Vector Groups

Transformer nameplates carry a vector group reference such at Yy0, Yd1, Dyn11 etc. This
relatively simple nomenclature provides important information about the way in which three
phase windings are connected and any phase displacement that occurs.
Winding Connections
HV windings are designated: Y, D or Z (upper case)
LV windings are designated: y, d or z (lower case)
Where:
Y or y indicates a star connection
D or d indicates a delta connection
Z or z indicates a zigzag connection
N or n indicates that the neutral point is brought out
Phase Displacement
The digits ( 0, 1, 11 etc) relate to the phase displacement between the HV and LV windings
using a clock face notation. The phasor representing the HV winding is taken as reference
and set at 12 o'clock. It then follows that:
Digit 0 means that the LV phasor is in phase with the HV phasor
Digit 1 that it lags by 30 degrees
Digit 11 that it leads by 30 degrees
etc
All references are taken from phase-to-neutral and assume a counter-clockwise phase
rotation. The neutral point may be real (as in a star connection) or imaginary (as in a delta
connection)
When transformers are operated in parallel it is important that any phase shift is the same
through each. Paralleling typically occurs when transformers are located at one site and
connected to a common busbar (banked) or located at different sites with the secondary
terminals connected via distribution or transmission circuits consisting of cables and overhead
lines
Basic Theory
An ac voltage applied to a coil will induce a voltage in a second coil where the two are linked
by a magnetic path. The phase relationship of the two voltages depends upon which way
round the coils are connected. The voltages will either be in-phase or displaced by 180 deg as
below:

In phase

180deg displacement

When 3 coils are used in a 3 phase transformer winding a number of options exist. The coil
voltages can be in phase or displaced as above with the coils connected in star or delta and, in
the case of a star winding, have the star point (neutral) brought out to an external terminal or
not.

Example - Dyn11
We now know that this transformer has a delta connected primary winding (D) a star
connected secondary (y) with the star point brought out (n) and a phase shift of 30 deg leading
(11). Connections and vector diagrams are as follows::
HV

LV

Other Configurations
By connecting the ends of the windings in other ways a wide range of options becomes
available as set out below.
Phase shift (deg)

Connections

Yy0

Dd0

Dz0

30 lag

Yd1

Dy1

Yz1

60 lag

Dd2

Dz2

120 lag

Dd4

Dz4

150 lag

Yd5

Dy5

Yz5

180 lag

Yy6

Dd6

Dz6

150 lead

Yd7

Dy7

Yz7

120 lead

Dd8

Dz8

60 lead

Dd10

Dz10

30 lead

Yd11

Dy11

Yz11

Differential Protection
Differential protection is a unit scheme that compares the current on the primary side of a
transformer with that on the secondary side. Where a difference exists (other than that due to
the voltage ratio) it is assumed that the transformer has developed a fault and the plant is
automatically disconnected by tripping the relevant circuit breakers. The principle of operation
is made possible by virtue of the fact that large transformers are very efficient and hence under
normal operation power-in equals power-out. Differential protection detects faults on all of the
plant and equipment within the protected zone, including inter-turn short circuits.
Principle of Operation
The operating principle employed by transformer differential protection is the Merz-Price
circulating current system as shown below. Under normal conditions I1and I2 are equal and
opposite such that the resultant current through the relay is zero. An internal fault produces an
unbalance or 'spill' current that is detected by the relay, leading to operation.

Design Objectives
An ideal scheme is required to be:
Extremely stable under through fault conditions
Very fast to operate for an internal fault
Design Considerations
A number of factors have to be taken into account in designing a scheme to meet these
objectives. These include:
The matching of CT ratios
Current imbalance produced by tap changing
Dealing with zero sequence currents
Phase shift through the transformer
Magnetising inrush current
Each of these is considered further below.
The Matching of CT Ratios
The CTs used for the Protection Scheme will normally be selected from a range of current
transformers with standard ratios such as 1600/1, 1000/5, 200/1 etc. This could mean that the
currents fed into the relay from the two sides of the power transformer may not balance
perfectly. Any imbalance must be compensated for and methods used include the application
of biased relays (see below) and/or the use of the interposing CTs (see below).
Current Imbalance Produced by Tap Changing
A transformer equipped with an on-load tap changer (OLTC) will by definition experience a
change in voltage ratio as it moves over its tapping range. This in turn changes the ratio of
primary to secondary current and produces out-of-balance (or spill) current in the relay. As the

transformer taps further from the balance position, so the magnitude of the spill current
increases. To make the situation worse, as the load on the transformer increases the
magnitude of the spill current increases yet again. And finally through faults could produce
spill currents that exceed the setting of the relay. However, none of these conditions is 'in
zone' and therefore the protection must remain stable ie. it must not operate. Biased relays
provide the solution (see below).
Dealing with Zero Sequence Currents
Earth faults down stream of the transformer may give rise to zero sequence current,
depending upon winding connections and earthing arrangements. Since zero sequence
current does not pass through a transformer, it will be seen on one side only producing spill
current and possible relay operation for an out-of-zone fault. To prevent such occurrence,
zero sequence current must be eliminated from the differential scheme. This is achieved by
using delta connections on the secondary side of any CTs that are associated with main
transformer windings connected in star.
Where CT secondaries are connected in star on one side of a transformer and delta on the
other, allowance must be made for the fact that the secondary currents outside the delta will
only be 1/3 of the star equivalent.
Phase Shift Through the Transformer
Having eliminated the problem of zero sequence currents (see above) through faults will still
produce positive and negative sequence currents that will be seen by the protection CTs.
These currents may experience a phase shift as they pass through the transformer depending
upon the transformer vector group. CT secondary connections must compensate to avoid
imbalance and a possible mal-operation.
Magnetising Inrush Current
When a transformer is first energised, magnetising inrush has the effect of producing a high
magnitude current for a short period of time. This will be seen by the supply side CTs only and
could be interpreted as an internal fault. Precautions must therefore be taken to prevent a
protection operation. Solutions include building a time delay feature into the relay and the use
of harmonic restraint driven, typically, by the high level of second harmonic associated with
inrush current.

Other Issues
Biased Relays
The use of a bias feature within a differential relay permits low settings and fast operating
times even when a transformer is fitted with an on-load tapchanger (see above). The effect of
the bias is to progressively increase the amount of spill current required for operation as the
magnitude of through current increases. Biased relays are given a specific characteristic by
the manufacturer.
Interposing CTs
The main function of an interposing CT is to balance the currents supplied to the relay where
there would otherwise be an imbalance due to the ratios of the main CTs. Interposing CTs are
equipped with a wide range of taps that can be selected by the user to achieve the balance
required.
As the name suggests, an interposing CT is installed between the secondary winding of the
main CT and the relay. They can be used on the primary side or secondary side of the power
transformer being protected, or both. Interposing CTs also provide a convenient method of
establishing a delta connection for the elimination of zero sequence currents where this is
necessary.

Modern Relays
It should be noted that some of the newer digital relays eliminate the need for interposing CTs
by enabling essentials such as phase shift, CT ratios and zero sequence current elimination to
be programed directly into the relay.

As an independent focal point for the industry, Transformer World provides an opportunity to
collect information about transformer faults and problems occurring around the world with a
view to building a dynamic database that can be accessed on line by members. This facility is
currently under development.
Preliminary proposals are set out below.
If you are interested in taking part or have any comments please contact us at
[email protected]

Objective
To build a global database of transformer failures to help owners, operators, contractors and
manufacturers benefit from experiences in the field.

Preliminary Proposal
Participation will be by membership. Members will be granted facilities to enter data on-line
with minimal input effort. Members will also be able to search the database for information of a
technical nature.

Database Records
Input
Output

- all fields
- bold entries only

Name of person reporting

Name of company
Contact details
Substation name
Transformer name
Manufacturer
Voltage ratio
Rating
Year of Manufacture
Design Type
Type of Cooling
Type of Tapchanger
Date of fault
Nature of failure
Component that failed
Cause of failure