This document summarizes 6 lectures on electronic and photonic materials:
1. Lecture 1 introduces electronic materials, conductors, the Fermi energy level, and the Fermi-Dirac distribution function.
2. Lecture 2 discusses how the Fermi level varies with temperature in intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors.
3. Lecture 3 covers the Hall effect, dilute magnetic semiconductors and their applications.
4. Lecture 4 examines superconducting materials including normal and high-temperature superconductivity.
5. Lecture 5 looks at photonic materials such as LEDs, LCDs, photoconductors, and photodetectors.
6. L
This document summarizes 6 lectures on electronic and photonic materials:
1. Lecture 1 introduces electronic materials, conductors, the Fermi energy level, and the Fermi-Dirac distribution function.
2. Lecture 2 discusses how the Fermi level varies with temperature in intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors.
3. Lecture 3 covers the Hall effect, dilute magnetic semiconductors and their applications.
4. Lecture 4 examines superconducting materials including normal and high-temperature superconductivity.
5. Lecture 5 looks at photonic materials such as LEDs, LCDs, photoconductors, and photodetectors.
6. L
This document summarizes 6 lectures on electronic and photonic materials:
1. Lecture 1 introduces electronic materials, conductors, the Fermi energy level, and the Fermi-Dirac distribution function.
2. Lecture 2 discusses how the Fermi level varies with temperature in intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors.
3. Lecture 3 covers the Hall effect, dilute magnetic semiconductors and their applications.
4. Lecture 4 examines superconducting materials including normal and high-temperature superconductivity.
5. Lecture 5 looks at photonic materials such as LEDs, LCDs, photoconductors, and photodetectors.
6. L
This document summarizes 6 lectures on electronic and photonic materials:
1. Lecture 1 introduces electronic materials, conductors, the Fermi energy level, and the Fermi-Dirac distribution function.
2. Lecture 2 discusses how the Fermi level varies with temperature in intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors.
3. Lecture 3 covers the Hall effect, dilute magnetic semiconductors and their applications.
4. Lecture 4 examines superconducting materials including normal and high-temperature superconductivity.
5. Lecture 5 looks at photonic materials such as LEDs, LCDs, photoconductors, and photodetectors.
6. L
PHOTONIC CRYSTALS AND APPLICATIONS AND NLO MATERIALS AND
APPLICATIONS 15PY102L UNIT 1 LECTURE 1
LECTURE 1 BASIC DEFINITION IN CONDUCTORS CLASSIFICATION OF CONDUCTORS FERMI- DIRAC STATISTICS & ITS DISTRIBUTION FERMI-DIRAC DISTRIBUTION FUNCTION 15PY102L UNIT 1 LECTURE 1
ELECTRONIC AND PHOTONIC MATERIALS
The science that deals with the detailed knowledge of the properties of materials like electrical, dielectric, conduction, semi conduction, magnetic, superconductivity, optical etc., is known as `Materials Science. In terms of electrical properties, the materials can be divided into three groups (1) Conductors , (2) Semi conductors and (3) Dielectrics (or) Insulators. 15PY102L UNIT 1 LECTURE 1
Electric current The rate of flow of charge through a conductor is known as the current. If a charge dq flows through the conductor for dt second then Electric current (I)=
dq dt
Ohms law At constant temperature, the potential difference between the two ends of a conductor is directly proportional to the current that passes through it. where R = resistance of the conductor V I (or) V = IR 15PY102L UNIT 1 LECTURE 1
Resistance of a conductor The resistance (R) of a conductor is the ratio of the potential difference (V) applied to the conductor to the current (I) that passes through it. Resistance
(R) =
V I
The specific resistance (or) resistivity of a conductor
The resistance (R) of conductor depends upon its length (L) and cross sectional area (A) i.e., R
L A
or
R=
L A
where is a proportional constant and is known as the
specific resistance (or ) resistivity of the material. 15PY102L UNIT 1 LECTURE 1
The electrical conductivity is also defined as the
charge that flows in unit time per unit area of cross section of the conductor per unit potential gradient. The resistivity and conductivity of materials are pictured as shown below, Resistivity ( ohm metre ) 10
15
10
12
10
10
Insulators
10
15
10
12
10
Semiconductors
10
10
10
10
10
Metals
10
10
( ohm 1 metre 1 )
Conductivities and resistivities of materials
15PY102L UNIT 1 LECTURE 1
Conductors The materials that conduct electricity when an electrical potential difference is applied across them are conductors. A = R ohm metre L
The resistivity of the material of a conductor is defined as
the resistance of the material having unit length and unit cross sectional area.
15PY102L UNIT 1 LECTURE 1
The electrical conductivity () of a conductor
The reciprocal of the electrical resistivity is known as electrical conductivity () and is expressed in ohm1 metre1. The conductivity () =
We Know that,
1 RA
L RA
R = V/I Q t L I
= = = V A V A V A I L L
( ) ( ) ( )
15PY102L UNIT 1 LECTURE 1
The conducting materials based on their conductivity
can be classified into three categories 1. Zero resistivity materials 2. Low resistivity materials 3. High resistivity materials 1) Zero Resistivity Materials Superconductors like alloys of aluminium, zinc, gallium, nichrome, niobium etc., are a special class of materials that conduct electricity almost with zero resistance below transition temperature. These materials are known as zero resistivity materials. USES Energy saving in power systems, super conducting magnets, memory storage elements 15PY102L UNIT 1 LECTURE 1
2). Low Resistivity Materials
The metals and alloys like silver, aluminium have very high electrical conductivity. These materials are known as low resistivity materials. USES Resistors, conductors in electrical devices and in electrical power transmission and distribution, winding wires in motors and transformers. 3) High Resistivity Materials The materials like tungsten, platinum, nichrome etc., have high resistivity and low temperature co-efficient of resistance. These materials are known as high resistivity materials. 15PY102L UNIT 1 LECTURE 1
Maxwell Boltzmann Statistics (Classical law)
This law states that, the total fixed amount of energy is distributed among the various members of an assembly of identical particles in the most proable distribution. The Maxwell Boltzmann law is Where
ni =
gi e (
+ Ei )
ni number of particles having energy Ei.
gi number of energy states.
EF k T
and
1 kT
(Here k Boltzmann constant; T Absolute temperature of the
gas, EF Fermi energy) 15PY102L UNIT 1 LECTURE 1
Therefore, n = i
[e
gi ( E i E F ) / kT
Particles are distinguishable.
Classical particles can have any spin. Particles do not obey Paulis exclusion principle. Any number of particles may have identical energies.
15PY102L UNIT 1 LECTURE 1
Fermi-Dirac Statistics (Quantum law)
This statistics applicable to the identical, indistinguishable particles of half spin. These particles obey Paulis exclusion principle and are called fermions (e.g.) Electrons, protons, neutrons , In such system of particles, not more than one particle can be in one quantum state. Fermi Dirac Distribution Law is ni =
gi (e
+ E i
) +1
or ni =
[e
gi
( Ei E F ) / kT
15PY102L UNIT 1 LECTURE 1
]+1
Example Let us consider two particles a and a. Let if, these two particles occupy the three energy levels (1,2,3). The number of ways of arranging the particles 31=3 (not more than one particle can be in any one state) Energy level
Possible distribution in various
energy level
15PY102L UNIT 1 LECTURE 1
Fermi Energy (EF) and Fermi-Dirac Distribution
Function f(E) Fermi Energy (EF) Fermi Energy is the energy of the state at which the probability of electron occupation is at any temperature above 0 K. It is also the maximum kinetic energy that a free electron can have at 0 K. The energy of the highest occupied level at absolute zero temperature is called the Fermi Energy or Fermi Level. 15PY102L UNIT 1 LECTURE 1
The Fermi energy at 0 K for metals is given by
3N EF =
2/ 3
h2
8m
When temperature increases, the Fermi level or Fermi
energy also slightly decreases. The Fermi energy at nonzero temperatures, E F = E F0
12
kT
EF 0
Here the subscript 0 refers to the quantities at zero kelvin.
15PY102L UNIT 1 LECTURE 1
Fermi-Dirac Distribution Function f(E)
The free electron gas in a solid obeys Fermi-Dirac statistics. Suppose in an assemblage of fermions, there are M(E) allowed quantum states in an energy range between E and E+dE and N(E) is the number of particles in the same range. Then, The Fermi-Dirac distribution function is defined as, N (E) 1 = M ( E ) 1+ exp(E EF )/kT
N(E) / M(E) is the fraction of the possible quantum
which are occupied. 15PY102L UNIT 1 LECTURE 1
states
The distribution of electrons among the levels is
described by function f (E), probability of an electron occupying an energy level E. If the level is certainly empty, then f(E) = 0. Generally the f(E) has a value in between zero and unity. When E< EF (i.e.,) for energy levels lying below EF, (E EF) is a negative quantity and hence,
1 1 = =1 f (E) =
1+ 0 1+ e That means all the levels below EF are occupied by the electrons. 15PY102L UNIT 1 LECTURE 1
Fermi Dirac distribution function at different temperatures
15PY102L UNIT 1 LECTURE 1
When E > EF (i.e.) for energy levels lying above EF,
(E EF) is a positive quantity 1 1 f(E )= = = 0
1+ 1+ e
This equation indicates all the levels above EF are
vacant. At absolute zero, all levels below EF are completely filled and all levels above EF are completely empty.This level, which divides the filled and vacant states, is known as the Fermi energy level. 15PY102L UNIT 1 LECTURE 1
When E = EF ,
f (E ) =
1 1 1 = = 1+ e0 1+1 2
, at all temperatures
The probability of finding an electron with energy equal
to the Fermi energy in a metal is at any temperature. At T = 0 K all the energy level upto EF are occupied and all the energy levels above EF are empty . When T > 0 K, some levels above EF are partially filled while some levels below EF are partially empty.
