TECHNICAl.

REPORT STANOARO TITLE PAGE

1. RetMrt No,

:Z. G....._..., Accouion No.

3. RoctJIIont' Cotolot No.

FHW AJTX-90+ 1190-2F

4. Title ond Sublitle

TRUCK TIRE PAVEMENf CONTACf PRESSURE

DISTRIBLmON CHARACTERISTICS FOR THE BIAS GOODYEAR 18-22.5,
THE RADIAL MICHELIN 275!80R/24.5, THE RADIAL
MICHELIN 255nOR(22.5, AND THE RADIAL GOODYEAR 11 R24.5 TIRES

S. Report Dote

September 1989
6. Performi"t Orgoru zotion Cod

8. Performong Orgoni&atio" Report No.

Rafael F. Pezo, Kurt M. Marshek, and W. R. Hudson

Research Report 1190-2F

9. Porformint Orgoniaotion N- A-.reaa

10. Work Unit No.

Center for Transportation Research

The University of Texas at Austin
Austin, Texas 78712-1075

11. Controct or Gront No.

Research Study 3-8-88/9-1190

h':;--;:-:-:--:--:---::---:--:-:--:------------------113.
12. SpOI'Iaorint At..,CY N- ...... Adore ..

Texas State Department of Highways and Public Transportation

Transportation Planning Division
P. 0. Box 5051
Austin, Texas 78763-5051

Typo ol Report ontl Period Covered

Final

15. Suppl-ontory Not

Study conducted in cooperation with the U. S. Department of Transportation, Federal Highway Administration.
Research Study Title: "Tire Contact Pressure Distributions"
16. Abatroct

This report presents the results of an experimental investigation into the contact areas and tire contact pressure
distributions produced by statically loaded truck tires. For this report, the bias Goodyear 18-22.5 LR-H tire, the
radial Michelin 275/SOR/24.5 LR-G tire, the radial Michelin 255nOR/22.5 LR-G tire, and the radial Goodyear
11R24.5 LR-G tire were tested.
The testing consisted of making contact pressure and contact area prints at the interface between the tire and a
steel plate at different wheel loads and tire inflation pressures. The pressure prints were produced using Fuji prescale
film. The Fuji prescale film produces color variations, when pressure is applied to it, in such a way that darker
pigmentation is produced in zones of higher pressure. The variations in color intensities of the Fuji film prints are
related to contact pressure values produced for the fllm color calibration curve. Then, by digitizing the images and
using computer software developed exclusively for this project, the tire contact pressure distributions were
determined. The proportions of contact area covered by the various pressure ranges were computed and compared in
order to observe the patterns and to estimate the significance of high contact pressures.
The contact area prints were made by applying ink to the tire and pressing the tire over a white paper that
covered the steel plate. The ink prints have only one color and were used for calculating the tire-plate contact areas.
Also, the side tire movements were measured for the tires during testing to allow other researchers to relate
subsequent theoretical studies to our experimental results.
This report also proposes mathematical models for (1) estimating the tire contact area based on the relative
area value (ratio of wheel load over inflation pressure) and (2) estimating the tire vertical stiffness based on the tire
contact area.
17. K.,. Word

11. Dl"llluti St.._...,

tire pressures, truck tires, contact area, contact pressure

distributions, axle loads, pavements, side tire
movements, tire deflections, tire vertical stiffness
19. Security Clouif. (of lhl r,._t)

Unclassified

Fom DOT F 1700.7 cJ

No restrictions. This document is available to the

public through the National Technical Information
Service, Springfield, Virginia 22161.

S.writy Cllf (of tt.l ,...,

Unclassified

21. No. of Pogo

56

22. Price

TRUCK TIRE PAVEMENT CONTACT PRESSURE DISTRIBUTION

CHARACTERISTICS FOR THE BIAS GOODYEAR 18-22.5,
THE RADIAL MICHELIN 275/SOR/24.5,
THE RADIAL MICHELIN 255/70RI22.5,
AND THE RADIAL GOODYEAR 11R24.5 TIRES
by

Rafael F. Pezo
Kun M. Marshek
W. R. Hudson

Research Report Number 1190-2F

Research Project 3-8-88/9-1190

Tire Contact Pressure Distributions

conducted for

Texas State Department of Highways

and Public Transportation
in cooperation with the

U.S. Department of Transportation

Federal Highway Administration
by the

CENTER FOR TRANSPORTATION RESEARCH

Bureau of Engineering Research
THE UNIVERSITY OF TEXAS AT AUSTIN
September 1989

The contents of this report reflect the views of the

authors, who are responsible for the facts and the accuracy
of the data presented herein. The contents do not necessarily
reflect the official views or policies of the Federal Highway
Administration. This report does not constitute a standard,
specification, or regulation.

There was no invention or discovery conceived or first

actually reduced to practice in the course of or under this
contract, including any art, method, process, machine,
manufacture, design or composition of matter, or any new
and useful improvement thereof, or any variety of plant
which is or may be patentable under the patent laws of the
United States of America or any foreign country.

ii

PREFACE
providing the tires, to Ms. Peggy Johnson, and to CTR
personnel . especially Lyn Antoniotti and Carl Bertrand.
We acknowledge their contributions and greatly appre
ciate their efforts in making this a successful project.

This is the second of two reports which describe work

done on Project 1190, "Tire Contact Pressure Distributions." This study was conducted at the Center for Transportation Research (CTR), The University of Texas at Austin,
as part of a cooperative research program sponsored by the
Texas State Department of Highways and Public Transportation.
Many people contributed toward the completion of this
report. Thanks are expressed to Dr. Tom Tielking for his
input, to Mr. Larry Walker of Walker Tire Company for

Rafael F. Pezo
Kurt M. Marshek
W. R. Hudson
September 1989

LIST OF REPORTS
Report No. 1190-1, "Truck Tire-Pavement Contact
Pressure Distributions for Super Single 18-22.5 and Smooth
11R24.5 Tires," by Rex William Hansen, Carl Bertrand,
Kurt M. Marshek, and W. R. Hudson, presents experimental
data on the effect of tire inflation pressure and static wheel
load on contact pressure distributions for the bias Goodyear
18-22.5 and the smooth radial Armstrong 11R24.5 tires.
July 1989
Report No. II90-2F, "Truck Tire Pavement Contact
Pressure Distribution Characteristics for the Bias Goodyear

18-22.5, the Radial Michelin 275/80R/24.5, the Radial

Michelin 255nOR/24.5, and the Radial Goodyear 11R24.5
Tires," by Rafael F. Pezo, Kurt M. Marshek, and W. R.
Hudson, presents experimental data on the effect of tire
inflation pressure and static wheel load on contact pressure
distribution, contact area, tire deflections, and tire vertical
stiffness. September 1989.

ABSTRACT
This report presents the results of an experimental
investigation into the contact areas and tire contact pressure
distributions produced by statically loaded truck tires. For
this report, the bias Goodyear 18-22.5 LR-H tire, the radial
Michelin 275/80R/24.5 LR-G tire, the radial Michelin 255/
70R/22.5 LR-G tire, and the radial Goodyear 11R24.5 LRG tire were tested.
The testing consisted of making contact pressure and
contact area prints at the interface between the tire and a steel
plate at different wheel loads and tire inflation pressures.
The pressure prints were produced using Fuji prescale film.
The Fuji prcscale film produces color variations, when
pressure is applied to it, in such a way that darker pigmentation is produced in zones of higher pressure. The variations
in color intensities of the Fuji film prints are related to
contact pressure values produced for the fllm color calibration curve. Then, by digitizing the images and using computer software developed exclusively for this project, the tire

contact pressure distributions were determined. The proportions of contact area covered by the various pressure ranges
were computed and compared in order to observe the patterns and to estimate the significance of high contact pres-

sures.
Thecontactarea prints were made by applying ink to the
tire and pressing the tire over a white paper that covered the
steel plate. The ink prints have only one color and were used
for calculating the tire-plate contact areas. Also, the side tire
movements were measured for the tires during testing to
allow other researchers to relate subsequent theoretical
studies to our experimental results.
This report also proposes mathematical models for (1)
estimating the tire contact area based on the relative area
value (ratio of wheel load over inflation pressure) and (2)
estimating the vertical stiffness based on the tire contact

area.

iii

SUMMARY
The rate of deterioration of highway pavements over the
last 50 years has been accelerating. During this time, legal
truck sizes, weights, wheel loads and tire inflation pressures
have increased. This report describes a study which seeks to
measure actual tire-pavement contact pressure distributions,
in order to provide pavement designers with estimates of tire
pressure for use in studies of pavement deterioration and to
assist legislators in developing legislation regarding tire
usage.
This report presents the results of an experimental study
involving several truck tires statically loaded against a steel
plate. The bias Goodyear 18-22.5 LR-H "super single" tire,
the radial Michelin 275/SOR/24.5 LR-G tire, the radial
Michelin 255170R/22.5 LR-G tire, and the radial Goodyear
11 R24 .5 LR-G were tested and studied for this report. These
tires were chosen because they are popular for use on Texas
highways.
The testing consisted of making contact pressure measurements and contact area prints at the interface between the
tire and the support plate at different wheel loads and tire
inflation pressures. The pressure prints were produced using
Fuji prescale film. The Fuji prescale film produces a color
variation when pressure is applied to it, in such a way that
darker pigmentation is produced in zones ofhigherpressure.
The variations in color intensities of the Fuji film prints are
related to actual contact pressure values produced for the
film color calibration curve. Then, by digitizing the images
and using computer software developed exclusively for this

project, the tire contact pressure distributions were determined. The proportions of contact area covered by the
various pressure ranges were computed and compared in
order to observe the patterns and to estimate the significance
of high contact pressures.
The contact area prints were made by applying ink to the
tire and pressing the tire over a white paper that covered the
steel plate. The ink prints have only one color and were used
for calculating the tire-plate contact areas. Also, the side tire
movements were measured during testing to allow other
researchers to relate subsequent theoretical studies to our
experimental results.
This report also proposes mathematical models for (1)
estimating the tire contact area based on the relative area
value (ratio of wheel load over inflation pressure) and (2)
estimating the tire vertical stiffness based on the tire contact
area
The conclusions from this project can be summarized as
follows: (1) for bias truck tires the shape of the contact area
is generally circular with an oval tendency, while for radial
truck tires the shape is consistently rectangular; (2) in
general, for a constant tire inflation pressure, as the wheel
load increases, the proportion of contact area increases for
higher contact pressure ranges and decreases for lower
contact pressure ranges; (3) similarly, for a constant wheel
load, as the tire inflation pressure increases, the proportion
of contact area increases for higher contact pressure ranges
and decreases for lower contact pressure ranges.

IMPLEMENTATION STATEMENT
ments. The results can help to clarify many pressing problems, such as rutting, shoving, etc. Such information and
evaluation leads to changes in methods employed in current
pavement design to improve the performance of pavements
and can also assist legislators in developing legislation
regarding allowable tire pressures and related issues.

The results of this project provide tire contact areas, tire

contact pressure distributions, and proportions of contact
area covered by different pressure ranges for truck tires at
several inflation pressures and wheel loads. These relationships can be used to evaluate the effects of truck tire inflation
pressure and axle load on the structural capacity of pave-

iv

TABLE OF CONTENTS
PREFACE ..............................................................................................................................................

111

LIST OF REPORTS .... .. .. .. ........ .. .. ...... .. . .... .... .... .. .... .. .. .. .. ..... .... ...... .... .. ...... .. .... .. ... .. ...... .. .. ...... .... .. .. .. ... .. ut
ABSTRACT........................................................................................................................................... iii
SUMMARY ........................................................................................................................................... iv
IMPLEMENTATION STATEMENT...........................................................................................................

IV

CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION
Backgrolllld ...................................................................................................................................... .
Objectives ....................................................................................................................................... ..
Scope and Organization of the Study ..................................................................................................... .
Research Approach ............................................................................................................................ .
CHAPTER 2. REVIEW OF TIRE CONTACT PRESSURE STUDIES
Literature Survey................................................................................................................................
Tire-Pavement Interface Pressure Characteristics.................................................................................
Tire Contact Pressure and Its Effect on Pavement Performance..............................................................
Future Trends in Tire Types ... .. .... .. .. .. .... .... .... ... .... .. .. .. .... .. .. .. .. ..... .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .... .. ..... .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .... .... ...... .
Conclusions......................................................................................................................................

3
3
3
4
4

CHAPTER 3. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES

Experimental Parameters...................................................................................................................... 6

Tires.......................................................................................................................................... 6
Loads and Inflation Pressures..........................................................................................................
Experimental Procedure . .. .. .... .. .... .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ... .... .. .... .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..... .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ... .. .... .. .. .. .. .. .. .... ...... .....
Mounting the Tire........................................................................................................................
Testing the Tire and Producing Calibration Squares.............................................................................
Analysis of the Fuji and Ink Prints..................................................................................................
Presentations of Results . ... .. .. .. .. .... .. .. .... .. .. ... .. .. .. .. .. .... .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .... .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..... ..... .. .....

6
6
6
6
9
9

CHAPTER 4. EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS

Bias Goodyear 18-22.5 LR-H "Super Single" Tire ....................................................................................
Radial Michelin 275/SOR/24.5 LR-G Tire ...............................................................................................
Radial Michelin 255/70R/22.5 LR-G Tire ...............................................................................................
Radial Goodyear l1R24.5 LR-G Tire .....................................................................................................

10
10
11
16

CHAPTER 5. DISCUSSION AND ANALYSIS OF RESULTS

Tire Contact Area ...............................................................................................................................
Discussion of Results ..... .. .. ........ .. .. .. .. .. ... .... .. ..... ... .. .. .... ... .. .... .... .. .. .. .. .... .... .. . ... ... ..... . .. .. .. .. .... .. ... ..
Analysis of Results .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .... ... .. . .. . .. .. .. ... ....... ............ ... .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .... .. ... .. .. .. .. .. .... .... .. .. .... .. .....
Tire Contact Pressure Distributions .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..... ............ .. .. .... ... .. ..... .. ... .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .... ... ... .... .
Proportions of Contact Area.................................................................................................................
Discussion..................................................................................................................................
Analysis.....................................................................................................................................

39
39
39
40
40
40
40

Comparison Between the Tires ........................................................................................................ 41

Load Dist.ribution Along the Tread Width ............................................._. .................................................. 42
Tire Vertical Stiffness ......................................................................................................................... 42
Discussion .................................................................................................................................. 42
Analysis of Results ...................................................................................................................... 42
CAHPTER 6. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Conclusions ...................................................................................................................................... 44
Recommendations .. .. .. .. .. .... .. .. .. .. . . .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. . . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . . ... .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . . .. . .. .. .. .. . . . . .. . . . . .. .. .. .. . . .. . .. .. 44
REFERENCES . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . ... .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..... .. .. .. .. .... . . .. .... .. .. .. ... .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . . .. .. . . . ... .. .. . .. .. .. . . . . . ... .. . . . . .. .. .. . . . . . . . .. . . 45
APPENDIX A. EXPERIMENTAL AND ANALYTICAL PROCEDURES FOR
DETERMINING TIRE CONTACT PRESSURE DISTRffiUTIONS ........................................... 47
. APPENDIX B. SIDE TIRE MOVEMENT DATA ......................................................................................... 48

vi

CHAPTER l. INTRODUCTION
BACKGROUND

OBJECTIVES

The rate of highway pavement deterioration has been

observed to be accelerating over r.he last 50 years (Refs 26
and 27). A variety of factors have been identified as contributing to r.he accelerated rate of pavement damage, including
increased truck weights, sizes, wheel loads, and tire inflation
pressures. Tire contact pressure distribution and its eroding
effect on r.he pavement has, until recently ,received very little
attention. It is now increasingly recognized r.hat the tirepavement contact pressure distribution is an important factor in pavement deterioration and, consequently, a major
consideration in new pavement and rehabilitation design.
As the cost of fuel has increased, r.he trucking industry
has sought ways to economize its operations. One approach
was an attempt to improve truck gas mileage by reducing
rolling resistance through the use of higher tire inflation
pressures. This increased tire pressure has presumably
caused an increase in the rutting and fatigue failures of
asphaltic concrete pavements.
The AASHO Road Test was conducted and analyzed
using 1958-1960 truck characteristics. Since r.hen tire pressures have increased, and their effects on fatigue damage to
pavements are not documented. AI!.hough pavement designers have in the past attempted to counteract r.he effects of
increased loading through improved pavement and geometric designs, the rate of pavement deterioration continues to
increase (Refs 6, 11, 15, and 23). The actual pavement
loading mechanisms and r.heir magnitudes must be identified in order to estimate real pavement perfonnance.
Current pavement design assumes a unifonn pressure
distribution equal to r.he tire inflation pressure loaded over a
circular tire contact area. Research has clearly demonstrated
that r.he actual pressures are dependent on the user vehicle
operating characteristics, tire type, wheel load, and tire
inflation pressures.
Severa! attempts have been made to detennine tire
contact pressure distributions. Tielking (Ref 15), for example, developed a fmite element model of tires to estimate
stresses and strains in pavements when r.he tire is loaded and
inflated to different air pressures. However, none of r.hese
studies has been related to and calibrated wir.h experimental
measurements.
At The University of Texas at Austin, contact pressure
distributions of a statically loaded tire have been experimentally detennined (Refs 1, 2, and 25). This has been possible
through a system which provides numerical pressure values
for r.he contact area and two-dimensional color spectrum
graphics that clearly focus on the variations in contact
pressures and show r.he locations of the peak pressure values.

The objectives of r.he study described in this report arc

( 1) to establish pressure distributions for four different types
and sizes of tires in contact with a steel plate, (2) to provide
data to assist pavement designers in estimating the increasing rate of highway deterioration, and (3) to provide legislators with infonnation for use in developing legislation regarding tire pressure limits and usage.

SCOPE AND ORGANIZATION OF THE

STUDY
Chapter 2 contains a brief summary of related studies
dealing wir.h r.his subject. A description of r.he experimental
procedure used in r.his project is presented in Chapter 3.
Chapter 4 contains the experimental results, including tire
contact pressure distributions, contact areas, load distributions across r.he tread width, and proportions of contact area
covered by different pressure ranges for the tires tested. A
discussion and an analysis of r.he results are presented in
Chapter 5, along with appropriate statistical analyses. In
Chapter 6, conclusions and recommendations for future
research are presented.

RESEARCH APPROACH
To identify the contact area and pressure magnitudes,
static testing was perfonned at The University of Texas at
Austin on several tires at various inflation pressures and
wheel loads. These tires were a bias Goodyear 18-22.5 LRH super single, a radial Michelin 275/BOR/24.5 LR-G, a
radial Michelin 255nOR/22.5 LR -G, and a radial Goodyear
11R24.5 LR-G.
The experimental procedure consisted of four stages:
(1) mounting r.he tire, (2) testing the tire and producing
calibration squares, (3) analyzing r.he Fuji and ink prints, and
(4) presenting the results. Details of r.he experimental procedure can be found in Chapter 3 of this report.
In genera!, Fuji prescale film was the medium used to
capture the tire contact pressure distributions. This is the
film used by Hansen, Chan, and Marshek in References 1, 2,
and 25. The Fuji prescale film was located between the tire
and r.he steel plate. By applying different loads to r.he tire, the
Fuji prints were produced. The Fuji prints were r.hen scanned
and digitized using an Adage 3006Graphics system. Several
computer programs written exclusively for r.his project were
run in order to measure, analyze, and display r.he truck tire
contact pressure distributions.
The tire contact area and the applied wheel load values
obtained from r.he analysis of r.he Fuji prints were checked

2
for consistency. Tire contact areas were estimated by producing ink prints and analyzing lhem. The applied wheel
loads were detennined using lhe computer programs and
compared wilh lhe actual applied loads used in testing. This
checking process enhanced lhe validity of lhe results.

The truck tire pavement contact pressure distributions

of lhe four tested tires are presented in two ways, in Chapter
4: (1) numerical p~essure maps and (2) two-dimensional
color pressure plots.

CHAPTER 2. REVIEW OF TIRE CONTACT PRESSURE STUDIES

stress component; the other, called the lateral stress component, is perpendicular to the central plane of the tire. In
general, these sub-components are called shear components.
The shear components are created when an inflated tire
is deflected against the pavement, causing the doublycurved surface of the tread to become a flat surface. When
the tire is vertically deflected against a flat surface, the
motion is restrained by friction between the tire and the
pavement, creating perpendicular horizontal shear components of contact pressure. However, when the tire rolls freely
without camber, the shear pressure is re-directed, due to the
superposition of an angular velocity on the tread surface.
Bonse and Kuhn (Ref 21) experimentally confirmed this as
early as 1959 by rolling a tire over a circular force-measuring
stud placed in a manhole cover.
Tielking and Roberts (Ref 15) believed that the magnitude of the lateral shear is dependent on tire construction,
with the radial tires producing about one-half lower peak
pressure values than bias tires. They also believed that the
lateral shear pressure applies a much higher stress to the
pavement than does longitudinal shear pressure.

This chapter discusses the literature associated with tire

contact pressure disuibutions. Several technical publications related to tire contact pressures, wheel loads, tire types,
and tire inflation pressures were reviewed. Descriptions of
the tire-pavement interface pressure characteristics, their
effect on pavement life, and future trends in tire types are
presented below.

LITERATURE SURVEY
A literature search was conducted to determine the
existing state of knowledge relating to the project. The
reference collection of the Center for Transportation Research at The University of Texas at Austin, the Highway
Department libraries in various states, and other academic
libraries were among the sources of information for this
project. This section presents a review of several papers
addressing the problems of tire-pavement interface pressure
characteristics and tire contact effects on pavement life.

Tire-Pavement Interface Pressure Characteristics

In pavement design, it is frequently assumed that (1) the
tire contact pressure is equal to the tire inflation pressure, and
(2) the tire contact pressure is uniformly distributed over a
circular area. These assumptions are based on the idea that,
if an inflated membrane is in contact with a flat surface, the
contact pressure at each point is equal to the membrane's
inflation pressure and the contact area is circular. Theoretically, as well as experimentally, it has been demonstrated
that contact pressures are not uniform and contact areas are
not circular. Models constructed with these assumptions are
hardly accurate because carcass stiffness as well as stiffness
in the sidewalls prohibits equal pressure distribution in the
contact area (Ref 20).
Lippmann and Oblizajek (Ref 17) stated that tire pavement contact area is influenced by factors such as vehicle
speed, wheel load, tire inflation pressures, wheel camber,
steering, braking, vehicle suspension, and tire configuration. Tielking and Roberts (Ref 15) described the mechanism whereby a tire transfers a wheel load to the pavement.
Tielking and Roberts stated that changes in either the wheel
load or the tire inflation pressure result in variations in actual
contact area.
Ginn and Marlowe (Ref 22) explained the characteristics of tire-pavement contact stresses, describing their
components and orientations. The stresses can be represented by two components, one perpendicular and the other
tangent to the contact surface. This latter component may
also be subdivided into two sub-components, each lying in
the contact plane. One of the two sub-components is parallel
to the central plane of the tire and is called the longitudinal

Tire Contact Pressure and Its Effect on Pavement

Performance
A pavement must provide the load-bearing surface for
which it is designed. This depends on the expected traffic
loads, density of traffic, and desired service life. The pavement must maintain an adequate surface condition such that
it is able to permit comfortable and safe driving within the
designated speed limits. The service life is dependant on the
loading the pavement receives. Traditionally, pavement
design engineers have been primarily concerned with only
the wheel loading effects, but, recently, research efforts have
also investigated environmental and traffic effects caused by
wheel loads and tire inflation pressures. References 4, 15,
18, 27, 28, and 29 discuss the stress and strain relationship
in an asphalt pavement system caused by wheel load and
inflation pressure.
In general, the literature shows that the major causes for
increases in pavement fatigue and rutting rates are increases
in wheel loads and tire inflation pressures. For example, van
Vuuren (Ref 4) analyzed various linear elastic pavement
structures under many combinations of wheel loads and
inflation pressures, using the Chevron computer program.
He attributed four types of pavement failure to high contact
pressure: (1) fatigue of the surface layer, (2) fatigue of
cement stabilized bases, (3) surface densification, and (4)
consolidation of the subgrade. Another researcher, Eisenmann (Ref 27), states that pavement rutting is caused by
mechanical abrasion and is due to irreversible material

deformations. These defonnations are mainly caused by

high tire contact pressure concentrations, which are in turn
caused by a change in wheel load and/or a change in tire
innation pressure. Papagianak:is (Ref 18) likewise believes
that the compressive strains at the top of the asphalt surface
are dramatically affected by high tire inflation and contact
pressures.
Many researchers have addressed this growing problem, the effects of tire contact pressures on pavement life.
References 5, 18, and 26 describe possible pavement-lifesaving solutions. For example, Brown (Ref 5), at a symposium for high pressure truck tires, stated that, through
legislation and improved engineering, pavement life could
possibly be maintained and extended. The possible legal
measures he mentioned were (1) placing legal limits on tire
pressures, (2) placing controls on the manufacture of high
pressure tires, (3) requiring approval by FHW A of any new
tire carcass design, (4) requiring approval for any new
suspension system (considering tires as a component of the
suspension system), and (5) using tire inflation pressure as
a factor in setting truck user taxes.
Nine states have already implemented conditional provisions for the maximum wheel load as a function of the tire
inflation pressure (Refs 6 and 16). These regulations are
generally expressed as two allowable loads per tire, one for
inflation pressures below 100 psi and another for inflation
pressures above 100 psi.
The possible engineering improvements suggested by
Brown include (1) the use of more accurate pavement
structural design models, (2) possible development of better
binders and cements, and (3) emphasis on better quality
control and mix design criteria. These improvements, if
implemented, will help in estimating the pavement perfonnance and service life in a more reliable manner.
Future Trends in Tire Types

Pavement designers are concerned with future trends in

tire types. For example, Papagianalcis and Haas (Ref 18)
mentioned that inflation pressures, regardless of tire types,
are much higher than they were two decades ago. Yeager
(Ref 19), based on the fact that radial tires have a demonstrated higher wear life, predicted that the amount of radial
replacement tires would increase from 65 to 88 percent
within the next 10 years. Yeager also stated that the average
set of radial automotive tires currently serves for approximately 39,000 miles before replacement (some of the new
designs are capable of 65,000 miles). Recently, with the
introduction to the market of the all-season radial tire,
traditional bias tires are being rapidly replaced.
Most experts agree that the popularity of radial tires
will continue to grow, particularly the all-season radials. The
all-season tire has proven to be fuel efficient and provides
good traction on wet and snowy roads. The all-season tire,
with its improved perfonnance capability and lower profile,
has become even more attractive.

Papagianak:is (Ref 18} stated that tire manufacturers are

attempting to improve tire unifonnity and further reduce
rolling resistance by, modifying design and production procedures. Rolling resistance has also been reduced by increasing inflation pressures. This trend will continue with
the widespread use of low-profile tires and variable comfort
suspension systems.
Roberts (Ref 3}, for example, used a tire inflation
pressure of 125 psi in his model to estimate the behavior of
thin asphalt concrete surfaces on granular bases. He said
that. although 125 psi may appear high, representatives from
various tire manufacturers indicate that within the next 5
years (1986-91) tire inflation pressures would continue to
rise, to nearly 150 psi. He believed that higher tire inflation
pressures resulted because increased fuel costs prompted the
trucking industry to attempt to reduce rolling resistance and
thereby increase fuel economy. Therefore, the tire manufacturers have responded by marketing both bias and radial tires
that operate at higher tire inflation pressures.
Zekoski (Ref 23) believes radialization will continue
into applications that traditionally have been bias dominated, to increase fuel economy (e.g., on school buses, pickup trucks, and delivery trucks).
Zekoski also addressed the possible impact of European
tires. There is a trend in Europe to manufacture tires having
higher load capabilities and inflation pressures to meet the
increasing regional legal load limits, which are higher than
those in the U.S. He believed that, as the global marketplace
continues to mature, an increasing number of these tires will
enter the United States, and the effect of these tires on
pavement life must be addressed.

CONCLUSIONS
From the literature review the following conclusions
maybe made:
(1} Wheel load and tire inflation pressure have a signifi-

(2}
(3}
(4)
(5)

(6)
(7)

cant effect on pavement service life.

The major causes for the increase in pavement fatigue
and rutting rates are increases in the wheel loads and
tire inflation pressures.
Theoretically and experimentally it has been demonstrated that contact pressures are not unifonn and that
the contact area is not circular.
Tire contact forces are nonnal stresses, and are longitudinal and lateral shear stresses.
Factors affecting contact pressure distributions include speed, steering, tire camber, tire construction,
braking, inflation pressure, and wheel load .
The use of radial tires will increase significantly,
replacing the bias tire market at a faster rate.
Improved engineering and increased legislation may
reduce pavement rutting and fatigue caused by high
wheel loads and high inflation pressures.

5
These conclusions reinforce the need for the experimental determination of the tire contact pressure distributions, since these pressure distributions have a major influence on pavement performance and service life. As stated in

Chapter 1, this report addresses this need by testing several

popular tires and presenting the variations of tire contact
pressures. when a wheel load and/or a tire inflation pressure
changes.

CHAPTER3. EXPERIMENTALPROCEDURES
This chapter describes the experimental procedures
used in obt.aining tire pavement contact pressure distributions and lists the experimental parameters which were
selected for measurement.

applied wheel loads .and tire inflation pressures are shown in

Table 3.1.

EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
The flow chart of the experimental procedure used to
obtain tire contact pressure distributions is shown in Fig 3.1.
The experimental procedure used in this project consisted of
four stages: (1) mounting the tire, (2) testing the tire and
producing calibration squares, (3) analysis of the Fuji and
ink: prints, and (4) presentation of results. For additional
details on the experimental procedure, consult Ref I.

EXPERIMENTAL PARAMETERS
Fuji and ink: prints were produced for various com binations of tires, wheel loads, and inflation pressures. The
parameters and the reasons for their selection are discussed
below. The experimental parameters are t.abulated in Table
3.1.

Mounting the Tire

TABLE 3.1. TIRE EXPERIMENTAL

PARAMETERS
Tire
Type

In nation
Pressure
(psi)

Loads

.J!2L

In nation
Pressure
(psi)

The work: prior to the testing consisted of mounting the

tire and placing the tire into the load frame, which was

.J!2L

18-22.5

85

15,000

100

15.000

275!80R/24.5

95

6,000

110

6,000

95

8,000

110

8,000

255/70R/22.5
l1R24.5

followed by operations such as tightening the connections,

adjusting the alignment, installing the load calibration cell,
and controlling the tire inflation pressure to the desired
setting. Figure 3.2 shows the setup for the experiment: the
mounted tire ready for testing, the load frame, the hydraulic
pumps, the platfonn, the data acquisition system, and the
load cell.

Loads

110

6,000

135

6,000

110

8,000

135

8,000

95

6,000

110

6,000

95

8,000

110

8,000

Testing the Tire and Producing Calibration

Square;
Fuji and ink: prints were made of the tires as they were
subjected to different combinations of wheel loads and
inflation pressures. The procedure was similar to the one
followed by Hansen (Ref 1), except that here the side tire
movements were also recorded. This was done by measuring
the horizontal and vertical deflections of previously selected
reference points (see Appendix B for side tire movement

Tires
Four truck: tires were selected for experimentation: a
bias Goodyear 18-22.5 LR-H super single tire, a radial
Michelin 275/80R{24.5 LR-G tire, a radial Michelin 255/
70R22.5 LR-G tire, and a radial Goodyear 11R24.5 LR-G
tire. The bias Goodyear 18-22.5 LR-H truck: tire, tested by
Hansen (Ref 1), was subjected to further tests to obtain more
information on this tire, due to its popularity and growing
demand.
The radial Michelin 275/80R/24 .5 LR -G tire, the radial
Michelin 255{70R/22.5 LR-G tire, and the radial Goodyear
11R24.5 LR-G tire were selected due to their popularity on
Texas highways. In fact, the radial11 R24.5 tire is generally
considered to be the most common truck tire found running
on U.S. highways today (Refs 3 and 7).

data).

(1) When pressure is applied to a Fuji prescale film, the

film changes color in such a way that darker pigmentation is
produced in zones of higher pressure. The Fuji or pressure
prints are used to relate the contact pressures with color
intensities. The Fuji preseale films are comprised of" A" and
"C" sheets. Both sheets have a low compressibility polyester
base. The A sheet has a thin coating of microcapsule, colorforming material, and the C sheet has a thin coating of color

A special strategy was followed for the bias Goodyear 1822.5 LR-H tire, since it was felt that in this case the peak
pressure values would not be recorded, because they were
beyond the capacity (0 to 285 psi) of the Fuji Super Low film.
Hansen stated that there was a possibility of not recording
higher pressure values due to the limited capacity of the Fuji
Super Low film. The very high intensities suggest that
pressure values could become as high as 500 psi or even 600
psi. Hence, an additional experiment was conducted using
Fuji Low range film, which has a higher capacity (170 to
1,000 psi).

Loads and Inflation Pressures

All the tires except the bias Goodyear 18-22.5 LR-H
super single tire were tested at the maximum inflation
pressures and loads recommended by the manufacturers and
also at loads and inflation pressures that were roughly 20
percent higher. For the bias Goodyear 18-22.5 tire, it was
decided to load the tire at 15 ,000 pounds under the inflation
pressures (85 and 100 psi) used by Hansen (Ref 1). The

MOUNTTHE TIRE

MOUNT

ft.

TESTTHETIRE
AND PRODUCE
CALl B. SOUA.RES

THETIF~E

c t-ed< Alignm~t. Tightness,

Tre lrtlal:ion Presstre, Symr-netry
at Loading, and the load
Calitration Cell.

PRODUCE
CALIS. SOUA.RES
Using the Fuji Fim

TEST THE TIRE

Using the Fuji
Prescale Fim

''

'

ANALYSIS OF
THEFWIAND
INK PRINTS

CALIBRATION
CURVE
Color lntensty
vs. Pressure

II

INK PRINT ANALYSIS

DIGITAllON
PROCESS
ol'tt'e
Fuji PrintS

DETERMINATION
OF THE
CONTACT AREA
Based on the
Ill< Prints

FWI PRINT ANALYSIS

ft.
V'

TEST THE TIRE

USing IIi<

'

1----

COM~RISON

TEST

CALCULATION
OF THE
APPLIED LOAD

~RAMETER

APPLIED LOAD

!Q
a:

&

r&

CHECK
&.REPEAT

CALCULATION OF
THE CONTACT
AREA
t-Based on the
Fuji Pri1ts

YES

PRESENTATION
OF RESULTS

0
0

SIMILAR?

TIRE CONTACT PRESSURE

DISTI=! IBUTION OUllPUT

NO

+
20 Pressure
Pld:s
3D Pressure
Pld:s

'

NUTierical

Presstre

Map;

'

Detmlnal:bn or
Prop:>rtiors d
COntact Area
Cavered cy Specific
Presstre Ra~

CHECK
&. REPEAT

Fig 3.1. Flow chart of the experimental procedures used to obtain tire contact pressure
distributions.

HP 150AComputer

Fig 3.2. Load frame schematic (Ref 1).

Jl~

C-sheet

r"'' I+YJ&

~~~=::.::,.

z;;;;;;;;...,._lntermediate Layer
...,._Substrate

Fig 3.3. Fuji prescale film working principle (Ref 1).

developing material. The microcapsules on the A sheets are

of various sizes, and this allows them to break at different
pressure levels. Large microcapsules break at relatively low
pressures, while smaller capsules break at higher pressures.
To produce a color density image, the A and C sheets are
superimposed with the coated surfaces face to face. As
pressure is applied, the microcapsules on the A sheets break,

releasing the color material. Figure 3.3, which is taken from

Ref 1, shows the working principle of the Fuji prescale film.
(2) The calibration squares were produced on the Fuji
prescale film using a compression machine. These squares
were produced at different loads in order to have a variety of
points to enable us to analyze and construct a calibration
curve to relate color intensities with pressure values. Since

the Fuji prescale film changes with time and from box to box,
these calibration squares were produced at approximately
the same time as the Fuji prints; and, in the case where two
separate boxes of Fuji prcscale film were used to complete
the testing of one tire, a set of calibration squares was
produced for each box of film.
(3) The ink prints were produced under the same
testing parameters as the Fuji prints. The monochrome ink
prints were used for calculating the tire-plate contact areas.
The ink prints were made by applying a common black ink
to the tire and pressing the tire down on a white paper that
covered the steel plate. From these prints, the tire contact
areas were determined using the counting method, i.e., by
placing a transparent grid paper on the ink print and counting
the number of shaded squares in the transparent grid paper.
(4) The side tire movements were determined by selecting five reference points on the bias Goodyear 18-22.5
LR-H super single tire and four reference points on the other
tires. Then the horizontal and vertical deflections of these
reference points were measured. These data are recorded in
Appendix B.

Analysis of the Fuji and Ink Prints

Analysis of the Fuji prints consisted of running the
programs developed by Chan (Ref 2), with some modifications by these authors, and calculating the tire contact areas
from the ink prints. The Adage System was used to digitize
and analyze the Fuji prints. The Adage system consists of an
Eikonix Scanner and an Adage3006Graphics System. A tire
image analysis program was run on this system to determine
the contact pressure distributions. Complete details of the
Adage system can be found in Ref 2 and in the Advanced
Graphics Laboratory of The University of Texas at Austin.
Also,acompleteexplanationthecomputerprogramsuscdto
determine the tire contact pressure distributions can be
found in Refs 1 and 2. A brief description of these is included
in Appendix A.
During the analysis of the Fuji prints, two checks were
performed in order to validate the tire contact pressure

distribution output These checks were done for each tire and
at each set of experimental parameters. The first check was
to compar~ the calculated load obtained from the Adage
system with the actual wheel load applied during testing.
The second check was to compare the calculated tire contact
area obtained from the Adage system with the tire contact
area obtained from the counting method. In order to have
high reliability, these differences had to have an offsetofless
than 5 percent. Otherwise the whole analysis was checked
and repeated.

Presentations of Results
The results consisted of 2D contact pressure plots in
color, the numerical pressure maps, and the proportions of
the tire contact area at different pressure ranges.
The 2D pressure plots were produced in the Adage
system. These pressure plots are color spectra representing
the tire contact pressure distributions. These plots are displayed on the screen of the computer monitor and then
recorded photographically.
The numerical pressure maps show the actual contact
pressure values acting in the contact area. The 2D pressure
plots and the numerical pressure maps present the same data
but in different ways.
The proportions of the contact area covered by the
following pressure ranges were determined from the numerical pressure maps: (1) <50 psi, (2) 50 to 100 psi, (3) 101
to 150 psi, (4) 151 to 200 psi, (5) 201 to 250 psi, (6) 251 to
300 psi, and (7) >300 psi. This was done to provide more
information on the tire-pavement contact pressure distributions.
For the bias Goodyear 18-22.5 LR-H tire, results from
both the Fuji Super Low and the Fuji Low range films were
combined, and the proportions of contact areas for the
following pressure ranges were determined: 301 to 400 psi,
401 to 500 psi, 501 to 600 psi, and >600 psi.

CHAPTER 4. EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS

Table 4.3. Table 4.4 shows the load distribution across the
tread widl.h, obtained from the Adage system, when l.he tire
was tested at the 15,000-pound wheel load.
Figures 4.1 and 4.2 show two-dimensional contact
pressure plots in color for the tire loaded to a 15,000-pound
load when inflated to 100 and 85 psi, respectively. Figures
4.3 and 4.4 show l.he numerical contact pressure maps for the
same parameters. Figures 4.5 l.hrough 4.10 have been constructed using the data from Tables 4.2 and 4.3. These
histograms show the effects of changing from one load to
another load, and from one inflation pressure to another
inflation pressure.

Using l.he Fuji prescale film and l.he Adage analysis

system, contact pressure distributions for the bias Goodyear
18-22.5 LR-H "Super Single" tire, the radial Michelin 275/
SOR/24.5 LR-G tire, lhe radial Michelin 255!70R22.5 LR-G
tire, and l.he radial Goodyear 11R24.5 LR-G tire were
recorded and analyzed. The experimental parameters and
the resulting contact pressures for each tire are presented.

BIAS GOODYEAR 18-22.5 LR-H "SUPER

SINGLE" TIRE
The bias Goodyear 18-22.5 LR-H truck tire, tested by
Hansen (Ref 1), was subjected to further tests to obtain more
information on this tire, due to its popularity and growing
demand. Hansen (Refl) tested this tireat8,000, 10,000,and
12,000 pounds, at inflation pressures of85 and 100 psi. Here,
this tire was tested at 15,000 pounds, at the same inflation
pressures. Both films, the Super Low and l.he Low range Fuji
prescale films, were used. Also, ink prints were produced in
each case.
Table4.1 shows (1) l.he print width, (2) the print length,
(3) the mean contact pressure values, (4) l.he tire contact area
obtained from the Adage system, and (5) the tire contact area
obtained from the counting mel.hod for the various tire
inflation pressures and w heel1oads. Note that, in general, the
mean contact pressures are higher than the tire inflation
pressures. The differences in the tire contact areas obtained
from the Adage system and the counting method are on l.he
order of 5 percent For this tire, results from l.he Fuji "Super
Low" and the Fuji "Low" range films were combined. Table
4.2 shows the contact area for various pressure ranges for the
case where the wheel load is 15,000 pounds.
The contact areas covered by l.he various pressure
ranges are computed from the numerical pressure maps
presented by Hansen (Ref 1) for l.he 12,000, 10,000, and
8,000-pound wheel load cases. These data are tabulated in

RADIAL MICHELIN 275/SOR/24.5 LR-G

TIRE
The radial Michelin 275!80R/24.5 LR-G tire was analyzed following the same procedure described in Chapter 3.
This tire was tested under its rated parameters and under a
set of parameters roughly 20 percent higher. This tire is rated
for a maximum load of 6,005 pounds and a maximum
inflation pressure of 100 psi. This tire was tested at 6,000 and
8,000 pounds, at inflation pressures of 95 and 110 psi. Ink
prints were produced in each case.
The tire contact areas obtained from the Adage system
and the counting method, l.he print width and print length of
the contact areas, and the mean contact pressures are tabulated in Table 4.5. Note l.hat, in general, the mean contact
pressures are higher than l.he tire inflation pressures. The
differences in the tire contact areas obtained from l.he Adage
system and the counting method are on the order of 5
percent.
The proportions of contact area covered by the various
pressure ranges are computed from the numerical pressure

TABLE 4.2. BIAS 18-22.5

PROPORTIONS OF CONTACT
AREA (PERCENT) FOR THE 15,000POUND WHEEL LOAD

TABLE 4.1. BIAS GOODYEAR 18-22.5 TIRE TEST

DIMENSIONS
In nation
Pressure
(psi)
85

Wheel
Load

85

Print
Width

Print
Length

Mean
Contact
Pressure
(psi)

J!!!:L

8,000

11.9

11.5

99.40

10,000

12.1

12.8

105.57

.1!!!.:L

Pressure
Ranges
(f!Sl)

Tire Contact Area

Adage
Manual
(sq in.)
(sq in.)
75.60
80.48
99.90

Innation Pressure
8S psi
100 psi

<50

3.43

0.23

50-100

36.00

36.50

101-150

28.51

25.67

94.72

151-200

22.25

23.91

85

12,000

12.4

13.8

109.04

114.94

110.05

201-250

6.87

10.68

85

15,000

12.4

15.2

108.95

122.04

126.10

251-300

1.08

1.23

100

8,000

11.4

11.1

102.15

74.40

78.32

301-400

1.05

1.10

100

10,000

12.1

12.1

110.74

87.70

90.30

401-500

0.52

0.44

100

12,000

12.4

12.3

111.80

112.04

107.33

501-600

0.17

0.15

100

15,000

12.4

14.3

124.79

116.26

120.20

>600

0.12

0.09

10

II

TABLE 4.3. BIAS 18-22.5 PROPORTIONS CONTACT AREA

(PERCENT) OF THE 12,000, 10,000, AND 8,000-POUND
WHEEL LOADS
Pressure
Ranges
(psi)

12,000-lb Load

8 1000-lb Load

10,000-lb Load
Tnnation Pressure

85 psi

100 psi

85 psi

100 psi

85 psi

100 psi

0.73

0.71

3.45

9.02

6.35

7.01

54.68
27.12

53.08
28.23

46.90
24.39

54.26

13.05

13.61

12.13

28.49
5.96

48.65
28.56

151-200

61.69
25.49
4.70

201-250
251-300

3.28
1.14

2.28
1.23

4.36
2.20

2.83
1.43

>300

0.00

3.37
1.00
0.00

1.16

1.00

0.68

<50
50-100
101-150

maps forthe6,000 and 8,000-pound wheel load cases. These

data are tabulated in Table 4.6. Table 4.7 shows the load
distribution across the tread width, obtained from the Adage
system, when the tire was tested at the tire inflation pressures
and wheel loads given in Table 3.1.
Figures 4.11 and 4.12 show two-dimensional contact
pressure plots for the tire loaded to a 6,000-pound load when
inflated to 95 and 110 psi, respectively. Figures 4. 13 and
4.14 show two-dimensional contact pressure plots for the
tire loaded to an 8,000-pound load when inflated to 95 and
110 psi, respectively. Figures 4.15 through 4.18 show the
numerical contact pressure maps for the same parameters.
Figures 4.19 through 4.22 have been constructed using the
data from Table 4.6. These histograms show the effects of
changing from one load to another load, and from one
inflation pressure to another inflation pressure.

TABLE 4.4. BIAS 18-22.5 LOAD

DISTRIBUTION (LB) ACROSS
THE TREAD WIDTH FOR THE
15,000-POUND LOAD
Position
Tread
Width
Left

Innation Pressure
85 psi

100 psi

2339.3

2237.8

Left-Center

3249.1
3363.7

3303.6

9.35

Center

3.66
1.90
0.87

Right-Center
Right

3244.1
2803.3

3569.5
3370.4
2518.7

Fig 4.1. Two-dimensional contact pressure plot for the

bias Goodyear 18-22.5 LR-H tire inflated to 100 psi
and loaded to 15,000 pounds.

RADIAL MICHELIN 255/70R/22.5 LR-G

TIRE
The radial Michelin 255nOR{22.5 LR-G tire was analyzed following the procedure described in Chapter 3. This
tire was tested under its rated parameters and under a set of
parameters roughly 20 percent higher. This tire is rated for
a maximum load of 5,510 pounds and a maximum inflation
pressure of 115 psi. This tire was tested at6,000 and 8,000
pounds, at inflation pressures of 110 and 135 psi. Ink prints
were produced in each case.
The tire contact areas obtained from the Adage system
and the counting method, the print width and print length of
the contact areas, and the mean contact pressures are tabulated in Tables 4.8. Note that, in general, the mean contact
pressures are higher than the tire inflation pressures. The
differences in the tire contact areas obtained from the Adage
system and the counting method are on the order of 5
percent.

Fig 4.2. Two-dimensional contact pressure plot for the

bias Goodyear 18-22.5 LR-H tire inflated to 85 psi and
loaded to 15,000 pounds.

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pounds. The pressure print is 14.3 inches long and 12.4 inches wide.

15~000

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Fig 4.4. Numerical pressure map for the bias Goodyear 18-22.5 LR-H tire inflated to 85 psi and loaded to 15,000
pounds. The pressure print is 14.3 inches long and 12.4 inches wide.

14
60

~
~
Cll

Load & Inflation Pressure

50

<:

Ill

uCll

40

(.)

30

c0

8000 lb & 85 psi

8000 lb & 100 psi

c:
0
t:

20

a.
0

ct

10

0
<50

50-100

101-150 151-200 201-250 251-300

>300

Pressure Range (psi)

Fig 4.5. Histogram for the bias Goodyear

18-22.5 LR-H tire. Shown are the
proportions of contact area at the various
contact pressure ranges for a 8,000-pound
wheel load and inflation pressures of 85 and
100 psi.

60

~
Cll

Load & Inflation Pressure

50

<:

II

uCll

40

(.)

30

c0

10000 lb & 85 psi

10000 lb & 100 psi

c:

t:0

20

a.

e
c..

10

<50

50-100

101-150 151-200 201-250 251-300

>300

Fig 4.6. Histogram for the bias Goodyear

18-22.5 LR-H tire. Shown are the
proportions of contact area at the various
contact pressure ranges for a 10,000-pound
wheel load and inflation pressures of 85 and
100 psi.

Pressure Range (psi)

60
Load & Inflation Pressure

~
~
Cll

50

II

12000 lb & 85 psi

12000 lb & 100 psi

<

40

(.)

30

uCll
c0

c:
0
t:

20

a.

e
c..

10

o~--....

<50

50-100 101-150 151-200 201-250 251-300

Pressure Range (psi)

>300

Fig 4.7. Histogram for the bias Goodyear

18-22.5 LR-H tire. Shown are the
proportions of contact area at the various
contact pressure ranges for a 12,000-pound
wheel load and inflation pressures of 85 and
100 psi.

15
60
Load & Inflation Pressure

~
!L 50

15000 lb & 85 psi

1111 15000 lb & 100 psi

ns

<

t)

40

ns
'E

30

Fig 4.8. Histogram for the bias Goodyear

18-22.5 LR-H tire. Shown are the
proportions of contact area at the various
contact pressure ranges for a 15,000-pound
wheel load and infiation pressures of 85 and
100 psi.

c:
0
t:
0
a.

...

a.

20

10

<50

50-100

101-150 151-200 201-250 251-300

>300

Pressure Range (psi)

60

Load & Inflation Pressure

50

Ill
C
CJ

ns

!!!

<
0

40

8000 lb & 100 psi

10000 lb & 100 psi
12000 lb & 100 psi
15000 lb & 100 psi

ns
'E

c:

Fig 4.9. Histogram for the bias Goodyear

18-22.5 LR-H tire. Shown are the
proportions of contact area at the various
contact pressure ranges for an infiation
pressure of 100 psi and loads of 8,000,
10,000, 12,000 and 15,000 pounds.

0
;::

30
20

8.

10

0
50-100

101-150 151-200 201-250 251-300

>300

Pressure Range (psi)

60

Load & Inflation Pressure

aooo

lb & 85 psi
1111 10000 lb & 85 psi
1:1 12000 lb & 85 psi
[J 15000 lb & 85 psi

~
!L 50

ns

~
t)

40

ns
'E
0

0
c:

Fig 4.10. Histogram for the bias Goodyear

18-22.5 LRH tire. Shown are the
proportions of contact area at the various
contact pressure ranges for an infiation
pressure of 85 psi and loads of 8,000, 10,000,
12,000 and 15,000 pounds.

0
;::

30

20

a.

...0
a.

10

0
<50

50-100

101-150 151-200 201250 251-300

Pressure Range (psi)

>300

16
The proportions of contact area covered
TABLE 4.5. RADIAL 275/SOR/24.5 TIRE TEST DIMENSIONS
by the various pressure ranges are computed
from the numerical pressure maps for the
Tire Contact Area
Inflation
Wheel
Print
Print
Mean
6,000 and 8,000-pound wheel load cases.
Length
Pressure
Load
Width
Adage
Manual
Contact
These data are tabulated in Table 4.9. Table
(psi)
(in.)
~
.J.!!!:L ~ ~ (sq in.)
4JO shows the load distribution across the
6,000
7.28
95
10.16
113.87
54.60
52.69
tread width, obtained from the Adage system,
8,000
7.28
95
125.90
62.70
63.54
11.81
when the tire was tested at these experimental
110
6,000
7.28
10.16
51.20
48.71
123.18
parameters.
8,000
7.28
11.85
140.35
110
61.27
57.00
Figures 4.11 and 4.12 show twodimensional contact pressure plots for the tire
loaded to a 6,000-pound load when inflated to 95 and 110
psi, respectively. Figures 4.13 and 4.14 show twoTABLE 4.6. RADIAL MICHELIN 275/SOR/24.5
dimensional contact pressure plots for the tire loaded to an
PROPORTIONS OF CONTACT AREA (PERCENT)
8,000-pound load when inflated to 95 and 110 psi,
FOR THE 6,000 AND 8,000 POUNDS
respectively. Figures 4.15 through 4.18 show the numerical
6,000-lb Load
8,000-lb Load
contact pressure maps for the same parameters. Figures4.19
Pressure
Inflation
Pressure
Lhrough 4.22 have been constructed using the data from
Ranges
95 psi
Table 4.6. These histograms show the effects of changing
110 psi
95 psi
110 psi
<esil
from one load to another load and from one inflation
<50
3.94
3.83
3.45
1.81
pressure to another inflation pressure.
50-100
44.14
37.85
37.93
33.90

RADIAL GOODYEAR 11R24.5 LRG TIRE

The radial Goodyear 11R24.5 LR-G was analyzed following the same procedure described in Chapter 3. This tire
was tested under its rated parameters and under a set of
parameters roughly 20 percent higher. This tire is rated for
a maximum load of 6,430 pounds and a maximum inflation
pressure of 105 psi. This tire was tested at 6,000 and 8,000
pounds, at inflation pressures of 95 and 110 psi. Ink prints
were produced in each case.
The tire contact areas obtained from the Adage system
and the counting method; the print width and print length of
the contact areas; and the mean contact pressures are tabulated in Table 4.11. Note that, in general, the mean contact
pressures are higher than the tire inflation pressures. The
differences in the tire contact areas obtained from the Adage
system and the counting method are on the order of 5
percent.
The proportions of contact area covered by the various
pressure ranges are computed from the numerical pressure
maps for the 6,000 and 8,000-pound wheel load cases. These
data are tabulated in Table 4.12. Table 4.13 shows the load
distribution across the tread width, obtained from the Adage
system, when the tire was tested at these experimental
parameters.
Figures 4.35 and 4.36 show two-dimensional contact
pressure plots for the tire loaded to a 6,000-pound load when
inflated to 95 and 110 psi, respectively. Figures 4.37 and
4.38 show two-dimensional contact pressure plots for the
tire loaded to an 8,000-pound load when inflated to 95 and

101-150

28.47

32.42

27.13

31.22

151-200

16.32

20.21

17.67

17.92

201-250

6.68

5.45

10.60

12.53

251-300

0.45

0.18

3.04

2.60

>300

0.18

0.02

TABLE 4.7. RADIAL MICHELIN 275/SOR/24.5

LOAD DISTRIBUTION (LB) ACROSS THE TREAD
WIDTH FOR 6,000 AND 8,000 POUNDS
Position
Tread
Width
Left
Left-Center
Center
Right-Center
Right

61000-lb Load
!zOOO-Ib Load
Innatlon Pressure
95 psi

110 psi

95 psi

110 psi

1241.4

1189.4

1748.8

1790.6

1081.2

1133.4

1285.3

1429.9

1241.3

1361.5

1565.6

1639.2

1084.1

1107.2

1497.5

1340.6

1352.0

1208.5

1902.8

1799.7

110 psi, respectively. Figures 4.39 through 4.42 show the

numerical contact pressure maps for the same parameters.
Figures 4.43 through 4.46 have been constructed using the
data from Tables 4.6. These histograms show the effects of
changing from one load to another load, and from one
inflation pressure to another inflation pressure.

17

Fig 4.11. Two-dimensional contact pressure plot for

the radial Michelin 275/SOR/24.5 LR-G tire innated to
95 psi and loaded to 6,000 pounds.

Fig 4.13. Two-dimensional contact pressure plot for

the radial Michelin 275/SOR/24.5 LR-G tire innated to
95 psi and loaded to 8,000 pounds.

Fig 4.12. Two-dimensional contact pressure plot for

the radial Michelin 275/SOR/24.5 LR-G tire inflated to
110 psi and loaded to 6,000 pounds.

Fig 4.14. Two-dimensional contact pressure plot for

the radial Michelin 275/80R/24.S LR-G tire inflated to
110 psi and loaded to 8,000 pounds.

18

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pounds. The pressure print is 10.16 inches long and 7.28 inches wide.

19

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Fig 4.16. Numerical pressure map for the radial Michelin 275/SOR/24.5 tire innated to 110 psi and loaded to 6,000
pounds. The pressure print is 9.65 inches long and 7.28 inches wide.

20

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21

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pounds. The pressure print is 11.22 inches long and 7.28 inches wide.

22

50
Load & Inflation Pressure

::;:
!L.

Ill

40

as

6000 lb & 110 psi

6000 lb & 95 psi

2!

<
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50..100 101-150 151-200 201-250 251-300

>300

Pressure Range (psi)

Fig 4.19. Histogram for the radial Michelin 275/SOR/24.5 tire. Shown are the proportions of contact area at the
various contact pressure ranges at a 6,000-pound wheel load and inflation pressures of 95 and 110 psi.

50
Load & Inflation Pressure

::;:
!L.
as
<I)

40

8000 lb & 110 psi

8000 lb & 95 psi

....

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as

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e
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50-100 101-150 151-200 201-250 251-300

>300

Pressure Range (psi)

Fig 4.20. Histogram for the radial Michelin 275/SOR/24.5 tire. Shown are the proportions of contact area at the
various contact pressure ranges for a 8,000-pound wheel load and inflation pressures of 95 and 110 psi.

23

50
Load & lnftation Pressure

;?
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40

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Pressure Range (psi)

Fig 4.21. Histogram for the radial Michelin 275/80R/24.S tire. Shown are the proportions of contact area at the
various contact pressure ranges for an inflation pressure of 95 psi and wheel loads of 6,000 and 8,000 pounds.

50
Load & Inflation Pressure

;?
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cu

40

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Pressure Range (psi)

Fig 4.22. Histogram for the radial Michelin 275/80R/24.S tire. Shown are the proportions of contact area at the
various contact pressure ranges for an inflation pressure of 110 psi and wheel loads of 6,000 and 8,000 pounds.

24
TABLE 4.8. RADIALMICHELLIN 2SS/70R/22.5 TIRE TEST
DIMENSIONS
Inflation
Pressure
(psi)

Wheel
Load

110

6,000

110

8,000

J.!!!.L

Print
Width
(in.)
7.91

Print
Length

...i!!!:L

Mean
Contact
Pressure
(psi)

8.27

7.91

9.69

Tire Contact Area

Adage
Manual
(sq ln.)
(sq ln.)

119.78

48.40

50.09

132.00

57.35

60.61

135

6,000

7.91

7.56

132.60

43.73

45.25

135

8,000

7.91

8.74

140.87

54.16

56.79

TABLE 4.9. RADIAL MICHELLIN 2SS/70R/22.5

PROPORTIONS OF CONTACT AREA
(PERCENT) FOR 6,000 AND 8,000 POUNDS
6,000-lb Load

8,000-lb Load

Pressure
Ranges
<esl)
<50

110 psi
8.39

7.45

5.79

5.52

50-100

20.90

19.21

14.86

13.98

101-150

37.71

25.98

25.52

22.21

151-200

32.66

35.35

53.60

46.49

Inflation Pressure
135 psi

110 psi

135 psi

201-250

0.34

12.01

0.23

11.80

251-300

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

>300

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

TABLE 4.10. RADIAL MICHELLIN 2SS/70R/22.S

LOAD DISTRIBUTION (LB) ACROSS THE
TREAD WIDTH FOR 6,000 AND 8,000 POUNDS
Position
Tread
Width

81000-lb Load
6 1000-lb Load
Inflation Pressure
135 psi

llOpsi

135 psi

110 psi

Left

1236.1

1074.5

1897.9

1682.1

Left-Center

1176.5

1235.5

1435.5

1488.9

Center

1087.0

1173.7

1290.5

1420.0

Right-Center

1119.8

1329.0

1393.3

1445.6

Right

1380.7

1187.4

1982.7

1963.4

TABLE 4.11. RADIAL 11R24.5 TIRE TEST DIMENSIONS

Mean
Contact
Pressure
(psi)

Tire Contact Area

Manual
Adage
(sq ln.)
(sq ln.)

Inflation
Pressure
(psi)

Wheel
Load

Print
Width

Print
Length

J.!!!.L

J!!!:L

...i!!!:L

95

6,000

7.48

9.65

95.36

66.39

62.92

70.72

74.17

95

8,000

7.48

11.14

107.86

110

6,000

7.48

9.21

103.23

61.05

58.12

110

8,000

7.48

10.63

111.50

73.69

71.75

."'

25

Fig 4.23. Two-dimensional contact pressure plot for

the radial Michelin 255/70RI22.S LR-G tire inflated to
110 psi and loaded to 6,000 pounds.

Fig 4.25. Two-dimensional contact pressure plot for

the radial Michelin 255/70R/22.S LR-G tire inflated to
110 psi and loaded to 8,000 pounds.

Fig 4.24. T wo-dimensional contact pressure plot for

the radial Michelin 255/70RI22.S LR-G tire inflated to
135 psi and loaded to 6,000 pounds.

Fig 4.26. T wo-dimensional contact pressure plot for

the radial Michelin 255/70RI22.5 LR-G tire inflated to
135 psi and loaded to 8,000 pounds.

26

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Fig 4.27. Numerical pressure map for the radial Michelin 255/70R/22.5 tire inflated to 110 psi and loaded to 6,000
pounds. The pressure print is 8.27 inches long and 7.91 inches wide.

27

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21

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tl

~u

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..

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..

Fig 4.28. Numerical pressure map for the radial Michelin 255/70R/22.5 tire inflated to 135 psi and loaded to 6,000
pounds. The pressure print is 7.56 inches long and 7.91 inches wide.

28

"

,,

..

"
19 lU 144 lH 1)&

la tU UJ

IU Ul :.SO lU lU: UO lOS

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l~

99

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16$ Ul lU Ul lU ;;n Bl Ul lU
U

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on

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11

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lU U4 lto 19) ue Ul

\U 1"1171 lll 1'1 \ll 111 \U Ul

l1 lit \tt lt& lU 1U Ul

110 lH Lll lll 114 111. Ul 1U

110 UJ Ill lH 14t 114 111 ltl 112

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It

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34

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11

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tn

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lt

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l t lU l7t lU lll Ul 1'1t Ul Ul UJ

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lf,tf, 111 llt lH UO 1.10 lUlU Ut lll

20

1'1' Pl lUlU lU 124

lU

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116

to a
u

..

,,

100

n u u ua

Ul Ut

69 lZO 111 l.U Ul

"

Fig 4.29. Numerical pressure map for the radial Michelin 255/70RI22.5. tire innated to 110 psi and loaded to 8,000
pounds. The pressure print is 9.69 inches long and 7.91 inches wide

29

"

,.

,.

.. ,,

"

lit 111 111 Ul llt lU lSG \41 US

" l d lU UG Ut l:U

Ut 14& Uti t.:l lU Ul

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1311 111 lle 11'2 iU Ul

lt

2J lU H1 lll 1U lUlU

11 \$4 l U l U 144 lH 1ll U Ut Ul

ll1 lU Ul 1lt lH lH 141

l40 1!$ 114 ltO lU lf2 \U

lll Ul

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\U lH l'H 114 lU Hl 131

14! Ut Ut. lH 199 JGt. 116

1U 1M 114 1ft 116 111

UO 1M ltt ltl 111 t1l

'U: ltJ \U lU

l6 111 lll 111 114 111 lOS

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U

tn

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It 174 \11 Ut l02 lH 175

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Ut aU lOS Ut 1H 111

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11

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11

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41

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til lll

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ltl Ul t l f 1\t l l t 201

l ! 111 UJ Ill lH Ul 112

lot UCI 141 tU Ul lll Ui 1U \12

121 1U Uf 141 Ut UO

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l3 lU 114 lU lU 111 lt4 lU

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U:l Ul 20$ l1 1 lU JU 14CI

lfil

11!1 lt7 ltl ltt ltl 1 . . UO

7\ 11) Uf 111 U7 Ut 111 111 1tl Ul

10-1 Ill 201 20] U9 191 U1

l i t 214 :aU :aU 210 212 Ul

lll Uo iU tU Ul lU Ul

141 Ul Ul lU 141 1!1

ll

lCil lU 110 141 lf't UZ

tl

I f UO \61 tJ.& 1U 144 lll

Hl 1U lU Ul 14 Ul

ll

lJ Ut 15) Ua UG HZ 143 134

n uz

1U td 1)1

uo n

104 U) 141$ 140 141 lU lU

Ul 121 141 lU 141 117 Ut

11 lU Ul Ul U 7 U4

"

"

"

:.1

l"l

II

ttUt

tJ

II

40 Uo 111 111

U11U lU 101
60 HI 100 101

"

lfUNtlnu

Fig 4.30. Numerical pressure map for the radial Michelin 255/70RJ22.5 tire inflated to 135 psi and loaded to 8,000
pounds. The pressure print is 8.74 inches long and 7.91 inches wide.

30

50
Load & Inflation Pressure

~
IU

6000.Ib & 11 0 psi

II 6000 lb & 135 psi

40

~
~

'E

30

c:
.2

20

t:

&.
e

1o

Q.

0
<50

50-100 101-150 151-200 201-250 251-300

>300

Pressure Range (psi)

Fig 4.31. Histogram for the radial Michelin 255/70RI22.S tire. Shown are the proportions of contact area at the
various contact pressure ranges at a 6,000-pound wheel load and innation pressures of 110 and 135 psi.

50
Load & Inflation Pressure

;i'
~
IU

40

1!

8000 lb & 110 psi

8000 lb &.135 psi

<

i'E

30

c:

20

-e0

0..

10

Q.

0
<50

50-100

101-150 151-200 201-250 251-300

>300

Pressure Range (psi)

. Fig 4.32. Histogram for the radial Michelin 255/70R/22.S tire. Shown are the proportions of contact area at the
various contact pressure ranges for a 8,000-pound wheel load and innation pressures of 110 and 135 psi.

31

50
Load & lnHation Pressure

-:.e

!!.... 40
Q)
....
0

6000 lb & 110 psi

II 8000 lb & 110 psi

Rl

<(

Rl

30

c:
0
0

c:

20

t:
0

0.

0
....
a.

10

0
<50

50-100

101-150 151-200 201-250 251-300

>300

Pressure Range (psi)

Fig 4.33. Histogram for the radial Michelin 255/70R/22.5 tire. Shown are tbe proportions of contact area at the
various contact pressure ranges for an inflation pressure of 110 psi and wbeelloads of 6,000 and 8,000 pounds.

50

~
!!....
Rl

40

Load & Inflation Pressure

!
<(
0

Rl

"E

6000 lb & 135 psi

II 8000 lb & 135 psi

30

c:

20

t:
0

0.

.... 10

a.

<50

50-100 101-150 151-200 201-250 251-300

>300

Pressure Range (psi)

Fig 4.34. Histogram for the radial Michelin 2SS/70RI22.5 tire. Shown are the proportions of contact area at the
various contact pressure ranges for an inflation pressure of 135 psi and wheel loads of 6,000 and 8,000 poundS-

32
TABLE 4.12. RADIAL GOODYEAR UR24.5
PROPORTIONS OF CONTACT AREA
(PERCENT) FOR THE 6,000 AND 8,000
LOADS
Pressure
Ranges
(~si)

<50

6,000-lb Load

95 psi

8,000-lb Load

Inflation Pressure
95 psi
110 psi

110 psi

10.94

6.58

43.80

28.12

40.82

33.80

35.51

31.38

6.43

12.77

23.87

16.88

14.11

9.13

50-100

36.79

101-150

42.67

151-200
201-250

0.00

0.50

1.56

4.08

251-300

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.26

>300

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

Fig 4.36. Two-dimensional contact pressure plot for

the radial Goodyear 11R24.5 LR-G tire inflated to 110
psi and loaded to 6,000 pounds.

TABLE 4.13. RADIAL GOODYEAR 11R24.5

LOAD DISTRIBUTION (LB) ACROSS THE
TREADWIDTH FOR 6,000 AND 8,000 POUNDS
81000-lb Load
Inflation Pressure

61000-lb Load

Position
Tread
Width
Left
Left-Center
Center
Right-Center
Right

95 psi

110 psi

95psi

110 psi

1115.3

1252.5

1662.8

1916.6

1130.5

1037.9

1408.2

1270.6

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Fig 4.35. Two-dimensional contact pressure plot for

the radial Goodyear 11R24.5 LR-G tire inflated to 95
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Fig 4.37. Two-dimensional contact pressure plot for

the radial Goodyear UR24.5 LR-G tire inflated to 95
psi and loaded to 8,000 pounds.

Fig 4.38. Two-dimensional contact pressure plot for

the radial Goodyear UR24.5 LR-G tire inflated to 110
psi and loaded to 8,000 pounds.

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t1

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116 112 lOt 101

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11

110 l U l U U1 ltl
HI toO Ul \41 UO

41

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lU 141 UJ HI

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t1 160 141 l.4~ 161 UO 111 llil Uli

Ul Ul lJl UO lH lU 119

lO

Ul IU \IL1 UJ lQ UO Ul

iU l4:t llt

lSi lU lU 141 1U 11 l 102

lU 111

UCI ltO lU \U

1U Ul 10 12:1 109

no no

tat 1 . .

lU 101 lU 142 \41 llti Ul Ul

lU ttO 110 lU \41

ttt

UtUlU1UtUtU

14

..
2'

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141

... 141 141

tl

..

tt

ZJ U.O lU lJI lU 111 '

tl Ut 1la

"

. , 111 a

121 1U US 160 lU

00 llt UO

92 11501601'1

..

'fl Ul lU

11 111 Ut lU

"

111 lll ttl

lU 101 104

Fig 4.41. Numerical pressure map for the radial Goodyear 11R24.5 tire innated to 95 psi and loaded to 8,000
pounds. The pressure print is 11.14 inches long and 7.48 inches wide.

36

"
l1 llt

29 llt 111 lU 121 Ul 112 lU 124

<11 lOJ lOl 104 111 lU Ul

141 114

tu

U4 111 101

12110610.1111 l l t 121 UllJoll

ua uo

1'J

11

14 121 111 Ul 126 121 Ul Ill lOl

lU 141 Ul lU 162 164 146
191209 Ul 114172 l"l'l

144

112 1 H

169

111 141 144

1J2 lU 119 121 121 lU 101 110

tl

16

tl

ll 111 lll l21 lU llf lU 121 llt

to

40 Ill 111 lll 112 lot 101 144 Ul

224 2l2 Ul 194 14t 111142 Ul

II lU 111'109 121114 l i t

101121 U2 Ut lll U4 lU

42

Ul 214 194 112 lll llO Ul 141

41 l i t Ul 110 Ul

241 Ut 2U 110 lll ll'O 161

102

"

91 lOl 124 U'l' lU ll6 llt

uo

141 1'71 llt 102 lOl

141 141 144 l i t 112 114 11'2 101

Zl 160 111 14Z lU 190 Ut

111 111 121 129 121 116 129 lll

2J1 2U ZOI lJJ Ut 164 111

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11

t1

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4J Uo 116 UJ UZ 111 100 101 111

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"

21

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61

16

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n
U

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"

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41

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140 11'1'.10a

Ul0l10J

ue

94 UJ 119 lU

Jl

, . 10, UT

aJ

Ul 191 lU Ul

240 no 112 1U 1U 1U 101

l!U 114 111

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11 1U 1U 112

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"

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u u1 u1

U1 Ua 1" 146 1U Ul

91

, ..

49 Ul 114 UO llO liD

11

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9]

lOZ 121 120 UO 14] Ul 124 lU 101

lllOO 100 109Bt 141

au 1u lt4

nut

14 Ut Ul lU 141 201

lll

U6 206114 lU
an

161

11 109

41

lll ll2 Ul lll ll2 lZl lU lll

11 149

tn

"

91

92100101

201 110 111

111111101 lU ZOl

141

14 149 ltO UO

6a

"

UlU

..

..

"

UJ 149 llZ

1U 122 121

11

9J Ul 1U

.,
,.

"

Fig 4.42. Numerical pressure map for the radial Goodyear 11R24.5 tire inflated to 110 psi and loaded to 8,000
pounds. The pressure print is 10.63 inches long and 7.48 inches wide.

37

50

;?

Load & Inflation Pressure

~ 40

II 6000 lb & 110 psi

rl 6000 lb & 95 psi

Ill

<(

30

'E

0
(.)

c:

20

;::

e&.

a.

1o

0
<50

50-100 101-150 151-200 201-250 251-300

>300

Pressure Range (psi)

Fig 4.43. Histogram ror the radial Goodyear 11R24.5 tire. Shown are the proportions or contact area at the
various contact pressure ranges at a 6,000-pound wheel load and innation pressures or 95 and 110 psi.

50
Load & Inflation Pressure

;?
~
Ill

40

'E

8000 lb & 110 psi

II 8000 lb.& 95 psi

30

(.)

c:

20

;::

8.

a.

10

0
<50

50-100 101-150 151200 201250 251300

>300

Pressure Range (psi)

Fig 4.44. Histogram ror the radial Goodyear 11R24.5 tire. Shown are the proportions or contact area at the
various contact pressure ranges ror a 8,000pound wheel load and innation pressures or 95 and 110 psi.

38

50

;e
~

ra

Load & Inflation Pressure

40

....

Q)

ura
c:0

8000 lb & 95 psi

II 6000 lb & 95 psi

<(

30

(.)

c:

20

-e00

a.

0
....

0.

10

<50

50-100

101-150 151-200 201-250 251-300

>300

Pressure Range (psi)

Fig 4.45. Histogram for the radial Goodyear 11R24.S tire. Shown are the proportions of contact area at the
various contact pressure ranges for an inflation pressure of 95 psi and wheel loads of 6,000 and 8,000 pounds.

50
Load & Inflation Pressure

;e
~

ra
Q)

40

....

<(

ura

c:0

8000 lb & 110 psi

6000 lb & 110 psi

30

(.)

c:

20

-e0

a.

0
....

10

0.

<50

50-100 101-150 151-200 201-250 251-300

>300

Pressure Range (psi)

Fig 4.46. Histogram for the radial Goodyear 11R24.S tire. Shown are the proportions of contact area at the
various contact pressure ranges for an inflation pressure of 110 psi and wheel loads of 6,000 and 8,000 pounds.

CHAPTER 5. DISCUSSION AND ANALYSIS OF RESULTS

area is the .independent variable. The model is presented in
Fig 5.1.
The proposed model is

Based on the experimemal results presented in Chapter

4, several observations can be made. The tire contact areas
and contact pressure distributions are analyzed and discussed in this chapter. The measurements of the tire stiffness
and side tire movements, presented in Appendix B, are also
discussed.

TCA = 0.28905 + 1.0627 (RA) - 0.00202 (RA?

where
TCA = the tire contact area in square inches, and
RA === the relative area in square inches.

TIRE CONTACT AREA

In pavement design procedures, the tire contact area is
assumed to be the ratio of the wheel load over the tire
inflation pressure. Tire contact area measurements from the
testing were presented in Chapter 4, and those results are
discussed and analyzed here.

The statistical model was developed to predict the tire

contact area in square inches, based on the ratio (also in
square inches) of the wheel load over the tire inflation
pressure. Even though the model did not consider factors
such as tire wear, tire brand, and tire type, it has a very high
correlation factor of 94 percent, using a 95 percent confidence interval. Figure 5.1 compares this model with the
theoretical assumption that the relative area equals the tire
contact area (the line having 45 slope).
Figure 5.1 brings to light several interesting facts. The
theoretical assumption holds for relative areas below 50
square inches. As the wheel load increases, the accuracy of
the theoretical assumption decreases. As the inflation pressure increases, the accuracy of the theoretical assumption
increases.
This model can be used to arrive at a quick estimate of
the actual contact area, based on easily obtainable parameters such as wheel load and tire inflation pressure. However,
more testing and analysis needs to be done to obtain a more
representative model, since this study was limited to only 20
observations.

Discussion of Results
The tire contact areas obtained from the Adage system
and the counting method, the print width and print length of
the contact areas, and the mean contact pressures are tabulated in Tables 4.1, 4.5, 4.8, and 4.11, for various combinations of inflation pressures and wheel loads. These experimental measurements of the tire contact areas reinforce
Hansen's conclusion that, at a constant tire inflation pressure, an increase in wheel load is accompanied by an
increase in the tire contact area, and, in the same way, that at
a constant wheel load, an increase in tire inflation pressure
is accompanied by a decrease in the tire contact area.
The same trend can be observed from the tire print
dimensions. As the wheel load increases, the print width and
the print length increase until the print width equals the tire
width. Then, only the print length increases. In general, this
behavior was expected due to the shape and the extraordinary elastic properties of tires.
The shape of the tire contact area was also observed. As
stated by Hansen (Refl), theshapeofthe tirecontactareafor
bias tires tends to become more oval, while for the radial tires
the shape is consistently rectangular. This clear distinction
in the shape of the tire contact areas must be noted, since
pavements are designed assuming that this shape is circular.
Modifications in these assumptions are imperative, since, as
stated in Chapter 2, radial tires are becoming increasingly
predominant in the market. In order to address this situation
the tire contact area values were subjected to further analy~
sis.

200

--.

.s

150

.[
lU

~ti

100

lU

E
0

(.)

50

y = 0.28905
R2 -0.938

Analysis of Results
A statistical model was constructed to relate the actual
tire contact areas with the ratio of the wheel load over the tire
inflation pressure. Here, this ratio is called the "Relative
Area." To construct this statistical model it was decided to
use the average of the tire contact areas obtained from the
Adage system and the counting method. In this model, the
tire contact area is the dependent variable and the relative

50

+ 1.0627x- 0.20224x2

100

150

200

Relative Area (sq in.)

Fig 5.1. Tire contact area vs relative area. Shown is

the predicting curve of the tire contact area based on
the ratio of wheel load over inftation pressure
(relative area).

39

40

TIRE CONTACT PRESSURE

DISTRIBUTIONS
Tire contact pressure distributions are at present not
being considered in pavement design procedures. It is assumed that any load transmitted from the tire to the pavement is uniformly distributed and equal to the tire inflation
pressure. This obviously is a fallacy, since Tables 4.1, 4.5,
4.8, and 4.11 show that, in general, the mean contact pressures are higher than the actual tire inflation pressures.
Experimentally it has been proved that high contact pressures are produced at the tire-pavement interface.
Figures4.1,4.2, 4.11, 4.12, 4.13,4.14,4.23, 4.24, 4.25,
4.26, 4.35, 4.36, 4.37, and 4.38 present two-dimensional
color pressure plots for the different tires tested in this report.
These color pressure plots represent the contact pressure
distributions produced at the tire-pavement interface. The
same information is presented in Figs 4.3, 4.4, 4.15, 4.16,
4.17, 4.18, 4.27,4.28, 4.29, and 4.30 as numerical pressure
maps.
For the tires tested, it can be seen that the higher contact
pressure values are located generally at the edges of the
treads located at the center and edges of the middle portion
of the tire print.
For the bias Goodyear 18-22.5 tire, Figs 4.1 and 4.2
show the tire contact pressure distributions when the tire is
loaded to 15,000 pounds and inflated to 100 and 85 psi
respectively. The proportion of the contact area at higher
pressure ranges increases with inflation pressure. Figures
4.1 and 4.2 do not record the peak contact pressure values,
since they exceeded the capacity of the Fuji Super Low film
range with which they were obtained. The proportions of
contactareaateach pressurerangeareobtained from the Fuji
Super Low, and the Fuji Low film and are tabulated in Table
4.2.
For the radial Michelin 275/SOR/24.5 tire, Figs 4.11,
4.12, 4.13, and 4.14 show the variations in the tire contact
pressure distributions when the tire is subjected to different
wheel loads and inflation pressures. Surprisingly, the peak
pressure values were found at lower tire inflation pressures;
however, the difference in the peak pressure values is very
small.
For the radial Michelin 255nOR/22.5 tire, Figs 4.23,
4.24, 4.25, and 4.26 show the variations in the tire contact
pressuredistributions.Asexpected,thepeakpressurevalues
were found at higher tire inflation pressures.
For the radial Goodyear 11R24.5 tire, Figs 4.35, 4.36,
4.3 7, and 4.38 show the variations in the tire contact pressure
distributions. As expected, the peak pressure values were
found at higher tire inflation pressures.
In order to discuss and analyze the effect of the tire
contact pressure distributions, the proportions of contact
area at different pressure ranges were calculated. The load
distribution along the tread width was also computed.

PROPORTIONS OF CONTACT AREA

Discussion
Tables4.2,4.3, 4.6,4.9, and4.12 show the proportions
ofcontact area covered by the various pressure ranges for the
different experimental parameters selected in this report.
Data from these tables were used to construction the histograms in Figs 4.5 through 4.10 for the bias Goodyear 18-22.5
tire, Figs 4.19 through 4.22 for the radial Michelin 275/80R/
24.5 tire, Figs 4.31 through 4.34 for the radial Michelin 255/
70R/22.5 tire, and Figs 4.43 through 4.46 for the radial
Goodyear 11R24.5 tire. In general, a trend was observed. For
a given wheel load, as the inflation pressure decreases, the
proportions of contact area at lower contact pressure ranges
increase, and, as the inflation pressure increases, the proportions of contact area at higher contact pressure ranges
increase. Similarly, for a given inflation pressure, as the
wheel load decreases, the proportion of contact area at lower
contact pressure ranges increases, and, as the wheel load
increases, the proportion of contact area at higher contact
pressure ranges increases.
Due to changes in the wheel load and in the tire inflation
pressure, tire contact pressures will be distributed differently
over the contact area. Tire contact pressure distributions,
evaluated for various contact pressure ranges, show several
cases in which the critical ones will be those where higher
proportions of contact area are at higher contact pressure
ranges.
Analysis

Based on this trend a model for estimating an equivalent

contact pressure number capable of measuring the effects of
changes in tire inflation pressures and static wheel loads was
developed. This number estimates equivalencies of contact
pressures for different sets of wheel loads and tire inflation
pressures. For example, a tire with a wheel load (A) and an
inflation pressure (B) can produce the same effect as the tire
with a wheel load (C) inflated to (D). With this purpose, an
equivalent contact pressure model was developed using
principles of fatigue theory.
Lay (Ref 31) suggests the use of the fourth power law in
comparing different types and tire configurations for pavement damage. In general, the fourth power law is invoked
when a new configuration produces a different criterion
strain or deflection to the standard one. The AASHO road
test (Refs 12 and 32) used the fourth power law in developing
the equivalency factors. However, the AASHO road test did
not consider the actual tire-pavement contact pressure distributions to estimate pavement damage, because AASHO
developed those factors in terms of axle loads only. Therefore, to estimate better pavement damage, the fourth power
law will be used in order to take into account actual tirepavement contact pressure distributions.

41
The proposed model is tenned equivalent contact pressure number (ECPN) and varies proportionally with the
summation of the contact pressure ranges to the fourth
power, times the contact areas ofeach contact pressure range
and divided by a standard reference. A wheelloadof 10,000
pounds distributed uniformly over an area of 100 square
inches was the chosen reference, because 10,000-pound
wheel load appears to be the trend in wheel load regulations
for various states (Ref 16). The ECPN model uses the
proportions of contact area values because the total tire
contact area has been factored and located out of the summation.

TABLE 5.1. ECPN NUMBER FOR THE

TIRE EXPERIMENTAL PARAMETERS
Inflation
Pressure

Loads

T!reType

(psi)

(!b)

18- 22.5B

85
85
85
85
100
100
100
100

275J80RJ24.5

95
95

8,000
10,000
12,000
15,000
8,000
10,000
12,000
15,000
6,000
8,000
6,000
8,000
6,000
8,000
6,000
8,000
6,000
8,000
6,000
8,000

Lfi

255nORJ22.5

ECPN = .;;.i_=...,.l_...,...._ _
p4

TCA
Af

X--

11R24.5

95
95

110
110

where
Ew

110
110
110
110
135
135

= the weighted number computed at each set of

ECPN
3.001
3.637
3.907
9.269
3.699
4.852
3.819
10.093
2.284
4.506
2.097
4.144
2.073
3.488
3.204
4.831
1.170
2.542
1.398
2.707

wheel load and tire inflation pressure,

fi = the proportion of contact area at the pressure
range i,

the mean of the contact pressure range,

the chosen reference contact pressure (P =
100 psi was used),
r
TCA = the tire contact area, and
Ar = the chosen reference contact area (A = 100
square inches was used).
r
Using this method, the ECPN number was calculated at
each experimental parameter for all the tires tested. Table
5.1 shows the calculated ECPN values.
ECPN values are characterized for a particular set of
parameters which limit our experimental results. Several
regression models were also developed to predict proportions of contact area for each pressure range based only on
the wheel loads and tire inflation pressures, and neglecting
sizes, brands, and types of tires. However, those models
were found unsatisfactory due to the limited number of
observations. But. with further testing and analysis, this
procedure could be applied with greater success, as graphically described in Figs 5.2 and 5.3.
Figures 5.2 and 5.3 show the correlation between the
ECPN and the tire inflation pressure at different wheel loads
for the radial Goodyear liR24.5 tire and the radial Michelin
255nOR{l2.5 tire, respectively. Assuming that the behavior
of the ECPN is linear for a constant wheel load, the radial
Goodyear 11R24.5 tire will have the same equivalent contact pressure number when inflated to 50 psi and having an
8,000-pound load, as when it is inflated to l50psi and having
a 6,000-pound load; and, because they have the same ECPN,
it can be estimated that those cases will produce similar
pavement damage and that resulting damage will double the

...

-o- Load: 6,000 lb

(I)
.:)

-Load: 8,000 lb

E
~

...

Q)
~

(/)
(/)

a.

o~~._~-L~~-~~~-L~-U

40

so

80
100
120
Inflation Pressure (psi}

140

160

Fig 5.2. Graph of the equivalent contact pressure

number (ECPN) vs tire inflation pressure at
different wheel loads, for the radial Goodyear
11R24.5 tire.
damage caused by a wheel load of 10,000 pounds unifonnly
distributed over an area of 100 square inches. Similarly, it
can be estimated that the radial Michelin 255nOR/l2/5 tire
will produce the same pavement damage when inflated to
100 psi and having an 8,000-pound load, as when it is
inflated to 130 psi and having a 6,000-pound load. The
pavement damage will be equal to three times the damage
caused by a wheel load of 10,000 pounds uniformly distributed over an area of 100 square inches.

42

.....

LOAD DISTRffiUTION ALONG THE

TREAD WIDTH

-a- Load: 6,000 lb

Q)

--Load: 8,000 lb

.D

Another aspect of interest was the load distribution

along the tread width. In general, as stated before, the largest
portion of the total wheel load is generally located at the
center tread region. Tables4.4,4.7,4.10, and4.13 record the
values for the different distribution of the load along the
tread width of tires as obtained through the Adage system.
No patterns or trends can be observed.

::J

::J
(/)
(/)
Q)

a:

ts
(11

'E
0

TIRE VERTICAL STIFFNESS

'E
Q)

The tire vertical stiffness is defined as the ratio of the

wheel load over the total vertical deformation of the tire.
Tables 8.1 through 8.8 (in Appendix B) record the measurements of the tire vertical stiffness, as well as the sidewall
movements. These measurements will serve other researchers in the comparison and calibration of their analytical
estimations of tire vertical stiffness and tire deformations.

ni

.2:
::J

rJ
UJ

0
40

60

80

100

120

140

160

Inflation Pressure (psi)

Fig 5.3. Graph of the equivalent contact pressure
number (ECPN) vs tire inflation pressure at
different wheel loads, for the radial Michelin
255/70R/22.5 tire.

Discussion
In general, it was found that the tire vertical stiffness is
directly influenced by the tire inflation pressure. As the
inflation pressure increases, the tire venical stiffness increases, and the side tire movement decreases. In order to
estimate the tire venical stiffness in tenns of the wheel load
and tire inflation pressure, a statistical analysis was performed.

This model which qualitatively measures pavement

damage in terms of an equivalent contact pressure number
{ECPN), holds promise if further testing and analysis are
available to suppon the method.

Comparison Between the Tires

Analysis of Results

The proponions of contact area at the various pressure

ranges are compared for the different tires at approximately
the same set of experimental parameters. Figure 5.4
shows the comparison.
Figure 5.4 shows that, for roughly the same
parameters, the radial Michelin 255!70R/24.5 tire
has a higher proponion of the contact area at the
151-200 psi pressure range than the other tires. In
general, the bias Goodyear 18-22.5 tire, the radial
Michelin 275/80R/24.5 tire, and the radial
Goodyear 11R24.5 tire have approximately the
same proportions of contact area at the various
~
contact pressure ranges. This similarity must be
'E
investigated further.
Obviously, to determine what tire is causing
0
the most damage to the pavements requires that a
g
fatigue concept be introduced for analyzing the
"
proportion of the contact areas at each pressure
e8.
range. This concept needs to be refined in order to
a.
estimate the effects of tire types and/or brands.

Several regression models were developed in order to

estimate the tire vertical stiffness in terms of the relative
1ire (Load & Inflation Pressure)
Bias Goodyear 18-22.5 (8000 lb & 100 psi)
IZJ Radial Michelin 275180RI24.5 (8000 lb & 110 psi)
II Radial Michelin 255170RI22.5 (8000 lb & 110 psi)
c Radial Goodyear 11 R24.5 (8000 lb & 110 psi)

60

40
30
20
10
o~~~~~~~~~BL~~~~a-~~~

<50

50-100 101-150 151-200 201-250 251-300

>300

Pressure Range (psi)

Fig 5.4. Histogram for all tbe tires. Shown is a comparison of
the proportions of contact area at various contact pressure
ranges for the tires tested.

43
area, tire contact area, and wheel load. The best model used
the tire contact area as the independent variable and had a
correlation coefficient of 63.3 percent. As discussed in
Chapter 2, the tire vertical stiffness depends on many factors,
such as tire construction, tire wear, tire type, wheel load, and
tire inflation pressure; hence, correlation values were not
expected to be very high. This model is recommended in
case no better information is available. The model clearly
needs to be improved, either by testing more tires or by
considering more predictor variables, in order to establish
multi-regression models. The proposed model is

rJl

"0

3.252 + 0.031 x TCA- 0.000058 x TCA 2

TVs
where
TVs
TCA

=
=

the tire vertical stiffness in kips/inch, and

the tire contact area in square inches.

Figure 5.5 shows the relationship between the tire vertical stiffness and the tire contact area. The designer should
first calculate the relative area and then use Fig 5.1 to
determine the tire contact area, in order to estimate the tire
vertical stiffness from Fig 5.5.

10

c:

nl

rJl
::I

c::

rJl
rJl
Q)

c:

=
~

iii
u
t::

4
y = 3.2516 + (3.1647e-2)x (5.8055e-5)x2
2

R2 = 0.633

I=

0
0

30

60

90

120

150

lire Contact Area (sq in.)

Fig 5.5. Graph of the tire vertical stiffness vs. the tire
contact area showing the predicting curve of the tire
vertical stiffness based on the tire contact area
of the tire.

CHAPTER 6. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

CONCLUSIONS

at the center ~d edges of the middle portion of the tire

print.
(6) In general, the mean contact pressures are higher than
the tire inflation pressures.

(1) For bias tires, the shape of the contact area is more
circular than that for radial tires, and it becomes more
oval as the wheel load increases. In contrast, for radial
tires, the shape of the contact area is consistently
rectangular.
(2) The tire contact area, irrespective of tire construction
and tire type, can be determined from a parameter
called the relative area, which is the ratio of the wheel
load over the tire inflation pressure.
(3) For a given wheel load, as the inflation pressure
decreases, the proportions of contact area at lower
contact pressure ranges increase; and, as the inflation
pressure increases, the proportions of contact area at
higher contact pressure ranges increase. Similarly, for
a given inflation pressure, as the wheel load decreases,
the proportions of contact area at lower contact pressure ranges increases; and, as the wheel load increases,
the proportions of contact area at higher contact pressure ranges increases.
(4) As the wheel load increases, the print width and the
print length increase until the print width equals the tire
width. After that, only the print length increases.
(5) The higher contact pressure values are generally produced at the edge of the tread ribs, means are located

RECOMMENDATIONS
The following recommendations for future research
result from an evaluation of the study and the data:
(1) This study presents information on several aspects of
tire-pavement contact pressure distributions. Several
statistical models were developed during the course of
this study. It is recommended that further testing be
conducted to obtain a more representative sample in
order to estimate tire contact pressure distributions for
different wheel loads and tire inflation pressures.
(2) The data obtained from the numerical pressure maps
should be used as the input for modeling pavement
behavior. For instance, fmite element models based on
these data can be used to estimate statically induced
stresses and strains in the pavement structure.
(3) Since very few experimental studies have been carried
out with dynamic models of tire-pavement contact
pressure distributions, these need to be investigated in
future studies.

44

REFERENCES
Distribution Characteristics for the 'Super Single'
Bias 18-22.5 and 'Smooth' RadialllR24.5Tires,"
M. S. Thesis, The University of Texas at Austin,
May 1989.

Pressure Truck Tires, Austin, Texas, February

1987.
14. Clark, Samuel K., Editor, Mechanics Of Pneumo.tic
Tires, National Bureau of Standards Monograph
122, November 1971.

2. Chan, Gerard, "Computer Image Processing Technique for Analysis of the Tire Contact Pressures,"
M. S. Thesis, The University of Texas at Austin,
December 1988.

15. Tielking, J. T., and F. L. Roberts, "Tire Contact Pressure and ItsEffectsonPavementStrain," Journal of
Transportation Engineering, Voll13, No. 1, January 1987.

3. Roberts, F. L., eta!, "Establishing Material Properties

for Thin Asphalt Concrete Surfaces on Granular
Bases," Research Report 345-1, Texas Transportation Institute, Texas A&M University, College
Station, Texas, November 1985.

16. Sharma, J., and J. Mahoney, "Evaluation of Present

Legislation and Regulations on Tire Sizes, Configurations and Load Limits," unpublished Executive Summary prepared by the University of Washington for the Washington Department of Transportation.

1. Hansen, Rex, "Truck Tire Pavement Contact Pressure

4. van Vuuren, D. J., "Tire Pressure and Its Effect on

Pavement Design and Performance," Civil Engineering In South Africa, Vol 16, No. 8, August
1974.

17. Lippmann, S. A., and K. L. Oblizajek, "The Distributions of Stress Between the Tread and the Road for
Freely Rolling Tires," SAE 74102, Society of
Automotive Engineers, Detroit, February 1974.

5. Brown, J. L., "Proceedings of a Symposium/Workshop on High Pressure Truck Tires," Austin,

Texas, February 1987.

18. Papagianakis, A. T., and R. C. G. Haas, "Wide-Base

Truck Tires: Industry Trends and State of Know!edge of Their Impact on Pavements," Ministry of
Transportation and Communications of Ontario,
December 1986.

6. Butler, Lee, "Truck Tire Pressure and Pavement

Damage," Proceedings.. Symposium/Workshop
on High Pressure Truck Tires.. Austin, Texas, February 1987.

19. Yeager, R. W., "Tires of the Nineties and Beyond,"

Elastomerics, Vol119, No.2, February 1987.

7. Wakeland, Richard E., "Video Image Analysis of

Pressure Sensitive Film," M. S. Thesis, The University of Texas at Austin, December 1985.

20. Seitz, N.,andA. W. Hussmann, "Forces and Displacement in Contact Area of Free Rolling Tires," SAE
Transaction, Vol 80, Paper No. 710626, 1971.

8. Roberts, F. L., et al, "The Effect of Tire Pressures on

Flexible Pavements," Research Report 372-1F,
Texas Transportation Institute, Texas A&M University, CoUege Station, Texas, August 1986.

21. Bonse, R. P. H., and S. H. Kuhn, "Dynamic Forces

Exerted by Moving Vehicles on a Road Surface,"
Highway Research Board Bulletin, No. 233, 1959.

9 Planning and Statistics Bureau, Montana Department

of Highways, "1984 Truck Tire Study," Helena,
Montana, 1984.

22. Ginn, J. L., and R. L. Marlowe, "Road Contact Forces

of Truck Tires as Measured in the Laboratory,"
SAE Transactions, Vol 76, Paper No. 670493,
1967.

10. "Tire Pressure Survey," Unpublished Data, Bureau of

Design, Division of Highways, Illinois DepartmentofTransportation, Springfield, Illinois, 1986.
11. Thompson, Marshall R., "Analytical Methods for
Considering Tire Pressure Effects in Pavement
Design," Proceedings, Symposium/Workshop on
High Pressure Truck Tires, Austin, Texas, February 1987.
12. AASHO Road Test. Highway Research Board, "History and Description of the Project," Report 61 A,
1960.
13. Sharp, Asa, "Truck Tire Pavement Interaction,"
Proceedings, Symposium/Workshop on High

23. Zekoski, J., "Impact of Truck Tire Selection on Contact Pressers," FHW A Load Equivalence Workshop, sponsored by the Federal Highway Administration Pavements Division, Turner-Fairbanks
Highway Research Center, McLean, Virginia,
September 13-15, 1988.
24. Huhtala, M., ''Field Tests to Compare Tires," FHWA
Load Equivalence Workshop, sponsored by the
Federal Highway Administration Pavements Division, Turner-Fairbanks Highway Research Center,
McLean, Virginia, September 13-15, 1988.

45

46
25. Marshek, K. M., et al., "Experimental Investigation of
Truck Tire Inflation Pressure On Pavement-Tire
Contact Area and Pressure Distribution," Research
Report 386-1, Center For Transportation Research,
The University of Texas at Austin, August 1985.
26. Haas, R. C. G., and A. T. Papagianakis, "Understanding Pavement Ruuing," Roads and Transportation
Association of Canada, Toronto, Ontario, September 28, 1986.
27. Eisenmann, J., and A. Hilmer, "Influence of Wheel
Load and Inflation Pressure on the Rutting Effects
at Asphalt-Pavements-Experiments and Theoretical Investigations," Sixth International Conference
on the Structural Design of Asphalt Pavements,
Ann Arbor, July 1987.
28. Monismith, C. L., "Fatigue Characteristics of Asphalt
Paving Mixtures and Their Use in Asphalt
Pavements," Proceedings, Annual Pavement
Conference, Symposium on Fati~e In Asphalt

Pavements, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, New Mexico, 1981.

29. Chen, H. H., K. M. Marshek, and C. L. Saraf, "Effects
of Truck Tire Contact Pressure Distribution on the
Design of Flexible Pavements: A Three-Dimensional Finite Element Approach," Transportation
Research Report 1095, Transportation Research
Board, National Research Council, Washington,
D. C.,1986.
30. "Fuji Prescale Film General Information," Fuji Photo
Film Company. Limited, Tokyo, Japan, 1986.
31.. Lay, M.G., "Handbook of Road Technology," Vols 1
and 2, Gordon and Breach Science Publishers,
Amsterdam, 1986.
32. Yoder and Witczak, "Principles ofPavement Design,"
Second Edition, John Wiley & Sons, New York,
1975.

APPENDIX A. EXPERIMENTAL AND ANALYTICAL PROCEDURES

FOR DETERMINING TIRE CONTACT PRESSURE DISTRIBUTIONS
The tire contact pressure distributions were determined
using certain experimental and analytical procedures, details of which are given below.

programs were written on the Adage system exclusively for

analyzing the tire prints. The procedure for analyzing the tire
prints using the Adage system consists of five steps: (I) set
up the scanner, (2) execute the programs, (3) create a filter,
(4) construct a calibration curve, and (5) perform the tire
print analysis.
In general, at each session the lighting and scanner
settings were not altered once the filter was created. Both the
filter and the calibration curve were recreated at the beginning of each print analyzing session. The print analysis
programs were user friendly and, with practice, a print could
be fully scanned, digitized, saved, and printed in approximately thirty minutes. Complete details of the Adage System Analysis can be found in Refs I and 2.

EXPERIMENTS
Experimental Equipment
The equipment used was the same as that used by
Hansen. Complete details of the load frame, including the
list of the parts for assembling purposes, can be found in Ref
I.

Load Cell Calibration

To determine the applied load, a Lebow 20-kip load cell
was used. This load cell was calibrated against a Conamp 20
Digital Calibration system. This Conamp system displays a
direct digital readout of the loads on the calibration cell. A
calibration curve is needed to relate the voltages with the
wheel loads. The calibration curve used by Hansen was used
since the same load cell was used without any time gap.
Details of the load cell calibration curve and the calibration
procedure followed can be found in Ref 1.

Color Pressure Plots and Numerical Pressure Maps

The color pressure plots were produced on the AGL
VAX computer, and the numerical pressure maps were
produced on the Macintosh II. The plots were produced
using the procedure described by Hansen (Ref I). The
computer programs have the capability to produce
two-dimensional and three-dimensional color pressure
plots. These plots enhance the readability of the tire contact
pressure distributions. However, the three-dimensional
plots were not included in this report since they offer very
little additional information.
The programs can be downloaded onto the IBM system
and color plots can be generated using the IBM Professional
Graphics terminal. The color pressure plots displayed by the
IBM Professional Graphics monitor are clearer than those
displayed by the Adage system monitor; however, it was
decided not to use this feature due to the excessive amount
of time required by this process.

Pressure Print Production

The procedure followed in producing the pressure
prints of the tires tested under different loads and tire
inflation pressures was the same as that detailed by Hansen
(Ref 1). However, as explained in Chapter 3, the bias
Goodyear 18-22.5 Super Single tire was tested using the Fuji
Low range film, in addition to the Fuji Super Low range film,
in order to record the higher contact pressure values which
presumably were not recorded by the Fuji Super Low range
film. This special strategy was employed only for the bias
Goodyear 18-22.5, and not for other tires, since only a very
small portion of the contact area was covered by pressures
above 300 psi for this tire.
For the testing of the bias Goodyear 18-22.5, the Fuji
Super Low range ftlm was placed at the bottom of the two.
Both sets of films recorded pressure distributions under the
same conditions but required different calibration curves,
due to the difference in the pressure range capacity of each
film. Hence, the analysis of each film was performed independently.

Tire Contact Area Analysis

In order to determine the areas covered by the different
pressure ranges, a computer program was written in IDL.
This program, called MAMI.PRO, was accessed after the
final SMOOTHED.DAT had been created by typing
@SYS$SYSTEM:IDL ADAGE @MAMI.PRO. The
areas covered by each of the pressure ranges (<50 psi, 50100psi, 101-150 psi,151-200 psi, 201-250psi, 251-300 psi,
and >300 psi) were determined. Once these values were
computed, the proportions of the contact area (percent of
total) covered by each pressure range were calculated.

ANALYSIS
Adage System Analysis
The tire prints were digitized using a scanner and were
displayed on the Adage system monitor. Several computer

47

APPENDIX B. SIDE TIRE MOVEMENT DATA

THE RADIAL .MICHELIN 255/70R/22.5
TIRE

Side tire deflections were recorded in order to enable

any designer who uses finite-element models of tires to
compare his/her results with the actual experimental values.
Side tire deflections were measured for the following tires:
(1) bias Goodyear 18-22.5 tire, (2) radial Michelin 275/80R/
24.5 tire, (3) radial Michelin 255!70R(22.5 tire, and (4)
radial Goodyear 11R24.5 tire.
Five reference points were selected on each side of the
tire. These points are shown in Fig B.l. These points were
chosen such that they were aligned vertically at the middle
of the tire-plate contact area. The corresponding points on
the other side of the tire were also selected. The data in
Tables B.l through B.8 represent the average movement of
a specific reference point from its counterpart on the other
side of the tire. For a vertical reference point, the vertical
length of the ram-stroke was measured at a load of zero
pound. The coordinates of the horizontal and vertical points,
as well as the vertical length of the ram-stroke, were measured to obtain the deflection at each load.
The total tire and axle down displacement created by the
load during testing and the average estimated value of the
tire vertical stiffness, in lb/inch, are also included, in Tables
B.l through B.8.

The radial Michelin 255!70R/22.5 tire deflections were

measured at inflation pressures of 135 and 110 psi, and at
each inflation pressure the wheel was loaded to 0, 6,000, and
8,000 pounds. The side tire deflections for the tire inflated
to 135 psi are in Table B.S. and the deflections for the tire
inflated to 110 psi are in Table B.6.
y

THE BIAS GOODYEAR 18-22.5 SUPER

SINGLE TIRE
The bias Goodyear 18-22.5 tire deflections were measured at inflation pressures of 85 and 100 psi, and at each
inflation pressure the wheel was loaded to 0, 8,000, 10,000,
12,000, and 15,000 pounds. The side tire deflections for the
tire inflated to 100 psi are in Table B.l, and the deflections
for the tire inflated to 85 psi are in Table B.2.

THE RADIAL MICHELIN 275/SOR/24.5

TIRE
The radial Michelin 275/80R/24/5 tire deflections were
measured at inflation pressures of 110 and 95 psi, and at each
inflation pressure the wheel was loaded to 0, 6,000, and
8,000 pounds. The side tire deflections for the tire inflated
to 110 psi are in Table B.3, and the deflections for the tire
inflated to 95 psi are in Table B.4.
Reference points are shown in Fig B.l. However,
measurements of point 2 were not taken due to the relatively
low height of this tire. The procedure described for the 1822.5 super single tire was used for measuring the side tire
movements of this tire.

Fig B.l. Schematic of the side tire points measured for

vertical and horizontal movements.

48

49
inflation pressure the wheel was loaded to 0, 6,000, and
8,000 pounds. The side tire deflections for the tire inflated
to 110 psi are in Table B.7, and the deflections for the tire
inflated to'95 psi are in Table B.S.
These points are shown in Fig B.l. However, measurements of point 2 were not taken due to the relatively low
height of this tire. The procedure described for the 18-22.5
super single tire was used for measuring the side tire movements of this tire.

Reference points are shown in Fig B.l. However,

measurements of point 2 were not taken due to the relatively
low height of this tire. The procedure described for the 1822.5 super single tire was used for measuring the side tire
movements of this tire.

THE RADIAL GOODYEAR 11R24.5 TIRE

The radial Goodyear 11R24.5 tire deflections were
measuredatinflationpressuresof 110and95 psi,andateach

TABLE B. I. SIDE TIRE MOVEMENTS FOR THE BIAS GOODYEAR

18-22.5 SUPER SINGLE TIRE INFLATED TO 100 PSI
Load (lb)
8,000

Points
#1

!!

1.2

#2

4.3

12,000

10,000

.!..

24.8

1.3

18.3

4.8

.!..

....!....

25.7

1.2

18.8

4.8

.!..

....!....

28.5

1.2

22.0

4.5

15,000

.!..

24.6

1.3

24.4

18.0

5.1

17.7

#3

55

14.2

5.8

11.3

6.0

10.8

6.1

10.3

6.3

9.9

#4

2.2

7.5

26

4.8

2.9

4.6

3.0

4.2

3.2

3.8

#5
Down Axle

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

Movement

-0.0

-3.5

-5.1

-4.0

-6.1

Average Tae Stiffness: 6,090 Pounds Per Inch

*Movements are in centimeters.

TABLE B.Z. SIDE TIRE MOVEMENTS FOR THE BIAS GOODYEAR

18-22.5 SUPER SINGLE TIRE INFLATED TO 85 PSI
Load (lb)
8,000

10,000

12,000

Points
#1
#2

Y"'

.!.. ...!...

.!..

...!...

1.2

28.5

1.2

24.9

1.2

24.6

4.6

220

4.7

18.8

4.8

18.3

#3

5.4

14.2

5.8

11.3

6.0

10.6

#4

#5
Down Axle
Movement

2.4

1.5

2.9

4.7

3.0

4.5

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

-0.0

-3.5

Average Tae Stiffness: 5,910 Pounds Per Inch

*Movements are in centimeters.

-4.2

151000

.!..

...L

.!..

...L

1.3

24.1

1.3

22.8

5.0

17.8

5.1

16.7

6.1

10.0

6.3

9.4

3.1

3.9

3.2

3.5

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

-5.3

-6.3

50
TABLE 8.3. SIDE TIRE MOVEMENTS FOR THE
RADIAL MICHELIN 275/SOR/24.5 TIRE INFLATED
TO 110 PSI

TABLE B.6. SIDE TIRE MOVEMENTS FOR THE

RADIAL MICHELIN 2SS/70RI22.S TIRE INFLATED
TO 110 PSI
Load (lb)

Load (lb)
6,000

0
Points
#1

8,000

!! .!!.. ..!..

...L

..!.

...L

2.7

18.4

2.7

17.8

Points
#1

2.7

20.2

6,000

!! .!!.. ..!.
1.1

17.0

1.1

8,000

...L

...L

13.7

1.1

12.9

#3

3.5

11.3

5.1

8.8

5.4

8.1

#3

2.7

7.0

3.9

6.2

4.4

5.4

#4

2.7

5.2

2.9

4.6

3.7

4.4

#4

1.6

4.5

2.2

3.0

2.5

2.7

#5

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

#5

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

4.1

Down Axle
Movement

Down Axle
Movement

-0.0

-3.0

Average Tire Stiffness: 5,020 Pounds Per Inch

-0.0

-3.4

Average Tire Stiffness: 4,610 Pounds Per Inch

*Movements are in centimeters.

*Movements are in centimeters.

TABLE B.4. SIDE TIRE MOVEMENTS FOR THE

RADIAL MICHELIN 275/SOR/24.5 TIRE INFLATED
T09S PSI

TABLE B.7. SIDE TIRE MOVEMENTS FOR THE

RADIAL GOODYEAR 11R24.S TIRE INFLATED
TO 110 PSI

Load (lb)

Load (lb)
8,000

6,000

6,000

Points
#1

!!

Y*

..!.

...L

..!.

...L

20.1

2.7

18.0

2.7

17.0

Points
#1

2.7

3.1

22.5

#3

3.8

11.3

5.3

8.5

5.8

7.9

#3

4.2

#4

2.7

5.2

2.9

4.3

3.8

4.0

#4

3.9

#5

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

#5

0.0

4.1

DownAx1e
Movement

Down Axle
Movement

-0.0

-3.0

*Movements are in centimeters.

TABLE B.S. SID ETIRE MOVEMENTS FOR THE

RADIAL MICHELIN 2SSI70RI22.S TIRE INFLATED
TO 13SPSI

X
3.1

20.0

12.9

5.6

9.2

5.8

8.8

7.0

4.5

6.4

4.8

5.9

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

-3.0

-0.0

19.1

4.1

TABLE B.S. SIDE TIRE MOVEMENTS FOR THE

RADIAL GOODYEAR 11R24.S TIRE INFLATED
T09SPSI
Load (lb)

6,000

8,000

6,000

...L

!! .!!.. ..!.

..!.

...L

3.1

22.4

3.1

19.5

3.1

18.8

4.2

12.8

5.1

9.0

5.9

8.5

6.2

4.9

5.8

0.0

0.0

0.0

!!

.!!.. ..!.

...L

..!.

1.1

16.9

1.1

14.3

1.1

13.5

Points
#1

#3

2.8

6.8

3.5

96.4

3.9

6.0

#3

3.9

6.9

4)

0.0

0.0

0.0

#4

1.6

4.5

2.0

4.2

2.3

3.3

#4

#5

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

#5

-3.8

Down Axle
Movement

-3.1

Average Tire Stiffness: 5,140 Pounds Per Inch

*Movements are in centimeters.

8,000

Points
#1

-0.0

X
3.1

Load (lb)

Down Axle
Movement

8,000

Average Tire Stiffness: 5,020 Pounds Per Inch

*Movements are in centimeters.

Average Tire Stiffness: 4,420 Pounds Per Inch

-4.3

-0.0

-3.4

Average Tire Stiffness: 4,600 Pounds Per Inch

*Movements are in centimeters.

4.3