Rubber Chemistry

RUBBER
CHEMISTRY
MATADOR RUBBER s.r.o.
Summary
Rubbers - elastomers - are polymeric materials characterised by their ability of
reversible deformation due to external deforming forces. Their deformation rate
depends on the structure and molar mass of the deformed rubber and on external
conditions of the deformation. This characteristics, referred to as elastic and/or
hyper elastic deformation, is entropic in nature and results from the ability of rubber
macromolecules to form a more organised state under influence of deforming forces
without deformation of chemical bonds between atoms of the polymer chain or
without deformation of their valence angles. Ideally, the macromolecules can
restore their initial position once the deforming forces are removed.
Rubbers usually have long and regular macromolecule chains without bulk
substitutes with spatially oriented structural units. This is the reason why their
segments are movable and able to rotate around simple chemical bonds even at low
temperatures, as it can be seen in their low vitrification temperature Tg. They are
tough and similar to plastomers below the vitrification temperature or crystallisation
temperature (if rubber can be crystallised). When heated, rubbers change their
elastic and/or hyper elastic state to a visco-elastic state; and they become plastic and
flow above the softening temperature (Tm). It is advantageous if rubbers crystallise
at normal temperature only when subjected to voltage and their Tg is significantly
lower that the temperature they are used at.
Natural rubber comes from a plant. In industrial applications, it is obtained
primarily from Hevea Brasiliensis tree grown in orchards in South-East Asia,
Western Africa and northern parts of Southern America. Synthetic rubbers are made
by constructional polyreactions of chain or grade nature. In terms of their
application and basic properties they can be divided into:
general - they have properties satisfying requirements of multiple
products, often with various properties; they are relatively cheap;
manufactured and consumed in large volumes (butadiene-styrene,
butadiene, synthetic isoprene rubbers, natural rubber);
special - in addition to the basic elastic properties they have at least one
special feature, such as resistance to aging, resistance to chemicals,
resistance to budding in non-polar oils, resistance to high/low
temperatures etc. They are usually manufactured and consumed in lower
volumes than general rubbers and they are much more expensive
(ethylene propylene, chloroprene, acrylic, silicone, urethane, epoxy,
fluorine rubbers and others).
Rubbers are used most often in the form of vulcanizates - a vulcanized rubber. They
can be brought to this form by vulcanization. This process is based on creation of
chemical and physical transverse bonds between rubber macromolecules resulting
in a spatial vulcanizate mesh, giving unique properties to the material. Various
chemical - vulcanizing - agents are used to create the chemical transverse bonds
between rubber macromolecules (such as sulphur, peroxides, metal oxides, resins,
quinones and others), which can react with appropriate functional rubber groups in
the process of vulcanization to create transverse bonds between them. The crosslinking can be induced also by radiation, however its energy must be sufficient to
Matador Rubber s.r.o. 2007
generate reactive forms of rubber macromolecules - radicals in most cases. They

react with each other giving rise to transverse bonds. Cross-linking can occur also
due to microwave energy or ultrasound. Most rubbers require vulcanisation; though
it is not inevitable for some type of thermoplastic rubbers.
Anyway, the optimum vulcanizate (rubber) properties cannot be achieved only by
cross-linking rubber molecules, but other additives must be added. Besides crosslinking agents and antidegradants (used to slow down the process of aging), they
include fillers that have a positive influence on some of the utilisation properties
and make them cheaper, as well as additives allowing admixture of all the powdery
or liquid additives, often referred to as supplementary processing additives.
Rubbers, just like any other chemical compounds, can participate in other chemical
reactions (polymer-analogical reactions) under suitable conditions because they
have reactive function groups in their macromolecules (double bonds, reactive hydrogen, other function groups). These usually include modification of undesired
properties of rubbers (e.g. resistance to aging, polarity, adhesion to other materials,
linkage of antidegradants), or production of rubbers with some new properties
(CIIR. BIIR, carboxyl rubbers). Intermediary reactions (cyclisation, isomerisation,
degradation, cross-linking and others) can occur simultaneously with the main
chemical reaction.
Table of contents
SUMMARY.........................................................................................................................................2
TABLE OF CONTENTS ...................................................................................................................4
RUBBERS GENERAL BACKGROUND OF SYNTHESIS, STRUCTURE AND
PROPERTIES.....................................................................................................................................6
1. INTRODUCTION ..........................................................................................................................6
2. NATURAL RUBBER.....................................................................................................................7
2.1 NR LATEX ...................................................................................................................................9
3 SYNTHETIC RUBBERS..............................................................................................................11
3.1 SOME FUNDAMENTAL OF SYNTHETIC RUBBERS PRODUCTION ...................................................11
3.2 BUTADIENE RUBBERS................................................................................................................19
3.3 STYRENE-BUTADIENE RUBBERS ................................................................................................20
3.4 ACRYLONITRILE-BUTADIENE RUBBERS .....................................................................................24
3.5 ISOPRENE RUBBERS ...................................................................................................................28
3.5 ISOPRENE-ISOBUTYLENE RUBBERS ............................................................................................29
3.6 CHLOROPRENE RUBBERS ...........................................................................................................32
3.8 ETHYLENE-PROPYLENE RUBBERS..............................................................................................34
3.9 ACRYLIC RUBBERS ....................................................................................................................37
3.10 FLUOROCARBON RUBBERS ......................................................................................................39
3.11EPICHLORHYDRIN RUBBERS .....................................................................................................40
3.12 SILICONE RUBBERS .................................................................................................................41
3.13 POLYURETHANE RUBBERS ......................................................................................................42
3.14 POLYSULFIDE RUBBERS ..........................................................................................................44
3.15 THERMOPLASTIC RUBBERS......................................................................................................45
SOME ASPECTS OF RUBBER CHEMICAL CHANGES..........................................................53
1. INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................................53
1.1 POLYMER-ANALOGICAL REACTIONS .........................................................................................56
1.2 PERACIDS .................................................................................................................................57
1.3 CIS-TRANS ISOMERIZATION ......................................................................................................57
1.4 CYCLIZATION ...........................................................................................................................58
2. SOME POLYMER-ANALOGICAL REACTION OF CONVENTIONAL UNSATURATED
RUBBERS .........................................................................................................................................59
2.1 HYDROGENATION, HALOGENATION, HYDROHALOGENATION ....................................................59
2.1.1 HNBR ...............................................................................................................................61
2.2 EPOXIDATION ...........................................................................................................................62
2.2.1 Rubber properties.............................................................................................................63
2.2.2 modification reactions.....................................................................................................64
2.2.3 Furan groups....................................................................................................................64
2.2.4
Driving properties.......................................................................................................65
2.3 ENE-REACTIONS ........................................................................................................................65
2.3.1 Initiators...........................................................................................................................66
2.3.2 BR.....................................................................................................................................67
2.4 GRAFTING .................................................................................................................................67
2.4.1 Hevea MG ........................................................................................................................67
3. VULCANIZATION OF RUBBERS............................................................................................69
3.1 INTRODUCTION .........................................................................................................................69
3.1.1 Network ............................................................................................................................70
3.1.2 Vulcanization curves ........................................................................................................71
3.1.3 Crosslink density ..............................................................................................................71
3.1.4 Vulcanizates properties ....................................................................................................73
3.2 SULFUR VULCANIZATION ..........................................................................................................73

3.2.1 Sulfur................................................................................................................................75
3.2.2 accelerators......................................................................................................................77
3.2.2.1 Organic compounds ......................................................................................................80
3.2.3 Activators .........................................................................................................................84
3.2.4 Sulfur vulcanization .........................................................................................................84
3.2.5 Formation of complexes ...................................................................................................85
3.2.6 Sulfur donors....................................................................................................................86
3.2.7 Thiuram disulfides............................................................................................................87
3.2.8 Sulfur vulcanizate.............................................................................................................87
3.2.9 Conventional sulfur system ..............................................................................................88
3.2.10 EV systems......................................................................................................................88
3.3 PEROXIDE VULCANIZATION ......................................................................................................89
3.3.1 Organic peroxides............................................................................................................91
3.3.2 EPDM rubbers .................................................................................................................92
3.3.3 Coactivators .....................................................................................................................93
3.3.4 Thermosetic particles .......................................................................................................93
3.3.4 IIR rubber.........................................................................................................................94
RUBBERS GENERAL BACKGROUND OF

SYNTHESIS, STRUCTURE AND PROPERTIES
1. Introduction
Rubbers elastomers - are polymer materials that are characterized by ability of
reversible deformation under influence of external deformation forces. Extent of
deformation depends on the structure and molecular weight of deformed rubber
and also on external conditions of deformation; it can achieve some 100 up to 1000
% already at low stress. This property, marked as elastic, eventually highly elastic
deformation, has entropy character. It rests in ability of the rubber macromolecules
to occupy more ordered forms under stress, and on removal of stress to return to
their ideal statistically random conformation, under ideal conditions without
deformation of chemical bond distances or their angles (only non-combinatorial
entropy is changed). The entropy reduction (S) at unchanged free energy of the
stressed system (G = H TS = 0) must be connected with enthalpy reduction
(H), which becomes evident externally by heat-up of the deformed sample. In
ideal case the macromolecules may return to original position after elimination of
stress and the stressed samples cooled down to original temperature.
The rubbers have usually long and regular macromolecule chains without large
substituents, with spatially oriented structural units. Thus their segments are
movable and also at low temperatures they can freely rotate around simple chemical
bonds. It is related to their low glass transition temperature Tg. Typical examples of
such rubbers are poly-cis-1.4-butadiene and poly-cis-1.4-isoprene. They have Tg
around 110, eventually 70 C. With increasing of the content of irregularities
in polymer chain (trans-1.4, 1.2 or 3.4 structural units) or under presence of large
substituents (styrene-butadiene rubbers) their Tg is increasing. Under glass
transition temperature or crystallization temperature (when rubber crystallizes) the
rubbers are solid polymers similar to plastomers. During heating they changed
from elastic, eventually high elastic state to viscoelastic state and above softening
temperature they are plastic and they flow. It is advantageous when rubbers at
normal temperature crystallize only under stress and their Tg is significantly lower
than their usage temperature.
The rubbers gain optimum properties of engineering materials only in form of
vulcanizates. It is possible to transfer them into this form by means of
vulcanization. Basis is in creating of chemical and physical cross-links among
rubber macromolecules, in consequence of that three-dimensional network is
created and material obtains unique properties. In no case this can not be achieved
only by cross-linking itself, but also some other additives must be added to rubbers.
Except of cross-linking agents and antidegradants (they reduce ageing process)
those are mainly fillers (they are making rubbers not only cheaper but they
positively influence also some of their commercial properties) and also additives
allowing compounding of all necessary powder or liquid ingredients to the rubbers,
very often marked as auxiliary processing additives.
Presently, a lot of rubber types are on the market that can be divided into more
groups in accordance with different criterion (e.g. saturated an unsaturated, natural
and synthetic, polar and non-polar, crystallizing and non-crystallizing, etc.). From
view of their usage and basic properties these can be also divided onto:
rubbers for general use they have properties complying with
requirements of more products, often also with different properties, they
are relatively cheap, produced and consumed in big volume
special rubbers except of basic elastic properties they have at least one
special property, e.g. ageing resistance, resistance against chemicals,
resistance against swelling in non-polar oils, resistance against high or
low temperatures etc. Normally they are produced and consumed in
lower volume than general rubbers and they are significantly more
expensive.
In professional literature and also in practice the rubbers are named besides
commercial names also with abbreviations (in accordance with ASTM-D 1418-76
or ISO-R 1629). Basis for the abbreviation creating is the rubber chemical
composition. The abbreviation consists of a number of capital letters. The last letter
of appropriate abbreviation characterizes typical atom or group that is present in the
rubber macromolecule:
M rubbers with saturated hydrocarbon chain of methylene type
N rubbers containing nitrogen in polymer chain
O rubbers containing oxygen in polymer chain
Q rubbers containing oxygen and silicium in polymer chain
R rubbers with unsaturated hydrocarbon polymer chain (diene)
T rubbers containing sulfur in polymer chain
U rubbers containing carbon, oxygen and nitrogen in polymer chain
Z rubbers containing phosphor a nitrogen in polymer chain
Other letters of the abbreviation characterize monomers, the rubber was produced
from. For example, in accordance with that the SBR abbreviation means butadienestyrene rubber, CR is chloroprene rubber, EPM is ethylene-propylene rubber, BR is
butadiene rubber etc. Also some other letter can create a part of abbreviation, and
these closer characterize appropriate rubber, e.g. OE-SBR is oil extended styrenebutadiene rubber, L-SBR means styrene-butadiene rubber produced by
polymerization in solution, H-NBR is hydrogenated acrylonitrile-butadiene rubber,
CIIR is chlorinated isobutene-isoprene rubber etc. Natural rubber is marked with
abbreviation NR. Such abbreviations are used also in this paper for marking of the
rubbers.
2. Natural rubber
N a t u r a l r u b b e r ( N R ) has vegetable origin. It is created by enyzmatic
processes in many plants, belonging mainly to families of Euphorbiacea,
Compositea, Moracea and Apocynacea. It is industrially achieved mainly from
the tree called Hevea Brasiliensis belonging to Euphorbiacea family. It is grown in
plantation way in warm (average monthly temperature 25 28 C) and humid

(humidity around 80%) climate of South-Eastern Asia (Malaysia, India, China, Sri
Lanka, Vietnam), in Western Africa (Nigeria, Cambodia) and in North part of South
America (Brazil, Guatemala). Annual production of rubber is presently varying
around 3000 3500 kg per 1 ha and it depends on weather, soil quality, used
stimulation means, age of threes and other external factors. The first source of
rubber is sucrose that is created from carbon oxide and water during
photosynthesis process. In the first biosynthesis stage the acetyl-coenzyme A is
created from it and this is changed onto iso-pentyl-pyrophosphate through mevalone
acid and the rubber in form of latex is generated by polymerization. The rubber is
achieved from it by means of coagulation.
Natural rubber obtained from Hevea Brasiliensis is practically pure poly-cis-1.4
isoprene (contains more than 99.9 % of cis 1.4 structural units) from chemical view.
At the ends of its macromolecules there may be bonded also non-isoprene structural
units, mainly proteins, amino acids and phospholipids, in macromolecules backbone
those may be also epoxide, ester, aldehyde, eventually lactone groups. Also part of
non-rubber additives that are present in latex is remaining in rubber. Their content
may be different but generally it is varying in range 5 10%. In spite of their small
amount in rubber they have significant influence on its properties and they represent
one reason of different properties of natural rubber and its synthetic equivalent (IR).
CH3
C= C
CH
CH2
CH
CH
poly-cis-1.4-isoprene
NR achieved from fresh latex and immediately dried-out after coagulation contain
small portion of gel, too. Gel-rubber has higher content of nitrogen and minerals in
comparison with sol-rubber, which leads to vision that rubber chains are more
branched in gel-rubber and they are mutually connected with proteins through
hydrogen bridges. This assumption is approved also by discovery that content of
gel-rubber in deproteinized rubber is much lower. Average amount of side branches
per one rubber macromolecule is varying approximately from 1 to 6 and it is higher
in macromolecules with higher molecular weight. Accompaniment of the natural
rubber storing is gradual increasing of its viscosity that is externally shown by its
hardening. Reason of this phenomenon is not well known, but it is accredited to
cross-linking reactions of non-rubber groups present in its macromolecules.
Macromolecules of NR are long, regular, flexible and practically linear, thus it has
very good elastic properties (Tg ~ -70C) and spontaneously crystallizes (maximum
crystallization rate is approximately at -25C) also under influence of deformation
forces already at relative prolongation of more than 80%. It has also excellent
strength characteristics and keeps them also in form of vulcanizates. Tensile
strength of NR vulcanizates filled with active fillers may be also more than 30 MPa.
Its molecular weight Mw varies the most often in between 104 - 107
and polymolecularity Mw/Mn approximately from 2.5 to 10. In non-vulcanized

status it is reversible prolonged under high deformation rates already to 800 1000
%. It belongs to highly resilient rubbers. Some commercial types of NR rubbers
must be masticated prior to compounding. NR types with regulated viscosity (CV)
practically do not need mastication and they have good processing properties.
NR rubbers belong to highly non-saturated rubbers, because each their structural
unit contains one double link. Also reactive -methylene hydrogens are related with
its presence. Both types of these function groups may take part in different addition
or substitution polymeranalogical reactions that can run also as parallel reactions
(e.g. during hydrohalogenation). They are utilized for chemical modification of the
rubber itself as well as for its vulcanization. In general, the NR rubbers are
vulcanized by means of sulfur systems, but also other vulcanizing agents can be
used (phenol formaldehyde resins, urethanes, peroxides and others). Ozone and
oxygen react very easily with NR function groups, which cause its very low aging
resistance.
2.1 NR latex
NR latex in Hevea Brasiliensis is located in latex vessels to be founded in various

parts of the tree. The lowest occurring is in the wood and the highest in the
secondary phloem. There are the vessels aligned to spirals in concentric circles
close to cambium. It is obtained from them by tapping based on cutting of the tree
bark by special knife under approximate angle of 30. Latex spontaneously flows
out of this slot, because it occurs in spurges under hydrostatic pressure of 11.9
MPa. It is collected into special bowls.
Natural rubber latex is a colloid system having the rubber particles dispersed in
water. Latex particle size is varying approximately from 0.05 to 3m. In fresh latex
they have mainly spherical shape that is under their aggregation gradually changed
to pear shape (Section through rubber particles). Besides these also small amounts
of proteins, resinous matters (including lipids), hydrocarbons and mineral
substances are present in NR latex. Part of these non-rubbery matters, mainly
proteins and lipids, is surrounded by a surface of rubbery particles and gives them
negative charge, which assures the latex stability.
Specific weight of fresh NR latex is 0.96 0.98 g x cm-3 and its pH is varying
within 6.5 7.0. It coagulates by standing on the air, and from this reason it must be
stabilized. The most often used item for this stabilization is ammonia (HA latex
maximum 0.7 % NH3) or its combinations (LA latex 0.2 % NH3) with secondary
stabilizers, such as dithiocarbamates, combination of tetramethylthiuram disulfide
and ZnO, lauric or boric acid. These are added to latex only in very small amounts,
normally 0.01 0.05 %.
Some rubber products (e.g. foam rubber, gloves, condoms, glues) are produced
directly from latex. The latex is modified for these reasons to have higher DRC
values (minimum 60 65 % of rubber). It is performed by means of its
concentrations, the most often by centrifugation and sedimentation, but also water
evaporation thickening and electro-decantation is used. During these operations also
eventual dirtiness and non-rubbery additives are removed from rubber besides
increase of the dry rubber content in latex.
Tapping of NR latex
Latex particle size distribution in mature tress of clone RRIM 600
Section through rubber particles from latex (magnification: x 9 000)
10
Composition of fresh NR latex

Constituent
Content, %
Rubber
30 40
Proteins
1.0 1.5
Resins
1.5 3.0
Minerals
0.7 0.9
Carbohydrates
0.8 0.1
Water
55 60
Mastication is process during which the elastic rubber achieves plastic properties.
During mastication breaking of chemical bonds in its macromolecules take place by
means of high shear forces. This process results in the decreasing of molecular
weight and viscosity of rubber and consequently it becomes treatable. Mastication
of NR is performed either at low temperature on mills or at higher temperature in
closed mixers, often in the presence of peptizers (they act as donors of electrons or
hydrogen), that increase its efficiency. Besides mechanical degradation of rubbery
macromolecules also their oxidation degradation occurs in this process and its rate
is upgraded with mastication temperature increasing. Mastication of the NR is the
most efficient at temperatures below 60 70C and above 120 130C, its
efficiency is low in interval between these temperatures.
Mastication of synthetic rubbers is much less efficient, and thus they are either
produced with the molecular weight and viscosity suitable for their processing or
they are modified in final production stages by means of suitable oils (e.g. SBR
extended by oil). Advantage of such modification is in possibility to keep the high
molecular weights, that normally afford better physical-mechanical and dynamic
properties to vulcanizates and also processing of rubbers is good.
3 Synthetic rubbers
3.1
Some fundamental of synthetic rubbers production
Synthetic rubbers, similarly to other polymers, are the most often produced by
means of polyreactions of the chain or gradual character. Great part of them is
achieved by the chain polyreactions, namely:
radical
ionic or
11
coordination polymerization and copolymerization, which are the most

often used in:
emulsion
solution or
suspension
Chain polyreactions run in more following actions, running in parallel Primary act
of the whole process is creation of the reactive particle that is able to start the
monomer molecules addition process on it. Reactive particle may be radical, ion or
ionic pair. According to this the whole process can run by radical or ionic (anionic,
cationic, coordination) mechanism.
In free radical polymerization and copolymerization systems used during synthesis
of rubbers, the primary radical is the most often generated by decomposition of
suitable initiator. At temperatures around 50C those are mostly peroxides
(dibenzoyl peroxide, potassium persulfate, ammonium persulfate) and azocompounds (azo-bis-isobutyronitrile), at temperatures around 5C oxidationreductive systems consisting of hydroperoxide (p-menthane hydroperoxide, pinane
hydroperoxide) and metal salt of transition valence (Fe2+), eventually activator
(sodium salts of suitable acids).
Macromolecules of polymers prepared by radical polymerization or
copolymerization have polydispersion character. It is mainly because of the fact that
growing polymer radical terminated not only in consequence of termination
reactions with other polymers radical, but also in consequence of transfer reaction
to other reaction system components (polymer, monomer, initiator, and solvent).
Chain transfer reactions are used also for targeted regulation of molecular weights
of rubbers. Chain transfer agents (e.g. mercaptanes, halogenides, disulfides) are
added into reaction systems in these cases.
Rubbers based on vinyl and diene monomers are the most often prepared by means
of radical polymerization and copolymerization. Diene monomers keeps its reactive
function groups also in form of structural unit mutually connected into polymer,
eventually copolymer chain (-methylene hydrogens and double bonds), thus there
may take place under their presence also transfer reaction of growing polymer
radical to polymer and also to its addition to double bonds. These reaction leads to
branching and cross-linking of created rubber. In consequence of their rate
increasing with elevated temperature, the rubbers prepared under higher
temperature are more branched and they have also higher content of gel. To reduce
these unwanted reactions, the polymerization and copolymerization of diene
monomers is normally finished at about 60 % conversion. Polymers with randomly
distributed structural units (cis-, trans, 1.4, 1.2, eventually 3.4) are created during
radical polymerization of diene monomers. Rubbers with such microstructure have
worse elastic properties than their stereo-regulated equivalents.
Primary radical from both co-monomers are created during copolymerization. They
also react with both monomers in elementary propagation act, so the copolymer
molecule is combined from structural elements of both monomers. Their structure
and arrangement in macromolecules depend mainly on mutual reactivity of growing
copolymer radicals against individual monomers (it is characterized by the
12
monomer reactivity ratios) and from their content in monomer feeds. In such case
when copolymerization monomers create azeotropic mixtures, the composition of
copolymers is equal to the composition of monomers mixtures.
The most of radical synthesis are performed in emulsion. Mainly rubbers of
copolymer character with randomly arrangement monomer units are produced in
them (SBR, NBR, ACM, FM) and also CR rubber.
In the i o n i c polymerization systems there are created reactive particles that are
able to initiate growth of polymer chain by means of the charge transfer from
initiator ion to monomer, in cationic polymerizations those are cations
and in anionic anions. During cationic polymerization four elementary reactions run
in similar way as in free radical reaction initiation, propagation, termination
and transfer. The most frequently acids used for initiation are Brnsteds or Lewiss
acids (H2SO4, HClO4, HCl, BF3, AlCl3, SnCl4) itself or in combination with small
amount of co-catalyst (water, alcohols, ethers and others). During propagation the
monomer molecules enter between polycation and opposite anion of initiator.
Termination of the polycation is the most often achieved by its monomolecule
fragmentation or reaction with anion fragment of the initiator. In cationic
polymerization systems similarly to radical system there can transfer of growing
polycation onto some of the polymerization system compounds (monomer,
polymer, solvent, or impurities) take places; consequently created various length
macromolecules and they can be branched. Cationic polymerizations are performed
under very low temperatures (around 50 to 100 C). In this condition activation
energy of transfer reaction is higher than the activation energy of initiation
and propagation, accordingly polymers with narrower distribution and lower
branching than in radical polymerization are formed. Cationic polymerizations are
performed the most often in polar solvents. Typical example of rubber produced by
means of cationic polymerization is IIR rubber.
Anionic polymerization and copolymerization can be performed in non-polar as well
as polar solvents. In non-polar medium (aromatic and aliphatic hydrocarbons) alkyl
metals (butyl lithium) are the most often used for initiation, but they only partially
dissociate to ions. In polar solvents of the electron-donor character
(tetrahydrofurane, naphthalene, benzophenone) total dissociation of initiator
(phenyl lithium, sodium, potassium) onto ions take places, and at the same time also
solvent becomes a part of stabilizing cation. Reactive anions that are able to initiate
the growth of polymeric chain may be created by addition of initiators anion to
monomer, by means of the electron transmission from initiator onto monomer or
through amphions that generate reactive monomer anion by means of reaction with
monomer. During propagation the present monomer is added to created anion and if
no impurities are present in the system (e.g. water, oxygen, carbon oxide) the
polyanion grows until all monomer is consumed (living anionic polymerization).
Termination takes places only after addition of terminating agent (substances that
are able to accept electrons - water, carbon oxide, alcohols, ethylene oxide and
others). Living anionic polymerization can be used also for preparation of pure
block copolymers (thermoplastic styrene-butadiene rubbers). In this case the second
monomer is added into system already after finished reaction of the first one; from
this reason neither random connecting of its structural units into the first monomer
block can not take place. Final structure of copolymer depends on type of used
13
termination agent. If termination agents with more functional groups are used, thus
star-shaped copolymers may start-up.
Polymers with very narrow distribution are created in anionic polymerization
systems and their molecular weights depend only on concentration ratio between
initiator and monomer. Blocks length in the block copolymers depends on amount
of monomer that was added into system.
Specialty of the co o r d i n a t i o n polymerization is in creation of sterically regular
polymers. The most frequently used initiators in these systems are Ziegler-Nattas
catalysts. These are created by transition metal salts of Group IV to VIII elements,
and organometallic alkyl- or acyl-compounds of Group I to III elements of Periodic
Table. As transition metal salts the most often used are halides or others compounds
of titan, cobalt, nickel, vanadium and similar metals, the second part is mostly
created by diethylaluminum chloride or triethylaluminum. One should expect that
effective initiator is created by means of alkylation of transition metal in salt. Its
initiation activity is based on the fact that transition valence metal in lower valence
is able to create not only covalent bonds (alkyl metal), but also the coordination
bonds with unpaired -electrons of double bonds and to change them mutually. If
molecule of olefin or diene occurs in catalysts coordination field, than coordination
bond is created between them, during which time the bond between alkyl carbonmetal is destabilized, monomer molecule is inserted between atoms of carbon and
metal and at the same time condition for creating the new coordination bond is
established. To allow the polymer chain to be created in this way, the monomer
molecules must enter spatially oriented into the propagation step. From this reason
stereo regular polymers are created by means of coordination polymerization.
Depending on catalyst composition polymers with high content of same structural
units may be prepared by this way.
With g r a d u a l polyreactions the polymer molecules grow gradually. It is done by
reactions between function groups of monomers or polyreaction intermediate
products. If the reacting monomers are bifunctional, thus linear polymers are
created; if at least one monomer is multifunctional than the branched or cross-linked
polymers results. Typical examples of the polyreactions running in gradual
mechanism are polycondensation and polyaddition. During polycondensation also
low molecule product is created besides polymer; normally no stand-by products
are created during polyaddition. Gradual polyreactions run slower than chain
reactions. Molecular weights of the creating polymers are increasing with reaction
time and they use to be normally lower than molecular weights of polymers
prepared by means of the chain reactions.
Gradual polyreactions are seldom used during production of rubbers. Urethane
rubbers are prepared by polyaddition, and it is polyaddition of diols (very often
polyesters or polyethers with lower moleculare weight are used) and diisocyanates;
polycondensation is used for some types of Q rubbers and TM rubbers
(polycondensation of alkylene dichlorides with sodium sulfide). They can be used
also during synthesis of thermoplastic block copolymers of polyurethane
and polyester type.
14
Initiation:
Initiator > 2 R
decomposition of initiator to
radicals
R + M > RM ( P )
formation of primary
radicals
Propagation:
P + n M > Pn+1
formation of polymer
radical
Termination:
Pn + Pm > Pn+m
recombination
Pn + Pm > Pn + Pm
disproportionation
Transfer:
Pn + T H > Pn H + T
transfer agent,
transfer (on chain

polymer, monomer,
initiator, solvent,..)
T + M
> T M
addition of T on
monomer
Simplified reaction scheme of radical polymerization

R - initiator radical, M monomer molecule, RM - primary radical formed
during additon of monomer molecule on initiator radical, Pn , Pn+1 , Pm - polymer
radical with n, n+1, m structural elements, Pn, Pm, Pn+m polymer with n, m, n+m
structural elements, TH chain transfer agent molecule, T - chain transfer agent
radical, TM - radical formed during additon of chain transfer agent radical on
monomer.
15
Initiation
Initiator > 2 R
R + M1 > RM1 ( P1 )
R + M2 > RM2 ( P2 )
Propagation:
P1 + M1 > P1
P1 + M2 > P2
P2 + M2 > P2
P2 + M1 > P1
Termination:
P1 + P1
P1 + P2
> Copolymer
P2 + P2
Simplified reaction scheme of radikal copolymerization

R - initiator radical, M1, M2 monomer molecules, RM1, RM2 - primary radical
formed during addition of monomer molecules on initiator radical, P1, P2 polymer radical with M1 structural unit end, polymer radical with M2 structural unit
end.
16
PBu +
.
polybutadiene
radical
PBu H +
polybutadiene
CH
CH = CH CH
CH
CH = CH
CH
polybutadiene
transfer
= CH CH
CH 2 CH
CH
CH
= CH CH 2
+ PBu
= CH CH
CH2 CH
CH
CH
PBu
= CH CH
addition
CH2 CH
= CH CH2 CH
CH CH
CH 2
PBu
+ PBu
PBu
CH
CH
= CH CH
CH
CH CH
CH
PBu
combination
PBu
CH2 CH
= CH CH 2 CH CH CH CH 2
CH
= CH CH 2 CH CH CH CH 2
CH
crosslink
PBu
Simplified reaction scheme of branching and cross-linking during polymerization or

copolymerization of butadiene 1.4
17
C4 H9- Li+ +
C H Li
4
CH2
C4 H 9 CH
= CH CH = CH2
CH = CH CH
- Li
initiation
propagation
n CH2 = CH CH = CH2 +
C H9
4
CH
CH = CH CH
CH = CH CH 2
CH
H2 O
CH
CH2 CH = CH CH
Li +
termination
CH = CH CH3 + LiOH
polybutadiene
Simplified reaction scheme of anionic polymerization of butadiene
C2H 5
Cl
Cl
C2 H 5
Cl
Ti
CH R
Cl
+
R CH = CH2
monomer
Cl
Cl
Cl
active centre
Ti
CH2
Cl
Cl
Cl
Cl
Ti
CH
CH C H5
2
R
Cl
new active centre

Effective ZieglerNatta initiator
18
3.2
Butadiene rubbers
B u t a d i e n e rubbers (BR) are rubbers for general use. They are produced by
butadiene polymerization. It may be present in polymer macromolecules in form of
cis-1.4, trans-1.4 and 1.2 structural units. 1.2 units have pendant vinyl group, thus
they may create isomeric forms (syndiotactic, isotactic or atactic). Content of
individual forms of butadiene structural units in polymeric chain depends on the
polymerization method and type of used initiator and it determines basic properties
of BR. Trans-1.4 and also highly stereoregular 1.2-polybutadienes does not have
elastic properties. But these are owned by 1.2 isomers with lower stereoregularity
degree that contain around 35-50 % of 1.2 structural units and with their properties
they are similar to the SBR (styrene structural units are substituted by 1.2 units of
butadiene). Polybutadienes with high content of cis-1.4 structural units have the
best elastic properties. Pure poly-cis-1.4-butadiene has Tg below 100 C and pure
polybutadiene 1.2 around 15 C, Tg of commercially produced polybutadienes
depends on mutual arrangement of these units in their macromolecules and it
normally varies in between 100 and 80 C. Presence of other structural units in
poly-cis-1.4-butadiene significantly limits its crystallization ability, thus BR rubbers
have low tensile strengths. Presently they are produced by means of coordination or
anionic polymerization in solution.
H
C= C
CH2
CH2
CH
C= C
CH
CH
CH
trans -1,4
cis -1,4
CH
CH
1,2
Butadiene structural units
The largest portion of the globally produced BR is obtained by the coordination

polymerization of butadiene. It is performed in non-polar medium of benzene,
toluene or other aliphatic, eventually cycloaliphatic hydrocarbons, in presence of
Ziegler-Natta catalysts based on Ti, Co, Ni or Ne salts and alkyl aluminum
compounds. Content of the cis-1.4 structural units is high and it normally varies
between 90 and 98 %. It depends predominantly on type of used catalyst system.
The BR produced in these polymerization systems have molecular weights of
approximately 250 000 300 000 g.mol-1, they are branched by long chains and
have rather broad distribution of molecular weights. In comparison with Li-BR,
they are easier for processing, they have lower ratio of cold flow, fillers are better
distributed in them, they can be extruded in higher ratio under lower temperature,
and their compounds have higher strength and lower viscosity.
The most often used initiators during anionic polymerization are alkyl lithium
compounds (Li-BR). If polymerization take places under low temperatures, then
linear polymers are created, with increased polymerization temperature also
probability of their branching is increased. Polarity of used solvent has important
influence on the Li-BR microstructure. In presence of non-polar solvents the BR is
prepared with low content of 1.2 units and content of cis- and trans-1.4 units is
approximately same (hexane), in BR produced in polar medium solvent
19
(tetrahydrofurane) there is even around 90 % of 1.2 units and it practically does not
contain cis-1.4 units.
BR is non-polar, highly unsaturated rubber. Because of irregular set-up of their
structural units in macromolecules they hardly crystallize, what is shown also by
their low tensile strength. By temperature influence they are easily subject to cistrans isomerization. Besides low strength also high resistance against abrasion is
characteristic for them (that is increasing with increased content of 1.2 structural
units in their macromolecules), high resilience and good elastic properties under
low temperature. These properties are maintained also in compounds with other
rubbers. BR reacts slower with oxygen and ozone than NR, but presence of
antidegradants in their compounds is necessary. They are filled to the high degree
with active fillers, which requires presence of suitable softeners the most often of
aromatic or naphthenic character.
The most often BR is cured by sulfur systems. They react slower with sulfur than
NR, thus the vulcanizing systems used during their curing contain normally less
sulfur (up to 2 phr). Mainly sulfenamides or their combinations with thiurams are
suggested as accelerators for them. Normally no reversion takes places during their
over-vulcanization.
More than 90 % of produced BR is consumed during production of tires. Mostly
they are used for their ability in reducing the tire rolling resistance and they have
favorable influence on riding properties of winter tires. They are used also in
shoemaking trade, during production of conveyor belts and other technical products
that require good resistance against abrasion. Li-BR is not used very frequently
more often only for modification of impact strength of thermoplastic polymers.
Microstucture of some BR types
BR type
Ti-BR Co-BR Ni-BR Li-BR Alfin-BR
Peroxide-BR
cis-1.4 content, %
93
96
97
35
15
trans-1.4 content, %
55
70
70
1.2 content, %
10
25
15
3.3
Styrene-butadiene rubbers
S t y r e n e - b u t a d i e n e rubbers (SBR) are copolymers of styrene and butadiene.

They are of the most commonly used rubbers. Their properties are influenced not
only by micro- and macrostructure of polymer chains but also by styrene content.
Butadiene structural units can be arrangement as cis-1.4, trans-1.4 or 1.2 (vinyl)
units. Mutual arrangement of styrene and butadiene units can have random,
partially-block or block character. SBR do not crystallize even under stress, hence,
influence of mutual arrangement of cis and trans units on their properties is
lower than it is in the case of BR. Increasing content styrene and 1.2 structural units
contributes to increase of glass transition temperature Tg of SBR. Block
20
copolymers of butadiene and styrene can also have two Tg; their values depend on
presence of individual types of structural units in the block. Butadiene and styrene
may copolymerize by means of radical, ion and coordination mechanism. Today the
most commonly used is free radical copolymerization in emulsion and anion
copolymerization in solution.
C= C
CH2
CH2
C= C
CH
CH
butadiene
cis -1,4
butadiene
trans -1,4
CH
CH
CH
CH
CH2
butadiene 1,2
(vinyl)
styrene
Structural units of styrene-butadiene rubber
Free radical copolymerization of butadiene and styrene in emulsion (E-SBR) takes

place at temperatures around 50C (hot rubbers) or 5C (cold rubbers). In both
cases, the emulsion systems used are practically identical (anionic emulsifiers,
mercaptans as chain transfer agents, dithiocarbamates as stopping agents of
copolymerization) however; they use different types of initiators. While at
temperature 50C they are mainly peroxodisulfates, at 5C they are reductionoxidation initiation systems consisting of hydroperoxide (p-menthane
hydroperoxide or pinane hydroperoxide) and redox component, most usually in
the chelate form (sodium salt of ethylenediaminetetraacetate acid and sodium
formaldehyde sulfoxylate). The monomer feed usually contains 23.5 % by weight
of styrene and 76.5 % by weight of butadiene; however, the composition may be
different, too.
E-SBR has high molecular weights, broad distribution, high level of branching, and
usually contain gel, too. Decreasing of the polymerization temperature reduces the
rate of elementary reactions leading to branching and transfer; hence, cold E-SBR
are less branched, have more narrow distribution and less gel content. Gel formation
and chain branching is also reduced by termination of copolymerization at 60 70
% conversion. Emulsion-type SBR have good processing properties, however,
possible remains of emulsifiers (they may contain) impair their hysteresis
properties. The special types of E-SBR are so-called oil-extended rubbers (OESBR) and their carbon black master batch.
Solution type butadiene styrene rubbers (L-SBR) are made either by anion
copolymerization of butadiene and styrene, or by live anion polymerization, during
which first one monomer is present in polymerization system and when
polymerization is finished, the second monomer is added. A sequential anion
polymerization produces block polymers, with the blocks containing no structural
units of the other polymer. Their length is given only by monomer-initiator ratio;
21
CH
depending on type of termination agent can be prepared linear, branched or star

copolymers. They are typical representatives of thermoplastic rubbers.
Copolymerization of butadiene and styrene in non-polar solvents (most often in
presence of alkyl-lithium initiators) also produces block-type copolymers; however,
we can not exclude possibility that in blocks of one monomer some structural units
of the other monomer may be present. It is caused by higher reactivity of
polybutadiene and polystyrene radicals to butadiene than to styrene (monomer
reactivity ratio of butadiene rbu is much higher than monomer reactivity ratio of
styrene rst; rbu / rst 50); due to this, butadiene connects to copolymerization chain
as first, while styrene follow later. In polar solvents or in presence of polar
compounds, the ratio rbu/rst is considerably lower (in presence of butyl lithium at
30C rbu/rst=1,38); hence, created copolymers are mostly statistical type, however,
depending on particular composition of system, they can contain more or less
block-type sequences. Differences can be found also in alignment of butadiene
structural units in copolymer; SBR prepared in non-polar medium have ca 10 % of
structural units 1.2, those from polar medium have 40 - 70 %. Statistical L-SBR is
similar to E-SBR but usually they have higher content of cis-1.4 butadiene
structural units.
L-SBR have very narrow distribution of molecular weight (Mw/Mn 1 for live
anion polymerization; in case of copolymerization Mw/Mn 2), they are almost
linear and contain no gel. Compared to E-SBR unit is more difficult to process
them, however, they have better affinity against SiO2 (at the end of their polymeric
chains they may have functional groups capable to integrate with this filler). They
are more expensive than E-SBR, but their share on overall SBR consumption is
increasing (especially of types with higher content of 1.2 structural units of
butadiene, which improve riding properties of car tires). Elastic properties of SBR
worsen with increasing styrene content (elastic properties almost vanish when the
content is too high). So-called styrene resins already have thermoplastic
characteristics (contain more than 90 % of styrene) and they are used only as active
fillers or processing additives for rubber compounds.
Variability of arrangement of structural units and content of styrene and butadiene
in copolymer molecules allow production of SBR rubbers with various properties.
SBR with low styrene content (3-13%, E-SBR) are suitable for low-temperature
applications, L-SBR with styrene content ca 15 % are used in combination with BR
rubbers for production of radial tires, SBR with high content of styrene (40-55%)
are known as self-reinforcing rubbers or fillers (70 90 % of styrene). Considering
the appropriate combination of elastic and plastic properties, the most advantageous
are rubbers with styrene content from 23 to 25 %.
SBR are most usually vulcanized by sulfur systems (similar to other unsaturated
rubbers). Unlike with NR, here it is common to use less sulfur and more
accelerating agents; sulfur content increases when hard rubber is produces. In most
cases we use safe sulfenamide accelerators, which sometimes are combined with
very fast accelerators (thiurams, dithiocarbamates) or slow accelerators (guanidines)
and vulcanization inhibitors.
In order to improve original low strength of SBR, reinforcement fillers are added in
their compounds. Difficult SBR mastication and high level of filling of their
22
compounds require use of efficient softeners and processing additives. Degradation

of SBR rubbers and their vulcanizates is lower than for NR, however, presence of
antidegradants is necessary.
Major part of SBR is used for production of car tires and products for automotive
industry, mainly owing to their high abrasive, good resistance against thermal
degradation and generation of cracks (better than NR and BR), and also thanks to
lower rolling resistance. Their non-vulcanized compounds have lower building tack
and strength as NR-compounds. These properties may be modified by combination
with NR or by adding some suitable agents increasing tack of the compounds
(resins).
Glass transition temperature Tg, C
-20
7
-40
-60
3
2
-80
-100
-120
Glass transition temperature Tg of some SBR.1 cis-SBR, 2 E-SBR, 3 L-SBR (19

% styrene, 8% butadiene 1.2), 4 L-SBR (25 % styrene, 8 % butadiene 1.2), 5 SBR 1500, 6 L-SBR (25 % styrene, 25 % butadiene 1.2), 7 SBR (40 % styrene)
23
Microstructure and macrostructure of L-SBR
Styrene,
%
1.2
butadiene,
%
1.4
butadiene, %
Tg, C
Buna VSL 2525-0 (Bayer)
25
25
50
-48.2
Buna VSL 5025-1
25
50
25
-76.0
L-SBR Type
-13.2
Buna VSl 5525-1
25
55
20
-27.2
-10.8
Sol 5520
24.7
41.9
35.4
-44.6
SBR Duradene 715

(Firestone)
23.5
46
30.5
-35
23.5
60
20
-21
SBR NS 114 **
20
50
32
-43
SBR SL 574 *** (JSR)
18
57
28
-40
SBR 1500 (emulsion)
23.5
18
58.5
-48
-100
SBR NS 116 ** (Nippon

Zeon)
BR Taktene 1203 (Polysar)
3.4
Acrylonitrile-butadiene rubbers
A c r y l o n i t r i l e - b u t a d i e n e rubbers (NBR) are special rubbers. They are

statistical copolymers of acrylonitrile and butadiene. Their specific properties are
resistance to non-polar solvents, fats, oils and motor fuel. Oil resistant increases
together with increasing of acrylonitrile content in rubber. They are produced by
radical copolymerization in emulsion, most often at low temperatures (5-30C), in
the similar systems like SBR (oxidation- reduction initiation systems, chain transfer
agent, polymerization stopper). At higher conversion it can come to branching,
eventually also to cross-linking of rubber macromolecules. This is the reason why
copolymerization normally leads only to 60 90 % of conversion. Butadiene
structural units can appear in them in several forms:
24
C= C
CH2
CH2
C= C
CH
butadiene
cis -1,4
CH
butadiene
trans -1,4
CH
CH
CH
CH2
butadiene 1,2
(vinyl)
CH
C
CH
N
acrylonitrile
Structural units of the NBR rubbers
The ratio of monomer reactivity ratio of butadiene r b u and acrylonitrile r a is at the

used copolymerization temperatures lower than 1 (at 5C r b u = 0.28 and r a c = 0.02).
Butadiene and acrylonitrile content in copolymer can affect also their ability to
create azeotropic blend, which composition depends on temperature (at 25C it
contains 38% wt. of acrylonitrile and 62% wt. of butadiene). Therefore final
copolymer composition depends on conversion and polymerization temperature).
The ratio of cis-1.4 and trans-1.4-butadiene content is effected by polymerization
temperature (at 28 C and acrylonitrile content 36 % cis/trans 0.16 and with
increasing polymerization temperature it raises), content of 1.2 units is decreasing
with acrylonitrile content increasing (at 28 % acrylonitrile in monomer feed it is
approximately 10 %) and it is not much dependent on the copolymerization
temperature.
Molecular weight of commercially produced NBR is changed in broad range from
the liquid oligomers (Mh 3000 g.mol-1) suitable for the compounds with the low
plasticizers content to high molecular polymers (Mh 106 g.mol-1) suitable for
high-pressure applications. Copolymers can be linear to highly-branched depending
on the preparation conditions. Distribution of molecular weights and the level of
macromolecules branching depend on copolymerization temperature; they are
increasing with increasing of temperature.
The basic characteristics of NBR rubbers depend on the acrylonitrile content. Their
swell resistance in non-polar agents improves with acrylonitrile content increasing.
At the same time the glass transition temperatures and brittle temperatures are
increasing. This causes elastic properties and flexibility falling-off at low
temperatures but also improvement of NBR compounds processing caused by
increase of their thermoplasticity. The most often produced are rubbers with
acrylonitrile content 18 51 %.
For NBR vulcanization are used several types of cross-linking systems. Sulfur
systems involve fast (thiurams, dithiocarbamates) or safe (sulfenamides, MBTS)
accelerators, eventually their combinations. Since the sulfur is not much soluble in
NBR semi-EV and EV systems are preferred; they can generate also thermal
resistant vulcanizates. Thermal resistant vulcanizates are also obtained during
peroxide or phenolformaldehyde resin vulcanization of NBR. The resins are used as
vulcanizing agents at co vulcanization of NBR with PVC or with others suitable
polar thermoplastics.
NBR rubbers contain double bonds and have limited resistance to oxidation
and ozonization. They are often used at higher temperatures (e.g. as sealing in hot
25
oils) there have to be not volatile antidegradants added to the compounds.

Occasionally antidegradants able to bonded to network of vulcanizates. Problems
with volatility are solved also with the combination of NBR with saturate rubbers
(EPDM) or thermoplastics (PVC).
NBR do not crystallize under stress and they have low tensile strength. For the
required properties of vulcanizates they have to be filled up with reinforcement
fillers. Plasticizers and process aids added to NBR compounds must have polar
character because of tolerance with rubber matrix. For this purpose ester and ether
based plasticizers or their oligomere derivatives are used. From the processing aids
these are mainly different resinous materials of synthetic and natural character.
NBR vulcanizates which are filled with reinforcement fillers have higher abrasion
resistance than equivalent materials from NR and SBR.
The essential part of produced NBR is used for production of sealings, tubes and
different supports for auto industry, for oil and engine fuel transport equipment, for
machinery and pumps; they are used at coating of printing machinery surfaces, at
production of oil-proof conveyor belts and others products requesting resistance to
oils.
Special NBR are also known; mainly hydrogenated acrylonitrile-butadiene rubber
(HNBR), which is known for its increased temperature resistance and terpolymer of
acrylonitrile, butadiene and small amount of acrylic or methacrylic acid (X-NBR),
which has higher affinity against light fillers.
Butadiene content, %
100
80
60
40
1
20
0
0
20
40
60
80
100
Conversion, %
The influence of the copolymerization conversion on the butadiene content in

NBR;1 NBR with 50% acrylonitrile, 2 NBR with 28 % acrylonitrile, 3 NBR
with 5 % acrylonitrile.
26
Acrylonitrile content, %
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
Glass transition temperature Tg, C
-10
-20
-30
-40
-50
The influence of the acrylonitrile content on glass transition temperature of NBR.
NBR classification
Classification
Low nitrile
Acrylonitrile content, %
< 24
Medium nitrile
25 30
Mediumhigh nitrile
31 35
High nitrile
36 42
Ultra-high nitrile
> 43
Hydrogenated
acrylonitrile-butadiene
r ubber (HNBR) is
produced by partial or complete hydrogenation of NBR in solution, under presence
of catalysts typical for hydrogenation reactions (cobalt, rhodium, ruthenium,
iridium, and palladium complex salts). During complete hydrogenation all
unsaturated C = C links are saturated, but polar C N links remain chemically
unchanged. Saturated polar polymer is developed, and it distinguishes with high
oxygen and ozone resistance and after peroxide vulcanization or other non-sulfur
systems also with high resistance against hot air and hot oils. It offers also
resistance against oils containing sulfur, hydrogen sulfide, different sulfur and
nitrogen substances and also different technical chemicals. It possesses excellent
tensile strength, good elastic properties under low temperatures and very good
abrasion resistance. It keeps these properties also during ageing; the extent of some
properties (e.g. tensile strength, resilience, and ageing resistance in ATF oil)
retention is higher than in the case of FKM.
X - N B R r ubbers are terpolymers of butadiene, acrylonitrile and acrylic acid or
methacrylic acid. Carboxyl groups are linked on copolymer chain as side groups
and they are used in particular for cross-linking. They react easily with metal oxides
27
(ZnO), and from this reason during cross-linking of X-NBR by sulfur systems,
mainly under presence of surface modified ZnO, there are created not only crosslinks but also coordination bonds between oxide and carboxyl group. Such crosslinked vulcanizates have significantly higher swelling resistance in oils, higher
abrasion resistance, but also higher strength and limited ageing resistance. Because
of polarity the X-NBR rubbers have better affinity against light fillers than NBR.
Terpolymers of butadiene, isoprene and acrylonitrile (they have higher tensile
strength than NBR, and they are suitable for production of color products) and
terpolymers of butadiene, acrylonitrile and divinylbenzene or ethylene glycol
dimethacrylate (better dimensional stability during extrusion) are also known as
special NBR rubbers.
3.5
Isoprene rubbers
I s o p r e n e rubbers (IR) belong to general rubbers. Their molecules are created by

isoprene structural units that may be arrangement in polymer chain in position cis1.4, trans-1.4, and eventually also as 1.2 or 3.4 units:
CH
CH3
CH3
C= C
CH2
CH
C= C
CH2
cis - 1,4
CH2
trans - 1,4
CH CH2
CH 3
H
CH2
CH
CH
CH 2
3,4
1,2
Isoprene structural units in IR rubbers

The best elastic properties are possessed by polyisoprene with with high content of
cis-1.4 units; trans-1.4 polyisoprene is thermoplastic material. IR is produced by
anionic or coordination polymerization in solution of non-polar aliphatic
hydrocarbons. The most often used initiator during anionic polymerization is nbutyl lithium. The rubber created during this synthesis (Li-IR) has high molecular
weight (1.5 x106 - 2.0 x106 g x mol-1), very narrow molecular weight distribution
and its macromolecules are almost linear. Because of irregular arrangement of the
structural units (90 92 % cis-1.4, 2 3 % trans-1.4 and 6 7 % of 3.4) it
crystallizes only in restricted way. This is demonstrated mostly on its low tensile
strength in non-vulcanized and also in vulcanized state. Processing of the Li-IR is
quite difficult.
Coordination polymerization of isoprene is usually done under presence of
combination of Ti(Cl)4 and alkyl aluminum compounds modified by aromatic or
aliphatic ethers in molar ratio 1:1 (Ti-IR). Unused initiator is removed from the
system after finished polymerization to avoid reduction in molecular weight and TiIR stability. Polymer molecules of Ti-IR are branched, they have relatively broad
distribution and their molecular weights are usually ranging 1x106-1.5x106 gxmol-1.
Usually they contain around 15-20 % of micro-gel. Their microstructure is similar
28
to NR; they contain around 98 % of cis-1.4 and approximately 2 % 3.4- structural

units. But also low content of such other structural units as cis-1.4 causes much
lower rate of their crystallization (Ti-IR crystallization half-time is 5 hours at
25C, NR has 2 hours). It becomes evident by lower strengths in non-vulcanized
and also vulcanized status. Their processing is easier than Li-IR.
The IR are non-polar, resilient, highly unsaturated rubbers. They contain a double
bond in each structural unit. They have low oxygen and ozone resistance, but them
aging more slowly than NR. They are cross-linked almost exclusively by means of
sulfur systems. The IR in contrary with NR does not contain non-rubber substances
that could increase curing rate, thus they react slower with sulfur and their
compounds have higher scorch time. They are also characteristic by low building
tack and green strength. To make properties of their vulcanizates comparable with
properties of the NR vulcanizates, one must use Ti-IR and reinforcement fillers. LiIR and their vulcanizates look more like BR and SBR by their properties.
In general, the Ti-IR rubbers may be used for the same purposes as NR, but Li-IR
are more suitable for applications in combination with BR or SBR. The main field
of the IR utilization is in production of tires, conveyer belts and technical rubber,
but also protective and medical gloves, sucking-bag nipples and other sanitary
goods are produced from them, because unlike NR they do not contain allergenetic
ingredients.
3.5
Isoprene-isobutylene rubbers
I s o p r e n e - i s o b u t y l e n e rubbers (IIR) are special rubbers. Their characteristic

properties are small gas and steam permeability and also very good resistance to
oxidation, ozonization and thermal degradation and against various chemicals.
They are produced by cationic copolymerization of isobutylene and isoprene in
chloromethane solution in the presence of AlCl3 as catalyst and water or HCl as cocatalyst at temperature under 90C. The copolymerization proceeds also at this
temperature with very high rates. The produced copolymer has high molecular
weight and it precipitates from the reaction environment (precipitation
copolymerization) in the form of hard non agglomerated particles (temperature of
polymerization is lower than IIR Tg). Isobutylene and isoprene copolymerization in
hexane and in the presence of Al(alkyl)2Cl as catalyst is homogeneous and can be
performed at temperatures -40 to -50 C.
CH
CH2
CH3
C
CH3
isobutylene
CH
C= C
CH2
isoprene trans - 1,4
Structural units of IIR rubbers
29
Molecular weights of IIR rubbers are between 150 000 450 000 gxmol-1and they
have quite broad distribution, Mw/Mn 2.5-5. Isobutylene structure units are
arrangement in copolymer chains mainly by the way head-to tail. Content of
isoprene is low (0.5 - 6 % mol) and his structural units are statistically arrangement
in copolymer macromolecules in form of trans-1.4 units. In commercial types IIR to
one isoprene structural unit appears approximately 40 structural units of
isobutylene. Isoprene does not affect the IIR properties, double bonds in his
structural units are used mainly for cross-linking.
IIR rubbers have very low content of unsaturated bonds which during the
vulcanization expire. That is why they and their vulcanizates are resistant to ageing.
Low rate of sulfur vulcanization is proportional to low content of unsaturated
bonds. IIR hardly co-vulcanize with other unsaturated rubbers (NR, BR, SBR), the
rate of cross-linking is increasing by increasing of double bond content, however at
the same time the properties of vulcanizates are deteriorated. In the sulfur crosslinking systems fast (thiurams) or very fast accelerators (dithiocarbamates) and also
in combinations with thiazoles (MBT) or systems based on sulfur donors are
preferred. For vulcanization of IIR the quinone dioxime in combination with
oxidizing agent are used (lead oxides, MBTS) and phenolformaldehyde resins in
combination with chlorine containing substances (SnCl4, FeCl3, chlorinated
polymers) or their halogenated derivates. In the presence of these cross-linking
systems can be obtained vulcanizates resistant to thermal degradation. The use of
peroxides is not suitable for cross-linking because they can cause degradation of the
rubbers macromolecules.
Halogenated IIR is more suitable for co-vulcanization with diene rubbers. Its
properties are very similar to IIR rubbers but their sulfur cross-linking is faster and
vulcanizates with higher level of cross-links are achieved. They can be vulcanized
by multifunctional amines, too.
Developmental types of rubbers which are isobutylene based are star-branched IIR
which can be processed easier and also brominates copolymers of isobutylene and
p-methyl styrene which are resistant to ozone and high temperatures and they are
reactive at co-vulcanization with rubbers for general use.
CH3
CH3
CH2 C CH
CH
CH3
C CH2 C CH 2
CH 3
CH
ROOR
CH2
CH3
ROH
CH2 C CH
C CH2 C CH 2
CH 3
CH
CH 3
CH
CH3
CH2 C CH
CH 3
CH3
CH3
CH 2 C CH
CH3
CH 3
IIR degradation in presence of peroxides.
30
H a l o g e n a t e d I I R is produced by means of post polymerization modification

of the IIR. It is done by chloration (CIIR) or bromation (BIIR) in solution of
suitable alkane (penthane or hexane), the most often in dark, under temperatures 40
60 C. Reactions proceed as electrophilic substitution reactions (chloration is
approximately 5-times faster than bromation) and only one atom of halogen is
substituted during them to one isoprene structural unit, the most often in allylic
position. Approximately 80 90 % of halogenated units of isoprene have form ( I )
and 10 20 % form ( II ), other forms of halogenated units is occur only
sporadically (< 2 %):
CH 2
CH2
CH2
CH2 C = CH CH 2
C CH CH2
= Cl, Br
X
( II )
(I)
The content of halogen in them is low (commercially the most frequently used
CIIR with unsaturation 1.9 2.0 % mol contain approximately from 1.1 to 1.3 %
wt. of chlorine and BIIR with unsaturation 1.6 1.7 % mol contain from 1.8 to 2.2
% wt. of brome), but it significantly increases the rate ratio of their co-vulcanization
with diene rubbers.
Properties of halogenated IIR and conditions of their processing and utilization are
practically the same as with IIR, but their compounding is usually performed at
temperatures below 100C (presence of reactive halogen in allylic form).
Significant increase of the sulfur curing rate is accredited to ability of ZnO to
participate on curing (similar to CR).
During cationic copolymerization of isobutylene and isoprene under presence of the
branching agents of the type of block styrene-butadiene copolymers grafted
copolymers are created. Their backbone is created by SBS copolymer
and branches are created by isobutyl-isoprene copolymer:
CH 2 = C
CH
CH3
3
CH
isobutylene
CH = C CH = CH2 +
2
SSSSBBBBSSSS
styrene block
kopolymere
isoprene
cationic
kopolymerization
SSSSBBBBSSSS
IIR
stars
31
Its differential distribution curve has got a bimodal character. Approximately 87 %

of the product is IIR and about 13 % has star-branched structure. It is easier for
processing because of this bimodality.
3.6
Chloroprene rubbers
C h l o r o p r e n e r u b b e r s (CR) belong to the oldest types of synthetic rubbers.

They are produced by radical emulsion polymerization of chloroprene (2chlorbutadiene 1.3). Potassium or ammonium peroxodisulphate is the most
frequently used for initiation and sulfur (G-CR) or mercaptanes (W-CR) are used
for regulation of molecular weights. Sulfur behaves during polymerization of
chloroprene as co-monomer and it creates sulfur bridges in polymer chains with 2
6 sulfur atoms that improve their flexibility, but reduce their temperature resistance.
The W CR does not contain sulfur bridges but their macromolecules can be
terminated with the rest of transfer agent molecule (in presence of n-dodecyl
mercaptane SR S (CH2)11 CH3). They are more resistive against temperature,
but less flexible. CR used for rubber industry purposes is normally produced at
temperature around 30 40 C.
Cl
CH2
Cl
C = CH CH2
Sx
CH2
C = CH
CH2
n
G CR
Cl
CH2
Cl
C = CH CH3
CH2
C = CH CH2 SR
W CR
Structural units of chloroprene are bonded in polymer chain mostly in form of 1.4trans structural units. Content of other types of structural units (1.4 cis, 3.4
and 1.2) is low.
Cl
Cl
CH2
CH
C= C
CH
CH
C
CH = CH2
chloroprene trans -1,4
CH
CH = CH Cl
chloroprene 1,2
Structural units of CR rubbers
32
Normally is increased with increasing of polymerization temperature. The presence

of 1.2 structural units is very important. Chlorine atom may be bonded in them in
allylic position and it can easily take part in electrophilic substitution reactions,
what is used during CR cross-linking.
Rate and degree of its crystallization have close relation with content of 1.4-trans
structural units of chloroprene. The higher it is thus the higher are these parameters.
High-crystalline types of CR (A types of CR) have very good adhesion properties to
other materials and they serve mostly as basic materials for production of adhesives.
High crystallization ability has close interrelation with high CR strength their nonfilled vulcanizates (more than 20 MPa) and also their relatively low permeability of
gases and vapors. Non-crystalline CR types may be prepared only by
copolymerization of chloroprene with other monomers, e.g. with styrene, isoprene
or acrylonitrile. Crystallization half-time of individual CR types is different and it is
as shorter as more regular the polychloroprene chain is.
Presence of the chlorine atoms in each of its structural unit has influence also on
basic CR properties:
they are high-polar, resistant to paraffinic and also to naphthenic oils, but
they are partially swelling in aromatic solvents and they degrade during
contact with engine fuels
they have very low flammability (they are self extinguishing)
they can eliminate HCl at higher temperatures (self-vulcanization), thus
metallic oxides are added to them, because these affects as acceptors
they have worse dielectric properties than non-polar rubbers
polar substituents in their structural units definitely increase their
resistance to oxidation and ozonization, mostly in consequence of reduced
reactivity of double bond against these agents. This fact has negative
effect on reactivity of CR in sulfur curing. From this reason other
vulcanization systems are preferred during their curing.
In practice the CR are the most frequently vulcanized by means of metallic oxides
(combination of ZnO and MgO in weight ratio 5:3), but also other curing agents can
be used, as diamines, diphenols, thioketones or diazines.
Influence of the CR rubber type on its crystallization half-time
CR type
Crystallization ability
Crystallization half-time 1/2
A CR
high
minutes hours
W CR
middle
months years
G CR
low
months years
Chloroprene
copolymers
they do not crystallize
33
3.8
Ethylene-propylene rubbers
The important special rubbers are ethylene and propylene copolymers (EPM)
and terpolymers of ethylene, propylene and suitable diene monomer
(EPDM), the most often ethylidene norbonene, eventually 1.4-hexadiene or
dicyclopentadiene:
CH2 CH 2
CH 2
ethylene
CH
CH2
CH3
= CH
CH
propylene
C H3
CH
dicyclopentadiene
CH
= CH CH 3
1,4-hexadiene
H
C
CH
CH
CH
ethylidene
norbornene
Their typical properties are related mainly to absence of unsaturated bonds in their
polymer backbones. EPM rubbers do not have any unsaturated bonds and those are
resistant to oxygen, ozone and to several types of chemicals. EPDM have
unsaturated bonds only in the side groups. Their content is low (up to 10 % wt.) in
commercial EPDM rubbers and they expire by vulcanization. This is the reason
why they do not appear the scission of polymer backbones during their potential
oxidation or ozonization. The important properties of ethylene rubbers are also their
excellent resistant to heat, electrical insulating and dielectric properties (also at
raised temperatures and in the humid environment), resistance to chemicals (also to
diluted acids and alkalis). Their importance is still increasing because they have
wide exploitation in the auto industry, too.
Both rubber types are produced by coordination polymerization in aliphatic
hydrocarbon solution (pentane, hexane) in the presence of catalysts based on
vanadium salts (VCl4, VOCl3) and ethyl chloride aluminum. Exception is synthesis
of high molecular EPDM, which is normally done without solvents in excess of
fluid propylene. Advantage of this synthesis is that incipient rubber is precipitated
from the reaction environment in the form of coagulum, which facilitates its
insulation.
EPM rubbers with approximately same content of ethylene and propylene (45-60
%wt. ethylene) are randomly copolymers. Although they can contain short
segments of individual monomers they are amorphous and they have low
mechanical strengths. By increasing of ethylene content (to 70-80 %wt.) probability
of segmental arrangement of ethylene units is increasing. It can leads to formation
of thermal irreversible and partly crystalline domains and by this to increasing of
their strengths.
Macrostructure of EPDM rubbers and some of their properties can be affected by
the type and the quantity of termonomer used in the production. The most suitable
for this purpose are non-conjugated dienes with different reactivity of double bonds;
34
one of them can take part in terpolymerization (suitable are mainly the monomers
with the similar monomer reactivity ratios like ethylene and propylene have) and
the other can take part in vulcanization. These requirements are nowadays best
fulfilled with ethylidene norbonene, which take part in copolymerization by double
bond in bicyclic formation and in vulcanization with double bond in ethylidene
group. Reactivity difference of double bonds in dicyclopentadiene is relatively
small and both can enter the terpolymerization process. That is why branched,
eventually partly cross-linked macromolecules (containing gel) arise in his
presence. Residual double bonds are less active during the vulcanization than
double bonds in ethylidene norbonene terpolymers. Disadvantage of 1.4-hexadiene
is lower activity of his double bond (between carbon 1 and 2) in the
terpolymerization process.
EPM are the most often vulcanized by peroxide systems. For the vulcanization
EPDM the typical vulcanization systems for unsaturated rubbers are preferred,
mainly sulfur in the combination with fast and ultra accelerators, resins and
quinones. Sulfur vulcanization rate of EPDM is increasing with the increasing of
double bond content in its macromolecules. Both rubber types can be cross-linked
also with high energy radiation (for cable insulations), in the optimal cases in the
presence of suitable co-activators.
Also some other ethylene copolymers and as well chlorinated and chlorosulphonated
polyethylene have got elastic properties.
Copolymers of e t h y l e n e a n d v i n y l a c e t a t e (EVM) have elastic properties
only with vinyl acetate content of 30 75 % wt. They are produced by radical
copolymerization of these monomers (the most often with content of 40 50 % wt.
of vinyl acetate) in solution of solvents with low transfer activity (e.g. tert.-butanol),
at middle pressures.
CH
= CH2
ethylene
CH 2
= CH
C
O
OCH3
vinylacetate
Peroxides or azo-compounds are generally used for initiation of the

copolymerization. Created copolymer is high molecular, less branched and
practically without gel. They are vulcanized by means of peroxide systems.
EVM are saturated polar rubbers with very good resistance to degradation in hot air
and very good weather and ozone resistance. Other advantageous properties are
swelling resistance to mineral, plant and animal oil; their resistance against them is
increasing with increasing of vinyl acetate content in their macromolecules. They
contain oxygen, thus they are less resistive against burning than hydrocarbon
rubbers.
Random terpolymers of e t h y l e n e , m e t h y l a c r y l a t e and small amount (1-5
%) of a c r y l i c a c i d (carboxyl groups are used for curing) are produced by
radical terpolymerization.
35
CH2 = CH2
CH
ethylene
= CH
CH 2
= CH
COOCH 3
COOH
methyl acrylate
acrylic acid
They are characterized by very good ageing and heat resistance, and also swelling
resistance to non-polar solvents. Their elastic properties depend on the ethylene
content.
Commercial types of chlorinated po l y e t h y l e n e (CM) are produced by
chloration of high-density polyethylene in suspension. Reaction takes place in
radical mechanism and for its initiation UV radiation or organic peroxides are often
used. CM macromolecules can contain three structural unit types - ethylene (a),
vinyl chloride (b) and 1-dichleretylene (vinylidene chloride) (c):
Cl
CH
CH
CH 2
CH
Cl
C CH2
Cl
Chlorine atoms disturb the regularity of polyethylene chain. Accordingly its

crystallization ability is essentially decreased and CM has the elastic properties at
the suitable content of chlorine. Ethylene structural units have tendency to create
longer ethylene sequences at the low chlorine content and to form hard crystalline
domains partly.
CM characteristic properties depend mainly on the chlorine content in its
macromolecules; with chlorine content raising also the CM polarity increases and
also its burning and to swelling resistant in non-polar oils resistance. It becomes
brittle and loses its elastic properties. It has optimal properties when the content of
chlorine is around 35 % (brittle temperature 40 C). CM is saturated polymer
like polyethylene and therefore it is resistant to oxygen and ozone. It cleavages of
HCl at higher temperatures (over 160C), so it has to be protected by adding of the
suitable acceptors (MgO, lead oxides, not ZnO) to its compounds. It has good
processing characteristics. Organic peroxides are most often used for its
vulcanization. The reactive chlorine atoms can be also used for cross-linking.
C h l o r o s u l f o n a t e d p o l y e t h y l e n e (CSM) is obtained by chlorosulfonation
of polyethylene (in solution of chlorinated hydrocarbons in the presence of chlorine
and sulfur oxide). In its macromolecules are present not only of chlorine but also
sulfonyl chloride SO2Cl functional groups. Their content in CSM is low (sulfur
content is 0.8 1.5 %) and they are used for its vulcanization. Practically, CSM
properties correspond with CM but it is more easily cross-linked (with some of
metal oxides, poly-functional alcohols, multifunctional amines, and peroxides).
36
3.9
Acrylic rubbers
A c r y l i c r u b b e r s (ACM) are unsaturated polar rubbers that are characterized

with very good swelling resistance in non-polar oils and also in oils containing
sulfur substances. Because of the fact they do not have unsaturated bonds in
polymer backbone, thus they have good heat, oxygen and ozone resistance.
From chemical point of view they are copolymers, eventually terpolymers of
different types of acrylic monomers or acrylic monomers and other monomers
containing functional groups suitable for curing. The most frequently those are vinyl
monomers with reactive atoms of chlorine, epoxy or carboxylic groups. Content of
these monomers is low (1-3 % wt.) and has no significant influence on their
properties.
ACM are produced by emulsion (exceptionally by suspension) radical
polymerization. For its initiation peroxides, azo-compounds or oxidation-reduction
initiation systems are used. Because of the fact, that acrylic monomers have ester
groups in their molecules, thus pH of reaction medium must be > 7, to avoid their
hydrolysis. The same negative influence may have also fillers or other additives of
acidic character in their compounds.
ACM properties under low temperatures are influenced mainly by structure of alkyl
substituents in their ester groups; generally they are improved with increasing of
carbon number in alkyl groups (brittle temperature of poly-n-alkylacrylate is
reduced for substituents with carbon number C = 1- 8 from temperature +3 C down
to temperature 65 C). Simultaneously, their polarity is decreasing, and thus their
non-polar oil and ageing resistance is decreasing, too. ACM based on polyethyl
acrylate are high-polar and very well resistant to oils and increased temperatures,
but they have relatively high Tg (approximately -15C) and their vulcanizates are
less flexible under low temperatures. Replacement of ethyl groups by butyl one will
reduce Tg to approximately 50 C, their vulcanizates are significantly more
flexible under low temperatures, but their swelling resistance in non-polar oils is
lower. Polyoctyl acrylate is practically not resistant against non-polar oils.
Properties of ACM under low temperatures may be modified by copolymerization
of acryl monomers (ethyl acrylate, butyl acrylate, eventually by octyl acrylate or
acryl monomer with alkoxy groups) and they can be partially modified also by
adding of suitable, less volatile softeners; the best one is of ester type.
The most industrially produced acrylic rubbers are based on ethyl-, butyland metoxy ethyl acrylate and monomers containing chlorine or carboxyl groups.
Their suitable combination usually compromise between ACM oil resistance,
appropriate properties under low temperatures, heat resistance and acceptable
curing rate can be achieved.
For cross-linking of ACM rubbers mainly function groups of non-acrylate
monomers, despite the fact that under presence of metallic oxides of alkaline
character one cannot exclude even self-curing of polyacrylate chains caused by
reactions of their ester groups and active hydrogen in -position against them
(Claisens condensation) are used. Older types of ACM were cured mostly by
diamines or polyamines, present types of rubbers are cured also by combination of
polyamines, higher fatty acids or their esters and sulfur, eventually by sulfur donor.
37
Their efficiency is increased by addition of very fast or ultra accelerators. The most
often used systems for curing of ACM with epoxy and carboxyl groups is based on
quaternary ammonium salts.
Acrylic rubbers are used mainly for production of materials resistant to oils
applicable in automotive motors and other mechanical equipments, in form of
latexes for impregnation of textile and paper and in form of solutions as adhesive
agents and coating compositions.
CH2 = CH
CH2 = CH
O
C
O
butyl acrylate
CH2 = CH
O
C
O
C4H9
C2H5
ethyl acrylate
CH2 = CH
C8 H17
CH CH3
O
C2 H5
ethylethoxy ethyl acrylate
octyl acrylate
Examples of the acrylic monomers used during production of ACM
CH2 = CH
O
CH3
CH2 = CH
C H2
C= O
CH2 Cl
2-chloroethyl vinyl ether
CH2 = CH
CH2
CH2 = C
COOH
Cl
methacrylic acid
chloromethyl acrylate
CH2
CH2 = CH
O
CH2
CH CH2
O
allyl glycidyl ether
C= O
NH
CH2
OH
N-methylol acrylamide
Examples of functional co-monomers used during production of ACM
38
3.10
Fluorocarbon rubbers
The special properties of f l u o r o c a r b o n r u b b e r s (FKM) are determined by

their chemical structure. Polymer chains of these rubbers are saturated and they are
created by structural units of different fluorohydrocarbons of ethylene
and propylene type. For their properties are important not only C - C bonds and
small number of C - H bonds but firstly C - F bonds. These have higher bond
energy (442 kJxmol-1) and low chemical activity comparing to remainder bonds.
That is why FKM have incomparable resistance to chemicals including oxygen and
ozone and also to high temperatures. These rubbers are highly polar, very good
resistant to oils, to motor fuels with hydroperoxides (sour gas) to aliphatic, aromatic
and also to chlorinated hydrocarbons and concentrated acids, but they are not
resistant to esters or ketones. The level of resistance is increasing with increasing of
fluorine content in their macromolecules. The presence of chlorine in their
macromolecules provides them excellent flame resistance.
FKM are produced during the radical copolymerization or terpolymerization of
fluorinated hydrocarbons mainly vinylidene fluoride, hexafluoro propylene
and tetrafluoro propylene. They are usually combined with small amounts of
monomers with reactive groups (e.g. bromine, iodine, perfluorated aromatic rings,
and nitrile groups) which are able take part in cross-linking. Polyreactions are
performed at increased temperature and increased pressure because polymerized
monomers are in gaseous state at reaction temperature. Water soluble peroxide
catalysts are used for initiation (ammonium peroxodisulfate or potassium) and
chlorinated hydrocarbons, alkyl mercaptans or alkyl esters are used as transfer
agents. Final properties of FKM can be affected also with the monomer feed
composition or by usage of other types of monomers. Copolymers containing
perfluormethylvinyl ether have for example essentially lower glass transition
temperature Tg and brittle temperature than conventional fluorine rubbers.
The oldest type of vulcanizing agents for FKM are diamines (at vulcanization
temperature they are usually volatile therefore they are used in form of salts). FKM
with higher fluorine content are normally cross-linked by peroxides. In the function
of cross-linking agents are also used bisphenol A, bisphenol F or organotin
compounds. During the cross-linking as a by-products HF can be produced;
therefore its acceptors are added to rubber compounds. These are often alkali metal
oxides such as MgO, CaO or lead oxides. Final properties of FKM vulcanizates
depend on the structure and stability of its network, too. When the cross-links are
predominantly created by hydrogen-containing bonds (in the case of some peroxide
cross-linking), heat and oxygen resistance of FKM is poorer than in the presence of
C-C bonds (in the case of bisphenols or organotin vulcanizing agents) in their
network.
FMK are too expensive rubbers. They are used mainly as sealing components in car
engines, aircraft engines and rockets. More developmental types of FKM are
attached to rocketry. These are fluorotriazine, nitroso or fluoralkoxyphosphazene
rubbers.
39
CF2 = CF
CF2 = CF2
CHF = CF
tetrafluoro ethylene
CF3
CF3
1-hydropentafluoro propylene
hexafluoro propylene
CF2 = CF
O
CF3
perfluoro(methylvinyl ether)
Examples of monomers used during FKM production
3.11
Epichlorhydrin rubbers
E p i c h l o r h y d r i n r u b b e r s (O) are special rubbers with saturated polymer

backbone, in which the ether COC bonds and in form of pendant groups also
chlormethyl substituents are present. They are produced through ring-opening
polymerization of epichlorhydrin (CO rubbers) and by its copolymerization
with ethylene oxide (ECO rubbers), eventually by the terpolymerization
epichlorhydrin, ethylene oxide and monomer with unsaturated bond (allylglycidyl
ether - ETER rubbers):
CH2
CH
CH2
CH2
Cl
CH2
CH2
O
CH2
CH
CH2
propylene oxide
CH2
CH = CH2
allylglycidil ether
ETER rubbers have unsaturated residues in pendant groups and saturated

backbones. Similar type of rubbers may be produced also by polymerization of
polypropylene oxide or its copolymerization with allylglycidyl ether (PO, GPO
rubbers). Opening of epoxide ring in present monomers is primary act of
polymerization process. Combination of trialky aluminum Al(R)3) and water
in molar rate 0.5:1 is the most often used initiator. Its equivalent modified by means
of the acetyl acetone in form of chelate is used during copolymerization.
Polymerization may be performed in aliphatic, aromatic or chlorinated
hydrocarbons and also in ethers. It proceeds with high rate already at laboratory
temperature.
CH3
ethylene oxide
epichlorhydrin
CH
40
Polyepichlorhydrin CO is polar polymer with relatively high glass transition

temperature Tg and small flexibility of polymer chains at low temperatures. It has
the highest heat and swelling resistance, very good flame resistance and low
permeability, also against fuels from among all O rubbers. Its copolymer with
ethylene oxide ECO has better elastic properties, but at the same time it is less
resistive against heat and burning. Terpolymers have double bonds only in pendant
groups, thus it has similar ageing resistance as CO and ECO. Unsaturated bonds in
pendant group are used for their cross-linking. Their properties are similar to ECO
rubbers. All O rubbers are resistant against oxygen and ozone. Compounds of CO
and ECO or ETER rubbers are often used in practice. Rubber material with
optimum properties may be achieved by means of their combination (the most often
in ratio 40:60). GPO rubbers have better elastic properties, but they have lower oil
and fuel resistance.
Mostly reactive chloromethyl groups that are able to react with different curing
agents are used for cross-linking of CO. The most often used for this reason is
ethylene thiourea in combination with HCl acceptors (oxides of lead and
magnesium, but also phosphites, phthalates, or lead silicates, alkali metal stearates),
created during cross-linking as side product. ETER rubbers may be cross-linking
also with peroxides under presence of the ethylene thiourea or sulfur.
Characteristic field of the O rubbers usage are oil resistant products, resistant to
ageing and higher temperatures. Those are mostly different sealing, hoses and
membranes, used in the automotive industry and also materials used as coatings for
paper, polygraphic or copying rollers use to be formulated on their basis.
3.12
Silicone rubbers
Polymer backbones of silicone rubbers (Q) dont have hydrocarbon character.

Oxygen and silicon atoms to which the hydrocarbon substituents, the most often
methyl (MQ) or combination of methyl and vinyl (VMQ) or phenyl substituents
(PMQ) are joined create them:
CH3
Si
CH3
CH3
CH3
Si
Si
CH3
CH3
CH3
Si
CH2 CH2
vinyl methyl silicone rubber
methyl silicone rubbers

CH3
Si
CH3
Si
CH3
phenyl methyl silicone rubbers
41
They are produced by multilevel hydrolysis and by subsequent condensation of

dimethyldichloro silane in acid medium or by ring opening polymerization of
cyclotetrasiloxane, catalyzed by strong acids or bases.
Si O Si bond angles in rubbers Q are bigger than bond angles of C C or C H
bonds therefore their polymer chains are elastic and flexible also at low
temperatures. In consequence of spiral organization of polymer chains (polar
backbone is covered by non-polar substituents) cohesive energy density between
macromolecules of Q rubbers is very low. This is proved in low viscosity and its
small temperature change, low tensile strength and high steam and gas permeability.
High resistance to temperature is given mainly by presence of polar bonds Si-O
in polymer backbone. Their bond energy is determined by the side groups type;
phenyl groups being electron acceptor, weaken the siloxane bonds and it also
contribute to chain flexibility (Tg of polysiloxanes with phenyl substituents is
around 120C), electron-donor methyl groups reinforce Si-O bonds.
Q rubbers with methyl and vinyl substituents are cured at higher temperature
(usually low as 100 C) by peroxide, the most often by dibenzoyl peroxide or its
chlorinated derivate (2.4-dichlorobenzoyl peroxide). Polyhydroxy siloxanes are
cured at ambient temperature, and it is performed in the presence of multifunctional
alkoxysilanes or alkoxysilanes and organotin salt of higher fatty acids
combinations.
Q rubbers and its vulcanizates are extremely resistant to high temperature, in the
long time they resist to 200 C. They intermittently suffer temperatures 300 400
C. However in hot steam (120-140C) they underlie to hydrolysis and they
degrade. They are resistant to oxygen and ozone ageing and they are actually used
for production of tubes transporting ozone. The Q are highly adhesive, hydrophobic
and physiological compatible materials; therefore they are used not only as
separation agents but also as implantation and other materials which are acceptable
by human organisms.
3.13
Polyurethane rubbers
P o l y u r e t h a n e r u b b e r s (U) are produced by polyaddition of diisocyanates

and diols. Possible usage of different types of monomers and also combination of
diisocyanate monomers and pre-polymer diols, their mutual ratio content
and selection of reaction conditions allow creating polyurethanes with different
chemical structure and various properties. Accordingly the polyurethane polymers
may be conventional or thermoplastic rubbers, hard and tough thermoplasts,
reactive solutions or foams, too. Common function group of polyurethanes are
urethane structural units:
O
C NH
O
Polyurethane elastomers are usually prepared in excess of diols. Those are

polyurethane-polyester (AU) or polyurethane-polyether (EU) copolymers. The AU
rubbers are the most often vulcanized by diisocyanates (toluene diisocyanate or its
42
combination with hydroqinonedioxyethyl ether) or peroxides in combination with

co-catalysts (triallyl cyanurate); very small importance in polyurethane technology
plays their sulfur curing.
CH3
NCO
OCN
NCO
CH2
Diphenylmethane 4,4, diisocyanate
OCN
Toluene diisocyanate
NCO
OCN
(CH2)6
OCN
NCO
Naphtalene 1,5-diisocyanate
Hexamethylene diisocyanate
HO
(CH2)2
OCO(CH2)4COO(CH2)2
OH
HO
(CH2)4
OH
Tetramethylene glycol
Polyethylene adipate
HO
CH2
CH
CH3
CH2
CH
CH3
OH
HO
(CH2)4 O
Poly(tetramethylene ether)glycol
Poly(propylene)glycol
Some monomers used by polyurethane rubber production
To characteristic properties of the AU and their vulcanizates belong mainly their

high strengths, ageing resistance (they practically does not react with oxygen not
even with ozone), heat resistance, excellent abrasion resistance and relatively good
elastic properties at each their hardness, small permeability of gases and vapors and
also relatively good swelling resistance in non-polar oils. Their disadvantage is in
possible hydrolysis, mainly in medium of hot water, steam, acids and alkalis, and
finally also under influence of lubricants, heat and long-term influence of tropical
climatic conditions. Thus effective hydrolysis inhibitors are added into their
compounds, e.g. polycarbon diimides. In urethane rubbers the associates may be
created in consequence of physical attractive forces among their macromolecules
(polar forces, hydrogen bridges), which affect as particles of the reinforcement
43
fillers. From this reason AU rubbers are normally processed without fillers and
hardness of their vulcanizates is regulated by content of curing agent. But
usage of reinforcement and also non-reinforcement fillers is not excluded; the
problem is usually with mixing temperature that must be adapted to their volatility
during application of isocyanates as curing agents.
The polyurethane rubbers are used mainly for products in automotive industry
and machine engineering, as different elements of dampers, flexible connections,
and electric lines and also in such cases, when simultaneous high abrasion
resistance of the product is required.
3.14
Polysulfide rubbers
P o l y s u l f i d e r u b b e r s (TM) are special rubbers. Their vulcanizates are

characterized by extraordinary swelling resistance in ketones, aromatic
and halogenated hydrocarbons. Besides this they are very well resistant to oxygen,
ozone and UV radiation and they have low permeability of gases and vapors.
They are produced by polycondensation of aliphatic dihalides X R X
and sodium polysulfide Na2Sx (x 2) in water phase:
n X R X + n Na 2 S x > [R S x ] n + 2n NaCl,
Created polymer is insoluble in reaction medium and under presence of suitable
dispersion agents it precipitated. It has mostly -OH end groups (these are created by
hydrolysis of halogen groups). The oldest type of polysulfide rubbers is Thiokol A
produced by polycondensation of 1.2-dichloro-ethane and sodium polysulfide.
Liquid polysulfide rubber with end -SH groups may be prepared from it by
reduction splitting of the -S-S- bonds in its polymer chain under influence of NaHS,
Na2SO3 or other suitable agents.
Presently, also other types of dihalides are used for production of polysulfide
rubbers, mainly di-2-chlorethylformal and its combination with 1.2-dichlorethane
(Thiokol FA, sulfur content 49%) and also with 1.2.3-chloro-propane (Thiokol ST,
sulfur content 37%), when branched polymer is created. The sulfur content
determines their elastic properties and partially also swell resistance.
Selection of curing agents depends on the type of end groups. TM with end SH
groups are cross-linking by means of oxidation agents, e.g. p-quinone dioxime,
oxygen, cobalt salts, or peroxides; TM with OH or halogen end groups by ZnO.
TM compounds are formulated and processed in similar way as compounds of other
rubbers.
Usage of the TM is closely connected with their specific properties they are used
mostly for products swelling resistant in solvents and oils and at the same time
resistant to ageing, mainly hose coatings for polygraph rollers and different sealing
products.
44
3.15
Thermoplastic rubbers
T h e r m o p l a s t i c r u b b e r s (TPE, eventually TPR) are polymer materials

characterized by elastic properties of vulcanizates and processing properties of
thermoplastic materials. These properties have connection not only with their
chemical but also with morphological structure. They may be:
block copolymers consisting of elastic and non-elastic blocks
mixtures of elastomers and non-elastomers
ionomere polymers.
TPE
consist
of
soft
(elastomeric)
and hard
(nonAll
elastomeric), thermodynamically non-compatible segments or macromolecules, that
penetrate mutually only on level of interfacial layer. Elastomer normally creates a
continuous phase matrix in them. Its chemical structure influences mostly
elastic properties of given thermoplastic rubber. Non-elastomer in elastomeric
matrix is dispersed in form of hard domains. It defines mainly its strength and
processing characteristics. The content of soft and hard components in rubber
determines their hardness and modules and other properties corresponding to them.
Non-elastomeric domains are created in amorphous systems by aggregation of the

blocks or particles of non-elastomers in consequence of their insolubility in
elastomeric matrix. In case when dispersed polymer crystallizes or creates
associates (hydrogen bridges, polar forces), the domains create crystallites or
associates. The shape of domains depends on composition of TPE, but it is
determined also by their thermal and shearing pre-history. Frequently they are
spherical, but they may have also cylindrical or lamellar character. Regardless of
their generation reason they represent thermal labile formations and under their
decomposition temperature they have in thermoplastic rubbers similar function as
cross-links in vulcanizates. As consequence of their mutual interaction between
phases they limit movement of rubber chains and avoid their flowing. In block
copolymers this interaction is given by presence of chemical bonds between
individual copolymer blocks, in polymer mixtures this take place in consequence of
the intermolecular forces between mixed polymers in interfacial layer.
Thermoplastic rubbers keep their morphologic structure also under influence of
deformation forces. They are solid and brittle below glass transition temperature of
the elastomeric matrix and elastic above this temperature and below glass transition
temperature of polymer that creates domains, eventually below crystallites melting
temperature or decomposition of associates, respectively. Mutual movement of
macromolecules and polymer system flowing occurs after decomposition of
domains. But these processes have reversible character. Elastomeric part is
sometimes slightly cross-linked in case of elastomer and non-elastomer compounds
(dynamic vulcanization).
B l o c k s t y r e n e - d i e n e (butadiene, isoprene) c o p o l y m e r s belong to the
oldest and the most important thermoplastic rubbers. Pure block copolymers
(styrene block does not contain any diene structural units and vice-versa) are
produced the most often by living anion polymerization. Depending on type of
active polyanion and functionality of used termination agent, double and triple
45
block copolymers of type SB and SBS (S styrene, B diene), eventually radial

copolymers of type (S B)xC (where x = 3 or 4, C copulation group) are created
at the same time. The SEBS copolymer is produced by hydrogenation of triple
block styrene-butadiene copolymer. Its elastomeric blocks consist of ethylene (it is
created by means of hydrogenation of 1.4-butadiene units) and butylene (it is
created by hydrogenation of 1.2-butadiene units) and it features with extraordinary
resistance against degradation. Styrene-butadiene TPE may be produced also by
copolymerization of butadiene and styrene, but blocks of both monomers contain
also small amounts of the other monomer structural units.
Continuous phase is created in styrene-diene TPE by diene blocks and domains by
styrene blocks. In light of their elastic and processing properties the most suitable
copolymers are those with molecular weights of styrene blocks varying between 10
000 20 000 and butadiene blocks between 40 000 80 000 gxmol-1. With
increasing of styrene content in copolymer their mechanic and processing properties
are improving, but at the same time also elastic properties are getting worse.
Copolymers containing styrene higher than ~ 75 % have thermoplastic properties. In
the most cases of commercially produced styrene TPE, the styrene content ranges
around 20 - 30 %. Domains of the polystyrene blocks are very small and thanks to
narrow molecular weight distribution and presence of chemical bonds between
blocks located in the interfacial layer those are equally distributed in the whole TPE
volume, thus the anisotropy of their properties is small. At the same time the
domains act as active filler particles, thus they have very good strength
characteristics. Normally they are used in form of compounds where content of
styrene TPE is only 25-50 %. Also other polymers create constituent part of polymer
basis, e.g. polyolefins or polystyrene. Besides them also naphthenic or paraffinic oils
are added as softeners and antidegradants, in case of butadiene or isoprene
copolymers. Styrene TPE is used for different purposes, the most often as materials
for sport and other footwear and also as electro-insulating and noise-insulating
materials.
Polyester, polyurethane and also polyamide types of TPE are the most often multiblock copolymers of type (AB)n, where also soft (elastic) and hard (non-elastic)
blocks alternate. In p o l y e s t e r types the amorphous polyethers or also polyesters
based on alcohols with longer aliphatic chain are used as soft blocks. Hard polyester
blocks are longer and able to create lamellar crystals acting as physical cross-links
below their melting temperature. Continuous phase has amorphous character and also
amorphous parts of hard block participate on it. Typical example of polyester TPE is
poly(tetramethyleneglycol terephtalate b tetramethylene terephtalate):
C
O
C O
CH2
CH2
CH2
CH2
O
n
x
CH2
CH2
CH2
CH2
O
y
Glass transition temperature Tg of polyether blocks is normally varying around

50C. Melting temperature of hard segments is growing with increasing of their
content in copolymer and the most often it ranges in between 170 250 C. From
this reason the polyester TPE have very good elastic properties and flexibility under
low temperatures and at the same time also high softening point. They are
characterized by high strengths and very good resistance against oils and other nonMatador Rubber s.r.o. 2007
46
polar agents. Their disadvantage is in possible hydrolysis of ester groups, thus if

used in humid medium above 70C, they must be stabilized (e.g. by means of carbon
diimide). They are relatively expensive, so they are used only in cases when high
strength is required in parallel with resistance to oils or high temperature in dry
medium, e.g. in automotive industry.
P o l y u r e t h a n e TPE are similar to polyester TPE with its properties. They are
extremely strength, have excellent abrasion resistance and at the same time they
resists to oils. Those are linear multi-block copolymers of the (AB)n type. Hard
segments in them are created by segments achieved by polyaddition of diisocyanate
and diol with short chain. Soft segments are either polyurethane segments achieved
by polyaddition of diisocyanate (4.4`-diphenylmethane diisocyanate) or diol
with long linear chain (1.4-butanediol). Also polyesters or polyethers with end OH
groups are often used in function of diols, and their molecular weights are usually
varying in range 600 4000 g.mol-1:
soft segment
hard segment
They are normally produced by polyaddition of diisocyanates and diols with short
chains under presence of polyester or polyether. In polyurethane TPE in
consequence of strong hydrogen bonds in polar polyurethane blocks the highly
oriented pseudo-crystalline and crystalline fields are created, and these are separated
from fields containing polyester or polyether blocks. Polyurethane segments
with short diol chain then create domains and polyurethanes with long diol chain,
eventually polyester or polyether segments create a matrix. Morphological structure
of these TPE is practically the same as in polyester TPE and the same is also
temperature interval, in which they keep double phase structure (~ from 50 to 170
230C) and their utilization areas.
Polyethers or polyesters create soft segments also in polyamide TPE. Typical hard
blocks are normally nylons (Nylon 6, 11 or 12). The most often they are produced by
copulation reactions of polyester or polyether with end OH groups and polyamide
with end COOH groups:
HO
C
O
NH
C
O
OH
x
soft segment (polyester or polyether)
They are produced in broad hardness interval (approximately from Shore A 60 to

Shore D 75) and they keep double phase structure in approximate range from 40 to
170 220 C. Their small disadvantage is in possible sorption of the atmospheric
humidity, thus they are dried just before processing. They have similar strength
47
characteristics as other TPE. They have also good dynamic properties, low
hysteresis, high resiliency and good fatigue resistance.
From p o l y m e r m i x t u r e s of elastomeric and non-elastomeric character

practically the most often used as thermoplastic rubbers are compounds based on
polyolefins. Elastomeric phase in them is created by EPDM and non-elastomeric
component use to be polypropylene (PP), polyethylene (PE) or their mixture.
Sometimes also fillers, antidegradants and other additives normally added into
rubber compounds are used. Good ratios of processing and elastic properties have
systems where non-elastomeric component creates continuous phase and rubbery
phase is dispersed in form of small (diameter of particles 10m) partially
vulcanized domains. Peroxides, resins or sulfur systems are used as curing agents.
More factors affect resulting properties of the thermoplastic polyolefins, mainly size
of elastomeric particles and degree of their cross-linking and also ratio of
elastomeric and plastomeric component content.
Oil resistant thermoplastic materials may be prepared by mixing of the NBR
and polyolefins. The main problem of these mixtures is significant incompatibility
between their phases. This problem is solved either by usage of suitable
compatibilisation agent, e.g. phenolic resins, or the part of both polymers is
chemically modified in appropriate way (e.g. PP maleinization and NBR
aminization) and joined function groups in mixing process in situ will mutually react
and create chemical bonds between phases. Significant improvement of the
compounds properties is achieved already at low content of modified polymers,
usually lower than 10 %.
Also thermoplastic elastomers based on NR and polyolefins are known. These have,
similarly to compounds with EPDM, optimal properties when prepared by dynamic
vulcanization and NR particles are slightly cross-linked simultaneously. Continuous
phase in mixtures at low content of NR is polyolefin and cross-linked NR particles
create discontinuous phase. With increasing of NR content their morphological
structure is changed, it moves to mutually penetrating continuous phases under the
same content of both components. NR-polypropylene mixtures may be used
approximately from 50 to 100C.
Thermoplastic elastomeric materials characterized by low permeability of gases like
oxygen, nitrogen, water steam and also noise, are prepared by combination of
polyolefins and IIR. Continuous phase is created in them also by polyolefins
and dispersed phase by cross-linked IIR particles. Their service temperature is from
50 to 120C.
Main application field of the polyolefin thermoplastic elastomers is automotive
industry. Many exterior and interior parts of cars are produced on their basis; they
are used also as insulating and coating materials of electrical and telephone lines,
mainly if environment and heat resistance is required.
The third group of the polymeric materials with elastic-plastic properties is
i o n o m e r e e l a s t o m e r s . This term is normally used for marking of elastomers,
that contain small amount (<15 %) of polar function groups in form of pendants on
polymer backbone. In scientific literature you can very often find stated zincous
salts of sulfonated and maleinized EPDM with high content of ethylene
48
(ZnSEPDM, ZnMEPDM) as examples of such polymers. Under normal temperature

two types of thermo labile domains are present in morphological structure of EPDM
modified in such way, one of them are ethylene crystalline domains (EPDM with
high ethylene content contains long ethylene sequences that may crystallize) and the
second are ion associates created by polar sulfo-zincous groups joined on EPDM
polymer backbone. Both types of domains act as particles of active filler
and contribute to increasing of the EPDM strength characteristics to the level of
equivalent properties of its vulcanizates filled with reiforcement fillers. Elastomeric
phase glass transition temperature of these systems is around 35 C and top service
temperature is varying around 50 C, it is usually lower in filled compounds.
Similar effect in NBR mixtures has presence of carboxylated NBR in combination
with oxide or zinc stearate and one can assume its presence also in other rubber
systems containing carboxylated rubbers and oxide or zinc stearate.
Schematic termoplastic elastomers phase structure
49
( )
Li
(+)
Li
Li
n St
St
( St ) St ( )
n
n Bu
Li
St
( St ) Bu
n
( Bu )n Bu ( )
(+)
termination
copolymer AB
copolymer ABA
star copolymers
St (St)n St styrene block
Bu
(Bu)n Bu butadiene block
X coupling group
Simplified reaction scheme of anionic living butadiene and styrene polymerization
Styrene-butadiene block copolymer morphology
50
(+)
Properties of uncompounded styrene-diene TPE
Styrene
content, %
Hardness,
Shore A
Linear SBS
31
71
M300,
MPa
2.76
Linear SBS
17
53
Linear SIS
14
Linear SIS
Copolymer
Tensile
Elongation,
strength, MPa
%
31.7
880
0.93
4.8
1100
37
0.69
21.4
1300
21
52
1.38
20.0
120
Branched (SB)n
21
65
2.42
31.7
900
Branched (SB)n
30
75
5.52
27.6
820
Branched (SI)n
10
32
0.69
8.6
1300
SBS, SB styrene-butadiene copolymer; SI, SIS styrene- isoprene copolymer
Properties of polyurethanes TPE (Desmopan TM)
Hardness, Shore D
32
40
55
59
Tensile strength, MPa
40
45
50
50
Elongation, %
450
450
400
350
M100, MPa
6.0
9.0
15.0
20.0
Rebound resilience, %
42
33
32
33
Morphological structure of semi-crystalline polyester TPE
51
Properties of polyether aramides (Pebax TM)
Hardness, Shore D
25
35
40
55
63
Tensile strength,
MPa
29
34
36
44
51
Elongation, %
715
710
485
455
380
Tensile modulus,
MPa
10.4
14.6
50
145
260
38
45
70
115
150
Tear strength, kN.m-
Some properties of ionic elastomer ZnSEPDM* at 25 C
Property
EPDM
ZnSEPDM
ZnSEPDM + 20
phr HAF carbon
black
ZnSEPDM
+ 20 phr silica
Hardness, Shore A
56
69
75
77
M100, MPa
2.7
7.1
12.9
11.8
11.0
21.0
22.5
21.7
1036
691
494
520
63
115
144
177
Tensile
MPa
strength,
Elongation, %
Tear
kN.m-1
strength,
*Zinc salt of sulfonated EPDM with 75 % ethylene content
52
SOME ASPECTS OF RUBBER CHEMICAL CHANGES

1.
Introduction
Rubbers similarly to other chemical compounds may take part under suitable
conditions in different types of chemical reactions. As they have polymeric
character they can participate mainly on polymer-analogical reactions (1). Basic
assumption of their participation in these processes is presence of suitable reactive
function groups in their macromolecules. Unique and especially important polymeranalogical reaction of all rubbers is their vulcanization (cross-linking, curing). From
chemical point of view is vulcanization complicated chemical process. During its
the reactive fragments are created normally by interaction of used vulcanization
systems components that are able to react with functional groups of vulcanized
rubber in such way that they create assumptions for their cross-linking. Plastic
rubber compounds achieve properties of final rubber product with elastic properties
with it. Chemical transformation of some functional groups of rubbers occurs also
during their mastication or ageing.
The polymer-analogical reactions of rubbers are used also for other purposes similar
to other polymers. Here belongs mostly modification of inconvenient properties
(e.g. ageing resistance, polarity, adhesion to other materials, bonding of
antidegradants), implementation of new functional groups or production of rubbers
with some new properties (CIIR, BIIR, carboxylated rubbers). If conversion of the
original functional groups is low, the characteristic rubber properties are changing
only in very little, but rubber obtains also a new special property. With increasing of
its conversion (20 30, eventually also more %) the change of original rubber
properties is increasing. For instance, if NBR is selectively hydrogenated, it will
keep its swelling resistance in non-polar oils, but with increasing of the
hydrogenation extent also its ageing resistance is improving and NBR hydrogenated
up to 100 % conversion has practically the same ageing resistance as some FM
rubbers.
Characteristic functional group in the most often used general rubbers is double
bonds. Their typical representatives are unsaturated rubbers of polymer (e.g. NR,
IR, BR, and CR) as well as copolymer (e.g. SBR, NBR) character based on diene
monomers. Concentration of double bonds in these rubbers is high, because each
diene structural unit contains one of such bonds. Past of them indeed terminates in
cross-linking process of appropriate rubber, but also their vulcanizates have
unsaturated character. Also some special rubbers have double bonds (e.g. EPDM,
IIR). These rubbers generally contain them only in such amount, that will not
influence their properties and they are implemented into the polymer chain only to
simplify cross-linking. Practically all double bonds in these rubbers vanish during
cross-linking and obtained vulcanizates have saturated character.
53
Reactivity of the polydiene double bonds depends in chemical reactions on their

position in macromolecule of appropriate rubber and also on the type of substituents
situated in their surroundings. Normal polydienes have basically two types of
double bonds:
1. double bonds that are situated in their cis- and trans-1.4 structural units (in
the polymer backbone). They are more reactive during polymer-analogical
reactions with halogens, with oxygen, sulfur, and peracids;
2. double bonds situated in structural units 1.2 (in pendant vinyl groups) that
are more reactive mainly during radical reactions.
Also substituents present in structural units of rubber backbone have an influence
on reactivity of double bonds. Their reactivity in nucleophilic reactions is increased
by nucleophilic and reduced by electrophilic substituents. Good example of this
influence is significantly slower oxidation of CR rubber than NR or IR rubber, that
differ only by type of substituent on the second carbon of each structural unit. The
IR and NR has CH3- group in this position and CR has Cl atom there. These rubbers
behave similarly also during cross-linking reactions with sulfur and also in reactions
with peracids (2). Reactivity of double bonds in trans-1.4 structural units is
normally lower than in cis-1.4 units. Nucleophilic structural units similarly
influence also reactivity of double bonds in 1.2 and 3.4 structural polydiene units.
While double bond in 3.4 structural units is more reactive during epoxidation,
oppositely double bond in 1.2 structural units is more reactive during
hydrosilanization.
Existence of reactive hydrogens in position has close connection also with
presence of double bond in polydiene macromolecules. Polyisoprene has even 3
hydrogens in each structural unit in -position against double bond on the first,
fourth and fifth carbon. In general in substitution reactions the most reactive
hydrogen is treated on carbon 4, and activity of other hydrogens follows this pattern
C4 C1 > C5:
5
CH3
CH3
CH2
C = CH
CH2
CH2
C = CH
CH2
Reactivity of hydrogen on carbon 3 is very low (C3 << C5). Also hydrogens in
structural units of poly-cis-butadiene-1.4 have similar reactivity. The -hydrogens
of these polymers are more reactive than their double bond, mainly during radical
reactions, e.g. during their oxidation or curing.
Reactive place in polydiene chains is also bond 4.1 connecting individual structural
units. This bond is weakening because of high mesomeric energy, and from this
reason it easily decomposes onto radicals. Its activity is shown mainly in
degradation reactions, specifically during mechanical stress of appropriate rubbers.
54
The most often it takes places during their potential mastication and mainly during
preparation and processing of rubber compounds.
Some unsaturated rubbers have also other functional groups that are able to
participate on creation of cross-links. Those are mainly polymers containing
chlorine atoms, like for instance CR rubbers. Mainly reactive chlorine in 1.2
structural chloroprene units is often used for their curing, and that is effectively
reacting for example with metal oxides (MgO, ZnO, PbO and others). Similarly also
COOH groups in carboxylated diene rubbers may participate on cross-linking
reactions (these create coordinating bonds with more compounds, e.g. metal oxides,
epoxide compounds, polyols, polyamines) or halogen in chlorinated or brominated
types of the IIR.
Saturated rubbers are normally less reactive against low-molecular reagents, but
some of them contain besides functional groups suitable for cross-linking also such
functional groups, which chemical transformation may be undesirable and it is
normally connected with deterioration of their properties. Typical example is
hydrolysis of ester groups in acrylic rubbers, in some types of polyurethanes,
eventually also thermoplastic rubbers based on polyesters.
Besides chemical reactions of polymers also more types of side reactions may take
place together with the main polymer-analogical reaction. Those are mostly
reactions in which these polymers may participate regardless of the fact, which
functional groups they contain. In case of polydienes it is mostly cyclization
and cis-trans isomerization, eventually degradation or cross-linking.
The cis-trans isomerization (3) of diene rubbers occurs in presence of suitable
catalysts (organic bromides and mercaptanes, NO2, SO2) or by influence of
radiation (UV radiation, radiation) in polydiene solution or in its solid status.
From practical view it is necessary to calculate with cis-trans isomerization also in
sulfur curing conditions. During BR curing under presence of 4 phr of sulfur at
temperature 140 - 160 C the content of cis-1.4- structural units is reduced from
original 97 to 92 %, what causes significant reduction of tensile strength of created
vulcanizates. Cis-trans isomerization may be used also aimed at increasing of the
trans- structural units content in polybutadiene with mixed structural units, which
leads to increase of the crystalline phase content. In case of NR the cis-trans
isomerization may be used also for reduction of the crystalline phase content. In this
case its macromolecules segments moving ability is increased and it has good longterm elastic properties also under low temperatures, but its strengths are reduced
proportionally.
Cyclization (4) as side reaction take places easier in IR than in BR. It occurs under
influence of heat, light, ultraviolet or nuclear radiation or also in presence of cationdonor catalysts (mineral, organic, Lewiss acids). Two neighboring polymer
structural units participate in primary act of the 1.4-IR catalyzed cyclization; these
will create monocyclic structure, whilst one double bond will vanish. Mostly bi- or
tri-cyclic structures are created in later process stages. In general, isolated cyclic
structures are created by cyclization of 3.4 structural units of IR along the polymer
chain, in which also other polymer chains may be engaged. Gradually their
unsaturation and elasticity is reduced as result of successive cyclization of IR and
NR, and their toughness is increasing. At high cyclization degree these are changing
55
onto thermoplastic powdery products having excellent adhesive properties, mainly

to metallic materials. They do not crystallize not even under deformation and they
are characterized by high strengths. Cyclized natural rubber was probably the first
meaningful modification of natural rubber. The cyclization takes places either
during its mixing with suitable initiator on rollers or in mixers and also in latex.
Butadiene rubbers have lower tendency to cyclization than polyisoprene rubbers.
Degradation and cross-linking as side reactions of polymer-analogical reactions are
exercised mainly during reactions performed at higher temperatures, during
mechanical-chemical modifications or under influence of the high-energetic
radiation.
1.1 polymer-analogical reactions
The polymer-analogical reactions are normally defined as chemical reactions

between function groups of polymer and low-molecule reagents that lead to change
of function groups and afterwards also to modification of original polymer
properties. These belong to the oldest practically performed chemical reactions.
Typical example is cellulose nitration or cross-linking of the natural rubber by
means of sulfur, that were known and used already in middle of the 19th century,
when no one even know about polymer character of these natural materials.
In ideal case no other changes of reaction system take places during polymeranalogical reactions, but in reality the polymer presence have often influence
mainly on the reaction rate, on transformation extent of the polymer function groups
and in some cases also on mechanism of major reaction. Changes may occur under
influence of such factors, as changes in local concentration of reacting groups,
conformation and configuration setting of the polymer macro-molecules in reaction
environment, electrostatic impact of ionized molecules, aggregation and association
of reagents, supra-molecular structure of the polymers or their eventual change
during reaction.
56
1.2 peracids
Relative reactivity of some polydienes during their reactions with perbenzoic acid
Elastomer
Structural units
Relative reactivity
CH2 C = CH CH2
Polychloroprene
Cl
CH2 CH
Polybutadiene 1,2
25
CH = CH2
CH2 C = CH CH2
Poly-cis-1.4-isoprene
5 000 6 000
CH3
H3C
Poly-2.3-dimetylisoprene
CH3
above 10 000
CH2 C = C CH2
1.3 cis-trans isomerization
+X
C= C
H2 C
CH2
H
C
H2 C
CH2
cis - 1,4
CH2
C=C
H2 C
H2 C
CH2
trans - 1,4
On-off mechanism of cis-trans isomerisation of diene elastomers
57
1.4 Cyclization
CH2
CH3
C
HC
H2 C
CH2
CH2
CH
H2 C
H+
H2 C
C
H2
CH3
CH3
C+
C
H2
CH2
CH2
H+
CH
CH3
CH2
H2 C
H2 C
C
H2
CH3
C
CH3
CH2
C
H2 C
H2 C
CH2
CH3 H
2
C
CH
CH2
C
C
H2
CH3
CH3 H
2
C
CH
CH2
H2 C
H2 C
CH3
C
H2
C
CH2
C
CH3
H
C
CH3
CH2
C
C
H2 C
CH3
C
H2
Cationic cyclization of 1.4-IR. A mono, B bi, C tri-ring structure
CH2
H3 C
CH
C
CH 2
CH2
CH
C
CH3
H+
CH2
CH2
H2 C
H3 C
CH2
CH
CH
H3 C
CH2
CH2
CH3
CH3
Cationic cyclization of 3.4 structural units - IR
58
2. Some polymer-analogical reaction of

conventional unsaturated rubbers
2.1 Hydrogenation, halogenation, hydrohalogenation
Together with reactions of unsaturated polymers with halogens, hydrohalogens and

hydrogen also addition and substitution reactions take place at the same time and
also side reactions like isomerization, cyclization and cross-linking, eventually
some other reactions, e.g. separation of the hydrohalogene. Thus the resulting
products may have different composition and also different properties depending on
reaction conditions.
H y d r o g e n a t i o n of polyisoprene and polybutadiene rubbers belongs to the
polymer-analogical reactions studied in details, but it does not have big practical
importance. Normally it is performed under high temperatures, and thus also
considerable degradation of polydiene chain may occur during it. Catalysts which
are able to react with double bonds of polydiene are also used during hydrogenation,
which is the reason of their deactivation and they must be added in rather big
amounts. Furthermore, if their rests remain in hydrogenated product, they
accelerated its degradation.
The main hydrogenation product 1.4 BR is crystalline polyethylene, if BR has
middle content of 1.2 structural units, thus elastic poly (ethylene-co-butylen) is
created:
CH2
CH
H2
= CH CH2
CH2
H2
CH
CH
= CH2
CH2
CH2
CH2 CH2
CH2
CH
CH2
CH3
Isotactic 1.4-poly (2-methyl pentadiene) is created by hydrogenation of 1.4IR, syndiotactic 1.2-polybutadiene is hydrogenated to poly(ethylene-alt-propylene),
hemitactic polypropylene, eventually syndiotactic poly (1-butene). Hydrogenated
copolymers of butadiene have bigger practical importance, mainly hydrogenated
acrylonitrile-butadiene rubber (HNBR) (1) and also hydrogenated thermoplastic
styrene-butadiene block-copolymers with middle content of the 1.2 butadiene
structural units and also similar copolymers with isoprene. In both cases their
ageing resistance is significantly improved, whilst they keep their special properties.
Hydrogenation of polydienes and their copolymers is the most often performed
under participation of catalysts that are soluble or insoluble in reaction medium (Pt
or Pd on suitable carrier) and they have different catalyst activity. It occurs also as
non-catalyzed reaction under presence of hydroboranes or diimides. Polybutadienes
are much faster hydrogenated in homogenous catalysis conditions than
polyisoprenes; 1.2- units are the most reactive ones among butadiene structural units.
59
Some catalysts act selectively and under conditions of homogenous catalysis the
hydrogenation of 1.2 polymers has randomly, and hydrogenation of 1.4 polymers has
more block character. In general, hydrogenation of unsaturated polymers reduces
their reactivity, increases their resistance against their degradation and cross-linking.
It increases also their propensity to crystallization.
Chlorine is in practice the most often used for h a l o g e n a t i o n s of polydienes.
The chloration occurs in optimum rate with most of unsaturated polymers and also
ratio of destructive reactions is lower under presence of this halogen than in
presence of more reactive fluorine. Chloration of natural rubber can be performed in
mass, solution or latex. Resultant product has thermoplastic properties; it can be
obtained in form of fragile and non-elastic foil or in form of white powder.
Chloration is significantly increasing its polarity and adhesion to other materials.
From this reason the solutions of such rubber are used for binding of rubbery and
metallic, eventually rubbery and wooden materials. In combination with resins it
creates also basis of coating materials for protection of metals against corrosion.
Halogenation belongs to important commercial processes also in case of synthetic
rubbers; specifically it is used during production of halogenated IIR rubbers (CIIR,
BIIR). By their halogenation these rubbers achieve mainly higher curing activity,
better compatibility with other rubbers and at the same time they keep special
properties of IIR, it means low permeability of gases and vapors, high ageing
resistance and resistance against chemicals and good hysteresis properties.
Chloration of IIR runs almost selectively on allylic carbon of isoprene structural
units:
CH3
CH2
= CH CH2
CH2
Cl 2
CH2
= C CH2
Cl
Bromation of IIR runs less selectively.

By h y d r o h a l o g e n a t i o n of unsaturated rubbers their polarity is increasing and
their unsaturation is reduced. NR may react on one hand with arbitrary
hydrogenhalogen, but only its hydrochloration has practical sense. In this case HCl
addition occurs according to the reaction:
CH3
CH3
CH2
= CH CH2
HCl
CH2
C CH2
CH2
Cl
Hydrochloration of NR may be performed in solution, in latex or also in solid

status. Hydrochloride of NR is highly crystalline material, which is melting at
temperature around 115 C. It is not compatible with original rubber, it well resists
to some chemicals, has excellent adhesion properties and it is compatible also with
polar materials. It does not allow humidity to go through and in fifties of the
previous century almost 3500 tons of foils were produced from it for food industry
purposes, later it was replaced by plastic foils.
60
2.1.1 HNBR
Profile of some properties of NBR, HNBR and FKM
61
2.2
Epoxidation
The double bonds of diene rubbers are well known to react with peracids to yield
epoxide groups:
CH = CH
RCOOOH
CH
CH
O
The epoxide groups bonded to rubber polymer chains influence not only rubber
properties(1) (they increase polarity, improve resistance to swelling in oils, modify
adhesion properties to other materials, improve their resistance against penetration
of gases and vapors), but they can be used also for other modification reactions (2).
Disadvantage is that during epoxidation also reactions connected with opening of
the epoxide ring may proceed at the same time, which makes resulting product to be
non-homogeneous. During NR epoxidation the conversion of epoxide groups onto
furan groups(3)depends mainly on concentration of present peracid. Epoxidized NR
is created at low concentrations, the level of furan groups in modified rubber is
upgrading with its concentration increase and also with the epoxidation temperature
increase.
With increasing of the level of furan groups in rubber also its Tg is increased
and resiliency gets worse. Epoxidized NR with 50 % mole of epoxide groups under
influence of deformation forces crystallizes, thus it has still very good strength
characteristics. Totally furanized product does not have elastic properties, its Tg is
varying around 100C and its properties are similar to tough polystyrene.
Epoxidized NR (ENR) with 25 (ENR-25) or 50 (ENR-50) % mole of epoxide
groups is produced also industrially.
Considerable caution is given to natural rubber epoxidation also in connection with
possible usage of siliceous fillers (mainly SiO2) in tire and improvement of their
driving properties(4) mainly adhesion on wet road and tire rolling-resistance.
62
2.2.1 Rubber properties
Oil resistence of ENR-25 and ENR-50 compared to NR, CR, and NBR
after 70 hours in ASTM No.1, 2, and 3 oils
Comparative air permeability of rubbers at 30
Rubber
Air permeability
NR
100
ENR-25
32
ENR-50
SBR 500
48
IIR
NBR (34% acrylonotrile)
63
2.2.2 modification reactions
Some transformation of epoxide groups on macromolecules of unsaturated

rubbers
2.2.3 Furan groups
Epoxidation of NR and furan formation
64
2.2.4 Driving properties
Wet grip rating versus rolling resistance for steel radial tires retreated with various
ENR-25 blends
2.3
Ene-reactions
Reactive function group of unsaturated rubbers in cycloaddition reactions is their

hydrogen in -position against double bond (ene). This hydrogen is able to react
with double bond of the low-molecular reagent (enophile), during which time its
bonding to rubbery chain and replacement of double bond will take place:
H X
CH
HX
CH 2
O = N,
- N = N-,
C = S,
C = O,
C=C
Ene-reactions often run by radical mechanism, mainly if the low-molecular

enophile is less reactive and initiator of radical type is present in reaction system.
They are used for implementation of polar substituents (maleic anhydride, fumaric
acid, acrylonitrile) to non-polar rubbers. By this their polarity is increasing,
solubility is changing, also oil and aging resistance and possibility of vulcanization
by sulfur-free systems is enable. Typical example of such reactions is the reaction
65
of natural poly-cis-isoprene with maleic anhydride that may run either under its cold
mechanical loading on mills or in presence of the radical character initiators (1).
Also different azo-compounds may be bonded to unsaturated rubber chain through
reactive -hydrogens. If these are bonded to BR (2) with different structural units
(cis and trans-1.4 and 1.2) in polymer chain than the position of bonded-on
substituents will be different. Substituent will be bonded to 1.4 structural units on
allylic carbon in polymer backbone, and to 1.2 structural units on the end carbon of
the vinyl group. Reactivity of cis- and trans-1.4 units to azo-esters is approximately
the same and higher than reactivity of the 1.2 units.
One of the possibilities how to avoid migration of antioxidants onto the surface of
rubber products is their chemical bonding to rubber macromolecules, that should
create a continuous phase in rubber compounds. That will not only avoid their
migration, but also their efficiency will increase. During these reactions the bonding
normally occurs in position of rubber double bond.
2.3.1 Initiators
The primary act in presence of initiators is decomposition of the initiator (I) onto
radicals (R), that react with rubber (KaH) under of the rubber radical (Ka). The
radical that is able to react with present maleic anhydride MA is created in positions
of reactive -hydrogens, and thus the MA may be bonded along the present rubber
macromolecule. The process may be repeated:
2 R.
R + Ka H
Ka. +
RH + Ka
CH = CH
OC
CO
Ka
CH + KaH
CH
OC
CO
O
CH
OC
CO
O
Ka
CH
Ka
CH 2 + Ka
CH
OC
CO
O
Bonding of MA runs in similar way also under mechanical loading conditions of

rubber at low temperatures and absence of oxygen. In this case the rubber radical
Ka accrues in consequence of the shear forces effecting on rubber between rollers
of used double roller, under which the 4.1 bond is breaking. It is the radical at the
end of polymer chain, and thus the present MA is bonding under such conditions to
the ends of its macromolecules. But it is not possible to exclude also bonding of
MA molecule into rubber backbone, as de-activation of maleinized radical may
take place either as result of its transfer to rubber or also as result of its termination
with rubber radical.
66
2.3.2 BR
CH 2
CH = CH
CH 2
CH 2
+ ROOC
CH = CH
N = N
COOR
CH
N
COOR
HN
COOR
Bonding of the azo-ester onto 1.4 structural unit of BR
CH2
CH
+ ROOC
CH = CH2
N = N
COOR
CH2
CH
CH
CH2
COOR
HN
COOR
Bonding of the azo-ester onto 1.2 structural unit of BR
2.4
Grafting
Also grafting of the natural rubber by means of suitable monomer may be

regarded as polymer-analogical reaction. It is basically its transformation to
thermoplastic rubber, because bonded-on polymer chains have normally
plastomeric character and they create a separate phase in NR matrix. This method is
industrially used for production of special NR Hevea MG (1) (Hevea MG3O,
Hevea MG49, with MMA content of 30, eventually 49 %), that represents the
natural rubber grafted by methyl methacrylate. It contains polar and also non-polar
chains in its macromolecule, thus it can be used also as compatibilizer of polymer
blends based on polar and non-polar polymers. In rubber compounds it sometimes
combined with non-modified NR and it appears in vulcanizates as active filler. It
has also excellent adhesion properties and in solution form it is used at connecting
of NR and PVC.
Grafting of natural rubber by other monomers is not in practice applicable
2.4.1 Hevea MG
Special type of natural rubber (Hevea MG) is produced by grafting of natural rubber
with methyl methacrylate (MMA), and it is by polymerization of MMA under
presence of its latex. Dibenzoyl peroxide or tert.butyl hydroperoxide is used as
polymerization initiator. Graft copolymer is practically not created under presence
of AIBN, because its radicals as result of their low reactivity are not efficient to
perform neither transfer nor addition to present rubber macromolecules and so they
67
do not create on them the radical centers that could be able to participate on
reactions leading to copolymer development. In simplified way this process may be
described by means of following reactions:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
DBP 2 RO
RO + MMA RO - MMA PMMA
RO + KaH RO - KaH (addition to double bond)
RO + KaH ROH + Ka (transfer of initiators primary radical to
rubber)
Ka + MMA Ka - MMA Ka - PMMA
RO - KaH + MMA RO - KaH - MMA RO - KaH - PMMA
Ka + PMMA Ka - PMMA
RO - KaH + PMMA RO - KaH PMMA
PMMA + PMMA PMMA
Because of the fact that reactive centers on rubber macromolecules were created by
means of transfer (reaction 3) or addition to their double bonds (reaction 4), they
occur along their whole length and so grafted copolymer is created during
polymerization (termination reactions 7 and 8). Their backbone is created by rubber
macromolecules and grafted-on blocks are polymethyl methacrylate. Besides
grafted copolymer also homopolymer PMMA is created during polymerization and
that is in consequence of the present MMA initiation by radical of initiator
(reactions 3 and 9). Also block copolymer is created during polymerization under
usage of the plasticized rubber, that contains also at the ends of its macromolecules
the hydroperoxide groups (Ka-OOH), that are able to dissociate under development
of polymer rubber radicals and low-molecule radicals OH ( Ka-OOH KaO
+ HO ).
Modified natural rubber MMA may be prepared also by mechanical-chemical
synthesis. Polymerization process is initiated in this case by rubber radicals that are
created in consequence of its mechanical loading in presence of MMA. They are
sufficiently reactive to initiate MMA polymerization. It was discovered by selective
fractionation that achieved product contains two different block copolymers free
rubber and small amount of free PMMA.
It is supposed that the free rubber remains in the product due to incomplete
degradation of rubber molecules being present, while the free
polymethylmetacrylate is a result of the shear degradation of the originating block
copolymer. The creation of block copolymer I is connected with the preferred
tearing of long rubber molecules and with the polymerization of methylmetacrylate
practically not influenced by the jelly effect. Block copolymer II originates as late
as when the termination rate decreases due to the jelly effect, thus extending the
growing polymeric radicals. Consequently, this leads to the increase of the mole
weight of PMMA blocks and also to the considerable increase of the rate of
polymerization.
68
3. Vulcanization of rubbers
3.1
Introduction
Vulcanization (curing, cross-linking) is one of the most important processes for

most of rubber technologies. During vulcanization the rubber compound is
changing to elastic final product vulcanizate (rubber). This is done by consecutive
and parallel changes of chemical and physical nature. Vulcanization essence is the
creation of cross-links between rubber macromolecules at which three dimensional
network(1) of rubber matrix is formed. The part of vulcanizate network are also
physical bonds like hydrogen bond, polar or dispersed powers between individual
macromolecules or their snarls, which were created at preparation or processing of
relevant rubber compound. The rest of ingredients participating in rubber compound
are in original or changed form chemically connected, dispersed or soluble.
For the formation of chemical cross-links between rubber macromolecules are most
often used different chemical vulcanization agents (sulfur, peroxides, metal
oxides, resins, quinones and others), which are in vulcanization process able to react
with suitable functional rubber groups and to create cross-links between
them. Curing can be caused also by the different types radiation influence, which
energy is satisfactory for generation of rubber macromolecules reactive forms most
often radicals. With each other these interactive while there are cross-links formed.
Also microwave energy or ultrasound can cause curing creation. Vulcanization is
required from most of rubbers but it is not necessary for some types of
thermoplastic rubbers.
Vulcanization is in the presence of vulcanization agents formally divided into three
stages. In the first one induction period gets to reciprocal elements interaction of
used vulcanization system and the cross-links are even not created or only a little.
Its length depends on the type of vulcanization system and vulcanization
temperature. In the case of sulfur vulcanization it is affected by present accelerators,
eventually vulcanization retarders or pre-cure inhibitors. In the main second
vulcanization stage gets to the important vulcanization part which is fast curing of
rubber macromolecules and the formation of ones' own vulcanizate. That is why the
vulcanization rate can be considered as the rate of this stage. After the vulcanization
optimum in the third stage can be applied restructuring of created cross-links and
modification of rubbers chains. This stage can be also connected with number of
cross-links decreasing (reverse), which can be shown at the property change of final
vulcanizate. Vulcanization course and its basic characteristics (scorch time, optimal
vulcanization time, difference between maximum and minimum torsion moment,
cure rate index, and eventually reverse rate) is most often evaluated on the basis of
so called vulcanization curves (2) measured on different types of rheometers.
The number of created cross-links between rubber macromolecules (characterized
by crosslink density)(3) and their chemical structure depend mainly on the content
and activity of vulcanization agent, temperature and vulcanization time. A
temperature influence at which the vulcanization is performed is shown mainly at
its cure rate and it may be considered in the same matter like chemical reactions on
the basis of Arhenius equation. With the vulcanization time the cross-links content
69
is at first non-linear increased and after the vulcanizing optimum achievement can
be decreases (reverse). At the same time the vulcanizing compound properties are
changing but their dependence on the vulcanization time is different. Some of
vulcanizates properties(4) reach optimum values even before vulcanization
optimum achievement.
Modulus and the tensile strength at breaking are at low elongation proportional to
their crosslink density , eventually reciprocal value of average molecular weight of
rubber macromolecules segments between two cross-links Mc. Their relative
connection is described by the relation:
R T A * ( 2 )
Mc
( is stress, is relative extension, R is gas constant, T is absolute temperature, A*

is the cross sectional area of the test specimen in non-deformable status).
At higher crosslink density tensile strength does not proportionally increase with the
crosslink density increasing but after achievement of optimal value decreases.
Concrete values of strength characteristics of vulcanizate depend on the other
factors mainly on rubber structure and crosslink structure. Most of synthetic rubber
vulcanizates have lower strength than NR vulcanizates, because they can not
crystallize in their macromolecules by different types of structural units (cis, trans,
1.4, 1.2,) or more co-monomer units (e.g. butadiene, styrene, acrylonitrile and
others). Also the vulcanizates with polysulfide cross-links have higher tensile
strength than vulcanizates with monosulfide, eventually carbon-carbon cross-links.
Elongation at break is with the increasing of crosslink density lowered at first and
then is asymptotically approached to minimum value. Vulcanizates hardness is by
the vulcanization time increased like their crosslink density. The highest structural
strength has soft under-vulcanized vulcanizate. After vulcanization optimum
achievement this characteristic together with the time decreased. Elasticity change
is similar to change of modulus. It is proportional to crosslink density and to
relative elongation in all three coordinates. After vulcanization optimum
achievement or at high content of cross-links between rubbers macromolecules can
be with the vulcanization time decreased.
3.1.1 Network
General scheme of vulcanizate network
70
3.1.2 Vulcanization curves
Rheometer curve for vulcanization
3.1.3 Crosslink density
For characterization of network, the most often used is network density and average
molecular weight of rubber segments situated between two cross-links. Both these
characteristics may be determined in the same way, because dependence:
=
Mc
is valid. ( is crosslink density, is rubber density, Mc is molecular weight of rubber
segments between two cross-links).
Sometimes the network of vulcanizates is characterized also with number of crosslinks created in the vulcanizate volume unit. It can be calculated also from network
density under assumption that cross-links are created between two rubber segments:
2
(n is number of cross-links in the vulcanizate volume unit, is its cross-link
density)
n =
Several types of methods are used for determination of these characteristics of the
vulcanizate network. Chemical methods may be used only in that case, when exact
curing mechanism of using cross-linking system is known and either change of the
curing agent or definable products of the low molecule character may be
sufficiently determined in quantitative way. Number of the cross-links n can be
calculated in this case on the basis of material balance of appropriate chemical
equation related to curing.
71
Physical methods are based on evaluation of deformation properties of appropriate

vulcanizates. In case, that these evaluations are performed under low deformations
(<100 %), thus Mc may be calculated from experimentally determined modulus E
(for tensile strain):
E=
3R T
2 Mc
or G (for shearing strain):

E = 3G
(E is Youngs modulus; G is shearing modulus; is rubber density, R is gas constant; T
is absolute temperature; Mc is molecular weight of rubber segments between two
cross-links).
Mooney-Rivlin equation:
= C1 + C 2 1
2 2
( is stress, is relative elongation and C1, C2 are constants)
is used much more often for determination of , eventually Mc because this allows
performing measurements also under higher deformations. Values , eventually Mc
1
RT
may be in this case determined by means of constant C1 ( C1 = R T =
)
2
2 Mc
that is determined graphically from linearized form of Mooney-Rivlin equation.
Crosslink density of unfilled vulcanizates , eventually molecular weight of rubber
segments between two cross-inks Mc may be determined also from kinetics of
vulcanizates swelling in suitable solvent. For the calculation Flory-Rehner
equation is used:
ln(1 Vr ) + Vr + Vr2
Vs Vr1 3 0,5Vr
( is crosslink density, Vr is volume fraction of rubber in equilibrium swolled

vulcanizate sample, Vs is mole volume of used solvent, is Huggins parameter)
Presently also other latter methods are used for characterizing the network of
vulcanizates, e.g. solgel analysis, differential scanning calorimetry, ultrasonic,
small angular neutrons scattering (SANS) in swelled cross-linked gels and also
1
13
methods based on the H NMR and C NMR spectroscopy of swollen and nonswollen vulcanizates.
72
3.1.4 Vulcanizates properties
Change of some properties of rubbers componds during vulcanization.

1 tensile strength, 2 elongation at break, 3 hardness, 4 - elasticity
3.2
Sulfur vulcanization
Sulfur(1) is the oldest vulcanization agent for unsaturated rubbers used in rubber
practice. Its effective and fast link in form of cross-links to rubber macromolecules
occurs only in the presence of accelerators (2 )and activators(3). If these are
missing sulfur reacts with rubbers very slowly and it bonds to rubbers in a form of
side cyclic structures not in a form of sulfur cross-links. These ingredients both
affect also the kinetic parameters of vulcanization temperature and time and
they effects scorch time of vulcanized compounds and sulfur content necessary for
creation of optimal network of vulcanizates. Type and the content of present
accelerators and also the accelerator: sulfur ratio in rubber compounds affect final
properties of vulcanizates mainly their thermo-oxidative stability and some of their
tensile and dynamic properties. The term sulfur curing is often used for sulfur
vulcanization.
From the chemical point of view is sulfur curing of unsaturated elastomers

complicated. A lot of parallel and consequential chemical reactions take place in it.
These reactions can have substitute, addition or also elimination character. The part
on these reactions can take not only original elements of rubber compounds but also
the products of their chemical transformation. In addition unsaturated polymers
normally contain several types of reactive functional groups (reactive hydrogen,
double bonds), which can react with components of sulfur curing system at different
rate and also by different mechanism and during the creation of different
intermediate products or final products take part. In this process take important part
also additional reaction such as isomerization and cyclization of single elastomers
and also the creation of diene and triene structures in their macromolecules. Course
of individual reactions can affect also the specific composition of vulcanization
73
systems mainly the type and content of accelerator or activator, the presence of
retarder or pre-cure inhibitor(4) and the rest ingredients normally presence in
rubber compounds. The study of detailed curing mechanism is obstructed also by
the fact that the final cross-linking product vulcanizate is complicated system
and at his analysis can not be used analytical methods which require the work in
solution or in homogeneous environs.
On the present opinion sulfur vulcanization (4) of unsaturated rubbers in three
stages is preceded. In the first stage the transitional complex is created by element
interaction of vulcanization system. This complex together with rubber creates
active curing agent. In the second stage the primary network of vulcanizate is
created with mainly polysulfide cross-links. During the third stage it is restructured
by modification of cross-links (sulfidity decrease) and rubber macromolecules
(isomerization, dehydrogenation, and cyclization). The final network of vulcanizate
is created. From the point of chemism the first stage prefers the concept about ion
character of reactions leading to the creation of reactive curing agent. During the
next curing stages also the reaction with radical character are allowed. These
reactions lead to the formation of reactive cross-linking fragments and also to the
single creation of cross-links between macromolecules of present rubber eventually
to their changes in the third stage of vulcanization. Formation of complexes (5)
created between accelerator, sulfur and activator and also the creation of cross-links
between rubber macromolecules is in literature described in several ways.
Some of tetraalkylthiuram sulfides and sulfenamides are able to cured unsaturated
rubbers also without sulfur. These are mainly thiuram sulfides with higher number
of
sulfur
atoms
in
sulfur
bridge
(tetramethylthiuram
disulfide,
dipentamethylenethiuram tetra-, eventually hexa- sulfide) and morpholine (or other
amine) derivatives 2-mercaptobenzothiazole or dithiodimorpholine. These
substances are generally called sulfur donors (6) and in the vulcanization process
they generate active sulfur fragments. They are able to react with present rubber
macromolecules and induce its curing. On the present there is not united opinion
that like in a case of vulcanization with the presence of sulfur regarding mechanism
of their effect in the curing process. On one hand there is the expectation that in the
consequence of spontaneous and induced decomposition of thiuram sulfides (except
monosulfides) generate sulfur radicals with one or more sulfur atoms, which are
able to start rubber macromolecules curing. Other authors state that in the inception
stages the vulcanization is ionic process. This process is significantly influenced by
vulcanization activator ZnO. It inducts heterolysis of C-S bond in thiuram disulfides
(7) and consequently heterolysis of other bonds can be take place. It is proposed
that curing of rubber macromolecules in second stage of vulcanization proceeded by
radical mechanism. Higher thiuram sulfides with higher number of atoms in sulfur
bridge (dipentamethylenetetra- and hexa- sulfide) are decomposed at vulcanization
and they generate active sulfur that is taking part in curing. The creation of sulfur
fragments is assumed also in the presence of morpholine of others sulfur donors,
which have multi sulfur bridges in its molecules.
Real sulfur vulcanizate (8) is complicated system. Its basis is network created by
rubber macromolecules which are together connected with chemical cross-links
mainly sulfur-sulfur (eventually carbon-carbon) character. The part of network can
be also different types of physical bonds. These are not only bonds created between
individual macromolecules or segments of sulfur macromolecules following their
74
chemical structure (e.g. hydrogen bridges; polar forces) but also their intramolecular and inter-molecular snarls. In consequence of complicated curing course,
possibilities of cross-links restructuralization in the third vulcanization stage,
creation of cross and others bonds by reactions of rubber macromolecules with
other elements of rubber compound mainly with accelerators and fillers, as well as
in consequence of possibility of incomplete homogenous ingredients mixing to the
whole volume of rubber matrix the three dimensional network of sulfur vulcanizate
is not ideal. Except of final, elastic ineffective chains there are also the places with
different crosslink density. In the network there are also present the others
ingredients attending in vulcanized rubber compounds in chemical transformed as
well as in original form.
Structure of rubber cross-links in sulfur vulcanizates influences several useful
properties of final gummy products. It is affected by several technological
parameters of vulcanization process, but it depends mainly on the accelerator type
and its content in cured rubber compounds. In the presence of slow accelerators are
created mainly polysulfide cross-links (number of sulfur atoms in cross-links is
most often 3 - 6) between rubber macromolecules while in the presence of very fast
accelerators the content of these cross-links is lower.
One of the important factors, which affect cross-link structure, is the ratio of
accelerator and sulfur content in used curing system. In the presence of
conventional sulfur system (9) in rubber compounds (ratio of S: accelerator > 1) are
created in the real time of vulcanization mainly polysulfide cross-links and
vulcanizates generally have good physical-mechanical and dynamical properties
and good fatigue resistance. They are not very good resistant to thermal degradation
mainly because of low bonding energy of rubber cross-links with higher number of
sulfur atoms (C-Sn-C < 250 kJxmol-1).
If the used sulfur system contains less sulfur and the accelerator content is high (EV
systems (10)), eventually sulfur is totally replaced by sulfur donor the number of
sulfur atoms in cross-links is essentially lower. The content of polysulfide crosslinks is practically negligible in comparison with monosulfide and disulfide crosslinks. It is not possible to exclude the creation of carbon-carbon cross-links in these
cases. That is why these vulcanizates are resistant to temperature. Simultaneously
they have lower initial strength characteristics and some of dynamic properties in
comparison with vulcanizates with mostly polysulfide bonds. Their advantage is
slower ageing which can bring them longer useful life. In the presence of semi EV
vulcanization systems (S: accelerator 1 2) are created vulcanizates with all types
of cross-links and also their properties are situated between the conventional and
EV vulcanizates properties.
3.2.1 Sulfur
S u l f u r is a natural material. The most commonly used is its modification,

which is stability at normal temperature. It creates clear yellow crystals of
orthorhombic system in form of octahedrons. By warming it changed to monoclinic
modification. This melts at temperature app.115C and creates bright yellow
75
liquid of modification. The insoluble plastic sulfur with polymeric nature is

formed at fast fall of temperature. It melts at 80 90C temperatures and the
melt interval depends on its polymerization degree, molecular weight distribution,
and degree of crystalline and also on the content of present impurities. For
vulcanization is the most often used oil-extended sulfur. Its purity is usually lest 95
%. The sulfur solubility in rubbers is relatively low (in NR at laboratory
temperature it is app. 1.5% and at 100C it is 7%). If it is insoluble in rubber, it
tends to bloom to the surface of final products. The problems with blooming are
often avoided by using of plastic sulfur. Plastic sulfur is insoluble in rubber and it
does not bloom out (it has polymeric nature). It melts and has tendency to palletize
at processing temperatures. Rubber compounds with plastic sulfur are compounded
at lower temperatures; generally the suggested temperatures are those under 110C.
It is frequently used as rubber dispersions or as a paste.
Elementary sulfur has cyclic eight atoms molecules at normal temperature. Average
energy of the S-S bond in these molecules is ca 252 kJ.mol-1. In the presence of
accelerators and activators it generates sulfur fragments. These under the conditions
of unsaturated rubbers vulcanization that react with reactive groups of rubbers and
create cross-links such as:
.S .
S8
CH2 CH = CH CH 2
HS x +
CH
. CH = CH CH
.S.
CH2 CH = CH CH2
CH CH = CH CH2
Sx
CH CH = CH CH 2
S.
x
CH
CH = CH CH
CH2 CH CH CH2
CH CH = CH CH2
Sx
CH CH = CH CH2
Sulfur is suitable not only for vulcanization of highly unsaturated diene rubber but
also for rubbers with lower content of double bonds e.g. EPDM rubbers. Its
quantization to compounds depends on the curing degree we want to achieve (for
soft products it is app. 0.5 4 phr, for ebonite it is 35 50 phr). It also depends on
the type of vulcanized rubber (for soft rubber from NR it is generally 2.2 2.5 phr,
from SBR it is 1.5 2.2 phr).
76
3.2.2 accelerators
Accelerators are necessary ingredients of all sulfur curing systems. They increase
curing ratio and efficiency of the sulfur bonding to rubber macromolecules in form
of cross-links. From technological point of view their presence in rubber
compounds is very important. They significantly reduce time needed for
vulcanization; they allow reducing the vulcanization temperature and sulfur content
in rubber compounds. They favorably affect also properties of vulcanizates, mainly
their ageing resistance. Simultaneously they reduce possibility of pre-vulcanization
and reversion and also probability of sulfur blooming on surface of rubber products.
The first used accelerators were at the end of 19th century inorganic compounds (the
most often oxides and hydroxides) of lead, zinc, calcium and magnesium. Much
greater importance for expansion of sulfur curing had organic compounds of
nitrogen, mostly aniline and its derivates (1906, Oenslanger) and later also
piperidine, dimethylamine, trimethylamine and their different alkaline derivates.
Also accelerating effect of xanthates and dithiocarbamates was known in this
period, but their usage was limited by small scorch time of vulcanized compounds.
Important progress in possibility to influence process of sulfur curing meant
appearance of accelerating effect of thiazoles compounds (around 1920) and their
amine derivates sulfenamides. Triazine and phosphoric accelerators (1960-1970)
may be included among latter types of accelerators.
Presently exclusively organic compounds (2.1) are used in function of accelerators.
Most of them contain sulfur and nitrogen atoms in their molecules. According to
their chemical composition they are divided into:
aldehydamines
guanidines
thiazoles
sulfenamides
thiurams
dithiocarbamates
xanthates
other accelerators.
In technical practice the accelerators are often evaluated according to their activity
in vulcanization process. According to this criterion they can be divided to:
slow (guanidines, some aldehydamines)
fast (thiazoles)
very fast (thiurams)
ultra fast accelerators (dithiocarbamates, xanthates).

Activity of accelerators in vulcanization process depends also on type of vulcanized
rubber, concrete rubber compound composition and vulcanization conditions.
Exactly the same accelerator can have different effect in different rubber
compounds. Thiazoles are for instance fast accelerators for the most rubbers, but in
compounds of chloroprene rubber they act as weak retarders; similarly also
hexamethylenetetramine is very fast accelerator for chloroprene rubber compounds,
but in compounds of other rubbers it seems like slow accelerator or even as noncoloring antioxidant.
77
Dosage of the accelerators into compounds is different. It depends not only on the
vulcanized rubber type, concrete composition of rubber compounds
and vulcanization conditions, but also on required functional properties of the
rubber product. Usually it is valid, that as the accelerator is more effective, thus its
smaller amount is added into compound, and thus smaller amount of sulfur is
needed for achieving the optimal vulcanizate properties.
A l d e h y d e a m i n e s are condensation products of aldehydes and amines, the most
often aniline, ammoniac or their derivates and also butyraldehyde, crotonylaldehyde
or formaldehyde. Their accelerating effect depends mainly on aldehyde type
and mole ratio of aldehyde and amine in reaction mixture used for their preparation.
Whilst butyraldehydeaniline is very fast accelerator and high network density of
vulcanizates is achieved by its presence in rubber compound,
tricrotonylidenetetramine acts very slowly and hexamethylenetetramine is slower
than guanidines. Aldehydeamines belong to less used accelerators, more often they
are used as secondary accelerators in combination with thiazoles and sulfenamides.
G u a n i d i n e s are slow accelerators with short induction period and broad
vulcanization plateau. In practice the most often used is diphenylguanidine and dio-tolylguanidine, eventually o-tolyl-biguanidine. They have alkaline character.
They are suitable also into compounds containing additives of strongly acidic
character and into compounds filled with SiO2. Vulcanizates prepared under their
presence have relatively high crosslink density and good physical-mechanical
properties; they are less resistant to thermo-oxidative ageing, because polysulfide
cross-links dominate in their network. Guanidines are used as primary accelerators
in particular during production of hard rubber. But they are usually combined with
fast (thiazoles) and very fast accelerators (thiurams), eventually also ultra
accelerators (dithiocarbamates).
T h i a z o l e s belong to fast accelerators frequently used in practice. They are
suitable for vulcanization of high (NR, BR, SBR) and low (IIR, EPDM) unsaturated
rubbers. Their main representatives are 2-mercaptobenzothiazole and bis-(2benzothiazol) disulphide, eventually zinc salt of 2-mercaptobenzothiazole. From
view of vulcanization rate 2-mercaptobenzothiazole is more effective and rubber
compounds with bis-(2-benzothiazol) disulphide have higher scorch time. They
have broad vulcanization plateau but relatively low crosslink density. From this
reason the vulcanizates that are vulcanized under presence of solitary thiazoles does
not have optimal strength and elastic properties. Also from this reason they are very
often combined with other accelerators. In combination with guanidines they create
synergistic systems and these lead not only to increased vulcanization rate, but also
to improved crosslink density of vulcanizates and thus also to improved their final
properties. Combinations with thiurams and dithiocarbamates are used mostly
during curing of rubbers with low unsaturation. Generally, during application of
thiazoles with fast and ultra fast accelerators combinations, the ageing resistance of
vulcanizates is improving.
Sometimes also 2-mercaptobenzothiazole amine derivates are integrated into
thiazoles group, but these are more often marked as su l f e n a m i d e s . This group
of accelerators is characterized by very good scorch time and fast curing in the main
vulcanization phase (thus they belong to fast accelerators). Their activity in
vulcanization process depends mainly on type of amine used during production of
78
appropriate sulfenamide. Normally, increasing of amine alcality shorten

vulcanization induction period and increase curing rate. Among the most frequently
used sulfenamides belong presently N-cyklohexyl-2-benzthiazolsulfenamide,
tertbutyl-2-benzothiazolsulfenamide
(TBBS)
and dicyklohexyl-2benzothiazolsulfenamide (DCBS), whilst for scorch time of compounds CBS <
TBBS < DCBS is valid and for curing rate in the main vulcanization phase DCBS <
TBBS < CBS. Sulfenamide accelerators are suitable also for EV and semi-EV
systems. In combination with thiurams and dithiocarbamates they create very
effective accelerating systems giving good scorch time, fast curing and reduced
reversion. The vulcanizates have good ageing resistance. Presently also some other
types of sulfenamides are known, it means bis-sulfenamides, sulfenamide derivates
of pyrimidine and dialkyldithiocarbamylsulfenamides. Under their presence the
rubber compounds have not only very good scorch time, but also high curing rate
and high crosslink density. Some sulfenamides (e.g. N-morfolyl-2benzothiazolsulfenamide) are source of N-nitrosamines that are dangerous to health.
T h i u r a m s are very fast accelerators suitable also for vulcanization of low
unsaturated rubbers and into semi-EV and EV vulcanization systems. Mutually they
differ by character of the substituents in amine groups (e.g. methyl-, ethyl-,
pentamethylene-) and number of sulfur atoms in sulfur bridges (1, 2, 4, 6). With
increasing number of sulfur atoms their stability decreases and they are easily
decomposed with sulfur creation. Their main representatives are tetramethyltiuram
disulfide and tetraethylthiuram disulfide. They are used very often in combination
with other accelerators, mostly with sulfenamides and thiazoles. They are used also
as sulfur donors. Their disadvantage is generation of secondary amines in
vulcanization process; these are potential source of dangerous to health Nnitrosamines. These unwanted effects are not obtained by thiurams with hindered
substituents in amine groups (e.g. benzyl-, piperidyl-). They are used also as sulfur
donors.
D i t h i o c a r b a m a t e s are metallic (the most often salts of Zn and Na, but also
Se, Te, Pb, Cd, Bi) or ammonium salts of dithiocarbamoic acids. Except the cation
type they can differ also by type of alkyl substituents (methyl-, ethyl-, butyl-,
pentamethylene-) in dithiocarbamate group. Dithiocarbamates are polar compounds
with low solubility in non-polar rubbers, thus they bloom at higher concentrations.
Their solubility in rubbers is usually increased with increasing of carbons number in
alkyl substituents. They belong to ultra fast accelerators; some of them operate
already under laboratory temperature. Vulcanization runs very fast under their
presence; practically without induction period, thus they are much more often used
in combination with slower accelerators. Some of them are soluble in water. They
are used not only during vulcanization of rubber and latex compounds, but also
rubber solutions. Secondary amines able of nitrosation may be created in their
presence.
X a n t h a t e s are metallic, predominantly zincous salts of the xanthtic acids. They
belong to ultra fast accelerators. They are used mainly during vulcanization of latex
systems (e.g. during foam-rubber production) and rubber solutions. Some of them
are soluble in water. As they cause very fast vulcanization they are suggested for
lower vulcanization temperatures application, the most often from 80 to 110 C.
79
Other accelerators include mainly such new types of accelerators as different

triazines and sulfides or metallic and amine salts of dialkyldithiophosphoric acids.
The 3-mercapto-triazine belongs to the simplest triazines, but also their disulfide
and sulfenamide derivates are known. Dithiophosphates are fast accelerators. The
best known from them are zinc salts of dialkyltiophosphate acids and bis(diisopropyl) tiophosphoryl disulfide (DIPDIS). They are suggested mainly for
EPDM vulcanization, but they accelerate also sulfur vulcanization of diene rubbers.
Sometimes also thioureas are placed among the other accelerators; they are used
during vulcanization of chloroprene rubbers.
3.2.2.1 Organic compounds
Chemical structure of the most used accelerators and sulfur donors
Name and usual

abbreviation
Chemical structure
Efficiency
Aldehydamines
N= CH - CH - CH - CH3
Butyraldehydeaniline
very fast accelerator, leads to

high crosslink density
(BAA)
CH2
N
Hexamethylene-
C H2
very slow accelerator, used

only as secondary accelerator
C H2
N
tetramine
C H2
(HEXA)
C H2
C H2
N
CH3
NH CH
C H2
CH 2 CH
Tricrotonylidene-
H 3C C H
CH
NH
NH C H
very slow accelerator for hard

rubber, used as secondary
accelerator
C H2 C H
tetramine
CH3
(TCT)
Guanidines
Diphenylguanidine
(DPG)
NH
C
NH
NH
slow accelerator, used

predominantly as secondary
accelerator
80
CH3
Di-o-tolylguanidine
slow accelerator, used

predominantly as secondary
accelerator
H 3C
NH
(DOTG)
NH
NH
Thiazoles
2-mercaptobenzo-
fast, frequently used

accelerator; it is used
preferably in combination with
other accelerators
N
C
thiazole
SH
(MBT)
N
Dibenzothiazyl
disulfide
fast accelerator with slightly

delayed start
(MBTS)
Sulfenamides
N-cyclohexyl-2-
fast accelerator with scorch

delay, used also in semi EV
and EV systems
N
C
benzthiazol
NH
sulfenamide
(CBS)
Dicyclohexyl-2benzthiazol
sulfenamide
N
C
accelerator with longer

scorch delay and lower cure
ratio than CBS
(DCBS)
N-tert.butyl-2benzthiazol
sulfenamide
CH3
N
C
NH
CH3
C H3
accelerator with shorter

scorch delay and lower cure
ratio than CBS
(TBBS)
Noxydiethylenedithiocarbamyl-N'oxydiethy-lene
sulfenamide
CH2 CH2
CH CH
2
N C S N
CH2 CH2
CH CH
accelerator with scorch

delay and high cure rate,
used also in combinations
with others accelerators
(OTOS)
NCH2 CH2
oxydiethylenedithioO
carbamyl-N'CH2 CH2
tert.butyl
sulfenamide
accelerator with scorch

delay and high cure rate,
C CH3 used also in combinations
with other accelerators
CH
CH3
N
C
S
NH
81
(OTTBS)
Thiurams
Tetramethylthiuram
disulfide (TMTD)
Tetraethylthiuram
disulfide (TETD)
R
R
N C S S C N
very fast accelerators, used

also in semi EV and EV
systems; sulfur donors
R = meth
ethy
benz
Tetrabenzylthiuram
disulfide (TBzTD)
CH 3
Tetramethylthiuram
monosulfide
(TMTM)
N C S
CH 3
CH3
CH3
very fast accelerators, used

also in semi EV and EV
systems
Dithiocarbamates
Zinc dimethyldithiocarbamate (ZDMC) metal
R
Me
S
N
R
Zinc diethyldithio- ammonium
carbamate (ZDEC)
+x
Me
S
x
= ultra accelerators, used also

at low (room) temperatures
and for vulcanization of
latex compounds
=
methyl
ethyl
Xanthates
Zinc
isopropylxanthate
(ZIX)
Sodium
isopropylxanthate
(NaIX)
CH3
S
C
+x
Me Me =
CH 3
the fastest ultra accelerators,

used predominantly for
Zn vulcanization of latex
Na compounds
Other accelerators
R2
R1
N
Triazines
R3
R4
N
N
SH
base compound, used only

occasionally, in small
amounts, during
vulcanization of the largescale products;
3-mercaptotriazine
82
R1
R2
Me + x
R1 = R 2 = alkyl
R1 = R2 = alkyl
R1, R 2 = izopropyl
Dithiophosphates
They have optimum

accelerating effect in
combination with thiazoles
n-butyl
terc.butyl
2-etylhexyl
Me = most frequently Zn
Bis-disopropylthiophosphoryl disulfide
H 7C 3
H7 C 3 O
(DIPDIS)
C 3H 7
C 3H 7
Other sulfur donors

Dipentamethylenethiuram
sulfide
CH2
H2 C
CH 2
CH
CH
x = 4 or 6
Dithiodimorfoline
CH2 CH2
2-morfolinodithiobenzothiazole
(CLD)
Bis(diethyl-thiocarbamoyldisulfido) hexane
C2 H5
CH2 CH 2
CH CH
2
CO CH CH2
2
N
CH CH CH2
2
N C S S (CH2 ) S S C N
6
CH CH
C H
CH
N S S N
CH2 CH2 CH2
CH2
CH CH
CH2 CH CO
CH2
CH
MBSS
CH2
N
CH2 CH2
(DTDM)
Caprolactamdisulfide
Sx C
C2 H5
C2 H5
83
3.2.3 Activators
Optimum influence of sulphur vulcanization systems is achieved under participation

of activators. For this purpose inorganic as well as organic compounds are used in
practice. From the inorganic compounds these are mostly metal oxides and from
organic compounds higher fatty acids and their salts, some amines or their
derivates. In general it is assumed that matters increasing pH of the vulcanization
compositions have activation effect.
The most widely known activator of the sulfur vulcanization is ZnO. Practically, it
is always used in combination with suitable fatty acid, the most frequently stearic or
lauric acid. Sometimes zinc salts or combinations of acids and their zinc salts
replace these acids. Activation effect of ZnO is ascribed mostly to its ability to
create complexes generating curing sulfuric fragments with sulfur and accelerators.
Participating acids increase solubility of these complexes in rubbers; they improve
dispersive capacity of powder additives in compounds and sometimes they also
prolong induction period of the vulcanization. ZnO may act as filler or white
coloring agent in rubber compositions, too. In addition to this metal oxide also MgO
is used as ingredient in rubber compunds and mostly as component of curing
systems of CR rubbers or also during vulcanization of some special rubbers, e.g.
ACM, CSM, CO. Also PbO and Pb3O4 have activation effect in the sulfur
vulcanization systems but these are used only exceptionally.
3.2.4 Sulfur vulcanization
R e t a r d e r s reduce the curing rate in the main phase of the vulcanization, they
slightly increase processing safety of the compounds, but their presence in rubber
compounds may cause also reduction of crosslink density of vulcanizates. Such
effect on sulfur vulcanization have substances of acidic character, as slightly
organic acids, mostly phthalic acid and phthalic anhydride, benzoic acid, salicylic
acid, maleic acid and others. Similar effect has also colophony and some types of
natural bitumen. Most of them may be used also into compounds for color products,
because it does not change or changes only very little their color.
From practical point of view, so-called pre-cure inhibitors are more important.
Those are additives prolonging induction period of vulcanization, but they do not
have significant influence on the curing rate in the main vulcanization phase. Under
their presence the processing safety of compounds is improved without
prolongation of the optimum vulcanization time and crosslink density of
vulcanizates was reduced. Such acting additives contain for instance Nnitrosodiphenylamine (it is used only very little, because it has detrimental
consequences on health), dithiodichlormethane, N-thiosulphonic amides and Nthioimides. Presently, the most often used pre-cure inhibitors of vulcanization is Ncyclohexylthiophtalimide:
84
O
C
C
O
N-cyclohexylthiophtalimide
It is the most efficient in compounds with sulfenamide accelerators. It is added only

in small amounts into rubber compounds, approximately 0.1 0.5 phr. Its efficiency
is small when combined with other accelerators.
3.2.5 Formation of complexes
Sulfur, accelerator, activator

Sulfur donor, activator
Active sulfurating complex

X - Sy - H,X
Rubber RH
Cross-linking precursor
R - Sy - X
Initial polysulfide cross-links

R - Sx - R
Shortening of cross-links
Main-chain modification
and additional cross-linking (dehydrogenation, cyclization, isomerization)
Degradation of cross-links
S-S bond interchange
Vulcanizate network
R rubber chain, H allylic hydrogenous atom, X accelerator residue.
85
Creation of initial polysulfidic crosslinks in the presence of 2mercaptobenzothiazoleand ZnO
3.2.6 Sulfur donors
Sulfur donors are compounds that are able to create cross-links of sulfuric or
carbon character between macromolecules of vulcanized rubber also under very low
sulfur content (less than 0.5 phr), eventually also without sulfur presence. In
practice, two types of compounds are used for this purpose. On the one hand those
are some fast and very fast accelerators having besides accelerating also curing
effect. There belong mostly accelerators with at least two sulfur atoms in the sulfur
bridges, as thiurams and also some sulfenamides (2.1 2.3.2). These sulfur donors
are used mostly in EV sulfur systems with low sulfur content. Vulcanization in their
presence runs in similar way as under presence of higher sulfur content; only some
of its kinetic parameters and also crosslink density of vulcanizates and number of
sulfur atoms in created cross-links are changed. The other type of donors may
integrate compounds having only curing effect. Those are for instance
dithiodimorpholine (presently it is practically no longer used because it generates
nitrosable morpholine at curing), dicaprolactamsulfides, and dithioalkanes. Under
presence of such sulfur donors the vulcanization runs in accordance with its own
kinetic principle.
86
3.2.7 Thiuram disulfides
Possible reactions of tetramethylthiuram disulfide in initial stage of sulfur curing
3.2.8 Sulfur vulcanizate
Sx
Sn
Sz
Sz
b
S
Sy
Acc l
C
ENM
k
Sn
S S
C
General scheme of sulfur vulcanizate network

a monosulfide cross-links, b disulfide cross-links, c polysulfide cross-links (x
= 3-6), d polysulfide cross-links across more than two rubber macromolecules, e
vicinal cross-links, f carbon - carbon cross-links, g, j cyclic sulfide, h, i
conjugate fragments of rubber macromolecules, l accelerator fragment, k
chemical unbounded additives or products of their chemical changes.
87
3.2.9 Conventional sulfur system
Influence of curing time at 140 on network structure of NR vulcanizates
(S = 2.5 phr, N-cyclohexyl-2-benzthiazole sulfenamide = 0.6 phr). Mc molecular

weight of rubber segments between two cross-links, -S- monosulfide cross-links, -SS- disulfide cross-links, -Sn- polysulfide cross-links, Total total cross-links.
3.2.10 EV systems
Influence of curing time at 140 on network structure of NR vulcanizates

(S = 0.4 phr, N-cyclohexyl-2-benzthiazole sulfenamide = 6.0 phr). Mc molecular weight
of rubber segments between two cross-links, -S- monosulfide cross-links, -S-S- disulfide
cross-links, -Sn- polysulfide cross-links, Total total cross- links.
88
3.3
Peroxide vulcanization
By o r g a n i c p e r o x i d e s can be vulcanized saturated (e.g. EPM, EVM, CM, Q,

some of FKM) and also unsaturated (e.g. EPDM, SBR, NBR, NR) rubbers. They
were first used specifically dibenzoyl peroxide - for NR cross-linking in 1915 by
Ostromyslenskij. However, wider practical application for them was found later
mainly at saturated EPM and Q cross-linking. On the present they are used as
vulcanization agents of unsaturated rubbers most often if it is necessary to produce
gum resistant to temperature or at vulcanization of compounds consist of
combination of saturated and unsaturated rubbers.
Organic peroxides (1) used in function of vulcanization agents belong according to
their chemical composition to aliphatic, aromatic but also to mixed peroxides and
some of them have even more than one peroxide group. Most of them generates at
thermal decomposition and possible following fragmentation of primary peroxide
cumyloxy-, terc. butyloxy-, phenyl-, benzoyl- or methyl- radicals:
CH3
CH 3
C
C H3
cumyloxy radical
CH3 C
O.
.
CH3
terc. butyloxy radical
phenylradical
benzoylradicals
CH3
methylradical
The basic assumption for the selection of suitable peroxide except of its ability to
cross-linking of rubber compounds is the fact that it is stable at preparation and
processing of and it extend fast at vulcanization temperature. These requirements
are fulfilled mainly by peroxides where the peroxide group is fixed to tertiary
carbon. Peroxides with peroxide group fixed to primary or secondary carbon are
less stable. Less stable are also peroxides with carboxyl group in molecules. The
rate of its decomposition is quickening by oxygen but they are less sensitive to
presence of the acidic nature substances. That is why dibenzoylperoxide is suitable
only for vulcanization at temperatures lower than 130C where at temperature
around 50C can give out to decreasing of processing safety of rubber compounds.
In the case of dicumylperoxide are these temperatures higher and they are around
170 or 120C.
Generally it suggests that cross-linking of rubber macromolecules by peroxides has
radical character. Its primary act is homolytic dissociation of peroxide to radicals,
their possible fragmentation and consequential reactions with present rubber
molecules. At cross-linking of diene polymers are reactive -methylene hydrogens
attended at these reactions. The incipient rubber radicals are recombined at the
creation of intermolecular CC links. At the same time also addition reactions of
rubber radicals to unsaturated bonds of rubber macromolecules can run over. In the
case of EPDM rubbers (2) the creation of chemical cross-links by addition to
double bonds in its unsaturated structural units (mostly norbornene type) practically
equal to recombination of rubber macroradicals. At polydiene cross-linking, mainly
of polyisoprene type, is the contribution of these reaction relatively small. They are
applying more remarkable only at cross-linking of polybutadiene with higher
content of 1.2 butadiene units or its copolymers. At EPM cross-linking or others
89
saturated rubbers (e.g. Q) cross-links between macromolecules are created only by

mutual recombination of polymer radicals.
Efficiency of peroxide cross-linking increases in the presence of coactivators (3).
The most often these are bi- or multifunctional substances with olefinic double
bonds like allylic (triallyl-izo-cyanurate, diallylphtalate, diallylitaconate,
triallylphosphate) and vinyl substances (ethylene glycol dimethacrylate and others
di-, tri-, tetra- and penta-methacrylates) or different derivates of maleic acid (mphenylenediamine-bis-maleinimide). Following its polarity are these substances
slightly soluble in non-polar rubbers and create there aggregates. It is assumed that
during the vulcanization they are able to rapidly react with rubber macroradicals
and take part in creation of small thermosetic particles(4) which can be part of
vulcanizate network.
However, organic peroxides at rubber cross-linking do not take place in the
reactions leading to the formation of cross-links between rubber macromolecules
alone. In the case that rubber radicals terminates by disproportional reactions the
cross-link is not created between them. Reactive peroxide radicals can also react
with rubber macromolecules so that the fragmentation appears in same cases (e.g. at
IIR rubber (5)) and also their degradation is given out.
Vulcanization by peroxide systems is normally done at temperatures of 140180C.
At the suitable selection of peroxide and vulcanization temperature does appear
neither pre-cure nor reversion. Vulcanizates have good resistance to temperature
and they have good electrical characteristics. In comparison with sulfur vulcanizates
they are less elastic and have worse dynamic characteristics, worse tensile strength,
structural resistance and also the resistance to wearing. Peroxide vulcanization
systems do not generally cause the vulcanizate color change. However they are
relatively expensive. Their disadvantage is also the possibility of their reactions
with the other ingredients in rubber compounds (e.g. antidegradants). Following
abovementioned their effective content in rubber compounds decreases and in the
case of some non-reacted participation in the vulcanizates they can become
potential source of oxidation-degradation reactions. That is why vulcanization time
is approximately longer than half-time of used peroxide decomposition at
vulcanization temperature.
90
3.3.1 Organic peroxides

Examples of the peroxides used for vulcanization
Peroxide
Chemical formula
C
Dibenzoylperoxide
Cl
Bis (2,4-dichloro)benzoylperoxide
Cl
Cl
C
Di-terc.butylperoxide
CH3
CH3
CH3 C
C H3
CH 3
O
CH3
CH3 C
C H3
O C
CH3
CH3
CH3
1,4-bis(terc.butylperoxyisopropyl)
benzene
CH3
CH3 C O O C
CH3
2,5-bis-(terc.butylperoxy)-2,5dimethylhexane
CH3 C O
CH3
O C
CH3 C
CH3
CH
C CH3
CH3
CH3
C H2 CH2 C
CH 3
O O
CH3
CH3
CH3
CH3
4,4 di-terc.butylperoxy-nbutylvalerate
CH 3
CH3
CH3
CH3
CH3
C
CH3
CH3
C
C H3
C H3
Terc.butylcumylperoxide
CH3
C
CH3
CH3
Dicumylperoxide
Cl
C O
O C CH3
CH2 CH2 C O C4 H9
O
91
3.3.2 EPDM rubbers

ROOR
peroxidu
peroxide rozklad
decomposition
E
RO.
ROH
norbornn
norbornene
EPDM
separation
odtepenie
of H
H
norbornn
norbornene
EPDM
+ EPDM
adcia
addition
+ EPDM
kombincia
combination
norbornn
norbornene
norbornn
norbornene
norbornn
norbornene
norbornn
norbornene
cross-link
priena
vzba
EPDM
EPDM
prenos
H
transmission
of H
norbornene
norbornn
norbornene
norbornn
cross-link
priena vzba
Simplified reaction scheme of peroxide cross-linking of EPDM
92
3.3.3 Coactivators
Examples of co-vulcanization agents used during peroxide vulcanization
O
C H2
Triallylisocyanurate
CH
CH2 N
O
C H2 C H
N
CH2
CH2 C H
Triallylphosphate
CH2
CH
CH
CH2
CH
C H2
CH2
CH
CH2
O
C H2
Ethyleneglycol dimethacrylate
O
O
CH2 CH2
C H2
CH
CH 3
O
M-phenylenediamine-bis-maleinimide
CH 2
HC
HC
O
N
N
CH
CH
3.3.4 Thermosetic particles
+ X
EPM .
(CH = CH2 )
.C H
C H2
CH = CH2
n X ( CH = CH2 ) 2 +
( CH2 C H X CH = CH 2 ) n
H C = CH
2
CH
C H2
( CH 2
H2C = CH X
CH
CH
C H2
CH = CH2 ) n
priena
vzba
Cross
link
Probable creation of the thermosetic particles of co-vulcanization agents

in EPM vulcanizate
93
3.3.4 IIR rubber
CH3
CH3
CH2
CH3
|
|
|
|
RO + ~~ CH2 C CH2 C ~~ ROH + ~~ CH2 C CH2 C ~~
|
|
|
|
CH3
CH3
CH3
CH3
CH2
||
~~ CH2 C
|
CH3
CH3
|
CH2 C ~~
|
CH3
IIR degradation in presence of peroxide radicals
94

Rubber Chemistry

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RUBBER

generate reactive forms of rubber macromolecules - radicals in most cases. They

Matador Rubber s.r.o. 2007

Matador Rubber s.r.o. 2007

3.2 SULFUR VULCANIZATION ..........................................................................................................73

Matador Rubber s.r.o. 2007

RUBBERS GENERAL BACKGROUND OF

plantation way in warm (average monthly temperature 25 28 C) and humid

and polymolecularity Mw/Mn approximately from 2.5 to 10. In non-vulcanized

NR latex in Hevea Brasiliensis is located in latex vessels to be founded in various

Latex particle size distribution in mature tress of clone RRIM 600

Section through rubber particles from latex (magnification: x 9 000)

Matador Rubber s.r.o. 2007

Composition of fresh NR latex

Some fundamental of synthetic rubbers production

Matador Rubber s.r.o. 2007

coordination polymerization and copolymerization, which are the most

Matador Rubber s.r.o. 2007

Matador Rubber s.r.o. 2007

transfer (on chain

Simplified reaction scheme of radical polymerization

Matador Rubber s.r.o. 2007

Simplified reaction scheme of radikal copolymerization

Matador Rubber s.r.o. 2007

Simplified reaction scheme of branching and cross-linking during polymerization or

Matador Rubber s.r.o. 2007

Simplified reaction scheme of anionic polymerization of butadiene

new active centre

Matador Rubber s.r.o. 2007

Butadiene structural units

The largest portion of the globally produced BR is obtained by the coordination

Matador Rubber s.r.o. 2007

Microstucture of some BR types

Ti-BR Co-BR Ni-BR Li-BR Alfin-BR

S t y r e n e - b u t a d i e n e rubbers (SBR) are copolymers of styrene and butadiene.

Structural units of styrene-butadiene rubber

Free radical copolymerization of butadiene and styrene in emulsion (E-SBR) takes

Matador Rubber s.r.o. 2007

depending on type of termination agent can be prepared linear, branched or star

compounds require use of efficient softeners and processing additives. Degradation

Glass transition temperature Tg, C

Glass transition temperature Tg of some SBR.1 cis-SBR, 2 E-SBR, 3 L-SBR (19

Matador Rubber s.r.o. 2007

Microstructure and macrostructure of L-SBR

Buna VSL 2525-0 (Bayer)

Buna VSL 5025-1

SBR Duradene 715

SBR SL 574 *** (JSR)

SBR 1500 (emulsion)

SBR NS 116 ** (Nippon

BR Taktene 1203 (Polysar)

A c r y l o n i t r i l e - b u t a d i e n e rubbers (NBR) are special rubbers. They are

Matador Rubber s.r.o. 2007

Structural units of the NBR rubbers

The ratio of monomer reactivity ratio of butadiene r b u and acrylonitrile r a is at the

oils) there have to be not volatile antidegradants added to the compounds.

The influence of the copolymerization conversion on the butadiene content in

Matador Rubber s.r.o. 2007

Glass transition temperature Tg, C

The influence of the acrylonitrile content on glass transition temperature of NBR.