosity of air

Kinematic viscosity of air ( = /)

Turn rate

Flight path angle

= T Mg

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Introduction

Aerofoil Geometry

1. Introduction
Aircraft Performance involves the prediction of the capabilities of aircraft based on:

Aerodynamics and key airframe design parameters

Power-plant characteristics
Atmospheric conditions
Operating environment

Performance estimation is important in the specification & design of new aircraft, in the modification of
existing types, and in determining how a given type can be operated. Key performance parameters
include:

Maximum speed
Maximum rate of climb, maximum climb angle, ceiling altitude
Range
Endurance
Maximum rate of turn, minimum turn radius
Runway requirements

The atmosphere is modelled using the International Standard Atmosphere (ISA). For example, by
-2
international convention, at ISA sea level, pressure P0=101325 N m , temperature T0 = 288.16 K,
-3
-5
-2
density 0 = 1.2256 kg m , and viscosity 0 = 1.783x10 Ns m .
This course of lectures will deal with the basic theory as it applies to sub-sonic fixed-wing aircraft.
Extensions of the theory are required to allow supersonic aircraft to be dealt with. Rotorcraft
(helicopters, tilt-rotors etc) require an altogether different approach.
1.1

Aerofoil Geometry

Figure 1-1 Symmetric Aerofoil

Figure 1-2 Aerofoil Section Parameters

Draw Chord Line

Camber line drawn with respect to the chord line.
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Introduction

1.2

Aspect Ratio, Taper, and Sweepback

Thickness Distribution which is added to the camber line, normal to the camber line.
Aspect Ratio, Taper, and Sweepback

Figure 1-3 Wing Geometry

Gross wing area

S = plan area of wing including part within fuselage

Mean chord

c =S b

Aspect Ratio

AR :=

Taper =

ct/c0

Trapezoidal wing

S = 0.5(c0 + ct)b

b2 b
=
S c

1.3
Fundamentals of Lift and Drag
Figure 1-4 shows the four main forces acting on an aircraft flying straight-and-level with a velocity V
through still air. The forces are: Lift (L), Drag (D), Thrust (T) and Weight (mg)

Figure 1-4 Force in Level Flight

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Introduction

Lift Coefficient

The following points should be noted.

1.
So far as rigid-body motion is concerned, which is the case in Aircraft Performance
analysis, the normal pressure and shear-stress distributions caused by the flow can be
replaced by a single equivalent force acting at the centre of pressure (CP).
2.
The lift is the component of the resultant aerodynamic force perpendicular to V.
3.
The drag is the component of the resultant aerodynamic force parallel to V.
4.
The CP is not a fixed point; it shifts with AoA, Reynolds number, Mach number etc.
5.
Thrust is assumed to act parallel to V.
6.
For performance analysis, the aircraft is assumed to be in trim; moments balance, and
one can treat all the forces as though they act at the centre of gravity (CG).
Lift and drag forces will be functions of many variables, principally:

angle of attack

angle of sideslip

airspeed V

Mach number M

vehicle shape and size (characterized by appropriate length d)

local air properties (density , temperature T, viscosity )

1.4
Lift Coefficient
It is useful to deal with a non-dimensional Lift Coefficient, defined as

CL :=

1
2

L
V 2 S

Using Dimensional Analysis it can be deduced that the Lift Coefficient

CL = f ( , , Re, M , shape )

It is the dependence of CL on incidence ( ) that is the most important, at least in performance

estimation. A typical CL vs. Alpha relation for an aerofoil is shown in Figure 1-5. The CL- curve for a
cambered asymmetric section is shown in Figure 1-6.

Figure 1-6 CL vs. Alpha (cambered section)

Figure 1-5 CL vs. Alpha (Symmetric Section)
The reference area S, whether dealing with wings or an entire aircraft, is the wing plan-form area. The
-1
lift-curve slope dCL/d is typically about 2 rad . Stall typically occurs at an incidence of
(6/58)

Introduction

Lift Coefficient

approximately 15 deg. The maximum lift coefficient CLmax is approximately 0.9 for thin symmetric
aerofoils; modern wing sections with high-lift devices (flaps, slats) may have a value CLmax of 2.5 or
more.
1.4.1

Reynolds and Mach Number Ratio Effects

These important effects, although outside the scope of this course, do nonetheless merit some
remarks. The Reynolds Number determines whether flow is laminar or turbulent, and hence where
flow separates. Thus even at fixed incidence, CL is to some extent dependent on the Reynolds
number. This must be taken into account when inferences based on scale-model wind-tunnel tests are
made during the design process. The same is true of Mach Number; Figure 1-7 shows have the liftcurve slope may depend on Mach Number M.

Figure 1-7 Lift curve slope vs. Mach Number

1.4.2

Influence of Aspect Ratio and Aerofoil Thickness

Aspect ratio (AR) has a very strong influence on wing performance. For unswept wings at low Mach
number the following approximate relationship holds (see Figure 1-8):

a=

a AR

a + ( AR )2 + 4

Aerofoil thickness is also a key influencing factor. Thin sections (t/c < 0.08) => separation from leading
edge, rapid increase in drag. Thick sections (t/c) > 0.15 => separation from trailing edge

Figure 1-8 Lift curve slope vs. Aspect Ratio

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Straight and Level Flight

Drag Coefficient and Drag Polar

Figure 1-9 Influence of Aerofoil Thickness on CL

1.5
Drag Coefficient and Drag Polar
It is also more convenient to work with drag in a non-dimensional form. The drag coefficient is defined
as the drag force D divided by the product of the free-stream dynamic pressure and the wing
reference area S, viz.

D
.
2
2 V S

CD = 1
As in the case of lift,

CD is Reynolds and Mach number dependent, i.e.

CD = CD ( , Re, M )

but in performance estimation, it is usually sufficient to assume that

C D = C D ( ) .

According to the theory of aerodynamics, the drag coefficient is well approximated by the so-called
Drag Polar

k 2
CD = CD 0 +
CL
AR
in which k > 1 and typically around 1.1. We shall use the alternative notation

CD = a + bCL2
The coefficients a and b are Reynolds and Mach number dependent, but in performance estimation
they are usually treated as constants.

2. Straight and Level Flight

In straight and level flight, Lift = Weight, i.e.

L = mg

2.1
Lift to Drag Ratio (aerodynamic efficiency)
Wings are designed to generate lift. Drag is an inescapable side-effect of lift generation. The lift-todrag ratio (L/D) can be regarded as a measure of Aerodynamic Efficiency (E).

E :=

L CL
=
D CD

(8/58)

Straight and Level Flight

Stall Speed

The L/D ratio has a maximum when

d ( CD C L )
dCL

a
+b = 0.
CL2

CL = CL( L / D ) max = CDmd = a b .

i.e. when
The corresponding drag coefficient is

CD( L / D ) max = 2a . Note that we have also called this CDmd which

denotes CD for minimum drag in straight-and-level flight. The maximum (L/D) ratio is

( CL

CD )max = 1 2 ab

Typical (L/D)max values

Gliders
35 (approaching 60 for competition-class)
Transport
18
Light aircraft
14
Fighter
10 (M<1),
7 (M>1)
2.2
Stall Speed
To maintain lift as speed is reduced, the aircraft must be flown at an increased incidence. Stall occurs
when CL reaches CLmax.

CL max =

mg
2
1
2 Vstall S

Vstall =

=>

mg
1
2 C L max S

Example: An aircraft has wing loading 2300 N/m and CLmax = 1.4. Find the stalling speed at (i) sea
3
3
level ( = 1.225 kg/m ) and (ii) 5000m ( = 0.737 kg/m ).
Solution:

(i) At sea level,

(ii) At 5000 m,

2300
51.8
= 51.8 m/s, (
= 100.8 kts).
0.5 1.225 1.4
0.514
2300
66.8
=
= 66.8 m/s
(
= 130.0kts)
0.5 0.737 1.4
0.514

Vstall =

Vstall

(NB 1 knot = 0.514 m/s)

2.3
Drag

Minimum Drag and Minimum Drag Speed (Vmd)

D = 12 V 2 SCD

Using the drag polar,

2

mg 1
m2 g 2
2

D = V S ( a + bC ) = V S a + b 1
=

V
Sa
+
b

2
2
2
1

2 V S
2 V S

1
2

2
L

1
2

The drag force comprises two components:

Profile/Zero-Lift or Form Drag:

D0 = 12 V 2 Sa ; this increases as the square of speed

Induced/Lift-Dependent) Drag:

Di =

bL2
2
; this decreases as 1/V for given L
2
1

V
S
2
(9/58)

Straight and Level Flight

Minimum Drag and Minimum Drag Speed (Vmd)

Figure 2-1 Total Drag and its Components

Figure 2-2 Flight at varying CL and V

Dmin can be found as follows.

b ( mg )
2
D = ax +
, where x := 12 V S
x
2
b ( mg )
dD
Minimum occurs when
=a
= 0 ; i.e. when x = xmd := mg b a .
dx
x2
2

Dmin = 2mg ab .
Note that Dmin is independent of density (i.e. altitude) but is directly proportional to aircraft weight.
Hence the heavier the aircraft, the greater will be the drag. The speed at which the drag force is
minimum is denoted Vmd and is given by

Vmd =

2mg
b a.
S

Vmd depends on wing loading w = mg/S and on altitude; as the latter increases, density decreases,
and Vmd increases. This must be so, in order to maintain 12

Vmd2 S = mg b a . From the above it can

be deduced that

axmd =

b ( mg )
xmd

i.e. at the minimum drag speed, profile drag = induced drag. The lift coefficient at the minimum drag
condition is given by

CLmd = L

1
2

Vmd2 S = mg xmd = a b , i.e.

CLmd = a b

Figure 2-3 (vmdplot.m) shows a typical drag versus speed variation. Shown alongside in Figure 2-4 is
the required power: i.e. the product of drag and speed. Power is discussed in more detail in Section
2.6.

(10/58)

Straight and Level Flight

Minimum Drag in terms of CL

Figure 2-4 Required Power vs. Speed vs.

Altitude

Figure 2-3 Drag vs. Speed vs. Altitude

2.4
Minimum Drag in terms of CL
In straight-and-level flight, drag can be written:

D = ( D L) mg = (CD CL )mg . For a given vehicle

weight, straight-and-level flight can be maintained over range of different speeds, each with a
corresponding value of CL (or equivalently, of incidence ). What is required is that
For a given vehicle weight, drag is minimized by minimizing

mg = 12 V 2 SCL .

CD CL . If one assumes that

CD = a + bCL2 , it follows that CD CL = a CL + bCL which is minimized by solving

d ( CD CL )
dCL

= 0.

The details follow:

d ( CD C L )
dCL

At the minimum,

Dmin = mg ( CD
2.5

a
+b = 0
CL2

a
as before, and
b

CLmd =

=>

CDmd = 2a .

( CD CL )min = 2 ab and the minimum drag can be written

CL )min = 2mg ab as calculated before.

Equivalent Air-Speed

The Equivalent Air Speed (EAS) denoted VE is defined such that

1
2

0VE2 = 12 V 2

where

is the

sea-level density. Wherever dynamic pressure occurs in formulae, use of VE enables two variables to
be replaced by one; for example, the drag force, if written in terms of EAS, viz.

D = a ( V
1
2

)S +

b ( mg )
1
2

V 2 ) S

= a( V
1
2

2
0 E

)S +

b ( mg )
1
2

0VE2 ) S

is independent of altitude (i.e. density).

2.6
Power Required and Minimum Power Speed (Vmp)
The power P required to overcome the drag D at speed V is given by P =DV. Hence
2

mg 1
b(mg ) 2
3

P = V S ( a + bC ) = V S a + b 1
= V Sa + 1

V 2 S 2

2
2 VS

1
2

2
L

1
2

Power can also be expressed in terms of CL rather than V as follows:

(11/58)

Straight and Level Flight

P=

Maximum Speed Jet Aircraft

3

CD
2mg
mg
=>
CL
SCL

2
C
D3
S C 2
( L)

P = (mg ) 2

In a similar to manner to drag, a minimum power condition can be found in terms either of V or of CL.
3

For given weight and altitude, it is

CD CL2 that must be minimized. Assuming the standard drag

polar,

CD
3

a + bCL2
3

(CL ) 2

= a(CL )

3
2

+ b(CL ) 2

(CL ) 2

whose minimum occurs when

23 a (CL )

5
2

+ 12 b(CL )

1
2

= 0 , i.e. 3a (CL )

The drag coefficient at minimum power is

Hence

CD CL2

min

5
2

= b(CL )

1
2

=>

CL = CLmp :=

3a
b

CDmp = 4a .

= 4a 4 ( 13 b ) 4 .

The minimum power is given by

Pmin

3
2

1
2
b 4
= 4(mg )
a4
S
3

and the speed for minimum power is

1

Vmp

The following can also be useful:

2mg b 4
=
.
S 3a

3
3
Pmin = DmpVmp = 12 Vmp
SCDmp = 2a Vmp
S

Typical variation of P with V over a range of densities is shown in Figure 2-4 above. Note that Pmin and
Vmp both increase with altitude. (See dashed line on graph.) Note, too, the reduction with increasing
altitude in the required power for high-speed straight-and-level flight. It has been shown that
1

Vmd

2mg
=
S

2mg b 4
b 4
and Vmp =
S 3a
a

and from this, it follows that

1

Vmp = (1 3) 4 Vmd = 0.76Vmd .

Vmp is typically relative low, and sustained flight at Vmp may be undesirable, due to the onset of stall
and buffet, but also partly due to the inherent speed instability below Vmd; i.e. on the back side of the
drag curve. In terms of lift-to drag ratio (aerodynamic efficiency) one finds that

Emp =

3
Emd 0.87 Emd = 0.87 Emax
2

2.7
Maximum Speed Jet Aircraft
In many performance calculations, the maximum thrust available from a jet engine is assumed to be
independent of speed (see Figure 2-5) and to vary as a function of relative density in the following
manner

T = Tmax, SL ( 0 )

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Straight and Level Flight

where

Maximum Speed Jet Aircraft

Tmax,SL is the maximum thrust at sea level and x is a positive constant, often close to unity; see

Figure 2-6. (Note that in practice, thrust may be a function of forward speed for a turbo jet.)
As long as T Dmin , steady flight is possible. In general, two speeds V can be found satisfying

T = 12 V 2 Sa +

bm 2 g 2
.
2
1

V
S
2

and these are indicated in Figure 2-5. Rearranging, one obtains following quadratic equation:

1
2

V 2 ) S 2 a ( 12 V 2 ) TS + bm 2 g 2 = 0
2

the roots to which are

V2 =

T
4ab
1 1
2
Sa
(T mg )

Three possibilities arise:

1.

T > 2mg ab Flight possible over range of speeds;

2.

T
4ab
1 + 1
2
Sa
(T mg )

T = 2mg ab Flight possible at one speed, namely, V = Vmd ;

The maximum speed is given by

2
Vmax
=

This corresponds to the absolute ceiling of the aircraft.

3.

T < 2mg ab Steady flight not possible; aircraft is above absolute ceiling.

Figure 2-5 Drag and Maximum Thrust

Example: Estimate the maximum speed at sea-level of a jet-powered aircraft with the following data:
Thrust-to-weight ratio at SL = 0.20; Emax = 14. Thrust variation:

T = Tmax, SL ( 0 ) . Drag polar: a =

0.7

0.015, b = 0.085. S = 85 m2; Mass m = 33000 kg.

Vmax =

T
4ab
1 + 1
2
Sa
(T mg )

0.2 33000 9.81

(1 14) 2
=
1
+
1

1.225 85 0.015
( 0.2 )

m/s = 283m/s (550kts)

The maximum speed for the above jet aircraft

is plotted in Figure 2-7 as a function of relative density.
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Straight and Level Flight

Absolute Ceiling for Jet Aircraft

Figure 2-6 Thrust Dependence on Air Density

2.8
Absolute Ceiling for Jet Aircraft
Under the above assumptions, the density corresponding to the absolute ceiling altitude is defined by
the condition
i.e.

T = Tmax, SL ( 0 ) = 2mg ab .
x

0 = 2 mg ab Tmax, SL

1
x

The greater the thrust-to-weight ratio and the peak aerodynamic efficiency, the greater the ceiling. The
so-called service ceiling, defined as the altitude at which the best rate of climb has fallen to some
-1
prescribed value such as 100 ft min , is of greater practical importance.

Example: Estimate the absolute ceiling of a jet-powered aircraft with the following data: Thrust-toweight ratio at SL = 0.20; Emax = 14. Thrust variation:

T = Tmax, SL ( 0 ) . Drag polar: a = 0.015, b

0.7

= 0.085. S = 85 m2; Mass m = 33000 kg.

mg
=

0 EmaxTSL
At the ceiling,

-3

V=

1
0.7

0.7
=
= 0.23
14 0.20

T
0.7
where T = 0.2 x (33000g) x (0.23) = 23143N and = 1.225 x 0.23 =
Sa

0.282kg.m . Therefore

V=

23143
m/s = 254 m/s (493kts)
0.282 85 0.015

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Straight and Level Flight

Maximum Speed Prop Aircraft

Figure 2-7 Maximum Speed vs. Relative Density: Jet Aircraft

2.9
Maximum Speed Prop Aircraft
The standard approach for prop-driven aircraft is to assume that engine and propeller together
produce a power (as opposed to thrust) output that is independent of speed. Calculations analogous
to those carried out above for the jet aircraft, but based on power rather than drag, lead to formulae for
maximum speed, absolute ceiling, and so on. The resulting equations do not however lend themselves
to simple closed-form solutions, and generally, iterative solutions need to be found.
Suppose the maximum engine shaft power output is Pmax. The propeller will convert this to useful
propulsive power with an efficiency ; the useful available propulsive power is thus given by

Pav = Pmax
The propeller efficiency, though in practice a function of many variables including speed, will be
treated as constant.

(15/58)

Climb Performance

Steady Climb

Example: calculate the maximum speed at sea level of a turbo-prop aircraft with the following
2
parameters: m = 42000kg, S = 100m , shaft power output 8000kW, propeller efficiency 0.85, drag
polar a = 0.015, b = 0.055.
The equation that needs to be solved is

Pmax = 12 V 3 Sa +

b(mg ) 2
1
2 VS

i.e. maximum available power = required power. In general there will be two solutions; it is the greater
of the two that is required, the other corresponding to low-speed flight on the back side of the drag
curve, where buffet and stall rather than power considerations will be the limiting factor. The terms on
the RHS of the equation are, respectively, the power losses due to form drag and due to induced drag.
An effective iterative approach is first to estimate Vmax based on form drag only: i.e.

Vmax,1 =

2 Pmax 3 2 0.85 8 106

=
=194.9m/s.
1.225 100 0.015
Sa

This must be greater than the true maximum speed since the induced power loss has been neglected.
The procedure now it to calculate the induced power component Pi ,1 at Vmax,1 and subtract it from the
maximum available power, then form a new estimate

Vmax,2 based on this lower available net power.

One finds that

Pi ,1 =

b(mg ) 2 0.055 (42000 9.81) 2

= 1
W = 782kW.
1

1.225
194.9
100
V
S

i
,1
2
2
=>

Pi ,2 =

Vmax,2 =

2 Pmax 3 2 0.85 (8 0.782) 106

=
=188.3m/s
1.225 100 0.015
Sa

b(mg ) 2 0.055 (42000 9.81) 2

= 1
=810kW
1
2 Vi ,2 S
2 1.225 188.3 100
=>

Vmax,3 =

2 Pmax 3 2 0.85 (8 0.810) 106

=
=188.1m/s
1.225 100 0.015
Sa

After three iterations, the scheme has converged to within 1m/s of the required value.

3. Climb Performance
Two types of climb will be considered. The first is the so-called steady climb. This is a climb in which
the all acceleration components (i.e. parallel and perpendicular to the flight-path) are assumed
negligible. Then, in Section 3.2 we consider the case of climb with acceleration which is particularly
relevant to the analysis of high-performance aircraft.
3.1
Steady Climb
In a steady climb, the forces of lift, drag, thrust, and weight are in balance; see Figure 3-1. The flightpath angle, denoted , is the angle between the inertial velocity vector and the horizontal plane. It is
assumed that the thrust acts along the flight path, i.e. parallel to V.

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Climb Performance

Steady Climb

Figure 3-1 Aircraft in Steady Climb

By resolving the forces parallel and perpendicular to the flight path, the following equilibrium equations
are obtained (see Figure 3-1):

L = mg cos
T = D + mg sin
From these, we deduce that:

sin =
=

T D
mg

C
T
- D cos
mg
CL

We initially assume that the flight-path angle is small. This will be a good approximation for all but the
most high-performance aircraft and it leads to considerable simplification. We can then write:-

C
T
- D .
mg
CL

3.1.1

Steepest Climb (shallow)

To maximize the flight path angle, the thrust (T) needs to be maximum and the aircraft must be flown
at the incidence which maximises C L C D , i.e. at the minimum drag speed.
2

Example: Let the drag polar be a = 0.014, b = 0.06, weight mg = 1.4MN, wing area S=285m .
Conditions: ISA sea-level. Maximum thrust = 0.2 x mg.

max = ( T mg )max ( CD CL ) min .

Lift coefficient for steepest climb: CL

= CLmd = a b =0.483 and ( CD CL ) min = 2 ab =0.058.

Steepest Possible Climb:

max = 0.2 0.058 = 0.142rad = 8.1deg.

Corresponding True Air Speed:

V max = Vmd =

Corresponding rate of climb:

h max = V max sin max V max max =129m/s x 0.142 =18.3m/s

3.1.2

2mg
2 1.4 106
=
m/s = 129m/s
SCLmd
1.225 285 0.483

Excess Power and Maximum Climb Rate

Also of interest is the rate of climb

h , given by
T D
h = V sin = V
.
mg
(17/58)

Climb Performance

Steady Climb

The rate of climb will be maximized when the excess power

V (T D ) is maximum. If the throttle is

at maximum setting, the thrust T (in the case of an ideal jet) or the propulsive power P = VT (in the
case of an ideal prop) will be maximum and the corresponding quantity

T D
V max
=: Ps
mg
or, in the propeller case,

(VT )max VD

=: Ps
mg

is called the specific excess power. At any given WAT there will be a speed at which Ps is maximum
and this is the speed at which the aircraft can gain height fastest in a steady climb. (From this point on
we shall present only the equations for an ideal jet aircraft.) The formula for
terms of speed V by substituting for drag D,

h can be re-expressed in

mg
D = V SCD = V S ( a + bC ) V S a + b 1

V 2 S

where is used because we are assuming small . Hence the rate of climb is approximately:
1
2

1
2

2
L

1
2

mg
VT 1 V 3 S
a + b
h
2
2
1
mg
mg
2 V S

Figure 3-2 shows typical rate-of-climb and flight-path angle versus speed variations for a jet aircraft at
one WAT. Distinct speeds corresponding to best rate-of-climb and steepest climb are seen to exist. In
terms of the lift coefficient, the rate of climb can be written:

h = V sin =

2mg
sin =
SCL

2mg T
a + bCL2

CL
SCL mg

The lift coefficient corresponding to best rate-of-climb is found by solving

dh
d T
a + bCL2
=

=0
dCL dCL mg CL1/ 2
CL3/ 2
For a jet aircraft where T is assumed independent of V, the solution is

CL = CLPs max =

(T mg ) +

(T

mg ) + 12ab
2

2b

The speed for maximum rate of climb is

Vh max =

2mg
SCLPs max
2

Example: Let the drag polar be a = 0.014, b = 0.06, weight mg = 1.4MN, wing area S=285m .
Conditions: ISA sea-level. Maximum thrust = 0.2 x mg. (see also Figure 3-2):Lift coefficient for maximum rate of climb:

Maximum rate of climb:

h max

( 0.2 ) + 0.2 2 + 12 0.014 0.06

2 0.06

= 0.198

2 4.91 103
= 201m/s.
1.225 0.198
T CD
=
=0.2(0.016/0.198)rad=0.119rad = 6.8deg.

mg CL

True Air speed for maximum rate of climb:

Corresponding flight-path angle:

CLPs max =

Vh max =

hmax Vh max h max = 201 x 0.119m/s = 23.9m/s.

(18/58)

Climb Performance

Steady Climb

Figure 3-2 Variation of rate-of-climb and climb angle with speed at given T/W
3.1.3 Maximum Climb Rate versus Altitude
The above analysis shows that the climb performance is dependent on altitude via

and T, both of

which enter the various equation. Using the data from the previous example we can investigate the
drop in climb performance with altitude. We assume that the maximum available thrust varies with
relative density according to

SL )

with n=0.7. The results are tabulated in Table 3-1. Note that

the maximum rate of climb falls with altitude.

3
Vh max (m/s) C
hmax (m/s) (deg)
h [m]
[kg/m ]
T/W
CL Psmax
D
0
1.225
0.200
0.198
201.2
0.016
23.63
6.7
2000
0.967
0.169
0.229
210.5
0.017
19.93
5.7
4000
0.780
0.146
0.260
220.0
0.018
16.81
4.8
6000
0.629
0.125
0.294
230.6
0.019
13.87
4.0
8000
0.507
0.108
0.329
242.6
0.021
11.06
3.2
10000
0.409
0.093
0.366
256.2
0.022
8.35
2.4
12000
0.330
0.080
0.404
271.6
0.024
5.69
1.6
Table 3-1: Maximum rate of climb as a Function of Altitude (see "rate of climb.xls")

It is now possible to estimate the minimum time tmin to climb from height h1 to h2 by plotting

1 hmax

against h and integrating:

tmin =

h2

h = h1

dh

hmax

The word estimate is stressed, because the analysis so far is quasi-steady; i.e. assumes there to be
no acceleration along the flight path at any altitude. In fact during the climb schedule in Table 3-1 the
TAS increases by 70m/s by 12000m.

(19/58)

Climb Performance

Accelerative (none-steady) Climb: Energy Height

Figure 3-3: Minimum time to climb from h1 to h2 as area under (1/ hmax ) vs. h graph
In Figure 3-3 each grid square represents 40seconds. So to climb from 0 to 2000m will take
approximately 90s. From Table 3-1, note that in climbing the first 2000m, the speed would have
2
increased from 201 to 211 m/s during the climb: an average acceleration of (211 - 201)/90 = 0.11m/s .
Note that as the ceiling altitude is approached, the function (and the area under it) rapidly increases.
To climb from sea level to 8000m will take approximately 480 s (8 minutes)
3.2
Accelerative (none-steady) Climb: Energy Height
Energy height ( H e ) is defined as the aircrafts total energy per unit weight:-

He : =

mgh + 12 mV 2
V2
=h +
mg
2g

Energy height is useful for analysing the climb of high-performance aircraft undergoing rapid
acceleration and climb, e.g. jet fighters with high thrust/weight ratio, for which the previous methods of
analysis based on quasi-steady motion are inadequate.
Contours of constant He are shown in the (V, h) plane in Figure 3-4; the curves are parabolae whose
parametric equation is

h = H e V 2 2 g . An aircraft diving from condition A along a constant energy

line (i.e. flown with thrust = drag) would have a crash speed of VA. The equation of motion of the (jet)
aircraft along the flight path is

Tmax - D - mg sin = m

dV
dt

This can be rearranged to give

V (Tmax - D)
1
dV
= V sin + V
mg
g
dt
The term on the LHS was encountered earlier, it is the Specific Excess Power (SEP), denoted

(20/58)

Ps .

Climb Performance

SEP =

Ps =

Accelerative (none-steady) Climb: Energy Height

V (Tmax - D)
.
mg

The SEP is the excess power (per kg of aircraft) after drag has been balanced at the given throttle
condition, speed and height, available to accelerate the aircraft and/or to make it climb. The term on
the RHS is the rate of change (derivative) of the energy height, i.e.

V sin +

V dV dH e
=
g dt
dt

Therefore

dh V dV dH e
+ .
=
dt g dt
dt
The dimensions of Ps are the same as those of velocity; the SI units of SEP are m/s.
Ps =

Figure 3-4: (V,h) diagram with contours of constant energy height (he)
In the previous quasi-steady state analysis this excess power was considered only available for
climbing. However, in general the excess power can be used to either accelerate in level flight, or to
climb or do both. Suppose the aim is to go from energy state A to energy state B. One could first
perform a constant velocity climb, followed by constant altitude acceleration, as shown by dotted lines
in Figure 3-4. Alternatively, one could accelerate at constant altitude, then climb at constant speed.
One could also do anything in between. In fact, there are infinite possible flight paths from A to B.
However there will be one strategy which is quickest. There will be another which results in minimum
fuel burn. Suppose an aircraft flying at (V1, h1) is required to climb to (V2, h2). What sort of flight path
should it follow and what is the minimum time to accomplish the manoeuvre? (The situation is
depicted in Figure 3-5.) Exact solution of such problems generally requires application of the Calculus
of Variations. We will consider some approximate solutions.

Figure 3-5: Possible climb strategies to change height and speed

We will consider the former.

(21/58)

Climb Performance

Accelerative (none-steady) Climb: Energy Height

Figure 3-6: V-h envelope showing contours of constant SEP

Figure 3-7: 1/(dHE/dt)max vs. HE

3.2.1

Maximum Energy-Rate Climb Schedule

For each energy level there will be one point in the envelope (i.e. one V, h combination) corresponding
to maximum PS. The set of these points is precisely the set of points at which the families
*
*
Ps=constant and HE=constant curves are tangent to one another. The locus of these points (V , h )
is shown by the solid line with intermittent * in Figure 3-6. The value of PS at these points is maximum
and is equal to the maximum rate at which HE can be increased. It follows that this locus defines the
quickest path between different energy levels, i.e.

(22/58)

Climb Performance

tmin =

He 2

H e1

dH e
=
H emax

Accelerative (none-steady) Climb: Energy Height

He 2

H e1

dH e
PSmax

Thus for example, according to Figure 3-7 the minimum time for transfer from 3km to 8km energy
height is approximately 3.5 x 0.05 x 2000 seconds = 350seconds (~6 minutes).
Knowledge of the time-optimal trajectory allows the climb schedule to be computed as follows. Along
the optimal trajectory, h and PS are know functions of V, i.e.

h = h (V ) and PS = PS (V ) .

Figure 3-8: Optimal Schedule of (V, h) for fastest gain on total energy.

dh
can be computed by differentiating the function in Figure 3-8.
dV
dh dV
Also, by the chain rule, h =
.
dV dt

The gradient

Since

VV
PS = h +
g
=

dh VV dh V
V+
=
+ V
dV
g dV g

This gives the required acceleration schedule:-

V =

PS
.
dh V
+
dV g

The required flight path schedule is computed as follows:

2
1 dH e 1 dV 1
1 dV 1
PS
dh dh V
sin =

= PS
= PS
= PS
+
V

dh
V dt
g dt V
g dt V
dV dV g
g
+V
dV

3.2.2

Maximum Acceleration in Level Flight

Maximum acceleration is determined in level flight at three separate altitudes and over a range of
speeds.

(23/58)

Climb Performance

Accelerative (none-steady) Climb: Energy Height

V2
he = h +
2g
dhe
V dV
=
.
g
dt
dt

Energy height
For constant h

V (m/s)

dV
2
(m/s )
dt
dh e
(m/s)
dt
he (m)
dV
2
(m/s )
dt
dh e
(m/s)
dt
he (m)
dV
2
(m/s )
dt
dh e
(m/s)
dt
he (m)

210
-

230
4.26

240
4.18

260
3.90

270
3.65

290
2.65

300
1.49

99.8

102.3

103.4

100.4

78.3

45.6

5248

5696

5936

6445

6716

7286

7587

3.69

3.61

3.31

3.08

1.85

h = 3000 m

h = 6000 m
-

86.5

88.3

87.7

84.8

54.7

8248

8696

8936

9445

9716

10286

10587

3.05

3.02

2.90

2.77

2.56

1.49
h = 9000 m

65.3

70.8

70.9

73.4

70.4

44.0

11248

11696

11936

12445

12716

13286

13587

The above data could be used to estimate the minimum time to climb from 3000m and a speed of
290m/s to a height of 9000m at 230m/s, assuming the aircraft weight remained constant.
14

12

10

Ps=73m/s

Height [km]

B
8

6
Ps=88m/s
4

A
Ps=103m/s

50

100

150
V [m/s]

200

250

300

Figure 3-9: Optimal Schedule of (V, h) for fastest gain on total energy.
Points A and B in Figure 3-9 represent the start and end points respectively. The three diamonds
represent the locations of maximum Ps at 3km, 6km and 9km altitudes.
(24/58)

Climb Performance

Removing the small-angle assumption

3.3
Removing the small-angle assumption
The analysis of the climb in Section 3 was mostly based on small-angle approximations. The analysis
can be extended to the large angle case, as is now shown. The equations are more cumbersome and
analytical solutions have to give way to numerical ones. Returning to the large angle formula:

C
sin + D
CL

T
T
= ,
cos =
mg W

(T/W) is plotted in Figure 3-10 against

for three different values of CL/CD. The dashed lines

represent the small-angle linear approximation. The function (T/W) has a maximum

(T
at

W )max = 1 + ( CD CL )

tan = CL CD ; for practical values of CL and CD (T/W)max is approximately 1 and it is achieved

close to

=90.

Thus an aircraft with a thrust-to-weight ratio of around unity will be able to climb almost vertically. For
values of (T/W) < 1, the value of the flight-path angle can be calculated in terms of CL/CD as follows.

(T W )
= sin
1+ C C 2
( D L)

tan 1 ( C C ) .
D
L

This is tabulated below for four different T/W ratios for the case (L/D) = 16 and plotted in Figure 3-11.

(T

W)

0.1

0.25

0.6

2.2
11
33
Table 3-2 Maximum climb angle for varying (T/W) at (L/D) = 16

1.0
83

N.B. We assume that W constant during the climb. Also, T decreases as h increases. Therefore the
climb angle will also decrease, becoming zero at the ceiling condition.

Figure 3-10 Flight Path Angle versus Thrust-to-Weight Ratio

(25/58)

Climb Performance

Removing the small-angle assumption

Figure 3-11 Maximum Climb Angle versus TWR and L/D

[The above calculations are performed using m-file plot_gam_steep_climb.m]
3.3.1

Steady Climb Rate

The rate of climb can be written as follows

T
S
2b cos 2
h = V sin = V
12 V 2 a

2
mg V ( S mg )
mg

This equation is awkward to deal with, since and V cannot be separated algebraically. But by fixing
V, the corresponding value(s) of gamma can be computed numerically, and by repeating the process,
a graph of v versus constructed.

Figure 3-12 Climb performance based on numerical solution to full equations

(26/58)

Climb Performance

3.4

Steady Shallow Climb with Head-Wind

Steady Shallow Climb with Head-Wind

Figure 3-13: Climb into headwind: forces and velocity components

Key variables
V
=
=
Vw
Vi
=

Velocity of plane relative to moving air mass

Velocity of air mass relative to ground
Velocity of plane relative to ground (inertial velocity).
Flight path angle

Assumptions
1) Horizontal steady head-wind
2) Steady climb (i.e. forces balanced)
3) Thrust parallel to drag
4) Vw << V
5) Angles small

sin b sin sin '

=
=
where b = ' .
Vw
V
Vi
dh
=> Rate of climb
= Vi sin = V sin '
dt
V
V
Since angles are small, b w and ' = b 1 w
V
V
Kinematics

Equilibrium Equations

L mg
T = D + mg sin '

Equation for flight-path angle ()

Since

sin ' =

it follows that

T
D
T
D
V

' 1 w
mg mg mg L
V
T
D
mg L
.

V
1 w
V

In terms of lift and drag coefficients,

L
mg
1
2
V S 2 V 2 S
D
CD = 1
2
2 V S
CL =

1
2

(27/58)

Climb Performance

Steady Shallow Climb with Head-Wind

the flight path angle is given by

T CD

mg CL

1
V 2
1 2 w CL
( mg S )
In terms of the variable

:=

1
2

Vw2

( mg S )

which we see is simply the dynamic pressure due to wind speed normalized with respect to wing
loading, we can write:

T CD

mg CL

.
1 CL
Note that in the case of a tail wind, this becomes

T CD

mg CL

.
1 + CL

25m/s headwind

Zero headwind

Figure 3-14: Flight-path angle vs. lift coefficient: headwind

(28/58)

Glide Performance

Glide Angle

Zero tailwind

25m/s tailwind

Figure 3-15: Flight-path angle vs. lift coefficient: tailwind

4. Glide Performance
Assumptions: glide angle small (i.e. shallow glide)
Relevant to sports gliding and to analysis of performance following engine failure
Note: no thrust force appears in analysis!
Equilibrium equations:(i)

L = mg cos

4.1

(ii)

D = mg sin

Glide Angle

From (ii),

=>

sin =

D D CD
=
.
mg L CL

Hence to minimize glide angle (and thereby maximize range) we require the minimum drag condition;
i.e. fly at Vmd.

Figure 4-1: Forces acting on aircraft during glide

(29/58)

Cruise Performance

Rate of Descent

4.2
Rate of Descent
Rate of descent = V sin
=

D
D
C
V =V D
mg
L
CL

Now the lift coefficient

CL =

1
2

L
mg
1
V
2
V S 2 V 2 S

2mg
SCL

Therefore
Rate of descent =

2mg CD
S CL1.5

3a
=: CLmp
b
(which is approximately 0.76 Vmd )

The quantity on the right-hand side has a minimum at

The corresponding airspeed is

Vmp

CL =

Minimizing the rate of descent maximizes the time in the air from a given starting height.
5. Cruise Performance
Aircraft spend much of their flight in the cruise. The majority of fuel carried is likely to be consumed
during cruise. In Civilian operations, cruise mode has strong influence on economics of operation: cost
of fuel vs. cost of time. In Military operation, cruise determines
radius of action
need for in-flight refuelling
endurance for patrol, surveillance,
It is important to be able to calculate:
how far a given aircraft can fly at given flight condition
for how long aircraft can fly at given flight condition
optimal conditions for maximum range or endurance given certain amount of fuel
Assumptions
Steady level straight flight with no acceleration
Forces and moments in balance (i.e. in trim)
In practice, cruising may involve very low levels of climb or acceleration
Adjustments to course neglected (corrections can be applied if necessary)
5.1

5.1.1

Range
Safe Operating Range

The SOR is the max distance between airfields which the aircraft can fly with full allowance for
headwind, diversion, stacking.
Distance flown in climb included
Fuel for take-off, climb, landing included
Allowances made in standardized manner according to type of operation
5.1.2

Gross Still-Air Range

This is what we shall focus on. It assumes that the aircraft starts at cruising altitude
No allowance made for climb, descent etc
Important to know how to calculate it

(30/58)

Cruise Performance

Cruise Calculations Jet Aircraft

Changes in all-up mass (m) during cruise are not negligible because large quantities 100s of tons
of fuel can be consumed.
M+mf = total mass (aircraft + fuel) at start of cruise
mf
= mass of fuel burned during cruise

= (M+mf)/M
= mf/(M+mf) = 1 (1/)
Typical values: very long range: = 1.5; mid/long range: =1.3; short range: =1.1
5.2
Cruise Calculations Jet Aircraft
During cruise, weight mg falls; in the case of long range aircraft, this can be by a very considerable
proportion. During cruise, we assume forces are balanced, i.e. negligible accelerations. Therefore

L = mg = 12 V 2CL
T=D
Note that as m decreases, and/or V and/or CL must be adjusted to maintain L = mg. Determining
optimal ways of doing this, say to minimize fuel burn on a given route, is complicated because range is
a function of many variables, and its true optimization requires application of the calculus of
variations. The following three flight programmes are however of considerable practical importance:
1. Cruise Climb. Fix V and CL and climb gradually so density decreases in proportion with m.
2. Cruise at constant altitude and constant speed, gradually reducing CL.
3. Cruise at constant altitude and constant CL, gradually reducing speed.
The cruise climb is of particular practical importance in commercial aviation. The advantage of fixing
CL is that the lift-to-drag ratio can be kept near to some sort of optimum.
Let m = total all-up mass at time t. The mass dynamic due to fuel burn can be expressed:

dm
= m f
dt
where

m f denotes the fuel burn rate. Jet and prop aircraft have to be treated separately due to

different fuel consumption characteristics, which we model as

Jet aircraft

m f = cF T

Prop aircraft

m f = cP

Jet:

cF = TSFC (assumed constant)

Prop:

c = SFC (assumed constant)

We focus on the jet case. Noting that T = D, we can write range and endurance as integrals, first with
respect to time (t), then w.r.t. mass (m).
m( t )

dm m( 0) dm M + m f dm M + m f Vdm
Range = Vdt = V
= V
= V
=
m f m f
m f
cf D
t =0
m (0)
m
(
t
)
M
M

Endurance =

M +m f

t =0

dt =

dm
cf D
(31/58)

Cruise Performance

Cruise Calculations Jet Aircraft

m f denotes the mass of fuel burned after t seconds of cruise.

5.2.1 Cruise Climb
Since V and CL are constant, range is given by

V
R=
cf

M +m f

dm V
=
D cf

M +m f

VCL
L dm
=
mg D c f gCD
VCL
R=
c f gCD

M +mf

dm VCL
=
m c f gCD

M + mf
ln

M + mf
ln

("Breguet Range Equation")

Eliminating V, this can also be written as

2 ( M + m f ) g CL0.5
M + mf
1
R=

ln

gcF
1S
M
CD
where 1 denotes the density at which the cruise climb commences. Note how cruise climb range is

CL0.5 CD , hence can be maximized by flying at some optimal incidence;

proportional to

inversely proportional to the square root of the starting density, hence higher altitude should
lead to greater range, subject of course to ceiling limit.
inversely proportional to cf.

The value of CL for which cruise climb range is maximum can easily be shown to be CL =

a 3b ; the

corresponding drag coefficient is CD = 4a/3.

It is useful to derive an expression for drag. When the all-up mass has reduced to m and the density to
, the following equations must hold:

M + mf

By the time all the cruise fuel has been used, m = M and

M + mf

=>

2
M
=
1 M + m f

In other words, density will vary in the range

M
M + mf

On the other hand, drag

D = mg

CD CD
=
(M + mf ) g
CL 1 CL
(32/58)

= 2

where

Cruise Performance

Range and Endurance of Jet Aircraft

Engine performance will diminish as altitude increases, so at all times we must have
x

Tmax SL
>D
SL
In other words we must have
x

CD
Tmax SL
>
(M + mf ) g
1 CL
SL

5.3
Range and Endurance of Jet Aircraft
f = cF T
Fuel flow rate governs thrust T: m

SAR =

V
V
1
1
=
and SE =
=
m f cF T
m f cF T

Since, in level flight, T = D and L = mg

SAR =
5.4

V
L

cF D mg

1
L

cF D mg

SE =

Jet Case: SAR in terms of CL and CD

In straight and level flight

mg = 12 V 2 SCL so V =

V
L
SAR =

=
cF D mg

CL
2mg
1

=
SCL cF CD mg cF

2
Smg

Max SAR obtained by flying at AoA corresponding to

Was an exercise to show

(C

1
2

CD

2mg
.
SCL

(C

1
2

CL2

CD
1

CD

max

= 0.75 (1 3a 3b ) at CL = a 3b .
1
4

max

This gives optimum airspeed for max range V=

3Vmd

2mg
= 1.316
S

b 4
.
a

Note:
Vmd is a function of m and
For practical reasons this optimum is not usually employed
5.5

Jet Case: SE in terms of CL and CD

SE =

1
1 CL

cF mg CD

We know that

( CL

CD )max =

1
and that the corresponding lift coefficient
2 ab
(33/58)

Cruise Performance

Cruise Climb

a
b

CLmd =

=> For maximum SE, jet aircraft should be flown at Vmd

However, this speed is on the edge of the region of speed instability so it may not be desirable actually
to maximize endurance.
5.6

Cruise Climb

5.6.1

Range

Have shown previously that

Therefore

V
L

cF D mg

SAR =

M + mf

M + mf

R1 =

( SAR ) dm =

1 VL dm

gcF D m

Since CL is constant => (L/D) is constant, hence

1 VL M + mf dm 1 VL
M + mf
R1 =

=
ln

M
gcF D M m gcF D
1 VL
M + mf
R1 =
ln

M
gcF D
Substituting

(C

1
2

CD

2mg
,
SCL

V=

max

("Breguet Range Equation")

= 0.75 (1 3a 3b )

0.25

(has maximum at V = 1.316 Vmd)

one obtains

R1 =

1
2mg CL0.5

ln ( )
gcF
S CD

(Note, mg/ is constant).

So

R1max

1
2mg CL0.5
=

ln ( )
gcF
S CD max
1

Optimum airspeed for max range Vmax-range =

Lift coefficient CL

3Vmd

2mg b 4
= 1.316
S a

= a 3b = 0.577CLmd .

Note, however, that it is not always possible or desirable to fly at V = 1.316 Vmd
Therefore we need to determine effect on range of cruising jet at other speeds It is helpful to use
relative airspeed u = V/Vmd where

Vmd =

2mg b
S a

0.25

Note too that in cruise climb, Vmd will be constant. So

1
2mg CL0.5
R1 =

ln ( )
gcF
S CD

(34/58)

Cruise Performance

Now

Cruise Climb

2mg
0.25
= ( a b ) Vmd ,
S

2mg Vmd2
CL =
=
SV 2 V 2

V 2
a b , CD = a + b md2
V

(V Vmd )3
Vmd
1
=> R1 =

ln ( )
4
gcF
ab 1 + (V Vmd )

Figure 5-1: Range vs. speed in cruise-climb

(35/58)

V4
a b = a 1 + md4

Cruise Performance

Cruise Climb

Example Turbojet aircraft, S = 75 m2 starts cruise at mass 18 000 kg of which 3500 kg is usable fuel.
Drag Polar: a = 0.025, b = 0.065, cF = 2.8 10-5 kg N-1 s-1
Starts cruise at altitude where (/0) = 0.53
Determine maximum gross range in an ideal cruise climb.
Solution: Fuel ratio = 18000/(18000-3500) = 1.241

1
2mg CL0.5

R1 =

ln ( )
gcF
S CD
2mg
2 18000 9.81
=
S
( 0.53 1.225) 75
(Evaluated at start of cruise, but constant throughout)

(C

1
2

CD

R1max =

max

= 0.75 (1 3a 3b )

9.81 2.8 105

0.25

0.75

( 3 0.0253 0.065)

0.25

= 17.95

2 18000 9.81
17.95 ln (1.241)
( 0.53 1.225 ) 75

= 1.2017 106 m = 1201.7 km

As for the speed, we know that

V = 2mg SCL =

5.6.2

2 18000 9.81
= 142.3 m / s
0.53 1.225 75 0.358

Endurance

SE =

E1 =

CL = a 3b = 0.025 3 0.065 = 0.358

1
1 CL

cF mg CD

M + mf

M + mf

( SAR ) dm =

1 CL dm
1 CL

gcF CD m gcF CD

M + mf

dm
m

(Remember, CL is constant in cruise climb). Therefore,

E1 =

1 CL M + mf

ln
gcF CD M

Max endurance achieved at CL = CLmd corresponding

E1max =

C
1
to L =
. That is,
C
2
ab
D max

1
1
M + mf

ln

gcF 2 ab M

However, flying at Vmd is unlikely to be desirable. What will be the endurance at other (suboptimal)
0.5

Vmd2 a
speeds? It can be shown, by writing CL = 2 , that
V b
2
(V Vmd )
1
1
M + mf
E1 =

ln

4
gcF
ab 1 + (V Vmd )
M
(36/58)

Cruise Performance

Program 2 Constant Lift Coefficient and Density

Method 1 (cruise climb) yields best range for given quantity of fuel. Air traffic control may not allow
aircraft to keep gradually climbing. Aircraft on long flights are usually allowed to perform step climb
during cruise; this involves discrete steps. e.g. discrete steps of 2000 ft after 2 hours to bring mg/
closer to its optimum value. The climb angle is clearly not zero, but so small that it does not seriously
affect assumption that flight is level

Figure 5-2: Endurance vs. speed assuming cruise-climb

5.7

Program 2 Constant Lift Coefficient and Density

In this case, true airspeed is reduced as fuel is burned to satisfy

mg = 12 V 2 SCL
2

V
1
It can be shown that CL constant => relative airspeed constant: in fact
=
Vmd CL

a
.
b

Note that reducing TAS during cruise is not normally practical or desirable. Also, there is the need
continually to compute the optimal airspeed and reduce throttle setting to maintain CL constant.
Under this assumption,
Error! Objects cannot be created from editing field codes.

=
=
=

1 CL

gcF CD
1 CL

gcF CD

M + mf

M
M + mf

dm
m
2mg dm
SCL m

1
2
C 0.5

L
gS CD
cF

M + mf

dm
m

(37/58)

Cruise Performance

Program 3 Constant Speed and Density

1
2
C 0.5
R2 =
L
cF
gS CD

Now

(C

M + mf

dm
m

0.5
L

M + mf
1
2
C

2 m
M
gS CD
cF

1
2
C 0.5

L 2 M + mf M
gS CD
cF

2 ( M + mf ) CL0.5
2
M

gS
cF
CD
M + mf

1
2

CD

max

= 0.75 (1 3a 3b )

0.25

.
2

Example Same Turbojet aircraft as previous example, S = 75m starts cruise with mass 18000 kg of
-5
-1 -1
which 3500kg is usable fuel. Drag Polar: a = 0.025, b = 0.065, cF = 2.8 x 10 kg N s
Starts cruise at altitude where ( / 0 ) = 0.53
Determine maximum gross range under cruise method 2

2 ( M + mf ) CL0.5
2
M

1
cF
gS
M + mf
CD max

2
2 18000
18 3.5
=

17.95 1

5
2.8 10
0.53 1.225 9.81 75
18

R2 max =
R2 max

= 1140575 m = 1140 km (cf 1201 km with cruise climb)

5.8

Program 3 Constant Speed and Density

Assume level flight with L = mg, = constant. Thrust = drag

bm 2 g 2
T = D = V Sa + 1
2
2 V S
f = cF T .
Fuel burn rate m
1
2

1
bm 2 g 2
2

m f = cF 2 V Sa + 1
2

2 V S
R3 =

M + mf

V
1
bm2 g 2
2
cF 2 V Sa + 1
2

2 V S

For constant V and this integral can be evaluated analytically by reducing it to a standard integral of
the form:
x2

dx
1
x1 2 + x 2 =

x2

1 x
tan
x1

as follows...
(38/58)

Cruise Performance
M + mf

R3 =

Program 3 Constant Speed and Density

V 12 V 2 S

m
=

cF bg 2

bg 2
2
cF 12 V 2 Sa + 1
m

2 V S

V 12 V 2 S

cF bg 2

M + mf

V 12 V 2 S 1

cF bg 2

1
a 1 V 2 S 2

2
+ m2

b g

1 M + mf
tan

M + mf

1
1

12 V 2 S
2
2
V
Sa

+m
2
bg

1 M
tan

where
2

a 1 V 2 S
:= 2
.
b g
2

The range can be simplified to

1 M + mf
V
V
1 M
1

tan

tan
=
tan
R3 =

gcF ab

gcF ab
1 + M

+ mf M



mf

M + mf

=
tan 1
M + mf 2

gcF ab
1 +
(1 )

where

:=

mf
.
M + mf

There is no simple, closed-form expression for the maximum range R with respect to V at given height
when R is of the above form. Using the data from the previous example, we plot R3(V) vs. V and find
the optimum cruise speed numerically: Maximum range = 1139 km. (See Figure 5-3)

Figure 5-3: Range (R3) vs. Speed at constant altitude and constant speed
(39/58)

Cruise Performance

Program 3 Constant Speed and Density

Figure 5-4: Cruise Range (R3) (V and constant)

showing theoretical advantage of flying faster and higher

Figure 5-5: Effect of varying amount of fuel

The above analysis has led to expressions for the gross still-air range of a jet aircraft cruising at

R1: Constant V and CL

R2: Constant r and CL
R3: Constant V and r

(40/58)

Correctly Banked Level Turn

Load Factor n

6. Correctly Banked Level Turn

For an aircraft flying at a speed V to execute a level turn of radius-of-curvature R and turn-rate =
V/R requires a centripetal force in the horizontal plane. The force must be of magnitude

F = mV 2 R = mR 2 = mV .
The best way to provide such a force is to roll the aircraft about its longitudinal axis, thereby rotating
the lift vector inwards to produce a horizontal component. Denote this roll (bank) angle . Then the
equations of motion for a correctly banked level turn are:

L cos = mg
L sin = m

V2
= mR 2 = mV
R

From this we can deduce the following important relationships

tan = V 2 Rg
L = mg 1 + (V 2 Rg ) 2 = mg sec
L = m g 2 + R 2 4 = mg 1 + ( R 2 g ) 2
L = m g 2 + V 2 2 = mg 1 + (V g ) 2
Note that the required lift force is greater than that required in straight-and-level flight to support the
weight.

6.1

Load Factor n

n=

n=

Hence

lift forcein turn

weight

L
= sec = 1 + (V 2 Rg ) 2 = 1 + ( R 2 g ) 2 = 1 + (V g ) 2 and
mg

Error! Objects cannot be created from editing field codes.

(deg)
N

0
1

5
10
20
30
45
60
1.004
1.015
1.064
1.155
1.414
2
Table 6-1: Load factor n as a function of bank angle

It is customary to speak of an n-g turn: one in which the normal load factor is n.
6.2

CL =

CL in Correctly Banked Level Turn

1
2

L
nmg
=1
2
V S 2 V 2 S
(41/58)

70
2.9

Correctly Banked Level Turn

Maximum Turn Rate

Suppose that an aircraft is flying straight-and-level at speed V and that it then starts to execute an n-g
turn, maintaining speed constant. The lift coefficient must increase by a factor n.
2

=> Drag coefficient CD must also increase (because CD = a + bCL )

Note that CL cannot increase beyond CLmax so there is a danger of stalling if n is too large.
2

Example Light aircraft: V = 50 m/s, w = 1000 N/m , CLmax = 2.

CL =

nmg
< CL max =>
2
1
2 V S

n<

1
2

V 2CL max
w

= 3.06 (at ISA sea level)

This says nothing about whether the aeroplane structure is designed to withstand this load, nor about
whether the power plant can provide enough thrust or power at the corresponding CL. (We return to
this point later.)
6.3
Maximum Turn Rate
The lift coefficient in a correctly banked level turn can be written,

m g 2 + V 22
CL =
2
1
2 V S
Hence the drag force is given by:

D = 12 V 2 Sa + b

m2 g 2 + m 2V 2 2
.
2
1
2 V S

This simplifies to

(mg ) 2
m22
D = 12 V 2 Sa + b 1
+
b
.
2
1
2 V S
2 S
The above variation of drag with speed differs from the straight-and-level flight case only by the
addition of a constant offset term proportional to ; for any sufficiently small that the aircraft has
sufficient thrust to maintain a turn, the minimum drag occurs at
2

Vmdturn = Vmd =
The minimum drag in a turn at

2mg
S

b
.
a

rad sec-1 is given by

Dmin turn = 2mg ab + b

m2 2
.
1
2 S

From this it follows that the thrust-limited maximum rate of turn is given by

max = g

S Tmax

2 ab

2b mg mg

(42/58)

Correctly Banked Level Turn

Tightest Turn

Tmax denotes the maximum thrust available from the jet engines.

where

6.4
Tightest Turn
For a given load factor (equivalently, for given bank angle ), the turn radius is

V2
V2
R=
=
g tan g n 2 1
For given bank angle,

R V 2 => turn radius large for fast aircraft.

The drag force in a banked level turn of radius R and speed V can be written
2
2

m b ( mg )
D = V S a + 4b
+ 1
2

RS

2 V S
2

1
2

which is of the form

D = 12 V 2 Sa +

b(mg ) 2
2
1
2 V S

For a given value of R, the minimum drag occurs when a

1
2

V 2 S = mg b a = mg

b(mg ) 2
= 0 , i.e. when
( 12 V 2 S ) 2

m
a + 4b

RS

and the minimum drag force itself is

2

Dmin

m
= 2mg ab = 2mg ab + 4b
.
RS
2

The tightest turn achievable by a jet aircraft occurs at the radius Rmin for which

Dmin = Tmax
2

m
2mg ab + 4b
= Tmax .
Rmin S
2

i.e.

(This is assuming thrust to be independent of V.) Rearranging,

Rmin =

6.5

4bm / S
2

which is achieved at a speed

Tmax
mg 4ab

Centripetal Acceleration

V2
ay =
= n2 1 g
R
Example: load factor n = 2 (L = 2mg)
(43/58)

VRmin = 2

b mg mg

S Tmax

Correctly Banked Level Turn

Drag During Turn

a y = 22 1 g = 3g 17 m/s2.

If V = 200 m/s,

6.6

R=

V2
g n2 1

2002
9.81 22 1

2354 m

Drag During Turn

n2 m2 g 2
D = 12 V 2 SCD = 12 V 2 S a + b
2
2

1
V
S

(
)
2

T (thrust) = D (drag)
2

n 2 m2 g 2
nmg
2
1
where
x
=
T = xa + b
=
ax
+
b

2 V S

x
x

ax 2 Tx + bn 2 m 2 g 2 = 0

Can solve for x, and hence V as a function of n,

mg
1 1 4abn

x
T
=

2a
T

x x
mg
a + bn 2
=0
T T
T

=>

T
mg
1 1 4abn 2
=> V =

Sa
T

Alternatively, for n as a function of V ...

=>

n =
2

T ( 12 V 2 S ) a ( 12 V 2 S )
bm 2 g 2

mg
The condition 1 4abn
= 0 defines the maximum load factor possible at the given thrust-to T
T
weight ratio, and the corresponding speed is given by: Vmax n =
. The load factor is then
Sa
2

1 T
nmax =

2 ab mg
Exercise: show that the corresponding lift coefficient CLnmax =

a b = CLmd.

The following graph shows the n-V envelope for a particular aircraft. Check that nmax = 4.74.

(44/58)

Correctly Banked Level Turn

Drag During Turn

CD = 0.02 + 0.05*C2L, w = 3161 N/m2, TWR = 0.3, CLmax = 2.5, S = 90 m2

5
4.5
4

load factor n

3.5
3
2.5
2

upper power limit

lower power limit
lower stall limit

Corner speed
1.5
1

50

100

150
V [m/s]

200

250

300

Figure 6-1: Sea-level n-V envelope based on thrust and drag, showing lower limit due to stall
Note: The intersection of the stall limit and the lower load-factor limit defines the Corner Speed. This
is the minimum speed at which the aircraft can reach its maximum load factor without stalling

Figure 6-2: Speed-Load Factor envelope showing contours of constant turn rate increasing
from 2 to 16deg/s. Maximum rate of turn for given configuration occurs at approximately n=3,
v=100m/s

(45/58)

Correctly Banked Level Turn

Minimum Turning Radius

Figure 6-3: V-n envelope showing contours of decreasing turn radii from 4km to 0.2km
6.7

Minimum Turning Radius

It has been shown that

R=

V2
g n2 1

. For a given V, we need the largest possible n. This is

precisely what the previous figure gives us. We then need to minimize the resulting function of V. We
can do this as follows. Let us assume first that we are to the right of the stall boundary.

Rmin (V ) =

V2
2
max

g n

where nmax is a function of V and where

2
=
nmax

T ( 12 V 2 S ) a ( 12 V 2 S )
bm 2 g 2

Differentiate Rmin with respect to V.

dRmin
=
dV

2
2V ( nmax
1) V 2 nmax
2
g ( nmax
1)

3
2

dnmax
dV . This derivative equals zero when 2 n 2 1 = Vn dnmax .
( max ) max dV

But by differentiating the nmax - V relationship, we have:

2nmax

2
1
dnmax T ( VS ) 2a VS ( 2 V S )
=
.
dV
bm2 g 2

Therefore, we need to solve:

2(n

2
max

1) = V

T ( VS ) 2a VS ( 12 V 2 S )

T ( 12 V 2 S ) a ( 12 V 2 S )
bm 2 g 2

2bm 2 g 2
2

1 = V

T ( VS ) 2a VS ( 12 V 2 S )
4bm 2 g 2

(46/58)

Steady Banked Climb - Jet Aircraft

1
2

T ( 12 V 2 S )
bm 2 g 2

Minimum Turning Radius

=1

4bm 2 g 2 4b mg T
V =
=

ST
S mg
2

Vtt = 2

b mg T
.

S mg

NB: need to check that this is greater than stall speed!

Assuming it is, the corresponding (thrust-limited) minimum-radius turn is obtained by back-substitution:

Rtt =

4b mg
g S
2

T
mg 4ab

For small turning radius, need small b, large (i.e. low altitude), low wing-loading, and high
thrust/weight ratio.
7. Steady Banked Climb - Jet Aircraft
We consider the idealized case in which a jet aircraft banks about the velocity vector by an angle
and the flight path angle is , and the latter is assumed small enough that sin = . The forces in the
XZ-plane are as depicted in Figure 7-1. The horizontal component of lift Lsin produces a centripetal
acceleration which turns the vehicle.

L sin = M

V2
R

(7.1)

R denotes the turn radius of curvature.

Figure 7-1: Forces in XZ-plane During Banked Climb

The remaining equations of motion, assuming steady flight, are

L cos = Mg cos Mg
T D = Mg sin

(7.2)
(7.3)
(47/58)

Steady Banked Climb - Jet Aircraft

Steepest Climb

From these, we can deduce that the flight path angle and rate of climb (dh/dt) are

sin =

T
C
n D
Mg
CL

(7.4)

and

dh
2nMg T
C
=
n D (7.5)

dt
SCL Mg
CL
where n = 1/cos is the normal load factor.
For a conventional aircraft, T/Mg, CD/CL, and n are each controlled by the pilot, via throttle, elevator
and ailerons respectively, roughly speaking.
Any turn (n>1) will degrade the climb performance. Let us quantify this in terms of steepest climb and
best rate of climb. Note that maximum climb rate is not achieved at the steepest possible climb, but
rather at a somewhat shallower climb gradient, offset by a higher airspeed.
7.1
Steepest Climb
For given n, maximum sin will occur at maximum thrust and maximum (L/D). This means that, for an
idealized jet aircraft, the steepest climb will be achieved at the minimum drag condition CL=CLmd
irrespective of n. Speed and rate of climb will or course depend on n.
7.2
Best Rate of Climb
At a given load factor and thrust-weight ratio T/Mg = , the lift coefficient CL giving best rate of climb
can be found by setting to zero the derivative with respect to CL of (7.5), i.e.

d 12
C
CL n D32 = 0
dCL
CL
This leads to the quadratic

nbCL2 + CL 3na = 0
which can be solved for, given n and , to yield CL in much the same way as the n=1 case in section
3.1.2. Using the following parameters
a=0.04; b=0.024;
M=350000;
S=500;
CLmax=2.5;
Tmax_sl=0.9e6;
rho=1.225;

%
%
%
%
%
%

Drag Polar
All-up mass [kg]
Wing reference area [m^2]
Max lift coefficient
Sea-level max thrust [N]
Ambient density [kg/m^3]

we find the CL variation shown in Figure 7-2. An m-file (banked_climb_performance_jet.m) has been
written to solve the equations and plot the results. For example, at n=2, a maximum climb rate of
21m/s can be achieved, this at a 7 deg flight-path angle and an airspeed of 165m/s. At the same load
factor (and hence same bank angle), an 8 deg climb could be achieved at just over 130 m/s airspeed
and the climb rate would then be 18 m/s.

(48/58)

Steady Banked Climb - Jet Aircraft

Best Rate of Climb

Jet: Banked Climb: Full Throttle, CL optimized for Best Rate of Climb
1.3
1.2
1.1
1

CL

0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4

1.5

2
2.5
Load Factor n

3.5

Figure 7-2: Lift Coefficient for Best Climb Rate vs Load Factor
Jet: Banked Climb TWR=0.3; CD=0.040+0.024CL2; w=6867N/m2; =1.225kg/m3
26
Best Climb Rate
24
Steepest Climb
22

Climb Rate [m/s]

20
18
16
14
12
10
8
6

1.5

2
2.5
Load Factor n

Figure 7-3: Climb Rate vs Load Factor

(49/58)

3.5

Steady Banked Climb - Jet Aircraft

Best Rate of Climb

Jet: Banked Climb TWR=0.3; CD=0.040+0.024CL2; w=6867N/m2; =1.225kg/m3

12
Best Climb Rate
11
Steepest Climb
10
Flight Path Angle [deg]

9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2

1.5

2
2.5
Load Factor n

3.5

Figure 7-4: Flight-Path Angle vs Load Factor

Jet: Banked Climb TWR=0.3; CD=0.040+0.024CL2; w=6867N/m2; =1.225kg/m3
190
180
170

AirSpeed [m/s]

160
150
140
130
Best Climb Rate
Steepest Climb

120
110
100
90

1.5

2
2.5
Load Factor n

Figure 7-5: Airspeed vs Load Factor

(50/58)

3.5

Turn at Constant Thrust and CL

Best Rate of Climb

8. Turn at Constant Thrust and CL

In this section, we consider what happens to a jet if, when flying straight-and-level, the pilot banks the
aircraft to a load factor n while keeping thrust and angle-of-attack constant. The aircraft will start to
turn and to descend. The equations of motion in the subsequent turn are

L = nMg cos

(8.1)

T + Mg sin = D

(8.2).

where we take as positive for a descending flight path; moreover will assume that is small so that
sin = and cos = 1. Since AoA is assumed not to change through the manoeuvre, neither too will CL
or CD, so based on the pre-turn condition,

T
C
= D
Mg CL

(8.3)

Meanwhile during the turn,

L
nMg cos
C
=
= L
D T + Mg sin CD
Hence

n cos = 1 +
Since

CL
sin .
CD

cos 1 ,

=>

The airspeed is given by

sin

V=

n 1
( CL CD )

2nMg
SCL

(Note how the speed increases.)

The rate of descent is

v = V sin =

The turn radius is

R=

2 Mg n ( n 1)
S CL1.5 CD

2nw

gCL n 2 1

Example: M=350000kg, S=500m , a=0.04, b=0.024, CL=0.4, rho=1.0kg/m . 20 deg bank, constant
throttle and AoA. CD=0.0438.
Rate of descent=

2 35 104 9.81 sec 20 sec 20 1

m/s = 1.34 m/s
1.0 500
0.41.5 0.0438

Turn Radius = 10.23km

(51/58)

Take-off Performance

Basic Estimate of Takeoff Run

9. Take-off Performance

Figure 9-1: Important take-off variables

Vstall

Stall-speed. Aircraft capable of flight; continues accelerating on ground

Vmcg

Minimum control speed on ground. Enough speed for aerodynamic

control on ground in event of engine failure for multi-engined a/c

Vmca

Minimum control speed in air. Were the plane in the air (which it isnt)
there would be enough speed for aerodynamic control
in event of engine failure for multi-engined a/c

V1

Critical engine failure speed (multi-engined a/c). Decision speed.

Engine failure before V1 => takeoff must be aborted
Engine failure after V1 => takeoff can proceed

VR

Rotation speed. Plane rotated to increase angle of attack (AOA),

hence lift. VR can equal V1 but must have
VR > 1.05 Vmc

Vmu

Minimum unstick speed.

If AOA is limited by ground clearance, plane must continue to accelerate
on ground in rotated stated.
(Definition assumes that plane is rotated to maximum extent possible
as limited by ground clearance).

VLO

Lift-off speed, generally > Vmu because for safety, rotation is limited
to a value somewhat less than the ground-clearance limit.

These key speeds all typically lie in the range Vstall < V < 1.1Vstall
Once airborne, aircraft deemed to have taken off by the time it has reached Screen Height hs, which
may be specified or laid down by regulation. For civil operations, hs = 35 ft (10.7m)
Takeoff run includes additional distance x2 over ground while aircraft climbs to screen height.
9.1
Basic Estimate of Takeoff Run
Although our initial assumptions are strong, they provide insight into some of the key parameters that
influence take-off distance.
Assumptions:
1. Aircraft mass (m) constant
(52/58)

Take-off Performance

2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Basic Estimate of Takeoff Run

Thrust (T) constant

Drag (D) negligible
Rolling resistance negligible
VLO= 1.1Vstall
CL = 0.9 CLmax during initial climb (safety margin against stall)

Acceleration along runway: Basic Dynamics

dV
=T
dt

Acceleration can be written

Therefore,
V =VLO

mV

VdV =

V =0

dV dV dx dV
=
=
V
dt
dx dt dx

dV
= T and Initial condition: V=0 when x=0.
dx

x = x1

Tdx

x =0

2
12 mVLO
= Tx1

9.1.1

Effect of Key Parameters on x1

From assumption VLO= 1.1Vstall
2
VLO
= (1.1)
2

2mg
SCL max

2
1
mVLO
m
2mg
2
x1 =
= 2 (1.1)
T
T
SCL max
1
2

= (1.1)

= (1.1)

( mg )

gSCL maxT

( mg S )
gCL max (T mg )

Example
Gulfstream-like a/c
(values taken from Anderson, J.D. Aircraft performance and Design
Wing-loading: 3679 N/m2
Thrust: 110 920 N (at 0.7VLO)
Wing area: 88m2
Mass: 33 113 kg
CLmax: 1.86
Assume VLO=1.1Vstall
(Vstall = 56.9 m/s)

Wing loading = 3691 N/m2

Thrust/weight ratio = 0.34
Take density = 1.225 kg/m3

(53/58)

Take-off Performance

x1 = (1.1)

Basic Estimate of Takeoff Run

( mg S )
= 586m = (= 1920 ft)
gCL max (T mg )

9.1.2 Calculation of x2
Once airborne, aircraft CG initially follows approximately circular path.
Change in flight-path angle: (rad)
Radius of curvature of flight path: R (m)

Figure 9-2: Initial climb to screen height

L mg + m

V2
R

Load factor:

n=

L
V2
1+
mg
Rg

Enforcing stall safety margin: Lift coefficient

CL (=

1
2

L
) < 0.9CL max
V 2 S

If one assumes V = VLO= throughout the initial circular climb, it follows that

L = nmg < 0.9CL max 12 (1.1Vstall ) S

2

= 0.9 (1.1) mg
2

= 1.09mg
n < 1.09

(1.1Vstall ) = 1.37V 2
V2
R>
=
stall
( n 1) g ( n 1) g
2

hs = R (1 cos ) R
x2 = R sin R

(R in metres, Vstall in m/s)

2
2

(54/58)

Take-off Performance

Refined Estimate

hs = R (1 cos ) R
x2 R = R

2
2

2hs
= 2hs R = 1.17Vstall 2hs
R

Figure 9-3: Simplified geometry of initial flight-path acquisition

Example
To clear 10.7m screen height

x2 1.17 Vstall 2hs = 1.17 56.9 2 10.7 = 308 (= 1010 ft)

9.2
Refined Estimate
In practice,
a) resistance to motion is not negligible;
b) thrust is not independent of speed
The following mathematical models are commonly used to describe the variation of resistive and
propulsive forces:
Drag:

D = 12 V 2 SCD (Drag coefficient constant)

Rolling resistance:
Lift:

= N = ( mg L )

L = 12 V 2 SCL (Lift coefficient also constant)

Thrust:

T = T0 kV 2

The equation of motion (level runway, no headwind) becomes:

T 12 V 2 S ( CD CL ) mg = mV

dV
dx

This can be written

a bV 2 = V

T mg
dV
S
where a = 0
and b = 12
( C D + k CL ) .
dx
m
m

This can be integrated as follows:

x1

1.1VSTALL

v =0

dx =

VdV
=
a bV 2

1.1VSTALL

v=0

1.1VSTALL
dV 2
1
1
a
= ln a bV 2
= ln
2
2
0
a bV
2b
2b a (1.1)2 bVSTALL
1
2

(55/58)

Take-off Performance

Balanced Field Length (Multi-Engined Aircraft)

where x1 is the distance to accelerate from rest to the rotate speed VR = 1.1Vstall

Figure 9-4: Take-off Performance Chart

9.3

Balanced Field Length (Multi-Engined Aircraft)

Regulations (FAR 25) require that a multi-engine transport aircraft be capable of take-off even in the
event of an engine failure during the take-off run. This condition is referred to as OEI which is an
abbreviation for one engine inoperative. In such an event, a decision must rapidly be made as to
whether to continue or to abort the take-off.
If the failure occurs while the aircraft is still at relatively low speed, less distance will be required to
brake and bring it to rest than to continue to accelerate at the reduced rate possible using the
remaining good engine(s). Conversely, if the speed already exceeds a critical value, less run-way
distance will be required to continue the take-off than to abort and stop.
The critical point where these distances are equal defines the decision speed V1 and the Balanced
Field Length (BFL). These parameters will be functions of all-up mass and ambient density, among
other things. Let us analyse the situation.
The equation of motion was shown to be of the form

dV
2
= a1 bV
1
dx

where:

a1 =

T 1mg
,
m

b1 =

S
2m

(C

Dg

1CLg ) .

If thrust T is assumed constant, then the distance D to accelerate from U to V is

(56/58)

Take-off Performance

D=

Balanced Field Length (Multi-Engined Aircraft)

1
a bU 2
ln 1 1 2 .
2b1
a1 bV
1

To accelerate from rest, (i.e. U = 0) requires a distance

D=

1
ln 1 ( b1 a1 ) V 2
2b1

Under braking, T = 0 and we must replace the rolling resistance 1 by the coefficient of friction 2. The
braking distance Db required to bring the vehicle back to rest from a speed V is given by

Db =

where

1
a b V2
ln 2 2
2b2
a2
a2 = 2 g and b2 =

S
2m

(C

Dg

2CLg ) .

The total acceleration-deceleration distance up to a speed V is D + Db. Note that this formula does not
take into account any reaction time by the pilot. In practice, several seconds would pass while the pilot
processed the information and decided what action to take and this could potentially add hundreds of
metres to the distance.
Now suppose that at speed V, an engine fails, causing the thrust to drop from T to kT for some k < 1.
For example, in the case of a four-engine aircraft losing power from one engine, k = 0.75. The
additional distance Dg (the go distance increment) to reach take-off speed VTO is given by
2
a3 bV
1
1
Dg =
ln
2
2b1 a3 bV
1 TO

where

a3 :=

kT 1mg
.
m

So if the pilot continues with the take-off following engine failure at the speed V, the total ground run
will be D + Dg.
We use the data from Fig. 7.4 to illustrate this. M=33 000kg. If we assume this is a twin-engine aircraft,
k=0.5. We take 1.2Vstall as the take-off speed. The two curves show how the total distance for the
manoeuvre varies with the speed at which engine power is lost. The Aborted Take-off case assumes
that full braking is immediately applied.
See m-file balanced_field_length_v2.m.

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Take-off Performance

Balanced Field Length (Multi-Engined Aircraft)

TOTAL GROUND RUN: rho=1.225kgm-3

CL=0.110;CD=0.034;M=33000kg;S= 100m2;mu1=0.04;mu2=0.40
70

Engine Fail Speed [m/s]

60

50

40

30

20
Aborted Take-off
Continued Take-off (reduced thrust)
1.2Vstall
Vstall

10

500

1000

1500

[m]

Fig. A7.5
V1 decision speed = 55 m/s, BFL = 870m. The assumed take-off speed = 1.2Vstall = 64 m/s
We can also deduce from the above that the aircraft would take off in 670m on both engines but would
require about 1470m if the pilot tried to complete the whole take-off on a single engine.

(58/58)