Lecture Notes For Mathematical Methods For Economics I Prepared by M. Franklin and R. Hosein

1
Lecture Notes for Mathematical Methods for Economics I......................................................................................1

Chapter 4: Mathematical Induction............................................................................................................................1
4.1 Introduction...........................................................................................................................................................1
4.2 Steps......................................................................................................................................................................2
4.3 Worked examples..................................................................................................................................................2
Lecture Notes for Mathematical Methods for Economics I

Prepared by M. Franklin and R. Hosein1
Chapter 4: Mathematical Induction
4.1 Introduction
To illustrate the principle of induction, consider the following example:
Suppose that a firm produces three distinct commodities: A, B and C. Suppose also that one
batch of size n units of each of these commodities are selected and placed in separate boxes.
Thus in the first box we have
A1..An
in the second
B1.Bn
and in the third
C1..Cn
If a box is selected at random, and we examine the first component of the box, which turns out to
be C1, then we know that the other n-1 components of the box are C2Cn. This is the type of
inference made by mathematical induction for n very large (in strict theoretical terms n is the
natural number set).
We would like to acknowledge the research assistance of M. Maharaj.
The principle of mathematical induction plays an important role in mathematics. Induction is

especially useful with positive integers and can help to prove statements when they are valid for
n = 1, 2, 3 and it is thought that they are valid for all positive integers.
4.2 Steps involved in Proof by Induction
The method of proof involved in proof by induction is as follows:
(i)
Show that the statement is true for n = 1 (actually any positive integer would work, but 1 is
simply the most convenient to use).
(ii)
Assume that the statement is true for n = k, where k is any positive integer.
(iii) Show that the statement is true for n = k + 1. (This is perhaps the most difficult part of the
proof. It is sometimes impossible and the exercise sometimes has to be discontinued.)
(iv) If the statement is true for n = 1 (by (i)) and it is true for n = k + 1 based on (iii), then it is
true for all positive integers (k = 1).
A clear illustration of how these steps concerning mathematical induction are performed is
provided by way of the series of examples below.
4.3 Worked examples
Example 4.1
Show by induction that 12 + 22 + + n2 = 1/6 (n) (n + 1) (2n + 1),
n
i.e.
( n )( n 1)(2n 1)
r 1
Solution
Step 1: Show statement is true for n = 1
12 = 1/6 (1) (2) (3)
12 = 1/6 (6) = 1
so that the statement is true for n = 1
Step 2: Assume statement is true for n = k
12 + 22 +k2 = 1/6 (k) (k + 1) (2k + 1)
i.e.
(k )(k 1)(2k 1)
r 1
Step 3: Add (k + 1)2 terms to both the LHS and RHS

12 + 22 + + k2 + (k + 1) 2 = 1/6 (k) (k + 1) (2k + 1) + (k + 1)2
Simplify RHS
1
/6 (k) (k + 1) (2k + 1) + (k + 1)2
= 1/6 (k + 1) (k) (2k +1) + (k + 1)2
factorize by 1/6 (k + 1)
= 1/6 (k + 1) [k(2k + 1) + 6(k + 1)]

= 1/6 (k + 1) [k(2k + 1) + 6k + 6]
= 1/6 (k + 1) (2k2 + 7k + 6)
= 1/6 (k + 1) (k + 2) (2k + 3)
= 1/6 (n) (n + 1) (2n + 1) since n = k + 1
k 1
This demonstrates that the statement is true for n = k + 1 since the above is equal to
. By
r 1
induction,
( n )( n 1)(2n 1) holds for all positive integers of n.
r 1
Example 4.2
Show that xn yn has x y as a factor for all positive integer values of n.
Solution
Step 1: x1- y1 = x y
and this is divisible by x y
Step 2: Let n = k, and assume true for xk - yk
Step 3: Prove the statement true for n = k + 1. To do this form, x k+1 and yk+1 and subtract and add
Xky. This gives:
xk+1 yk+1 = xk+1- xky + xky yk+1
= xk (x-y) + y (xk - yk)
and this is clearly divisible by x y since we assumed that (xk - yk) is divisible by (x y)
Step 4: It follows that x y is a factor of xn yn, where n is any positive integer.

Example 4.3
Prove by induction that 232n + 34n + 31 is divisible by 33 for all positive values of n.
Solution
Step 1: When n = 1
232(1) + 34(1) + 31 = 232 + 34 + 31
529 + 34 + 31 = 594
594
33 =
18
true for n = 1.
Step 2: Assume that the expression is true for n = k, i.e.
y = 232k + 34k + 31 is divisible by 33
Let y = 232k + 34k + 31
Step 3: Demonstrate that the expression is true for n = k + 1
232(k + 1) + 34(k + 1) + 31
= 232 .232k + 34.34k + 31
= 232 (232k + 34k +31) 232 .34k 232 .31 + 34.34k + 31
= 232 (y) 34k (232 34) 31(232 1)
= 232 (y) 34k . 33.15 31.33.16
= 232 (y) 33 (34k .15 + 31.16)
Since y is divisible by 33 it means that the entire expression in the last line of Step 3 is divisible by 33.
Step 4: By the Principle of Induction, 232n + 34n + 31 is divisible by 33 for all positive values of n.
Example 4.4
Let f(n) = a 4n +p + b 2n a p+ m 1 , where a, b, m, and p are positive integers such that a 4 1 and b2 1
are each divisible by m. Prove by induction, or otherwise, that f(n) is divisible by m for every non
negative integer n.
Solution
Step 1:
f(n) = a4n + p + b2n ap + m 1

f(1) = a4 +p + b2 ap + m 1
= a4 ap + b2 - ap 1 + m
= ap (a4 1) + (b2 - 1) + m
So f(1) is divisible by m as (a4 1) and ( b2 1) are divisible by m
Step 2: Assume that the expansion is true for n = k
a4k+P + b2k aP + m 1 is divisible by m.
Step 3: For n = (k + 1)
f(k + 1) = a4(k + 1) + p + b2(k +1) + - ap + m 1
= (a4k + p ) a4 + (b2k ) b2 ap + m 1
= (a4k + p + b2k a p + m 1) a4 (b 2k a p + m 1) a4 + (b2k ) b2 a p+ m 1
= f (k) a 4 - a 4 (b2k a p+ m 1) + b2 (b2k) ap + m -1
= f (k)a 4 (b 2k ap + m 1)a 4+ (b2k a p+ m 1) b2k + b2k b2
= f (k) a4 (b2k ap + m 1)(a4 1) + b2k (b2 1)
Since f (k), (a4 1) and (b2 1) are divisible by m, then f (k + 1) is divisible by m.
Step 4: By the principle of induction f(n) is true for all values of n, n being a non negative integer
Example 4.5
Prove, using the Principle of Mathematical Induction, that for any n N, where N is the set of
natural numbers, that 3(4n + 2) + 5(2n + 1) is exactly divisible by 14.
Solution
Let P(n) be the statement that 34n + 2 + 5 2n + 1 is divided by 14 where n is a natural number.
Step 1: For n=1, we have 36 + 53 = 854, which is divisible by 14.
Thus the statement is true for n=1.
Step 2: Let us assume that the statement is true for a general value k. Then 34k + 2 + 52k + 1 = 14r
(Where r is a positive integer)
Step 3: Now 34(k + 1) + 2 + 52(k + 1) + 1
= 34k + 6 + 52k + 3
= 81.34k + 2 + 25.52k + 1
= 56.34k + 2 +25.52k + 1 + 25.34k + 2
= 56.34k + 2 + 25 (34k + 2 + 52k + 1)
Using the above assumption, we get 14.4.3 4k + 2 + 25.14r
This is divisible by 14.
Step 4: Hence, the statement is true by the principle of mathematical induction for any n N.
Example 4.6
Prove that n4 + 3n2 is divisible by 4 for all n 1 by the use of Mathematical Induction.
Solution
Step 1: For n = 1, we have n4 + 3n2 = 1 + 3 = 4, which is divisible by 4.
Thus the statement is true for the smallest positive value for n, being n = 1.
Step 2: We assume that the statement is true for n = k.
Thus k4 + 3k2 = 4p, where p is a positive integer.
Step 3: We need to show that (k + 1)4 + 3(k + 1)2 = 4q, where q is also a positive integer.
This is done as follows:
(k + 1)4 + 3(k + 1)2
= (k4 + 4k3 + 6k2 + 4k + 1) + (3k2 + 6k +3).
= (k4 +3k2) + 4k3 + 4 + (6k2 + 10k).
= 4p + 4(k3 + 1) + 4 (k2 + 2k) + 2(k2 + k).
We have to show that the term 2(k 2 + k) is divisible by 4 since all the other terms are
divisible by 4. Now if k is odd, then k2 is odd and the sum k2 + k is even. Clearly 2(k2+ k)
is also even and divisible by 4. If k is even, then k2 is even, and the sum k2 + k is even
and 2(k2+k) is therefore again divisible by 4.
Step 4: Thus, 2(k2+k) is divisible by 4.
Therefore, the expression (k + 1)4 + 3(k + 1)2 is divisible by 4.
Since the expression is divisible by 4, we conclude that it holds for all positive integers n.

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Lecture Notes for Mathematical Methods for Economics I......................................................................................1

Lecture Notes for Mathematical Methods for Economics I

We would like to acknowledge the research assistance of M. Maharaj.

The principle of mathematical induction plays an important role in mathematics. Induction is

Step 3: Add (k + 1)2 terms to both the LHS and RHS

/6 (k) (k + 1) (2k + 1) + (k + 1)2

= 1/6 (k + 1) (k) (2k +1) + (k + 1)2

= 1/6 (k + 1) [k(2k + 1) + 6(k + 1)]

( n )( n 1)(2n 1) holds for all positive integers of n.

Step 4: It follows that x y is a factor of xn yn, where n is any positive integer.

f(n) = a4n + p + b2n ap + m 1

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