SHIPS AND OFFSHORE STRUCTURES Theory, Analysis, and Design Methodology for Ship Maneuverability Takeshi Fuwa

and Tatsuo Kashiwadani

THEORY, ANALYSIS, AND DESIGN METHODOLOGY FOR SHIP

MANEUVERABILITY
Takeshi Fuwa
Japan Ship Technology Research Association, Japan
Tatsuo Kashiwadani
Defense Technology Foundation, Japan
Keywords: Ship hydrodynamics, ship motions and control, response to steering, safety
of navigation, IMO maneuvering standard, auto pilot system, ship design procedure

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Contents
1. Preface
2. Principle of Steering
3. Basic Equation of Ship Steering Motion
3.1. Virtual Masses and Virtual Moment of Inertial
3.2. The Characteristics of Hydrodynamic Damping Forces and Propeller, Rudder
Exciting Forces
3.2.1. Forces and Moment due to the Ship Motion
3.2.2. Forces and Moment due to the Propeller Action
3.2.3. Force and Moment due to the Rudder Action
3.3. The Estimation and Utilization of the Equations
4. Response to Rudder Steering
4.1. Equation of Response to Rudder Steering
4.2. Indices of Ship Maneuverability
4.2.1. Index of Turning Ability
4.2.2. Index of Course Keeping Stability
4.3. Simplified Equation of Response; 1st Order Equation of Response
4.4. Zigzag Test and Application of the 1st Order Equation of Response
4.5. Unstable Ships in Course Stability
5. Navigation and Maneuverability
5.1. Autopilot System
5.2. Application of Control Theory to Autopilot System
6. Safety and Maneuverability
6.1. Human Factor and Ship Handling Simulator
6.2. Maneuverability of VLCC
6.3. Automatic Navigation System and Traffic Control
7. Maneuverability in Ship Design
7.1. Design Routine and Application of Numerical Simulation
7.2. Flow Field and Hydrodynamic Aspect of Maneuverability
8. Closing Remarks
Glossary
Bibliography
Biographical Sketches

Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS)

SHIPS AND OFFSHORE STRUCTURES Theory, Analysis, and Design Methodology for Ship Maneuverability Takeshi Fuwa
and Tatsuo Kashiwadani

Summary
Ships are vital in world trade and logistics, and maneuverability is an important ability
of ships to perform the navigation and mission of the voyage. Maneuverability is
essential for the operation and soundness of any ship from the danger of collisions and
stranding. It is directly related to the safety of the ship, and composed of turning, course
change, course keeping, speed change and stopping ability etc. The dynamics of ship
motion and structures of hydrodynamic forces and moment in a simultaneous equation
of motion, the so-called hydrodynamic model, are explained first. Simplified
differential equations of ship motion to the steering response in a different viewpoint
and approach are also shown. It is called response model. These dynamic theories and
models are principle of maneuverability, and they are applied to auto-pilot system
design and other advanced navigation systems.

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In the latter part, navigation and ship control are discussed in the relationship between
ship maneuverability and ship safety. A large time constant of steering response and the
directional instability of very large crude oil carriers (VLCC) require the seamen to
work under extreme pressure. The Maneuvering Standard of International Maritime
Organization (IMO) had been established after tragic maritime accidents and
environmental pollution by heavy oil spills. A land based marine traffic control and
information support is also necessary for the safe navigation in congested waters. Ships
are designed primary in economical point of view, but maneuverability as capability of
ship performance for safe navigation is also quite important in practice. Improvement of
ship maneuverability in various approaches including onboard navigation equipments
and bridge design etc. are introduced.
1. Preface

Maneuverability is defined as performance ability of ships related to ship motion due to

steering. It is an important ability of ships to perform the navigation and mission of the
voyage. Because maneuverability is essential for the operation and soundness of ship in
averting the danger of collisions and stranding, it is directly related to the safety of ship.
It is composed of turning, course change, course keeping, speed change, stopping ability
etc. The dynamics of ship motion and structures of hydrodynamic forces and moment
are explained first. A different explanation of ship response to the steering is also
shown.
Auto-Pilot systems were developed and applied in practice in 1920s as automation of
steering devices for keeping heading angle of ships. At present the system is not be
considered as a steering device but a total navigation system inevitable at ocean and
congested water ways.
Ships are vital in world trade and logistics, and shipping business and shipbuilding
industries both have world market, and ships are designed primary in economical point
of view. After tragic maritime accidents, especially heavy oil spills from huge tanker
disasters and their environmental pollution, IMO (International Maritime Organization)
had established the Maneuvering Standard in order to shut out so-called Sub-Standard
Ships. Because a large time constant of steering response and the directional instability

Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS)

SHIPS AND OFFSHORE STRUCTURES Theory, Analysis, and Design Methodology for Ship Maneuverability Takeshi Fuwa
and Tatsuo Kashiwadani

of very large crude oil carriers (VLCC required seamen to work under severe
pressures, sometimes beyond human ability. Maneuverability of ships as capability of
ship to perform the safe navigation which is quite important in practice is also discussed.
Improvement of ship maneuverability, onboard navigation equipments and bridge
design are achieved as well as skill up training by ship handling simulators with real
time computer graphics contribute to maritime safety and environmental protection. A
land based marine traffic control and information support by the Maritime Authority is
also necessary to keep the safety level of navigation in congested waters, is introduced.
2. Principle of Steering

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When a ship is running in a straight course with a constant propeller rotation and
midship rudder position, a rudder movement induces the ship to turn and the heading
angle changes. Keeping the rudder angle constant, the ship reaches a steady turning
condition with constant radius within a few minutes. The plots of the inverse of radius
of circular trace of the ship against the rudder angle give r ~ curve which represents
turning ability of the ship. A ship in a steady turning condition is shown in Figure 1,
where R, r ,V , represents radius of turning, angular velocity of turning, ship speed
and drifting angle respectively.

Figure 1. Steady turning state and spiral curve

A transition from straight forward running condition to a steady turning by a rudder

movement is easily understood. Lets see the principle and dynamic mechanism of the
steering (see Figure 2). For a ship running straight forward with a constant speed, its
resistance balances with propeller thrust in longitudinal direction. Hydrodynamic force
in lateral direction acting on the ship in the condition is zero, because flow field is
symmetrical in the lateral direction and hydrodynamic pressures on the hull surface in
port and starboard balance each other.
Flow field near ship stern and rudder changes by the movement of rudder.

Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS)

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SHIPS AND OFFSHORE STRUCTURES Theory, Analysis, and Design Methodology for Ship Maneuverability Takeshi Fuwa
and Tatsuo Kashiwadani

Figure 2. Schematic explanation of transition from straight running to turning

By means of aerofoil effect of the rudder, lift force acting on the rudder induces
rotational moment to turn the ship hull slightly. Then the hull has drift angle to the main
flow and induces lateral force and rotational moment. The lateral force on the hull is lift
force when the hull is considered as a wing. Even the lift coefficient is a poor
characteristic because the wing has small aspect ratio and big thickness, a large area
makes comparable force as rudder lift. Moreover unstable hydrodynamic moment on the
hull, called as Munk moment (Ashley 1965, Newman 1977), plays an important role in
the turning motion.
When these hydrodynamic forces and moments and inertial force and moment balance,
the ship reaches steady turning condition. Hydrodynamic force acting on the rudder is
similar to the lift of wing of birds or airplane.
In order to understand or study more precise mechanism of ship steering, equations of
ship motion should be introduced. The equation of motion is based mainly upon
Newtons Law.
3. Basic Equation of Ship Steering Motion

Consider a ship running with constant speed in still water and calm air. The
maneuvering motion of the ship due to rudder steering is described by the yaw angle
(heading direction angle), forward speed u , transverse speed v of the center of
gravity of a ship and the rudder steering angle (drift angle = v u ). See the
coordinate system and positive direction of those quantities in Figure 3, where the
positive direction of each quantity is shown by the arrow head. The positive rudder
angle is defined as it generates the positive yawing. The dynamic behavior of these
quantities is governed also by the Newtons laws of rigid body dynamics. It can be

Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS)

SHIPS AND OFFSHORE STRUCTURES Theory, Analysis, and Design Methodology for Ship Maneuverability Takeshi Fuwa
and Tatsuo Kashiwadani

written by the following equations with respect to the axes fixed on a ship shown in
Figure 3, introduced as the Eulers equations.(Crane 1989, Motora 1982, Hirano 201)
mu mvr = X (u, v, r , , u, v, r)

mv + mur = Y (u, v, r , , u, v, r)

I r = N (u, v, r , , u, v, r)

(1)

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where, the dot denotes differentiation with respect to time and

m ; Mass of the ship
I ; The moment of inertia respect to the vertical axis at the center of gravity of the ship
X , Y ; Longitudinal and transverse hydrodynamic forces acting on the ship
N ; Hydrodynamic moment respect to ships center of gravity
r ; Angular velocity of turn, which has the relation, r =  ; it is also called yawing rate.

Figure 3. Coordinate system of maneuvering motion

3.1. Virtual Masses and Virtual Moment of Inertial

The hydrodynamic forces have the components proportional to the acceleration of the
body. The proportional factors are called added masses and added moments of inertia.
They come from the mass of water around the ship in steering motion. Denote the
longitudinal and transverse added masses mx , m y and added moment of inertia J z ,
the equation of motion is described as (Lamb 1932, Inoue 1964)

(m + mx )u (m + my )vr = X (u, v, r , )

(m + my )v + (m + mx )ur = Y (u , v, r , )

( I z + J z )r = N (u , v, r , )

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(2)

SHIPS AND OFFSHORE STRUCTURES Theory, Analysis, and Design Methodology for Ship Maneuverability Takeshi Fuwa
and Tatsuo Kashiwadani

Here the rest of those hydrodynamic forces are represented as X , Y , N . The

terms, (m + mx ) , (m + m y ) and ( I z + J z ) are called virtual masses and virtual moment

of inertia which are typical terms seen in ship motions compared with those of airplane.
The added mass is proportional to the fluid density around the body; therefore it is
not negligible in ship motion and is negligible in air plane, because the values are
comparable to the mass of the ship, according to the hydrodynamic theoretical
calculation and experimental results. (Newman 1977, Saunders 1965, Motora 1959,
Motora 1960a, Motora 1960b)

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The added mass and added moment of inertia are derived from the analysis of inviscid
fluid while the rest of the terms of the hydrodynamic forces are derived from viscous
effect of the water. It is remarkable that the second terms of the top two equations have
added masses. Those terms indicate the centrifugal forces of the ship in turning motion
and they are also affected by added masses (Lamb 1932).

3.2. The Characteristics of Hydrodynamic Damping Forces and Propeller, Rudder

Exciting Forces

X , Y , N in the right hand side of Eqs. (2) are called hydrodynamic damping forces and
moment because of the dependence upon the velocities of the ship, u , v and r . They
consist of the forces or moment acting on the hull, propeller and rudder. They are
dependent on the shapes and configurations of the hull, propeller and rudder, affected by
the flow field conditions as well as the working condition such as propeller revolution
and rudder angle.
X = XM + XP + XR

Y = YM + YP + YR

N = N M + N P + N R
In this expression each subscript means as follows.

(3)

M; force or moment due to ship motion

P; force or moment due to propeller action
R; force or moment due to rudder action

The representation of X , Y , N as functions of those velocities is much complicated. The

flow field around hull is very difficult to analyze theoretically because of the viscous
effect and the sophisticated geometry of the hull surface. It is also affected by the
propeller slip stream and rudder working very closely with each other. By these terms
hydrodynamic interactions of the ship hull, the propeller and rudder and their movement
are represented. Then there can be considered several models of those effects, but a
perfect representation has not been established yet. It is hard to show it reasonably in
the detail. So lets see the characteristics of those effects by referring mainly the
mathematical model proposed by the MMG in Japan as an example (Ogawa 1981, Kose
1981).

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SHIPS AND OFFSHORE STRUCTURES Theory, Analysis, and Design Methodology for Ship Maneuverability Takeshi Fuwa
and Tatsuo Kashiwadani

3.2.1. Forces and Moment due to the Ship Motion

The hydrodynamic forces and moment are represented as following series expansions in
case of transversely symmetric hull.

YM = Yv v + Yr r + Yvvv v 3 + Yvvr v 2 r + Yvrr vr 2 + Yrrr r 3

3
2
2
3
N M = N v v + N r r + N vvv v + N vvr v r + N vrr vr + N rrr r
X M = R(u ) + X vv v 2 + X vr vr + X rr r 2

(4)

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Here R is the ship resistance merely depending on u . The terms Yv v, N v v resemble the
lift and moment of wing. The linear terms respect to the variables v and r play
important role in the response of steered ship which will be mentioned later. Those
linear coefficients are called maneuvering derivatives of the ship hull.
3.2.2. Forces and Moment due to the Propeller Action

In running ahead condition with constant propeller revolution in ordinary direction,

forces acting on the ship due to the propeller action are simple. The longitudinal
components only exist and it consists of the hydrodynamic force on the hull and the
thrust T at the propeller shaft. The resultant longitudinal force is X P = (1 t )T with
small amount of thrust reduction ratio t . T is described by the product of the propeller
revolution rate n , propeller diameter D and thrust coefficient K T give by the
propeller performance; T = D 4 n 2 K T

Figure 4. Rudder normal force

3.2.3. Force and Moment due to the Rudder Action

The horizontal sectional shape of the rudder is symmetric and just same as wing
sections of airplane. The rudder generates lift force by the steered angle. The force is
usually defined as the normal force FN on the rudders symmetrical plane (see Figure

Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS)

SHIPS AND OFFSHORE STRUCTURES Theory, Analysis, and Design Methodology for Ship Maneuverability Takeshi Fuwa
and Tatsuo Kashiwadani

4), and presented by

FN = (1 2) AR U R2 f R sin R

(5)

Here R is the incident angle of inflow to the rudder that is made by rudder steered
angle and the resultant flow of propeller slip stream and ship turning motion. Here f R is
the performance coefficient of the rudder section as a wing. This expression explains the
effect of rudder area AR and incident flow speed to the rudder U R .
The resultant force and moment acting on the ship is described as follows.
X R = FN sin (1 + a X )

(6)

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YR = FN cos (1 + aY )

N R = FN cos ( xR xG )(1 + a N )

The rudder normal force FN is the source of the forces induced by rudder. The force is
projected to forward and transverse components by sin or cos . The turning
moment is the product of the transverse force and the distance ( xR xG ) from the
rudder axis to the center of gravity of the ship. (Remark; the x coordinate is negative
in the aft-body then ( xR xG ) has negative value.) Those forces are augmented by
a X , aY , aN on the ship hull. Considering the hydrodynamic interactions and their
correction by the similar concept as thrust reduction ratio t, factors a X , aY , aN are

introduced there. (Remark; N R is expressed in slightly different form from MMGs

formula.)

3.3. The Estimation and Utilization of the Equations

All the coefficients mentioned above are obtainable by the estimation based on some
theoretical calculations or force measurement in some kinds of experimental tank with
special equipment by using scale model of ship. Those estimations are works of much
effort as shown in appendix. Those results are utilized in several simulations with above
equations in the wide region from ship designing to the training simulator for
professional operators of ships. To get the solutions of u, v, r and as functions of
time in above equations, numerical integration technique such as Runge-Kutta method
is employed.
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Bibliography
Because so many contents are put in short chapter without sufficient introduction, it is strongly
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SHIPS AND OFFSHORE STRUCTURES Theory, Analysis, and Design Methodology for Ship Maneuverability Takeshi Fuwa
and Tatsuo Kashiwadani

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Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS)

SHIPS AND OFFSHORE STRUCTURES Theory, Analysis, and Design Methodology for Ship Maneuverability Takeshi Fuwa
and Tatsuo Kashiwadani

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Minorsky N. (1922). Directional Stability of Automatically Steered Bodies. pp.280-309, J. of the

American Society for Naval Engineers, Vol. 34 [The oldest theoretical investigation in the stability of
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axis by using ship models]. Also available at http://ci.nii.ac.jp/naid/110003876039.
Motora S. (1960a). On the Measurement of Added Mass and Added Moment of Inertia for Ship Motions
(part 2) (in Japanese), pp.59-62, SNAJ: [The result of measurement of added mass for the longitudinal
motions by using ship models]. Also available at http://ci.nii.ac.jp/naid/110003876109.
Motora S. (1960b). On the Measurement of Added Mass and Added Moment of Inertia for Ship Motions
(part 3) (in Japanese), pp.63-68, SNAJ: [The result of measurement of added mass for the transverse
motion by using ship models]. Also available at http://ci.nii.ac.jp/naid/110003876110.
Motora S., Fujino M. (1970). Characteristics of Directionally Unstable Ships (in Japanese), pp.41-60,
Proceedings of the 2nd Symposium on the Ship Maneuverability, SNAJ: [A comprehensive explanation
about the characteristics of ship unstable in course] (available at the JASNAOE).
Motora, S. (editor) (1982). Dynamics of Ship and Ocean Structurein Japanese:
pp227-298,pp299-301,p300,p311,p335pp333-342,p338,pp350-355, Seizando Publish. Co., ISBN
4-425-47071-0 [Well-known Textbook on Ship Dynamics and Maneuverability written in Japanese]
Newman J.N. (1977) Marine Hydrodynamics, pp.140-148 and pp.341 The MIT Press, [A comprehensive
discussion about the derivation of added mass and added moment of inertia of bodies in fluid. The
examples of 2 dimensional bodies are helpful to understand for beginners. Munk moment of slender
bodies is shown by an expression related to the added mass coefficient.]
Nomoto K., Taguchi K. et al. (1956). On the Steering Qualities of Ships (part 1) (in Japanese), pp.75-82,
SNAJ: [A discussion about transfer function of ship steering motion]. Also available at
http://ci.nii.ac.jp/naid/110003877109.

Nomoto K., Taguchi K. (1957). On the Steering Qualities of Ships (part 2) (in Japanese), pp.57-66, SNAJ:
[A comprehensive discussion about the derivation of 1st order equation of response of ship steering
motion and a proposal of KT analysis in the Zigzag test]. Also available at
http://ci.nii.ac.jp/naid/110003875800.
Nomoto K. (1964). Ship maneuverability (in Japanese), pp.8-22, Proceedings of the 1st Symposium on
the Ship Maneuverability, SNAJ: [A comprehensive introduction to the equations of ship steering motion]
(available at the JASNAOE).
Ogawa A., Hamamoto M. (1981). Principle of the Mathematical Model of Ship Maneuverability, pp.9-26,
Proceedings of the 3rd Symposium on the Ship Maneuverability (in Japanese), SNAJ: [A fundamental
discussion about the hydrodynamic back ground of the mathematical model proposed by MMGs
research] (available at the JASNAOE).
Saunders H.E. (1965). Hydrodynamics in Ship Design, Authors Notes for Volume Three on Maneuvering
and Wavegoing, The Society of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers [A comprehensive explanation

Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS)

SHIPS AND OFFSHORE STRUCTURES Theory, Analysis, and Design Methodology for Ship Maneuverability Takeshi Fuwa
and Tatsuo Kashiwadani

about the topics relevant to ship maneuvering motions, from flow phenomena to ship design ]
Stern F., (2008). The Current Status of CFD in ITTC (Maneuvering & Seakeeping), available at
http://www.riam.kyushu-u.ac.jp/ship/ittc/presentation/PPT-GD1-Stern.pdf.
Tsien H. S. (1954). Engineering Cybernetics, pp.7-11, McGRAW-HILL: [One example of the textbook of
mathematical back ground in servo-control theory, the reader can find a plain introduction to the Laplace
transform theory, and comprehensive explanation of the general relation between the transfer function and
the frequency response of physical systems]
Yamada K. et al. (2002). Current Situation and Measures for Prediction of Ship Maneuverability in Initial
Design Phase (in Japanese), pp49-72, Proceedings of the Ship Performance Symposium, West-Japan SNA
(available at the JASNAOE).
Yamato H., Koyama T. (1989). Elements and AI Application to the Control of Marine Vehicles (in
Japanese), pp1-32, Proceedings of the 6th Marine Dynamics Symposium on the Control of Marine
Vehicles, SNAJ: [ Introduction of Modern Control Theory for Ship Navigation System ] (available at the
JASNAOE).

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PL O
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AP LS
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Yoshimura Y. (1985). Ship Maneuvering Behaviours in Wind and Current (in Japanese). pp.41-62,
Proceedings of the 2nd Marine Dynamics Symposium on the Ship Maneuverability and Operational
Safety, SNAJ (available at the JASNAOE).
Yoshimura Y. (2001). Investigation into the Yaw-Checking Ability in Ship Maneuverability Standard,
pp.11-19, Proceedings of Prediction of Ship Maneuvering Performance: [Fundamental study for the IMO
Maneuverability Standard]. Also available at http://engi.fish.hokudai.ac.jp/Reference/YawChecking.PDF.
Yoshimura Y. (2005). ITTC Works on Maneuverability Prediction. pp.1-6, Workshop on Mathematical
Models
for
Operations
involving
Ship-Ship
Interaction.
Also
available
at
http://engi.fish.hokudai.ac.jp/Reference/ITTCwork.pdf.
Yoshimura Y. (2007). Ship Maneuverability (in Japanese), pp18-46, Text of 7th Seminar on Ship
Performance Design for Engineers in the Shipbuilding Industries, SNAOEJ: [General introduction of ship
maneuverability
including
IMO
Standard].
Also
available
at
http://engi.fish.hokudai.ac.jp/New/%E9%80%A0%E5%B7%A5%E4%B8%AD%E5%A0%85%E6%95%
99%E8%82%B2/%E6%93%8D%E7%B8%A6%E6%80%A7%E3%83%86%E3%82%AD%E3%82%B9
%E3%83%88(Ver4).pdf.
Biographical Sketches

Dr. Takeshi Fuwa has been engaged in various research activities related to ship hydrodynamics, ship
performance, ship motion and control, system engineering etc. He carried out active research studies for
many years as a researcher and also as an executive director at the National Maritime Research Institute,
Japan. Maneuverability has been his original major subject since graduated student age. He carried out
many frontier studies such as Advanced Automatic Navigation System and High Speed Marine Vehicles
including Wing-in-ground-effects. He is currently at the Japan Ship Technology Research Association.

Dr. Tatsuo Kashiwadani has been engaged in various studies related to ship hydrodynamics,
maneuverability and marine propulsors. He carried out research studies and designs of naval ship at the
Technical Research and Development Institute of Ministry of Defense, Japan. He carried out studies
including water-jet inlet and biomechanical marine propulsor. He is currently at the Defense Technology
Foundation.

Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS)