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UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA.
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PRINCIPLES OF MECHANISM.
A TREATISE OX

THE MODIFICATION OP MOTION

BY MEANS OP THE

ELEMENTARY COMBINATIONS OF MECHANISM,

OR OF THE PARTS OF MACHINES.

FOR USE IN COLLEGE CLASSES,

BY MECHANICAL ENGINEERS,
ETC., ETC.

BY

STILLMAN W. ROBINSON,

C.E., D.So.,

Mechanical Engineer and Expert for the Wire Grip Fastening Co. ; Vice- President
and Mechanical Engineer to the Grip Machinery Co. ; till recently Professor
of Mechanical Engineering in the Ohio State University ; Member
Am. Soc. Mechanical Engineers ; Member Am. Soc. Civil
Engineers ; Fellow of the American Association for
the

Advancement of Science ; Member Am. Soc.

Naval Architects and Marine Engineers ;
and Member Soc. for Promotion of Engineering

Education.

FIRST EDITION.
FIRST THOUSAND.

NEW YORK:
JOHN WILEY & SONS.
LONDON

CHAPMAN & HALL, LiMirm

1896.

BY
S.

W. ROBINSON,

ROBERT DRUMMOND, ELECTROTYPER AND PRINTER, NEW YORK.

PREFACE.

THIS work aims

to treat the

whole subject of

MECHANISM

in

such systematic and comprehensive way that by its aid any machine,
however elaborate, may be analyzed into its elementary combinations, and the character of their motions determined.
In the classification, the System of Prof. Robert Willis has been
followed in the main, as serving best the present purpose; and
largely his names and terms as well.

The work
during the

contains the substance of lectures given in my classes

past twenty-seven years, with such additions and

amplifications as might come by reason of a somewhat extended

study of the subject not only, but as brought out in connection
with an aptitude for the thinking out of inventions involving more

or less novel and varied forms and combinations.

Besides Willis, some

of

the authors whose works have been

referred to with profit may be named: Prof. C. W. MacCord;

Geo. B. Grant; J. W. M. Rankine; F. Reuleaux; J. B. Belanger;

Oh. Laboulave.

Some

of the topics to which special attention is invited, as emeither

bracing
entirely new solutions of important questions, or
previously unpublished discussions and extension of inquiry con-

cerning them, are:

Log-spiral

Multilobes

as

derived from one

spiral;

also

Proportional Sectors.
Easements to Angular Pitch Lines.

Transformed Wheels.
General

Solution

of

Non-circular Wheels,

External and
Given Laws of Motion.
Similar and other Wheels from Auxiliary Sectors, Plane and
Internal, for the case of

Bevel.
ill

PREFACE.

iv

Wheels laid out on the

Special Bevel Non-circular

Normal

Sphere.
General Solution for Bevel Non-circular Wheels for Stated
Laws of Motion.
General Solution for Skew-bevel Non-circular Wheels for

Stated

Laws

of Motion.

Practical Rolling of Pitch Lines and Engagement of Teeth,

in one Pair of Non-circular Wheels.

Intermittent and Alternate Motions for Moderate or for

High Speeds; Circular and Non-circular.
Internal or Annular Non-circular Wheels.

Teeth

"

for

Skew-bevel Non-circular Wheels.

Blocking," and Steepest Gear Teeth.

Interference of Involute Teeth of Annular Wheels.

Epicycloidal Engine and Accessories for Machine-made Teeth.

Full Discussion of Olivier Spiraloids; Interference, etc.

Cam

Construction by Co-ordinates.

Form

of Roller for

Cams.

" Follower.
Cam of Constant Breadth and Given Law of Motion.
Easements for Cams.

Solution for

Cams with "

Flat Foot

Solutions for Varied Velocity-ratio in Belt Gearing.

Non-circular Pulleys for Continuous Motion by Law.

Solution for Cone Pulleys.

Rolling Curve Equivalent for Link-work in General

Plane

and Bevel.
Gabs and Pins for Link- work in General Plane and Bevel.
Velocity-ratio in Bevel and Skew-bevel Link-work.
A General Crank Coupling connecting Shafts in Various
Planes and Angles.
Practical Forms of Parts for Bevel and Skew-bevel Link;

work.

Varied Step Ratchet Movement.

Face Ratchets and Clicks.
The aim of the work is not so much to present a history of
Mechanism f as to treat upon the principles which underlie the
various

modes

of modification of motion as

due to 'the form and

connection of parts, and thus to enable the inventor and designer

of machines to at once solve any problem of motion of an elementary combination in a particular case.

PREFACE.

The treatment has been mainly by graphics instead of by analysis,

for three reasons: 1st, because the draftsman's outfit is usually at
hand when mechanism problems

arise; 3d, because these problems

do
not
the
require
precision of analysis, the graphic method
usually

serving for problematic work as well as for delineation; 3d, because

analysis, though possible in a few of the simpler problems, becomes

and often impossible with very slight variations of condiwhile

tions,
by the graphic method all cases, whether of simple or
complex statement, are solved with nearly equal facility. Hence
difficult

analysis has been employed here only to establish principles the

application of which subsequently might be made by the graphic

method.
S.

COLUMBUS,

O., Sept. 26, 1896.

W. ROBINSON.

CONTENTS.

INTRODUCTION.
OBJECT OF PRINCIPLES OF MECHANISM

How

Studied.

Page
and Trains of MechaElementary Combination of

Frame

Machine Defined.

Machine Parts Classified.

nism.
Mechanism.
Motions, how Studied, 1. Synoptical Table of EleConstant and
Velocity
mentary Combinations of Mechanism, 2.
Varied Angular. Velocity-ratio. Period. Cycle, 3. Revolution.
Directional Relation, 4.
Distinction into Driver and Follower.
;

PART
TRANSMISSION OF MOTION

I.

BY ROLLING

CHAPTER
ROLLING CONTACT

IN

CONTACT.

I.

GENERAL

Page

Axes.
Plane of Axes.
Line of Contact.
Point of Contact.
Line of Centers. True Rolling Contact. Velocity-ratio in Circular
Rolling Contact.

No

Non circular
CIRCULAR WHEELS
ratio of

Axes

Parallel.

Slip of Surfaces in

Arcs,

6.

Contact,
Variable Velocity-ratio,

Velocity-

7.

Page

Friction Wheels.

Contact Outside the Axes.

Locating Line of Contact.

5.

Contact between the Axes,

Axes Meeting,

'7.

Parallelogram for
Angle between Axes,
Rolling Cones.
Particular Case, 9.
Axes Crossing without Meeting. Character of
Form of the Rolling Surfaces.
Contact between the Surfaces.
Location of Line of Contact in Plan, 10. Location of Line of Contact in Elevation.

8.

Hyperboloidal Form of Surfaces.

Longitudinal

Error in Early History of Case, 11. Graphic

Slip of Surfaces.
Proof of Construction, 12.
Construction of Skew Bevels.
Not
Practical for Friction Wheels.

Longitudinal Slip Determined,

CIRCULAR INTERMITTENT MOTIONS

For Axes Parallel.
Locking

13.

Page
of

Avoidance of Friction Clamps. Positive

Wheel when Idle.

Locks Classified, 13. Work-

Driven

vii

CONTENTS.

Till

ing Drawings of Various Circular Intermittent Motions, and Illustrations of Actual Constructions of Same, 14-18.

CHAPTER

II.

SPECIAL NON-CIRCULAR WHEELS

Page
Complete or Incomplete. Theory of Pitch Lines. Axes Fixed.
Axes Parallel, Axes Meeting, and Axes Crossing
Three Cases
Notation.
True Rolling Contact.
Point of
without Meeting.
,

19

their Sum a ConContact on Line of Centers, 19. Radii in Pairs

Mutually Rolled Arcs equal Each Other.
Elementary
Five Special Cases. Equal Log-spirals. Will Roll MutuSectors.
;

stant.

To Construct the Log-spiral Graphically.

ally and Correctly, 20.
Geometric Series of Radii.
Spiral Passing Two Given Points, 21.
Length of Log-spiral Arc. Application of Log-spiral Wheels. Sectoral Wheels.
Wire
Log- spiral Levers, 22.
Weighing Scales.
Cutter.
Wipers. Complete Wheels, 23. Symmetrical and Uusymmetrical Log-spiral Wheels By Aid of Two Spirals and by Angles
and Radii, 24. Multilobed Wheels by Reduction of Angles by
Assumed Angles and Limiting Radii, 25. Interchangeable Multias derived from One Spiral with Lobes
lobed Log-spiral Wheels
Symmetrical as derived from Two Spirals with Lobes Uusymmetrical, 26.
One, and
Interchangeable Log-spiral Lobed Wheels.
Three Lobed Wheels, as determined from Proportional Sectors,
Case of Infinite Number of Lobes, 29. Easement Curves.
27, 28.
Proof, 29.
Equal and Similar Ellipses.
Range of Velocity-ratio,
30. Example from Centennial of 1876 of Elliptic Gear Wheels,
:

31.

Interchangeable

Multilobed

Elliptic

Wheels,

Working Drawings and Photo-process Copy.

Number

Holditcli,

Wheel with

32.

Infinite

Lobes, 33.
Equal and Similar Parabolas as Rolling
Transformed Wheels. Three
Equal Hyperbolas, 35, 36.
Rules, 37.
Changes Characteristic of Application of Each Rule,
of

Wheels.
38.

Interchangeable

Multilobes by Transformation,

39.

formed Elliptic Wheels, 40.

Transformed Parabolic
Wheels of Combined Transformed Sectors, 41, 42.

CHAPTER

Trans-

Wheels.

III.

NON-CIRCULAR WHEELS IN GENERAL

Page
Three Cases One Wheel Given to Find its Mate Laws of Motion
Given to Find the Wheels
Similar and Other Wheels from
Auxiliary Sectors.
Complete or Incomplete. Given One Wheel,
:

to

Find

its

Mate, 44.

Repeated Trials.

Graphic Rules for Equiva-

lence of Lines and Arcs, 45.

To Draw a Tangent to any Curve, 46.
Application of Above Rules to Case of One Wheel Given to Find
its Mate, 47.
Examples of Above. Laws of Motion Given to Find
the Wheels, 48, 49. Proof of Above, 50, 51. Photo-process Copies
from Examples of Above, 52, 53.
Solutions of Some Practical

44

CONTENTS.

IX

The
Problems, in Laws of Motion Given to Find the Wheels.
Shaping-machine Problem, 54, 55. A Bobbin-winding Problem
Solution for Conical Bobbin, 56, 57. Motion of Driver ii Variable.
Similar and Other Wheels from
Case of Multilobed Wheels.
Similar and Equal Multilobed Wheels.
Auxiliary Sectors, 58.
Dissimilar Multilobed Wheels, 59.
Multilobes of Unequal Number
;

of Lobes, 60, 61.

CHAPTER
.SPECIAL

IV.

BEVEL NON-CIRCULAR WHEELS

Normal

Spheres.

Spherical

Page

Equiangular

Spiral.

62

Oue-lobed

Spherical Equiangular Wheels, 62.

Drawing on Spherical Blank
for Pattern, 63.
Two-lobed and Multilobed Bevel Non -circular
Wheels.
Interchangeable Bevel Non-circular Wheels, 64. Ellip-

Bevel Wheels, 65.

Multilobed Elliptic Bevel Wheels. Parabolic

Transformed Bevel Wheels, 66.
Similar Bevel Multilobes. Dissimilar Interchangeable Bevel Multilobes.
Bevel Non-cirPartially Interchangeable Bevel Multilobes.

tic

and Hyperbolic Bevel Wheels.

cular

Wheels of Combined

Interchangeable Multilobes
Velocity ratio in Bevel Non-circular

Sectors, 67.

with Uusymmetrical Lobes.

Wheels, 68.

CHAPTER
BEVEL NON-CIRCULAR WHEELS
Laws

IN

V.

GENERAL

Page

69

Plane Wheels Turned into Bevels, 69. Diagram

of Plane Wheels Possessing Correct Laws of Motion.
Auxiliary
Diagram giving Spherical Radii from Plane-wheel Radii, 70.
Spherical Blank for Gear Pattern. One or Several Lobed, 71. Proof
of Above, Example, 72.
Laying Out Non-circular Wheels Direct on
the Normal Sphere. Case of One Wheel Given to Find its Mate.
Similar Wheels.
Also, Laws of Motion Given to Find the Wheels.
of Motion.

Lobed Wheels,

etc.,

73-4.

CHAPTER

VI.

SKEW-BEVEL NON-CIRCULAR WHEELS

Page

75

Pitch Surfaces of Form of NonHyperboloids.

circular Hyperboloids, 75. First Find the Plane Non-circular Wheels
of Correct Law, which Turn into Skew Bevels, 76. Spherical Blank
Mode of Procedure, 77-79.
to be Worked into a Gear Pattern.
Proof of Above, 80.
Illustrative

CHAPTER

VII.

^ON-CIRCULAR WHEELS FOR INTERMITTENT MOTIONS

Cases of Axes Parallel, Meeting,
Classification.

Page
or

Crossing
Easement Spurs and Locking Arcs of Greater
without Meeting.
Radius than Rolling Arcs.
Easement, Locking Arcs, and Teeth in

81

CONTENTS.
One Plane, with Radius of Locking Arcs Less than that of the Rolling
Arc, 81. Laying Out of the Pitch Curves. Photo-process Copies of
Actual Bevel Wheels. Alternate Motion Gearing, 82. Limited Alternate Motions.
With Velocity-ratio Constant, or Varying, 83. Unlimited Alternate Motions.
Mangle Rack, 84. Mangle Wheel, 85.
Axes Meeting,

86.

PART

II.

TRANSMISSION OF MOTION

CHAPTER

BY

SLIDING CONTACT.

VIII.

SLIDING CONTACT IN GENERAL

Page

Velocity-ratio in Sliding Contact, 87.

Proof of Velocity-ratio,

8T

88.

One
Sliding and Rolling Curves with Common Law of Motion.
Sliding Curve Given, Find a Mate, With Law of Motion that of a
Given Pair of Rolling Wheels, 89.
Teeth of Gear Wheels, 91.
Odontoids, Centroids.
Tracing of Sliding Curves.
Describing
Templet, 92. Names, Terms, and Rules for Gear Teeth, 93. ProCircumferential and Diametral Pitch, 94.
portions for Gear Teeth.

CHAPTER

IX.

TOOTH CURVES FOR NON-CIRCULAR GEARING.

GENERAL CASE
Page
Axes Parallel. Templets, 95. Use of Templets in Describing
Tooth Curves, 96. Requirements of Toolh Curves, 97. The Tooth
Profile.
Position of Tracing Point on Describing Curve, 98.
The
Trachoidal Tooth Curve, 99. Form and Size of Describing Curve,
100.

101.

103.

95-

Individually Constructed Teeth. Non-circular Involute Gears,

Conjugate Teeth, 102. Limited Inclination of Tooth Curves,
Nearest Approach of Tooth Curve
Hooking Teeth, 104.

Toward Radius,
Line, 106.

Addendum,

105.
Practical Limit of Eccentricity of Pitch
Eccentricity as Affected by the Tooth Profile, and the
107.
"Blocking" of the Gears, and as Affected by

Substitution of Pitch Line Rolling for

Length of Tooth, 108.
Teeth in Extreme Eccentricity. Link Substitute for Teeth, 109.
Examples and Photo-process Copies of Actual Gears, 110, 111.

Internal Non-circular Gears, 111.

CHAPTER

X.

TEETH OF BEVEL AND SKEW-BEVEL NON-CIRCULAK WHEELS

Page

General Case of Axes Intersecting. Describing Curve a Cone, 112.

Tracing of Tooth Curve Direct on Sphere. Tredgold's Approximate
Method.
Involute Teeth, 113.
General Case of Axes Crossing

without Meeting.
Possible 174,

Teeth Twisted.

Correct Exact Construction not

112i

CONTENTS.

CHAPTER

Xk

XI.

NON-CIRCULAR INTERMITTENT MOTIONS

Page
Teeth Spurs and Segments. Teeth as in Non-circular Wheels.
Backlash, 116.
Engaging and Disengaging Spurs.
Spurs of
As Adapted for High Speed, or
Rolling, or of Sliding Curve Form.

llfr

Slow, 118. Rolling Spurs often Impracticable, 119. Rolling Spurs

Bevel and Skew-bevel Wheel
require Excessive Arc of Motion.
Solid Engaging and Disengaging Segments.
Forms
Spurs, 120.

such as not to "Block," 121. Undercut so as to Relieve the Shock,

122.
Alternate Motions.
Limited in MoveCounting Wheels.
ment,

Skips and

123.

Employed, 124.
of Wheel for
Normal Sphere, 126. Use of

Derangements.

Solid Segments for Reversing Motion.

125.

High Speed,

Axes Meeting.

Spurs

Best

Form

Motion Templets.
Unlimited Alternate Motions.
Mangle Wheel
and Rack. Non-circular Form. Velocity- ratio, 127.

CHAPTER

XII.

TEETH OF CIRCULAR GEARING

Axes

Page

128-

Epicycloidal, Involute, and Coujugatel Gearing.

Epicycloidal Gearing, 128. Some Peculiar Properties of Epicycloids
and Hypocycloids. White's Parallel Motion, 129.
Seven Styles of
Parallel.

Teeth, viz.: Flanks Radial, Concave, Convex

Interchangeable Sets;

Pin Gearing Rack and Pinion Annular Wheels. Flanks Radial.

The Face and Flank Generated by Describing Circles, 130. Flanks
Concave. Size of Describing Circle. Flanks Convex, 132. Inter;

changeable Sets. "Change Wheels." Describing Circle, 133. Pin

Gearing, 134, 135. Inside Pin Gearing. Pinion of Two Teeth, 136.
Rack and Pinion. Wheels of Least Crowding, 137, 138. Rack and
Pinion.
Flanks Radial. Flanks Concave, 139.
Annular Wheels.
Peculiar Case of Interference and an Extra Contact.

Wheels

in

Pin Annular Gearing. Involute Gearing. Curves

Described by Log-spirals Rolled on Pitch Line, 142. Practical Mode
of Drawing the Teeth, 143.
Rack and Pinion. Annular Wheel and
Pinion.
Interference of Annular Wheel Teeth, 144.
Wheel of
Several Styles of Teeth.
Flanks Parallel
Conjugate Gearing.
Flanks Convergent Straight Lines.
Flanks
Straight Lines, 145.
Sets, 140, 141.

Circle Arcs, 146.

CHAPTER
PRACTICAL CONSIDERATIONS
Addenda and Clearance.
for Diametral Pitch,

Clearing Curve.

148.

XIII.

Rule for Circumferential Pitch.

To Strengthen

Path of Contact

the Teeth.

Page 14$
Rule

Possible

Determined, Assumed, Limited,

Line of Action. Obliquity of

149, 150.
Acting Part of Plank.
Line of Action, 151. The " Blocking " Tendency.

Uusyrnmetrical

CONTENTS.

ill

Tooth Curves, 152. Tooth TemRadius Rod for Tooth Templet. To Draw Involute
The Templet
Teeth, 154.
Approximate Teeth in Practice, 155.
Odontograph. As a Ready-made Tooth Templet. Radius Rod, 156,
The Willis Odontograph, gives Center for Circle Arc Tooth
157.
The Three Point, or Grant's Odontograph, 160,
Curves, 158-160.
161.
Co-ordinating the Tooth Profile, 162. Advantages of Each of
Practical Construction of

Teeth.
plet,

153.

Above Instruments,

163.

CHAPTER

XIV.

MACHINE-MADE TEETH

Page 164

"Hand and Eye"

Teeth with no

Process.

Epicycloidal Engine
to Form Epicycloidal Curve, 164.
Grinding the Tool to the Curve,
165.
Forming the Gear Cutting Tool, 166. The Brown
Sharpe
Involute Cutters also their Epicycloidal Cutters, by Machinery of

&

&

Whitney Co., 167. Sang's Theory of Conjugating the

The Swasey Engine with Split Cutter, 168. The Grant's
Form of Cutter Teeth, 171.
Engine with Solid Worm Cutter, 170
The Gleason's, Corliss', and Bilgram's Gear Planing Machine.
Pratt

Teeth.

Stepped and Spiral Spur Gearing, 172, 173.

CHAPTER XV.
CIRCULAR BEVEL GEARING

Page 174

Correct and Approximate Solutions. The First by Use of Cones

with Bases formed to the Normal Spheres and the Second by Use
;

Normal Cones

of Tredgold, 174.
Complete Drawing
Spiral Bevel- wheel, Teeth, 176.
gold's Method, 175.

of

CHAPTER

by Tred-

XVI.

TEETH FOR CIRCULAR SKEW-BEVEL GEAR WHEELS

Page 177
A Practical, Theoretically Correct
Approximate Construction.
Solution not Known.
Same
Approximate Epicycloidal Form.
"
Doctored," 177.
Arbitrarily Dressed or
Tredgold's Method.
Applied on Normal Cones, 178. Amount of Error Illustrated, 180.
Exact Solution in Olivier Spiraloids, 181. Olivier Spiraloid Explained.
Interference of Spiraloid
Intel-changeability of Spiraloids, 182.
Teeth. Nature of Contact of Spiraloid Teeth, 183. Results of an
Flat Faces of Teeth when
Example.
Principle Demonstrated.

Remote from Gorge

Circles, 184.

Worm

Certain

Forms Approximating

and Gear,

the Olivier Gears.

Olivier

Skew-pin Gearing.

Intermittent Motions, 188, 189.

CHAPTER

187.

Hiudley Gears.

XVII.

CIRCULAR ALTERNATE MOTIONS

Page 190
Engaging and Disengaging
With Attached Engaging and Disengaging Parts. The
Parts, 190.
Mangle Wheel. Unlimited Alternate Motions, 191.
Limited

Alternate Motions.

Solid

CONTENTS.

CHAPTER

X11I

XVIII.

Page 192

CAM MOVEMENTS
Cams in General. Friction. Backlash.
192.
By Intersections. Use of Templets.

Solution by Co-ordinates,
Velocity-ratio, 193, 194.

Continuously Revolving Cam, 195. Cylindric Cam, with Straight

Same with Curved Path of Follower.
Path for Follower, 196.
Conical Cam, 197. Spherical Cam, 198. Cam Plate. Flat-footed
Uniform
Follower, with Specific Law of Motion of Follower.
Motion, 199. Law of Motion that of Crank and Pitman. Law that

Tarrying Points. Uniform ReciproEasements on Cams. Ar202.

of a Falling Body, 200. 201.

The Heddle Cam,

cating Motion.

bitrary Easements, and those Confined to Assigned Sectors, 203.

Case of Flat-footed Follower, 205. Cams of Constant Diameter, 206.

Cams

of Constant Breadth, 207.

Effect of

Example,
Positive

Two

Followers, 208.

210.

Return

Modification of

Best

Form

Duangle Cam.
Three Ways, 212.
:

Cam
Cam.

To

Relieve Friction, 213.

Form

of Follower, or Roller, 214, 215.

Action of Roller upon its Pin or Shoulder.

to Suit

of Roller.

Roller for Conic

Cams with Several Followers. The

Four-motion Cam. Illustration from
Return of Follower by Gravity, 211.

For Spherical Cam, 216, 218.

CHAPTER

XIX.

INVERSE CAMS AND COUPLINGS .....

The Pin and Slot. Form of Slot.

Page 219

Oldham's
Velocity-ratio, 219.
Shafts not Parallel, 221.
Parallel. 220.

Coupling, with Shafts in

Peculiar Coupling.
Oldham's Three-disk Coupling, 223, 224.

CHAPTER XX.
ESCAPEMENTS
Power Escapements,

225.

Anchor Escapement,

226.

Page

226-

Pin-wheel

Escapement, 228. Gravity Escapement, 229. Cylinder Escapements,

231.
Lever Escapement, 232. Duplex Escapement, 233. Chronometer Escapement, 234.

PART III.
BELT GEARING.
CHAPTER

XXI.

TRANSMISSION OP MOTION BY BELTS AND PULLEYS. ROPE, STRAP, OR

CHAIN OVER SECTORAL AND COMPLETE PULLEYS.
MOTION
LIMITED OR CONTINUOUS. VELOCITY-RATIO VARYING
Page
Line of Action. Non-circiilar and Circular
Velocity -ratio, 236.
Law of Perpendiculars given to Find the Wheels, 237.
Pulleys.

23ft

CONTENTS.

:xiv

Draw-bridge Equalizer, 239.

Equalizer of Gas-meter Proven
Non-circular Pulley for Rifling Machine,
Barrel and Fusee, 240.
241.
Example of Treadle Movement, 243.

CHAPTER

XXII.

CIRCULAR PULLEYS

Page 244

"Slip," 244.
Retaining Belt
Pulley with High Center, 245. Crossed Belt. QuarterGuide Pulley, 246.
Any Position of Pulleys. Cone

Continuous Belt.

on Pulley.
twist Belt.

Pulleys.

Velocity-ratio.

Problem of Cone and Counter Cone.

Geometric Series of

Speeds, 247, 251. Rope Transmission Two Systems.

Short and Long Stretch, 251-53. For Haulage Lines.
:

System.

Chain and Sprocket Wheel.

Rope

Belting,

Compensating
Teeth of Sprocket Wheels.

Practical Application of Chains, 254-57.

PART

IV.

LINK-WORK.
CHAPTER

THE GENERAL CASE

HODS, LEVERS, BARS, ETC.

Velocity-ratio, 258.

Page 258

Peculiar Features of Link- work Mechanism.

Lightest-running Mechanism.
Parallel, 259.

XXIII.

Examples

1.

Indexible Law of Motion.

Axes
Needle-bar Motion 2. Corliss' Valve
;

Driven Piece Half the Time nearly Quiet 4. Small Movement in a Given Time, 260, 261. Path and Velocity of Points.
Sliding Blocks and Links, 261-63.

Gear

3.

CHAPTER XXIV.
.A ROLLING NON-CIRCULAR

WHEEL EQUIVALENT FOR EVERY PIECE

OF
Page 264
Curves and
Examples showing Several Rolling Curves, 264.
their Linkages shown Separately, 265, 266.
Rolling Curve EquivaTwo Cranks and Drag Link. The
lent of Crank and Pitman.
Sylvester Kite, 267, 268.
Equal Cranks in Opposite Motion. Hyperbolas.
Parabolic Wheels.
Elliptic Wheels, 269-71.
Unsymmetrical Link-work and Rolling Wheels, 272, 273.
Dead Points in Link"
work.
Gab and Pin." Path of Gab and Pin. Gab and Pin in
Practice, 274-77.
Multiplying Motion by Link-work, 278.

LINK-WORK.

GABS AND PINS

CHAPTER XXV.
OONIC LINK- WORK
Axes All Meet

Page 279

Cranks Equal or not. Velocity-ratio,

279.
Rolling-wheel Equivalent of Conic Link-work. Dead Center,
and Gab and Pin in Conic Link-work. Examples of Peculiar Movein a Point.

XV

CONTENTS.
Hooke's Joint or Coupling,
Possible Valve Motion.
Almond's Coupling, 286. Crank Coupling, 287. Reuleaux

ments, 281.
282-85.

Coupling, 288.

CHAPTER

XXVI.

LINK- WORK WITH AXES CROSSING WITHOUT MEETING

Page 289
The
Ball and Socket or Sliding Joints.
Velocity- ratio, 289.
Shafts Connected by Cranks and Angle
Willis Joint System, 290.
Blocks, Three Examples, 291, 292. Ratchet and Click Movements.
Reversible
Running Ratchet. Varied Step Movement, 292, 293.
Running Ratchet. Reversible Varied Rate Running Ratchet. Continuous Running Ratchet. Forms of Teeth and Click, 294, 295.
Fluted Bearing.

Friction Ratchets.

Wire Feed Ratchet.

Ruuniug

Continuous Friction Ratchet.

and Click, 296, 297.

face Ratchet

PART

V.

REDUPLICA TION.
CHAPTER

XXVII.

PULLEYS OR SHEAVES AND ROPES

Velocity-ratio.
ity ratio.

Hay

Parallel Ropes, 298.

Ropes not Parallel.
Unloader, 299.
Hydraulic Elevators.

Differential Block.

Velocity- ratio, 300.

Page 298
Veloc-

Weston

PRINCIPLES OF MECHANISM.
INTRODUCTION.
IN working out the design, drawings, and specifications for a
machine, the form, strength, and motion of the various parts
must be determined, the last being the object of the Principles
of Mechanism.
In Principles of Mechanism we find the application to machines,
of the principles of Kinematics, or Cinematics, the elementary
combinations of mechanism of which machines, being studied
separately.

Machine may be defined

as a

combination of fixed and mov-

ing parts or devices, so disposed and connected as to transmit or

modify force and motion for securing some useful result.

The

fixed parts constitute the

frame or supports for the moving'

parts.

The moving

parts constitute a train or trains of mechanism.

mechanism may be primary or secondary; the former

being supported directly by the frame, and the latter by other
moving parts.
All the moving parts of machines may be regarded as mechanical devices and classified as follows:
train of

1st.

Revolving shafts.

2d. Revolving wheels or cams, with or without teeth.

3d. Rods or bars with reciprocating or vibratory motion, or

both.
4th. Flexible connectors

depending on

friction.

5th. Flexible connectors independent of friction.

6th.
column of fluid in a pipe.

Trains of mechanism consist of combinations of the above*

number securing a modification of force or motion

in a given case, being an elementary combination.
The study of the motions of a machine is usually pursued by
devices, the least

PRINCIPLES OF MECHANISM.
taking up separately the elementary combinations of mechanism
composing the machine.
Professor Robert Willis of Cambridge, England, was the first to
present a thorough, systematic, and comprehensive table of the

In our study of
elementary combinations of all mechanism.
mechanism to include all kinds and varieties without omissions,
we can do no better than to follow this table, as below
:

SYNOPTICAL TABLE OF THE ELEMENTARY COMBINATIONS

OF MECHANISM. (WILLIS.)

Mode of
Transmission of
Motion.

NAMES AND TERMS.

In the study of mechanism certain terms are used, some of

which are defined below

Velocity.
a line or path.

unit of time

Time

required for a point to move a distance along

For uniform motion the distance moved over per
is

the velocity, usually considered as feet per second.

velocity is the rate of motion, or movement.
For the case of uniform motion, any distance passed over in a
corresponding given time, divided by that time, gives the velocity.
When the velocity is not constant, the space passed over in a
is

Thus

very short time

0.3 ft. in 0.1 sec.,

is

divided by that short time

the velocity will be

as, for

instance

when

^=

ft.

per

sec.,

which

is the velocity or rate of moving at the instant considered.

In mathematical calculations the space and time are often
reduced to infinitesimals for extreme exactness, but this is rarely

necessary in the study of mechanism.

Angular Velocity. Velocity may here be distinguished as linear
and angular ; the former being the rate of motion along any line,

while the latter

is

the rate of motion of a point at a distance unity

from a

center of angular motion.

Either may be constant or
If variable, the rate is to be expressed for an instant
variable.

by taking the ratio of an element of space to the corresponding

element of time.
This is the ratio of two angular or two linear
Velocity-ratio.
in
some
velocities; or,
cases, of an angular and a linear velocity.
Period.
Moving parts of machines continue in the repetition
of certain definite complete movements.
The time for one of these complete movements may be called a

period, though this term

The time

is

but

little

for several

used in mechanism.

pieces, considered collectively, to return to their given initial positions may be called a
3

Cycle.

moving

PRINCIPLES OF MECHANISM.

though
movements.

cycle,

this

Revolution.

term

is

of comparatively little use in mechanical

is to be considered a complete turn,
be applied to any portion of a turn.

revolution

while the term rotation

may

In any elementary combination of mechanism one piece always drives the other, the one therefore being
called the driver, and the other the follower.
This term has reference to the relation
Directional Relation.
When one
of the directions of motion of driver and follower.
never reverses its direction of motion unless the other does also, the
Driver and Follower.

directional relation is constant, otherwise

it is

said to be variable.

PART

I.

BY ROLLING

TRANSMISSION OF MOTION
CONTACT.

CHAPTER

I.

KOLLING CONTACT IN GENERAL.

Rolling Contact in elementary combinations of mechanism implies a driver which turns a follower by rolling against it without
slipping, the driver and follower having axes of motion which are
at a constant distance apart.

The Line of Contact of thick pieces is always a straight line like

that of the contact of a pair of parallel straight cylinders tangent
to each other.

Sometimes reference is had

which contains both axes.

to the

plane of the axes, or plane

The line of contact of thick pieces in true rolling contact will

evidently remain in the plane of the axes, and in transverse sections
the point of contact or of tangency of the rolling curves of section
must likewise remain on the

line joining the centers of motion,

called line of centers.

It is evident that in true rolling contact
and that arcs which have rolled correctly in

no slipping can occur,

mutual contact must

be equal to each other.

VELOCITY-RATIO IN ROLLING CONTACT.

First. For Circular Arcs and Cylinders.
Suppose Fig. 1 to represent a transverse section of a pair of rolling circular cylinders
and B. The line of centers is AB, and C on that
with axes at

line is the point of contact.

Take Cb

without slipping on Cb, a and

and

r.

Now

if

Ca

rolls

Ca, and

draw the
5

radii

PKINCIPLES OF MECHANISM.
will eventually

come

C on

into contact at

the line of centers,

will

the position

axis

have the position

1.

second of time with uniform motion, and

ed

CA a, and

A = V;

Ae \R\\de

-==5
Ca = Cb,

snce

and f are taken at a

Ca

::

v.

Ca,

fg Cb :: v Cb or Ca;
= Ca x Ae = v X r = Cb
\\

Whence

if e

Vx R

respectively, then

angular velocity of

Also

and

the axis

the

angular velocity of

gf

Bg

and

and

BC\

The
angle CBb.
point e will describe the arc ed,
and the point g the arc gf. If
these movements occur in one
through

units distance from

and

while the
will have turned
through

the angle

FIG.

when

A C,

x Bg.

^,
Ae

and

= Bg,
B

for motion transthe velocity ratio of the axes A and

A to by the arc Ca rolling on the arc Cb, and equals
and r.
the inverse ratio of the radii

which

is

mitted from

As

true of any transverse section of the cylinders, it is

Hence the important principle, viz.:
true of the entire cylinders.
the velocity-ratio of truly rolling cylinders is equal to the inverse
this

is

ratio of the radii of those cylinders.

Second. For Non-circular Arcs and Cylinders. Let Fig. 2

represent a transverse section of a pair of correctly rolling non-circular cylinders, or portions of

them, with

Then

and

as

axes.

AB is

the

the line of centers,

point of contact, a Ac

and bBd the non-circular

tors.

Draw

circular

arcs

""

GB

sec-

eCg

FlG 2
and fCh, and the velocities V
and v as shown. Then V is common to a Ac and eAg. Also v is
common to bBd and ff>h, and the velocity-ratio is the same for
-

the non-circular as for the circular sectors, the angles to the sectors

being regarded as very small.

CIRCULAR ROLLING

The segments

WH

of the line of centers being the

circular as for the circular sectors,

same for the non-

we have

BO
Velocity-ratio

that

is:

AC>

the velocity-ratio in non-circular wheels at any instant is

inverse ratio of the segments of the line of centers.
these segments are continually varying in non-circular

to the

equal

As

it

wheels,

follows that the velocity-ratio for such wheels

is

also

variable.

CIRCULAR ROLLING WHEELS.

DIRECTIONAL RELATION CONSTANT.

VELOCITY -RATIO CONSTANT.

Friction Wheels and Pitch Lines for Circular Gearing.

For

this subject the wheels are circular,

with velocity-ratio con-

and we have three general cases.

For this case there are two subdivisions.
I. Axes Parallel.
First
Contact between the axes as in Fig. 3. Second Contact
stant;

outside the axes as in Fig.

FIG.

4.

3.

These friction ivlieels, or pitch lines, as the case may be, are sosimple in the theory of mechanism that no further treatment seems
necessary, unless the following graphic problems are considered.
First.

Contact Between the Axes.

The

axes being at a fixed

distance apart and parallel, let them be represented in Fig. 5 by the

and B. Take the velocity-ratio as being given with the
lines at

value 2/5.

Then

PRINCIPLES OF MECHANISM.

As

the

sum

of the radii equals the distance between the axes,

5
2 inches and 7^
then if we take r

If
inches, and add, we have 7 inches.
this be less than the distance between
the axes, double each and add, or triple
~~
and add, until the sum is greater
each
/B
FIG. 5.
than the distance between the axes, as
AB, Fig. 5. Then with AB as a radius in the dividers place one
point at A and strike the arc intersecting at B. Draw a straight
line AB, and lay off on this line from A the greater part of the
.sum AC, and from B the lesser part, giving the point C. Through
C draw the line of contact. Then the perpendicular distances
from the axes A and B upon the line of contact will be the radii of
the wheels, which will be in simple proportion with the distances
BC and A C.
Second. Contact Outside the Axes.
Here also we take A
and B for the axes, and C the line of contact, the three lines being
parallel.

With the same example

of velocity-ratio
as before, take the difference of the values
5 and 2, or 3 ; or twice or more times these

values

if

3 is too small.

Then with the

FIG.

to the difference

dividers

6.

opened
found,
place one point of the dividers at A and strike an arc intersecting
at B, and through AB draw the
straight line A C, extended as far as
Then with B as a center
necessary.
and the lesser of the above values lay
off BC; and the greater should equal

Now drawing the line of conthrough C, parallel to A and B,

we have the radii as perpendiculars
from A upon C, and from B upon C.
Take A and
II. Axes Meeting.
AC.

tact

BO

The
as the axes, meeting at 0.
diameter of the wheel A may evidentF

ly

be any line

to its axis
FIG. 7.

R.

Then

CAE,

perpendicular

AO, and the radius A C

the diameter of the mat-

= r.
ing wheel must be CF, and the radius BC
To determine the relation between the radii of the wheels and

CIBCULAK ROLLING WHEELS.

their angular velocities, lay off the velocity of A on the axis of A,
and the velocity of
on the axis of B, as On and Ob respectively,

and complete the parallelogram Oacb by drawing ac and be. Also

draw cd and cc perpendicular to the axes, and we have the triangle
ucd similar to

bee,

F
Whence

the angle cad being equal to

Oa

: :

Ob

be

ac

: :

ce

dc

Then

cbe.

R.

the velocity-ratio

Y -L.
R

proving the correctness of the parallelogram for conveniently locating the line of contact when the velocity-ratio and angle between
the axes are given.
If another pair of circles tangent to each other be drawn on the
axes A and B, as, for instance, those tangent at the point C' on
the line OC, the ratio of the radii of this pair will be the same as
is plain from the
geometry of

that of the circles tangent at C, as

the figure.

Hence

correctly rolling surfaces for this case

common as at 0.

must be cones

with their vertices in

In the above the contact

is

between the axes, which are situated

to intersect at an angle of less than 90 degrees.

When the angle between the axes is greater than 90 degrees

there seems to be a second case, as if the contact were outside this
angle as shown in Fig. 8. But
the principles are all the same,
and the wheels are readily made

_ C

in practice.

The wheel of Fig. 7 is shown

at A', Fig. 8, so that the cone
or A'C' on
may have a mate

AC

the axis A.

peculiar result

is

obtained

when the line OC is perpendicular

to AO, the wheel A being a plane
circular disk

But 0, the
axes,

is

the

instead of a cone.
intersection

common

the rolling surfaces

contact.

of the

vertex of

AA'B,

PIG.

8.

all

etc., in

every instance of correct rolling

PEINCIPLES OF MECHANISM.

10

Some old mill gearing made wholly of wood ignores the aboveconic forms of the theoretic surfaces, where one wheel has teeth
upon its side and the other upon its edge.
III.

Axes Crossing Without Meeting.

For convenience, take the

vertical projections of the axes and the line of contact of the roll"
"
ing surfaces as here shown, parallel to the ground line of the figure
This line of contact must be a straight line, and tin element of each

of the surfaces.
If the surfaces have a possible existence for this peculiar case,,
plain that the form of each may be conceived to be described

it is

FIG.

9.

FIG. 10.

by imagining the

line of contact to be fixed to the one axis

and

to-

thus generating that surface, first for the one,

and then for the other. The form of surface thus described is the
The
liyperloloid of revolution with axes AA' and BB', Fig. 9.
be revolved about

it,

smallest diameters will be at the

est distance

between the axes

1'

common
B*

',

perpendicular, or short-

which perpendicular

is

inter-

sected at 0' by the line of contact C'0'6.

To locate the line of contact in the horizontal projection, imagine the surfaces to be extended to infinity, where they become roll-

ing cones.

Thus we can

locate the line of contact in Fig. 10 to

11

CIRCULAR ROLLING WHEELS.

and v as in conic wheels, Fig. 7,.

correspond with the velocities
laying off Fon the axis of A, and v on the axis of B, as shown, and
completing the parallelogram with CO, the diagonal on the line of
contact in Fig. 10
is

when

sufficiently extended.
to place the line of contact

most convenient

In the drawing,

CO JV parallel

it

to the

line, as in Fig. 10.

locate the line of contact in Fig. 9: -First, it is plain that it
will be parallel to the axes in order to meet the case of rolling
cones of infinite extent. Second, to find the point 0' which di-

ground

To

common perpendicular A' B' into segments, or gorge-cirradii/draw A'C' and B'G' parallel to the respective axes A and
of Fig. 10. Through the intersection C', Fig. 9, and parallel to the
vides the

cle

Thus

axes draw the line of contact.

all

the essential lines of Figs.

and 10 become located, and the hyperboloids can be drawn in as

shown, using the axes A and B, Fig. 10, as geometric axes, and the
line of contact OCN as an asymptote for the hyperbolic curves.
9

Afterwards Fig. 9 can be completed by the theory of projections.

The

correctness of this construction for the triangle A' B' C' isaid of the end view at the left of Fig. 10, obtained by

shown by

passing a plane,
it

to

FG, perpendicular

1JMN,

in

to the line of contact,

which some point

is

where the

and

re-

line of

volving
In this cross-section, the point
is the
contact pierces this plane.
surfaces
as
intersected
of
the
contact
of
rolling hyperboloidal
point

by the plane,

in curves tangent at

K,

as

shown.

As /and /are-

IK

and JTTas radii,

centers of rolling motion in this plane, with
must be on a straight line from / to J9 which locates the line of

A' and B' as well; since

parallel to the projection of the
the triangle A'B'C' is similar to FGO, and

contact as between

^Yand M,

the line of contact

KC, O'C'

axes in Fig.

INK

to

9.

JMK,

But

so that

A'O'

or between

is

B'0

= NK + MK,

proving true

the construction Fig. 9 for the position of C'O'.

It may be noted that a system of hyperboloids adapted for rolling upon each other in pairs interchangeably, may be drawn by

CO the line of contact, the point of intersection of all

the locus of all their intersections with the
the axes in plan,
all
axes
FG,
being parallel in their projections Fig. 9.
plane
A notable point in the history of this case is that the early
making K,

from analogy with the case of bevel wheels, assumed that

R f and r' were in the simple inverse ratio of the angular
The French author Belanger, however, gave an exvelocities.
tended and rigorous proof to the contrary, agreeing with the above
writers,

the radii

12

PRINCIPLES OF MECHANISM.

To show
graphical construction A'B'C' of Professor Rankiue.
this construction to be correct, suppose the wheels to make a small
turn in rolling contact so that the line of contact, 00 produced,
makes a small displacement from OO to ab, Fig. 10. Then Oa
may be regarded as the horizontal projection of the corresponding
movement of the point 0' in the circle A'O'. Likewise Ob may be
the plan of the corresponding movement of 0' in the circle B'O'.

But a and b should be

no lateral slipping of the

in a line parallel to

as required for

CO,

surfaces; longitudinal slipping being necessarily allowed to provide for the endwise sliding of the teeth of
these wheels while engaged, and in action, the teeth being laid out

to coincide, in position, with a series of lines of contact, or straight

elements of surface properly distributed around the hyperboloids
as explained

under Teeth of Wheels.

Thus conditioned, we

see that the triangle

Oab

is

similar to

A'B'C'.

To prove
R'

V=

this construction correct

r'v

Oa,

Oa

Ob,

and from the parallelogram

V sin eOC

sin

cos

we have from

aOd

C we

have

v sin

aOd

Od

f00

Ob

Fig. 10
cos

bOd,

v sin bOd,

whence
R'

~7

__
"

v Oa
v
=
~T7Ob
V
.

cos

bOd

cos

aOd

~'

_ sin
~

aOd

Sn.~bO'd'

bOd
aOd

cos
cos

_
~

tan

aOd

tan bOtf

a relation that must exist between R',r', v,and V, as consistent with

the allowed longitudinal sliding along ab, but not lateral slipping
of surfaces.

From

Fig.

9, as

constructed,

O'C' tan A'C'O'

we obtain

R',

O'C' tan B'C'O'

= r',

whence

^ _ tan-4^0'
~~~

r'

tan
~~

aOd

tan bOd'

ianTB'C'6'

ihe same relation as obtained from Fig. 10

structed.

Hence the construction

correct one.

for

A'O'B'

as necessarily conas described is the

13

CIRCULAR ROLLING WHEELS.

These wheels, sometimes called rolling hyperboloids, can never

serve as practical rolling surfaces or friction wheels, from the fact
that the unavoidable longitudinal sliding induces lateral slip; but

To determine
in skew-bevel gearing they are entirely practical.
the longitudinal slip, compare ab with Oa or Ob, these being corend of R', or
responding values of this slip, the movement of the
of

r',

respectively,

INTERMITTENT MOTIONS.
These might have been

classified

with respect to the relation of

but it is.
axes, as parallel; meeting; or not parallel and not meeting;
believed advisable to classify them with regard to their peculiarities,,

and

them here together.

name is given to movements

treat

Tliis

in rolling contact

where the

driver A, Fig. 11, moves continuously while the follower, or driven

piece B, has periods of rest and motion.
The class here considered, of velocity-ratio constant, includes

such of these movements as have circular rolling

arcs, here dotted

as pitch lines for the teeth.

To

be thoroughly practical, the driven piece should be positively

when idle, and be stopped and started in gradation of

locked

and breakage.
friction
checks,
clamps, etc., should never be relied
Spring
in speed may prevent the spring
as
a
change
momentary
upon,
from properly catching in its notch, or the friction clamp from

motion

to avoid shocks

wear may get out of adjustment and fail to act. Serious breakages
have been known to occur in machines for making wire hooks for
hooks and eyes, where this movement has been used with a friction

clamp instead of positive locks.

These movements possessing positive locks are made in
two ways which are thoroughly practicable.
First,
arc,

at least

with the locking arc of greater radius than the rolling

and provided with easement

spurs.

Second, with the locking arc of smaller radius than the rolling
arc, and provided with easement segments.

JK

on the wheel A, Figs. 11 and 12,

First. Here the locking arc
given a larger radius than the rolling arc DHE, in order that
the curves, EJ and DK, of varying radius may act upon the saddle
or the rolling arc of
is moving
curve
while the first point
is

FG

engagement with the first point of the rolling arc EH, toprevent the wheel B from moving out of place in the one direction^

into

14

PKLtfCIPLES OF MECHAKISM.

L and ^preventing derangement in the other direction.

spurs L and N are on the front side of the wheels, while the

the spurs

The

spurs

P and R are on the

opposite sides, and dotted.

H
FIG. 11.

In Fig. 11 the pin

JBj striking

it first

N moves toward the

spur L, fastened upon

JGK begins to fall away, the

more toward E so that B is just

as the locking arc

latter being cut away more and

allowed to turn with but slight backlash until the pin acting against
the spur has thus brought the initial point of the rolling arc FIto

contact with the initial point of the rolling arc EH, when rolling
action begins and the spurs L and
go out of use for that revoluWhen the rolling has continued through
to D, the locktion.

H
B

is locked
ing arcs and spurs again come into action until
again
in the position shown, it having made one revolution while A

CIRCULAR ROLLING WHEELS.

made but
its

part of one,
revolution.

15

remaining idle and locked while

com-

pletes
It will be seen that the pin strikes the spur quite
abruptly in

Fig. 11 unless the spur

is

considerably inclined, ani starts

B snd-

FIG. 12.

denly, so that in high speed the pin or spur may be broken, while
in Pig. 12 the two spurs,
and NO, extending nearly to the
axis of motion of the driver A, start
slowly at first and with

LM

greatly reduced shock, but as the contact between the spurs moves
meets
when rolling
is accelerated until
outward, the wheel

contact begins. By placing a pair of spurs on each side of the

wheels, they are adapted for running either way or if in one direction only, it is important to have one pair for accelerating
at
;

starting,

and another

for retarding

it

gradually while approaching

PRINCIPLES OF MECHANISM.

16

Thus the length of the spurs may be fixed in a

judgment of the designer.
The rolling-circle arcs of these wheels are what bring them

the locking arc.

particular case by the

under the present topic of rolling contact and constant velocityThe spurs will usually work by sliding contact, though
they may act by rolling, but with velocity-ratio varying, and their
forms may be studied under their proper headings. (See Fig. 141.)
Second: with locking arc smaller in radius than the rolling
arc, as in Fig. 13, where B is shown as approaching the locked
ratio.

FIG. 13.

position,

and with

Tand /the

rolling arcs.

As

E approaches Fit
B

in such a way as to start

slowly, and
glances and slides on
and
until
the
of
the
initial
with acceleration
rolling arcs
points
/ come to contact when rolling begins with velocity-ratio constant

CIRCULAR ROLLING WHEELS.

through the rolling circular
reverse action occurs until

When

approaches G, the
locked
on
the locking arc as
again

arcs.
is

17

shown

to soon occur.
In the details of these wheels, the locking arcs are cut away to
and Z>, to allow the points
some extent, as shown near
and G
to turn while passing from lock into action, and B is cut away
and G. Also the circular rolling
somewhat in the lock between
arcs /fand /have easements at their ends, thus introducing short

non-circular rolling arcs at ^and D, to be set with gear teeth, when

"
"
they are laid out for the rolling arcs treated as pitch lines for
teeth.

and B being each in

and 12 require spurs,
which usually must be made and put on with screws or

Fig. 13 has the advantage of simplicity,

practice cast in one piece, while Figs. 11
pins, etc.,

FIG, 15.

FIG.

rivets.

The form

14.

Fig. 13

is

used on certain binders of reaping

machines.

In these figures there

wheel, so that

makes

as

But

is

but one locking

arc, or lock, to

each

revolutions in a given time as B.

many
A may have

several rolling and locking

it is readily seen that
arcs in alternation in a circumference; likewise
may have several

rolling arcs

and locks

and the number differmay have three and B two..

in its circumference,

ing from that of A, as, for instance, A

These wheels for intermittent motion may be made with axes
meeting, or as not parallel nor meeting, under the principles for
those cases as already laid

down except

for the easement spurs,

and

18

PRINCIPLES OF MECHANISM.

segments, which, whether acting by rolling or sliding contact, may

be treated by principles considered later, which see.
In practice, the rolling arcs in the above intermittent wheels

must be

set

struction of

with gear teeth as above mentioned, the proper conwhich teeth will be considered later under Teeth of

Wheels.

To

give a clearer idea of these wheels

when complete with

teeth, locks, spurs, easements, etc., photo-process copies are here

given, where Fig. 14 is to represent

Fig. 12 above, as complete and ready

for action.
The rolling arcs of Fig. 12
are here provided with teeth.
In Fig. 15 is illustrated a pair of

wheels explained in Fig. 13, where the

circular rolling arcs are terminated
with short portions of non-circular
arcs

or

extended

easements, the teeth being

The distance
over both.

between centers

is

about

4-^

inches.

In Fig. 16 we have the same as in

FlG 16>
Fig. 15 turned into bevel wheels with
axes meeting at an angle of 30 degrees, though the angle may
be 90 degrees more or less.
-

CIRCULAR ALTERNATE MOTIONS.

The few examples

for this case are deferred to page 82.

CHAPTER

II.

ROLLING CONTACT OF NON-CIRCULAR WHEELS.

TELOCITY

RATIO

VARYING.

PITCH

LINES

NON-CIRCULAR

OF

GEARS.

THESE may be
grees, so as to

other, or they

complete, that is, filling the full circle of 360 de~

admit of continued rotation, one revolution after an-

may be incomplete or sectoral.

may very properly be regarded

This subject

theory of pitch lines of gearing; and as it

portance it will be treated at some length.

is

as

the general
much im-

a subject of

The axes of motion are supposed to be fixed in position, and^

as in circular wheels, there are three cases, viz.: axes parallel; axes
meeting; and axes not parallel and not meeting.
CASE

I.

AXES PARALLEL.

Here, as in circular wheels, the contact point

or outside the axes.

The

may

be between

following notation will be convenient for use:

A the driving wheel, or axis.

=
B = the driven wheel, or axis.
C = the point of contact of wheels.
c = the distance between axes.
R = the radius of wheel A, and = AC.
r = the radius of wheel B, and = BG.

V= angular velocity of wheel A.

= angular velocity of wheel B.

=
S stated, or definite, portion of arc of A.
s = stated, or definite, portion of arc of B.
v

The

essential conditions for true rolling contact of these wheels

are:
First.

The axes must be fixed at a distance c apart.

The point of contact must remain on the

Second.

line

centers.
19

of

PRINCIPLES OF MECHANISM.

20
Third.

The sum

of

any pair of

radii

R+r=o=

or

must equal a constant,

const.

Fourth. Arcs having rolled truly in mutual contact are equal,

8=

or

s.

in the study of these wheels, both A and

be regarded as consisting of elementary or small sectors and
be treated in mating pairs, with limiting radii in pairs, and arcs in
Thus a pair of radii will always be
r
c, and a
pairs, etc.

For convenience

may

R+

s, the capitals belonging to driver A,

pair of arcs will be 8
the small letters to driven wheel B.

and

Non- Circular Wheels. There are but five

cases of correct-working nondemonstrated
and
readily
simple
Special Cases of

circular wheels, viz.

Pair of Logarithmic Spirals of the Same Obliquitycalled

Equiangular Spirals.)
(Sometimes
Second. A Pair of Equal and Similar Ellipses.
Third. A Pair of Equal and Similar Parabolas.
Fourth. A Pair of Equal and Similar Hyperbolas.
First.

Fifth.

Transformed Wheels.
First.

The

Equal Logarithmic

Spirals.

leading characteristic of the logarithmic spiral

is

that it

has a constant obliquity throughout.

Taking A, Fig.

17, as the ori-

gin, or pole, of the spiral A, the

angle A CD, between the radius
jj

vector

AC

and

normal

CD,

is-

called the obliquity of the spiral,

its value being the same for all

points of this spiral. If a second

be
spiral, B, of the same obliquity
the
in
shown
as
angle
Fig. 17,
placed in contact with the first,
being equal to the angle ACD, the contact point C will be
found to be situated on the straight line AB, joining the poles, for
whatever point of contact between the spirals.
17-

BCE

Then taking the points, or poles A and B as fixed axes of

motion, the spirals will roll upon each other without slipping,

ROLLING CONTACT OF NON-CIRCULAR WHEELS.

being the point of contact and

AB the

line of centers,

21

and the con-

ditions for rolling contact of non-circular wheels are satisfied.

TO CONSTRUCT THE LOGARITHMIC SPIRAL.

In the logarithmic

spiral, for equal angles

radii vectors are in geometric progression.

about the pole, the

Draw two

straight lines

FIG. 18.

from 0, Fig.
ak,

Ic

it is

18,

Then draw bl parallel to

kb.
to
as far as desired.
Then
Ib,
etc.,
parallel
the lines Oa, Ob, Oc, Od, etc., are in geometrical

and a

parallel to kb,

found that

line

ak and

cm

progression, or form a geometric series. The same is true of Oj,

Ok, 01, etc. ; or of aj, bk, cl, etc. Hence any one of these systems

of lines
Fig. 19,

may

be used for radii vectores of the spiral.

draw a

series

Through

0,

of lines at

equal intervening angles, and lay

off any one of the above series of
lines as Oa, Ob, Oc, etc.,

the curve
points

abc,

etc.,

and trace

through the
This

determined.

thus

is a logarithmic spiral, the

construction making it evident that

curve

the obliquity

is

FIG. 19.

constant.

It is difficult to construct

a spiral, as above, that will pass

through two given located points as a and c in Fig 20. For this
case draw a semicircle to a diameter Aa -f- Ac
as in Fig. 21, and the perpendicular Ab will be
the radius which bisects the angle a Ac, Fig. 20,
thus determining the point b in
Then a similar

the curve abc.

A
FIG. 20.

Fl

21

construction of Fig. 21 for the

aAb will give the radius

"a sector

Ad

and another construction

PELNCIPLES OF MECHANISM.
the radius ae,

etc., in

continual bisection of the angles until the

number of points in the spiral ac
is obtained.
desired

LENGTH OF THE LOG-SPIEAL AEC.

as the pole,

Taking

OD

and

OE as

the

limiting radii vectores of the log-spiral sector ODE, draw a tangent

at E.
Make

EF

OG =

OZ>, and draw

EF=

GF perpendicular

to

OE. Then
the arc />^ of the spiral.
For a small portion dEg this appears evident, as dE and fE are equal; and the same
at the limit of every short arc.
From this it
the arc of the spiral
appears that
from the pole 0, to E,
being perpen-

EH=

OH

OE.

dicular to

FIG. 22.

APPLICATIONS.
SECTORAL LOG-SPIEAL WHEELS.
Fig. 23 shows a mating pair of log-spiral sectoral wheels, where
the arcs and also the differences of

the limiting radii of the sectors are

equal;
being equal the sum of

AB

a pair of radii.

The

velocity-ratio for the posi-

tion of

the wheels shown in the

figure

is

V BC =
-~=m

FIG. 23.

15,

and r being the pair of

radii to

the point O.

LOG-SPIEAL LEVEES.
Fig. 24 illustrates the application
of log-spiral levers, where a rod
is thrust forward or back
by mov-

ing handle E, the levers working by

FIG. 24.

rolling at C.
shown in Fig.

Another application is
which in practice has been found

possible

Fig. 26.

application

to

to

work

25 to

a wire-cutter,

well.

weighing-scales

is

illustrated

in

ROLLIHG CONTACT OF ^OK-CIRCULAR WHEELS.

In Fig. 27

is

shown a

23

"
pair of
wipers" in steam-engine valve-

FIG. 25.

FIG. 26.

Here the center

gears of the log-spiral order.
distance away because the driven spiral moves

B is at an

infinite

in a straight line, being supported on a rod

The spiral
sliding in guide-bearings DE.
in this case becomes a straight line as shown.

The

velocity-ratio

is

that

of

the linear

velocity of sliding of B, and of the angular

and we have linear
;
velocity of A, or

velocity of

V
B = AC.

velocity-ratio

V, or the
linear velocity of
-

= A U.

FIG. 27.

We

is the same as that of the point

note that the velocity of
since linear velocity of
X V.
as revolving about
;

B = AC

COMPLETE LOG-SPIRAL WHEELS.

In this case each wheel is
First. Symmetrical Uniloled Wheels.
composed of two equal sectors of the spiral, each sector being one
These admit of continuous rotation of
of 180 degrees, as shown.
A and B with a variable velocity-ratio, for which, at any instant,

V~
_BC
v
If the velocity of

is

AC'

constant, that of

B will

be variable.

PRINCIPLES OF MECHANISM.

Wheels

like these are

to one side in a lobe.

termed lobed wheels, because extended out

The wheels

in Fig. 28 are unilobed.

FIG.

28.

W7ieels.Ke*v each wheel

Second. Unsymmetrical
of
sectors
in
a
as
of
consists
unequal
Fig. 29.
pair
Unilobed

FIG.

29.

aid of two log-spirals. In this case construct one logFig. 19, say right-handed, and a second one, lefta
on
handed,
transparent paper. By placing one over the other,
with poles coincident, one may be
turned around on the other until the
1.

By

spiral as in

is seen lying between two

consecutive intersections, as in Fig.
Thus
30.
may be chosen, or

desired size

ADE

AEF.

If the

first

is

too small and

the second too large the transparent

tracing may be turned to another
position over the other, changing the
wheels to the desired size.

FIG. 30.

divides the angle a Ac and

is

2. By assumed angles and radii.

X
Here proceed as by the process of
Figs. 20 and 21, where the radius Ab
made a mean proportional between Aa

LOGARITHMIC SPIRAL WHEELS.

and Ac,

25

as in Fig. 21.
Again, find a mean proportional between
for a radius equally dividing the angle aAb, etc., etc.,

Aa and Ab

many points in ab as desired. Likewise for the arc be.

Third. Multilobed Wheels. 1. By reduction of angles. Suppose a series of equidistant radii be drawn in Fig. 28 or 29, and that
the angles thus found be reduced by one half.
Fig. 29 would then

for as

be changed to Fig. 31, giving the half of a 2-lobed wheel

the

other half being like it.

This wheel would work correctly with
another like it, making a pair of 2-lobed wheels.
Again, by reducing the angles of Fig. 29 to a third their value,
the third of a 3-lobed wheel would be obtained, from which the full
wheel could be obtained by uniting three copied sectors. Likewise
a 4-lobed, 5-lobed, etc., wheel could be produced.

These wheels would work together in pairs of equal lobes, but

not interchangeably.
2. By assumed angles and
limiting radii. In Fig. 31 lay off

AE

AF

as

maximum

Bisect the angle

21, thus

obtaining a point

GAP by AH, find AH as

and AD as a minimum radius.

and find the length of AG as in Fig.

radii,

DAFby AG
G

in the arc

DGF.

Ha

Similarly bisect

by Fig. 21, giving

point in the curve.
The point 1 is found in the same way, and other points between, to
the extent desired, when the curve PHD can be drawn in.
Likewise for sector DAE, giving the half of a 2-lobed wheel
from which the whole wheel is readily formed either by copying
the second half from Fig. 31 as rights and lefts with this half,
as an axis of
making the wheel symmetrical with respect to
or
the
half
around
on the paper
symmetry,
by swinging
copied
180 and joining it to this half EDF, giving a non-symmetrical

EF

wheel.
Pairs of 3-lobed, 4-lobed, etc., wheels may be thus produced, but
they would not work interchangeably.

PRINCIPLES OF MECHANISM.

26

INTERCHANGEABLE MULTILOBED LOG-SPIRAL WHEELS.

1.

As

derived from one spiral.

1-lobed wheel as in Fig. 28 will

consist of two equal sectors of 180 each,
as

DAGH,

cording to

Fig

32, or

PAGE,

etc.,

ac-

size.

2-lobed wheel will consist of four

each, as EAHG, etc.

3-lobed wheel will require six sectors of 60 each, etc.
That these several wheels be interchangeable as derived from
sectors of 90

FIG. 32.

A
one

spiral, Fig. 32, it is necessary that the sectoral arcs equal each
other, while the sectoral angles differ.

Thus, in Fig. 33, the arc

DCE

must equal the arc FCG, while

FIG. 33.

= 180, and the angle BFG = 60.

In Fig. 32 the 180 sector
gives half the wheel A, Fig. 33^
while the sector EAJ, Fig. 32, gives a sixth of the wheel B, Fig.
33, these sectors in Fig. 32 being selected by trial measurements on
a drawing-board so that the arc
arc EIJ.
Likewise the
sector FAIy Fig. 32, would make the eighth of a 4-lobed wheel, and
the fourth of a 2-lobed wheel, any two of which series of
wheels from the 1-lobed to the 4-lobed and upward will work to-

the angle

DAE

DHG

DHG =

HAE

gether in pairs interchangeably.

The

velocity -ratio

BG
is

always equal

-r-^.

L>

As

derived from two spirals of unequal obliquity.

In Fig. 30 consider the wheel
as a 1-lobed wheel, to work
with which a 2-lobed, 3-lobed, etc., wheel is desired.
2.

DEG

Here

it is

only necessary to proceed with, say, the steepest spk-al

LOGARITHMIC SPIRAL WHEELS.

27

just as was done in Fig. 32, obtaining sectors with arcs equal
that of the corresponding steepest sector of the one-lobed wheel,
and with angles a half, a third, etc., as great; resulting in the
first,

steepest sectors of the 2-lobed, 3-lobed, etc., wheels; then likewise

flatter spiral, resulting in the flatter sectors, for the

with the

2-lobed, 3-lobed, etc., wheels; when the unequal sectors for a lobe
of any one of the proposed wheels can be selected and the wheels,
laid out.

Fig. 34

is

an example of a 1-lobed wheel mating with a 3-lobed

FIG. 34.

one

laid out in this way.

Any two of the lobed wheels in theabove described will roll truly together.

series

3. As determined
from proportional sectors.
In Fig. 35 let
represent any given sector of a lobed

ADEH

DA

FIG. 35.

wheel.

work

case the sector

AIJ

Now

AIJ of

a wheel of three times as many

the first-named wheel. In this
with
correctly
must work correctly on the sector ADEH.

Required a sector

lobes that will

many lobes in
new wheel which mate with

for three times as

tors of the

the
the

new wheel, new secmust have the

first

sectoral angle one third that of the first wheel.

sector AIJ to mate with sector ADEH,i\iQ angle

a third of the angle

DAH,

and

it is

plain that the

That

is,

for the

IAJ must equal

sector AIJ must

PRINCIPLES OF MECHANISM.
be similar to the sector A DE because of the equal obliquities.
JN must equal HK, and IJ equal DEH. Therefore
EL HK
AD AI AE AJ,
:

Also

a proportion which can be readily constructed graphically as in

and
-^ Fig. 36. With the mating sectors

ADEH

AIJ thus

found, the wheels may be laid out.

If in the first wheel the other sector for a

lobe

two

is

not equal to the sector

for a lobe

FIG. 36.

ADEH,

but tha

form an aliquot part of the

full

360 degrees, then a similar construction

will give the new mating sectors for the other parts of the lobes of
the new mating wheel.
circle of

In this way the mating 4-lobed wheel

is

found for the given

EDF

of Fig. 38 as shown in Fig. 37, where

is the
2-lobed wheel
half of the given wheel.
The number of lobes being doubled, the
angles will be halved, and the halves of the sectors of Fig. 37 being

similar to the
the half

AKD

HL = EJ.
the full

new

Thus
sectors required, are simply expanded.
full
to
the
new
sector
AHG, making
expanded

new
is

Similarly the half of ADF, or

sector A GI, and the new

ADN

is

expanded

to

4-lobed wheel working with the former

given 2-lobed wheel are both shown,
mated, in Fig. 38.
When one wheel is expanded to an
indefinite

number

of lobes

it

becomes a

straight notched bar, as in Fig. 39, of

indefinite extent, the sectoral arcs of

which

are straight inclined lines

of
contact, and the center
point

where

at

FIG. 38.

A may
an

be the driver,

O the

infinite distance away.

B thus becomes a sliding bar DE. The driver A may

have unequal sectors when the notches will be unsymmetrical like
the teeth of a rip-saw.
The wheel

LOGARITHMIC SPIRAL WHEELS.

The

velocity-ratio

is

the same as that for Fig. 27.

FIG. 39.

EASEMENT CURVES.

One

characteristic of the above purely log-spiral wheels is the

sharp abrupt intersection points, both salient and re-entrant, in the
outlines where the sectors lie

adjacent. These if desired may

be eased off into curves of any

form provided they

will

roll

properly, as in Fig. 40.

ADE is an easement F/
mating with BHI, and
AFG another mating with BJK.
FIG. 40.
The easement sectors cannot be
log-spirals, and they may be constructed by assuming one,
instance, DE, and then the mating curve /// must be found.
Thus

sector

to thus construct

To make such

mating curves

filleted outlines,

D F and GE drawn
position of the point B is

is

DE

in as log-spiral sectors.

the

not

be

made

which must be

for

it

How

explained in a future chapter.

and FG may be assumed, and

the curves

may

as, for

known

Then

as

exactly, an assumption

and tested by constructing a sector HIJK,

in proper relation to the full circle of 360 degrees.

Second.

Equal and Similar

Ellipses.

Fig. 41 presents a pair of equal and similar ellipses tangent to

focal points.
The ellipses
each other at C, with A, D, B, and

CH

are intentionally placed in contact so that the distance

equals
and 7 being at the extremes of the
the distance CI, the points

major axes.

If the ellipses

be

now

rolled in

mutual contact without

and /will approach, these

slipping, in the direction such that
same
the
the
at
will
meet
time,
when,
major axes of the ellipses
points
will coincide with one and the same straight line through AB.

30

PRINCIPLES OF MECHANISM.
It is readily seen that Fig. 41 is

symmetrical with reference to

common tangent CO, and that AC

EG, BC = DC.
From a well-known property of the ellipse AC -f CD
the major axis of the ellipse, equals FH, a constant for all
the

of contact C.

points

CD

always equals CB, we have A C -f CD

AB, equal a constant, and equals the major axis
Likewise for BCE. Hence if we take the focal

But

= A C + CB =
of the ellipse.

equals

as

FIG. 41.

A and B as axes of motion, the ellipses will roll truly in

mutual contact as non-circular wheels.
For the same reason that AB is constant,
is also constant,
and hence pins placed at D and E may be connected by a rod or
link with freedom of movement about A and B. It is interesting
to note that the elliptical wheels transmit the same motion from A
to B as would a pair of cranks AD and BE and a connecting rod
points

DE

DE.
The

velocity-ratio for the elliptic wheels of Fig. 41

is

when

the extremities of the minor axes are in contact at C, or when

BC\ and least, or greatest in value, when the major axes

AC

touch

on the line A B.
and revolves uniformly, then the fastest moveand /are in contact, and slowest when
occurs when

at extremities

If

is

ment

of

F and

driver

are in contact ; hence the ratio

AH
Fastest for

Slowest for

B~
_ Bl_
B AF
GB

_
==

AH*
AH BG ~~
__
BI AF
'

BI*

OF THE

UNIVERSITY
ELLIPTIC

WHE

31

For example, in a

This ratio increases rapidly with eccentricity.

nail- driving device for a certain

boot and shoe nailing machine

(see Fig. 130) with elliptic pitch

1 inch, so that the fastest for

BI =

AH =

lines,

3.25

ins.

and

10.56 times the slowest;

and the absolute velocity of
being usually about 300 revolutions
is thereper minute, the slowest rate of absolute movement for
is

fore

r-^rr-

o/vD

3.25
-^

300

300

92.3 revolutions per minute, while the fastest is

The

975 revolutions per minute.

ratio of these fig-

the same as by the formula givena bove, viz., 10.56. In this

and by aid of a pitman
nail-driving device a crank is attached to
or connecting link reciprocates a driving bar, the
ures

is

hastened motion of which bar resembled that of

a driving bar accelerated by a spring, but possessed
the great advantage of requiring no buffer to absorb
the residual terminal shock, the crank and link
always preventing the driving bar from going be-

predetermined lowest position.*

is an example from the Putnam Machine Co/s exhibit at the Centennial of 1876, of
elliptic gears used on a slotting machine to ap"
proximate the quick return." The fastest motion of the driven wheel is nearly 4.5 times the

yond

its

Fig. 42

slowest.

The

distance between centers was

14

FIG. 42.

inches.

See also Fig. 133, for which the fastest for the driven wheel

is

41 times the slowest.

*A
general expression for the velocity-ratio
of the ellipse, viz. :

is

obtained from the equation

ml

m
BG
from which we

a. cos a*

-\-

a cos ff
.

find the

velocity-ratio

%= m

a. cos a*

where a and j3 are the angles DAG and IBC; and where
ameter and 2n. the minor diameter, a being %BE.

2w

is

the major

di-

OZ

PRINCIPLES OF MECHANISM.

The smoothness
contact

is

of outline of these elliptic wheels for rolling

many cases where a variable

favorable for their use in

velocity of the driven

definite law of motion.

wheel

is

the main object, instead of some

As the curves here considered

wheels,
avoided.

it

is

plain that

are only for pitch lines of gear

angles in those lines are by preference

Compare Figs 42 and 45 with Figs. 71, 73, and 89.

INTERCHANGEABLE MULTILOBED ELLIPTIC WHEELS.

The remarkable

elliptic

the only ones that

may

wheels of the Rev. H. Holditch are

properly come under this classification.

not because made up of parts of ellipses,

These are called elliptic,

but because of the peculiar relation of this
to a corresponding series of ellipses as

Draw

the ellipse

DPE with foci A

series of

wheel curves

shown in Fig. 43.

and
and center

0.

Draw

OS

perpendicular to AM, cutting the ellipse at P. Then for

complete multilobed wheels, lay off OP in repetition on OS, giving
Then
points Q, R, S, etc., so that

SR=RQ=QP=PO.

through these points draw confocal

and
as focal points.
found by making OF =
Also we have

Aa

-\-

The

ellipses as

points F, H,

shown, that

K, G,

I, etc.,

is,

with

may

be

OG = AQ, OH = 01 = AR, etc., etc.

aM = AQ QM, etc. The full elliptic arc
-f-

around pins at A and

may be drawn by stretching a thread
the
a
Then
and
at
M,
Q.
pencil either way, kept
moving
pencil
is
traced.
the
the
thread,
ellipse
tight against

AQMA

DPE

in Fig. 44.
The bilobe
the
radii
AF,
Aa,
Aft, Ac,
by using
etc., laid off on lines radiating from B, Fig. 44, at half the angles
FAa, aAb, bAc, respectively, Fig. 43, this giving a sector CBT,

The

is

ellipse

obtained from

Fig. 44,

which

is

is

FQG,

the unilobe as at
Fig. 43,

the fourth part of the bilobe required.

ELLIPTIC WHEELS.

obtained by laying off the radii AH,

from B', Fig. 44, at a third of the
thus
43,
Fig.
giving a sector C'U'U, which

Similarly the trilobe

Ad, Ae,
angles

etc.,

on

33

is

lines radiating

HAd, dAe,

etc.,

FIG. 44.

is

the sixth part of the trilobe; from which the wheel can be con-

structed, as

shown

in Fig. 44.

In practice it is most convenient to make the angles equal to

each other between lines radiating from A, Fig, 43; in which case
the angles between the lines radiating from B, Fig. 44, are equal,

and a half

as great as in Fig. 43, and angles at B', Fig. 44, equal a

third of those of Fig. 43, etc.

The unilobe A,

Figs. 43

and 44,

is

an

ellipse as stated.

But

not an ellipse, though somewhat

it.
resembling
Again, the wheel B' is far
from being an ellipse, and the reason these

the bilobe

is

wheels are called elliptic

is

because of the

use of ellipses in Fig. 43 in constructing

them.
Fig. 45 is a photo-process copy of a pair
of elliptic wheels like
and B' of Fig. 44,
where the rolling curves serve as pitch lines

for the teeth.

The demonstration

of the Holditch wheels

not simple, and will not be given here,

but the wheels are admitted at this point
because of their direct dependence upon
is

FIG. 45.

ellipses.

For the particular

case that the

nite, the center of the wheel

is

number

removed

of lobes becomes infi-

to infinity,

and what we

PRINCIPLES OF MECHANISM.

34
see of

it

LFHK,
if

is

m and

shown

where the curve becomes a sinusoid

in Fig. 46,

LH'=

nn, and GF
n be taken as semi-axes of the

in

which

= NK =

Vvi*

11*

AO,

ellipse.

FIG. 46.

The half length and

and n having been determined, and laid off on OJ and
01, make IA = ID = m. Then take any radius AP and describe
an arc at P. Subtract this radius from 2m, and with this difference as a radius, equal DP, describe an intersecting arc at P.

To construct the ellipse on a drawing-board

breadth

The

intersection will be a point in the ellipse.

Any
points may be thus found and the ellipse drawn in.

To

FH

construct the arc

HK,

sines the values for every nine degrees

ply these by 4/m

diculars between

ri*,

velocity-ratio

OH being =

FH,
is

as F,

we have

as

AC. V

W, and angular 'velocity of

W,

the semi-axes of the ellipse are

curve of the sinusoid

*.

the same expression as that for Fig. 27,

taking linear velocity of

Where

a table of

to ninety degrees, multi-

and lay them off on ten equidistant perpenG and including the latter, through which

viz.:

Take from

of

H and

points draw the curve

The

etc.:

up

number

and n the equation of the

LFHK is
.

sin

"'

found by integrating the polar equation of the

y.
bering that r = m

ellipse for

dx

= rdv and remem-

PARABOLIC WHEELS.

35

or

making the

rate- of linear

movement

of

Third.

and
along the guides
for the instant as

end of a radius
the same
A.
center
the
about
revolving
as that of the

AC

Pair of Equal and Similar Parabolas.

as an ellipse so extended that one

away. Thus in Fig. 41 suppose the
and G are verfocus B and D to be infinitely removed. Then
tices of parabolas, with A one axis of motion while the other, B,
In this case the motion of EG is simply
is at an infinite distance.

may be regarded

parabola

focus

at

is

an

infinite distance

to slide, as for

B in

Fig. 46.

These rolling parabolas are shown in

FIG. 47.

Eig. 47, where

B slides in

is

the fixed axis of revolution for wheel A, while

and N.
guides
To prove that the parabolas will thus roll truly, we make use
of Fig. 48 of two equal parabolas with their vertices in contact at

C and
y

with

with

and

focal points,

sliding in guides
that the radial line

M and N.

serving as an axis for A, and

property of the parabola

AD makes the same angle as does DFwith

the tangent at D, or OF with the tangent at F. Also a well-known
property is that the line AD equals the line DO equals FH, where
is

OG

and

fixed,

AH are

OB along.

Now with A 9 M, and

K, at the same time sliding
Then Fwill be brought exactly to K, with the latter a

suppose

perpendicular to

to turn until

AO.

falls at

PRINCIPLES OF MECHANISM.
point of rolling contact on the line of centers A OK, as shown by
the dotted lines, because
GD, and the angles between
and the line A are equal to the
the tangents to the parabolas at

AK

angle between

FH

AD and the tangent at D.

The same

is

true for all

FIG. 48.

the points of contact between the parabolas of Fig. 48, and hence?
the parabolas of Fig. 47 will roll truly upon each other, A turning
and N.
slides in
about its pin while

Fourth.

In Fig. 49

let

Pair of Equal and Similar Hyperbolas.

LCM and ICJ represent a pair of equal and

sirni-

M
P/

FIG. 50.

FIG. 49.

are focal points; tha

and
lar hyperbolic sections for which
which
the
axis
about
taken
for
focus
rotates, and
being

LCM

the axis about which

ICJ turns,

the latter being

mounted by a bar

HYPERBOLIC WHEELS.

37

BE, made fast to it, and centered by a pivot at B. A and B are

then centers of motion, and BA C the line of centers, which must
of course constantly pass through the point of contact 6".
To prove that these hyperbolas will roll truly, we refer to
Fig. 50 of the same hyperbolas presented in correct relation with
and E.
welland OK, and focal points
their asymptotes

any pair

of lines

OP

known property

that the difference in length of

from any point C is the same for all

of these curves

A C and EC

is

is equal to the distance FG between

Another
the vertices and constant.
property is that the tangent
CH at'C bisects the angle between the radial lines AC and EC.
Now if we suppose the hyperbola A CF to be lifted from the
paper as drawn, and be swung around till HC coincides with
H'G", and the point C with the point C"; then the hyperbolas
will be in common tangency at C', and the distance from the new

points

C on

the curves, and

AC =

= AB

will just equal BO' FG,

position of A over to
of Fig. 49; and the two figures will otherwise agree: presenting
conditions consistent with true rolling contact.

The

velocity-ratio

is

V _BC
~~~

AC'

In this case the point of contact is outside the space AB, and
at any instant the wheels revolve in the same direction, while
in former cases the contact is between the axes and the motions
contrary.
Fifth.

Transformed Wheels.

Let Fig. 51 represent any pair of correct rolling non-circular

wheels; in this case sectoral.
Divide the two wheels into mat-

ing elementary sectors, for which a ^

couple of mating short arcs may be
referred to as a pair of arcs; a mat-

^ p

/^^^\~ tui =|^QB

ing couplet of radii as a pair of radii;

and a mating

set of angles as a

pair

of angles.

Then the wheels A and

viz.

B may

be transformed in three
ways,

1st.

By

constant.

multiplying each of a pair of angles, or of arcs, by a

(Holditch.)

PRINCIPLES OF MECHANISM.

38
2d.

By

adding a constant length

radii of one wheel, the

to all

arcs remaining constant.

3d. By adding to one

and subtracting from the other of a pair

a
radii
given quantity; arcs remaining unchanged.
of
In these changes the elementary, or small, sectors are supposed
to have angles of from three to ten degrees, according to desired
accuracy of result, the precision of mathematical analysis not being
expected, though a sufficiently close approximation to it is ob-

tained to answer for most practical problems arising under this

proposition.

The second mode

of transformation, applied to the wheel

B of

BE' from all radii,

Fig. 51, by cutting
or from B to the circle DE, that is, adding
negatively the length BB' to all radii of B,
off

FIG. 52.

and bringing the cut-off ends of the remaining portions of radii all to the point
B', will give the pair of wheels shown in
Fig. 52 which will be found to answer the

conditions of true rolling contact.

of transformation applied to the wheels of Fig.
52, by multiplying all the angles by two for a simple case, changes
those wheels to the ones shown in Fig. 53.

The

first

mode

In this multiplying it is not necessary to use

the same multiplier for all pairs of angles;
indeed a different multiplier might be used
for each pair of angles.
The third mode of transformation

ap-

plied to Fig. 52, results in Fig. 54, where

Aa

is

shortened and

Be lengthened

FIG. 53.

the same

amount; Ab shortened and Bd lengthened the same amount; Ae

lengthened and Bg shortened the same amount; and finally, Af
shortened and Bh lengthened the same
amount, these changes of the radii beingmade without any alteration of the lengths
of the elementary arcs Ca, ab, Cc, cd, Ce, Off,
It will be understood that the posietc.
tions of the radii will be changed, that
that the angle CAa will be varied as Aa
FIG. 54.

shortened, while the length Ca

and likewise for the other angles and arcs.

These three modes of transformation are

is

is,

is

preserved;

sufficient to

change

TRANSFORMED WHEELS.
any pair of correct

rolling wheels into

39

any other form. Thus,

it were sought

starting with the sectoral wheels of Fig. 51, suppose

to derive a pair of complete non-circular wheels.

Then, first, make the limiting radii of
equal, the one to the

other, also B, by the third mode; then by multiplying pairs of

angles by a given quantity, one pair after another, as by the first
mode, we may make the total angle of one of the sectors 360 degrees, giving a complete wheel, while the other will most likely not
be complete. To make the latter complete also, apply the second

mode

of transformation until that wheel closes with 360 degrees.

shall have the neces-

That the wheels thus rendered complete

sary shape as to eccentricity, law of varying velocity-ratio, etc., the

wheels may be examined before entirely closed, and so treated by
the modes of transformation as to bring about the desired law of
velocity-ratio of the

completed wheels.

Extended changes of wheels in this way in general become

tedious, and other processes on the drawing-board, hereafter exThe above modes of transformation
plained, will be preferred.
will, however, be found most useful in making minor changes, such
rounding off a sharp prominence or depression,
and in certain special cases.
as

as in Fig. 40;

INTERCHANGEABLE MULTILOBES BY TRANSFORMATION.

The transformation

of a pair of correct working wheels into

another pair, wider or narrower,

by the first mode, is a comparatively simple operation.
Thus, in Fig. 55, we

have a

of

Transformed Elliptic
pair
Wheels, mating half-ellipses A and
B, in dotted lines, in which the
FIG. 55.
angles are reduced by one half
the
radii
which
the
without changing
by
180-degree sectors are
reduced to 90-degree sectors, or the one-fourth part of a pair

of 2-lobel wheels, as explained in Willis, page 65.

Other portions of rolling ellipses may be transformed

into

lobed wheels of intersecting characteristics, as explained in MacCord's Mechanical Movements, page 54.
As a second example, take the equal elliptic wheels A and

B, Fig.

56,

and transform

into a wheel of

two lobes as

at

A\

40

PRINCIPLES OF MECHANISM.

by adding a constant quantity

the radii of wheel A, the

to all

arcs

elementary

un-

remaining

per the second mode

of transformation.
We will trans-

changed, as

form the half of A, the other half

"
being like it except as to rights and
lefts/'

The amount
radii of

to

add

to obtain a

to all the

90-degree re-

sulting sectoral wheel A'C'M' to

give exactly the fourth part of the

wheel A'

is

several trial

not readily determined,

values being in some

cases necessary.

In the present case,

refer to the Hoi-

however, we may

of Fig. 43, from

which we find that by subtracting
the distance, Fig. 56, AD from the distance AE we obtain EF
for the amount to add to all the radii CA, GA, HA, etc.
To
to center A with
apply this conveniently, draw the circle

ditch principle

FIG. 56.

NRP

EF.
Then to construct A'C'M* take A'C* = CN, thus adding
to AC. Also make A' G' = GQ, and C'G' = CO, thus determining
the point G'. For the point fT make A'H' = HR, and G'H' = GH,
radius

AN

thus determining the point //'. Likewise proceed to M', making

PM. Trace the curve through the points C'G'H'
A'M'
M',
completing the 90-degree sector A'C' M', with which the complete

2-lobed wheel A'

may

rectly with the wheel

and
of Fig 44.

be laid

off.

This wheel A' will work cor-

as a pair of 2-lobed

and 1-lobed wheels,

as

The quarter wheel A' C'M' is identical with the Holditch wheel
found by the principles of Figs. 43 and 44, though the points
f
will not coincide with the Holditch points even for the
G' 9
, etc.,
same number of points, and the same angle CAG, GAH, etc.
To make a 3-lobed elliptic wheel by this mode of transformation
make E8 = ED, and subtract AD from AS, which difference use
as the radius AT of a circle about A, from which measure the radii

for the 3-lobed sector similarly as in the 2-lobed wheel.

Combine
these radii with the same arcs CG, GH, etc., for points in the
60-degree sector for the sixth part of the 3-lobed wheel.

Fig. 28 could be used as basis of a series of multilobed wheels

41

TRANSFORMED WHEELS.
which would work interchangeably,

spiral arcs

and differences of

limiting radii remaining unchanged.

TRANSFORMED PARABOLIC WHEELS.

As an example of

a decided change in the appearance of

awheel

take those shown, in Fig. 48, and

move the center of motion from A to
A', Fig. 57, thus adding the distance

A A'

to all the radii, the elementary

arcs being preserved in length.

Divide the arc Cabd into equal
parts and draw the radial lines aAi,

bAj,

etc.

the radius of the point C of

the transformed wheel will be A'C,
and of the point e it is A'e, equal to
aAi, where arc Ce
Ca; also radius

Then

bAj, and arc ef =

A'f
The

arc

hCx

ab, etc.

of the transformed wheel,

when CA'

= \CA, will

be nearly a straight line, but not exactly; because to be straight

requires the contour of B to be a logarithmic curve resembling the
parabola.*

WHEELS OF COMBINED

SECTORS.

An interesting series of wheels may be obtained by combining

sectors of the above various forms, as, for example, of the ellipse
and

log-spiral.

In Fig.
90- degree

58

we have

elliptic

sector

for wheel

A CD

like

the

fourth part of B, Fig. 44, while the remaining 270-degree sector is a log-spiral.

B is a copy of A.
In Fig. 59 we have a 2-lobed wheel A,
each lobe of which is composed of a
Wheel

FIG. 58.

and a 90-degree
*

The equation

90-degree elliptic sector like BCT, Fig. 44,

working with a 3-lobed wheel B,

log-spiral sector;

of the logarithmic curve of B,

JiCx a straight line,

is

a log -

making the mating curve

,

where x and y are

co-

a,

the distance A'C". The polar equation of

ordinates of the curve BC, and a
the outline of the wheel A' is r
a sec v\ v being tingle CA'e, etc.

42

PKINCIPLES OF MECHANISM.

each lobe of which has approximately a 60-degree elliptic sectorlike B'C'U, Fig. 44, and approximately a 60-degree log-spiral secIf wheel A is first made with 90-degree sectors wheel B is
tor.
best laid out by trial values of the sectoral angles, since the angles

FIG. 59.

will not be exactly 60 degrees in B.

When a lobe of 120 degrees is
found by trial for B, the remaining two lobes can be copied from it.

In Fig. 60

DFC

and

CGE

are a pair of rolling half -ellipses

with axes of rotation at A and B.

The
sists

other half of each wheel conof log-spiral

sectors

ADH

and AJC, separated by a circular

sector AHJ, laid out by first asthe circular sectoral angle
suming
FIG. 60.
CAI = HAJ, then drawing in the
log-spiral DHI, according to Figs. 20 and 21, then findingt he
middle point H, and transferring the sector A HI to AJC, when
the circle arc HJ completes the drawing of the half-wheel A. The
mating half-wheel of B is a copy of ADHJC.
In Fig. 60 the wheels, though composed of several

sectors, are

similar, while in Fig. 61 we find several sectors combined in wheels that are
still

quite dissimilar.

Here

pair of elliptic sectors,

CD

and

DE, EF,

HI

log-spiral sectors,
elliptic sectors.

The above examples

and

CF

CG

are a

arid

GH,

and CI

will serve to illus-

trate the fact that a great variety of wheels

FIG. 61.

be made from the four curves named as the foundation.

There are many cases, however, where none of the above wheels
will answer, as, for instance, where a particular and definite law of

may

TRANSFORMED WHEELS.

4&

angular velocity foreign to the above curves must be closely followed during a part of, or even throughout, the entire revolution,
while the above wheels have laws of motion of their own which will
rarely

fit

the special case of a predetermined law.

The above wheels are fairly well adapted to the simple requirement of a specified maximum or minimum velocity, or both, as occurring within a revolution, and at certain points therein.

CHAPTER

III.

NON-CIRCULAR WHEELS IN GENERAL.

IN modern practical mechanism there exists a demand for noncircular gearing where the law of motion of the driven wheel is
fixed by considerations foreign to log-spirals, ellipses, etc.; which
law the required wheels must follow, sometimes approximately,
exactly, in some cases for a part of, and in other
cases throughout the entire revolution of the driven wheel.
Again, there may be demanded similar wheels, differing from

and sometimes

ellipses, and which can be readily drawn, and

and
redrawn to suit the designer's fancy. Hence
readily changed

log-spirals

and

there arise three cases,

I.

II.

III.

viz.

One wheel given, or assumed,

Laws

to find its

mate ;

of motion given to find the wheels ; and

Similar wheels.

In either case the wheels may be complete or incomplete.

Treating these separately, we have
:

GIVEN ONE WHEEL TO FIND

I.

In Fig.

62, let

ITS MATE.

represent the assumed wheel so chosen that

when the wheel
is found its cir-

cumstances of motion will approximate those desired, more or less

closely

according to

judgment

in

assuming A. When B is completed

and tried, and found not to move as
desired,

A may

be modified accord-

ing to dictates of the first trial,

FlG 63
-

B found

and

again.

In drawing the wheels the outline Cabc, etc., may be traced, and
the center of motion, A, arbitrarily assumed.
44

NON-CIRCULAR WHEELS IK GENERAL.

Then assume

a point

B for

45-

the center of motion for the wheel*

AB. C is one point in the

describe an arc am, produced, with C as the
Also subtract Aa from the line of centers AB, and with

Cmno, and draw the

Then

outline of B.
center.

line of centers

the remainder, equal Urn, laid off from B, find the point m, as the
second point in the wheel B. In other words, with Aa as a radius,
and the center A, describe the arc as. With
as a centre and Bs

as radius, describe the arc sni, when the intersection

is the second
as centre, describe the
Next, with ab as radius and
point in B.

indefinite arc at n\ and with Ab as radius, describe the arc bt, and
with Bt as radius, describe the arc tn, to find the intersection n,
as a third point in the wheel B.
Thus we have Cm
Ca, nm
ab, no
be, etc. ; and

AB -

Aa,

Bn =

=
=
AB - Ab, etc.

Bm

"Proceed thus for the entire circumference of A, resulting in

A curve traced through
corresponding or mating points for B.
these points gives the first trial outline for the wheel B.

when the center point B is assumed, makes the line

AB too great, the wheel B will have a gap in it; and conversely if AB be taken too small there will be an overlap.

Now

it

if,

of centers

To make
complete, that is, to just close up without a gap or
must be assumed, and the whole work
overlap, a new point for
of finding the points mno, etc., repeated, one or several times, until
sufficient closeness is obtained, and the outline of
traced, thus
or
and
the
B.
wheels,
pitch lines,
completing

The

distance to

move

will

be not far from one-sixth of the

arc of the gap, or overlap.

The above tentative process, as unscientific as

nevertheless the only

find its mate.
is

way

it

may

appear,

for the case of one wheel given to

As to accuracy, to make the spaces Cdbc, etc., excessively great

introduces an error due to the difference between the chord and
arc

while to

make them excessively

work accumulate.
found about

small, the errors of graphical

Probably 10-degree angles around

will be

right.

To

increase the length of the steps Ca, ab,etc., without jeopardizing accuracy, Rankine makes the ingenious application of the

following

Graphic Rules for Equivalence of Lines and Arcs.

First.

To find a straight line equal

to

circle arc.

46

PKItfCIPLES OF MECHANISM.

To

find the tangent line

DP =

D = \DE,

the arc

DE, Fig. 63, take

as a center, describe
in F.
Then
cutting

and with

the circle arc

DF

EF,

DF = arc DE within less

than a tenth of one

per cent, up to an angle of 30 degrees, and increases as the fourth

straight line.
To find the arc

DE = line DF, Fig.

FE

from

draw the

circle arc

Then

DE = line DF

arc

power of the angle.

Second. To find a

FIG. 63.

circle,

arc equal to a

64, take

DO = %DF, and

as a center.

within same limits

as first rule above.

DE must be tangent to the line

Hence the center of the arc DE
is on DGf drawn perpendicular to DF at D.
The same rule and construction apply for all
The

arc

DF at D.

arcs starting from D, with centers

as for the dotted arcs shown.

The above percentage of error

curves give rise to greater errors.
To

To draw

Draw

on
is

a Tangent

line

FG,

FIG. 64.

true for circle arcs only; other

to

a tangent line to the curve

First draw any curve

I)

DG,

any Curve.

DOE at

cutting the curve

the point 0.

DOE,

and

also a

series of straight lines as

DI, He, ac, etc.

Then lay off the length
from
to
7, noting the point /; Oe from G to H,
noting the point H\ ao from b to c, not-

DF

ing the point c, etc. Then trace a curve

through the points Hcdl, etc., as shown,
noting its intersection T with the curve

pa

FIG. 65.

points

T and

Then

a straight line through the

will be tangent to the curve

DOE at

0.

These rules will be found useful in the graphic operations of

problems in Mechanism.
Application of Rule Second to the problem above, of one wheel
given to find its mate. Here ACDE, Fig. 66, is a portion of wheel
A, and B the proposed center of wheel B, with AB the line of
centers.

Draw Cd tangent
center, taking Ca

wheel A at the point C. With a as a

draw
the circle arc DdF extended. Draw
%Cd,
to the

NON-CIRCULAR WHEELS IN GENERAL.

47

Dm from A, and the circle mF from B, giving the interThen F a point in the perarc mF with arc DdF.
of
F
section
= arc CF, of according to
line
<7d
since
arc
CD
of
B,
iphery

the circle

is

rule 2d above.

To find another point in B, draw the tangent De at D, and the

Then draw the radius
radius ^4Z> extended, noting the angle gli.
of ij
Take the
gh.
BF, and the line Ff at the angle with

FB

points c

and

6 at the J distance

De

from. />

and from F.

Then

FIG. 66.

#, draw the arc eE\ also from center

and
Then, with a radius AB
center at B, cut the arc fG at 6r. This latter point is another
= line De = line
point in the contour of wheel B, since arc

with
c

Je as a radius

the arc

/#

and center

AE

extended.

DE

Ff

arc

FG

of #.

Thus proceed for the whole circumference of A; and if the circumference of B closes, as by center B having been rightly chosen
in distance from A, the points C,F,G, etc., will be correct points in
the contour of B. But if wheel B does not close, assume another
position for center point B and repeat the work for a new set of
points C,F,G, etc. Finally when the wheel B closes, the points
C,F,G, etc., will be correct points in the arc of B, though they will
be too few to admit of drawing in the contour of B.
A sufficient number of points intermediate may then be found
as by the method of Fig. 62, thus completing the wheel B.

The advantage

of the wide steps of Fig. 66

ing the correct position of the center

is to permit of findwith comparatively little

work.

In Fig. 67

is

a photo-process copy of a pair of wheels in metal,

48

PRINCIPLES OF MECHANISM.

the pitch line of the lower one of which was first traced
by pencil
free-hand, and the center point assumed, when the upper or mating
wheel was found by the process above described. The wheels are.

about 6 inches between centers.

FIG. 67.

FIG. 68.

a drawing copied from a pair of wheels used on a

paper-cutting machine from England and exhibited at the World's
Fair of '93. The wheels were in cast iron, about 16 inches between
Fig. 68

is

centers, in which the smaller is simply an assumed circle, with its

axis chosen arbitrarily in eccentricity, while the larger wheel is 2-

lobed.

II.

The
taken at

LAWS OF MOTION GIVEN TO FIND THE WHEELS.

centers of a pair of wheels chosen to illustrate this case arethe line of centers, and the
A and B, Fig. 69, with

AB

Y, the contour lines of

heavy outlines CDFH. .X, and CEGI
the completed half-wheels, or at least as much as lies above the
extended line of centers.
The wheel A in Fig. 69 is supposed to revolve about its center
of motion with velocity constant, so that the "law of motion " for
A is very simple, viz., motion uniform. A semi-circle aceg, etc., is
drawn within the half-periphery of A and divided into six equal
For convenience suppose the
angles or sectors each of 30 degrees.
wheel A to make a half -revolution in six seconds, or any one of the
six sectors in one second.
Then the law of motion of A is represented graphically by the sectors into which it is divided, these
.

several sectors passing over the line of centers in equal times, say

NON-CIRCULAR WHEELS IN GENERAL.

one second for each.

49

These angles and sectors may be called

velocity angles or sectors, or sometimes auxiliary angles or sectors*

FIG. 69.

If for B the sectors were equal also, its motion would be uniform, and the resulting wheels would be circular and without
But let the sectors of
be varied in angle as
special interest.
shown, any one sector passing the line of centers per second. Then

the law of varied motion of

B may

be represented graphically by

FIG. 70.

the varied sectors, as shown. Hence the laws of motion of the

wheels are represented by the angular spaces laid off around the
centers A and B.
Though A, here, has equal angles and uniform
motion, it may readily have a varied motion and a correspondingly
varied series of sectors, as for the case that the driver

has

a.

50

PRINCIPLES OF MECHANISM.

But

varied motion.

in practice the driver will

usually

have uni-

form motion.
Next, suppose all the sectoral angles to have sectoral arcs drawn
these
arcs being all of the same length, so that the narrower the
in,
sector the greater will be its length.
Thus the angles for
being
all the same, the arcs are all the same distance from
in a circle

arc.

But

from

The

for

as

the arcs arrange themselves at varied distances

shown

sectors of

ac should

roll

in Fig. 69.

and

against

lij

may be regarded as in pairs, so that if

the sectors would turn through their angles

in the same time, and the velocity-ratio would be the inverse ratio
The same being true of the next pair of secof the sectoral radii.

upon each other, it follows that the velocity-ratio

would change from the one pair of sectors to the next, in case the

tors rolling

radii differ, as in fact they do.

Thus for
moving uniformly,

would have a varied motion

according to its sectoral angles, or according to the stated law of

motion, since the angles were laid out according to that law.

Hence

these wheels, composed of stepped sectors, could be

kept revolving with these sectoral arcs in rolling contact one after
another in order, the law of motion, in general, would be correct.
if

But this would be thoroughly impracticable, since it would require

the distance between the centers A and B to be continually varyThis is obviated by changing the radial lengths of the sectors
ing.
so that their ratio in pairs will be the same as before, and their sum

AB,

equal the line of centers

sectoral arcs are

shown

while at the same time the modified

merged into each other

in the lines

CDFH.

continuous

in

Xand CEGI.

lines,

as

Y.

and
Fig. 70 will serve best to show how this may be done, where
a sector for
the centers, cAe a sector for wheel A, and

kBm

B are

arc Mm, these sectors with lettering and

wheel B, where are cde
construction lines being taken from Fig. 69. Now to find points
and G in the final perimetric arcs of wheels A and B, such that
and G in driving contact shall be the
the velocity-ratio for

same

as that for the arc cde rolling

on the arc klm ;

it

is

only nec-

essary that

length
length

By
from

and

B to meet

in

Ad

is most readily done by drawing lines

some point 0, and parallels thereto from

graphic process this

AF

BG~ Bl'

NON-CIRCULAR WHEELS IN GENERAL.

51

J^and L meeting in u, where cM is an arc struck from

an arc struck from B, and a line OuN, when

AM = Jd
Now
NF\

^JV

;:

BL =

Bl

kL

and

BN.

with radius J^Y find the intersection .F by drawing the arc

likewise with the radius BNfLiid the intersection (7; t?/' be7

ing drawn from the center point A and the middle of

drawn with respect km and B.

ce,

and Gl

likewise

Fig. 70 is taken out of Fig. 69, with like lettering; and by referring to Fig. 69, we find that other points, as DHJ, etc., and
EIK, etc., were obtained in the same way. Through these points,

when
wheels

all

are thus determined, the contours of the completed halfmay be drawn in with smooth outlines.

and

In practice the angles of the sectors should not exceed 10 to

15 degrees for suitable accuarcy of results.
In the figure we have drawn only half of each wheel A and B,
but of course the remaining halves may be drawn in the same

way.
In practice these wheels have been made where the specific law
of motion of B was carried in some cases through 180 degrees, and
At the Centennial of
in others through the whole 360 degrees.
1876 there was exhibited, by B. D. Whitney of Winchendon,
Mass., a certain barrel-stave sawing machine where the carriage
"
"
carrying the blank block for staves was fed against the tub-saw
and
a
return
with
the moveat a uniform rate of advance
quick
ment of the carriage being made by a crank and pitman connec;

tion driven by non-circular gears of Fig. 71, 15 inches in diameOn examining the marks of the saw on sawn staves it was
ter.

found that the forward feed was wonderfully close to a uniform

rate of advance, proving that the wheels must have been carefully worked out as to laws of motion, even allowing for a short

pitman.
In this case the wheel

A made something like a three-fourths

with uniform motion of stave block.
-turn
a
half
made
while
turn,
is
an
accurate
71
copy, the wheels serving as type, which,
Fig.
with printer's ink and paper, gave the copy that is photographed

for the figure.

The divergence

of the teeth near the salient angles

is

noticeable,

PRINCIPLES OF MECHANISM.

53

and suggests blocking of the gears, and yet they actually operated in
the most satisfactory manner.
Also see Fig. 120 for another example of careful laying out.
In another example of these wheels the pitman was in effect of
infinite length, giving uniform motion to a carriage forward, with

FIG. 71.

a quick return, the driver revolving uniformly for about a threefourths turn, to the half turn of B, as required in a boot and shoe

See Figs. 134, 135, and 136.

case of quick return with short pitman with a little morelatitude for return, and for starting and stopping at the ends of the=
uniform motion, see Fig. 72.
screw nailing machine.

As a

PIG. 72.

At the Centennial the problem was made known of a motion for

winding yarn on a conic bobbin, such that the yarn would be taken
off a reel uniformly when winding upon the cone from a base of
four inches to a tip of one inch, back and fourth on the cone in
This requires the cone to revolve faster when
regular screw pitch.
its
on
tips than when winding on its base, and vice
winding yarn
versa.

This problem has since been worked out in unilobed non-circu-

NON-CIRCULAR WHEELS IN GENERAL.

53

revolves uniformly, the

lar gears, such that while the driver
will have an acceleration for a
follower

half-revolution during the windings down

the cone, and then a retardation for a halfre volution of B during the winding up the

takes place
Thus one revolution of
while winding down and back the cone. Now
if the cone is to have several convolutions of

cone.

yarn, say ten, in winding down, and then ten in

winding back, the cone must make twenty rev-

olutions to one of B.

This relation can be

obtained by interposing circular gearing between the cone and B, with a ratio of increase of speed of twenty to one.
PIG. 73.
These non-circular gears, as unilobed wheels in metal, are
in Figs. 73 by photo-process copy.

shown

In Fig. 89 these same wheels are constructed as bevel non-circular wheels.

In Figs. 76 to 78 the question of determination of the pitch

lines of the non-circular wheels for this bobbin-winding problem is
fully solved as a particular example in illustration of the application of the principles of Figs. 69 and 70; the example answering
to the case of laiv of motion definite and unalterable for the entire

revolution.

Even this is simpler than the most general possible case where
the law of motion for the second half of the revolution of the
driven wheel is different from that of the first half, as it may be;
for which case the resulting wheels are non-symmetrical, and may
resemble the wheels of Fig. 67, for which wheels, of course, assum-

ing the driving wheel in uniform motion, the driven wheel follows
some law of motion, simple or complex, which law, however complex, may be made out and expressed graphically, where, instead of
using velocity sectors as in Figs. 74 and 78, passing time may
represent the abscissas, and where the ordinates represent velocities of the driven wheel for the corresponding moments of time or

corresponding points of revolution of the driver.

As an example

of slightly unsymmetrical wheels, suppose the

Fig. 75 were required* to return at a uniform rate of
That return
motion, as well as to advance according to that law.

tool

of

may be in the same time as the advance, for which case, if B is in

the prolongation of the line SU, the wheels would be symmetrical.

PRINCIPLES OF MECHANISM.

54

But they would not be symmetrical when taking J? above SU as

shown; and still more unsymmetrical if the return of the tool, still
uniform in velocity, were to be in less or more time than the adFor this, according to the description of Figs. 74 and 75,
vance.
the scheme of velocity angles of the lower half of B is to be made
in the same way as the upper half shown. Then A is to be divided
into two parts, apportioned according to the assignments of time
for the advance and the return of the tool T, those parts to be divided into velocity sectors corresponding in numbers with those of
the mating parts of B.

SOLUTIONS OF SOME PRACTICAL PROBLEMS.

FOR LAWS OF MOVEMENT GIVEN TO FIND THE WHEELS.

As this subject is evidently one of considerable importance in

practical mechanism, the solution of several problems is here given
to illustrate the application of the above principles.
This is called the shaping1st. The Shaping-Machine Problem.
machine problem because on the machinist's shaping machine the
cutting tool is desired, to have a uniform motion forward for the
cutting stroke, and a quick return stroke where the tool returns
idle and should do so quickly to save time.
For this we have given a shaft, A, revolving uniformly, gearing with a second shaft, B, revolving at such variable rate of rotation as to secure the uniform forward and quick back stroke as
described;

also a carriage for the tool connected to the driven

wheel B by pitman and crank.

In Fig. 74, T is the tool to move along the cut QR, held on theand guided by NO. The slide EM, carrying the tool, is
slide
"
connected to the crank BD by the pitman DE,
being the crosshead" pin moving in the line or path SU9 which pin moves with

ME

the tool.

SUmto equal parts to represent uniform

the
tion,
pin passing over these parts forward in equal times.
Divide the path

mo-

The

Hence the
FS, = HU, = GV, etc., as shown.
must move through the arc spaces FG, GD, DI, IJr
JK, KH, in equal times, from which we have the angles FBG, GBD y

pitman

DE =

crank pin

for
etc., to represent the law of motion of the driven wheel
the forward stroke. The back stroke being made quick, simply,

DEI,

DBF, and PBF, which for the

quick return should be larger than those for the forward stroke.
Thus, by aid of Fig. 74, we obtain the angles to be passed over

we may assume the angles HBL,

SOLUTIONS OF SOME PRACTICAL PROBLEMS.

55

by the wheel B for its entire revolution. Taking WXfoi' the line
of centers through A and B, we may transfer the velocity angles to
Fig. 75 with like letters.

FIG. 74.

In Fig. 75, as was done in Fig. 69, draw equal arcs in the
de
angles about B, as ac
fg, etc., and extend radii from their
center points as shown, nine in all.
Taking A to revolve with
uniform velocity, there will be nine equal angles and arcs about

the axis

as

mn =

shown, these arcs being equal those of B, viz.:

=
Draw extended radii from the

ac
no, etc.,
de, etc.
centers of these arcs as shown.

ished wheels
triangle
7is

may

ABO,

parallel to

Then make Ar

Then the final radii for the finbe found by graphic proportion, by aid of the

as explained

BO, us

At, and

Bp

70.
Thus make Bh = B1 9
AO, and draw the line OsL

in Fig.

parallel to

Bt, and

we have two points

and

PRINCIPLES OF MECHANISM.

in the final peripheries of the wheels

and B. The other points
found in a similar manner, as explained in Fig. 69, and the
iinal wheels are drawn in by tracing lines through the points thus

:are

found.

The curves thus found,

it

is

to be understood, are to serve as

the pitch lines of a pair of gear wheels. Figs. 71 and 72 are ex,amples of completed wheels by this process.
The shaper in practice will usually have the crank pin adjustable to different radial distances. In this case the above solution
should be made for the crank at some mean position, where it is
likely to be most used, as the law will be slightly deviated from for

&

different position of the pin.

Bobbin Winding Problem.
2d.

This problem, stated above,

A
"
of winding yarn on a conical bobbin, or cop," while feeding on
the yarn spirally up and down the cone, and varying the speed of
revolution of cone so as to draw the yarn at a uniform rate from

reel to avoid varied tension of yarn while winding, is believed

to possess sufficient interest as an application of Fig. 69 to warrant
its practical solution here.

Fig. 76 represents the conical bobbin with a spindle-like extentension, showing also the cop of yarn in section.

This is said to be the best form of bobbin and

cop from which to supply yarn to knitting
machines, since the yarn will lift off, and upward, from the position of Fig. 76, with the
slightest and with the most uniform resistance

u
FIG. 76.

conditions of utmost importance to securing a

smooth knitted web.
To preserve the same cone form of cop from
end to end, the yarn must be fed upon the cone
in a spiral or screw of uniform pitch, from base to
The number of
spindle at vertex, and vice versa.
convolutions winding up, and the number back

But to simplify
is arbitrary, and perhaps should be 20 to 40.
the present illustrative example, take it four that is, four turns of
the bobbin in winding from base to spindle, and four turns in winding back, eight turns in all. This multiplying of the motion, 8 to 1 ,
again,

be done by using circular gearing between the non-circular

gear wheel B and the bobbin, causing the bobbin to turn eight
times as fast as B. This gearing, as by a screw of uniform pitch,

may

SOLUTIONS OF SOME PRACTICAL PROBLEMS.

work the feeding eye through which the yarn

guided upon the cone.
is to

is

to pass in being

Developing the cone with a single layer of thread upon

the sector

ODE,

57

it,

we have

DG

77.

Fig.
represents one convolution of yarn,
another,
another, and 1J the last.

KN

LP

These are Archimedean

arcs,

and may

be put in a continuous spiral by shiftaround

ing the second convolution

KN

the center

till

KN

falls at

GH LP
9

HI, meeting // in the case the cone

is so assumed, as here, that
is the
third of the circle.
The whole thread
in winding down the cone is then
DGHIJ, and in winding back is the
same taken in the inverse order.
at

DE

Now

FIG. 77.

divide this thread into a certain

number

of equal parts,

These portions must be

DQ, QR, R8, ST, TU, UJ, six in all.

wound upon the bobbin in equal times,

in order to take the thread

uniformly from the

Therefore the angles

reel as required.

DOQ,

FIG. 78.

QOR, ROS, etc., must be passed in equal times by the finished

wheel B, while the wheel A moves through equal angles in the same
equal times.
In Fig. 78 lay off the six angles hBi,jBk, IBm, etc., as shown,
varying in the same proportion as do the angles DOQ, QOR, ROS,
etc., in Fig.

77; taking care that the six angles in Fig. 78, added

58

PRINCIPLES OF MECHANISM.

together, equal 180.

Fig. 77 equal 360

DOQ

by Jff

angle

QOR,

Then

For
120

we have the added

480; and hence multiply

this result

angles in
the angle

the angle UBi, Fig. 78. Also multiply

-|, giving
Fig. 77, by f, giving the angle jBk, etc.
draw in circle arcs hi, jk, Im, etc.,

equaling corresponding arcs in A, and proceed as in Fig. 73 as shown, completing the

half-wheels A and B, for which all the work is given in Fig. 78.
The other halves are the same, A being symmetrical with respect to
the line AC as an axis of symmetry, and likewise for B.

These wheels are one-lobed; A, the driver, differing somewhat

from B in shape; and as constructed carefully in metal by above
process, are shown in Fig. 73 for the same problem.
Motion of Driver A a Variable. In all the above problems, the
y

has been supposed to be constant, but the

velocity of the driver
solution is readily made where its velocity is variable, for which
case it is only necessary to make the series of velocity sectors unequal to suit the varied motion, as was done for B, instead of

making them

equal.

Case of Multilobed Wheels. In the above wheels, both driver

and driven have been treated as unilobed, but multilobes are posFor this, for a bilobed wheel A>
sible, particularly for the driver.
only necessary to put into the scheme of angles for A twice as.
velocity-angles as for B, three times as many for a trilobed,,
etc. ; and similarly for a multilobed wheel B.
it is

many

III.

1st.

SIMILAR WHEELS.

Case of Similar and Equal Unilobed WJieels from AsIn Fig. 79, A and
are centers of mo-

sumed Auxiliary Angles.

tion of the wheels.

about

About

draw a

the same series of sectors.

series of auxiliary sectors,

and

Then, according to Fig. 69,

and extended radii from the

draw equal arcs in all the sectors,

centers of the arcs as shown.
Then the proportional radii, as of

SIMILAR

AND EQUAL WHEELS.

59

the auxiliary sectors and of the perimeters, may be found, when

the wheels may be drawn in according to Fig. 70.
These may b&
Fig. 79 shows the halves of a pair of wheels.

copied for the opposite halves, when the wheels will each be symmetrical; or another set of different auxiliary sectors may be drawn

below

AB and

unsymmetrical similar wheels produced.

129
is an exam pie. of a pair of wheels of this kind in metal.
Fig.
In Fig. 80 we have
2d. Similar and Equal Multiloled Wheels.
the half of a 3-lobed wheel where the lobes are all similar to
each other, and one wheel similar and equal to the other, but where

the lobes are unsymmetrical.

FIG. 80.

The wheels

by assuming a system of auxiliary secangle CAD, and a like system in the 60 angle
CBG. Determining the proportional radii between sectors and
perimetric points as before, and tracing in the outline curves
are arrived at

tors in the 60

DO

and HC\ we find them similar.

Again, assuming a new set of auxiliary sectors, one like theand FBH, determining proportional
other, in the 60 angles
and
t we will
radii, and drawing in the perimetric carves
also a third of the wheel B.
find completed a third of the wheel A
By repeating these perimetric curves around through the remaining 60 angles of the wheels, we complete the pair of equal and

DAK

DK

FH

similar 3-lobed wheels.

Thus equal and

similar wheels of any

number

of lobes can

be

drawn.
3d. Dissimilar Multiloled Wheels.
Each wheel of Fig. 80 has
lobes that are similar to each other, but they are evidently not
and
necessarily made so, because each pair of divisional angles

CAD

CBH are

here equal to each other, but not necessarily equal to thenext pair of divisional angles; and besides, the systems of aux-

PRINCIPLES OF MECHANISM.
iliary angles

and

sectors in one pair of divisional angles are not

required to be the same as in any other pair.

4th.

MuUilobes of Unequal Numbers of Lobes. In Fig. 81

mating with a 2-lobed one, where the

"we have a 3-lobed wheel

FIG. 81.

half-lobe CAD of A mates with the half-lobe QBE of B\ and

with CBG.
The sector DA PC is the third
the half-lobe CA
half
and
EBGC
the
of
B.
of
A,
part
In a similar manner, A may have any assumed number of lobes,
and likewise for B.

In Fig. 81 the angle of the half-lobe CAD

CBE CBG, but they may be unequal, though

Tisable for good results that the half -lobe

CAP ~ CBG
CAD CBE

CAP, and also

would seem adangles have the relation
it

and that adjacent pairs of auxiliary angles in adjacent half-lobes be

not greatly different in ratio of radii, that the perimetric curves
may enter upon each other at the limits of sectors.

But

it

is

plain that the auxiliary angles in any half-lobe are

DISSIMILAR WHEELS.

61

In this
entirely arbitrary except at the lobe limits as above stated.
of
a
at
half-lobe
be
the
auxiliary angles
may
pleasure,
way
changed
thus modifying the perimetric arcs to suit fancy or requirements;
being only needful to note that the half-lobes that come to matetogether be related in principle, as for the case where the lobes in
one wheel are even and in the other odd.
it

CHAPTER
CASE

IV.

AXES MEETING.

II.

SPECIAL BEVEL NON-CIRCULAR WHEELS.

IT is usually advisable to refer wheels of this kind to spherical
surfaces which are normal to all the elements of contact of the
rolling cones whose vertices are at the center of the sphere and
hence called normal spheres', the results of practical problems in

drawing these wheels being either curves upon actual normal

which the curves may be traced
upon the sphere by the pattern-maker as he follows the draftsman
spheres, or ordinates, angles, etc., by

in the construction of these wheels.

Following the same order here as in plane wheels, we have

THE EQUIANGULAR

FIRST.
1st.

SPIRAL.

Take Fig. 82 to represent two views

normal sphere on which a pair of spheri-

One-Lobed Wheels.
of the

drawn for a pair

outline of one wheel,

cal equiangular spirals are

of wheels

The

and B.

shown at Cabc ./ and C'a'b'c' ./ in

two projections; CBk, C'B' being the
mate; a copy of the first one, A Cf.
To draw this wheel, the actual normal sphere

A,

is

the

is

to serve best as the drawing-board.

From
draw a series of meridians at equal inter-

A A'

vening angles of not far from 5 each. In

Fig, 82 they are at 30 to avoid confusion of
We may assume a point C, C', making
figure.

AC the shortest spherical radius of the proposed

wheel.

Then draw

certain angle with the meridian lying

From

the point

a, a'

the line Ca, C'a',

midway between

making a

AC and

Aa.
where Ca intersects the meridian Aa, draw a
62

AXES MEETING.

63

a'V, making the same angle, on the surface of the sphere,

with the meridian midway between A a and Ab that the line Ca
did with the meridian between A C and Aa. This line intersects
the meridian Ab at b. From b draw the line be, b'c', making the
same angle with the meridian midway between Ab and
as the
previous lines did with their meridians.
So continue till the point/,/' is reached, giving a half- wheel of
one lobe. The points a' b'c', etc., may be symmetrically copied upon
line ab,

AC

the other side of C'A'f, thus completing the drawing of a one-lobed

equiangular bevel non-circular wheel. This wheel may be copied
at CBk for a mate, B, when we have the drawing of a pair of bevel
non-circular wheels.

These drawings may, however, have been made upon normal

spheres in the form of two separate spherical segmental shells in
wood of uniform thickness, as shown in Fig. 83. With drawing
completed, the pattern-maker could cut the
wood to the finished wheels shown, following
the drawing thus laid out for him. The drawing, however, as above described, is usually for
the " pitch line" of a gear wheel, and the teeth
may be laid out before going to the pattern-

maker.

Where the mating wheels, as in this case,

are both alike in pitch line, and perhaps for
teeth as well, it is only necessary to complete
one drawing and pattern to obtain castings
for any number of pairs of cast wheels.

One point not

to be overlooked

is

FIG. 83.

in regard

They may come out

more than 90 between the axes, and for
come out with any previously assumed angle of intersection

to the size of the wheels as above explained.

so as to require less or

them

to

of axes, several trials of tracing the line Gabc

Any one of these trial curves, however, will

./ may be required.
correctly with
another copied from itself. The angle between the axes is the
same angle as COf, which can be measured as soon as the curve
.

work

Ccf is traced.
This curve of Fig. 82 differs from that of Fig. 95 of Mechanical
Movements, of Professor C. W. MacCord, for the reason that there
the lengths of the meridian-arc radii are made equal the radii of
the plane equiangular spiral, which process makes the spherical
spiral arc cut the meridians at a sharper angle for long

than for

PRINCIPLES OF MECHANISM.

64

This is most easily seen to be true in a quite eccentric

1-lobed wheel, in which, for short radii, the steepness of the
curve on the sphere is nearly the same as for the plane spiral, while
short radii.

for the longer radii, nearly 90 of meridian arc, the distances from
point to point are much less on the spherical than on the plane
spiral, while the rate of change of meridian-arc radii remains the

same

as for the plane spiral.

It would appear from this that the
wheels
of
Professor
MacCord
cannot work, because for
proposed

both wheels of a pair the obliquity near the axis A or B differs

for points more remote; while, as the wheels engage in
action, the shorter radii, of one wheel mate with the longer of the

from that

other where the obliquity

is

different.

Two-Lobed Wheels, Multilobed, etc. Having the curves of

Fig. 82 drawn on the actual normal sphere, we may take the sectoral
3d.

part C' A'c' as the quarter of a two-lobed bevel non-circular wheel,

a pair of which will work correctly.
Or again, the sectoral part

c'A'f is the quarter of a larger wheel, etc. With a spiral thus

drawn on a sphere a wheel of any number of lobes can be made
out, any one of which wheels will work with another like it.
That the axes of these wheels be at right angles, the wheels
must be of certain size and may be made out by trial measurements
on the spherical drawing. This tentative process, though seemingly tedious,

is

yet probably less troublesome than mathematical

analysis, which in problems of mechanism often become tiresome.

3d. Interchangeable Multilobed Bevel Non-Circular Wheels.

Having drawn a spherical equiangular spiral as

may be selected from it for the half

of 180

in Fig. 82, a sector

of a 1-lobed wheel.

second sector may be selected, of 90, for the quarter of a

2-lobed wheel whose arc equals that of the 180 sector. Again r
a third sector may be selected, of 60, 'for the sixth part of a
3-lobed wheel and whose arc equals that of the 180 sector.

Any two

of these wheels will

The sphere

will

put a

work correctly together.

final practical limit to

series of these wheels, for a

given

spiral.

the

Another

number

in the

spiral will fur-

nish another series of interchangeable wheels.

Pairs of the above wheels selected to work together will have
various angles between the axes, the point of intersection always

corresponding with the center

of the sphere of Fig. 82.

sectors of different spirals

Again
making unsymmetrical

lobes.

may

be combined in a lobe

AXES MEETING.

65

ELLIPTIC BEVEL NON-CIRCULAR WHEELS.

SECOND.

admirably treated by Macwhere

Cord
Movements, Fig. 88,
spherical ellipses are
shown as traced upon the normal sphere by means of two pins
fixed at the focal points, around which is placed a loop of inelastic
thread, when a pencil, drawing the thread tight and moved along
1st.

One-lobed Wheels.

This case

is

in Mechanical

against the tense thread, traces the "spherical ellipse" in a manner

entirely similar to that so well known, of tracing the ellipse on a
plane surface with two pins and a thread loop. Each ellipse has

two

focal points.

We may

take this spherical ellipse as the base, and the center

of the sphere as the vertex of an elliptic cone, a pair of which
will work in true rolling contact when the
vertices are at a

common

point, the center of

the sphere, and the axes taken as lines radiating from the center of the sphere through the
focal points above mentioned, one in each ellipse, and at an intervening angle equal that

expressing the length of the major axis of the

elliptic cone base; similarly as axes are taken at
focal points

and

in Fig. 41.

The wheels may be finished to the spherical

form in the same way as illustrated in Fig. 83, the drawing being'
made on a wooden spherical blank or normal sphere, as drawingboard, as in Fig. 84.
On a great-circle arc of the sphere assume the portion
as the major axis of the proposed spherical ellipse, making

D may serve as focal points.

point E in the spherical ellipse, take

D G, so that A
To

find a

FADG
FA =

and

FH in

any arc

with the focal point A as a center, describe an

Then with the remaining portion
indefinite arc at E.
of the
focal
with
center
at
the
and
describe
an
arcD,
axis,
point
major

the dividers, and

GH

E cutting

the former one, thus determining a point

in the
arc.
Find
other
in
the
same
points
spherical elliptic
way sufficient for drawing in the curve GEF, the half of the elliptic curve
at

required.

In order that the

the angle

elliptic

FOG must

be

greater or less than this.

wheels

90; but

may have

axes at right angles,

the wheels and angles

may be

PRINCIPLES OF MECHANISM.

66

Taking the
other like

line

as

an

axis, this

wheel will mate with an-

it.

Instead of spherical wheels for this case, Professor MacCord has

shown that plane wheels may be obtained by cutting the elliptic

cone by a plane at right angles to the line 01, giving an outline on

the plane which will not be a true ellipse, though approximating
The contact point of the pair of these wheels will always be
one.
found on a fixed straight line connecting the axes, and perpendicular to that

which

bisects the angle between the axes.

of the plane wheels over the spherical ones is

The advantage

doubtful, since in laying out the teeth on these blanks for gear
wheels the teeth are not normal to the edges of the wheels except
at four points, while for the spherical ones they are normal

throughout.
As in the plane elliptical wheels of Fig. 41, a link may be
mounted upon pins fixed at the focal points not occupied by the
in Fig. 84 for wheel A. The pins at their bearings in
axes, as at

the link must converge to the center of the sphere.

2d. Multilobed Elliptic Bevel Wheels.
These may be treated by
the
of
and
to Fig. 44, etc.
87
process
Figs. 85, 86,
applying

pair of spherical elliptic unilobed wheels thus made have the

of angular, velocity as plane elliptic wheels of Fig. 44, as

same law

be proved by aid of Figs. 85 and 86; while wheels of Fig. 84

have not.

may

THIRD AND FOURTH. PARABOLIC AND HYPERBOLIC BEVEL

NON-CIRCULAR WHEELS.
These can probably be best treated under the general case where
any pair of plane wheels can readily be turned into bevels. See
Figs. 85 to 88.

FIFTH.

TRANSFORMED BEVEL WHEELS.

Having given a pair of bevel non-circular wheels, in the form

as traced on the normal spherical segments, the wheels being supposed divided into elementary pairs of angles, arcs, and radii, they

may

be transformed in the three ways mentioned for plane wheels,

viz.:
1st.

By

multiplying any pair of elementary angles by the same

quantity.
2d.

By adding

a constant length of meridian arc to

all

the me-

AXES MEETING.

67

ridional radii of one wheel, the elementary perimetric arcs remain-

ing unchanged.
3d. By adding to one and taking an equal length away from
the other of a pair of meridional radii, the perimetric arcs remain-

ing unchanged in length.

Similar Bevel Multilobes.

Thus the half-wheels

of Figs. 83 or
spherical sectoral wheels to 90 or
(30, etc., by Rule 1st, just stated, and several of them combined in
one wheel of several lobes, two like ones of which will work truly
84:

be changed from 180

may

together.
Dissimilar Interchangeable Bevel Multilobes.
83 and 84 may be changed from 180 sectors to

By Rule

2d, Figs.

90, 60, etc., where

the perimetric arcs, as well as the difference of the limiting spherical radii, will remain

unchanged

in length.

In this way a 2-lobed, 3-lobed, 4-lobed, etc., wheel may be found

from Fig. 83, which will mate with 83or with each other.
Likewise for Fig. 84.
Partially Interchangeable Bevel Multilobes.
Starting with a
pair of correct-working dissimilar bevel non-circular wheels as
those of Fig. 78 turned into bevels, one of the pair may be transformed by Rule 2d into a series of spherical sectors of unchanged

perimetric lengths, and difference of limiting radii; but with such

angular widths as to add even to 360; and likewise treating the
other of the primitive pair, we have two series of wheels, any

one of one
other

series,

which will work truly with any one of the

where no two of either series separately will work

series of

together.

Bevel Non-Circular Wheels of Combined Sectors. Here, as in

plane wheels, sectors of wheels of different class may be combined into one wheel, and the several mating sectors into another,
the new wheels mating correctly.

Thus the half-wheel of Fig. 84 may be combined with the halfwheel of Fig. 83, the limiting radii being made to agree, and both
constructed on equal normal spheres; the result being a pair of
one-lobed wheels, one side being elliptic and the other the equi
angular

spiral.

Again, each of the above 180 sectors may be reduced to 90 by

Rule 1st for transformation of wheels, or one to 70 and the other
to

110,

etc.,

and combined, making pairs of 2-lobed wheels. Simimay be brought out, but they

larly, pairs of 3-lobed, 4-lobed, etc.,

will not be interchangeable.

68

PRINCIPLES OF MECHANISM.

HalfInterchangeable Multilobes and Unsymmetrical Lobes.

wheels of Figs. 83 and 84 may be transformed by Rule 2d into

may be combined, both kinds into a single lobe, preserving the perimetric arcs and limiting radii, several of which
lobes constitute wheels such as to realize interchangeable multisectors- that

lobes.

In Fig. 7 the
Velocity- Ratio in Bevel Non-Circular Wheels.
in
circular
bevel
the
ratio of
wheels
inverse
equals
velocity-ratio
the radii of the wheels, or ratio of the perpendiculars to the axes
from the point of contact C. In this way in non-circular wheels

we can find the velocity-ratio, or number of times faster one

If the driver A
wheel revolves than the other at any instant.
revolves uniformly we can find the fastest and slowest motion
for the driven wheel B\ and that one is a certain number of times
faster than the other is often all that is required, when the above
wheels will answer the purpose.

CHAPTER

V.

BEVEL NON-CIRCULAR WHEELS IN GENERAL.

THE

special cases of bevel non-circular wheels above considered

were those of the equiangular spiral and of the elliptic curve

which could be readily studied in the bevel form, and for which
cases the law of angular velocity was not important.
But in practical problems in mechanism where the law of
motion of the driven wheel is essential, either for a part of or for
the entire revolution of the driver, the forms of the wheels cannot
be assumed to be certain spirals nor ellipses, but be determined both
as mates, to suit the stated law of motion, as was the case in the
?

problem for plane wheels.

like

As the exact

velocity-ratio depends upon perpendiculars upon

the axes from the point of contact, and not upon meridian circlearc radii, a complication enters by reason of which it is found ad-

work out the wheels as plane wheels first, and in conthe stated laws of motion, and then to convert them
with
formity

visable to

into bevels.

Therefore the wheels are first wrought out, as in Figs. 69, 75, or
78, as plane wheels, after which bevel wheels, possessing the same
laws of motion, are determined.

Take

Fig. 85 for the pair of plane wheels as worked out in

accordance with the stated laws of motion, as in Fig. 69, A
the follower.
being the driver and
Divide the wheels into parts or sectors of 5 or 10 each, the

strict

dividing lines serving as radii for reference.

In Fig. 86 draw the lines A
and
with the same interven-

BO

ing angle
the

A OB

finished

as that to be intercepted

bevel

wheels.

Draw A^B

by the axes

perpendicular

and

B of

to

AO,

where its length is equal the line of centers AB of Fig. 85. Also
draw B^A perpendicular to the line BO, where its length is also
Then draw the line AB,
equal the line of centers AB, Fig. 85.

PRINCIPLES OF MECHANISM.

70

ABO

this construction the triangle

is isosceles.
Also
A'B' from
as a center, to represent the normal
sphere in section.

Fig. 86.

By

draw the

circle

FIG. 85.

Then
the radii

to*
lay off perpendiculars AC, Aa, Ab, etc., Fig. 86, equal
draw
and
of
wheel
A, Fig. 85,
parallels,
AC, Aa, Ab, etc.,

FA' A,

A A A

FIG. 86.

to

A 0,

as Cq, ar, bs, etc., giving points of intersection q, r,

s, etc.,

on AB.

Likewise draw perpendiculars BC, Bm, Bn, etc., Fig. 86 r

radii B C, Bm, Bn, etc., of wheel B, Fig. 85, and draw
to
the
equal
B
to
0, as Cg, mt, nu, etc., giving points of intersection q?
parallels
ty

u, etc.,

on

A B.

Then draw

the lines from the points

q, r, s,

t,

u, etc., to 0,

de-

termining the intersection points C, a, b, m, n, etc., on the circle

arc A'B', representing the spherical blank in section.
This completes the drawing preparatory to work on the spherical blank in wood.

BEVEL ISTON-CLRCULAR WHEELS IX GENERAL.

71

Let Fig. 87 represent the spherical blank for a pattern for the
wheel A in plan and section, the radius AO being equal A' of
On the
Fig. 86 of the normal sphere.
lines
the
meridian
with
same
draw
plan

scheme of intervening angles CAa, aAb,

bAc, etc., as in wheel A, Fig. 85. Then
with compasses opened to the arc A'C,
Fig. 86, place one point at A, Fig. 87, and
an arc at C, cutting the meridian at
C as shown. Then the point C,
Fig. 87, is one point in the periphery of
the bevel wheel A.
Another point is found by taking A' a,
Fig. 86, in the dividers, and laying it off
strike

the point

on the meridian Aa of Fig. 87, determining the point a of the periphery. Likewise, using distances from Fig. 87, determine points b, c, d, etc., on all the
meridians of wheel blank A, Fig. 87,

when the wheel

outline

may

be drawn in and the blank cut

down

thereto.

The

sectional view of Fig. 87 shows how the blank can be cut

to a spherical web, or to the desired num-

away within the outline

ber of arms, as for the pattern from which to obtain castings for

wheel A.
A second spherical blank for wheel

B is also turned up with

A'
the radius AO, Fig. 87, equal
0, Fig. 86, as before, for wheel A.
are
drawn
meridian
blank
lines with the same scheme of
this
On
as
shown
on
wheel
B, Fig. 85. Also on all the
intervening angles
corresponding lines of the blank lay off the arcs B'm, B'?i, etc., asA draw the peri metric outline, and cut the wood

in case of wheel

blank to shape as before, giving a wheel

to

mate with wheel A,

as a pair of patterns for castings in pairs, as the final result of the

problem.

The wheel

outlines thus found are of course usually the pitch

lines for non-circular gears, the construction of teeth for

which

is

explained later.
In the above the wheels were treated as one-lobed. But either
or both may be of several lobes, or one of a pair may be internal.

Usually the angle

(of Fig. 85) V2.

A OB, Fig.

86, is a right angle,

and

AB =

AB

72

PRINCIPLES OF MECHANISM.

The proof of the above figures and process was not attempted
with the explanation. To show it to be the correct one to carry
forward into the finished bevel wheels the same law of angular
motion as the plane wheels of Fig. 85 possess, we note that the
velocity-ratio for the wheels, as

shown

Angular velocity of
Angular velocity of

in Fig. 85,

is

A~
_ BC
B A 0"

In Fig. 86, if OA and OB be axes, we find that for an arm A C

attached to axis B, by
attached to axis A, operating an arm
having the ends joined together at q, with the arms suitably located

BC

on the

axes, the velocity-ratio will be

Angular velocity of
Angular velocity of

OA _ Eg _-#_
~ GO
BO ~T)q~ AC ~FC

= velocity-ratio of the finished wheels for contact

C, since FC, Dg,

and 87.
Hence the bevel
non-circular wheels thus obtained have the same laws of angular
motion as the plane wheels of Fig. 85, as required.
Fig. 88 is an example in wood for patterns for castings, of a
etc., are all perpendicular to the axes of Figs. 86
The same is true of all other pairs of radii.

FIG. 88.

FIG. 89.

pair of bevel elliptic unilobed and bilobed wheels, laid out by the

above process.
In Fig. 89 we have a photo-process copy of a pair of bevel noncircular wheels in metal, laid out by above process from Fig. 73,
consequently possessing the same law of angular velocity. The
wheels are about 7 inches between centers, and at 45 angle of
intersection of axes.

BEVEL NON-CIRCULAR WHEELS IN GENERAL.

73

LAYING OUT BEVEL NON-CIRCULAR WHEELS DIRECTLY ON THE

NORMAL SPHERE.
1st. One Wheel Given, to Find its Mate.
Let A CbD represent
the given or assumed wheel traced free hand upon the normal
sphere, the pair of wheels to be

complete and not

Assume

sectoral.

for a trial center for

ACB

wheel B, and the arc

on a

great circle of the sphere for a line

Assume

of centers.

J, c,

n, o,

and

etc.,

such that

etc.

Aa

find

points

mating points m,

etc.,

Cm =

mn =

Ca,
also spherical arc
arc ACB\ arc Bn

Bm

ACB,

arc

etc.,

-\-

when

ab,

-f arc
arc Ab

the perimay be

metric curve for wheel

traced through the points C, m, n,

FIG. 90.

o, etc.

in

If

it,

when another

repeated

was assumed too far from

till

point

closes.

the wheel

B will have a gap

assumed and the work

the wheel

B may be

trial

Let Fig. 91
2d. Laws of Motion Given, to Find the Wheels.
represent the actual normal sphere, and assume the wheel cenon it or axial lines A'O
ters A and

and B'O
say 90.

desired

at the

intervening angle,

Lay out around A the auxiliary sectors

with angles to represent the motion of At
the sectoral angles being passed over in the
movement of the finished wheel A in equal
times.
sectors

To
in

FIG. 91.

giving a and

peripheries of the finished wheels,

the arc A'h
Ae, and B'i
Bf\ find

the

make

Likewise draw the mating auxiliary

B as shown.
find a pair of mating points a and

around

k by
oty
m

A'O and B'O, and draw

Then make Aa = A'j, and Bm = B'j,

parallels to

for the desired

mating

points.

Thus proceed with all the auxiliary sectors, when the wheels
may be drawn in through the points a, b', m, n, etc.

PRINCIPLES OF MECHANISM.

74

This will make the velocity-ratio of the finished wheel the same
as that of the auxiliary sectors rolling upon each other, because the
in contact at C is the same as
velocity-ratio for the points a and

Ae

on the sector Bf, or the same as for axis

A'O to drive axis B'O by contact of ends of perpendiculars Ih and
ri\ hence
for the sector

rolling

so that the finished wheels have the desired velocity-ratio.

These wheels will each turn through a pair of mating angles in

equal times.
If A revolves uniformly, as
will be equal to each other.

is

usually the case, the sectors for

Similar Wheels, Lobed Wheels, etc., may be worked out on

the normal sphere, similarly as for plan wheels in Figs. 79, 80r

and

81.

CHAPTER
CASE

m.

FOR

this

VI.

WITHOUT MEETING.
NON-CIRCULAR WHEELS.

SKEW -BEVEL

AXES

CROSSING

we

attempt only the general case, or the counter-

will

part of non-circular bevels as brought out in Figs. 85, 86, and 87,
as pertaining to non-circular skew bevels; wooden blanks being
here presumed also, as receiving part of the work of the draftsman.
Fig. 92

is

a pair of circular hyperboloids answering for the case

FIG. 92.

FIG. 93.

of pitch surfaces for circular skew-bevels, given to aid in acquainting the mind with the forms we have to study.
In the present case the rolling or pitch surfaces are non-cir-

cular hyperboloids with fixed axes, and a given shortest distance

between them.
75

PRINCIPLES OF MECHANISM.

76

At C the

surfaces do not coincide, but

other so that

lie at an angle with each

extended beyond C they would intersect, as in
This figure may be taken to represent a pair of

if

Pig. 93 at F.
blanks from which

we could cut

a pair of non-circular skew-bevels.

in a lathe, of nearly spherical form, such
as seen in plan is a circular
that their line of intersection

These should be turned

AFB

line

with

The

line

as its center.

AFB,

in space, will be so nearly a circle that it will

common meridional line of the con-

be assumed to be one, and a

TCX surfaces of

and B,

so that

DAH

spherical surfaces intersecting in the line

greater than

The

and

EBG

will

AFB, made

be equal

to a radius

to be determined.

the laying out of these wheels will be the

non-circular outlines on the blanks A and B, to which the material

may

final result in

be cut, to realize the final rolling wheels.

As a first step in the process of obtaining these outlines, determine a set of non-circular wheels with axes parallel, as in Fig. 85,
that will work in conformity with the laws of motion as required
ior the skew-bevels.

FIG. 94.

Also draw Fig. 86 from 85 as before, making the angle A OB

equal the angle AOB of Fig. 93, as the given angle between the
axes in the plan of the skew-bevels; and the circle A'CB', Fig. 86,
with the radius AO, Fig. 93.
86,

Then draw Fig. 94, where the portion A OB is the same as Fig.
and where OA and OB is the horizontal projection and KR and
l

the vertical projection of the axes,

LO

being the ground-line.

NON-CIRCULAR SKEW BEVELS.

77'

In the vertical projection the common perpendicular between,

is OR, projected in plan in the
point 0.
The line of contact between the rolling surfaces is here, in ele-

the axes

PN

vation, a shifting line

9 always
parallel to
and
plan it is a shifting radial line OD,

PN

KR

and LO, and in

OD

being the projections of that line as in one position.

The circle
is taken as the projection of the line of intersection
of the extended wheel- bl.*...vs shown in Fig. 93, A^O*
being the distance of the pole of wheel .1 from the common per-

AFB

A^DB

pendicular between the axes,

B,0 being the like distance for wheel

which
distances
are
B\
equal A'O and B'O.
The line of intersection A DB of the extended wheel-blanks is
1

seen in elevation in the line

To

correctly

draw the

parts by points i,j, k,

I,

OPK.

line, divide

the arc

etc.; project lines

A DB
l

into equal
to

up from these points

KR\ then extend KR to F, where the angle FOB'= angle A^OB^

draw the semicircle FeO, which intersect at e, f, g, etc., by radial
to points of equal division in the arc B'UVE, and
lines from
project lines from the points e,f, g, etc., over to intersect the lines
Through the proper
previously projected up from A B to KR.
points of intersection G, H, etc., draw the line KP1IGO for the
l

This may be regarded as a line

with center at 0, which, de-

correct line of intersection sought.

on a vertical circular cylinder

A^DB

OPK

&$ slightly S-shaped.

veloped, would show the line
In the geometrical work this line will be used in its true form

but for turning up the wheel-blanks an approximating circle are

will be used, found by revolving
around axis
to the horizontal plane when the point
describes the arc KL, falling at L,.
and B falls at /. To draw the circle arc A JI & center S is found

OPK

A^O extended, in such position that A^S = IS.

The circle IA^T is a meridian arc to which the non-circular

on the

line

skew wheel-blanks are

to be turned in the lathe in order that their

line of intersections, as in Fig. 93,

AFB, as required.

may

be such as to run through

In Fig. 95 we have the projection of the wheel-blank A turned

fit a circle pattern cut to the circle IJA^T, Fig. 94.
On this
up
blank lay off the angles CAa, aAb, etc., as a copy of the angles simto

on the drawing of the plane wheel, Fig. 85, previously

explained, drawing the radiating lines or meridians to the edge of
ilarly lettered

the blank, as shown in Fig. 95.

To find the point C on the wheel-blank radius

A C,- take the

length Cx, Fig. 94, in the dividers, and, without changing, place;

78

PRINCIPLES OF MECHANISM.

one foot

at

foot falls at

OPK at such position that the

OR, making PN perpendicular to

on the curve

N on the line

other

OR.

Then, retaining the one foot of the dividers at P, swing the dividers, and open

them

till the other foot falls at 0.

Retaining this length in the dividers, place one foot
at / on the circle A ^Jl while the other foot

on A^O at Y, making JY = OP in the

diagram and perpendicular to A O. Then
swing the dividers around </ and open them

falls

the other foot falls at the point A

With
A Jin the dividers lay off A C, Fig.

till

this length

95,

on the meridian

A C of the wheel blank A.

To

find the point a, Fig. 95, take the distance az, Fig. 94, in the dividers, and apply it
on another line
9
9 JY, JA l9 as before,

PN P0

95, and so proceed for

finally
the points in the periphery of A, when
the outline of the wheel A may be drawn in.

and

Aa, Fig.

all

Otherwise explained, lay off Cx 9 Fig. 94, from

Revolve
ject the end of this line down to P.

= AO

Then A J
Project Q to J.
ceed likewise for other points.
1

R on RK. ProP to Q about 0.

on wheel-blank Fig.

95.

Pro-

For wheel B, as for A in Fig. 95, take distances from C, m, n,

etc., to line OB', Fig. 94, and apply these as before from R toward
to Q; project Q to J, and take
K. Project to P revolve about
A to apply on wheel-blank of wheel B in the manner indicated
in Fig. 95 for meridian distances BC, Bm, Bn, etc.
When ready to cut the edge of wheels A and B to the perimetric
lines just laid out, a question will arise as to what direction CD or
9

bevel to give across the edge of the wheel, as it will not always be
to the spherical outer and inner surfaces, and the right-line

normal

elements of the surface

CD

will be

askew with the sphere normals.

to proceed is to cut the minimum non-circular section

of the wheel from a piece of plane thin material, or thicker with
and to mount this upon an axial
the edge bevelled, as
9 Fig. 95,

One way

EF

rod,

FA

extended from the wheel blank A, Fig. 95, making

AF = OA,,
To

Fig. 94, or

UA

Fig. 93.

EF

first draw a series of diametric

lay out the small wheel
lines with the intervening angles the same as in the upper part of
The lengths of the
Fig. 95, or in the plane wheels of Fig. 85.

NON-CIRCULAR SKEW BEVELS.

79

radii will be the several heights ON, Fig. 94, which may be noted
as the lengths Cx, az, etc., are placed in the several positions
are to be laid off on the proper
These heights
ns explained.

PN

ON

radii of

EF,

Fig. 95, in order;

when

the outline

may

be traced in,

and the section EF cut to shape. The radial lines on EF, as well
as on A, should be plainly marked and lettered, or numbered, to
In mounting EFupou the rod the mean radius
distinguish them.
approximately should be selected and noted, as, for instance, that
corresponding with AC in the figures, and this radius on EF
placed at an angle with the corresponding radius on wheel, which

PON,

Fig. 94.
in dressing off the edge of
straight-edge, or thread across from

angle

is

Then

wheel A, Fig. 95, use a thin

EF to A C,

trained

upon

cor-

till it
responding points of the two, cutting through from C to
to C, and
coincides with the straightened thread stretched from

likewise for the several points of radii noted,

portions can be cut by eye.

Wheel

is

to be treated in a similar

when

the intermediate

manner.

This gives us the rolling or pitch surfaces of the wheels.

Instead of using the small wheel EF, Fig. 84, as a guide in
stretching the thread to use while trimming off the material at CD

and other

points, it may be advisable to use a second blank like

turned
to the same spherical surface except it may be thinner
AC,
by cutting away on the concave side. Let us call this blank M.
On the spherical convex side of this second blank
we are to
lay out meridians, straight or slightly curved, as explained for Fig.

95, but with intervening angles in the inverse order of those of

On these meridians the same radial distances C, Aa,
Fig. 84.
-etc., are to be laid off also in the inverse order.

This wheel, cut to line with quite a relief bevel, is to be mounted

axial rod like AF, Fig. 95, extended to twice the distance
to
or
twice OA lt Fig. 94; and at the intervening twist angle
9
between corresponding radii of twice PON, Fig. 94; and with the
concave sides of the blanks toward each other, and twisted in the

upon an

AF

See Fig. 139. Then in dressing off the blank at

right direction.
CD attach the line to the opposite blank M, at the cor-

and along

responding point C, and draw the line straight, and apply to CD as

often as desired while dressing away the material, until coincidence
is

obtained entirely across CD, making this one right-lined element

If we call this element CC9 because
connecting the

of the surface.

80

PRINCIPLES OF MECHANISM.

C and C of

the blanks, the next point may be aa, and the

See Fig. 95.
After dressing the blank across at CD, move the line and dressing action to the next point aa, finishing which as before; move
points

next

bb, etc.

On the portions
again to bb, etc., for the whole periphery of A.
of surface of the edge of A between the line elements CD, etc., as
above found, the material may be cut away by eye, or
the line may be stretched to intermediate points.

if

preferred

OPK

Proof for the construction of the line

y Fig. 94, as described, is found in the formula expressing the proper division of
the common perpendicular OR, Fig. 94, or A'B', Fig. 10, into
segments or gorge radii, in accordance with the velocity-ratio, viz.,

=
=
perpendicular
O'C' tan a = A' 0' = x\
tan a
= x- also x y
whence
A'C'O'

Fig. 10, calling angle

common

the

-rn-

-5

A-

/?

which may be reduced

in

B'C'O'

O'C' tan

ft,

A'C'B'

to x

* an

a-}

-\-

and

= C-

t/an of

= c sin--

CK

sin a

= a.

ft

cos (a

a),

c = OR, a = AOB
A OB = BOE>
the corresponding height HZ.
B'OV, and x

which, for Fig. 94,

= any angle,
Thus

/3='0' = y;

and

-\-

Eliminating y and p, we get

,

a,

c.

as

OF = OR secant ROF=c. cosec a = sin

Of

= OF cos VOE = -sin a

HZ = OP sin B'OV= sin

-r^

cos (a

cos (a

a);

a) sin

= x.

Hence it appears that the height HZ, Fig. 94, is the result of
the graphic construction of the above formula, and that the position of the point of contact or intersection of the line of contact
with the line

OP

is

correctly determined for each set of radii of

the plane wheels, and that consequently the radii of the wheel
blanks, made out as described, are correct.
To be strictly correct, instead of meridians A C, Aa, Ab, etc., Fig.

mentioned, those lines as seen in projection should belaid off

as seen in projection in Fig. 94, and at
the
same
as before.
Then FE, Fig. 95, should
intervening angles,
95, as

as copies of the line

OPK

be located with respect to a particular point

P and

angle

PON.

CHAPTER

VII.

NON-CIRCULAR WHEELS FOR INTERMITTENT MOTION.

THESE wheels might

properly have been considered under the

cases of axes parallel, axes meeting, and axes not parallel and not
meeting, but as their peculiarities in other respects are greater, it
was thought advisable to treat them together, in deference to that

refinement of classification.
They are here classified in two ways, with reference to the devices for stopping and starting the driven wheel, viz.:

Where easement spurs

are used together with locking arcthan

that
of
radius
the
of greater
rolling arc; and
3d. Where the locking arc is smaller than the rolling arc, with
1st.

easements upon the ends of the pitch

lines.

1st. Where Easement Spurs are Employed.

In Fig. 96 we have an example of the first kind, where easement spurs or prongs are used for stopping and starting the
driven wheel with reduced shocks. Here the arc

DEF
arc

and

is

non-circular and rolls correctly on the

the arc from near
and
through G

GMH,

H being circular and serving simply as

for wheel

while standing still during

of rest or intermitted movement.

its

a lock

period

The curved piece IJ fast upon A, and KL fast

upon B, have initial contact at the points /and K\
when A is rotated so that /approaches K, and when
/is carried down near to A the quickness with which B is started
is reduced, as well as the shock due to jt.
Hence for rapid mot

AT should be short, while for slower speeds it may be greater,

In some cases IJ may be a mere pin, as in Fig. 11 for circular roll-

tions

ing curves.
In either case the shape of
with but little backlash when

The spurs

DG and saddle curve GH should work

//and KL are in running contact.

here, as well as in Fig. 12,

may work by

rolling;
81

PRINCIPLES OF MECHANISM.
or sliding contact, though the latter will be found most convenient
to lay out, and no more objectionable, unless it

be in the matter of lubrication.

2d.

Where Locking Arcs and Easements

are

Employed.
In Fig. 97^ the wheels have the locking arc
of smaller radius than the rolling arc DEF, in-

The shapes of
the same as in Fig. 15.

stead of larger as in Fig. 96.

and

F will be
The

FIG. 97.

96,

may

much

rolling arcs in Fig. 97, as well as in Fig.

have any non-circular form desired, ac-

cording to requirement of practical problems.

As in circular wheels, these may be made with axes meeting or
axes crossing and not meeting, according to principles laid down in
the proper places as pertaining to these problems.
Fig. 98 is a photo-process copy of a pair of wheels like Fig. 96,
turned into bevels, with axes meeting at 60, 7 inches between
centers, and of very considerable eccentricity, as best shown in the
second part of Fig. 98.

FIG. 98.

The

process of Figs. 85 to 87

was followed in laying out these

wheels.

DIRECTIONAL RELATION CHANGING. VELOCITY-RATIO

CONSTANT OR VARYING.
ALTERNATE MOTIONS BY ROLLING CONTACT.
Pitch Lines for Alternate-Motion Gearing.

Among

these

movements there are those that are

limited in extent of movement, and others not.

necessarily

NON-CIRCULAR WHEELS FOR INTERMITTENT MOTION.

FIRST. LIMITED

83

ALTERNATE MOTIONS.

Velocity-ratio Constant.

In Fig. 99 the driving half-wheel A turns continuously in one

direction while the driven piece
reciprocates, and hence the

change in directional

relation.

FIG. 99.

In the present case the half-wheel is circular, and rolls on the

for movement in the one direction, the line
straight line

DE

DCE

HCL

being equal the sernicircu inference

be such that as the driven piece B, in

The arrangement

is

to

to the right, reaches

moving

comes to contact with the extremity D, the

that position where
other end / of the half-wheel arc is just on the point of taking
contact at G, so that by further motion of A the rolling is trans-

DE

FG

and so continues with

to
moving to the left,
the last point, H, of the wheel makes contact at F, when the
contact is retransf erred to DE, and the motion again reversed.
ferred from
till

It is plain that the greatest

GF =

DE

length
"limited."

Also
will be

it

is

extent of

movement

of

HOI, and hence the movement

plain that

if

is

is

the

termed

revolves uniformly, the motion of

uniform and the velocity-ratio constant.

Fig. 99

is simply the theoretical

representation of the moveIn practice, gear teeth, as well as suitable positive engaging and disengaging devices, are to be applied, by which the movement will be still further limited, which gearing and devices will

ment.

be treated under the proper headings.

Velocity-ratio Varying.

In Fig. 100 the driver

is

a 180

sector of a log. spiral and,

as before, rotates continually in the

same direction, while the point of

contact shifts over from the straight

to the parallel line

inclined line

FG,

DCE

simultaneously with which the

direction of motion of
If

is

reversed.

revolves with uniform velocity, the

movement

of

is

84

PRINCIPLES OF MECHANISM.

hastened as the contact at

locity-ratio

is

Drawing

approaches

a varying quantity.
a line from the center of

perpendicular to the slide bearings BB,

ters, the center of motion of
being at

A, since the

line

DC

is

an arc of a

or

through

so that the ve-

C in

we have the
an

a direction

line of cen-

infinite distance

log. spiral

from

with the pole at

infinity.

The velocity-ratio is the same as given in connection with Fig.

27, the rate of motion of
being the same as that of the point C
as if revolving about
with the-

angular velocity of A.
Another example of velocity-ratio'
varying is given in Fig. 101, where

A may

be taken as a portion of any

one-lobed wheel, and the curve
or
found such as will mate with

DE

FlG 10L

FG

it.

The same formula

for velocity-ratio applies

as in Fig. 100'

or 27.

SECOND. UNLIMITED ALTERNATE MOTIONS.

Velocity-ratio Constant.

The Mangle Rack.

In Fig. 102
secured to the

flat

acts

BB

by rolling contact against the bar

DE, in which latter a groove, FG,

surface of

is

NON-CIRCULAR WHEELS FOR INTERMITTENT MOTION.

till

when

reaches the extremity of B,

further rotation of

85

will

end and downward at the

A and reciprocation of BB

to pass around upward at one

other end, in continued revolving of

cause

and DE.

HK

A bar
has a slot through which the shaft of A passes to
prevent it from swinging to the right or left.
This mangle-rack movement may be given a piece
of any
The
without
limit.
be
even
reduced
narrow,
part
length,
may

BB

BB

to a mere line.

The

the same as that in Fig. 27 or 100.

is

velocity-ratio

The Mangle Wheel

In Fig. 103
construction

we have much the same

as

in

Fig.

102, except

BB

and FG are formed in a

circle around 0, the part
being
here a circular disk mounted on a
here

DE

center at 0, so that the driven part

and
has an alternating circular motion.

DE

BB

The

is

BB

velocity-ratio is constant while

in one direction, where

moving
is

circular about

the

also in

other, though in the second case

differs from that of the first when

it

BB

has a sensible radial thickness.

Velocity-ratio Variable.

The velocity-ratio
when the piece BB
curved on a straight
on a curved slide,

will be variable

in

Fig.

102

is

slide, or straight

or

JI IG

with varied

width.

BB

For Fig. 103 the piece

may be of varied width, or noncircular with respect to the centre 0, or in form of a
spiral, even
to
several
turns
about
and
with
0,
reaching
non-circular, combined with the above modifications.

PRINCIPLES OF MECHANISM.

AXES MEETING.
Bevel wheels in these movements are practical, and probably
skew-bevels also, the construction of which must have due regard
to the principles of bevels, or
skew-bevels, as laid
rolling contact.

In Fig. 104

is

down under

given a photo-

copy from a pair of

mangle wheels under Axes Meetprocess

ing at a right angle.

The

pitch

merely a circle on a cylinder set with teeth, which are simply a row of pins with which the

line

is

driver engages on either side.

PART

II

TRANSMISSION OF MOTION BY SLIDING CONTACT.

CHAPTER

VIII.

SLIDING CONTACT IN GENERAL.

IN elementary combinations of mechanism acting by sliding
contact, there are a driver and a follower with axes at a fixed distance apart, the driver acting upon the follower at a point of
contact at some distance to one side of the line of centers, in consequence of which there will be sliding of one piece against the
other at the contact point, since rolling action occurs only
is on the line of centers.

when

the contact

In thick pieces the contact will be along a line of tangency,

line must be continually parallel to the axes when the latter

which

meet with them at a common point when they are

In each of the two pieces, all sections normal to the

are parallel, or

meeting.

axis are similar figures.

Velocity-ratio in Sliding Contact.

In Fig. 105, take A as the center of rotation of a piece AJDK,

with contact at D against the piece BLDM. Then when the piece
is turned through some angle toward BD, the latter must turn
Hence
also, when a sliding action will occur at the contact D.

AD

AD may drive BD by sliding contact at

D.

To

BD

find the velocity-ratio for this turning of the pieces

and B, while thus transmitting
about their centers

by sliding contact, find the center of curvature of the piece

AD and
motion

A JDK
87

88

PRINCIPLES OF MECHANISM.

JDK

at D, as some point E.
or of the curve
Also find the center
at D, for the piece BLDM.
of curvature F, of the curve
will be the radius of curvature at D of the curve
Then
JDK, and DFihe radius of curvature at D of the curve
and pieces might be cut from thin wood, one of shape AJDK,

LDM

DE

LDM

and the other

of shape

BLDM,

which, when held by pins at

and

for axes, could turn by sliding upon each other in the manner
proposed. For a small amount of movement, sufficient to deter-

mine the
the

sum

EF

will be constant, it being

velocity-ratio, the distance
of the radii of the curves in contact at D.
observe

We

that in this case

is

a fixed point on the piece

AD, and

Fa

fixed

FIG. 105.

point on the piece

BD.

Now

cut another pair of pieces,

AFCG

and BHCI, making E the center of curvature of the curve FCG

at C, and F the center of curvature of the curve HC1 at C, the
point

being in this case chosen where the line

line of centers

EF intersects

the

AB.

If now the two pieces A EC and A ED are fastened

together
with a common axis at A and coincident at E, likewise if the
pieces BFC and BFD be united with a common axis B and coincident at F, and the two be mated on their centers A and B
by
axial pins and brought to running contact, then for a small move-

ment the

be in rolling contact at C, as in
Fig. 2, beline of centers; and in sliding contact
proposed; and the two actions will have a common

pieces will

cause this point

at D, as at first

is

on the

7? C*
'

velocity-ratio

which equals -r
A Lf

as in Fig. 2.

Therefore,, to determine the velocity-ratio of a pair of pieces

AJDK

and

BLDM transmitting

a common normal

DC to

motion by sliding contact, draw

the curves in contact, extending

it

to

SLIDING CONTACT IN GENERAL.

89

intersect the line of centers; then the velocity-ratio

is

given by the

equality

~
v

6"

A 9 and v the angular velocity of

in
velocity-ratio
sliding contact is the inverse
ratio of the segment's ^f the line of centers as the latter is cut by

where Fis the angular velocity of

Hence the

1).

common normal to the sliding curves.

In Fig. 105 only a small movement was supposed to occur,
beeause the curves in common tangency at D and C may not be
But to realize an indefinite
circular to any considerable extent.
movement under like conditions, it is only necessary to suppose the

the

curves to be so shaped that the point of tangency C shall remain

on the line of centers as for the non-circular wheels of Fig. 51,

common normal EDF shall continue to pass through the

same tangency point C. For this, the centers of curvature E and
F may be continually changing positions.
The curves FCG and HC1 may be circles to the centers A and
while the

B,

as in the pitch lines of circular gearing,

the

common normal CD becomes

SLIDING

when

the point

C of

stationary on AB.

AND ROLLING CURVES WITH COMMON LAW OF MOVEMENT NOT REQUIRED TO BE CONCENTRIC.

In Fig. 106

let

AaCc and BbCd be a pair of correctand

rolling wheels in rolling contact at

the curves

working non-circular

',

FIG. 106.

ADe

and BDfa, pair of pieces in action by sliding contact at D,

of such shape that the common normal at D, prolonged, shall
Then, because the velocity- ratio of
continually meet the point C.

and

the non-circular wheels

is

B (7 over

AC, and because

the velocity-

OF THB

UNIVERSITY

PRINCIPLES OF MECHANISM.

90

ratio of tke sliding curves in contact at

follows that

.Z)

is

must be a common normal

(7

also
at

BC

over

AC,

it

D, but not neces-

sarily at C ; and that the law of the velocity-ratio is common to

both actions so long as the curves are so shaped that DCis a common normal at and meets the point C.
Fig. 107 is a photo-process copy of a model in metal of what is
shown in Fig. 106. The lower sectors are the rolling arcs, and the

FIG. 107.

upper the sliding arcs. Their lengths are such that they all begin
and end action together. The sliding curves cross the rolling curves
as in Fig. 108.

SLIDING CUKVES TO

In Fig. 108

let

WORK CONFORMABLY WITH ROLLING CURVES.

AlCjck and

BoCmgn

represent a pair, or por-

FIG. 108.

and
tions of a pair, of correct-working rolling curves centered at
B. Assume a sliding curve eabcd, which may be a templet piece

&

SLIDING CONTACT IN GENERAL.

and made

91

wheel A, the latter being also a temmate with a templet piece B.

Find the mating curve iafgh, which, by sliding action upon
eabcd, will transmit the same motion, A to B, as by the mutual
rolling of the rolling curves or wheels A and B.
cut to

suit,

plet piece as

shown

fast to

to

Making Cm
Cj, mg =jc, etc., we will have mating points /
and m, c and g, etc., in the peripheries of the non-circular wheels.
That is, these points will corne to contact in pairs, and in succession,

on the line of centers as the non-circular wheels

roll

in

mutual contact.
Following Fig. 106, we draw a normal Ca to the templet G,
when a becomes one point in the required mating curve for B.
From j draw the normal jb to the templet G. This normal
makes a certain angle with the radius Aj. Then draw mf, making
the same angle with Bm produced, and make mf = jb. Then
when the wheels revolve till j and m meet on the line of centers,
the line mf will coincide with jb, and the point /with b. Therefore,/ is a second point in the sliding curve for wheel B.

Evidently

g mates with c as a third point. Also h, i, and c are other points

found in the same manner as was /; oi being equal to le, and the
Ale.
Hence the sliding curve iafgh may
angle Boi being 180
be drawn in, and a templet cut to the same, to be mounted upon
the wheel or templet B. These sliding curves or templets thus
made fast to their respective wheel templets A and B will evidently
work harmoniously and agreeably throughout with the rolling
curves or wheel templets A and B, and hence with a common law
of angular velocity.
The extent of movement of these sliding curves is often limited,,
but a series of pairs may be employed which engage in action in

succession, as in the case of the teeth of gear wheels, where the

rolling curves tangent at C answer for pitch lines, and the sliding
curves tangent at a for tooth curves.
therefore next take up

We

the somewhat extensive subject of

THE TEETH OF GEAR WHEELS.

The sliding curves or tooth curves brought out above are sometimes called odontoids, from the Greek word for tooth. Also the
in contact at C, the pitch lines in gearing,
rolling curves A and
are sometimes called centroids, from the fact that ICj, etc., are
points of instantaneous axes of rolling motion of the describing-

templet of Fig. 109 to be described.

92

PRINCIPLES OF MECHANISM.

THE TBACING OF SLIDING CURVES, OB ODONTOIDS, BY MEANS

OF TEMPLETS BOLLED UPON NON-CIBCULAB WHEEL PITCH
LINES OB CENTBOIDS.
Templets are very useful aids in the study of or actual drawing
of tooth curves for gearing, and we may employ pitch templets,
tooth templets, and describing templets. Thus, a piece cut from
thin wood to the form AlCjck, Fig. 108, may be called a pitch
templet, and sometimes two pieces are prepared, one convex and
the other concave, fitting each other along the pitch line ICk,

which may be used at pleasure. Likewise, pitch templets

be prepared, fitting the pitch line OCmgn. Again, a piece,
G, cut to the form of the tooth curve ead, and another for the
mating tooth curve, may be called tooth templets. Besides these,
either of

may

a describing templet may be employed which, in Fig. 108, rolled

along on the curve or templet ICjc, will, by an attached marking
point, trace the tooth curve eabc, or again, rolled on oCmg, describe
the mating curve iafg.
Having given the non-circular wheel pitch curve ICjc, to find
the describing templet which, rolled along on the upper side of the
pitch curve, will describe or generate the tooth
Draw aj, aC, al, Fig. 109, of the

curve eabc:

same lengths

as

bj,

aC,

el,

Fig.

108,

and

at

intervening angles such that 1C, Cj, etc., Fig. 109,

shall equal the like lettered quantities of Fig. 108.

Then draw in the curve ajCl, Fig. 109, and we

have the figure of the describing templet sought,
to complete which describing templet cut a
piece
of thin

wood

to the

form of curve found and

set a

marking point

at a.

To trace the tooth curve eabc, Fig. 108, with this templet:
Place the tracer, a, of the templet at c, Fig. 108, and proceed to
turn the describing templet left-handed, causing it to roll along the
when the points j, C, I, etc., of the
will
fall at the points/, C, I, etc.,
describing templet, Fig. 109,
Fig.
pitch line/C7 without slipping,

108, by reason of the equality of spaces, step

point a will at like points of time fall at I, a,

by step; and the tracer

e, etc., by reason of the

equality of lengths of the lines ja, Ca, la, etc., Fig. 109, with the
normals jl, Ca, le, etc., Fig. 108, and the equality of the angles in
the two figures between arcs and lines at the points JCI, etc. This
rolling of the describing templet

may suppose

that a concave pitch

SLIDING CONTACT IN GENERAL.

95

templet fitting the pitch line cjCl is employed for the describing
templet to roll upon, and the curve cae traced upon a plane which
In the illustrations,
is fixed with reference to the pitch templet.
comparatively few points, c,j, C, I, etc., are indicated, in order to
secure clearness of the figures.
For the same reasons that the tooth curve cbae is traced by
rolling the describing templet, Fig. 109, on the pitch line cjCl,
likewise the mating tooth curve gfai is traced by rolling the same
describing templet on the pitch line gmCo.
It is to be observed that the above describing templet applies
for only the portions of the tooth curves of Fig. 108 which lie
above or to the left of the pitch lines. For the portions cd and gh,
at the right or below, a second describing templet, found as was

Fig. 109,

would generally be required where, as in Fig. 108, one

was assumed. In practice, however, instead

full tooth curve, e to d,

of assuming the tooth curve, the describing templet

be assumed, and of any preferred form; and the

may
same

advisably
is often

applied on both sides of each pitch line.

NAMES, TERMS, AND RULES FOR GEAR TEETH.

As the names

of the various parts of toothed gearing will be of

given, in connection with Fig. 110,

frequent use, they are here

FIG. 110.

be a help also in the study of teeth

that the proportions be familiarized.
for future reference.

It will

PRINCIPLES OF MECHANISM.

'94

A common

rule

which may be deviated from according

the judgment of the designer

to

is:

For Circular or Circumferential Pitch.

Pitch

Addendum
Dedendum
Thickness

Space

= distance from center to center of teeth on pitch

= 3/10 pitch; working depth = twice addendum.
= 4/10 pitch, or subaddendum.
= 5/11 pitch.
= 6/11 pitch.
For Diametral Pitch.

line.

For Cut Gears.

Pitch

= portion of diameter to each tooth, = diameter divided

by number of teeth

Addendum
Dedendum
Thickness

in the wheel.

= one diametral pitch.

= one diametral pitch plus 1/7
= nearly 1.57 diametral pitch.

diametral pitch.

CHAPTER

IX.

TOOTHED GEARING IN GENERAL.

DIRECTIONAL RELATION CONSTANT.
VARYING.

VELOCITY-RATIO

TOOTH CURVES FOR NON-CIRCULAR GEARING.

CASE

AXES PARALLEL.

I.

working gearing of whatever name, circular or noncircular in outline of wheel, must possess tooth outlines which are

ALL

correct

describable by the principles indicated

in Figures 108 and 109.
The most general case is taken up
here,

instead

of

several

proceeding

from the simpler to the more general,

because the general case

comprehended

as

is

as readily

any special limited

Thus, the whole general theory

of tooth outlines for gearing will be
one.

mastered at once.
Templets.

The theory and practice for this case

can probably be best explained by the aid
of templets, a complete set of which,
representing the general case of noncircnlar gears, is shown in Fig. 111.
Portions of the non-circular rolling
curves or pitch lines are shown as

and

curve

-outside,

being a templet fitting the

on the inside, A 9 a second
1

both of which

will

fit

templet fitting it on the

together on the pitch line A. When
95

96

PRINCIPLES OF MECHANISM.

thus together, mark the point C,

and b u thus made coinci
dent ; also
and B^ are like fitting templets for the pitch line
These marked points are all
B, with points C, c lf c^ marked.
,

mutually mating points as between templets or pitch lines. These

are the pitch-line templets, and, for brevity, may be called
pitch
templets.
The smaller

figures

show the describing templets, aF and

at a and b, and have their represen-

bG, with the marking point

All these templets are supposed

tatives, in theory, in Fig. 109.
to be cut from thin pieces of wood, metal, or other suitable
material.

USE OF TEMPLETS IN DESCRIBING TOOTH CURVES.

aF is shown as being rolled

while the marking point, a, is describing
the tooth curve c^a
also the same

In Fig. 112, the describing templet

along the pitch templet

9,

describing templet is shown as being

rolled along the pitch templet A^ and

Now,
describing the tooth curve b a.
no slipping occurs in the rolling, and
it be continued on both
pitch lines till
t

if

made equal to Z>,Z>, then

be mating points in the
non-circular rolling arcs or pitch lines,

the arc c^E be

will

and

and aE will equal aD both as to arc

and chord, and the segmental figures

aE and. aD

are equal in every respect.

In this rolling, the tooth curves b^a
and c a are supposed to be traced by

FIG. 112.

extended, would give the dotted lines above

be
a.
These
a,
supposed to be traced upon the same paper
may
that the pitch lines are drawn upon, and that the paper is transthe marker

a,

and

if

parent.

Now
be in

if

we place one drawing upon the other

common tangency

with the points

so that they will

E and D coinciding,

then

and aE will also coincide with the two points a in

common and the tooth curves b a and c, will touch each other
The resulting diagram for this will be as shown in Fig. 113;
at a.
the two figures of the entire describing curves, indeed, coalescing

aD

the lines

into one at

aDEF.

TOOTHED GEARING IN GENERAL.

The two tooth curves b^d and c^ae will be tangent to each
other at a, instead of intersecting; because it is evident that if the
be rolled either
describing templet

aDEF

way on the pitch

lines,

the point a will

to lower positions

when the

than when on Bc^

Also,

line

aDE

it is

is

move

on Ab^ B

plain that the

to the tooth A,

common normal

is

rolling

curves b^ad and c^ae, since the point

serves as a momentary center about which to

FIG. 113.

describe small portions of the curves b d and c^e at a, as in describThese facts are confirmed by refering a circle about its center.
t

ence to Fig. 108.

We observe further that the tooth curves b^ad and c ae are
wholly above their respective pitch lines and the point of contact, a,
t

to the right of the line of centers

through DE.

The

principles brought out above being perfectly general, they

embrace all possible forms of correct working teeth, such as epicycloidal, involute, conjugate, paraboloidal, octoidal, etc.

Hence

all

correct working tooth curves

ing properties
1st.

2d.

must possess the follow-

They must continually remain in mutual tangency.

The mutual tangent point of a given pair of tooth curves

must remain on the same

side of the line of centers

and of the

pitch lines.
3d.

The

straight line joining the point of

mutual tangency of
the tooth curves and of the pitch lines
must be a common normal to the tooth

curves; and these normals should never

between the tooth curves and

intersect

their pitch lines, and they must

always
intersect or be tangent to their
pitch
lines.

As

Fig.

113 provides for contact

only on the one side of the line of centers

and above the pitch lines, contact below
and to the left may be obtained by

using the same, or any other, desciibing templet below and to the left,
FIG. 114.

as in Fig, 114,

and

where the other tem-

bG, Fig. Ill, is used, and rolled on

below as shown in Fig. 114 and combined as in Fig,
plet,

PRINCIPLES OF MECHANISM.

98
115,

making the

starting points,

Z>

and

ca ,

coincide with ^c,,

Fig. 113.

This work, being

all

similar to that of Figures 112

and 113,

will not require detailed description.

The Tooth

Profile.

with the points bj> %9 c^,, in common at C,

and omitting the describing templets, we
is
a complete tooth profile for
in
which
have Fig. 116,
one side of a tooth of the wheel A, and NCO a tooth profile
for one side of a tooth of the wheel B.
Now, as the wheels

When combined

at the line of centers,

LCM

turn one way from the position shown, the tooth contact moves

FIG. 115.

C9 or the opposite direction for the

opposite turning ; from which it appears that in continuous rethere will be contacts of
peated revolutions of the wheels A and
out in one direction from

the tooth curves as they approach the line of centers and also in
recession therefrom.

These tooth curves in

full lines in

Fig.

116, correlated with

other suitable ones in dotted lines, will furnish the outlines of a

pair of teeth as indicated in Fig. 116.

POSITION OF TRACING POINT ON DESCRIBING CURVE.

The curves b^ad and

when the curves A and

Fig. 113, may be called trochoids

are not circular, the former being an

c ae,
t

epitrochoid and the other an hypotrochoid.

When the tracing point, a, is not on the arc of

within or without, the curve generated

is

FD

but

called respectively the

prolate or curtate epitrochoid or hypotrochoid.

The tooth curves of Figures 113, 115, and 116 do not represent
the most general case possible, since the points a and b are there
carried on the curve, while

it

may

be within or without.

There-

TOOTHED GEARING IN GENERAL.

99

us examine the curtate and prolate curves in quest of

advantages over those of Figures 113 to 116.
fore,

let

The Curtate Trochoidal Tooth Curve.

1st.

117 represents the case of the curtate curves, the tracer,

a, being carried on an overreaching piece Ka, fastened to the
describing curve FK, aK being normal to KDEF.
Fig.

Take
at

which

and
is

as

in the pitch curves

mating points

A and

B,

placed in starting the tooth curves, or trochoids,

Gla and HJa. Then
will be on a

LG

normal
and it

HJa

to
is

will

UN

on a normal to B,
A, and
found that the portion /// of
interfere with more or less of

the curve Gla, showing that the portion

cannot be used as a tooth curve.

HJ

With
FIG. 117.

HJ

removed, Gl

may

be also, as

useless.

These curtate trochoidal curves from / and

upward

will

and B, but they will

serve for tooth curves, and also others below
be found seriously inadmissible from the fact that there will be a

DE

within which actual working

wide space on either side of
tooth contacts are impossible, the very space where such contacts
are by far the most desirable and valuable.
The limit of this

DE

is found by placing the tracer

point, a,
This will be found to
and then noting the distance DJ.
increase with aK, and vanish only as aK disappears.

space to the right of

at J,

2d.

The Prolate Trochoidal Tooth Curve.

In Fig. 118, the tracer,

and
and B

mating points

respectively,

we

at

is

placed on the normal Ka, then with

which

starts,

as

KDEF

rolls

on

will obtain the

proposed tooth curves, Ga and Ha.

These curves will not interfere and

may, theoretically, serve for

teeth, but,
practically, the curves are so nearly parthat they
allel to the pitch lines A and
will be more likely to slip and wedge the

wheel apart with serious crowding, than

In other
words, practical tooth curves should be
to give desirable driving action.

perpendicular to the pitch lines rather

it, and hence the prolate trochoidal curves of Fig.

than parallel to

PRINCIPLES OF MECHANISM.

100

118 are inadmissible, though

it

less so

the shorter

aK

is

made

until

vanishes.

Hence the most favorable

a, is

that

it

position of the tracing point or marker,

be exactly on the describing curve itself, as in Figures

113 and 115.

Form and

Size of Describing Curve, or Templet.

the tooth curve, or odontoid, to a certain

be effected by employing one or another form of

Modification of

extent

may

describing curve.
Thus, the describing curve

may

be a

circle, ellipse, parabola,

assumed free-handdrawn curve, each giving its own peculiar tooth curve when used
on the pitch lines A and B the flank curves apparently varying
more than the face curves, as due to the changes in the describing
cissoid, spiral of

many

turns, or

any

arbitrarily

curve as illustrated by the use of a small describing curve, la' or

large one, Ja", giving rise to the flank tooth curves Da' and Da"
,

respectively.

For gears engaging externally the faces will always be found

between the involute and pitch line, while the flanks may
be anywhere from the pitch line on the one side to the pitch line
on the other.
as lying

Thus, in Fig. 119, aD is the involute, described by rolling the

straight line Fa on the pitch line A, the mating pitch line, B,
being in this case straight, as for a
rack, in order that Fa
to develop the flank.

The

curves

may

above

be used

mentioned

rolled along DF, starting the tooth

curves at />, will evidently trace

them
volute

all

more or

DG,

smaller -ones

below the in-

when

size,

re-entrant

the

mak-

ing one loop after another, according to number of convolutions on A.

These curves will all be normal

119.

less

according to

except those developed by spirals which have an infinite

marking point a, as in the case of the
Thus the so-called invoa
at
the pole.
S
with
logarithmic spiral
lute teeth, with involute bases within A, have tooth curves which
to

at

number

of coils around the

intersect

at

an angle.

Involute gear teeth, which at

first

seem

TOOTHED GEARING IN GENERAL.

101

to be an exception to the general theory of Figs. 113 and 115, are

seen, nevertheless, to fall within the general theory, the tooth

curves being generated with a log. spiral describing curve, rolled

outside of A for faces, and inside for flanks, these flank curves
being terminated exactly at the base circle, because here the radius
of curvature of the log. spiral just equals that of the pitch circle

upon which

it rolls

A,

internally.

Example

of Individually Constructed Teeth.

In non-circular gears, where the curvature of the pitch lines

continually varies, no two tooth curves will be alike, so that every
one must be described individually to be strictly correct. Fig.

120

is

an example of a carefully made drawing of such gears, for

FIG. 120.

which the describing templets used for every face and flank were,
for convenience, all circles, but varied in size according to the
above principles, to favor the shapes of the teeth to prevent their
being too weak across their flanks at points of sharpest curvature

of pitch lines.

Non-circular Invohite Gears.

In this case, as well as in circular involute gears, it is most conmake use of involute bases, or curves, a little within the

venient to

pitch lines to which the tooth curves are involutes, as above suggested, instead of using rolling spirals.

102

PRINCIPLES OF MECHANISM.
Let Fig. 121 represent a pair of non-circular pitch lines to be
set with involute teeth, and let the
curves P,

I,

J inside

inside of B, be the
lutes.

The

of

A, also R, L,

bases of the invo-

pitch lines are in contact

and for this position of wheels

the bases of the involutes must be such
at C,

that a

common

PR

will pass
tangent
through the point C, and not only so for
this one position, but for all positions
of the wheels throughout the full extent of their rolling, whether segmental

FIG. 121.

or otherwise.

The inclination of the liuePCR is arbitrary, except that undue

In circular gearirregularities of the base curves may -be avoided.
ing the base curves are usually concentric circles, but here they
usually be nearest to the pitch lines at points of sharpest
curvature.
will

Probably the best way is to place the pitch lines in various

positions of mating tangency, draw a line PCR for each, and then
Then the
trace in the enveloping curves P, 7, J for each wheel.
involutes

SCDE

and

TCFG may

be drawn for the teeth.

It is

seen that the involutes cannot extend within the base curves as

8 and

If the addenda call for more room, the space between

7
be
arbitrarily deepened below S or I to a suitable rootmay
line depth ; but proper tooth contacts cannot go below these points,
and R, by reason of interference.
nor beyond the tangent points

at

T.

teeth

These teeth are less advantageous for gears of considerable

eccentricity than those of epitrochoidal form of Fig. 120, because
of the greater crowding action explained in Fig. 128, but they have
the advantage of requiring less attention for maintaining exactly
between centers.
the distance A

Conjugate Teeth.

This practical method of constructing tooth curves where one

is arbitrarily assumed, and the other determined from it.
would seem to contradict the refinements of the above theory to the
extent that one tooth may be compelled to take any preferred form
of a pair

under sheer caprice.

Thus, prepare the pitch templets

and B, Fig. 122, and fasten

to

a sheet of paper

sufficiently above

Z>,

to

and

to

allow

103

GENERAL.

TOOTHED GEARING

a tooth templet

EF

elevated

in

between

the paper

to

go

and F.

the two templets A and B into proper contact at 0,

draw the pencil along the toothFig. 123, and while held securely

Then bring

FIG. 123.

FIQ. 122.

curve edge of the tooth templet ECF, copying its shape upon the
paper D. Then roll A upon B some distance without slipping, as
indicated by the dotted line at A', and

draw another line along

Thus draw several
the edge of ECF.
lines for A in positions to the right and
while held

fast,

when D will present a

shown dotted in Fig. 124.

left,

veloping

curve

GCH,

or

series of lines,

Now, the
full

line

enFIG. 124.

just
will be the best

touching all the dotted lines on D,

mating tooth
curve for ECF. All the tooth curves for one complete wheel
might be thus assumed, and the mating ones for the other wheel
found in the same way.
This process is seen, after all, to present nothing but what is
disclosed in Fig. 108, since G there corresponds with .Fin Fig. 123,
so that a similar process carried out in Fig. 108 would result in the

curve hgfai.

Limited Inclination of Tooth Curves.

In the practice of designing non-circular gears of considerable
eccentricity, it will be found very desirable at times to make the
teeth nearly radial and oblique to the pitch curves, as in the full
lines of Fig. 125, instead of normal to the pitch curves and inclined to the radius; thus to prevent the tendency of the teeth to

PRINCIPLES OF MECHANISM.

104

slip out of engagement, as well as the excessive crowding apart of

the gears.
Therefore, let Fig. 125 represent portions of a pair of rather
eccentric non-circular pitch curves A and B, with a proposed pair

of teeth

E and G in

contact at the line of centers C, which, in the

FIG. 125.

light of

assumed tooth curves of Fig. 122, and

in spite of the theory

previously detailed, are set nearly radial to avoid crowding.

around, without slipping on

Now, with
stationary, roll
f
to the dotted position A', with
, shifting
following around to
to D.
Then it will be found
the contact of the pitch curves from

E at

fatally interferes with the tooth G, showing

at once that the amount of departure from the pitch curve normal

that the tooth

E'

toward the wheel radii shown in the figure is absolutely prohibited.

In some actual wheel designs where this partiality for the radius
existed, the teeth necessarily were doctored before the wheels

would work.
Thus, in Fig. 126, we have a photo-process copy of a pair of
made for practical use in machines, examples of which were
exhibited at the Centennial of '76, in which an
effort at inclining the tooth toward the radius,
giving it a hooklike form, was evidently attempted,

gears

but was vetoed by the theory when the wheels were

put to work, as is plain by the fact that the hook
feature was removed from the hook or overhanging
side.

One

interesting fact incidentally connected

is that they are cut gears, the

with these wheels

gear cutter to cut them having twenty-five cutters.

Thus we have a rare example of other cut non-

FIG. 126.

circular gears than elliptic.

Other examples of the endeavor to obtain hooklike teeth

were found at the Centennial; one show-

TOOTHED GEARING
this peculiarity in a

ing

GENERAL.

105

moderate degree being illustrated in Fig.

127.

Another

example was found in a

shingle-sawing machine from Wisconsin.
In all the above discussions, from Fig.
92 on, we have treated the case as if the
wheels were plane figures without thickness, while in reality we may suppose them
to have any arbitrary thickness as cylinders, transverse sections of which form the above

FIG. 127.

figures.

Nearest Approach of Tooth Curve toward the Radius.

To determine
to the radius,

absolutely the nearest approach of the tooth curve

to refer to the principles laid down as

we have only

following Fig. 113, and especially that of the intersection of the

Thus
pitch line by all the normals to the proposed tooth curve.
cj), Fig. 114, will become more and more erect, with*
respect to the pitch line BE', the farther the intersection E' is
kept away from the point c 2 and this is favored by a large curve

the curve

But

largest being the straight line.

roll inside of A, and hence the curve

bG, the

this

same curve must

the largest possible

For this, however, the flank Z> 2 & would be merely a point, and
one.
hence objectionable from considerations of wear.
It therefore

In Fig. 128,

itself is

appears that a sharper curve than A is desirable.

A and is a pair of non-circular wheels where the

attempt

is

to

the tooth curve

be

made

GC as

to

carry

far as prac-

ticable over toward the direction of

the radius^ exchanging

GC to some

position JVC' as dotted.

First, drawing a normal

the proposed dotted curve

normal

NO to
CN this
9

found to escape the pitch

curve CL altogether, and hence the
curve CNis steeper than admissible,
since the normal must intersect the
pitch curve CL.
is

Next, we propose a describing

curve, E, of large radius, such as

FIG. 128.

will

pitch curve

CM and

roll,

but just go within the mating

giving the shortest admissible flank Cl.

PRINCIPLES OF MECHANISM.

106

must be accepted as that which will give

This describing curve
the greatest permissible deviation of GC to ward NO.
This tooth curve GC is, however, far from coinciding with the
direction of the radius BC, and hence as the flank CI drives against
the face GC, there will be a more or less serious crowding apart of
the wheels A and B.

Wear

in practical use of wheels

limited in length, it being, at best,

is

the criterion by which

much

shorter than

CG

67 is

against

protest against CI being

conreduced to a point, as above suggested, for the case where
forms with CM- and also the figure shows that this only very

which

it

works.

Good judgment would

CG from its present position toward ON.

utmost
the
Hence, though
possible careening of CG toward CN~
occurs when 67 is reduced to a point, yet practical considerations

slightly

moves the curve

favor a slightly less elevated curve CG, to prevent an appreciable

length of flank 67 ; and we conclude that a tooth curve CG, lying

BC

near the radius

prolonged, is impossible.
On the other hand, the tooth curve may be inclined the opposite
way, or toward the pitch line, to any desired extent, as shown in Fig.
128 at

DH&ud. DF\

curve, for

example

being simply necessary to make the describingsharp in curvature, or small r

it

FK= JP, quite

spiral of several turns

tooth-curve at D.

and a

about the polo

for inclination of

Practical Limit in Eccentricity for Non-circular Gears.

In theory there

is

no limit short of a radius for each wheel; but

in practice friction interposes a limit, the full investigation of which

is out of place here, so that a few examples, only, will be cited toindicate how essential are the principles of Fig. 128 in gear

designing.

run
Fig. 129 shows a pair of gears made for use on a machine to
about 350 revolutions per minute. They are 4 inches between
centers and have involute teeth, both being cast in iron from one
pattern and to work without lubrication. They were laid out after

at

the principles of Fig. 79.

When started in the newly developed machine, whole segments
of the rims of these gears would drop out upon the floor in less

than two minutes, though believed, as far as ordinary theoretic

On examination,
strains were concerned, to be ample in strength.
it was found that the involute tooth curves were too much inclined
to the pitch lines, so as to actually block the wheels at positions

TOOTHED GEARING IN GENERAL.

where the radius was

also

much

107

inclined to a perpendicular to the

rim.

FIG. 129.
elliptic wheels would give a more favorable
line
to radii, and that teeth generated by large
of
pitch
obliquity
describing curves like E, Fig. 128, would give easier action; whereIt

was found that

^
^^^^^f

^^^Jj)

6^

H^P

gw;j
ifr^jfl

IUI

new wheels were adopted

upon

^^fc

w ^k these changes and with coarser

teeth, a

Pa* r

photo-process copy of a
i cn is
given in Fig. 130.

wn

In these wheels every effort was

^IH
^^Bri^^^9

^W^

made

to provide against breakage

by "blocking," two considerations

FIG. 130.

being included besides those above

mentioned, consisting, first, in thicker teeth on the sides of the
wheels than at the ends, and, second, shorter teeth, compared with
The teeth are also much coarser
pitch, than for usual proportions.

than in the previous wheels of Fig. 128, so

little room was left for arms and openings.

A
131,

some

much

so that

but

quite notable case of very eccentric gears is given in Fig.

in cast iron, 2 feet between centers, the larger being
3 feet long, and used on a hay-press, where the larger wheel

made

Here the teeth are of unequal size as well as in Fig.

driver.
130, the proximity of the axis in the small wheel controlling the
The tendency to block in action is apparently
size at the end.

is

due to the unusual length of the teeth, they being here

extended to sharp points.
An examination of the figure indicates that for the large wheel
great, as

108

PRINCIPLES OF MECHANISM.

as driver the blocking tendency at places is very great, so much so

that thorough lubrication must be a necessity to bring the coefficient

of friction

down

to permit the wheels to

work

at

all.

FIG. 131.

Fortunately for this case the wheels are used in a horse-power

machine, where, if the wheels block from deficient lubrication, the
horses

may

stop as a sign for lubricant wanted, the wheel having

In a machine with the

sufficient strength to resist the horses.
inertia of a heavy fly-wheel or other parts involved, the result would

be

different.

The full line drawn as a common normal to a pair of teeth just

taking ^contact, with the large wheel driving right-handed, strikes
yery near the center of the driven wheel, making a case of positive
block with coefficient of friction at 0.083.

As

the coefficient of

about 0.12 to 0.16 for dry cast iron, and 0.05 to 0.08 for
lubricated, it is clear that these gears cannot run except with teeth

friction

is

well lubricated.

In the case of the dotted line for the next tooth there

is still

greater doubt.
If these teeth were cut off to the ordinary addendum of 3/10
pitch, the tendency to block would be very much less, and still better if cut to the minimum where one pair of teeth engage in action
as the preceding pair quits engagement, and the wheels would then
probably run without lubrication.

"Whence it appears that unduly long teeth, such, for example, as

run to a point, are especially objectionable in very eccentric noncircular gears.

TOOTHED GEARING IN GENERAL.

109

Again, where one of a pair is always to be driver, the addendum

may with advantage be made unduly short with

of the driven wheel

that of the driving wheel increased.

In heavy gearing rigidly connected with heavy revolving parts,

is a normal to (7//at
AQ over QH, Fig. 128, where
should not exceed 0.4 to 0.5 for teeth running without lubrica-

QH

the ratio

tion.

appears that there is a practical limit of eccentricity

in non-circular gearing, occasioned by the "blocking" tendency at
points where the pitch line departs farthest from a normal to the
It therefore

radius, and that this limit is favored by short addendum of teeth

of driver; by large tooth-generating curve for side of tooth in question; by thick and stout teeth; by lubrication; and by giving the

driver a slightly greater pitch than follower.

Substitution of Pitch-line Rolling for Teeth in Extremely

Eccentric Gears.

In some cases of very eccentric gears, where blocking would

surely occur with teeth, the latter may be omitted with advantage
and the driving action from driver to fol-

lower effected by the mutual rolling of the

pitch lines.
Fig. 132 is an example of this, which
represents the limiting case of the "quick
"
return
movement, where a crank and pit-

man

is

made

to drive the

connected slide

forward at a uniform velocity and back in

much less time, or "quick." The model

of Fig. 132 represents the theoretical limit
of uniform motion forward from beginning
and back in an absolute instant, or
no time at all. This is evidently imposp lG i^
sible, since the driven wheel must make a half-turn in the absolute
instant, during which the driver would be stationary with no power
to end,

to drive.

In the model this difficulty is removed by placing the handle

on the driven- wheel crank or lower wheel in the model.
In the absence of teeth, the eccentric pitch surface of the
driver acting upon that of the follower can drive in one direction,
but not in the other, and to prevent derangement some device
must be supplied.

PRINCIPLES OF MECHANISM.

110

gears a link may be added as in Fig. 133, where

too great for good working teeth throughout,
so that a pair, only, of teeth is added at the ends and the link
introduced to hold the elliptic pitch lines in
.-7~s*f

In

elliptic

the eccentricity

is

tUBI^^St

rolling contact.
But in Fig. 132 a link cannot be employed,
so that a circular sector with non-circular arcs
is added to engage with a mating
These are so
the
on
opposite wheel.
piece
wheel
hold
the
as
to
stationary
upper
shaped
for the allotted time of the half-turn of the
lower wheel, after which the non-circular
curves keep the rolling pitch-line arcs in con

at the ends

tact for the space

^g5

where teeth are omitted.

Fig. 134 is a carefully made drawing of a

pair of gears used for a while in a certain
screw machine for a " quick return" to dirve

(.

FIG. 133.

a slick uniformly forward and back with the least allowable time
It is produced, in effect, by
greater than an absolute instant.
the
as
modifying Fig. 132,
long projecting point of the
by splitting

upper wheel and spreading

with

FCG

it

to

in the other wheel, the

DAE

by a circular sector, mated

two wheels being otherwise modi-

manner to preserve the quick-return principle exactly.

As adopted, the advance occupies 3/4, and the return 1/4 of the
time.
The line of centers is about five inches.
fied in a

From

H to F, and

to

/,

the pitch lines roll upon the mating

FIG. 134.

pitch lines

maining

DJ and EK

respectively;

teeth engaging for the re-

arcs.

To prevent
jections from

the gears from getting deranged in this case, proand 0, are added,
shown by dotted lines at

.4,

TOOTHED GEARING

GENERAL.

Ill

projections L and
respectively, and serve
in
lines
the
contact, and assuring the
approximately
keep
pitch
for
teeth
several
of
hundred revolutions
and
disengaging
engaging

which

fall inside of

to

per minute in either direction.

FIG. 135.

FIG. 136.

f and
Fig. 1 35 gives a better view of the projections L, M,
of Fig. 134.
These wheels served with entire satisfaction, as operating gears,
for a considerable time in the machine they were designed for.
But as the return, though decidedly more moderate than in Fig.

132, was yet decidedly too quick for the purpose, other wheels with
rapid return were found advisable, and obtained in the

still less

wheels shown in Fig. 136.

Here the return was so extended that one of the rolling arcs
was dropped, the other being necessarily retained to preserve the law of uniform motion
slide, the one set of projections L and

of the

being also

retained

to

provide against

mis-

ngagement of teeth.
These wheels, as in Fig. 136, are doing good
service in extended use and are thoroughly
practical gears.

Internal Non-circular Gears.

These are practical for complete wheels

where the " internal " gear or that having teeth
within the rim is at least twice as large as the
pinion, or smaller wheel; and the tracing of the
FlG

137<

as before except for the fact that

generally both pitch lines are convex in the same direction as in

teeth

is

Pig. 137, so that a further description

is

unnecessary.

CHAPTER

X.

TEETH OF BEVEL AND SKEW BEVEL NON-CIRCULAR WHEELS,

CASE

WE

THE GENEEAL CASE OF AXES INTERSECTING.

II.

here assume that the pitch lines are already

ually on the

normal spheres, or

made out

act-

else as ordinates, angles, etc.,

which the curves may be drawn, as explained under Case

Rolling Contact, with Axes Meeting.

by

II of

Let Fig. 138. represent a pair of such rolling wheels with cenA and B9 and with C the common tangent point. Such

ters at

FIG. 138.

wheels with axes meeting are conical as explained under rollingof the cones.
contact, and may extend in thickness to the vertex
The front surfaces of the wheel at
and CB are spherical surfaces,
being the center of the sphere and the common vertex of

AC

the cones.

The

finished wheels are usually as

if

cut from spherical

shells as in Fig. 83.

The describing curve or templet to carry the tracing point is

here a cone, also, with base aCF, and with vertex at
in common
with the other cones. The tracer or marker is here a line aO.
112

TEETH OF BEVEL AND SKEW BEVEL NON-CIRCULAR WHEELS.

Let

L and

N represent mating points on the rolling cone-wheel

LC and

Then placing the line aO of the

JVC" being equal.
with
the element LO of the wheel
cone
coincident
describing
cone, and rolling it around to the position aCF, we describe a surface LaOL, which may be extended to c as shown.
Also placing

bases,

the same describing cone inside the wheel B, and with the line aO
of the wheel B and rolling it
coincident with the element

NO

around

to the position

aCF, we generate the

surface

NaON, which

extended by further rolling.

These two generated
surfaces will be tangent to each other along the element aO, and
hence these surfaces form proper tooth surfaces for teeth of these

may

also be

wheels, whatever their thickness.

In the case of spherical shells, the tooth curves

may

be traced

directly on them, both sides if desired, by means of rolling templets

of wood cut concave to the spherical form and of any preferred

outline a OF.

In Fig. 138 we have a face for a tooth of A, and a flank for a

tooth of B, contacts between which will always be inside of
and

to the right of

ACB.

Contacts on the other side

may

be obtained

by rolling the templet aCF, or any other one, inside of A and outB thus procuring a flank for^i and a face for B.
For non-circular wheels with large teeth it will be necessary for

side of

accuracy to trace every individual tooth curve for the entire wheel,
alike; but the same templet will not be refor
the
quired except
pair of tooth curves that are to work to-

no two curves being

gether, as

La and Na

In small teeth

in Fig. 138.

needed and approximate tooth lines

1
inches pitch or less.
In
some cases, as for instance in Fig. 98, where the gears were cast,
the patterns' had the rim formed to the root line, when teeth
blocked out for the full depth in separate pieces,
by a drawing
giving some excess of curvature at the sides, were fastened upon the,
rim and the patterns finished and the gears cast.
less care is

will serve, as, for instance, for 1 or

The Tredgold's approximate method,

hereafter described fully-

in connection with circular bevel gears,

may be
sufficient accuracy for any practical
purpose.

employed here with

Involute teeth may be laid out by first

finding the base lines and
using rolling planes on the base lines, similarly as lines are used in
Fig. 121, the tooth surfaces being generated by a line on the rolling;
of Fig. 1 38.
plane running to

PRINCIPLES OF MECHANISM.

114

CASE

III.

THE GENERAL CASE

otf

AXES CROSSING WITHOUT

INTERSECTING.

NON-CIRCULAR SKEW BEVELS.

method

for the exact construction of teeth for this case

is

not known, nor even for circular skew bevels for serviceable gears,
except such as are taken from near the shortest common perpendicular between the axes.

Suppose the pitch curves have been determined upon the spherblank as at p, Fig. 139, by Figures 93 to 95. Then the addendum and dedendum lines may be laid out as at d and e, Fig. 139.
ical

Between the last-named

shown by the method of

lines the tooth curves are to be

drawn

as

Fig. 138, rather small describing curves

being used to prevent the teeth from interfering unduly by reason
of the admitted approximate form of these teeth for non-circular

skew

bevel.

Then,

as explained in connection with Fig. 95, construct the

second spherical blank
to mount

upon an axial rod equidistant with it

from the gorge, the teeth being laid
out upon

in the inverse order with

respect to A\ or in like order as the

blanks are viewed in Fig. 139, the
and the concave
convex side of

side of

M being towards the

Cut the teeth on

eve.

to line

and

bevel back towards the concave side

so that the line or string CO, drawn
tight, will spring from the line of the

tooth curve on the convex surface of

M.
the
FIG. 139.

Then the blank A may be cut to

addendum line and to the tooth

curves

by

across,

at

string
stretching the
various
corresponding

A and M, as at A, m, n, o, etc., and at as many intermediate pairs of points as desired.

These teeth will be twisted, but the face and flank surfaces will

points of

be composed of straight-lined elements.

Instead of cutting these teeth from the solid material of the

blank A, the latter

may

be dressed

off carefully to

the

dedendum

TEETH OF BEVEL AND SKEW BEVEL NON-CIRCULAR WHEELS. 115

and separate blocks for teeth may be prepared and fastened
upon the blank, and finished subsequently unless quite small and
short along CD.
The wheel B, mating with A, maybe made in a similar manner.
If they are of the same size and alike, one pattern for easting will
serve for both A and B, but otherwise not. The wheels may, either
line

of them, be made 1-lobed, 2-lobed, etc.

When a pair of wheels are thus far completed they will not run
together smoothly because of the already-mentioned incorrectness
of the tooth outlines for this case.

The running conditions may be improved by mounting the

wheels as mated in mesh, and by revolving slowly under careful
scrutiny, the high or interfering points noted, and dressed off by
hand, this process being continued till the desired degree of smooth-

ness of running

is

obtained.

The

resulting wheels, obtained as above, may be of wood and

used for patterns for casting in metal with no greater further
expense than for circular wheels.

For wheels of one inch pitch or less it is probable that teeth

may be formed in separate pieces and made fast upon the blanks A
and B, and dressed to the dedendum line and surface.

CHAPTER XL
INTERMITTENT MOTIONS.

TEETH; TOGETHER WITH ENGAGING AND DISENGAGING

SPURS AND SEGMENTS IN GENERAL.
TEETH.

WE

now come

to consider the teeth

and spurs of intermittent

motions whether having circular or non-circular pitch lines.

The teeth present no new problems over segmental or partial
gears, as, for

instance, in

Fig.

96,

the pitch line

FED

when

equipped with teeth is as a segmental gear, to mesh or mate with

the segmental gear GMH, and any preferred form of tooth may be
adopted and laid out as already explained. There should, however,
and a tooth at G and H, as here
be a space to start with at F and

shown

in Fig. 140 at

N and K.

Directional Relation Constant.

THE ENGAGING AND DISENGAGING SPURS.

GF

The spurs
and HI are to start the driven member B from
the full stop on the locking arc into full motion, as for the initial
engagement of the teeth, and this usually by contact action of the
spurs.
to A in

Where
which

a sufficiently large arc of movement can be allowed

is to be started or
stopped, the spurs may work by

rolling contact instead of sliding.

In Fig. 140 we have a correct

drawing of a pair of non-circular

plane wheels of the intermittent order, showing two complete sets

of prongs or spurs for engaging and disengaging.
One set, numbered 1, works by sliding contact both ways, and the second set,

numbered

works by rolling contact; the same arc of movement

being required to swing B from rest into full engagement when the sliding-contact spurs are employed as when
the rolling contact spurs 2 are in use.
The same is true for the
spurs on either side of the wheel, the arc cd being greater than ab,
2,

ab for wheel

as required

by the greater drop

MN in radial

distance.
116

NON-CIRCULAR INTERMITTENT

The spur HI mates with FG, and they are so made that when
and
are the first points to
the latter approaches the former,
touch; this same contact starting B towards engagement of the

gear teeth, when further movement causes the point of contact to

move along toward G and 1, arriving at which the full engagement
of the gear teeth should be assured.

\b

FIG. 140.

Where this movement takes place the circular locking arc JM

must be cut away as at JK, and to just such extent that the wheel
R shall not have undue backlash, it being prevented by the bearing
of B upon JK for the one direction, and by the contact between
FG and HI for the other direction. The same, of course, is true
of the other side of the wheel A, where B' is shown as bearing
for the one direction of motion of B' and against the
against

MN

It is essential for the satisfactory

these curves and spurs be well
of
that
these
wheels
performance
mated with respect to reduced backlash.

spurs

II

for the other direction.

For rapid rotation the spurs need to be much the longest. For
slow motion a pin may do for FG, with HI cut shorter to match, as
shown at D and F, Fig. 141, where the shock is some 4 to 6 times as
But the shock is materially reduced by giving
great as in Fig. 140.

PRINCIPLES OF MECHANISM.

118

and 7/y
the point of the spur a curve as shown in the example at
of
the
shock
of
the
the
being judged
intensity
by
Fig. 141,
perpenSome shock will
dicular distance from A to the normals shown.
occur at

all

events

when the

contact unless ///and

FO

points // and F, Fig. 140, meet in

are so much extended that the normal

FD to GF meets the center A. To determine the amount of

shock in a given case, we are to consider the segments AC and bC
of the lino of centers

Ab

at the initial contact of //

upon F, these

segments being formed by the common normal FD.

In EP and QK, Fig. 140, we have a pair of spurs working by
These differ from the sliding
rolling contact instead of sliding.
in
much
for
a
like
spurs
being
longer
tendency to shock, and consequently objectionable, though the rolling action is in their favor
in respect to wear.
To determine the lengths for equal shock wo
note that the distance
for the rolling spurs should be the same

AE

as the length
C for the sliding spurs.
terminals of the other spurs at
and

SX

The same

The rolling spur (>72, which mates with

concave because the contacts which occur on
from

is

true for the

VT.

EPK,

is

unavoidably

QR must

be progress-

and must always be on the line of centers for

rolling action; and for a gradual start of B from rest, the line QR
near Q must be nearly radial and recline more and more with respect to a radius as shown by the line QR, and, in fact, should run
ive

toward

/?,

into the pitch line of

as a continuous rolling line.
should run into the pitch line KN.
Again, that the acceleration be normal, the curve

Likewise

EPK

EP

should
turn
over
into
the
line
for
at
teeth
as
if it
the
/T,
gradually
pitch
was the termination of that line toward A, both portions
and

EP

KN being, in fact, a continuous rolling arc, and, reasonably enough,

should begin at

E near

A, and by continuous smooth curvature

Thus this half of these wheels

pass the points P, A", and on to N.
resembles the half of the wheels of Figs. 132 and 134, where a pair
of rolling curves run into the pitch lines of gear teeth.

MN

At
the locking arc is necessarily flexed to a greater distance toward A, by reason of the non-circular pitch line
ema quick
ployed, and MN\& shaped as due to an effort to give

NK

move from lock

engagement, as may sometimes be necessary in

of these wheels.
To this end, it is here found
B
a
to
more
motion
for a part of this turn
give
necessary
rapid
from rest to engagement, than it will have while engaged with the
teeth.
This is not so evident from the sliding spurs 8 and JTas
the application

to

made

NON-CIRCULAR INTERMITTENT MOTIONS.

from the rolling ones 777JVand
velocity

is

made

contact of

and that

at

VW,

for

which the law of angular

Examining the latter, we note that for

from T up to U the acceleration is rapid,

the same.

VWon TU
U the speed

of

B is

full

double that due to contact at

j^when

the gear teeth have fairly engaged.

behind with liability of
to leave the tooth

tooth

1,19

One
its

effect of this is

interfering with the

approaching.
Again, it appears prejudicial to accelerate
to 100 per cent, in excess and retard it again, the
the motion of
only excuse for which in practice is probably to be found in a
it is

from rest to the full engagenecessity for a quick movement of

ment of the gear teeth, or for a comparatively small arc cd for it.

VW

certain that the rolling spurs TYAVand

to N, where the driving
are utterly impracticable at least from
action of the spurs would be negative.

At

all

events

it is

That rolling spurs may be made practical in place of TUN

and its mate, Fig. 140, we infer from the curve El', that instead
r
of going outward at first to 6 and then turning in toward A to N,
it should start at once from Ton a curvature turning toward N.
But an examination of the case will readily show that this is imcd
possible unless the arc

is

increased.

In Fig. 141 the problem of practicable rolling spurs for wheels

is the total angle through
and B is undertaken, where

NBV

must turn

going from rest to engagement, and

the corresponding angle for A.

which

The angle
from
from

in

NAd'

NBV

is divided into a series of

decreasing angles
then
the same number of ungbs are laid off
V,
toward Ad, all of which span slightly more arc on the

N toward

NA

radius

AN than does

the

first

.VFon

of the series

the radius

BN.

the curves are drawn in according to the method of Fig. 69,

V.
and
giving the rolling spurs

Then

NUT

NO

NG

NU

the portions of the rolling curves

and
are so nearly perpendicular to the radius as to be likely to work bad
in practice unless provided with teeth, becoming part of the toothed
It is plain that

segment, and that the easement curve

compared with that of Fig. 140. Also

is
it

much prolonged as
seems that the speed of

very

B in

some cases must be accelerated beyond that of the gear teeth

engagement and then retarded to the latter velocity.
The arc of engagement e'd' is here very wide, as due first to the
to AN, and, second,
very considerable drop in the radius from

in

AH

to the fact that

AN

is

so short

compared with

It appears, then, that rolling arcs

may

AB.

always be adopted for

120

PRINCIPLES OF MECHANISM.

engaging or disengaging spurs of intermittent wheels in place of

sliding arcs for the same; but
that the former are subject to

some prejudicial features not

inseparable from the latter, but
which outweigh the objection
to sliding contact action of the
latter.

These wheels may be made

as bevels for the case of axes

meeting, a complete example

in metal being shown in Fig.
98,

which worked
In

satisfactorily.

skew-bevels

they

are

doubtless possible, but probably after a tedious time in

construction

they

would

be

found

unsatisfactory mainly
by reason of the sliding along
the line of contact of the

various surfaces, requiring the

spurs to be very thick, etc.

In Fig. 140 the wheel

,

shown with only one

is

locking-

and B one locking segBut either may have

ment.
two or more, involving, however, no new problems over
arc,

these already considered, there

being a toothed arc followed by
a locking arc, and the latter
again by a toothed arc, etc., in
succession, spurs being provid-

ed throughout.
In case of slow movements

kind the piece FG or

140 may be made
shorter, indeed reduced to a

of this

FIG. 141.

ing the movement in construction.

in

Fig.

mere pin as
and />, Fig.

at

and H, or

141, thus simplify-

NON-CIRCULAR INTERMITTENT MOTIONS.

By giving

121

the spurs a very considerable curvature, as at

E or a

shock due to contact of spur and pin will be materially

reduced as compared with that attendant upon the spurs and pins
r
is to be drawn, and the
and D. Here the normal EC or
at
which
to
and
1)C
measured
by
judge of the shock at
segments ^16
The shock will depend upon the velocitycontact of pin and spur.

Jf, the

HC

ratio at the instant of initial contact, that ratio

being

AC or
u(u

AC'
L/
u,777.

Fig. 140, it seems possible that pins and spurs may

that the shocks are no more prejudicial than in Fig. 140.

Comparing with
be so

made

SOLID

ENGAGING AND DISENGAGING SEGMENTS OF

INTERMITTENT MOTIONS.

Intermittent motions with spurs attached are objectionable in

coarse and heavy machinery from the tendency to loosen and become detached. These wheels, of solid casting complete, are much
the more satisfactory in such places as binders for reaping machines, etc., both for simplicity and cost, especially where they are
small or run slowly.
By suitable shapes of the engaging and dis-

engaging segments, however, they may run at speeds equalling

those provided with spurs, as in Figures 140 and 141.
(See Figures 15 and 16.)

A suggestion as to the shapes of the locking segment of B is

and H, where the spurs might seemobtained from Fig. 141 at

ingly be in the plane of the wheel B, and A correspondingly cut

as proposed,
away to a circle arc coinciding with the prongs of
the latter so connected as to form the locking segment for B.

This would lead us

at once to Fig. 15.

Following the suggestion,
obtain Fig. 142 as a pair of these wheels of the non-circular
form,
being at rest on the locking arc.

we

LK

In designing these wheels, the distance IL and

should be
sufficient to prevent the tendency of the ends of the prongs / and
from biting into the arc
and blocking the movement, or, in
case of heavy wheels, causing breakage.
To examine into this, we
will find that the angle
must exceed the so-called " angle of
"
repose for the material and conditions at K. A portion of the arc at
"
"
,/ should be cut away to
to the arc IK upon
prevent
clinging

DLE

BKM

the terminal points

Between

EG

and

and

DF a

of the arc

portion

is

DLE.

cut away to allow the prongs

PRINCIPLES OF MECHANISM.

122

These gaps are

to pass as the latter is started into motion.
contact with,
and
to
due
to
initial
at
G
reduce
shock
undercut
of

the prongs of B, the intensity of which shock may, as before, be

from the center of
or
examined relative to the distance

AP

AQ

motion of A to the normals at F and 0. This shock is zero when

AP and A Q are zero.
No direct and simple rule of graphics is known for laying out
the wheels of Fig. 142, beyond that for the toothed pitch lines,

FIG. 142.

where the arc

FNG

FIG. 143.

must equal RTS.

The

radius

AL is

arbitrary,,

than either terminal portion of the

FNHG. After assuming a trial arc DLE, and with
trial curves for the wheel A at
and G sketched in, a circle may
be drawn through B as at rack for the latter and a trial templet in
except that
toothed arc

it

ought to be

less

cardboard cut out by guess for BIK, with a hole having a point at
B for center. This templet with guess forms at //? and
is to
be tried at several positions as shown at EGH, the center always

KS

remaining on the circle arc through B. Likewise at FD. A guess

shape of the prong of B at / may be tried, and if found unsuitable
a modification suggested by this trial may next be cut out and
tried.
By this tentative process the most suitable shapes at 1R
and
and KS and at
are to be determined.
The curves
FHG and RTS must be correct rolling arcs for gear teeth. Several trials will probably be needed to bring out the most satisfactory shapes at F, I, 7f and G.

DF

EGH

ALTERNATE MOTIONS.
For slow movements, where the shock

B due

123

of starting

and stopping

to speed is at a minimum, the prongs / and TTmay be

less hooking arid simpler, as in Fig. 143, for which, at a given

of

speed, the shock

The

about four times as great as for Fig. 142.

may be examined into here by drawing
and GQ and considering the lengths of perpendicThese are seen to be greater
upon these normals.
is

intensity of shock

the normals
ulars from

FP

in Fig. 143 than in Fig. 142 and hence the greater shocks.
Bevel wheels after either variety, Fig. 142 or Fig. 143,

readily worked out according to Figs. 85 and 87

wheels are drawn, as illustrated by Fig. 98 of a
working model in brass. Skew bevels are here
much more practicable than in the wheels of
Figs. 140 and 141, and may be worked out according to Figs. 93 to 95, and be practical in

may

be

after the plain,

^^

running machinery.

COUNTING WHEELS.
These wheels, of high durability, may be conas in Fig. 144, which is a positive
movement with no possible likelihood of derangement except by breakage. For counting,
Fm 144
the upper wheel should have 10 teeth.
The
" Geneva
stop" is a familiar example of this class of wheels.

structed

ALTERNATE MOTIONS.
Directional Relation Changing.

The

pitch lines for these wheels have been treated in Figs. 9 9"

to 103.

The most

essential features for successful wheels of this

kind

consist in the peculiar shapes of terminal teeth, or of segments, or

of spurs, or of shifting devices, as in mangle wheels.

These wheels may be divided into two distinct

classes, viz., as

those admitting of limited movements only, and those of indefinite

extent of movement, to be taken up in succession.

FIRST.

LIMITED ALTERNATE MOTIONS.

The movement is in this case limited because the driven piece

must unavoidably make a forward and return movement for each
revolution of the driver.

The

pitch lines of these wheels have-

PRINCIPLES OF MECHANISM.

124

-already been considered in

teeth later.

Figs. 99

and

101,

and the shapes of

But the most important consideration in devising these movements is that they shall have no positions for skips, derangements,
etc., and that the continued action is absolutely positive throughAlso that in high speeds or in heavy movements of this kind
out.
the driven piece should be given a retarding motion in approaching
the stop, and an accelerating movement when it moves off from the
stop point, to avoid shocks and breakages.
Here, as in the intermittent motions of Figs. 140 to 143, there

may

be employed engaging and disengaging spurs and also seg-

ments.

In Fig. 145 we have an example where spurs and pins are used
in which

is

the driver revolving either

way continuously, and

FIG. 145.

the follower sliding in guides D and E forward and back in repetition, a complete movement both ways being made in each revolution of the driver A.
The wheel A and rack frame B are of the same thickness, with
teeth to engage each other for the principal movement, the correct
construction of which has already been explained.
In the wheel A, at
and G, are pins to be engaged between the

FJ and GK made

fast to the side or sides of the frame and

used to insure the transfer of engagement of teeth from the one
side to the other side of the rack frame BB.

spurs

The spurs

GL

and
outward

are here made to conform with the cycloidal curves

in order that the motion of B, when the pins move
in their slots, may be such as to allow the teeth to go into

PL

engagement without

interference.

The

spurs

F and

G may

be ex-

ALTERNATE MOTIONS.

125

tended as far as desired short of interfering with shaft A, but the

spurs J arid JTmust be cut away so as to allow the pins to enter
the slots, just as they necessarily would if there were nothing but

In this example J and

are cut quite abruptly,.
pins and spurs.
most so; by reason of which quite a shock will occur when the
pin G enters its slot and strikes the spur, the intensity of which

be judged of by taking account of the length of the, perpento the spur.

The
All from the axis A to the normal
makes the perpendicular distance AI relatively
normal FI at

may

HG

dicular

very short, from which it appears that the shock due to contact of
would be very slight.
the pin at

To reduce

the shock at G, the spurs may be extended to near

to the cycloidal curve
passes near to A.
of the segmental
This, however, seriously shortens the segment

GML
FG

M, where the normal

wheel A, greatly reducing its number of teeth. The movement

would thus be much better adapted to high speeds, and judgment
is to be used in designing to obtain the best adaptation to circumstances.

Assuming the

velocity of

constant, the velocity of

movement

FIG. 146.

of

will be variable,

perpendicular to
to the spur at

and always proportional

BB from A

on a
normal

to the distance

to the intersection with the

while the latter bears on the spur and to the

pitch line while the teeth are in engagement.

for alternate motions
This eccentric form of

is

objectionable

on the score of ease of movement, and may be avoided except where

In Fig. 146 the variation of motion
a varied motion is essential.
a durable high-speed movement.
for
here
is less objectionable than

PRINCIPLES OF MECHANISM.

126.

In Fig. 146 we have an example where solid engaging and disengaging segments instead of pins and spurs are adopted with
which to reverse the movement with certainty and positively. As
in Figs. 142 and 143, no pieces are attached by screws to become
loosened, occasioning derangement.
At reversal of motion the first driving contact occurs at
or
G, according to direction of motion. Normals at the contact point

FH

or GI, the shock due to contact will be proportional to

being
or AE, as the case may be,
the length
being perpendicular to the direction of motion of
and corresponding to the line
of centers.

DAE

AD

BE

F and G are put as near to the center A as

minimize
the shock due to initial contact, immedipossible
the
contact moves outward to the pitch line
which
ately following
of the teeth when the latter engage in action and continue the
movement.
This movement gives the driven piece B the most rapid motion
when near the middle of this stroke, the rate of motion being for
The

contact points
to

each instant always proportional to the length of the perpendicular

A to the contact on the pitch line for that instant.

from

A and B are cut to circle

and of some breadth of bearing, to prevent
the disabling of the movement unduly soon by wear of those parts.
The ends

of the first teeth of both

arcs about the center

is made to fit closely into the extreme

The hub of
portions
to facilitate bringing
of the opening of
and
into the correct
relative positions when the contacts between teeth are shifted from

side to side.

Any
it

non-circular form

will be found,

on

may

be given to A, as preferred; though

various curves, that it is favor-

trial of several

able for smooth running to have both the curves draw in toward
A as in Fig. 146, instead of the contrary, as in the case of one side
of

in Fig. 145.

These wheels may be made with conical form of A and of B,

the cones having a common vertex more or less remote from A, and
the forward and back motion of B occurring as if swinging about
an axis through the vertex of the cone and perpendicular to the
axis of A.
Also Figs. 145 and 146 may be laid out with BB on a circular curve and the same be put into the spherical form, though a
considerable cut and try work, with templets, will probably be required before the final adopted figures are brought out.

ALTERNATE MOTIONS.
The

Office of

127

Motion Templets.

In all this work of determining wheels and curves, as in Figs.

140 to 146, templets will be found most useful. They may be
formed of paper or cardboard, readily cut out and tried; and again
others cut and tried, until the shapes of good working wheels are
arrived at, while by any other method, coupled with contempt for
templets, there might be total failure.

SECOND.

UNLIMITED ALTERNATE MOTIONS.

Mangle Wheels and Hacks.

The

pitch lines of these movements have been considered in

and 103, and the forms of teeth for these pitch lines
no
new problems. For the treatment of the various cases of
present
non-circular pitch lines, and teeth for the same which are likely to
Figs. 102

arise in connection

with this subject, we

may

refer to the princi-

ples already given.

For a mangle rack with variable

the same

may be

non-circular

when

velocity-ratio, the pinion for

the rack pitch line is to be

curved as in Fig. 39 or Fig. 46, in order that the axis of the pinion A
may be more nearly stationary during a movement forward or
back.

For a mangle wheel, the pinion may be non-circular and the

pitch line wavy that the axis may follow a smooth or non-serrated
groove, as in Fig. 102, or 103.
The pitch line on the mangle wheel, besides being wavy, may be
varied in general outline from smaller to greater radius, even mak

and return
ing several turns around the axis of the driven wheel
to the starting-point.
In this case the velocity-ratio will vary for
the non-circular form of pinion, A, as well as for the wandering form
of pitch line on the wheel B. The velocity-ratio in this case will
consist of a very complicated cycle of changes.

CHAPTER

XII.

TEETH OF CIRCULAR GEARING.

DIRECTIONAL RELATION CONSTANT.

VELOCITY-RATIO

CONSTANT.
FIRST: AXES PARALLEL.

No principles in the theory of gearing, beyond those already

treated under non-circular wheels, remain to be brought out here,
the leading topic for our present study under circular gears being
the special features pertaining to circular gearing, and some prac-

suggestions concerning them.

Circular gearing, though all coming under one general theory
in common with non-circular, viz., the development of tooth curves
tical

by the rolling or describing templet, may yet be

in two, and possibly three, sections, viz.

named

classified

and

I.

II.

III.

I.

Epicycloid al Gearing.
Involute Gearing.

Conjugate Gearing.

EPICYCLOIDAL GEARING.

Here, not only the pitch lines are circles, but the describing
so that the tooth outlines are epicycloidal curves;

circles also,

described by a tracing point in the circumference of a rolling circle,

or generatrix, as the latter rolls on the periphery of the pitch circle
as directrix.

When

is on the outside the generated curve is an

and
it is an hypocycloid
when
inside
tooth curves hereepicycloid,
and
therefore
always epicycloids
hypocycloids.
being

the rolling

128

CIRCULAR GEARING.

129

SOME PECULIAR PROPERTIES OF EPICYCLOIDS AND HYPOCYCLOID&,

In Fig. 147

is

a pitch circle

D rolls

carrying the tracing point

This curve, thus generated by the

upon which the describing circle

P and tracing the curve FPGH.

rolling of one circle upon another,

If the
is called the epicycloid.
the
inside
directing
rolling were
circle

A,

as in Fig. 148,

it is

called

the hypocycloid.

One

peculiar property of the

epicycloid is that it may be generated by the rolling of two different circles upon A; viz., first,

PD rolling at / with the tracing

P tracing the epicycloid
FPGH-, and, second, PE rolling
point

FIG. 147.

with a tracing point at P,

provided that the diameter of PE,
at

less

the diameter of

PD,

equals

With this relation of diameters, PD = AE,

DA = PE, and triangles PDI, PHE, and 1HA are all similar triangles. These conditions remaining permanent during the rolling,
P must remain on the line through /and /fas instantaneous centhe diameter of A.

PI or

PH

remain a normal to the epicycloid

that one and the same epicycloid
will be described by either circle, rolling as described, the difference
of the diameters of which circles equals
ters of motion, so that

at

FPGH

P from which it appears

that of the directing circle A.

Similarly,
roll inside of

if

two

circles as

and

the pitch line A, as in Fig.

of whose diameters equals

148, the sum

that of the pitch line

A and carry a tracing

point P, they will generate one and the
same hypocycloid FPG
for constantly
PD = AE and DA = PE, and the triare all mutuangles IDP, 1AH, and
and hence P must describe the same hypocycloid as
;

PEH

ally similar,

stated.

D and E are equal, as in Fig. 149, the

becomes
a
hypocycloid
straight line and is a diameter to A, as in
When

the two circles

the White's parallel motion.

PRINCIPLES OF MECHANISM.

130

made

is

Epicycloidal gearing

adapted

to

in

considerable variety, as best

purposes, and may be

various

classified as follows:
1

Flanks radial.
Flanks concave.
Flanks convex.

2.
3.

4.

Interchangeable
" Pin
gearing."

5.

6.

FIG. 149.

7.

sets.

Rack and pinion.

Annular wheels.

Treating these separably, we have

Flanks Radial.

1st.

In Fig. 150, we have a pair of pitch circles, for wheels to be

with epicycloidal teeth having radial flanks, A being the

fitted

driver,

the follower, and

the point of tangency.

For convenience, we

will

as the origin of all the

tooth curves. Then, as in Fig.
112, the describing curve, in

take

this case the circle

D,

is

placed

with
inside of the pitch line
the tracing point a at C, and
rolled,

without slipping, to the

along the inside of B, the

tracing point a describing the

left

curve

tooth

D'

circle

is

of

with

C,

left,

Also

the

same diameter
on
the outside
placed

as

at

Ca.

of the

its

tracing point b

and rolled toward the

the tracing point

b describing the

FIG. 150.

tooth curve Ob.

The

and D' must be of the same diameter, or may be the

same circle and tracing point, used in succession inside of B and
The tooth curve Ca is to serve as a flank of a tooth
outside of A.
for B and the curve Cb for the face of a tooth of A, the two mating and working correctly together for contacts at the right of
ACB. (See Fig. 113 and explanations.)
In like manner the circles, or the same circle,
and E' are
rolled once inside of A and once outside of B, with the tracer c or
circles

CIRCULAR GEARIKG.

131

at C and tracing the mating tooth curves Cc and Cd, the

former for a flank of a tooth of A and the latter for a face of a
tooth of B, the two furnishing contacts at the left of C, all as
explained in Figs. 114 and 115.

d starting

We have, now, cCb a contiguous face and flank or a full tooth

curve for one side of a tooth of the wheel A, and likewise aCd the
one side of a tooth of the wheel B, which teeth mate perfectly, and
will work together smoothly transmitting motion from the driver
A to the follower with a constant velocity-ratio of the same value

the directing or pitch circles

the other without slipping.

as

if

and

were rolling one upon

The pitch lines being here circles, other tooth curves described
with the same describing circles will generate tooth curves which
will be copies of those already obtained, as cCb and aCd.
Hence
only necessary to copy these curves as often as needed at the
proper pitch spaces around the wheels, when, on describing the
addendum and dedendum circles, the drawings of the wheel teeth
it

is

fillets being struck in as hereafter explained.

peculiarity of these teeth is that they have radial
flanks due to the fact explained in Fig. 149 that the describing
circles have diameters equal half those of the pitch circles within

will be

completed,

The leading

which they

roll,

and hence the styling radial flanks for these

wheels.

Following the contact between these teeth from beginning to

end, for A turning right-handed driving B, we find that the initial
contact between a pair of teeth occurs inside of the pitch circle A
to the left of C, and moves on through the point C and ends inside
"S"
of the pitch circle B at the right of (7, and following along an
shaped curve; for full discussion of which, see path of contact, limit
of contact, etc., Fig. 177.
For convenience in the drawing of radial flanked teeth, we see

from the above that it is only necessary to draw flanks as radial

lines, and faces by using a rolling circle on the outsides of a pitch
line, the diameter of which equals the radius of the mating pitch
circle.

For proportions of

teeth, see Fig. 110

and rules accompanying.

PRINCIPLES OF MECHANISM.

132

2d. Flanks Concave.

In Fig. 151 we have a pair of pitch lines, A and B, to be equipped

with epicycloidal teeth which have concave flanks, the object of which may
be to give to the teeth greater strength
if the flanks were radial.
The

than

increased
flanks

thickening of teeth in the

be judged by noting the

may

departure of the hypocycloid from the

radius in Fig. 151.
The size of the describing circle is
arbitrary, and may be chosen to meet

the most fastidious taste or fancy as

to thickness or strength of tooth, the
only restriction being that the diameters of the
FlG. 151.

and

also for

circles

and D' be the

and
same, and likewise for
The complete tooth curve for A,
shaded to distinguish it. A templet may be
.

B, is
curve and mounted to swing around the center," and at
every point for a tooth curve it may be held and the tooth curve
marked or copied from the templet, as explained among practical
fitted to this

operations.
(See Page 153.)
With the tooth curves marked off around the wheels, the addendum and dedendum circles drawn in, and the root fillets struck,

the tooth outlines for the wheels will be completed.

3d.

Flanks Convex.

In Fig. 152 the rolling circles have diameters which are greater
than the radii of the wheels within which
they

roll, as

in the case of the wheel

Fig. 128, or /, Fig. 119,

of teeth that are convex.

E in

giving flanks
The finished

will be found very

weak, as evident from the undercut ap-

teeth for this case

pearance which the teeth present.

filleting at the root will

help

this,

The

though

weaker than in the

will be found of
previous cases,
favorable form in light-running machine
the teeth are

still

but

ery.

FIG. 152.

CIRCULAR GEARING.

133

4th. Interchangeable Sets of Gears.

These wheels are called interchangeable because, of any number of

of various sizes having the same pitch and describing circle,
two
will work together correctly.
This is seen not to be the
any

them

case with Figs. 150 to 15:2.

The essential requirement for this in-

terchangeability is simply that the generf

be always of
ating circles D, D', E, and
the same diameter for generating faces and

flanks of teeth throughout, as shown in

the circles D, D, etc., in Fig. 153.

For instance,

and

is

a pair of

wheels differing in size and selected at

random from the set, neither being the
largest nor smallest,

a pair of tooth

which we have

for

curves

in contact at

(7,

shaded as shown, the one a-Cd belonging

to wheel A, another bCc to wheel B, etc.

Now, the curve aCd

is

throughout de-

scribed by the rolling circle D, and, as the

chosen independently of BB',

appears that this tooth curve aCd
entirely free of all reference to any other

latter

is

etc., it
is

FIG. 153.
wheel of the set, and only dependent upon
the pitch line A and describing circle D. The same is true of any
other wheel of the set, as A', B, B', etc., the tooth curve of any

one wheel being peculiar to that wheel only, since the describing
circle is one and the same throughout the set.
Hence, to realize an interchangeable set of epicycloidal gear
wheels, where any two whatever will mate correctly, it is only
necessary, in addition to a constant pitch, that the describing circle,
The
generating the teeth, be one and the same throughout.

"

change wheels" of engine lathes in machine shops is a well-known

"
example of gears of this kind that is, in sets."
In Fig. 153, three wheels of a set of this kind are shown with
;

tooth curves drawn where the describing circle is in common for all.
At the size B' the flanks are radial, as in Fig. 150, because here

we

strike the size where the radius of B' equals the diameter of the
For wheels of this set smaller than B' the
describing circle D.
flanks would be convex, as in Fig. 152.

134

PRINCIPLES OF MECHANISM.

As the wheels

of the set are

made

larger, that

one with

infinite

radius becomes a rack, where the curves for faces are identical with
those for flanks.

we

carry the variation of curvature still further in the same

direction, the rim of the wheel becomes concave, and the smaller
wheel of the pair finds its place inside the larger. This is someIf

times called internal or annular gearing.

In this case a given annular wheel has tooth curves which are exactly the same as those
for a wheel of the same diameter with its mating gear in outside
action.

In the well-known example of the "change wheels" of engine

and teeth are small, and correct teeth are not so

lathes, the gears

FIG. 154.

important as in sets of patterns for cast-iron mill gearing with

larger teeth, where the manufacturer must be prepared to furnish

The best way

pairs of gears of almost any sizes with correct teeth.
to meet this demand is to have patterns made in sets, as above explained, any two of which will mate correctly; then with all of this
set an occasional new pattern will work correctly, one new pattern

thus providing for

many new
5th.

pairs.

Pin Gearing.

This is called pin gearing because the teeth of one wheel are pins
and of the other are spurs to engage the pins, as shown in Fig. 154.
To draw correct working gearing of this kind, take A and B as
the pitch lines, and the circle at C as the section of a cylindrical pin
or tooth.

Draw an

epicycloid

CD, with

as the describing circle.

CIRCULAR GEARING.

135

This epicycloid will be the path of the center of the pin (7, on the
supposition that the pin is made fast to the circle B, and that the
latter is rolled, without slipping, along the pitch line A, as shown.

The circles along the epicycloid CD represent the pin tooth in

various positions agreeably with corresponding positions of the
pitch line B, in its rolling, and the curve ab, just tangent to these
circles of the pin, will be found a correct tooth curve for one side
of a tooth or spur of the wheel A, by aid of which all the teeth of
the wheel
may be drawn. The pair of gear wheels A and may

therefore be fully drawn, the pins and teeth being properly distributed in pitch.

A brief examination of Fig. 155 will show that the contacts

between these teeth and spurs are on one side of the line of centers
AB, receding if A is driver, and approaching if B is driver.
Also, it is found that the receding contacts
are the most efficient, as clearly evinced by
the extreme case of Fig. 156, where, with A
for driver, the extended tooth curve acts
like a

wedge

to force the pin along in its

B is driver the pin is forced

the tooth curve of A, the latter
serving very much to block or to hinder the

path, while

if

down upon
movement

of B\ and when, as in practice,

between the pin and tooth is conFIG. 155.
sidered, the problem is still more prejudiced.
Fig. 156 is an extreme case to illustrate more forcibly, but in a more
moderate one, as in Fig. 155, the principle still holds to a certain
friction

extent.

As tooth contacts

are on one side of the

line of centers, the arc of contact is consider-

ably limited, and each problem should be examined with care to determine whether one pair
of teeth quit contact before the next succeeding

commence it, the latter usually occurring

when the center of the pin is some considerable

pair

FIG. 156.
distance past the line of centers.
(See MacCord's Kinematics, page 210.) For large pins, the amount to allow
for this is greatest, and vanishes as the pin diameter becomes

zero.

In some examples these pin teeth have been made as rollers on

smaller pins, with the view of reducing the friction.

PRINCIPLES OF MECHANISM.

136

Pin gearing has been quite extensively used in the cheaper

which have flooded the country within the last forty
In
these the wheels are drivers, as seen above to be
years.
advisable, and made of sheet brass, while the pinions have pins of
straight and smooth steel wire, held at both ends in holes in a pair
of heads or disks of brass.
brass clocks

Inside

Pin gearing

is

Pin Gearing.

applicable in inside gearing, the curve CD, Fig.

would be inside, and consequently an

154, instead of being outside

hypocycloid, but the same principles apply as before.

In the special case for inside gearing, where the pinion is half
the size of the wheel, the pins of the
pinions move along certain diameters of

the wheel, according to Fig. 149, and

sliding blocks in grooves may be intro-

duced, with holes to receive the pins of

the pinion as in Fig. 157.

One of the arms of B may be cut

away and a grooved arm of A also, and
still the movement would work complete.
.The remaining two arms of B could

FIG. 157.

other as 45, 87,

be placed at any other angle with each

etc., provided the

corresponding two grooved arms of A

were at half the angle intervening,
and the action would be perfect.

Pinion of Two Teeth.

rectangular teeth
be
instead
of cylindric,
may
employed
as shown in Fig. 15-8, where the longer

Approximately,

of the

sides

as

when,

BEF

circle

the circle

pins are radial with

shown
as

AF,

by Fig. 149, the

a templet rolling on

a tracing point at

would describe the epicycloid

KDE,

while

would

if

rolled inside of

BF

it

describe a radial side of the tooth or

pin

against.

for the

curve

KDE

to

work

FIG. 158.

CIRCULAR GEARING.

137

here the pinion and has only two teeth, the least

is

it

though

possible,

may

The construction
upon opposite

is

have as

many more

number

as desired.

a little peculiar, the teeth of

central disk, and for

sides of a

alternating

we have two

KDEGH

and FJID, at such distance apart

heart-shaped pieces,
on a hub that the disk of B may work between. Then the contacts will alternate from side to side as the rotation proceeds.
The part AEG will just fill the space between the two teeth
and G, and the wheels may work either way.

It is

normal

hardly practical to make B driver here, since the

passes so near to A that, considering friction,

at

common

would

serve as a block to hinder the driving action of B.

In Fig. 159 we have a two-leaved

pinion

driving

B as equipped

with

cylindric pins, the construction be-

ing the same as in Fig. 154, except

carried to the extreme case of two
teeth for A.

Care should be exercised that a

beginning contact at D is fairly

made by the time a preceding contact ceases at E.

The

rolling of the

as describing
pitch line
templet^
on the pitch line A C, gives rise to

the

epicycloid

dotted

in

at

FG,

which and at a pin radius

from it is drawn the tooth

parallel to

EG

curve for the pinion

as

shown, as

FIG. 159.

in Fig. 154.
For inside gearing, the

same pinion A may be placed inside the

same wheel B, when the pitch line of B will fall at HI, tangent to
A\ and the pins will have contacts at //and /as shown, the center
of B being at B', and below B by the amount 2 AC.

Rack and Pinion.

For the case of the rack and pinion, the

latter

may have

either

the pins or the teeth, the same principles applying.

of Least Crowding and Friction.

A" peculiar form of pin gearing is obtained by use of a describing
circle of somewhat unusual size, as in Fig. 160, the pin having its
side, which is within the pitch circle, a complete hypocycloid.
Wlieels

PRINCIPLES OF MECHANISM.

138

Here the common normal makes the

obliquity with the

common

least possible maximum

to
the
tangent
pitch lines, when the

FIG. 160.

made just so large that the arc of contact embraces but

one tooth contact at once; this obliquity being but about half that
for circular pins when the contacts must all be on one and the same
side of the line of centers, as in Fig. 154, and also only about half
teeth are

the obliquity of teeth in Fig. 150.

These wheels of all others will have the least possible crowdingaction or tendency to force the axes from each other when made as
just specified, so that the arc of contact but slightly exceeds the
pitch, the friction due to crowding being therefore at a minimum,

and the pressure to turn the driven wheel will be at a minimum

two reasons: first, because the driving pressure between teeth is

for

nearly tangent to the driven wheel, and, second, because this lastnamed pressure is to be compounded with the least possible crowd-

ing pressure.

But the teeth of these wheels are unusually weak, and

recommended for only light-running machinery.

it

can be

CIRCULAR GEARING.

On account of
common tangent

139

the slight obliquity of the line of action with the

to the pitch lines, a variation of the distance

between the centers A and B would entail less prejudicial action

than in Figs. 150 to 159, so that in Fig. 160 we find a suggestion
for such wheels as used on clothes-wringers, straw-cutters, etc.,
when the distance between A and B is varied in a very large ratio.
6th.

The Rack and Pinion.

In any of the preceding cases for Figs. 150 to 160, we obtain a

rack and pinion by giving to one of the wheels of the pair an infinite radius.

For

the case of radial flanks, as in

infinite, we obFig. 150, if we make
tain Fig. 161.

Here the

radial flank of

will

be

simply a perpendicular to the straight

line A C, while the face curve CD for

will in this particular case be an involute

to B, since the describing circle to roll

\f

F
FIG. 161.

A, which

is infinite, will be inbeing one position of that circle or straight line,

carrying the tracer D, and tracing the involute, CD, as the rolling
will equal the arc CE9
advances, along CE. Thus the line
CD
can
face
tooth
and the involute
readily be drawn.

inside of

finite also;

ED

DE

and face of A the describing circle

radial flank of
be half as large as B, which, with a tracer H, rolled on
will in this particular case trace a cycloid, Off.

For the

GH must
AC

BCD

FCH

for a full tooth curve for A, and

Then we will have
a full tooth curve for B; and the correct teeth can be constructed,
As before, CD and CF will be mat-

ing tooth curves, having a working*

contact to the right of C, while the

CH

mating tooth curves CB and

have contact at the left of C.

One
tween

C
FIG. 162.

peculiarity

of the

action be-

CD and OF is that only

of the line

CF will

will

the point
action

go into

with the whole of CD, and, as a consequence, the rack teeth would, in practice,

become unduly worn

at C.

PRINCIPLES OF MECHANISM.

140

For the case of concave flanks, the describing circle G, Fig. 162,
must have a diameter less than the radius of B to describe the
mating tooth curves CI and CH"; and any circle, J, less than
infinity will serve to describe the mating tooth curves CD and CF.
The line FCH is a tooth profile for the rack AC, and the line DC1
With these the teeth can be
is a tooth profile for the pinion B.
for
drawn
the
and
rack
pinion.
fully

The curves CFand

CH will be cycloids,with bases on the line A C.

For

the case of flanks convex, the describing circle, as in Fig.

152, to roll inside of B, must have a diameter greater than the
radius of B\ but for the rack, convex cycloidal flanks are impossible
for the reason that the straight- line flank of Fig. 161
-an infinite circle,

the largest possible.

Also,

is

struck with

seen that by rolltowards A, the line

it is

ing any describing circle along CA, from C

CF could not be described as downward toward the right, for the
reason that no instantaneous center on CA will serve for striking a

The straight line CF, normal to CA,

curve in such position.
is
extreme
case of carrying
toward the
therefore
the
Fig. 161,

right.

The Case of the Rack in Inter'changeable Sets has already been

treated in connection with Fig. 153, also Pin Gearing, in connection with Figs. 155 and 159.
7th.

Annular Wheels.

In Fig. 163 we have the general case, the smaller pitch line
being within that of the annular wheel. The circle carrying the
tracers If or I is rolled inside of A, and
t

also inside of

a tooth of

B, to generate u face of
and a flank of B. These

curves are both hypocycloids; but, according to the general theory, are seen
to be the proper ones to work together
For the outside
for a face and flank.

curves the circle

for

F to

carries the tracer

CF

describe the epicycloids

as mating curves for a face of

B
and CD
and flank of A.
Both sets of flanks are here concave,
and that for A must always be so;

FIG. 163.

though that

or

may be

radial or convex

scrioing circle to carry the tracers

H and

/.

by using a larger de-

CIRCULAR GEARING.

A
and

141

peculiar case of interference of the teeth of the annular wheel

pinion occurs when the sum of the diameters of the describ-

its

ing circles G and J exceeds the difference of diameters of A and

B y as discovered by A. K. Mansfield and Prof. C. W. MacCord.

The

limit occurs

when the added diameters

of the describing

G and J

just equals the difference of diameters of the pitch

lines A and B, as shown in Fig. 164.
At this limit the faces of the
teeth of the internal gear
have correct acting tooth contacts with
circles

the faces of the teeth of the inside pinion B, as may be proved

by aid of the alternate describ-

ing circle K.

Referring to Fig. 148, it is seen

the hypocycloid DL, Fig.

that
164,

may

be regarded as being now

traced by either G or
carrying the tracer /); and that aDC
is a straight line.
Also referring
to Fig. 147, it is clear that the

epicycloid

DM may

be regarded

as in the act of being traced by

either
or
carrying the tracer

FIG. 164.

D, and that the points DbCure in a straight line. Hence,

points in one and the same straight line; and the hypocycloid DL
and epicycloid
are tangent to each other at D, as required
for tooth contacts; and we have, at this limit, in addition to the
usual face and flank contacts, this face to face contact at D.
If D -f J is larger there will be interference at D between faces,

DM

while

if

smaller this face to face contact

is lost.

In this particular case we have the advantage over ordinary

gears of an additional and unusual contact at D, and a most excellent one, except for its remoteness from C, where the amount of
slip of face surfaces over each other is greater than in the other

and usual contacts.

From w hat has been said, it is plain that the describing circles
G and J can be varied, either smaller than the other, but that they
must not be larger than that they will fit in between the two pitch
circles, as shown, under penalty of positive interference of the teeth
T

at

D, but that they

may

be smaller than shown, with loss of con-

tacts at D.
WJieels in sets

may

be worked in annular gearing, that

is,

any

PRINCIPLES OF MECHANISM.

142

of a number of pinions may work correctly in any of a number of

annular wheels, provided that one and the same describing circle
be used throughout, and that the facts of interference be observed,
as pointed out above.
Pin annular gearing may also be used by following the principles explained under pin gearing, and the pins may be in either the

wheel or pinion.
II.

INVOLUTE GEARING,

As explained

in connection with Figs. 119 and 121, logarithmic

be
employed for describing curves which, rolled on the
spirals may
A
and
lines
B, inside and outside in the usual way, will depitch
faces
and
flanks
velop
by pairs, the curves thus traced being invo-

somewhat smaller than the pitch lines.

and roll the
Thus, in Fig. 165, take the pitch line
FD
as
from
C
with a
shown,
logarithmic spiral
tracer at the pole F.
The curve CF will be an
involute to a circle EG, inside of A, to which the
is a
This is made evident
line
tangent.

lutes to circles

ADCH

EDF

by the fact that the logarithmic spiral is a curve

of constant obliquity, that is, that any line or
radius vector, FD, makes a constant angle with
a tangent to the spiral at D, and, consequently,
a constant angle with the tangent to the circle at
will alD, and also with a radius to the circle at D. Hence,
circle
and
it
to
some
one
is
that
we
be
;
ways
tangent
plain
FIG. 165.

FDE

EGA

will obtain one and the same curve, CF, whether the latter be generated by the rolling of the spiral, with tracer F, along CD, or by
the unwinding of the cord FE, with tracer F, from the circle GE,

This curve, CF, will thus be an involute to the

circle

AGE.

curve as an involute starts at G, while as developed by

This

FD

it

seems to start at C. To supply CG by the rolling spiral, place the

pole and tracer at C, and roll inside along CH as shown, when CG
will be traced just to G and stop; for then the radius of curvature
of the spiral at

#will be HA,

since to construct this radius of

curvature for a logarithmic spiral draw the right-angled triangle

A GH, when
is that radius.
The spiral then cannot roll beyond

AH

CG stops at G.
is to serve as a face and
as a flank, and,
curves,
as developed by the spiral, are seen to fall within the general theory
of development by rolling curves. But, in practice, for convenience,
H, and the curve

As tooth

CF

CG

CIRCULAR GEARING.

143

the curves are drawn as involutes to the circle GE, called the base
circle or base of the involutes.

When
portion

the teeth need to be cut deeper between than

as shall make
cut away arbitrarily below

EG

is

CG, such
room for

the interengaging teeth.

To Obtain Tooth Curves for Wheels with Involute Teeth.

the pitch circles

then a straight

line

B in common tangency at C,
D CE through the point of common
and

Fig.

Draw
166,

tangency

or pitch point C, and perpendicfrom the cenand

ulars

BE

AD

ters

and

upon

this

line.

AD and BE as radii,
base circles FD and HE

Then, with

draw the
of

The

the involutes.

involute

be drawn by unwinding a
thread from the base circle, the

may

thread having the tracer attached,

or by drawing several" tangent
lines as shown, and stepping with
dividers from

the same

to

number

D, then with

of steps to

back to other points of

tangency and out on the tangent
then

points G, etc., for as many

points as desired, when the involute
may be drawn in; likewise for
to

FOG

FIG

HCI.

This gives us a pair of tooth curves from which the teeth may
and
be drawn in, clearance room within the base circles
wheels
the
assumed.
As
the
finished
tooth
revolve,
gear
being
contacts all occur on the line DE, remaining on and moving

DF

EH

along it; and there can be no correct contacts outside of the

there may be several. Atlength DE, though between D and
rise
to serious interference.
contacts
D
or
give
tempted
beyond
In practice it is rare that the contacts extend to the whole of
DE, though they may, by laying out the wheel with that result in
view, as by making the addendum circles cut at D and E.
These gear wheels possess the peculiar property that the distance between centers A and B may be varied at pleasure, without
altering the correctness of action of the teeth upon each other.

For, examining Fig. 166, we find that the triangles A CD and

so that the pitch point C is always at the same

BCE are similar,

PRINCIPLES OF MECHANISM.

144

proportional position between

of

AB,

allowing AD

BE

and

A
to

and B 9 whatever the magnitude

remain constant. Under these

conditions any number of correct working tooth outlines may be

drawn with varied distances AB. The spaces between the teeth
along on the line FD, or on DE, or on HE all equal the normal

which is constant; while the spaces between the teeth along

on the pitch circles equal the circumferential pitch. This latter differs slightly with the normal pitch, and is slightly variable if we

pitch,

regard the pitch circles as remaining tangent to each other at

while the line of centers
varies.

AB

This gearing is often recommended for situations where the

distance AB, through carelessness, wear of parts or otherwise is
and where epicycloidal gearing, requiring A B
subject to changes
to remain constant, will not serve correctly.
These involute wheels in a group of various sizes of the same
;

normal pitch will all work together interchangeably, and they are
probably the best for change gears for engine lathes and the like.
In the Rack and Pinion the wheel A may be regarded as of infinite diameter when the pitch line becomes
the straight line

AC,

Fig.

167.

The

base

becomes infinite and at an infinite

distance from C, so that the line CD is infinite and the tooth curve FG for the rack
becomes a straight line perpendicular to
DE, the face and flank being both parts of
one and the same straight line. The tooth
curve, HI, remains the same as before, for a
circle also

F\

FIG. 167.

like inclination

of

DE.

The addendum

line for the rack should

never go above E.
For the Annular Wheel and Pinion, the tooth curves for the
former become concave as at FG, Fig. 168,
while the pinion remains the same as before for the same inclination of CED; and
for this a group of pinions of the same
pitch will interchange with this wheel.
In the present case there can be no
contacts between
and E, but may ex-

tend from

E through

C to

infinity,

except

for interference at L.
FIG. 168.

In these gears, as well as in epicycloidal, there

maybe

interference of teeth, as

shown

in an exaggerate

CIRCULAR GEARING.

KL and KM, the tooth

ed view at

145

curves intersecting at K.

This

is

occur where the pinion is relatively large. To examine

a case for interference, draw the pitch circles and on them step off
and N, and through these
equal pitch distances from C to

most likely

to

as shown.
If these .curves
do not intersect, as at K, within the addendum of the pinion and

points draw the involute tooth curves,

DL

the circle

of the wheel, there will be

no interference

at that position, and, if

applied at the intersection of
with the base
the addendum circle for

the test

is

no intersection of
tooth curves, there will be no intercircle

to

AD,

with

Modifi-

ference of teeth for the wheels.

cations of
affected

amount

of

interference

are

by varying the addenda and the

inclination of

CED.

Different systems and sizes of teeth

le combined in a single gear, as
illustrated in Fig. 169 of a pair of cir-

may

cular gears, 2 to 1, velocity-ratio constant, embracing both

and the involute forms of teeth.

the

epicycloidal

III.

This term

is

CONJUGATE GEARING.

applied to teeth where the tooth of one wheel is

assumed and the mating tooth for

the other wheel

found

from

it,

usually by the practical operation

of templets, as foreshadowed in
Fig. 108 and more definitely shown
in Fig. 122, which may be followed
fully here with circular pitch lines.

SOME PARTICULAR CASES.

1st.

Flanks

Parallel

Straight

Lines.

A and B are
somewhat removed
from tangency to better show the
In Fig. 170,

pitch

work.
is

CG.

spaces,

circles

One of the parallel flanks

From C step off equal
marked 1, 2, 3, 4, etc., on

PRINCIPLES OF MECHANISM.

146

the pitch line of B. Likewise from C' step off the same equal spaces
on the pitch line A as shown, C and C' being a half-tooth thickDraw \a, 2b, 3c, etc., perpendicular
ness from the line of centers.
to CG. Then with la, from wheel B as a radius, draw a circle arc
about the point 1 on the wheel A\ also, with b2 as a radius, draw
& circle at 2 on A. Likewise with J3, etc., for as many points as
Then draw an enveloping curve F(1' 9 which will be
required.
n correct face curve for A, to work on the flank CG as mating
tooth curves.
Other pairs of mating face and flank lines may be

shown in dotted lines.

Examining the mating curves drawn, it is plain, for example,
that the radius from 3 to where its circle is tangent to the envelope

-drawn, and the teeth completed, as

C'F is

a normal to C'F, so that when the points 3 of pitch line A

tangent to each other this normal will coincide with the

.and B are

and

and tangency between

Likewise for other points, so that the face and
flank will slide smoothly with each other throughout, while the
normal

3c,

the tooth

c will be the point of contact

lines.

pitch lines mutually

tooth action.

roll,

thus answering to required conditions for

2d. Flanks Convergent Straight Lines.

In Fig. 171 draw the pitch

and the convergent flanks
CG. Step the equal spaces 1, 2,

lines

draw the lines 01, #2,

normal to the flank line
CG, use these latter as radii, and
draw circle arcs as before on the
3, 4, etc.,

etc.,

pitch line A. The envelope C'F

will be the proper tooth face for

the wheel A, to work on on the

flank CG, and the complete
tooth can be drawn as in Fig.

FIG. 171.

170.
3d. Flanks Circle Arcs.

A and B, the line of centers, and a tandraw the circle arc

a point /on
From
172.
H, Fig.
gent
for the flank of a tooth for B. Through equidistant points 1, 2,
Draw

the pitch circles

HI

HI at

CG

3, etc.,
,at

draw

points

1,

radii

from I. Then al, 62, etc., are the radii to use

on A as centers of arcs, tangent to which

2, 3, etc.,

147

CIRCULAR GEARING.

draw the envelope C'F for a

work correctly on the flank CG.
As another example, the cen-

face of a tooth of

that will

may be taken anywhere below the line HI, but no higher

above than to be on a tangent

ter 1

to the pitch circle

C, In which case

Bat

CG

to the pitch line. No example

found of a correct flank

mal
is

the point

will be nor-

to be

line

which

placing /

is

still

undercut as by

higher.

Again, in another example,

the line CG may be a parabola,
ellipse, or other curve to suit the fancy, always being so drawn as
not to undercut at C, and in every case the lines
1, 62, etc.,
being drawn normal to the curve CG.

The

is
practicable where the face of a tooth
assumed to be a circle, parabola, or other curve, and the
flank found to match it in a similar way.

of

is

inverse of these cases

CHAPTER

XIII.

PRACTICAL CONSIDERATIONS.
So far in circular gearing, we have dwelt upon the theory of
But the demands of
tooth curves which are perfect in action.
so severe as to require the teeth to be thus
practice are not always
accurate.

There are other considerations

also to be noted, such

as-

of action, overlap of
proper addenda, clearance, fillets, obliquity
etc.
action, practical methods, approximate teeth,

ADDENDA AND CLEARANCE.

At

Fig. 110

is

given a set of rules for proportioning the teeth,

which are among the simplest of quite a variety. In cast gearing

more clearance is required than in machine-dressed teeth, and more as
cast at some foundries than at others,
according to care in moulding.
The rule for circumferential
pitch at Fig. 110 will answer for
the average of care in moulding,

and

for

ordinary

sizes.

For

large teeth the proportion for clearance is too great,

very

while for very small cast teeth

will often be found too small,
so that the best rule will probably be the one stated varied to suit
the judgment of the draftsman in each particular case.
-

173.

it

The rule as to diametral pitch is best adapted for cut or machine

dressed gear teeth, where a comparatively slight bottom clearance
is sufficient and a much less side clearance.
The Brown & Sharps
cutters

and instructions are apropos

here.
148

PRACTICAL CONSIDERATIONS.

149

In Fig. 173, for cast teeth, cd is the pitch circle, e the addendum
/ the dedendum or root circle; c being equal to 5/11, d
to
6/11, a equal to 3/10, and b equal to 4/10 the pitch, acequal
circle,

cording to the rule of Prof. Willis, as given at Fig. 110.

To Strengthen the Teeth, root fillets are generally struck in as at
jk, which only extend to a part of the bottom surface at k and up to
In most cases the
.a
comparatively small portion of the flank at/.

bottom of the space may be limited by a circle arc, ghi, tangent to

the flank lines at g and i, and to the root circle, thus simplifying
the shape of the bottom of the space and greatly strengthening the
To test this matter the so-called " clearing curve" may be
teeth.
drawn a curve that would be described by the corner of the point
of the tooth, as in Fig. 174.
To Find the Possible Clearing Curve described by the tooth
corner b, Fig. 174, as it enters the space def, the side ab acting against
the side de, make equal spaces 1, 2, 3, etc.,
then with bi for a radius describe a circle
arc from the point 1 near d', again, with b2
for a radius describe the arc from 2 in the

space near d,
arcs as

many points and

Then the enveloping

etc., for as

required.

curve to these arcs, as shown, is the possiThis curve, of course,

ble clearing curve.
extends only the addendum distance be-

low the pitch

drawn
and b

line.

Now

a circle arc,

in as ghi, Fig. 173, where a

3/10
FIG. 174.
4/10, will usually, if not always,
be found to go outside of this possible clearing curve, and, as

it is

the simplest form of outline for the bottom of the space as well as
gives greater strength of tooth than does the smaller fillets jk,

Indeed, if ever found necessary, it is

Fig. 173, it is recommended.
little
advisable
to
a
usually
deeper to get in the circle arc rather
go

than adopt two smaller arcs. The circle arc is dotted in, and is seen
to go considerably below the curve enveloping the circles struck
from 2, 3, etc., Fig. 174.

THE PATH OF CONTACT.

The Path
gear wheels

of Contact between a pair of operating teeth of

mated

the line followed by the touching point between the

and
of
differs in form in different systems of gearing.
teeth,
pair
is

PRINCIPLES OF MECHANISM.

150

In Epicycloidal Teeth

it is

the Describing Circle

tral position, or that of

with both pitch

where

Itself, in

a cen-

common tangency

circles, as at

C, Fig. 175 r

CF is the describing circle.

This

may

be shown by supposing CD equal to CE, and

that the describing circle has rolled from

was at D over to
where the tracing point
the position shown, and likewise from E
over to the same position. The rolled curves
FIG. 175.
and EF will be tangent to each other at
since C is an instanta9 because CF is a normal to both curves,
neous axis of motion of the tracing point. Therefore F, the point of
contact of the tooth curves
and EF is on the describing circle.
follows along on the describing circle
Hence the point of contact
CF from C to F, the tooth curves engaging at C and move toward

DF

DF
F

the position shown, making the describing circle

CF

the path of

contact.

In Involute Gearing, it is plainly seen from Fig. 166 that the

path of contact is on the line DC'E.
In Other Cases, the Path of Contact may Readily be Found. To
illustrate, let

us find

of Fig. 172

as

in

Fig. 176.

from B to the points 1, 2,

where normals to the flank curve

Draw
3,

for the teeth

it

shown

radii

Cc cut the pitch

Draw

circle.

circle

through the points a, b, c, where

the normals meet the flank curve, and
arcs

extend them to meet the radii from B.

Then, evidently, the flank curve is
in contact at , with its mating face,

when
im =

the point 1
ae; thus

is

at

making

bff ko

FIG. 176.

on the line of centers, and a at i, where

one point in the path of contact. Like-

thus giving the curve Hijk as the

;
path of contact for the pair of tooth curves of Fig. 172 as above
the pitch lines.
Usually the path extends below the point of common tangency of the pitch lines toward A, for the mating tooth
curves below the pitch lines as well as above toward B, and this

wise,

jn

eg, etc.

always a curve, except in involute teeth.

the Inverse of this the Path of Contact may be Assumed, and
the tooth curves, face and flank, may be found therefrom, as was.

path

is

By

PRACTICAL CONSIDERATIONS.

done by Prof. Edward Sang, and explained

in his

151
remarkable treat-

ment of the subject of gear teeth published some years ago.

The Path of Contact is Limited in Practice where the addendum
circles cut the

177,

DF.

lines.

path

draw the addendum

Then the

Thus,
circles

iii

Fig.

EF and

contacts for the epicycloi-

dal teeth of the wheels

and

must

begin and end on the S-shaped line or

limited path

DCE.

should engage at

One pair of teeth

as soon as the preced-

ing pair quit contact at E, but usually it

In involute teeth, the contact
is sooner.
t

cannot possibly extend beyond the points

FIG. 177.
and E, Fig. 166, so that the addendum circles should not overreach those points as has been stated.

The Acting Part

of the

Flank of a tooth, that

is,

the entire

portion that engages with its mating face, is simply that which extends from the point
to the pitch line of B, or from
to the pitch
circle of A, Fig. 177.
This portion of the flank is much shorter,,

usually, than its mating face, thus giving cause for more rapid
wear on the flank than face, from which it appears that gear teeth
will wear out of shape and not into it, so that if teeth are ever

correct in form, they must be made so.

The Line of Action of the Pressures

of Contact between

the

teeth, neglecting friction,

always in the line of the normal, as
CF, Fig. 175; this line being therefore properly called the line of
is

action.
line,

In involute gearing

DCE,

it is

always one and the same straight

Fig. 166, but in all other forms of teeth

it is

a line of

varying inclination, like a straight line, iHt jlf, kH, etc., Fig. 176The tendency of the teeth to crowd the wheels apart depends

upon an intermediate obliquity

being reduced as the

tem of teeth.
Thus in epioycloidal
and CE, Fig. 177, the

The maximum

of this line of action, the same

reduced for a given sys-

maximum obliquity is

CD

gears, the larger the describing circles,

the obliquity and the tendency to crowd.

less

obliquity of the line of action with the common

is that of the straight line
through />
1

tangent to the pitch lines

and

C on

the one side, and the line

EC on

the other.

152

PEIKCIPLES OF MECHANISM.

The Blocking Tendency.

of a pair of teeth to " block " or
stop the wheels
is greater in approaching action than
and
increases with
receding,
the obliquity of action; so that in wheels of few teeth the maximum

The tendency

obliquity of the line of action should be kept as small as possible,

as already explained under non-circular
gearing, and sometimes it
may be advisable to make the addenda unequal to favor the obli-

quity in approaching action.

Unsymmetrical Teeth.

These may be made when desired, by using smaller

describing
one side of a tooth than for the other, for

circles for

epicycloidal
teeth, or greater obliquity of the line of action in involute, etc.
Pig. 169 illustrates several such teeth.

To Draw the Tooth Curves

Epicycloidal Tooth Curves

QB

in Practice.

be drawn as in Fig. 178, where

and B represent a pair of pitch
circles for which it is desired to
draw a pair of tooth curves of this
form for teeth with concave flanks,
the work all being completed on
the drawing-board and with only

may

the ordinary drawing instruments.

Having the pitch circles drawn at
a distance apart,
spicuity,

if

need be, for per-

adopt some diameter of

CH =

C'H, such
describing circle
as has a diameter less than the
radius
for B.

O'B

as for concave flanks

Then, with the dividers,

describe the circle in several positions on A, and in B, tangent to

the pitch circles as shown. Then

the origin of a tooth curve, step off with the spacing dividers on A, as at abc, etc., to near the point of tangency with A of
some drawn circle 9 say the first one, and then, without lifting
the dividers from the paper, step backwards on this circle an equal

with

C as

number
At

Then beginning
and note the exact point.
on
A
the
to
near
again, step along
tangency with the next
of steps to F,

'

153

PRACTICAL CONSIDERATIONS.

circle, and then back on that circle an equal number of steps to G,

So proceed until the desired num.and carefully note that point.
Then the epiber and frequency of noted points is obtained.
cycloid, CFG, may be drawn in through the points noted by aid of

an irregular curve.
In stepping from

along on

it is

not necessary to come out

exactly at the point of tangency with the circle F, G, etc., but the
nearest half-step or less from it, and then turn back on that circle
Neither is it necessary, as
or G, as the case may be.
to the point

is

noted, to

go back to C, but without lifting the dividers we

may

to near the next

and thence along
to
retrace the steps from
that
next
on
then
backwards
and
of
circle, to G, etc.
tangency
point
Proceed likewise for all the tooth curves to be drawn, as, for in-

stance, the

mating flank for

C, F,

circle, resulting in the points C", Z>,

in the points L,

M, N,

in A, using
mating flank /, J,
for both. We then have a complete tooth

etc.,

the same describing circle

and

G, using the same describing

Also a face for
etc., in B.

E,

its

NL

CDE, for B. Templets may

GFC1J, for A, and another,
be formed to these curves and used to finish drawing all the teeth
of the gear wheel A or B, either on the drawing-board or on the
profile,

FIG. 179.

for use in casting.

When the flank is
of
thin
a
cardboard,
templet
piece of wood, or
prepare
The latter may be blackened with a chemical as an ex-

wooden pattern being made

ready for

it

zinc plate.
cellent preparation for visibility of lines drawn upon it.
Lay off
the curve GCK, for instance, with accuracy. Also, if desired, the
addendum circle at P, Fig. 179, and the root circle at 0, to fit the
cut an opening with a sharp point
At
root curve of Fig. 173.

coming exactly

to

one of the pitch points T, R, V, so that

CR

PRINCIPLES OF MECHANISM.

154

equals a half-tooth thickness. Also at S cut the templet to a point

that shall just fit upon the pitch circle. This gives us the required
tooth templet.
Then, when this templet OCPRSis placed at any
as
is in just the posiR, the edge of the templet
pitch point,

PCO

tion for drawing a scriber along the edge of the templet to trace
the whole tooth profile, including addendum and root curve. Then
is to be shifted along the pitch line till the point of the
just coincides with the next pitch point T, and the
templet at
point S with the pitch line, when the next tooth profile may be

the templet

Proceed likewise around the wheel-blank,

traced, as dotted at QU.
or the drawing on the drawing-board. Then the templet, being
made of thin material, may be turned over and the other sides of
the teeth all drawn, and the outlines of the teeth completed, as,
for the one OQU.
Radius Rod, if preferred, may be used instead of the points
R and S, the templet being mounted as at on the rod AX\)j
tacks or screws, and a center pin struck through the radius rod, and
at the exact center point A, by means of which the templet may be
swung around the wheel and always remaining in the exact tooth-

shown

curve position it being only necessary to stop and hold it at each of

the several pitch points, while tracing the tooth curve for the same.
The templet may be turned over on the radius rod and the other
;

sides of the teeth drawn.

and
For Involute Teeth, as in Fig. 180, let
represent a pair
of pitch lines for which it is desired to draw this form of tooth.
Draw a line
through the pitch point C and at an angle of
about 75 degrees with the line of centers AB. Also draw
and

DCE

AD

BE from

tangent to

the centers

DE as shown.

and

To

perpendicular to DE, and circlesthe last-named circles draw a series

of tangents JL, GM, KN, 10, as many as required.

Then with
from
on
dividers
C
CD
to
near
the
step
along
spacing
tangency D+
then backward on the circle an equal number of steps to F, and note

that point. Without lifting the dividers, step back past

to near
L and out on LJ to J an equal number of steps and note the point
Then back on JL and on to near
and out on
J.
to G and note

that point.

So proceed for as many

MG

lines,

sired frequency of the points F, C, J,

JL, GM,

calls for.

etc., as

Then

the de-

trace the

curve through these points, which curve will be an involute to

the-

exactly in theory, and very nearly so by this process of

and
to serve for a tooth curve for wheel A.
Likewise the
drawing,
is to be drawn to serve for a tooth curve for
involute

circle

CDM,

HCKI

PRACTICAL CONSIDERATIONS.

Then

the

addendum

circles

155-

and the root curves are

to be

drawn

in,,

PCO

of Fig. 179,.
giving the full tooth profiles, corresponding to
when templets may be made and applied as explained at Fig. 179.
The line
was said to be drawn at about 75 degrees with AB,

DOE

but this angle is arbitrary, some preferring it at more and some less
than 75 degrees. Probably the best criterion to follow as to this.

FIG. 180.
is the judgment of the designer as to form of teeth a particshould not
ular angle gives, except that the addendum circle for
reach
reach beyond the point E, nor the addendum circle for

angle

on the penalty of interference of teeth; and, at the same

time, the normal pitch of the teeth should not exceed the portion
The normal
of
as intercepted between the addendum circles.
to
the
one
tooth
corresponding point on
pitch is the distance from
the next, as measured along on the line DE, this line being normal
to all tooth curves that intersect it between D and E.

beyond

Z>,

DE

Approximate Teeth in Practice.

In

many

cases, a

simple circle arc will answer the requirement

also flank, especially in gear patterns where the

inaccuracy of moulding of the gears in moulding sand enters the
But it is easy to select a curve
account; and for moderate sizes.

for a face curve

and

that will approximate the epicycloid or the involute closer than

the circle will, as, for instance, an ellipse, though a series of ellipses
of various sizes would be needed to select from in a particular case
for the best results.

To

a single curve, meet

all sizes

avoid this, a parabola or hyperbola may, in

of teeth, as well as a series of ellipses,

PRINCIPLES OF MECHANISM.

156

how to locate the curve to best approximate the true tooth

without drawing it would be a serious question with a parabola or
Further thought suggests a spiral as having advanhyperbola.

rbut

tages, and, finally, the logarithmic spiral, by reason of its peculiar

properties, is perceived to be the best adapted of all

and simple

curves for this purpose.

this spiral at

Thus

it

is

well

known

that a normal to

any point, at will be tangent to an equal logarithmic

rand

EcF, Fig. 181;

that ac will equal
the length of the curve
spiral

cE, and also equal the

radius of curvature of the
logarithmic
at

a.

the

Ea G

spiral

This shows

two

equal

that

copolar

EaG

logarithmic spirals

and
II

are

mutual

in-

volute and evolute curves.

Also,

FIG. 181,

EcF
it

is

known

the triangle Eac

angled at E.

is

that

right-

It is found by trial on a carefully made drawing that, taking any

point d as a center on ac produced, and drawing a circle through
n as dotted, the circle will cut the spiral at such point, b, that the

length cd y divided by the length be, will be very nearly a constant,

at least when the obliquity of the spiral is such that EC equals 2Ea,
as in the case of the logarithmic spiral, which is found to best fit
the epicycloidal tooth curve.
Now draw a pitch line IJH for a gear wheel and tangent to ad

Then the
so that tfj^will equal the half-tooth thickness.
tooth
suitable
for
a
so
drawn
as to pass
curve,
tooth,
-epicycloidal
at

through #, will also pass very nearly through Z, when the latter is
taken at the addendum circle; due regard being paid to the pitch
diameters and tooth numbers in drawing the epicycloid.
The Template Odontograph has been formed of this spiral with
EC = 2Ea, or with the tangent of obliquity equal to %, and is
therefore a curve which very closely approximates the epicycloidal
tooth curve.

It

forms at once a universal and ready-made tooth

templet for the draftsman, which has been generally accepted as

The instrument
being a good substitute for the true tooth curve.
is

accompanied by tables for use in setting

it

on the pitch line

in

157

PRACTICAL CONSIDERATIONS.

the right position for drawing the various kinds of teeth, such as;
flanks radial, flanks concave, interchangeable sets, involute teeth,,
etc.*

The instrument, full size, is

about four by six inches and is
shown in Fig. 182. The curved
edge at A is graduated and numbered for a length of 3 inches. To
set

instrument

the

"

"

accompanying
2.50.

in

position,

made out from

are

settings

tables,

for

as,

ex-

ABC

line

is
ample,
is
the
2.50
when
drawn,
brought
to the line at A, while the curved

FIG. 182.
setting

set at

Odontograph

number

2.50

on line

AC.

brought just tangent to the same line ABC.

instrument for drawing the tooth of Fig. 183, draw
to the pitch line at C, the middle point of the
the tangent
tooth, also a tangent BD at
H, the side of a tooth. Then,
"
made out
with " settings

edge at

To

is

set the

AHCE

from the

tables,

place the

instrument on the tangent

as explained, and,

HCE
while

retaining

draw the
edge from

it

there,

scriber along the

How to place the Odontograph.

FIG. 183.
outward, givingas shown,
the face curve. Similarly with the instrument set on
The
draw the scriber from
inward, giving the flank curve.
addendum circle and root curves may then be drawn in as pre-

BD

when the full tooth profile is completed.

This Templet Odontograph, by means of screw-holes shown,,
may be mounted on a radius rod and swung around a center pin,

viously explained,

We

marking all the tooth curves, as explained at Fig. 179.

thus have, in this instrument, a convenient ready-made tooth temfor

plet for all cases.

The accuracy

of results, as

proximate methods,

is

compared with those of other apand examples are given in the*

discussed,

* For a

full description of the instrument, formulas for calculating "setof settings, etc., see Van Nostrand's Science Series, No. 24, and
tables
tings,"
Van Nostrand's Engineering Magazine for 1876 also a pamphle accompany;

ing the instrument,

all

found

in the instrument stores.

PRINCIPLES OF MECHANISM.

158

Involute teeth, as well as the various

cases of rack-and-pinion annular wheels, etc., are drawn by the

articles cited in reference.

instrument.
The Willis Odontograph is a well-known instrument for locating the centers of circle arc tooth curves in such a way that p, face
is of one circle-arc and the flank of another, for teeth approx-

imating those of the epicycloidal form in interchangeable sets,

where a wheel of 12 teeth has radial flanks. This instrument is
of special interest, as being the first odontograph: originated
ago by Prof. Eobert "Willis.

some

.sixty years

The instrument

founded on principles made clear by Fig.

184, where A C and BC are the radii of the

is

CDH the

pitch circles,

on A,
and to

to roll

of

generating circle

to describe a face of a tooth

roll inside of

to describe

the flank for B, that is to mate with the

face of A.
Take the center of
on

CDH

AB.

the line

Assume a point

on the describing

CDH, and draw DCF, DH, CI

Then 01
parallel to DH, BIF, and AEL
and DH will be perpendicular to DCF,
circle

because

CDH is in a semicircle; and E

D of an epicycloid drawn through
CDH used as the describing circle,

will be the center of curvature at

by a tracer at

as the latter

is

in the circle

rolled

on the pitch

center of curvature at
tracer at

*A

..

Also, ^will be the

drawn through D by a

A.

circle, as

the latter rolls inside tho

B*

proof of this

XIX, page

given in

is

Van Nostrand's Engineering Magazine

313, viz.:

CD = HI

X AC
CE-_ CD AH

which

circle

of a hypocycloid

D, in the describing

pitch circle
1878, Vol.

and

CE

AH

for

AC.

CD X AC _

DE _

^-

the expression for the radius of curvature at

for an epicycloid
as generated by rolling the describing circle
on the
passing through
is

CDH

pitch line A.
In a similar way, the radius of curvature at
of the hypocycloid passing
on the pitch
through D, as generated by rolling the describing circle

CDH

line B, is

SC\
f

BE)'

See Da vies and Peck's Mathematical Dictionary, page 222, for formulas for
radii of curvature.

PKACT1CAL CONSIDERATIONS.

159

as E and F are centers of curvature of the mating epiand

cycloid
hypocycloid tooth curves, it is plain that, by taking the
E
and
F as centers and describing circle arcs through D,
points
these arcs will approximate the epicycloidal curves and serve as

Now,

mating tooth curves with corresponding approximation to accuracy.

Without reference to analysis, regard IGF as a triangular temFor a movement corresponding to
plet, swinging about a pin at /.
that of the action of face and flank, the edge CF will not depart
This edge line, CF, would have
far from intersection of AB at C.
of one side of a triangle, it
instead
the
same
movement
if,
nearly
were jointed at E to a, rod AE, since E is on the straight line AI9
and would, in either case, move in a circle arc normal to A I. Also,
of the line CF were jointed to a
for a like limited movement, if
rod BF, the point F would move in nearly the same path, so that
motion transmitted from A to B through the medium of rods AE,
EF, and FB, jointed at E and B, would maintain nearly constant

velocity-ratio for the limited

the tooth curves.
If

now, with

and

Fas

movement

considered, as required for

centers, circles be struck through

and B, their velocity-ratio

for a pair of tooth curves for gears
would be the same as that for the rods connecting the axes
and
and
would reB, because the distance between the centers

main constant

in either case.
This last consideration holds for
whatever point near D in the circle CDH selected, as that through
which the circle-arc tooth curves be struck.
Hence, to draw a pair of approximately correct tooth curves as
circle arcs, for the pitch lines A and B, Fig. 184, draw the lines
AB, CF produced, CI perpendicular to CF, AI, and BIF. Then,
as centers, draw a pair of circle arcs through some
with
and
on
CF
point
produced. Thus, Fig. 184 is general, but for con-

venience of millwrights Prof. Willis limits the diagram, the point

through which the teeth are drawn being taken a half-pitch from
C toward D, and may sometimes be the point D, as when the line
CF is drawn, as Prof. Willis takes it, at an angle of 75 degrees with

AB.
To

obtain a convenient odontograph, Prof. Willis assumes the

to be on a circle CDHI of constant diameter for a
points
and
to
equal the radius of a wheel of twelve teeth, for
given pitch

/ and

which ,D will be a half-pitch from C, and the line DCFat an angle

of 75 degrees.
This makes all the tooth-circle arcs pass through
when DE, the radius of a face, will be the radius of
the point

PRINCIPLES OF MECHANISM.

160

D of an epicycloid through D generated by rolling the

CDH on the pitch circle A', and DFthe radius of curvature
of the hypocycloid in B through D, thus giving for the tooth curves
the osculating circles of the epicycloid and hypocycloid at D. A
carefully-made drawing will show that the point D for the above
curvature at
circle

limit will be a little above the half-height of the tooth face; while
it is probable that a preferable result is obtained if it be a little be-

low, as for the case where a 15-toothed wheel has radial flanks with
at an angle of 78 degrees with AB.
a half-pitch and the line
The Willis Odontograph, shown at agF, Fig. 185, locates the

CF

CD

185,

and
where CO'

centers

F of
is

AC

Fig. 184 with only the brief diagram of Fig.

one pitch in the pitch circle, D the middle or half
a face and flank
and
and AC' radii, and

DL

DK

pitch point,
and F.
curve or circle arc respectively, drawn to the centers
These centers are found by placing the odontograph at C'E and at

CF, with the leg Ca on the radius, and noting the points E and
by aid of a table from which values, or distances C'E and CF are
taken, according to radius of wheel being drawn, and noted in the
scale gCF.
When the tooth profile KDL is thus drawn, a profile
templet may be formed as explained at Fig. 179, and the tooth outlines drawn for the complete wheel.
This odontograph is made in metal or cardboard, the latter being
larger and having the necessary tables printed thereon.
A simple odontograph was brought out by Prof. Willis, giving
centers of tooth-circle arcs, when the whole profile is formed of
one arc, thus approximating involute teeth. This instrument simply gives the centers D and E, Fig. 166, and is of so little help in
as to be in slight demand.
finding D and
The Three-Point Odontograph of Geo. B. Grant is so called be-

PRACTICAL CONSIDERATIONS.

161

its application results in a circle arc struck through three points

Cab, Fig. 186, in the actual epicycloidal face curve CD; one point,
C, being at the pitch line ICH, a second at the middle of the face

cause

at a,

and the third

at b,

where the addendum

circle intersects the

bx''D

The position of the center E, of a circle which will pass

through the three points C, a, b, is calculated, and the radius, EJ,
"
"
"called
Had./'' and distance, HE, called
Dis.," are tabulated for a
of
gears.
large variety of pitches and sizes
epicycloid.

The

flank

the radius

is

treated in like

Fd and

distance

manner

for three points (7, d, e with

for various sizes and

Fl determined

tabulated.

Tables for unit pitch

may thus be made

out for

all varieties

of

teeth, not only of the epicycloidal order, but involute, conjugate, etc.
The application, in addition to drawing the pitch circle and

" Dis." be taken from the

table,
pitch point, requires simply that
multiplied by the pitch and laid off on a radius from the pitch line,
as HE, and a circle drawn through the point concentric with the

Then the "Rad.," taken from the table, multiplied

pitch circle.
by the pitch, is to be taken iu the dividers, when circular faces Cab
may be struck through all the pitch points C from centers taken on
the circle through E.
In like manner, the circular flanks are to be struck in from cen"
"
ters on the circle through
by aid of values for Rad." and Dis."

taken from the table.

The maximum

error, or deviation of these circle-arc faces

from

the true epicycloid, between (7 and b, is stated to be less than the hundredth of an inch for a pitch of three inches, a quantity hardly

worth considering in practice, except in very large, heavy gears with

machine-dressed teeth.
The true epicycloidal face for Cab lies outside the circle between C and <?, and inside between a and b, and differs from the
Willis circular face in that the latter

is

more nearly

parallel to the

PRINCIPLES OF MECHANISM.

162

In action, the
epicycloid from b to a and leaves a fullness at O.
Willis teeth will thus be more inclined to receive the heavier bearing
pressures near C and the lesser near b, or have the working contact
between the teeth near the line of centers where the slipping action
is least,

rather than at a remote point from the line of centers with a

greater rate of slip.

By some

it is

thought advisable to arbitrarily allow the teeth to

be somewhat slack near ab, to enable the teeth to perform with comparatively light working pressures here, and heavier at or near C,
thus reducing the strains, the friction, and the wear of the teeth.

To

this end, the radii from the Grant tables may be arbitrarily reduced in length to give a corresponding slackness in the neighborhood of ab.
In Fig. 186, the two points d and e, in the flank, chosen to locate the flank circle arc, provide for a greater depth of flank than
ever goes into action on a face, and it seems probable that e should
have been chosen noc much, if any, below, the working depth near
the middle of Ce, in order to the greatest precision of the actual
working tooth profile. As a result, the circle arc between C and d
makes the tooth fuller than would the actual hypocycloid.
"
"
If an
odontograph is to mean an instrument, it appears that
the Grant odontograph is simply any ordinary measuring scale.
Thus the pocket rule becomes an odontograph which by analogy
with the Willis odontograph is used in determining two distances
on the drawing, instead of one angle and one distance.
Circle- Arc Tooth Outlines may be determined directly from the

rolled epicycloids or involutes; as, for instance, in Fig. 178, having

circle and supposing it to have cut near G,

drawn the addendum

find by trial a center point that will give a circle arc that approximates most favorably with the curve CFG. Then, noting that

center point and radius, describe a circle through the point concentric with the pitch line, and make it the locus of the centers of all
tooth-face circle arcs for that wheel, and, using the radius found
Likewise proceed for the flanks.
above, strike in the tooth faces.

Involute profiles require but one center and radius.

Co-ordinating of the Tooth Profiles has been worked out very
completely by Prof. J. F. Klein of Lehigh University, whereby the
correct tooth profile curve

from a

is

plotted

by aid of co-ordinates taken

table.

This method would seem to possess special advantages for large

is required and where the ordinates have a

teeth where accuracy

PRACTICAL CONSIDERATIONS.

163

length convenient to lay off. For teeth of one inch pitch or less
a magnifying-glass would seem to be a necessity, as well as very

measuring and drawing devices.

Very elaborate tables accomin
method
and
embraced
the
are
Klein's
Elements of Machine
pany

fine

Design.
These Various Methods of drawing the teeth have each their
peculiar advantages, the most advisable for one case not being so

For instance, when very large teeth are to be

others.
with
drawn,
plenty of time for accuracy, the designer may do difthan
when the teeth are more moderate in size and more
ferently
for

some

hurried.

All of the above, however, admits of more or less of "hand and

"
operations, in which errors of greater or less magnitude will
eye
be unavoidable.

CHAPTER

XIV.

MACHINE-MADE TEETH.
where no " hand and eye " process enters the account, are possible, and in fact are in practical commercial operation
to-day, both where the processes conform strictly with theory, and
where they only approximate it. Doubtless watch gearing is the
best example of the former, the hand and eye operations all being
eliminated, as well they may be from the very fact of the minute-

GEAR

teeth,

ness of the teeth.

In Fig. 187
Machine used
Here the tool

is

to

illustrated

what may be termed an Epicycloidal

to the truly
to be formed epicycloidal

cut a tool

epicycloidal
is

made

shape.
the

fast to

FIG. 187.

One end of the shaft is pivoted by universal joint to the

the other end has the disk A made fast to it. This
while
F,
post
is a guiding wheel
disk rolls upon the stationary disk B. At

shaft G.

charged with diamond dust or emery.

The disk
represents the pitch circle of the wheel for the teeth
is to be shaped, while the disk
of which the tool
represents
the pitch circle of the pinion.

164

MACHINE-MADE TEETH.

165

is made to rub against

As A rolls upon B, the tool blank
the revolving grinding wheel E. By repeated rolling movements
to
former being shifted occasionally to bring
of A upon
} the
touch the grinder E, the tool will finally become ground so as to

touch
tool

slightly throughout the rolling of

upon
be finished to the true epicycloidal shape.
pivoting of one end of the shaft or bar G at

B, when the

will

The

F has

the ef-

the bases of rolling cones with common

making
vertex at F, so that by passing a plane transversely at the tool
we cut the cones in circles proportional to the circles A and B.
fect of

and

Thus, the nearer the

tool

is

to

F the more minute

in effect will the

at the proper point on G

rolling circles become, so that with
our rolling circles will be of watch-wheel dimensions, while the
circles

and

To prove

will be large

that

we thus

enough to manipulate conveniently.

obtain the truly epicycloidal form of

FIG. 188

ground curve on the jend of D, we refer to Fig. 188, which represents a section taken at D, through the tool and the cones A and
and the tool are supposed stationary, with
B. Here, however,

rolling

upon

it,

and with the grinding disk

moving around
placed with its face
also

In Fig. 187, the grinder

is
coincident at the axis of the cone B, as shown in the section, Fig.
to move with
as the latter rolls on A,
188.
Then, supposing

with B.

PRINCIPLES OF MECHANISM.

166

and noting them

in several positions as at JJT, etc.,

we

find that

wipes up an epicycloid DJK, the same as if a

describing circle, CL, were used with diameter equaling the radius
Thus the end of
of B f and with a tracing point at L.
has the
the face of

DJ

formed upon it, with a continuation from

epicycloidal curve
to
on a radius of A. This line, HDJ, is perceived to be exactly
that for a tooth profile for A, answering to the case of flanks

radial in

both pitch lines

solute sizes of

and

and A.
The relative as well as abfrom the preceding to be entirely

are seen

arbitrary, so that profiles

HDJ may

be obtained for a wheel or for

a pinion.

"
only provisional to the final
fly
or
the little milling cutter
cutter" for cutting the watch wheels,
for the pinions; and its application is shown in Fig. 189, where

The

tool

thus obtained

is

is

used as a planing or turning

tool, as the case

may

be, to

form

/,

the final cutter for cutting the wheel A.

The above

is

process

/
ff

much simplified by the fact of radial

flanks for the teeth. These, for watches,
have ample strength and are light-running in action.
The same process may be applied for
wheels of any size, and when for ordinary machinery, cylindrical wheels, A and

B may
t

be used instead of the conical

AF

ones in Fig. 187, though for cones

and BF, of considerable length and

gradual convergence, the error due to

the cones may be reduced to an inappreciable quantity, with results which
are practically perfect.
Teeth, as above,
"
are independent of all " hand and eye
processes such as locating an irregular curve to draw a tooth
face, filing a sheet zinc templet to fit a tooth profile, etc.
FIG. 189.

The teeth as produced above, all having radial flanks, though

entirely suited to such special sets of gearing as used in watches,
and some heavier machinery, where interchangeability is
sought, are not adapted for outfits of simple sets of cutters
general commercial purposes, either in the tool store or in
machine shop. For this it is generally admitted that there are
two systems of gearing and cutters in use, viz

clocks,

not
for

the

but

MACHINE-MADE TEETH.
The Involute and the Epicycloidal

167

Cutters.

These, for cutting interchangeable gearing of its own kind are

extended use: the first in accordance with principles explained
in Fig. 166, and the second following the principles of Fig. 153.
In either of these systems, cutters are made in series, each of
which will cut several wheels of differing tooth numbers, one of
which gears will be right, the others slightly inaccurate, but none
in

out of the theoretic condition to an extent to produce appreciably

bad-working wheels.

The first system of cutters of this kind for cutting gear wheels
were put out by the Brown & Sharpe Mfg. Co., and were approximately involute in form of tooth cut, each pitch embracing eight
cutters to cut gears of from twelve teeth to a rack, and interchangeable one cutter cutting gears of twelve and thirteen teeth,

the next fourteen and sixteen, the next seventeen to twenty, the
next twenty-one to twenty-five, the next twenty-six to thirty-four,
the next thirty-five to fifty-four, the next fifty-five to one hundred
and thirty-four, the last one hundred and thirty-four to a rack.
The second system of cutters for epicycloidal teeth of wheels in

interchangeable series are also made by the Brown & Sharpe Mfg.
Co., but by machinery brought out by the Pratt & Whitney Co.

This system embraces twenty- four cutters for each pitch, cutting
from twelve teeth to a rack, a wheel of fifteen teeth having radial
For a full description of the machinery for making these
flanks.
cutters, with no "hand and eye" operation, see MacCord's Mechanical Movements, page 178.
There are two machines, one of which is called the Epicycloidal
Milling Engine, which mills or cuts out all the tooth templets required in the series, of magnified size; and the other is the Panta-

graphic Cutter Milling Engine, which applies the above templets

making the gear-tooth cutters reduced to any desired size or
Other templets may also be used on this last-named
pitch.

in

engine.

The number

of cutters in a series

is

arbitrary

and depends upon

the inaccuracy allowed to be admissible. For large cutters, as for

the number of cutters in a series
large teeth, it would seem that

should be relatively great, that the admitted errors of cut teeth

may not exceed a certain arbitrary value. A formula for deter-

mining the so-called "equidistant series" of cutters is given by

Geo. B. Grant in Teeth of Gear Wheels, page 20. Experience in

PRINCIPLES OF MECHANISM,

168

the management of gearing would lead one to adopt a tooth

numbering in the above series of cutters such that the cutter that
cuts gears from 50 to 60 teeth, for instance, will make the 50toothed wheel right and the others slack on the point, rather than

the contrary, that the teeth, in action, may have the severest pressure
of contact near the line of centers rather than remote from it, as

explained at Fig. 186.

Prof. Edward Sang's Theory of the Conjugating of the Teeth

Wheels in interchangeable series has been applied in two
Gear
of
different and patented gear-cutting engines, the first by Ambrose
Swasey of Cleveland, Ohio, Pat. No. 327,037; and the other by Geo.
B. Grant of Lexington, Mass., Pat. No. 405,030.

In the

first,

or the

Swasey Engine, a

split

multiple cutter

is

to cut the gear teeth directly; while in the second a

In each of
solid worm or screw hob is used in cutting the gear.

employed

these one and the same cutter cuts all gears of a given pitch, re*
gardless of size of wheel, and giving theoretically correct teeth for
all without the intervention of hand and eye operations.
Let Fig. 190 represent Sang's principle in the case of Fig. 153,
as applied to the rack where the de-

scribing circles for face and flank

are one and the same, carrying the
to trace the face CD, and
tracer

the tracer

to trace the flank

CE

of

the rack tooth as the describing circle

rolls along the straight pitch line.

These curves for face and flank are

FIG. 190.
both cycloids and identical in form.
Now, as any wheel of the interchangeable series of Fig. 153, of
the same pitch and describing
circle, will work correctly with
it is plain that if a
were made with
cutter
multiple
of
the same longiteeth
cutting

this rack,

tudinal section as Fig. 190, that

cutter would cut any gear of tho
series referred to,

if,

while cut-

ting, the cutter could be moved

is
relatively to the gear, as

FIG. 191.

relative to

124; or as shown in Fig. 191, where

is

in Figs. 123 and

the multiple cutter, and

MACHINE-MADE TEETH.

169

B the

wheel being cut while it moves along as if its pitch line were
on the pitch line
from
to
f the cutter at the same
time revolving and cutting.
This would seem to require a cutter as long as the circumference
of the gear.
To avoid this, Mr. Swasey splits the cutter, D, into
halves, so that the idle half can move back a pitch while the other
half is cutting and moving with the periphery of the wheel, the
latter being kept in steady revolving motion with its axis stationary.
In this way, the cutter, D, may be so short as to reach from the intersection of its addendum line with that of the describing circle
on one side over to like intersection on the other side, or from G

EF

rolling

to

H, Fig.

190.

In cutting a gear, B, the latter is kept steadily revolving, and

also the cutter D, in exact relation by gearing, the cutter making
as many revolutions to one of the gear blank to be cut as there
are to be teeth in that wheel.

Then with

B and D in

motion in

the cutting engine, a slow feed is given to the cutter, D, toward the
wheel blank, B, cutting all the teeth together by one continuous

When

the gear

is partly cut, all the teeth are cut to the

are finally finished at the same time.
To form the cutter D, Fig. 191, a tool is required which, on its
cutting end has the exact shape of a space in the rack, or of ICJKNL,

action.

same

extent,

and

all

best be formed by some such device as

Pantagraphic Cutter Milling Engine mento have the cycloidal form without hand and

Fig. 190.

This tool

the Pratt

& Whitney

tioned above,

if it is

may

eye processes.
But in the Bang's theory we are not confined to the cycloidal
form of curves ICJ and KNL\ for a brief consideration will show
that any arbitrary curve 1C may be adopted and copied at CJ by
retaining the point C in common and swinging / around to J in the

plane of the paper, and then the whole curve ICJ turned over and
copied at KNL. Thus, for the pantagraphic milling engine, a circle
may be cut in a lathe for the parts 1C and CJ of the templet.

Again, and for the simplest case under Sang's theory, 1C may
be a straight line, which should be located at a certain angle of IJ
with NC, usually about 14 \ degrees. Also the same for KL.

This last-named case gives us the well-known series of interchangeable wheels with involute teeth.
This multiple cutter, thus made in two parts, is, in effect, turned
in a lathe, by cutting one space groove after another with the tool

PRINCIPLES OF MECHANISM.

170

formed as above explained, the top face of the tool being held in the
meridian plane of D while cutting it.
In the Grant Cutting Engine the splitting of the cutter Z), thus
complicating and weakening it, is avoided by the use of a solid
worm cutter or hob, the latter making one revolution while the
gear turns one pitch. In cutting a gear, the motions of the cutter
and gear bank are continuous and in definite relation till the gear
is finished,
similarly as in the Swasey machine, and this machine
would seem to have the preference, unless it is found that the hob
cutter is so complex in form of worm threads as to be unduly difficult to make.
Investigating this, we find that hobs for cutting epicycloidal
teeth must have the axes of the hob inclined to the plane of the
gear being cut by an angle equal that between a plane normal
to the axis of the hob and the tangent to the worm thread of hob,
That is, the element of thread of hob, at the
at the pitch line.
pitch line, must be perpendicular to the plane of the wheel. This
inclination can easily be found from a triangle where one side is the
circumference of the hob at the pitch line, another side, perpendicular to the first, the pitch; in which triangle the smaller angle is to
be taken for the inclination.

FIG. 192.

Even with

this inclination of the thread of the

and when

hob (speaking

of

simply a screw), it
will not be tangent to the cut teeth of a gear, or of a rack, Fig. 1 90,
cut by it, except in an S-shaped curve, acb, Fig. 192, which is more
pronounced as the radius r is shorter and not vanishing until r Is

it

as before the teeth are cut in

it

infinite.*

The equation

of this curve acb is r sin 9

it is

MACHINE-MADE TEETH.

To

171

give an idea of the intensity of the S-curve for epicycloidal

= 0.5".

Then

is 0.158"; and
the remaining ordinates are
- 0.107", 0.129",
0.149", 0.126", 0.104", 0.075, .0",
0.078",
0.147", and
0.162", the extreme ordinates being the greater.
The tool which cuts the worm, as in a screw-cutting lathe,

teeth, take r l

2",p

for the ten equal divisions

from d

to

db, Fig. 192,

should have this shape on its top side at the cutting end, as shown
dotted at G and H, in case the tool is to be used as in cutting other
threads.
But a preferable way is
and of the true epicycloidal shape

to

make

its

flat

top

and straight

in plan as at //, and, after cutting

in the ordinary way to the right depth for the hob thread, then,
without varying the depth of cut, make several passes for cuts with

the tool at varied heights, raising and lowering on a line which is

tangent to the hob thread at the pitch line, and for a range covering the ordinates db and ea. A safe way would be to work the tool
at different heights thus as long as it will take a cut.
This supposes that the tool for cutting the hob thread has the correct shape

and formed as already explained.

where the tooth profiles are not normal to the
line GN9 Fig. 190, the cutter hob will not need inclining so much,
and, in some cases, not at all, as for the involute series.
The hob for involute toothed wheels in interchangeable series for
use on the Grant Cutting Engine is to be made in a similar
way
as at

ICJKNL,

But

Fig. 190,

in cases

axis is to be inclined as before, so that at the finishing of cut

the tangent to the pitch-line element of the hob thread is normal to
the plane of the wheel being cut. But for this case of involute
gearing it is not necessary to incline the axis, as it may be kept
if its

parallel to the face of the wheel being cut, if the hob is formed
with due regard to this, viz. that, in cutting the hob threads, as in
a threading lathe, the tool be held at
varying heights as before,
while cutting, except that now it is to be raised and lowered on a
:

vertical line instead of a tangent to the pitch-line

element,

which, for epicycloidal

last,

is

series,

A-f

and

B=
p

A/
*

r
7.5p

~~ Tl

~p
off from
from D.

wn ich

r-f-ri*

the diametral pitch.

In involute series with axis of hob inclined as above

stated,

B=

and to

'

tan

U^ =

D on DC

52

In constructin

p*

and r sin

is

to be laid off

tlies e

A=

'

and

curves, r is to be laid

from DC on

circle arcs struck

PRINCIPLES OF MECHANISM.

172

conthme the

raising or lowering and repeated cuts as long as it will

In this case, however, the tool may be placed at the
height, first above and afterwards below the axes of the hob, in
cutting the thread equal the diametral pitch divided by twice the
tangent of the angle of inclination of the edges of the tool, or of
the sides of a tooth in the rack, which inclination is usually about
14
Hence the height above or below is about twice
degrees.

take cuts.

the diametral pitch.

In

all

cases above, the thread tool for cutting the hob threads is
and dimensions as answering to the outline

to be correct in shape

Fig. 190, except that it should be somewhat in excess of

length so as to cut the hob deep enough to have clearance at the
top of the teeth, and with due regard to side clearance between resulting teeth of wheel.

1CJKNL,

It

appears that the hob threading tool must have the correct

.shape in any event according to the system, and of the right thickness for a tooth; but that the threads of the hob are not of correct

tooth profile shape in any case. For involute teeth these threads
will not be straight on the meridian intersections.
Hence teeth
of spur wheels cut in this

way

in the

Grant Cutting Engine with

the ordinary worm-wheel hobs will not be correct in profile of

tooth.

In these gear-cutting engines of the Swasey or Grant order

the spacing of the teeth may be expected to be unusually even and
exact, since in the cutting the hob acts upon several teeth at the

same time, and the wheel being cut may be driven around by worm
and wheel. The latter may be made in two half wheels joined on
a plane transverse to the axes and through the middle of the teeth.
In cutting this duplex worm wheel, when partly cut it may have
one half loosened and shifted on the other half the space of a few
teeth, made fast and some further cutting done, then shifted again
and again, till the teeth in the two halves will all fit exactly for
any way of combining the halves. Then when in use and wear the
In this way, with these cutting
seems certain that the spacing as well as the tooth
outline of cut gears may be made marvels of exactness.
part

may

machines,

be occasionally shifted.
it

Tooth Planing or Dressing Machines.

These machines, like the Gleason's, are in use in some machineshops, where the teeth of large heavy cast gears are tool dressed, as

MACHINE-MADE TEE^H.

/, f

173

^^CAUFORH^^
in a

shaping machine, the tool being guided by a templet which

may have been formed by hand, thus admitting hand work

in part.

George H. Corliss appears to have been the first to do this, his

first work dating back to the 40's or 50's: the heavy fly-wheel
gear on the Centennial Corliss Engine, central in Machinery Hall,
being one of the more notable examples of tool-dressed spur wheels.

Large bevel wheels, connecting the main shafting with the above
"
"
machine
engine were also tool dressed on a bevel gear planing
exhibited by Mr. Corliss.
exhibited

Hugo Bilgram

remarkably smooth-running bevel-

gears at the World's Fair of 1893, the teeth of which were dressed
out in a similar way, as an example of commercial work by him.

In these tooth-planing machines for bevel gears the point of

the cutting tool is made to move on a slide in a line joining the
vertex of the cone of the gear and the point of contact of the guide
finger with the guiding-tooth templet, this tool and finger being

mounted, in
cone vertex.

effect,

on a universally swinging arm, pivoted at the

Thus the elements

converge to the

of the finished tooth are

apex of the conic gear.

be tooth dressed on the same machine.

made

to

Large or small gears can

One considerable advan-

tage here over the spur-gear tooth-dressing machine is that the

tooth templet may be made of magnified size, so that bevel wheels,
compared with spur wheels thus tooth-dressed, may be regarded as

more nearly perfect, while the contrary

the ordinary way with revolving cutters.

is

true of wheels cut in

Stepped and Spiral Spur Gearings.

In some of the finer light-running machinery at high speed the
make a humming sound as the
plain spur gearing is quite likely to
teeth engage in succession, each contact giving a slight click.
avoided in a measure by stepped gears, the wheel being
made fast together and arranged in
into as many parts as there are thin
the
divide
as
to
so
pitch
steps
parts in the wheel.
Another way is to use the spiral gearing of Hooke, in which

This

made up

is

of several thin ones

such extent that one pair of teeth

engage before the preceding pair quits engagement.
This causes endlong pressure on the axes, objectionable in

each tooth

is

on a

spiral slant, to

heavy working wheels, but which is often obviated by making each

tooth of equal portions of right and left handed spirals.

CHAPTER

XV.

SECOND: AXES MEETING.

BEVEL GEARING.

THE

teeth of these wheels

may be made

of any of the forms ex-

The pitch surfaces being

plained under the case of axes parallel.
cones, with vertices at a common point, the describing curves, by
analogy with cylindric gears, are also cones, with vertices in common with the pitch cones.

Theoretically Correct Solution.

In practice the bases of the cones may be made spherical, with

centers at the cone vertices, and the describing cones may be
realized in concave templets fitting these spherical surfaces, as
explained in Fig. 138. In this way, the correct tooth curves may
be laid out on the gear blanks, the number and kinds of templets
required being explained in Figs. Ill and 112, though here all
made concave and fitting the spherical base of the cone.

In these wheels, no circular rolling cone can describe precisely

flanks, and to approximate them the describing circular

radial

cone rnnst be made a

trifle

sphere from the pitch

larger than to span the distance on the

line to the pole or axis to the wheel.

Approximate Solution.

But a much simpler way, and that usually followed in practice,

Tredgold's approximate construction, which, though slightly
inaccurate in theory, is appreciably exact in practice.
In Fig. 193,

is

174

AXES MEETING.
take

and

for

the

175

wheels with

pitch surfaces in contact at CG, they

being of conical form, with the cone
vertices at a

common

axes

OAD

being

length

CG

is

point in 0, the

and QBE.
The
and
also
the
arbitrary,

angle of intersection of the axes at 0.

In practice the latter is usually a
right angle.

Tredgold draws a

line,

DCE,

per-

pendicular to the line or element of

contact CO of the pitch cones, when,
if CD be revolved about the axis A 0,
a conic surface

pitch cone,

ACDJ

ACOJ.

will

FIG. 193.

be generated, which

Likewise will the line

is

normal

generate the cone

Developing these cones

BCEK, normal to the pitch cone BCOK.

from the line ED, we obtain the circles of development
ECH, with centers at D and E.
Upon

to the

CE

these circles the teeth are laid oufc as

if

DCF

and

they were the

pitch lines of a pair of gears, any system of teeth being selected

as pref erred.
For epicycloidal teeth with concave flanks, the

describing circle carrying the tracer J has a diameter which is less

than CE, and in the usual way is rolled inside of
and outside

CH

of CF, to generate a pair of

mating tooth curves, a face and

rolled on the other sides of the

Another describing circle is

CF and Gil, thus completing the tooth

The addendum
be drawn

CEH

profiles as dotted.

circles, root circles, clearing curves, etc.,

may

spur gearing, when the conic surfaces CDFdiid

be re-developed or returned to the cones CDAJ and

in, as in

may

CEBK,

flank.
circles

taking the tooth drawings with them, giving us the laid-out

teeth on the conic blanks, as
in Fig. 194.

In

preparing the blanks,

they should be left larger to
include the addenda and other
portions of the finished wheel
as shown in Fig. 194, unless it
is

to

preferred to dress the flank

the root surface and add

the teeth thereto as often done.

The tooth-surface elements should

all

vanish at 0, and a convenient

PRINCIPLES OF MECHANISM.

176

way to give the teeth the right directions in the

wooden gear patterns, for instance, is to fix a fine line at
the point 0, which may be drawn to the tooth outline at C to

as well as sure

finished

determine when the tooth

is

dressed to the proper lines, element

by element.
Bevel wheels

are not practicable in interchangeable series,

one
because,
pair have axes at right angles, the substitution for
one of these of another correct working wheel of larger or smaller
if

radius changes the angle between the axes to something other than
the usual 90 degrees. Therefore the teeth, and both wheels entire,
must be made in pairs and of shapes to suit, regardless of interchangeability.
Spiral Bevel-wheel Teeth.

These are possible, but not common, because difficult to make,

except by special machinery, which probably does not exist. Stepped
teeth would be more readily made.
Bevel -wheel teeth, carefully planed to shape by templet in a gearSee Tooth Planing, under
planing machine, will work fairly well.

Axes

Parallel.

CHAPTER

XVI.

THIRD: AXES CROSSING WITHOUT MEETING.

SKEW-BEVEL GEAR WHEELS.

As

APPROXIMATE CONSTRUCTION.

stated in connection with non-circular

skew

bevels, a

method

theoretically correct and practicable teeth is not

known, except for gears taken at or near the common perpendicular
between the axes, or near the gorge circles.

of laying out

But teeth which approximate the

epicycloidal

form may be

generated by employing generating hyperboloids to roll upon the

pitch hyperboloids inside and outside, in a manner analogous to the
use of describing cones in common bevel wheels, and as shown in

These approximate tooth curves and surfaces become

more and more inaccurate as the angle between the axes increases
toward 90 degrees, at which limit considerable interference occurs,
Fig. 138.

"
"
by arbitrarily dressing off
requiring the teeth to be doctored
certain tooth faces or mating flanks to an appreciable extent, to get
the wheels to work with acceptable smoothness.

The patterns for cast gears may thus be executed to better advantage, probably, than in any other way, even not excepting Prof.
MacCord's construction, based partly on Olivier's theory of involutes for one tooth surface, assuming another, and determining the
rest

difficult conjugating.
construct these approximate skew bevels, let PRLNSQ, in
Fig. 195, represent the blank of a skew-bevel wheel, for which the
is the pitch surface, deterhyperboloid of revolution

by

To

1TUVKM

mined

as in Fig. 10, extended

IM to

from

and past the gorge

circle*

TK, reaching UVat a distance OZ = OA beyond the gorge circle.

are drawn
The addendum and dedendum surfaces PQ and
'

RW

in throughout, being hyperboloids of revolution, because a top center line of an extended tooth, as well as a root line, being straight,
would, in revolving, sweep up hyperboloids of revolution, for the-

same reason

as

would the element

JK these three lines are shown

which

CO

of the pitch surface.

At.

as parallel to the axis in projection^

determines the height, ab, of a tooth at the gorge circle,,
177

178

Then

PRINCIPLES OF MECHANISM.
the contour lines of the

addendum

surface can be

drawn

in

NSbd and LYae. The lines NL and SY should be

normal to MK, to the bottom of the web upon which the

as hyperbolas,

extended

teeth are mounted.

With this much drawn, the skew-bevel blank
can be turned up, arms and hub being assigned at will.

FIG. 195.

IF

Tredgold's method is adopted, as in Fig. 193, of developing in

the normal cone (normal to the pitch surface) upon which to

The epicycloidal or involute form of tooth

lay out the teeth at F.
may be chosen here, as well as in ordinary bevel gearing, but this
example will be carried out in the approximate epicycloidal form,
with a view to testing the theory of the generating hyperboloids.

The rolling circle applied here gives a close approximation to

the normal section of a tooth at 7, as would be developed by the
describing hyperboloid above explained; so the full drawing of the
skew tooth

will

be

first

given, and

its errors

afterwards sought out.

AXES CROSSING WITHOUT MEETING.

179

Instead of the normal section of tooth, we require an oblique

shown at A, formed by the intersection with the tooth

section, as

of the surface of revolution

NLRP. To

obtain

the excess of

width of this oblique over the normal section, revolve the line CO
at E.
(same as CO, Fig. 10) about the axis, till C falls at A and
Then revolve the center line EA of the tooth about E, till A falls
at 6r, where EG is parallel to the plane of the paper, when EG

true length.
convenient way to find G is to make
in
to
G
CO,
equal
length
being on the line AD. Then the
is the angle of obliquity of the normal section of tooth
angle

appears in

its

EG

OGE

with the oblique section at A. Therefore the width of the oblique

compared with the normal section of tooth at Fis in the ratio of

GE to GO. This may be laid off at several points in the height

and the oblique section determined. If preferred to do it now, the
faces and flanks may be arbitrarily doctored from the pitch line,
each way, to prevent interference, as explained above in connection
with Fig. 196.

With the oblique section determined, as in the outside lines

we may cut a templet in thin material and use it on ICM, as

at F,

explained in Fig. 179, to delineate

all

the teeth on the pitch line

IM.

AE
UV

Then, in cutting the teeth to shape, the oblique direction

to
probably best arrived at by carefully cutting a thin piece
all the tooth outlines, beveled back in excess from the tooth profiles,
so that OZ equals OA, and in
and mounting it on the axis
is

AOZ

such position that the line CO from the center of a tooth at C

Then a thread may be
will strike the center of an outline at H.
to the
drawn at any time, in dressing a tooth, from any point on

like point on C, and each element of C thus dressed the whole

length of the tooth to fit the line. This process, repeated for all

the teeth, completes them unless when the mating wheel is likewise
thus far completed and the pair be placed in running relation it
be found that interference exists. If so, the teeth are to be dressed

which completes the wheel.

These wheels may thus be made of any desired length from C
toward H. To give an idea of the amount of interference of the
epicycloidal teeth as above, Fig. 196 is introduced, which was drawn
with great care and labor from a model like that described by Geo.
In
B. Grant in the American Machinist for Sept. 5, 1889, Fig. 3.

off at will, till interference is relieved,

the present example the axes are at right angles, at a distance of 3.7
inches apart at the common perpendicular, the wheels being 11 and

PRINCIPLES OF MECHANISM.

180

diameter respectively, and with the velocity-ratio of

These tooth-curves were traced with the true rolling hyper -

6.8 inches in

3 to 2.
boloids.

The figure is a transverse section, taken on a perpendicular tothe element of contact, CO, Fig. 195, and at a distance of 5.8 inches

FIG. 196.

from 0.

through the two pitch hyperboloids in curves of

and BB, and the describing hyperboloids in the
and FCG, which curves of course are all ellipses.

It cuts

curves

AA
DCE

Also

cuts

intersection

it

all

the mating tooth -curves at three quarters of an inch

apart on the pitch

line.

The describing hyberboloids

and half as large

the
flanks
in the smaller
by theory
figure shows them to be very nearly so.
are both of one size,

as the smaller wheel, so that

wheel should be radial. The

This is a somewhat extreme case of proportions, and we might
expect high per cents of interference. The figure shows almost no
interference on the left-hand side of the pitch lines up to a pitch

two inches; while on the right-hand side, for a pitch of f

inch, 14 inch, and 2| inch, we find the faces and flanks cutting into
each othei to a normal depth of 5, 6, and 10 hundred ths of an inch
of over

AXES CROSSING WITHOUT MEETING.

181

For a pitch of
respectively, or about four per cent, of the pitch.
eight inches the interference depth reaches 15 hundredths of an
two per cent, of the pitch.
the
Also,
figure shows that below C the faces of the smaller
wheel must be trimmed off toward the point and on the lower side

inch, or about

for pitches over about 1.5 inches, while the flanks of teeth of the
larger wheel above C seem to need dressing out on the lower sides.

The
a

figure may thus aid in determining how to doctor the teeth in

practical case, for best results.
One noticeable feature of these tooth curves is that, if they

interfere, they intersect at the surfaces of the describing hyperboon the lines
and
loids, in the central positions shown, viz.
a
fact
in
also
out
Grant
the
few
curves
in
1889
FCG,
pointed
by

ECD

shown.

Combined punching and shearing

some 20" diameter.

tools

have had skew gears

EXACT CONSTRUCTION.

The

exact construction of these teeth has been best treated by

American Machinist- and also in his valuable work on

Grant

in the

Teeth

of Gears, where the theory of Olivier and treatment by

Herrmann

are discussed.

Olivier appears to have originated involute tooth surfaces,

which

may be

generated by the revolution of a

line
about
a
the
line being maintained at a concylinder,
straight
stant angle with the cylinder and prevented from lateral slip.
The

lie calls spiraloids,

that

result is accomplished by rolling a plane around a cylinder

This
without slipping, on which plane a line is drawn obliquely.
line will sweep up, in the space about the cylinder, the spiraloid of
Olivier, which spiraloid surfaces are proposed for skew-bevel teeth.
Any point in the above line will evidently describe an involute

same

about the cylinder, and all points of the line

together, will describe an involute spiral or spiraloid.

In this description it is immaterial to the

result if the plane slips on the cylinder in the
direction of the line, that is, if the line be only

allowed to slide on itself, not laterally, and the

angle between the line and cvlinder be preserved
constant.
Fig. 197 shows a section at right angles to the spiraloid as

PRINCIPLES OF MECHANISM.

182

swept up by one line on the plane, CED being cut by the line at
one side of that point of the line which comes to touch the cylinder
A at C, and CFD cut by the line at the other side of the same point.

THE OLIVIER

SPIRALOID.

In a general view this spiraloid with section, Fig. 197, appears

like a twisted bar in which the cylinder A C is straight, the de-

being like a spiral or helical

the
like
along
length, and the edge

pression
'crease

a spiral ridge. According to what

above, the curves of cross-section

CFD,

stated

is

CED

and

Fig. 197, are the ordinary involutes to

the circle

AC.

In Fig. 198 two views are presented of a

multiple spiraloid of six ridges and creases,,
the intersection of each ridge by a normal

plane giving two equal limited involutes, as

CD

and ED.

Extended involutes give Fig.

203.

will touch one

it lies
from G to
in contact with the under side of the next

straight

ridge from

line,

FGH,

to G, while

Therefore these ridges

ridge above FG.
are enveloped by surfaces which have involute elements in normal section and rightlined elements in lines tangent to the cylinder

FIG 198

^ CEJ,

as in the

example of the

line

FGH.

Interchangeability of the Olivier Spiraloids.

Now if we remove the alternate ridges or threads, and cut

clearance grooves into the cylinder to sufficient depth, as shown
by the dotted lines UK, this multiple spiraloid will work, according to Olivier, as a skew-bevel gear with another like it, or with
any other of the same normal pitch, regardless of the axial or the
circumferential pitch of the helical threads or teeth. This is true

even at the limit where the helical ridges become parallel to the
axis, provided that the normal pitch is still the same and that the
normal planes cut the ridges in involute lines of section, as at CD r
Fig. 198.

This

is

equivalent to saying that a numerous set of these spira-

AXES CROSSING WITHOUT MEETING.

loids of the

same normal pitch

Herrmann pronounces

against

will

183

work together interchangeably.

this.

Interference of Olivier Teeth.

But Olivier's claims can be shown to be true for these gears as

cut off at the intersection of the axes, as shown in Fig. 199, when
so cut that no contacts of teeth occur outside of the angle A OB,
because interference of teeth takes place outside these limits, of the
as found to occur between involute teeth of cylindric

same kind

FIG. 199.

FIG. 200.

gears with involutes drawn from the pitch circles instead of base
An example is shown in Fig. 200 at D.
circles within.
By undercutting the teeth in the vicinity of 0, Fig. 199, and
to

some extent up the face CD, Fig. 198, with plenty of bottom
work when the gears extend both ways

clearance, the teeth will

past 0, Fig. 199,

if

the

shown by Oscar Beal

in

addendum

is

not excessive, as has been,

good working gears of the kind in metal.

Nature of Contact of

Olivier's Teeth.

Herrmann

claims that these gears, if working at all, will have

tooth contacts only at points instead of lines, but it can be shown
that the contacts will be in lines like FG, Fig. 198.
Olivier holds that the gears as cut off at 0,Fig. 1 99, will drive only
and that to drive both ways they must be extended

in one direction,

beyond 0. This is proved by the Beal gears to be true, as well as

the necessity for clearance for thick addenda, as above explained.
Thus we have very satisfactory and perfect working skew-bevel
gears of the kind shown in Fig. 198, with straight line contacts between good shaped teeth, though the gears extended both ways have
not contacts far from the gorge circles, but are capable of driving
either way. These gears appear, however, like cylindric skew gears,
but are in reality skew bevel, as taken at the gorge of the hyperbo-

PRINCIPLES OF MECHANISM.

184

though with no fixed relation between the gorge

angles between axes and line of contact.
loids,

radii,

and

If the gears are at right angles the working straight line contacts
will all be within the rectangle abcO for drivingone way, and in the rectangle defO for

driving
the opposite way, while the appreciable interference will be outside the dotted curves g and

The rectangles are deU, as shown near 0.

termined by the intersections of the addendum surfaces with the common tangent plane
between the two cylinders A and B, which

FIG. 201.

cylinders form the bases of the involute teeth.

is therefore ce, and of
ing length of gear

The

greatest work-

it is bf.

RESULTS FROM AN EXAMPLE.

To better fix the ideas, a particular example is referred to of the

above cylindric skew-bevel screw-gears, in which the gorge-circle
cylinder pitch surfaces extended indefinitely each way, as shown in
Fig. 202, are 5.1" and 2.2" in diameter, with axes at right angles.
For an addendum of 0.32" the interference was found inconsiderable,

but for thicker addenda appreciable interference would begin

at about the dotted lines g and h, Fig. 201, when gO and hO equal
about 0.8". Then, in case of the thicker addenda, with clearance for

interference cut from (7 up toward D, and E up toward D, Fig. 198,

on the face the necessary amount, it is found that there will be no
contacts at or about 0, Fig. 201, for a distance from
of about the
same value as the distance from the dotted curves g and over to
where the interference for the actual addenda ceases, and probably
within some such shaped outline as the curves g and Ji. These
//

quantities are admitted to be only approximate.

may Demonstrate the Principle respecting the above exact

We

construction of Olivier by use of Fig. 202 in some respects the

same as one given by Grant. Here, for the pitch surfaces of the
and BE, the cylinders of the
proposed skew gears, we take

AD

gorge

circles,

tangency

is

touching

a plane

0, between which cylinders in common

upon which are parallel lines, the normal

at

GG,

Now suppose the plane to be moved along

with its parallel lines maintained parallel to a fixed line, and that
the cylinders AD and BE are revolved by the plane in such a way
as to allow no lateral slipping of the parallel lines of G on the
pitch of teeth apart.

AXES CROSSING WITHOUT MEETING.

185

cylinders, while at the same time admitting endlong sliding of the

lines in their own tracks on the cylinders to any extent. It is plain
that if the lines could leave an impression of themselves on the

cylinders the latter would appear like perfect screws, having a

ber of linear threads.

num-

Now

suppose that the cylinders had been covered with some

material during this rolling, and that the material within
cut
easily
the surfaces cut by the lines on G remained attached to the cylinders.

It is plain that

the cylinders with these thread ridges thus

B
FIG. 202.

formed and attached would be

like that of Fig. 198, the surfaces

of the 'threads being of involute form in normal actions and with

straight-lined elements in all lines tangent to the cylinders, as for

FGH,

Also, it is easily seen that these surfaces are tanPig. 198.

other
within the angles A
and
to
each
above and begent
low 0, and that these lines of tangency will all be in the plane G,

OB

because this plane

iheo, these

is

>tlirjeads,

D OE

normal to all the cut surfaces. Theoretically,

or spiral ridges, will have perfect right-lined

PRINCIPLES OF MECHANISM.

186

AOB

DOE

and
to any extent from 0,
contacts within the angles
and exactly the form of contacts required for gear teeth.
In the above, no particular angle has been assumed between the
cylinders, nor between either one of

them and the cutting

lines

on

cylinders may have any

possible angular relation with each other, or with the lines on the
into
plane G\ and that if the lines be assumed as running from

the plane G.

It appears, then, that the

AOB

AOE

the contacts will all be

instead of the angle
the angle
and BOD, so that the case is perfectly
within the angles

AOE

general.

In

all

cases

be some degree of interference, as

there will

explained at Figs. 199 and 201, in the angles opposite those within
which the contacts are found.

On

account of this interference

it

is

advisable in

practical

that the addenda be comgearing of this kind extending past

paratively light say in the neighborhood of a fifth of the mean

gorge radius and the teeth correspondingly small.

In these gears, though perhaps called skew bevels, if the teeth
extend to sharp tops throughout they will be cylindrical screws, as
in Fig. 198, there being alternating ridges or teeth,
and 1.
at

and

spaces,

as.

In practical gearing, the angles between the lines of G and axes

B must be such that the normal pitch will divide the pitch

and

cylinders without remainders.

Gears of this kind, instead of being taken at the gorge circles
0, may be selected at a distance from the gorge circles, as at A' and
#', Fig. 202, and comparatively short. But if the teeth go to sharp

The
tops they will be short, many-threaded, cylindric screws.
teeth of these gears will be comparatively flat and practically
useless if selected far from the gorge, though they will work per|

The gear A', Fig. 202, is

fectly in theory.
shown in Fig. 203 with skew omitted, where

AJis

the cylinder

AD

of Fig. 202,

and A'

the gear.

The

involutes, as extended, intersect at

M, N, etc.; and the larger

gears, like A', require no bottoming clearance, such as needs to be provided for gorge-

various points

UK,

circle gears, as at
Fig. 198.
ft fi nf1 iiy appears that we have

no exact

theory for skew-bevel teeth that are of practicable utility, except

AXES CROSSING WITHOUT MEETING.

at or near the gorge circles,

187'

those selected at a considerable dis-

tance from the gorge being worthless from excessive flatness of

and doing more crowding than driving. Good practical skew

bevels must, therefore, come from the approximate solution of
Fig. 195, or be fitted with the assumed and conjugated teeth of

teeth,

MacCord.
It is plain that the velocity-ratio changes with a change of the
inclination of the lines on the plane G, Fig. 202.
This controverts

the statement in Prof. MacCord's Kinematics, page 365, respecting

twisted skew wheels.

The

Olivier

Figs. 204

Skew Bevels find application in such examples as

To design those of Fig. 204, draw the axes AO

and 205.

FIG. 205.

FIG. 204.

and BO, and generating line DO, as answering to one of the lines on
the plane O, Fig. 202. Then on a line perpendicular to
lay off
T
the distances 06* and Oc, equal to the number of teeth JV and n in

DO

the large and small gears respectively, multiplied by the normal

Draw the triangles OCa and Ocb, right angled at (7 and c,
pitch.

and with Oa and Ob perpendicular

to the axes.

Then

the diameters

or radii of the wheels will be in the relation of the lengths

Ob.

Oa and

In Fig. 205 one wheel is a spur gear, answering to the case in

the Olivier gears where the lines on plane G, Fig. 202, are parallel
The diagram is lettered for similar quantities
to one of the axes.
as in Fig. 204.

To
cutters

cut these teeth, so as to make the wheels Olivier wheels, the

must be of such special forms aa to give to the teeth, in

sections
lines.

normal to the

But

axis,

this is hardly

'to

the involute form outside the pitch

be expected in practice, and ordinary-

PRINCIPLES OF MECHANISM.

188

cutters will be used, even

if

the teeth have contacts at points

only.

In Figs. 204 and 205 either or both wheels may be enlarged to

the rack, which in action will slide endlong in their own tracks.
The Worm and Gear may be made as Olivier gears by making

one wheel very much smaller than the other, and giving the smaller
one only one ridge or screw thread, by properly inclining the lines
on plane G, Fig. 202, and by use of the proper shaped cutter.
But this, again, can hardly be expected in practice, as good
working worm wheels are produced by using a hob cutter of the
.same size and shape as the worm itself to finish cutting the gear.
The normal pitch should be the same here at the pitch lines

worm as for the gear. When the axes are at right angles, as
usually the case, the pitch of the worm in a direction parallel to the
axis is the same as the circumferential pitch of wheel at pitch line.
The wheel teeth, instead of being cut straight, are concave, as
lor the

formed by the revolving hob

surface between teeth.

cutter, thus securing

more bearing

In a section taken by a plane normal to the wheel axis and containing the axis of worm, the shapes of the teeth of worm and wheel
should be the same as in the rack and pinion of Figs. 162 or 167,

with the same points observed as to interference of teeth.

The

worm may

be single or many threaded.

The Hindley or "Corset-shaped"

worm may

be supposed to

possess advantages over the cylindric worm when examined in section; but a little consideration will show that its tooth contacts with

the mating wheel are more like points, or, at best, a line on each
tooth from top to bottom, because of the continually varying diameter of the worm, so that no thread can fit the teeth of the wheel
well as the cylindric worm thread can, with line contacts along
the thread from side to side of wheel; and second, that the larger
average diameter of the worm will give rise to more rapid wear.

-as

Skew-bevel Pin Gearing is possible for all angles between axes,

but the pins take complex shape, except for the one case of rightangled axes and velocity-ratio unity; when the pins are cylindrical
and in diameter equal the shortest distance between axes.
Worm pin gearing is also possible; but as these pin wheels are
scarcely demanded in practice, they will not be described here.
Detailed descriptions are found in MacCord's Kinematics, pp. 284293,

AXES CROSSING WITHOUT MEETING.

189*

INTERMITTENT MOTIONS.

Movements of this class are given in Figs. 14 to 16, where the

The teeth on these wheels are the same
pitch lines were discussed.
as those already considered, for both the principal circular arcs and
the non-circular initial arcs, and also for the starting and stopping
accessories, as explained in Figs. 140 to 143.
These movements may be made for the three cases of (1)

Parallel, (2)

Axes
Axes
Without
(3)
Crossing
Meeting;
these have been duly considered for

Axes Meeting, and

but, as the principles for all

non-circular pitch lines, they will not be taken

simpler case.

up here

for the

CHAPTER

XVII.

ALTERNATE MOTIONS.
LIMITED ALTERNATE MOTIONS.

I.

DIRECTIONAL RELATION CHANGING.

First.

With

IN Fig. 206
:and

is

Solid

Engaging and Disengaging

illustrated a

movement

Parts.

of this class with engaging

a view of being a

disengaging features, all designed with

thoroughly practical and durable working movement. It is laid

out with involute teeth.
If revolving right-handed, before the tooth c can strike upon e,
the tooth a will have moved to some extent upon its mate b and to

FIG. 206.

have thrown the rack

fully, so that interference

cannot occur at

ce.

gradually, the portion at d is carried up near to

the center of A, so that the first impulse for moving
is received
at d, where the velocity of A is less than at
and thus reducing
,

Then, to

start

the initial blow.

if

This

may

be carried

still

farther toward the axis

desired.

In this construction there will be a momentary pause of the

rack at the end of the movement.
190

ALTERNATE MOTIONS.

191

With Attached Engaging and Disengaging Spurs.

In Fig. 207 the movement has attached spurs to control the reversal of movement so that the blow may be reduced. This is taken
from a working design. The teeth are epicycloidal, though they
Second.

may

be of any form preferred.

FIG. 207.

The shock due

carrying the spurs

to initial

up

motion

so far that the

reduced to a minimum by
normal to the curves of spur

is

will strike so close to the axis of

and pin

as to indicate easy

starting.

For
though
spurs

simplicity, the movement of Fig. 206 has the advantage,

The
this will be accompanied with less shock at reversal.

may

be carried

still

higher to farther reduce the shock.

The Mangle Wheel.

Under velocity-ratio constant the pitch lines must be circular,

and in this movement the wheel is limited to one revolution at
most, an example of which is shown in Fig. 104.
In this form of axes meeting the wheel may have ordinary teeth
on the edges of a band instead of pins; but for a face wheel pins
would be necessary, otherwise the opposite sides of a band bearing
teeth would give different radii of pitch lines, and hence different
This construction may,
velocities for forward and return motion.

however, be required, giving a case of velocity-ratio changing,

though constant for each direction.
II.

UNLIMITED ALTERNATE MOTIONS.

These are found in the mangle rack, which may be conceived

of by supposing the wheel of Fig. 104 to be cut at the center of the
H-shaped reversing piece, then straightened out to a rack, and
then mounted on proper slides.
The teeth may be on the upper and lower sides of a rack bar
instead of a row of pins.
Any length may be given to the moveclassed as unlimited.
it
be
hence
and
ment,
may

CHAPTER
.

XVIII.

CAM MOVEMENTS.

IN a cam movement the path and the law

of

motion of the

fol-

may be determined independently of the driver, when the

latter is made to conform therewith.
Thus the follower path may be a straight line, a circle or any
other curve, and the movement of the follower in that path may be
lower

assumed point by point for the

ward movement.

The cam

is

full

forward and also for the back-

accompanied by an undue amount of

friction

by the

rubbing of the follower on the driver, which in turn contributes to

the wear of the parts, causing backlash and, in high speeds, noise.
This movement is the one usually called to his aid as the last
resort, when the designer, seeking to avoid it, 'fails to obtain thenecessary motion of a piece by other means, such as may be pro-

posed for lighter and more quiet running of parts.

The cam is, therefore, a most useful movement, and in certain
cases

must be accepted, though

to be avoided

whenever

possible.

CAMS IN GENERAL.
BY
The

driver

may have

CO-ORDINATES.

a non-uniform motion as well as the folTo unite all questions in a general

lower.

solution of a

cam and

follower in one

A, Fig. 208, represent the driver

which is attached a pointer, A\,
the same turning so as to be in positions
plane, let

axis, to

2, 3, 4, etc., at

the ends of equal successive

The unequal

angles at

indicate variable motion of A.

Let the

intervals of time.

curve

1, 2, 3, etc.,

of the follower,

which reacts against the cam, being

at

represent the path

the point of the latter,.

at positions 2, 3, 4, etc., at the

ends of equal successive intervals of time, these intervals being the*

192

CAM MOVEMENTS.
same

The mechanism by which

as for A.

move

193

mounted, compel-

is

the path 1, 2, 3, etc., is not shown.

ling
Draw a circle arc la from the follower path to the position 1 of
the driver pointer. Likewise arcs 2b,
it

to

in-

This gives us
3c, 4d, etc., as shown.
co-ordinates by which to construct the

1, J2, c3,
Fig. 209, where
are laid off from the initial line

cam, as
etc.,

/^^ ^^ X 7\/D

Al.

Then

the

cam

outline

may be drawn

in as the curve 1, 2, 3, 4, etc.

FIG. 209.

In practice this

may

all

be done in

the same figure.

This cam, .45, while turned from the position shown around till
comes to E, will evidently drive the follower's reacting point
The arc E5, from the construction,
along in its path from 1 to E.
evidently equals the arc \e of Fig. 208, as it should, and likewise
5

for the other arcs.

proposed, while

Hence the follower

move

will

has the motion assigned to

in

its

path as

it.

BY INTERSECTIONS.

The cam may

be drawn by the

method

of intersections, as

Fig. 210, where the follower path

[D

iir

is

laid off in the several positions in the

inverse order of motion of A, following

the successive equal intervals of time,
as shown.

For convenience

in this, a templet

may be cut

to the follower path curve,

with center point at A noted. Then

FIG. 210

with the angles 1^42, 2^43, etc., laid off and noted, the several
curves can be struck by templet.
Now, drawing in the circle arcs from the points 1, 2, 3, etc., of
the follower path, we obtain intersections and can draw the curve
1, 2, 3, 4, etc.

The method
and

as the

positions

of intersections

motion of the driver

1,

is

usually employed in practice,

generally uniform, the path

is

2 2, 3 3, etc., are uniformly distributed.

DIRECTIONAL RELATION AND VELOCITY-RATIO.

In the above cases the directional relation
the follower to return to

its

starting point, as

is

constant but for

continues,

it

must.

PRINCIPLES OF MECHANISM.

194

For this we may draw the cam in the same way, laybe changing.
off
another
set of points in its path for the return of the foling
and
the
lower,
corresponding angles of A.
the angles for A are equal, and the points 1, 2, 3, etc.,
equidistant, the velocity-ratio is evidently constant, regarding the

When

follower as that which moves in the path 1, 2, 3, etc. ; otherwise

not.
Sometimes the follower moves in a straight line, and some-

times swings about a center B, the velocity of which in either case

to be compared with A.

is

It

and

seems unnecessary to classify cams under directional relation

and they will be treated here without it.

velocity-ratio,

VELOCITY-RATIO FOE A SWINGING FOLLOWER.

In Fig. 211 we have a cam A, and a follower BD, which swings
The path of the point
which acts against
about an axis B.

FIG. 211.

the cam

is

a circle arc,

EF.

To

find the velocity-ratio between

to Figs. 105 and

and B, draw the normal DC, and then, according

106, the
velocity -ratio

velocity of
;
r^ j
ang. velocity of

= ang.

B = AC
-^-^,
-.

being thus in the inverse ratio of the segment of the line of centers,
as has been found for other movements.

the highest point of the cam passes under D, the normal

will be zero.
A and the angular velocity of
As A moves on, the point C changes to the other side of A, and the
will be reversed, thus changing the directional relation.
motion of

When

CD

will strike at

When C is between A and B the directions

while for C outside the directions are alike.

of

motion

are. opposite,

CAM MOVEMENTS.
VELOCITY-RATIO

When
is

an

at

195

WHEN THE FOLLOWER MOVES

IN

moves in a straight line,

as
in Fig. 212, and
away,
is to be comthe linear velocity at

the follower point

finity.

in effect

BD = B C

infinite distance

Then

A STRAIGHT LINE.

in-

pared with the angular velocity of

for velocity-

ratio.

To

we have from

find the linear velocity of D,

the above the

linear velocity of

and

BO X

ang. velocity of

this velocity-ratio, Fig. 212, will be

linear velocity of
ang. velocity of

To draw an interpretation from this, take the

expression in the form
linear velocity of

D = AC X

ang. velocity of A.

This

in its
signifies that the linear velocity of
and
for
the
straight path,
position considered, is

as if it were
equal to the velocity of the point
fixed upon the cam A and revolving with it.

FIG. 212.

CONTINUOUSLY REVOLVING CAM, AND RETURNING

FOLLOWER.
BY METHOD OF INTERSECTION.
Assume the motion of A uniform, and that the follower swings
about an axis B, Fig. 213, causing D to move in a circular path,
D, 1, 2, 3, 4, forward, and 5, 6, 7, 8, D on the return. Draw circles
through these points. There being nine divisions in the follower
path, make also nine corresponding equal divisions in a circle
struck through B. From each point of division as a center and
with a radius BD strike the nine circle-arc follower-path lines 1,
2, 3, etc., as

shown, intersecting the parallel circular lines drawn

on the cam from A.

Then draw in the

linear

cam

tersection of these lines of like

Numbers

in

the circles about

Therefore the cam

Here

outline through the points of in-

number.

are in

order left-handed.

to revolve in the inverse order,

right-handed.
the follower moves forward and then back to the point of
is

beginning in one revolution of A, and the movements

may

be re-

PRINCIPLES OF MECHANISM.

196

peated indefinitely. The forward movement of D is faster than

the return, there being four and five divisions to each respectively.
These divisions of path are to represent the velocity of D.

FIG. 213.

Here the directional

relation

is

changing and the velocity-ratio

varying.

CASE OF A CYLINDRICAL GAM.

Here
showing

AA

is

the elevation of the cylindric

eight equal divisions, as in Fig. 214.

cam and
At EF

is

the plan
the de-

>4
008

D
FIG. 214.

velopment of the cylinder, showing the linear cam, the same being
also shown on the cylinder.

is the point of the follower moving in a straight path parallel

to the cylinder, so that the follower-path lines in the development

AM MOVEMENTS.

197

are laid off the points 1, 2, 3, 4,

are straight and vertical. Above
the follower path, and through them are drawn the parallel

etc., in

cam

lines.

Then

the linear

sections of lines of like

line
as

is

to be

drawn through

inter-

shown.

we obtain the cylindric

may be made upon the cylin-

the cylinder,

By redeveloping upon

In practice, the drawing

linear cam.

der

cam

number,

itself direct.

The

case of the figure

is

a simple one of a right-line

movement

of the follower.

The double screw movement

tion,

where a reciprocation

cam, the threads or cam

The

is

an example of a double cam mo-

effected by several turns of the screw

grooves returning and crossing themselves.

follower in this case

is

is

oblong, and of length sufficient to guide

it in one groove as it passes another.

In case of a circular path for D, the vertical or follower-path

FIG. 215.

lines in the

path, as

development would be circular and copied from the

shown

in Fig. 215.

It is possible for the

case the path lines on

path of

D to

be some other curve, in which

EF should be copied from

it.

CASE OF A CONICAL GAM.

This

is

similar to Fig. 214, the parallel

cam

lines

around the

conic surface developing in circles as in Fig. 216. The follower

path is here taken as an element of the cone for a simple case.
But the path of D may be a circle arc or other line when the folwill of course be drawn to the same circle
lower-path lines of

EF

arc or other curve as that of the path.

PRINCIPLES OF MECHANISM.

198

CASE OF A SPHERICAL CAM.

Here the sphere

for the case of axes

A A is to serve for the

A and B at right angles

cam, as well adapted

and intersecting, the

FIG. 216.

sphere being centered at the point of intersection, as in Fig. 217.

rn

FIG. 217.

The

position of the follower point

is

so chosen that the angle

CAM MOVEMENTS.

199

D" A" B" is a right angle, and the motion of in its path will
describe a meridian to the sphere.
Then the proper number of
meridians and parallels are to be drawn for path lines and cam
parallels, the latter

through the points

The

seen in plan at A'D'A'.

linear

1, 2, 3, etc.,

of the path, as

cam may now be drawn

as

before, through intersections of lines of like numbers.

It is easy to imagine a less simple case, as, for instance, where
the angle
is not a right angle for which a follower-path line

BDA

of

on the sphere would not be on a meridian, but on an oblique

great circle.
Also, the line of

in front of the axis

AA,

meeting,

might be

at a considerable distance

back or

as for the case of axes crossing but not

will be in the form of a circublank

ADA

when the cam

lar spindle, or a circular zone, respectively.

A PLANE CAM
For

this the

cam

OR CAM PLATE.

will be like a sliding plate, a

cam

plate; as if

the development of Fig. 214 or 215 were mounted to slide on

guides in reciprocation, or the corresponding part of Fig. 216 to

swing about a

pivot.

CAM WITH FLAT-FOOTED FOLLOWER.

In some cam movements the follower has a flat bearing piece,
D, Fig. 218, instead of a point, which for the same cam changes
the law of motion of the follower, but it presents a more extended
bearing surface to the cam. It is evidently immaterial where the
guide rod B is, whether to right or left, provided the pressure at

does not cramp

excessively.
Again,
swing about a center, B as shown in dotted
f

',

The

velocity-ratio for

the normal

to be

be mounted

to-

found as before, with respect to

DC.

CAMS FOR SPECIFIC

1st.

is

may
lines.

LAW

OF MOTION or FOLLOWER.

Uniform Motion of Follower, in Reciprocation in a

Straight Line.

In Fig. 219, take D, 1, 2, 3, 4 as equidistant points in a straight

from it,
follower path which passes the axis A at a distance
Draw parallel cam circles through the points to 4, and the fol-

EA

200

PRINCIPLES OF MECHANISM.

lower-path lines as tangent to the circle

EA,

cutting the outer

oircle at equidistant points, 1, 2, 3, 4, etc., to 8.

FIG. 218.

FIG. 219.

Then the linear cam can

cam acting on D, will impart

be traced in as shown, which, as a

it a uniform motion,
to 4 and 4

to

to 0, with the same constant velocity-ratio.

will be an involute to the circle
The curve

DUG

length of path is equal the half circumference of

correct cam curve for the lifting cams of a miner's

stamp head rods being in the

The
curve

line

EA

when

EA, and
stamp

is

the
the

mill, the

ED.

velocity-ratio being constant, the normals to the linear

at any contact of D, will all intersect the line

DUG,

cam

EA

at the left of A.
Also, the
produced in one and the same point
normals to the cam curve DIG will intersect the line EA at the
same distance from A on the opposite side.
If the construction be such that the point E coincides with A,

the linear cam curves become Archimedean spirals, and the cam
one of constant diameter, and known as the heart cam.

2d.

Law

In Fig. 220,
shaft,

of Motion that of the

is

Crank and Pitman.

the center of the

the center of the cam,
orbit of the crank pin, in which the

and abcde half

CAM MOVEMENTS.
latter

is

supposed to move at a uniform

201

rate,

making the spaces

ab,

be, etc., in equal times.

The pitman has the length

ao,

ID,

etc., e4, so

and

that the spaces

1,

of the pitman bD,

passed in equal times by the end
with a varying movement in accordance with the so-called

1 2, etc., are

crank and pitman motion.

Through

these points

draw the par-

FIG. 220.
;allel

path

cam

circles

and divide them into equal parts by the followerthe circle A C and to equal points of

lines as tangents to

'division, 0, 1, 2, 3, etc.

Then draw
path and cam

in the linear

cam, through points of intersection of

numbers. This cam will give the
follower D the same motion as would the crank and pitman; the
crank or the cam both being supposed to revolve with uniform
circle lines of like

motion.

3d.

Law

of Motion that of a Falling Body.

is the center of the cam,

the follower to move
In Fig. 221,
in the path /)4, its velocity in the first half of which path is to be
accelerated as that of a falling body, and in the last half to be

retarded according to the same law.

To express this law on the line Z>4 of the path, draw a parallel
as an axis draw a parabola abc, and an equal one,
-ag, on which

Make several equal divisions gf,fe, etc.,

gdc, intersecting it at c.
and from these point off equal divisions, erect ordinates ec,fdb, etc.,
and from the points of intersections, d, c, b, etc., draw horizontal
lines over to the path />4.

Then

if

the spaces nj,ji, etc., or

1,

PRINCIPLES OF MECHANISM.

202
1 2, etc.,

down

to the

middle of ag are described in equal times r

the law of motion is that of a falling body, from the known propThe reerty of the parabola.
versed parabola gdc will give the
desired. points in retardation.

One
action

peculiar property of the

is
that the inertia

here

of the parts of

the follower will

cause a constant resistance in the

follower path a probable advantage where the follower is very

heavy.

In

numerous

practice,

lines

should be used in the construction, a few only being employed

here for clearness of figure.

FIG. 221.

4th.
It often

Tarrying Points for Follower.

happens that the follower

is

to

make

a movement, then

halt momentarily, then make another movement, then halt,

These halting or tarrying points are easily pro-

vided for in the cam by introducing circular

segments, as shown in Fig. 223.

5th. Uniform Reciprocating Motion.

The

so-called heart

cam

is

common

device

for this, an example of which is shown in Fig.

222.
As a linear cam it has a constant diameter

and when the follower is located

Fro. 222.
and is provided with a
bearing point against the cam, both above and below it, there
will be no backlash between the cam and follower.
through the

axis,

to coincide with this axis

6th.

The Heddle Cam.

This can be used to work the heddles or harness in looms where

the intervals of motion and rest are about equal. Fig. 223 illustrates,
by photo-process copy, a working cam of this kind.

CAM MOVEMENTS.

To make

203-

cam of constant diameter, uniform motion,,

intervals of time equaling the motion intervals
In Fig. 224 divide the cam into four equal, parts, retaining the
and
for the tarrying intervals.
Tha
opposite segments
a heddle

and with tarrying

DH

EG

remaining opposite segments must

In
serve for the linear cam lines.
these segments draw equidistant circle arcs, and also radial lines, in equal
number. The linear cam lines may
then be drawn in through points of

intersection as shown, giving us the

cam outline DbEGeHD.

linear

FIG. 224.

FIG. 223.

cam through A will have the same length, or

have a constant diameter, and it will just fill the space
between follower points D, G on a slide BB'.
All lines of this

cam

the

The

will

curves

DIE and GeH are

7th.

Archimedean

spirals.

Easements on Cams.

The cam

of Fig. 224 will instantaneously start the follower into

motion, the latter remaining uniform until stopped with equal
This is objectionable in any case, and when the folabruptness.
lower is heavy, it is destructive. This is obviated by what may be
full

termed easement curves for the cam, or easements.

An Arbitrary Easement may be drawn, as in Fig. 225, where A
the
center of the cam, and G a point of abrupt change between
is
the tarrying and cam arcs.
Assume equal angles EAG and GAF, and divide them into

PRINCIPLES OF MECHANISM.

204:

-equal parts by lines

Then note points a, b, c,

over to the line through G, and in
increasing distances from EG, such as

extended outward.
etc.,

estimated to give a proper easement curve

when drawn through the points. Lay off
the distances fa, gb, etc., on
the center radius Gc

until

ie,
is

hd, etc.,
reached.

Then draw the easement curve EabcdeF

through the several points.
Treating the cam, Fig. 224, in this way,
and G, and taking off like
filling in at
amounts, on like radii and angles at D

FIG. 225.

an(j H, we modify the cam, Fig. 224, by

supplying easements, and without altering the constancy of its

various diameters.

As thus

treated, however, we encroach upon the tarrying arcs

rest of the follower.
may, however,

We

and shorten the times of

EG

in laying out the cam angles.

provide for the angle
8th. To Confine the Easements within the Assigned Cam Sectors,
take DAH, Fig. 226, as the allotted sector for the linear cam arc

Let it be assumed that the easesought, including the easements.

ments shall start the follower as by the law of the crank and pitman
motion; then, when full motion is attained, to continue that motion of follower uniform

till

approaching the

and then to stop the follower by the same law of the crank.
To this end draw the quarter circles Dl and GF from centers
and /
on the follower path, and connect G

.arc of rest,

and I by a common tangent.

Then

with dividers note points in equal division from

through /and G to P.

Project these points to the path line

DF, and draw

circle

arcs

about

FIG. 226.

Also draw an equal number of radial lines

The linear cam line
can now
equidistant between D and H.
be drawn in, which will be found to have easements at
and
which are tangent to the arcs of rest for follower, and without en-

through the sector.

DLE
D

croachment thereon.
This linear cam will be found steeper at

than

'the

cam

of Fig.

CAM MOVEMENTS.

205-

But by
it may be a question which cam is preferable.
smaller
the
easements
DI
and
arcs
circle
the
may be
making
more limited, and the inclination of the central portion of the cam
224,

and

GF

arc less severe.

Other laws of easement curve

may

be adopted,

DF may be taken as the base of a cycloid, in which

ber of divisions

may

be made as in

DIGF.

any curve DIGF, which

is

the same

num-

If that arc be shorter

than the one here drawn, the resulting linear cam

declivity at L.
The use of

as, for instance,

will

have a milder

symmetrical with respect

to a perpendicular to the middle point of DF, will give a linear

cam line
which, if paired with a like one in the opposite
in
as
Fig. 224, will constitute a cam of constant diameter
quadrant,

DLE,

through A.
In Fig. 226 the law of motion of follower
spacing along the follower path

is

represented by the

DF.

CASE OF FLAT-FOOTED FOLLOWERS.

Let the law be that of a crank and pitman motion; determine a
Draw the circle of the crank.
of the kind shown in Fig. 218.

cam

FIG. 227.

FIG. 228.

DIE, Fig. 227, and project points a, I, c, etc., of division into

equal crank arcs, to the radial line DE, giving points d, e,f, etc..
at

OF THE

UNIVERSITY
PA

PRINCIPLES OF MECHANISM.

206

Draw

GA

the same

etc., to

number

of diametric lines

from points d,
the follower line of

circles

e,

/, etc.

through

as

Then draw cam

represent the motion of A.

At intersections, as

FA,

parallel

at F, G, etc.,

draw

DM as representing the position of DM relative

to

A when FA, GA,

DM

etc.,

perpendicular to
to the lines AF, AG, etc.

if

is

Tangent

have revolved to the line

AD, draw FJ, GL,

to all these position lines of

case the half

MD

etc.,

draw

AD.

That

is,

perpendicular

in the linear

cam

HLJD. For this

may be copied on the other

as dotted, giving the same law of return of follower.
For this particular case and law, the cam is a circle or crank pin.

curve, as
side of

HAD

In cams with a follower consisting of a straight footpiece D,

where the law on the return movement is the same as for the forward, the cam will be one of constant breadth as reckoned on a
normal to the linear cam; and the follower may be made as a rack
or frame DE, Fig. 228, with parallel sides.
Thus cams which while revolving just fill the space between a
pair of points fixed upon the follower, as in Figs. 222 to 224, and
229, may be called cams of constant diameter; while those likewise
just filling the space between parallel lines, or footpieces fixed

upon the

may

follower,

as

in Fig.

228,

be called earns of constant breadth.

CAMS OF CONSTANT DIAMETER AND

BREADTH.
Constant Diameter.

1st.

Besides

those

mentioned above,

Figs. 222, 223, 224, 225, and 226, there

may be cases where a specific law of

motion

is

to be followed

for a half

revolution of cam, while the motion

for the remaining half is immaterial
as to law.

For
points

Fig. 229,

straight line

Taking

PIG. 229.

essential

draw a

series of lines,

EF, GH,

as before, the follower

this,

DK,

must move

DEGIK,

cam

Fig. 229, as the

for the half revolution,

IJ, etc., through A,

and make them

equal in length to DK, noting points FHJ, etc.

required counter half of the cam will be the dotted line

all

in a

through the center A.

Then the

KFHJD.

CAM MOVEMENTS.
Cams

2d.

of Constant Breadth

207

between parallel lines are possible,

A is assumed, and the forked

as in Fig. 230, where a half of

FIG. 230.

to swing around the axis will just span the half cam
Then by placing the fork in various positions as at

piece
at DE.

and G and drawing a

and / and drawing a

line at G, again at
line at /, etc., for a sufficient number of positions, and drawing an
enveloping curve EGID, we have the remaining half of a cam, the
breadth of which for all positions just fills the fork-shaped follower.
The outline of the cam, also its law of motion correspondingly,
are limited, however, by the circumstance that the center of curvature of every part of the outline must be within that outline.

A Cam

3d.

of Constant Breadth as

between parallel

lines

may

be drawn by aid of a series of intersecting lines, as in Fig. 231.

Draw any system of intersecting straight lines. Then, beginning

draw a circle arc A from line
some remote intersection as at
This arc will be normal to the
to line, as those intersecting at a.
at

lines limiting it. Next, seeing that the

will meet the line intersecting at

arc
b,

take b as a center and draw the arc B.

The next
center

arc will be

c,

so

that

C drawn from
will be

both lines intersecting at

arc
e\

from the center d\ the arc

the arc

the arc

the

E from

G from g\
thus returning to the

from/; the arc

f from

h-,

place of beginning. Arc

arc A exactly, if the work

Draw

c.

the

normal to

H closes
is

upon
Fl

231

right.

consideration will show that this cam, for every position,

will just fill between a pair of parallel lines at a distance A
apart.
little

PRINCIPLES OF MECHANISM.

208
Also,

it

will just revolve, with a close fit, in a square hole of width

each way, and
way; or in a rhomboidal hole of width

AE

AE each

with any angle between the parallel sides.

Also, the hole may be
bounded by parallel circle arcs, instead of parallel straight lines,
partly or entirely, as in Fig. 237.

CAMS WITH SEVERAL FOLLOWERS.

1st.

One Cam may have Two or More Followers, as shown in Fig.

which may or may not be the same, as

232, the velocity-ratio of

depending upon the construction of followers.

FIG. 232.

2d.

The

Effect of

Two

Followers

may be

obtained by combining

as in Fig. 233, where the combined parts

are solid, with a slide branch, E, the latter working in a box on

two followers into one,

DG

FIG. 233.

a second sliding piece, F, so that motion

J in

two

directions..

may be taken

off at

B and

CAM MOVEMENTS.

209

DG

3d. Fig. 234 gives a Similar Construction, in which

swings
about a pivot E, and that in turn about a second but fixed pivot F.
The follower connectors B and J may take the motion in two

directions.

for the

One spring may

serve to return the

compound

follower

two directions of movement.

FIG. 234.

4th. Cams of Constant Breadth may return the compound follower positively, as in Fig. 235, where, as stated at Fig. 231, the
cam of constant breadth will just fit and revolve in a square opening.

FIG. 235.

5th. The Four-motion Cam is shown in Fig. 236, and constructed

aid
of intersecting lines in the manner shown in Fig. 231.
by
are at right angles and
When the lines AFand.
inter-

AE

sects

them

centers

EF

at equal angles of 45 degrees,

AEF,

as

shown, the follower

and the cam

is

drawn from

when pivoted

at a rela-

PRINCIPLES OF MECHANISM.

210

tively great distance to the right, will have every point moving in
an exact square; as, for example, the point d will describe the

FIG. 236.

square defy, where de equals the difference of the construction

radii a and b.
This cam has been used for sewing-machine feeds, for which it
is well adapted, except that for this, one side of the follower should
be cut out and an adjustable stop put to it to vary the feed.
In drawing the cam, it is immaterial as to motion how large it
and
is, provided the periphery goes through or outside the points

f\ outside being preferable to avoid sharp intersections at those

points.

In Fig. 237

is

illustrated a

working cam of

this kind,

where two

FIG. 237.

of the parallel lines of the follower are straight, and two are parallel circle arcs struck from the upper joint pin.
This cam fits

CAM MOVEMENTS.

211

closely both ways in the opening, and the circle arc sides
effect to keep the vertical connec-

have the

two of the four

motion being inter-

tor bar quiet for

movements,

its

mittent in reciprocation.
6th. The Peculiar Shaped Cam,
called a Duangle by Reuleaux, is

shown

The duangle

in Fig. 238.

closely fits in the triangular opening in the follower for the entire

revolution.

The

follower moves forward and

immediately back, and there tarries

nearly stationary for about a sixth

FIG. 238.

when another reciprocation is commenced.

interesting double cam motion, which Willis would

of a revolution,

An

class as

an aggregate path, is given in Fig. 239. Two arms

work agreeably to the end of carrying a pencil point in such a
manner that it writes the letters " O.S U." and places the periods.
Model due to the ambitious energy of D. F. Graham.
resulting in

FIG. 239.

RETURN OF THE FOLLOWER.

In most cases in practical machinery it is very essential that the
return of the follower be positive in order to avoid breakages,
though sometimes gravity or a spring may be employed where the
is not unduly high, and damage not likely to occur.
That the Action of Gravity may Quicken the Return of the end
Dj put the weight TFnear B, Fig. 240, and make the arm Z)JF comfalls by gravity the end D will move
paratively light, so that as
more rapidly than
by reason of the leverage.
In this case take#, the " center of percussion " of the piece BD.

velocity

PRINCIPLES OF MECHANISM.

212

When g

is

in a horizontal line through B, g starts to fall just as

FIG. 240.

faster in proportion to its

a free weight, and the end
from
the
distance
B.
pivot
greater
A Positive Return is readily obtained by making a groove for the end
fast as

FIG. 241.

D to run in, so that it is compelled to move both ways, as in Fig. 241.

A positive return may also be insured by means of an extra cam,

FIG. 242.

one cam working in unison with the other

to prevent backlash between either follower and its cam.
as

shown

in Fig. 242,

CAM MOVEMENTS.

213

In certain cases the cam may be made of constant diameter

with the follower moving in a straight line, as shown in Fig. 243,
when the follower points DD may just contain the diameter without backlash whereby the follower is compelled to move both ways.
This may serve where a certain law of motion of follower is to be
insisted

or the

upon for only a half revolution of A\

same law for the forward and return

motion of follower as in Figs. 222 to 226.

In cams of constant breadth the return of
the follower

may

be assured, as in Figs. 228,

230, 236, and 237.

To RELIEVE FRICTION.

Where the

follower

is

compelled to drag

over the full extent of the periphery of the cam

at each revolution extensive wear is very likely
Lubrication will help, but it is diffito occur.
cult to maintain this on surfaces so exposed to
air and to the tendency of centrifugal force
to

throw the

oil

off.

The usual remedy

is

to

put a roller at D, as in Fig. 244, which can

track along on the exposed edge of cam, regardless of lubrication.
While rubbing of surfaces occurs at the pin there will be surface bearing, instead of a line bearing of a fixed terminal

D on the

FIG. 244.

edge of A. Also there will be more favorable conditions of lubrication between roller and pin than between terminal and cam. The

amount

of rubbing action of surfaces will also be reduced in the

ratio of the diameter of roller to diameter of pin.

In conical cams the roller is sometimes made conical.

PRINCIPLES OF MECHANISM.

214

In stamp mills a disk roller, Fig. 245, is used, which, though

largely reducing the friction, does not do so as completely as the
Here
is the cam
cylindric roller.
lifting the

EF

by acting against the collar D on the

collar both turn together as
A may dictate. But owing to the thickness of
A, with D rotating, the radius of D at one side
of A differs from that of the other side, so that
there is a combined rolling and torsional twist
between the surfaces, and not an entire relief
from slipping.
A flat-foot follower, as in Figs. 227 or 230,
will be found better for endurance in wear than
rod

rod.

The rod and

a sharp edge, as in Fig. 243.

MODIFICATION OF CAM REQUIRED BY

FOLLOWER.

E
FIG. 245.

The immediate result of solution of a cam

motion is usually a so-called linear cam, from
which the practical cam is to be obtained.

In Fig. 246 the linear or theoretical cam is the curve Dabc,

which is the line as traced on A, which the theoretical follower point D is to follow as A revolves.
To Introduce a Follower Roller at D and maintain the theoretical
etc.,

action, the center point of the roller

must follow the

linear cam.

FIG. 246.

Dabc.

To

insure this, strike circles equalling the roller in diameter

Then
numerous points along the linear cam, as at
b, c, etc.
draw the practical cam lines tangent to these circles throughout.

at

CAM MOVEMENTS.
If these enveloping

cam curves

215

drawn

are

at

both sides of these

a drawing of the cam groove for cam A, providing

circles,
for a positive return of the cam follower.
In practice, this groove is best executed in metal, by using a
cutter of the same shape and diameter as the roller D, and so

we have

mounting

it

in a cutting

machine that the cutter while cutting

is

compelled to move with its center following the line abc, etc.
In Cams with Salient Angles, as in Fig. 219 and the heart cam of
Fig. 222, a sacrifice must be made from the theoretical action of
the cam by the introduction of
a roller, as

Let

shown

ear or theoretical
line

the

center

should follow.
of roller circles,
cal

in Fig. 247.
the lin-

FNEMG represent

cam and the

of

Drawing a series
and the practi-

cam HIJ tangent

cles, it is

the roller

found that

to the cirat

the

cam is foreshortened by the

amount LE. That is, for the
practical cam HI to compel the
roller center to move on the
linear cam FN to E, the cam

FlG 247

HI

would require to be
extended to some point near M, where its normal would strike E.
But as the cam is cut away beyond / by U, the roller is at liberty
to swing around its point of consurface

with

tact

/,

the center of the

roller describing the circle

NLM
E

and failing

to reach the point

in the linear cam by the amount

LE.
This
times

circumstance

prohibit the

antifriction roller, as

upon how

EL
-

248

at

the

depending

essential the shortage

be.
Or, at times, the

may
may

roller

may

use of

be used of diameter

smaller than otherwise preferred.

For a Thickened and Rounded Follower Extremity, D, as in Fig.

some point D is to follow the linear cam as shown, cut

248, where

PRINCIPLES OF MECHANISM.

216

BD of the right
D notched by

a templet
the point
the linear

cam can be

shape at D for the follower, and with

V notch as shown, through which
seen.
Then, with a circle about A
a

through B, place the templet at numerous positions, as at B D' ,

and draw a curve at the end, as shown. A cam line, traced tangent
r

shown, will be the practical cam required.

For an Edge Cam, as in Figs. 242 and 244, and for a disk or face
cam, with a cam groove in the side, as in Fig. 246, the roller should
be cylmdric without question.
The Best Form of Roller has been a matter of some question, as
to all these curves as

some designers use a cylindric and others a conic one for a cylmdric cam, such as shown in Figs. 214 and 215.
With regard to the action on the outside surface of the roller
alone,

it

when

appears that

the roller

is

moving longitudinally

in

Fm.
its

249,

groove, if such might be, its form should be the cylinder; while
the cam is revolving and the roller nearly stationary its form

when

should be conic, with the vertex of the cone at the axis of the cam.
For forms of the cam between the above limits the roller would

seem to require some compromise form

der and cone.

as

between the above cylin-

consideration will show, however, that a

perfect form for simple rolling contact in this case, of axes of cam
and roller meeting, does not exist.
little

Suppose the cam approaches one of the same velocity-ratio forward and back, as in Fig. 249, where A A' is the cylmdric cam and
EF its development. Take ab for one side of the cam groove,
and de the same in the development.

Now, if
when the

the roller

is

roller rolls

made

conical with

from a

its

vertex at the axis A,

the cam it

to b at the surface of

CAM MOVEMENTS.

217

/
f

would be necessary for the vertex to roll from a to c on the axis A,

which is clearly impossible since the vertex is a point. From this
it would seem that the roller must have some size at the axis; and
probably the best that can be done by approximating it is to lay off
the distance ac atfg, where fd equals the radius of the cylinder A;
draw df and eg produced to meet in 0, and take dO as the length
of the cone from the large end of which to cut the follower roller.
Perfect rolling of the follower roller rolling along a cam surface
ab would require that the axes of cam and roller pass each other
with a distance between, and that the roller be a hyperboloid of
revolution; also, that the distance between the axes varies as the inclination ab of the

cam curve

varies.

It therefore

seems impossible

to obtain a perfect follower roller for a cylindric cam, that is, one
where the outside surface of the roller simply rolls on the surface

of the

cam

groove, because the action will of necessity be partly

rolling and partly torsional slip of surfaces, and vary with slope of ab.
This torsional slip of surfaces will be the same for a truncated
conic roller with vertex at axis of cam and moving in a cam groove
parallel to the axis, as for a cylindric roller of equal length moving
in a groove encircling the cam; and according to Fig. 249 these
torsional slips tor both rollers will be alike for a groove at an angle

of 30 degrees with the circles of the cam surface.

The Action of the Holler upon the Pin and its Shoulders

is

of

easily seen that the conic roller will be severely

pressed against its shoulder, causing friction on a surface of larger
diameter than the pin, thus introducing a very serious resistance to

importance, as

it is

an objection which, probably, by far outweighs

the advantage of a conic roller, except in cases where the cam is of
large diameter relative to the throw.
rotation of roller

be

With regard to the pin for supporting the roller: when it can
made conical, with the same angle of convergence as the conic

roller itself, the end thrust causing shoulder friction will be mostly
avoided, and the conic roller will be much more acceptable. One
drawback here, however, may be found in the large average size of

pin, and it may be advisable to make it part way cylindric and the
remainder conic.
For a Conic Cam the question of best form of follower roller is
still more involved, and it is probably advisable to adopt the cylin-

dric one.

For the Spherical Cam there seems to be no question but that

the roller should be conical, since here the vertex of the cone can

PRINCIPLES OF MECHANISM.

218

remain

at the exact center of the sphere,

between the roller

cally perfect rolling

and there will be theoretiand its cam groove. But

even here the shoulder friction due to the endlong thrust will be
found a serious objection to the conic form of roller unless the
axial pin for the roller can also be conical to match, or partly conic

and partly

cylindric.

CHAPTER

XIX.

INVERSE CAMS AND COUPLINGS.

THE INVERSE CAM.

I.

THIS term may be given to a movement which has the elements

cam and follower, but where the driver has the pin or

of a grooved

roller and where the follower has the groove; styled by Willis the
pin and slit.

The

inversion of the

movement

is

to

avoid dead points that would in some

cases occur when used as a cam move-

ment.
peculiarity which distinguishes
from the cam movement consists

The
this

in the fact that here the pin reciprocates in the slot or groove, while in the

cam it does not.

The slotted piece B,
follower and

Fig. 250,

is

the

FIG. 250.

the driver with directional relation constant.

velocity-ratio as in

cams

The

is

ang. velocity of

ang. velocity of

B~~ AC'

_BG

may be made straight on a radial line or not, and a

be fitted on the pin and in the slot to avoid wear by
extending the bearing surface. Thus equipped with the slot radial,
this movement is sometimes known as the Whiteworth Quick ReThe

block

turn.

slot

may

It is considerably

An example

of this

used on English shaping machines.

movement

for directional relation

In this there

changing

a point of tarrying of the

driven piece by reason of the slot having quite a portion made to
the circular path of the driver. Thus by curving the slot, modi-

is

given in Fig. 251.

is

motion may be obtained.

This movement has been used to give motion to the needle-bar of

fications of

a sewing-machine.
219

PRINCIPLES OF MECHANISM.

220

Another example is given in Fig. 252 of a needle-bar cam

motion much used in sewing-machines. It corresponds somewhat
with Fig. 251, except that the axis B is
in effect removed to infinity by the
mounting of EF on a sliding bar.

At

the slot

may

be

made

to cor-

respond with the circle arc described

by the pin; so that the needle will

FIG. 251.

FIG. 252.

stand stationary while the shuttle passes the loop of thread. To

form the initial loop, a quirk may be introduced in the slot at E.

EF

In some applications in heavy machinery, this slotted piece

has a straight slot and a block on the pin fitted to slide in the slot.
Thus the pitman has been avoided in steam-engines and the engine
correspondingly shortened.

By

a sufficiently wide slot in

the movement may be placed

an intermediate point on a straight

FE,

at

shaft
II.

and

eccentric.

COUPLINGS BY SLIDING CONTACT.

Oldham's Movement with direc-

constant

form

and velocity-ratio
illustrated in elementary
Fig. 253 for connecting

relation

tional

in

is

axes that are parallel but not coincident, acting by sliding contact.

The

velocity-ratio is constantly
to
1, as easily seen in the small
equal
The arms of the conto the shafts.

diagram of a section normal

necting cross which slide in the sockets made

fast

upon the

shafts

INVERSE CAMS AND COUPLINGS.

221

must constantly pass through both of the axial points A and B-,
and as they form a right angle, the point of intersection of the
cross must follow the circle of diameter AB as shown, since all
lines at right angles drawn from the extremities of a diameter
The extent of sliding per
meet in the circle to that diameter.
revolution on each branch of the cross equals two diameters, AB.
If the cross is not right-angled, the same is true of the angular
velocity, as shown in Fig. 254 but the
amount of sliding is greater, since the
circle is thrown to one side and increased
"

in diameter.

Complication of Movement results

from placing the axes out of parallel, as in

Fig 255, so that they meet at some point,
Then ED shows one position of the
0.
Ancross, the angle being at E and F.
other

position, a

quarter-turn away,

is

FIG. 254.

FIG. 255.

/ and /.
These diagrams, comhas endlong motion to the extent
The
Gff, twice in a revolution, regarding A as without end play.
the
of
on
the
line
remains
cross, however, always
1G,
angle point

shown

at

HI, with the angle

pared, show that the shaft

at

KLM in that plane.

or plane normal to A, and describes a circle

To study the relative motions of the shafts

and B, take the

cross as right-angled and in an intermediate position, KL, LM.

The ^l-branch will always be found in the plane PN, normal to A,

and the .S-branch in a plane NQ, normal to B.

These planes

will

and B,
intersect in a line perpendicular to the plane of the axes
or in some line N, RL, for the position of the cross as shown.

Draw

the same

Taking

KL

the paper,

on the plane normal to A, and an ellipse to

to
center,
represent a circle on the plane normal to B.
-branch of the cross, and, as in the plane of
for the
withthe ^-branch in its own plane will appear at

a circle about

ML

PRINCIPLES OF MECHANISM.

222

MLK

a right angle because lines at right angles in space will

appear at right angles in projection, when one of the lines is parallel to the paper.
from parallel to A into its
Hence, if we move

FIG. 256.

KL

remain fixed, the point b in the

inclined position, while A and
must move to c in the ellipse. To determine the angular dis-

circle

turbance of

ellipse, back,

in this

movement, swing

and

its

point, c in the

without angular disturbance, to parallel with

the ellipse returns to the circle and the point

.4,

when

c will fall at d,

cd

being perpendicular to RL.

Then cLd will be the change
.Z?-arm of the cross as

to the position

due

to the

in the angular position of the

from parallel to A,
swinging of

BO.

Let x and y represent the angles SLd and SLb respectively

and a the angle between the axes A and B. Then Fig. 256 will
=
show the relation of these angles, from which we get
= LS tan x, which gives us the
= LS tan y,
cos a,

EN

DN

EN

DN

relation

cos a

= -tan

it

tan x

in which, a being constant, y may be found when x is given, or x

found when y for any point in the revolution is given.
It
is

may

RKLM

be noted that the same figure in cross-section at

or at P; also the same
is at

obtained whether the intersection

But it is clear that when

is at
the movement reequation.
duces to that of the Hooke's universal joint, which is free from the
sliding motion of Fig. 255, and hence the latter can claim no advantages over the Hooke's joint.
The velocity-ratio could be found by calculating a series of

INVERSE CAMS AND COUPLINGS.

223

and comparing them.

angular positions from the formula
this is best done by differentiating the formula and obtaining
velocity-ratio

= ang.

veloc.

A=
B~

ang. veloc.
2
2
1
sin x sin a

dx
-7-

= cos

sec

cos

ay

But

cos a
cos a

"1

cos'

2
y sin a

When

a equals the angular velocities are equal, as they evi= 1.

should
be, and the velocity-ratio
dently
These equations are the same as given by Willis, p. 452, for
Hooke's joint.

For a

minimum
The

45 degrees;

-,-

4/2,

or

&

dx

j =

for

maximum and

and 90 degrees respectively.

values as occurring for x

velocity-ratio is

= -~

ay
2

1 for tan y

cos a

cot x.

These

equations are the same as found by Willis and Poncelet for the

Hooke's

joint.

Peculiar

Movement transmitting motion from

to

is illus-

trated in Fig. 257, in which the contact between the parts is by

In the model,
sliding, except where the axes are in direct line.

the axes

may

be arranged parallel or at various angles and at var-

FIG. 257.

ions offsets, as in Figs. 253 and 255, and it appears to be one way
of realizing those cases in material form, except that here the axis
P> is not compelled to slide endwise.

To study the velocity-ratio it is most convenient to imagine the

intermediate slotted piece to be replaced by a cross the branches

PRINCIPLES OF MECHANISM.

224

which are perpendicular to the slots they stand for. The movement will then serve for any and all the conditions brought out in
Fig. 255 or 253 and with the same law of velocity-ratio.
of

all have two points of maximum and two points of

velocity in each revolution, as also a pair of the two-lobed
elliptic wheels of Fig. 44, but the law of velocity-ratio of the latter

These joints

minimum

is different.

FIG. 258.

When

the

movement

of Fig. 257 is set with axes parallel, it acts

in Fig. 258, which latter movement
in appliances employed in the Banks of Eng-

the same as the three disks

was used by Oldham

land, by Winan in his Cigar Boat, and also by C. T. Porter to couple

the shafts of an engine and dynamo nominally in line, but practically a little

" off

line

"

by reason of temperature, flexure,

etc.

CHAPTER XX.
ESCAPEMENTS.
DIRECTIONAL RELATION CHANGING. VELOCITY-RATIO
CONSTANT OR VARYING.

AN

escapement

is

movement

in

which the follower

is

driven a

distance, usually by sliding contact, to where the driver is allowed

to pass free for a little space, when another engagement by sliding

contact occurs to drive the follower back to a position for repeating

an engagement like the first.

POWER ESCAPEMENTS.
Fig. 259 illustrates an escapement of a design suitable for use in
heavy machinery in which the motion is continuous and where there

FIG. 259.
is

no lock such

as

used in most cases of escapements for clocks and

watches.

F escapes from E,

the arm G should be near to D to promptand

the
ly engage;
point of initial contact at D should be as near
to the longitudinal line through A as possible, to relieve the blow
due to initial contact.

As

Escapements are mostly employed

in timepieces,

and should be

as nearly as possible such as to give to the

vibrating pendulum or
balance equal impulses at all times, and be as free as possible from
hindering the vibration by frictional contact of parts with the pen-

dulum

That is, the higher essentials for fine timean

isodynamic or equal-impulse escapement; 2d,
keeping
an isochronous pendulum or balance; and 3d, freedom of vibrating
or balance.
are, 1st,

225

PRINCIPLES OF MECHANISM.

226

parts from contact with the other pieces, except when receiving the
There are other considerations, such as temperature,
impulses.
position, etc.,

which are outside of our present

topic.

THE ANCHOR ESCAPEMENT.

In Fig. 260 is shown a so-called anchor escapement, the name
being due to the resemblance of the vibrating piece to the ship's
anchor.

As shown in full lines, we have the dead-beat escapement, in

which the escape-wheel A stands still while a tooth rests on a pallet,
notwithstanding the movement of the pallet. As shown, the tooth
1 is about to move forward upon the pallet HG 9 as the latter ad-

FIG. 260.

vances left-handed.

Reaching

ff,

a further

movement

of

to

the right and return allows 7 to remain stationary, because the

back is formed to a circle arc about the center B.
pallet from

like action occurs

The

when the tooth

rests

and

slides

upon the

pallet

should be so formed and cut away as to permit

the pallet to move a considerable distance after the escapement of
a tooth and before the return of the pallet occurs, so that the pen-

E.

teeth of

dulum may complete

its

swing.

ESCAPEMENTS.

227

Thus the tooth is just on the point of escaping at D, following

which / moves forward upon the pallet .//as the latter swings to the
right, allowance being made for HG to move still farther toward A.

HG returns, the pressure of the tooth / upon the slope HG imparts an impulse to GHB toward the left.
Similarly at />, the tooth
its
on
ED
toward
the right.
These imjust completing
impulse
As
is

pulses overcome the retarding influences of the air and other resistances acting upon the pendulum, thus maintaining its motion.

To construct this movement, the pallets are somewhat thinner

than the half of the pitch of the escape-wheel, so as to give a slight
at a slight distance from
drop /// to insure the landing of / upon

HG.

From

H and

back, the pallets are formed of cirThe bevel

cle arcs struck from the center B.
may be as-

the bevel

HG

drawn to J tangent to a circle struck from B. The

ED
should
be formed to the same circles as HG, and beveled
pallet
to
the
a
same circle JK. Then the angle DEE will
tangent
by

sumed by

a line

equal the angle

HBG,

as

it

evidently should to balance the im-

pulses.
It

has been proposed to put the impulse bevel upon the teeth of

the escape-wheel instead of the pallets. Fig. 260 would nearly fit
the case by turning A backwards when, as the tooth of
escapes,

the tooth MN would

upon the circle of the pallet G as an arc

the pallet returns, it would receive an im-

fall

of repose, until, when

pulse in sliding along the bevel

OP

NM until, when M escapes at

will laud

upon the
OP.
bevel
the
from
an
impart
impulse

of the next tooth

pallet />,

G,

and in due time

Again, the impulse bevel may be divided between the pallet and
"
the teeth of the escape-wheel, as really done in the ordinary lever
" of watches.
escapement
TJie recoil escapement is obtained from the above by producing
the bevel lines

HG and

DE,

as

shown

in dotted lines,

and modify-

dotted at /. Then, as
ing the teeth of the wheel to some shape as
will strike upon the
the tooth at
escapes from DEF, the tooth I
farther in the same
still
bevel GHL, and, as the pendulum moves

direction before returning, /will be forced 'to slide up towards L,

thus giving to the escape-wheel a slight backward movement, called

the recoil.

The

recoil

tel clocks,

escapement

and regarded

is

the most

common one

in ordinary manwhich latter is

as inferior to the dead-beat,

astrousually introduced into the finer mantel clocks, regulators,

nomical and

many tower

clocks.

PRINCIPLES OF MECHANISM.

228

THE PIN-WHEEL ESCAPEMENT.

This is so named because the escape-wheel has pin teeth, and it
shown in Fig. 261.
The pallets are formed to circle arcs ej,fi, gl, and lik, terminated
with bevels ef and gli upon which the pins slide to impart the impulses to the pallets. A pin of the escape-wheel is shown as resting
is

upon the

pallet

pin slides upon

If the pallets are moving toward the left, the

lik.
"
the circle arc, or arc of repose," toward k until the

FIG. 261.
its limit of swing, when it returns, and also thewhich, on arriving at the pin, permits the latter to slide
the bevel hg, imparting the impulse.
It escapes from the

pendulum reaches
pallet,

down

and alights upon fi, of the pallet efi. The pendulum

its movement and returns, when the pin slides down
and
fe
imparts a second impulse opposite to the first. As the pin
escapes at e, the next pin drops upon hk, to repeat the movements
pallet glik

completes

of the former one, etc.

To

construct the movement, draw circles from the center

for the pallets, the latter having thicknesses such that the two,
with a pin between, will swing between two adjacent pins of the

Then the bevels

escape-wheel, with a necessary slight clearance.
ef and gU are so determined as to subtend the same arbitrary angle

as bBc, besides allowing a small safety angle ab equal to cd, as

providing for the distance from the impulse bevel back to the landing point of the pin upon the pallets. This angle may be small

at

and possibly zero for cylindrical

pins.

When

the pin escapes at e

229

ESCAPEMENTS.
(see dotted line), the next pin should land

aBb from

angle
line struck from

h.

upon

lik at

the allowed

Also, when the pin escapes from hg (see dotted

with a radius equal to distance from A to inside

should drop upon// at the same angle cBd equal to ab,

from the initial point /of the bevel.
This escapement has been considerably employed for tower
clocks, and has the advantage that the pins may conveniently be
of pin)

it

In some
hardened, or even made of glass rod or cut jewel stones.
since
are
cut
this
half
of
the
away,
portion is
pins
upper
not acted upon by the pallets, thus permitting the placing of adjacases the

Then with the same numcent pins a whole pin diameter closer.
ber of pins and thickness of pallets, the wheel A will be made
smaller, and the strength of an impulse will be materially increased
other things the same. Also, the drop of a pin on escaping will be
"
will be materially
reduced by nearly a half, and the " tick
quieted.

THE GRAVITY ESCAPEMENT.

This name is given to escapements where the fall of a weight
through a definite height imparts the impulse, all impulses being
thus equalized in intensity.
A spring may be used instead of
gravity to measure the definite impulse. Such are sometimes called

isodynamic escapements.
A gravity escapement employed by Wm. Bond & Sons in
chronographs, and called isodynamic, is illustrated in Fig. 262.
The same has been used in tower clocks with good results, and it is
believed to be about the best in kind and in construction for that
purpose, being the same in principle as the Bloxam's or Dennison's.
At A is the driving axis, on which is made fast a collar with an

eccentric pin, a, and an arm, GH.

T-shaped gravity piece, DEF,
suspended by a spring, N, from a fixed clamp, QR, and will swing
right and left, and it may rest against the eccentric pin a, or it may

is

rest

by

its

flattened

pin at

F against

the pendulum rod P.

to a line DN.

on the lower side normal

At

is a
pin
second T-

shaped gravity piece, IMK, is suspended on the other side

like the first except they are rights and lefts, and the pin at
flattened on the upper side normal to a line IS.

The pendulum rod

is

suspended from the clamp

QR

and

is

by a

spring, not shown, which allows it to swing to the right and left.
The eccentric pin a throws the gravity pieces to the right or
left.

As shown,

this pin a holds the gravity piece

DEF

in the

PRINCIPLES OF MECHANISM.

230

extreme position the pin can give it ; and the shaft A is locked in
that position by the end of the slender arm
striking against the
detent pin at D.
Now, as the pendulum rod, moving toward the

GH

left, strikes

the pin at F, the gravity piece

DEF

is

carried along

pendulum to its limit of movement, thus releasing the

arm GH, when, on making a half -turn, it is arrested by the end of
the arm GH meeting the detent pin /, which now will be in the
with the

FIG. 262.

dotted position <7, because the eccentric pin a has moved with
to the dotted position b and thrown the
into
gravity piece I
the position JLM. This detent pin / detains the arm
till the

KM

GH

pendulum

rod,

on returning from

meets the pin L, and carries

arm

Hfaom

the detent pin J,

eccentric pin a

its

extreme position to the

JLM along with

make another

when

left,

thus releasing the

the arm, the shaft A, and the

half-turn.

it,

231

ESCAPEMENTS.

Now

it

is

pendulum rod returns, it is

is, the pendulum rod
the limit of movement and

readily seen that as the

JLM

to the position
followed by
takes the gravity piece from

IKM. That

JLM to

one operation neutralizing the other as far back as to

to IKM the pendulum
JLM\ but from the excess movement
A like impulse is received from in the
receives its impulse.

back

to

IKM,

JLM

The eccentric pin

opposite movement of the pendulum.
raises
the
of
wheelwork,
gravity piece from
by the train
or lifts its center of gravity to create the impulse.
The impulses imparted
cally equal for all time of

to the

pendulum

are thus

moved

made

to

practi-

running of the clock.

THE CYLINDER ESCAPEMENT.

The

cylinder escapement, formerly

much used

in Swiss watches,

and interesting from the standpoint of mechanism,

is

illustrated in

FIG. 263.

is the driving staff carrying the escape-wheel with

Fig. 263. At
These teeth act
peculiar shaped teeth having inclined edges, CD.
upon pallets at C and E, consisting of the smoothed edges of a

thin half -cylinder,

CPE, supported

to

swing upon a central

axis,

B.

The diameter

of the inside of this cylinder is just sufficient to allow

the latter to swing over the tooth CD with a trifle of clearance,

and the distance CH, equal to 1G, should be just

sufficient to

admit

the full cylinder with a trifle of clearance.

The tooth CD is represented as escaping from the edge of the
and to
cylinder at C and soon to strike just inside the edge at

On
distance, the cylinder turning right-handed.
returns, and on arriving at
reaching the limit of movement
slide

some

PRINCIPLES OF MECHANISM.

232

DC

of the tooth will slide against the edge E,

the inclined edge
left-handed
a
impulse to the cylinder B. As the tooth
imparting
CD escapes from E, the point will strike just back of the edge

of the cylinder at G,

and

slide

on the outside to the limit of move-

ment, when on returning, as the edge G passes H, the inclined

HI will slide along against the edge G and impart a righthanded impulse. On completing this,

tooth

CD escapes at C as before. The

amount of inclination of CD is arbitrary, and it may be straight or somewhat convex.
There seems to be a large amount
of friction in this

escapement, parts
being practically the whole time in
rubbing contact, which circumstance

may

be sufficient to explain the un-

spirited deportment of the escapement as observed in the watch.

THE LEVER ESCAPEMENT.

This escapement, Fig. 264, is the
one most used in watches and known
" anchor
also as the
escapement,"
"
" detached
escapement," or detached
is
lever escapement," because

BH

FIG. 264.

lever,

or

because

bles the anchor, or because the balance parts

and

DEBH

JKO

resem-

are detached

free, respectively.

This leaves the vibrating balance freest from friction of all the
escapements, unless it be that for chronometers. As compared with
Fig. 263, it has a very decided advantage in this respect, a fact
evinced by

In

this

its

more

lively action as observed in watches.

is the axis of the
escape-wheel,

escapement

DEBH

pallets of the anchor-piece

The balance staff is at 0, upon

D and
swinging about an axis at B.

which is a collar holding a pin at J,

which the collar is cut away nearly to the pin. The lever is
slotted at / and has a pin or shoulder at H.
At L and
are bankor
other
over-movement
of
the
lever.
In
ing pins
provision against
this there are really two movements, one the escapement
proper
between A and B, and the other a pin and slit motion between B
and 0.
Also a lock as between the pin
and the edge of the
collar, to prevent BH from moving except at the proper time.
at

233

ESCAPEMENTS.

Now

supposing

to be

balance,

when the pin

cutaway

at J,

and

in a similar

the

slit,

the pin

H drops into
K

the

move along together toward

and beside
the
to
that
the
shown
cut,
opposite
upon
by

and they

come locked there

moving toward / by the swing of the

J enters
will

When

manner.

the limit of swing

is

reached

returns again to move HI back. Thus the balance staff and attached
parts are free from contact with other pieces most of the time, since,
when locked at the one side or the other, the escape-wheel teeth are

locked upon the pallets as shown at F, where the angles are such
or
toward A during the lock and holding the pin
as to draw
away from the edge of the collar J.

When

H moves to the right, the tooth at JVis unlocked and

its

inclined end passes the end of the pallet at F, exerting a pressure

upon it and imparting an impulse to the pin J. Similar action

E to

occurs at the pallet

verse movement.

give an opposite impulse to

The
amount
of

J in

the re-

pallets, or the teeth, or both should be rounded by the

as shown, to prevent the corners
of the angle of swing of
from scratching each other while in motion.
or

In watches,

D and E

are jewel pallets

and

J" is

roll jewel.

THE DUPLEX ESCAPEMENT.

This escapement

is

in

use in expensive and also in cheap

FIG. 265.

watches, and is next to the detached lever and chronometer for

freedom from friction.
A Fig. 265, is the escape-wheel, B the balance staff with a
y

PRINCIPLES OF MECHANISM.

234

for a short distance to admit and pass the

longitudinal groove at
is a pallet to engage the
the
spur H, J, etc., and
impulse
point of
tooth F.

The

figure represents a spur just escaping the groove at H, and

about to engage with D, to impart to it an impulse

the tooth

to the point of escape at E.

Then the next
while moving from
at
a
meet
the
staff
trifle of clearance
should
7,
J,
leaving
spur,
The pallet moves on, to the limit of swing of
at G and F.
for

balance and

staff,

and returns, passing to the other limit of swing,

staff at 7 and skipping the groove H.
Re-

with /rubbing on the

turning from this limit, the spur

from I

H and

to

J drops

into the groove

H, passes

escapes, etc., as before, the escape-wheel passing

one tooth at each double vibration of the balance.

The

friction

is

chiefly the

and to reduce this the

with its strength.
This

is

staff

rubbing of the spur on the staff at 7,

should be made as small as consistent

properly called duplex, because of the two points of

and the secondary one at H.

escape, the principal one at

GE

THE CHRONOMETER ESCAPEMENT.

At A,
pallet,

is the escape-wheel,
the balance staff,
the
the detent spring
detent piece, G the detent,

Fig. 266,

LGJKihe

FIG. 266.

supporting Z6r/and forcing it against the banking pin N", IJ the

feather spring bearing against the pin L in the detent piece, and 7
a projection on the staff B to act upon the feather spring.

In action the projection 7 strikes the spring IJ resting against

and forces LGJ away from the pin N, and the detent G away
strikes the pallet D,
from under the tooth at G, when the tooth
7/,

235

ESCAPEMENTS.

As ^escapes at F, a tooth is caught by the

The balance moves on to the limit of swing and returns

imparting an impulse.
detent G.

with

D just clearing F and E and with the projection / meeting the

ILJ and flexing it to pass, when the

back
the
spring
against
pin L. On reaching the opposite
limit of swing, the balance returns, repeating the above movements
very light feather spring
flies

in succession.

To reduce
/should be

the friction to a

minimum, the staff and

projection at
and de-

as small as admissible; also the feather spring

tent spring very delicate, especially the former.

In watches and timepieces subject to abrupt displacement, the

detent piece should be balanced, and perhaps pivoted, to prevent
the detent from being jerked off its tooth at G.
Also if balanced on a pivot with a retaining
spring to hold it up
to the pin N, it should be as light as
possible to prevent abrupt
turns in the plane of the escapement from
unlocking the detent.

PART

III.

BELT GEARING.
BELT gearing

includes all members in machinery concerned in

motion
in the manner of a belt and pulley, such as
transmitting
belts, bands or chains, pulleys or sprocket wheels for continuous
motion; or for limited motion, where a. rope, strap, or chain passes
partly or several times around sectoral wheels, to which the ends
" barrel and fusee " of
are made fast, as in the windlass, or the

chronometers, English watches,

etc.

CHAPTER

XXI.

VELOCITY-RATIO VARYING.

THE GENERAL

CASE.

THE VELOCITY-BATIO.
IN Fig. 267 take the irregular rounded pieces shown as fitted to
swing about axes at A and B, with a flexible connector DE passed
over and beyond those points, and made fast to the rounded bodies,
so as to admit of motion to some extent by A pulling DE and
driving B.
In a small displacement where

moves

to G,

E will move to J,

FIG. 267.

and regarding the

flexible

connector as in extensible in length,

236

JK

BELT GEARING. ^^C/UIFORN\A**^

will equal

GH.

KJE similar to
V and

If

HGD

is

similar to

FAD,

and

IBE.

v be the angular velocities of

V.AD^DG,
jDG_AD
HG ~ AF'
V DG BE

and

Also the triangle

237

velocity-ratio

and B, we have

v.BE=EJ,
EJ ^
_ BE
JK ~m>

AD
BI I
#0 ._._
=-=_/_=,_.
~

Bl

AF~

BC

BE
-^

AC'

which shows that the

velocity-ratio equals the inverse ratio of the

of
the
line
of
centers as formed by the intersection of the
segments
prolonged line of centers and connector.

The

line of the connector

DE

is

here the line of action, and the

velocity-ratio is the same as found in all previous cases, viz., equal

the inverse ratio of the segments of the line of centers, counting

from the centers of motion to the intersection with the

line of

action.

The same
tween

is

true

if

the connector cuts the line of centers be-

and B, in which case the directions of motion are contrary,

while in the outside intersection they concur.

For velocity-ratio constant the point C must be stationary, a
condition readily secured for circular pulleys; also, it can be realized for a relatively long distance between

centers for chain and

sprocket wheels even with the latter non-circular, if symmetrical

and with axes of symmetry at right angles, and for velocity-ratio
equal to 1, 2, 4, etc. For the value 2, the larger wheel may be
But, as no adnearly a square, and the smaller nearly a duangle.
for
circular
is
this
combination
over
conceivable,
vantage
pulleys
they will not be further studied here.

But non-circular pulleys

for velocity-ratio variable

have been

used with advantage.

LAW

OF PERPENDICULARS GIVEN TO FIND THE PULLEY.

In Fig. 268 take A for the axis of the non-circular pulley and
the periphery e,f, g, h, to be found when the line of action Dg, or
of the connector, has a known perpendicular distance, Ag, from A
for each 1/8 turn of A.

PRINCIPLES OF MECHANISM.

238

Lay

off

Ac, Ad, Ae,

the several perpendiculars as radial distances, Aa, Ab,

etc., and draw circles or otherwise transfer them to the

several radii,

marking the

several angles through

which

turns for

the

corresponding perpendiculars, giving points e, f, y, li, i.

Through these several points draw the perpendicular line of the
connector, as at e the line perpendicular to Ae, at /the perpendicular to Af, etc., to represent the position of the line of action for
the respective radii.
Then draw the curve of the pulley tangent to these lines of

FIG. 268.

The

pulley outline does not pass through the several

but puts the line of action at the proper perfrom A.
distance
pendicular
Some examples may serve to illustrate.

action.

points h, g, f, etc.,

VELOCITY-RATIO VARIABLE.

DIRECTIONAL RELATION CONSTANT.

1st.

Example

The meter

of the Equalizer of the Gas-meter Prover.

prover consists of a hollow cylinder of some 20 cu.

capacity, to be raised and lowered in water for shifting air through

any gas meter for testing it. The more the cylinder shell is lowered

ft.

into the water, the greater the buoyancy, this being counteracted
by a weight suspended from the periphery of an eccentric pulley.

To determine this pulley, let DE, Fig. 269, represent the descent
of the cylinder shell into water, the surface of which is at Ee,
equal
steps of submergence being noted at points d, c, b, a.

239

BELT-GEARING.
This cylinder

make

size as to

DE, upon
mounted the

range
is
e>

f> 9) h>

i>

suspended from a circular pulley,

is

AF

of such

a 3/4 turn for the

the axis of which

eccentric pulley,
a like 3/4 turn, to

which a weight, W,

By

is suspended.
otherwise find the

trial or

length of the perpendicular Ae,

at the end of which the weight

will

balance

just

DE

in

the

Similarly find

highest
the perpendicular distance, Aa, at
will just balance the
which
position.

submerged cylinder
position, or with

at the

D and

the water surface, Ee.

Then divide ae

= DE

same number

lowest

down

to

into the

of

equal parts by
points b, c, d, etc., as there are equal
angle divisions in the 3/4 turn e, g,

FIG. 269.

Then make Af = Ad, Ag =

i.
and
these
Ab, etc.,
Ac,
through
points draw lines of action
or perpendiculars to Af, Ag, etc.
Now draw a curve as shown

Ah

tangent to all these last-named perpendiculars for the linear profile

of the eccentric pulley required.
The parts being made and mounted as thus determined, there
should be perfect balance between
2d.

Example

W and DE in any position.

of a Draw-bridge Equalizer.

In Mehan's "Civil Engineering " is illustrated a draw-bridge, Fig.

270, having a rope or chain with one end attached at a to the drawbridge DE, while the other end winds upon a cylindric drum A,
on the axis of which is an eccentric pulley, Fig. 271, upon which
winds a rope or chain, to the lower end of which is attached a weight.
Here the weight of the bridge is constant but causes a variable
tension upon the rope Aa as the bridge is opened, which is to be
equalized by the eccentric pulley and weight.
Observing that the

weight of the bridge moves in a

tension for the points a,
tension

b, c, etc.,

W^,

circle a, b,

will

be

W-^,

c,

about D, the rope

PRINCIPLES OF MECHANISM.

240

which values are to be found and

giving points j,
line of action.

270,

laid off on the line Aj, Fig. 271,

p, q, etc., for perpendiculars from A upon the
Then draw an involute astu to the circle A. Fisr.
o
0,

.7

and take the distances

bs, ct,

du,

etc.,

and

lay off

on the

circle

FIG. 270.

FIG. 271.

of the drum, Fig. 271, giving angles jAk, j Al, fAm, etc., and
draw the radial lines Aj, Ak, Al, Am, etc. Now lay off Ao on Ak,
Ap on Al, etc., and draw perpendiculars to these radial lines
through the points j, k, I, etc., and tangent to them the eccentric

or spiral pulley required, as shown.

3d.

The Barrel and Fusee.

In this the tension on the cord or chain, due to the torsional

is to be determined for
equal

action of the spring in the barrel,

angular positions of the barrel

through the entire range of its
motion. Starting with the spring
slack or "run-down," find the tension when just fairly started to

wind up,
FIG. 272.

272.
to

D,

barrel

Then
is

E up to D

These will increase as the

noting the tension for each.
thus wound up or forced around against the action of the

etc.,

spring.

pull

as for the chain or cord

tangent to the barrel at D, Fig.

and note the tension ; then
to D, G

241

BELT GEARING.

Through the center of the fusee at B draw an involute Ba to

Then the distance from D to the involute Ba, fol-

the barrel A.

lowing the cord or chain, is always the same, whether the tangent
point is at D or farther toward B.
Then make the radial distances Ba, Bb, Be inversely as the
tensions as above determined, Ba for tension at D, Bb for tension
at D, etc. ; and make the distances ab, be,
is at D, Be for
when

equal the distances

cd, etc.,

DE, EF, FG,

etc.

Through

and

these points b, c, d, etc., copy the involute Ba, as shown, and at

these points draw normals to the involutes.
Then, tangent to these

normals, draw in the curve of the fusee.

the more
In this construction, the smaller the angles
accurate will be the result until the limit is reached where the in-

DAE

For relatively large

accuracies of graphical work predominate.
make
the distances ab, be,
to
it
be
advisable
will
angles, DAE, etc.,
the
are
chords
to
the
which
arcs, equal
cd, etc.,
straight dotted line

DE. Fig. 212 is made as if aD were to act by compresTo change the figure for tension in aD, place b, c, d, etc., to

or chord
sion.

the left of Ba.

The " snail " used on spinning mules is like a double fusee, winding a cord from small to large and then back to small radii again,

thus varying the velocity of the cord taken up; or of the snail,
the cord is made fast at the remote end.

when

In deep mines, where heavy wire ropes are used for hoisting, the
winding drums may be made conoidal to compensate for the varying load due to the varied weight of rope run out as the hoisting
cage is let down, and vice versa. If the length of rope run out per
revolution were constant, the drum would be a cone; but as more
rope is let off per revolution where the drum is larger, its shape will
be a concave conoid.
4th. Non-Circular Pulley for the Rifling

Machine.

There was in use in the rifle factory of Windsor, Vt., fifty years
ago, a rifling machine in which was employed a belt and non-circular pulley connection, for the purpose of imparting to the rifle
groove-cutting tool, held in a rod, an approximately uniform motion
forward and back as the tool and rod traversed the rifle barreli,
The rod was driven by a crank and pitman, on the crank shaft of
which was an elliptic-shaped pulley similar to Fig. 275 connected
by belt with a circular pulley above. For the slow motion here

employed

this belt

and pulley combination worked

satisfactorily.

PRINCIPLES OF MECHANISM

242

To determine the correct form of non-circular pulley on this

crank shaft to give a uniform motion to the slide, consider the pit-

man of infinite length, when the

projections of the several positions
of the crank pin a, h, c, g, h, i, etc.,

upon the

line DE, Fig. 273, will

divide the latter into equal parts,
r, s, t, etc., representing the uni-

form motion of the slide, as if the

crank pin
of the crank
were moving through those points.
Drawing Bg, Bit, etc., we obtain
the angles the crank must pass

BF

On these lay off

in equal time.
FIG. 273.
the respective perpendiculars br, cs, etc., giving Bn, Bm, Bl, etc.
At the ends of these draw perpendiculars as in Fig. 268. These
will all pass through the point a, as na, ma, la, etc., and drawing in
F

FIG. 274,

the pulley curve tangent to these perpendiculars gives simply the

point a, which shows that the resulting non-circular pulley is merely
a
.it

flat bar,
is

EF,

Fig. 274.

this seems at first unreasonable,

from the uniformly-moving circular
the end F of the pulley FE, would move

Though

correct, since the belt

driving pulley A, going to

^uniformly

in the direction of

FG,

thus

the motion regiving the crank pin at

should be
the
Hence
pulley
quired.

EF

bar with a very rapid motion when

the crank pin is on the line of centers.
This pulley would work with a suitable

flat

distance between centers without a serious

FIG. 275.

At the dead

variation of tension of belt.

centers of the crank, the jerk of speed the theory

would give may be avoided by arbitarjly widening the pulley somewhat as in Fig. 275. For moderate speed, as for a rifling machine,

BELT GEARING.
this belt

243

and pulley combination would doubtless be thoroughly

practical.

DIRECTIONAL RELATION CHANGING OR CONSTANT.

Prof. Willis has devised a
relation

and

movement answering

velocity-ratio varying, called

"

to directional

cam-shaped pulley and

tightener pulley" where any non-circular pulley may be mounted

on nny center and mated with a fixed circular pulley and a tightener
The eccentric pulley should be the driver to
pulley on a lever.

avoid slipping of

belt.

(See Willis, page 201.)

Example

of a Treadle.

One application of a wrapping connector with directional

relation changing is found in the foot-lathe treadle, where an
eccentric pulley, E, is put on the driving
shaft, and a centrally mounted pulley, F,
on the treadle bar, BD, and the two con-

nected by a

belt, the

arrangement serving

making a crank in the driving

The action is evishaft, as in Fig. 276.
if
a
as
pitman were used
dently the same
to avoid

to connect the centers

E and

F.

be
not necessary that the pulley
an eccentric, but it may be an ellipse,
with A in one focus, or a flat bar clamped
It is

at one end to the shaft A.

FIG. 276.

In case of the ellipse of the same length

as the diameter of the eccentric, and with A at the same distance
from the center, the full stroke of the treadle bar will be the same
for both, but the ellipse will lower the treadle more slowly at first
and more rapidly in the last part of the stroke. If A be at the
center of the ellipse and the latter considerably longer than the
diameter of F, the treadle will have two short double strokes per
revolution instead of one.

CHAPTEE

XXII.

DIRECTIONAL RELATION CONSTANT!

VELOCITY-KATIO CONSTANT.

HERE

at

the pulleys are both circular, of any relative dimensions,

distance
apart, and with belts open or crossed as in Fig. 277.
any

FIG. 277.

vrt

The

velocity-ratio

is

always equal to

whether the belt

is

C outside or between centers. When G

the same way, and when between, they
turn
the
outside,
pulleys
turn in opposite directions.
is difficult to obtain, for two reasons :
The exact
open or crossed, with
is

velocity-ratio

first,

the thickness of the belt adds

somewhat to the practical

more for the small than large

diameter of the pulley, and relatively

of the
one; and second, the elastic yielding

belt, contracting as it

and expanding as it goes around

goes around the driving pulley,
" of belt which increases with
"
a
the driven pulley, causing
slip
This slip keeps the pulleys
load and slackness of belt.
the
driving

bright.

The

Belt.

belt may be a strap of leather, or of woven stuff sometimes

with rubber; or of leather links on wire joint pins built up to

The
filled

244

245

CIRCULAR BELT GEARING.

desired width; or a strap with triangular blocks attached to run

in a V-grooved pulley; or a round belt formed of thick leather, first
cut into square strips and then rounded by drawing through a die

any

small, as for driving sewing machines; or when larger, from

of an inch diameter up, it is made of a flat strip twisted and

when
-f

pressed; or a rope of

hemp

All- but the flat belts

or wire.

run in

grooves.

Chains running over sprocket wheels now constitute a most important connector.

Retaining the Belt on the Pulley.

A V groove

of sufficient depth will naturally retain the round

"
for the flat belts, the pulley is made
high cena
to
climb
to
the
since
flat
has
a
belt
ter,"
tendency
highest part.
This is due to the edgewise stiffness of the belt, giving it a tendency
belt or rope.

But

to climb a cone of moderate taper.

as a cone cut at the lower element
Thus, in Fig. 278, take
and developed by rolling out to
till coincident with the
tangent

OAB

DE

FIG. 278.

plane ODE. Placing a strip of belt,

off the developed cone surface at

DE, upon it, we see that it runs

point

it is

and E, though

at the

middle

parallel to the base.

Redeveloping the portion of conic surface CD, and the belt

with it, the latter is seen to run off the base of the cone,

getting

more and more inclined the farther

it

goes.

PEINCIPLES OF MECHANISM.

246

Hence

it

appears that a

flat

belt

running on a pulley with a

high center will climb to the highest point.

Advantage may be taken of this fact to carry

a belt, not very wide, at quite an angle to the
It
shafts, to avoid an obstacle, A, as in Fig. 279.
is

here only necessary to

convex and a

little

make

the pulleys quite

larger at one end.

Grossed Belts.

In a crossed belt the latter must have a twist

of 180 degrees between pulleys to keep the same
Thus the edge elements
side of belt to pulley.
of belt must be appreciably longer than the central ones,

by the

ratio of the

hypothenuse of a

triangle to its base, when the latter is the length

of the free part of belt, and the altitude of the

FIG. 279.

triangle the half-circumference of a circle whose diameter is the

Hence it is not feasible to run a wide belt crossed for
belt width.

a comparatively short line of centers.

Quarter-twist Belts.

A quarter-twist belt is subject to

as well as the crossed belt,

severe strains, due to distortion,

more

for relatively large pulleys

less for small ones, as illustrated in Fig. 280.

FIG. 280.

Without a guide
pulleys

if

and

FIG. 281.

pulley, the belt will immediately run off the

the latter are turned backwards.

CIRCULAR BELT GEARING.

247

By arranging the pulleys as in Fig. 281, and adding the guide

pulley to hold the guyed part of the belt over near to the straight
portion, the pulleys may run either way without throwing the belt
and with less strain on it. The guide pulley, however, must be
placed in an awkward position, its central transverse plane to coincide with the center lines of the belt above and below that pulley.
off

Any

Position of Pulleys.

The driving and driven

relative

pulleys

may

be placed in any possible

belt, if four or less

positions and connected by a single

guide pulleys be provided, four for the comparatively simple case

where the pulleys are on parallel shafts and not in the same plane.

For more awkward positions it will usually happen that tangents

to the driving and driven pulleys can be made to intersect, at each
point of which a single guide pulley may be located, with meridian
plane coincident with the plane of the proper tangents.

Cone Pulleys.
Pulleys in a series of steps, as employed on lathes and their
countershafts, by which the speed of the lathe may be changed
from one constant speed to a number of others by shifting the belt
are called cone pulleys or stepped cone pulleys.
Not only lathes
but a large variety of other machines require these cones, so that
their correct construction

is

important.
make these steps equal on one of the
cones, when they will require to be equal on the other for a crossed
belt, but for an open belt not for uniform tightness of belt.

A common

practice

is

to

A little inquiry will satisfy the seeker after truth that the cone
diameters should be such as to place the steps of speed in geometrical progression, that is, the relation of any one speed to the next
should be the same as that to the next; or the ratio of any two adjacent speeds should be constant throughout, as has been correctly
maintained by Professor John E. Sweet.

For instance, in a " back-geared " lathe, the ratio of speed for
the first two sizes should be the same as for the last two sizes of the
cone, in order that in back gear the ratio of speed may be preThus, for simple ratios, suppose the cones give the geometric series of speeds as 1, 2, 4, 8.
Then the back gear should
continue this series as 16, 32, 64, 128; the ratio of any two adjacent
served.

speeds being

2.

That due

to going into the

back gear should

still

PRINCIPLES OF MECHANISM.

248
be the same.

sumed

Otherwise, suppose that the series of speeds were aswhen the back gear will give 5, 10, 15, 20, if
such as to give the first figure, 5. Then the ratios of

as 1, 2, 3,4;

the gearing is
adjacent speeds will give the series of ratios

2, 1.5, 1.333, 1.25, 2, 1.5, 1.333,

a quite irregular set of figures. Granting that they are correct up

through the cone to back gear, the values of the ratios decreasing
gradually from 2 to 1.25. Then, instead of continuing on a decrease, there is a sudden jump to 2 again, after which a second decline
which is clearly irrational.
It is also important that the gearing of the back gear be proper
to this rational geometric series of Prof. Sweet as well as the cones,
that the ratio of adjacent speeds throughout may be a constant.
convenient way of realizing in a drawing this geometric series
of speeds in laying out a pair of cone pulleys is shown in Fig. 282,

where a length AD, measured by some

scale, represents the revolu-

FIG. 282.

tions per minute of the countershaft; Ba, Bb, Be, etc., by the same
scale, the speeds of the lathe or other cone; BH, BI, BJ, etc., the
radii of the countershaft cone;

lathe cone; and

AB

AP, AQ, AR,

etc.,

the radii of the

the distance between the axes of the cones.

This may be correctly drawn as follows:

From B draw a line Bf at any convenient angle. Draw lines
ah and Tib, then bg, go, cf, etc., parallel to them respectively, when
the distances Ba, Bb, Be, etc., will be in geometrical progression

and

will represent the geometric series of speeds of the lathe cones,

being the slowest, and the others Bb, Be, etc., being made by
trial to agree with the series required.

Ba

CIRCULAR BELT GEARING.

249

Draw lines Da, Db, DC, etc., and extend them to intersect the
AB, also extended. From these points of intersection draw
lines TSH, URI, VKP, etc., tangent to the circle GM, drawing the
first line through S so that AS may measure the desired smallest
radius of the lathe cone; or, if preferred, the line VKP may be
drawn instead, making AP the desired largest radius. When the

line

drawn, strike in, tangent to it, the circle GM, from a

on a line midway between AP and BH. The radius of

first line is

center

this circle is

OM =

nearly,

and is to be calculated. The remaining lines, URI, QJ, etc., are

drawn tangent to this circle, giving the radii of the lathe cone AP,
AQ, AR, etc., and radii of the countershaft cone BH, BI, BJ,
and the cones may be drawn as shown.
etc.
If a line as Db does not intersect A B on the drawing board, we
must make Bb BJ
AD A Q, which may be done on another
;

diagram.

The diagram shows

that

AD: Ba: AP BK\

:

that

is,

the speed of the countershaft

is

to the slowest speed of the

lathe cone as the largest radius of the lathe cone is to the smallest
radius of the counter cone, as it should be to accord with the

geometric series.
In a diagram for a crossed belt the lines all meet in one point
near GE, while for the usual case of open belts the positions of the
"
lines must be " doctored
by being drawn tangent to the circle G M,
which shifting of the lines, however, does not interfere with the
will always be the same
velocity-ratio, since the ratio AS to

BH

when the line is drawn through the point T.

To determine the radius OM, let AR and Ar,

Fig. 283, stand

and r to account for foreshortening due to the inclination of the belt, which amount call Al. Then
as
is the belt inclination, half the foreshortening due to it is
for the corrections of the radii

TW

kW=

XW - SN = 1/2 Al nearly, and

(AR

+ Ar),

250

PRINCIPLES OF MECHANISM.

whence

_ 27t(AR

-f

Ar)

FIG. 283.

Also, by Fig. 283,

-g-

giving

(.

r)

^# nearly,

= Al AB = 2nG2
.

AB.

Again, Fig. 282,

ZGE '.FM::R-riAB nearly,

whence

R-r=
Eliminating

r,

we

^FM

get

n
But

OMiFM::FM'.ZGE nearly,

giving

the required radius.

This radius, or rather the position of the point 0, Fig. 282,
differs from that adopted by Mr. 0. A. Smith, Trans. A. S. M. E.,.

CIRCULAR BELT GEARING.

LO = 0.3UAB.

Vol. X., p. 269, where

in constructing Fig. 282,

The

251
latter

may be used

if

preferred.
In the extreme example of
4:8",AS
1",
17.284'%
while an intermediate pair of sizes were 10", the difference of belt

AB =

BH

length, as given by Fig. 282, and the carefully' calculated value,

differed by only about 0.2".

Eeuleaux, in The Constructor, p. 189, gives an interesting diagram for determining cone pulleys; also Prof. J. F. Klein, in
tables; but in none of these do we
find the very important consideration of the geometrical series of

Machine Design, diagrams and

In practice the drawing for Fig. 282 may take an uncomfortable

It may be shortened to the extent that the angle

BTH

length.

does not

much

distance

AB

exceed 30 or 40 degrees, by taking for the actual

a fictitious length ab, and using for the radius

OM

the value

nAB

Actual cones have been employed where a variation of speed

is

desired while running, the belt being shifted when desired.

It is
usually difficult to keep the belt running satisfactorily, unless the

cones are unduly long.

The Evans friction cones is a good arrangement where cones are

required, in which the cones are placed with large and small ends
opposite, and a hoop of belting around one cone, somewhat larger
than the large end, arranged with a guide, which hoop makes the
bearing point between the cones.
By shifting the guide the hoop
is shifted and the speed changed.

Rope Transmission, Rope

Belting, Etc.

The term rope transmission was first applied to rope belting

used for transmitting power over relatively long distances, but recently it has come to be employed as a substitute for leather belting.

For transmission wire rope has largely been employed without a

"
take-up where the sag of the rope for stretches of several hundred feet will vary, compensating for temperature and wear, and
With this tension and
still maintain sufficient tension for service.
a speed of the rope varying from 3000 to 5000 ft. a minute, a large
"

PRINCIPLES OF MECHANISM.

252

amount

of

power

will be transmitted with only a half -turn of rope

over the pulley for frictional contact.

But
sion

is

for shorter spans, where hemp or cotton rope is used, provifirst, for "take-up" for maintaining constant, or at

made,

and second, for drawing the rope as it

In cable railways, where the working tension of the rope
carried to a very high value with comparatively low speeds, the

least sufficient, tension;

stretches.
is

take-up and increased frictional contact with the driving drum are
matters of the utmost practical importance. In the slower speed
arrangements the rope is to be consumed by a higher working tension, while in the higher speeds the rope is worn out by a high
working velocity, causing frequent flexural stresses and abraiding
contacts at the pulleys.

In Rope Transmissions there are two leading systems first, where

the one loop of rope reaches the entire stretch of the system, with
a driving pulley at one end and a driven one at the other, guide
:

pulleys of less diameter being introduced at points between to carry

the rope, the whole layout of rope being in one vertical plane; and
second, where, one loop of rope passes over a driving and driven
pulley only, with no guide pulleys, beyond which is a second loop
of rope, likewise mounted and driven from the first, and beyond
which last is a third loop of rope similarly mounted and driven from

the second, and so on for as many bents as desired; there being at

each intermediate station point either two pulleys made fast on one
shaft or a double pulley.
This system must be arranged in one verpass over hills and valleys.
of large size; first, because of
are
pulleys
the high speed required, and second, to prevent a too severe flexing
of the ropes.
The bottoms of the grooves in the pulleys are fitted
with wood, hard rubber, leather, or like material, to increase the

tical plane, but, as in

the

first,

may

The driving and driven

friction of contact with the rope.

horizontal angle

may

be turned in either of these systems in

two ways: first, by introducing bevel gears at any station;

second, by passing a rope vertically downward or upward from one
pulley and immediately upon another set in a vertical plane making

at least

;any desired angle of deflection with the first plane.

In the above, wire rope is usually employed.

In Rope Belting several half-turns are made around the driving

and driven pulleys to produce the necessary frictional contact. This
is done differently for long than for short stretches between power
pulleys.

ROPE TRANSMISSION.
First.

For a Short Stretch, Fig. 284

illustrates a

mode

of dupli-

cating the passes of rope from driving to driven pulleys. The rope
to the first groove of
passes from the take-up or tension pulley

FIG. 284.

Passing half around B it runs to the first groove of A. Passing

A it goes over to the second groove of B and a half

B.

half around

around, when
the grooves of

it

goes to the second groove of A, and so on for all

till when it leaves the last
groove of B it

A and B

and half around the take-up pulley />, when it goes to the
groove of B again and repeats the circuit. One piece of rope
spliced into a single loop makes the entire circuit.
The take-up pulley D is mounted upon a slide, and has a weight
to produce the desired tension and take up the slack due to varying
passes to

first

length of rope.
If the pulley grooves of

B though

it

A are all of one diameter, likewise of

from that of A, the ropes in the working
all have the same tension, and those on the slack
be in equal tension with each other, but less than

may

tension side will

tension side will

differ

that on the working tension side, but not

diameter on either one of the- wheels.

if

the grooves differ in

pulley D may be placed outside of A and B, as if the rope

B over beyond A and then back to B again, but with
from
passed
no advantage.
Second. For a Longer Stretch, the rope belt may pass over a
counter pulley at each end of the system, as in Fig. 285.
Here the rope between A and B is in higher tension than in
Fig. 284, it being due to the cumulative action of all the half -turns

The

of rope contact with the driving pulley.

One point to be noticed here is the fact that the rope

is

varying:

PRINCIPLES OF MECHANISM.

254

from the first groove of A to the last, and

its length.
On this account the pulley A
varying
consequently
should have its grooves varied in diameter from one end to the
The same should be
other, and likewise for the counter pulley D.
its

tension, or seeks to,

done

at the

end B.

The counter

consist of separated sheaves loose

and
The amount the grooves of

and E, however, may

pulleys
upon the axis and of one size.

A
are to vary in diameter will
the
unit
of
elastic
yielding of the belt, and the total
depend upon

FIG. 285.

The
variation of tension between the going and returning sides.
or of
should be
drop in tension from one end to the other of

uniform per groove, and likewise the diameter; while the end
diameters should differ by the amount an equal length of belt will
vary as due to the total variation of tension.
The counter pulleys D and E may both be stationary, with a

%
single turn of belt going over to a single-groove tension pulley
or B, and become power
and
Also,
may be geared up with

pulleys.

Third. For Cable Railways, Haulage Lines, etc., the pulley and
A and are connected and driven by power, while
at
there is only a single sheave for returning the rope.

counter pulley

Ingenious compensating devices are in use to provide for the

variation in rope length while passing over the series of grooves on
the connected driving and counter pulleys.

For instance, let G and H, Fig. 286, represent two pulleys of

toward
qual size and number of pulley grooves, tapered from
and
G to partially compensate for varied rope length between

.CHAIN

The two

G.

bevel gear at

AND

255

SPROCKET.

pulleys are loose on the shaft F, but driven

by a

IL and JK, mounted

right angles to

upon

axles at

shaft

F, and made

fast

upon

the

G
it.

These gears mesh into a bevel gear

at IJ9 and
fast in the pulley

IJ

into

a bevel gear

pulley
if

at

LK.

LK

fast in

turned one way,

is

the

Thus mounted,

will be

rotated in the opposite direction, by

reason of the bevel gearing inter-

FIG. 286.

posed.

A second system like Fig. 286 may be prepared and the two
connected by gearing to serve as A and D in Fig. 285. When
rigged with rope and started into service the varied diameter of

will partly

compensate

for varied tension

likewise across G] but between 77 and

and length across H, and

the gearing will permit a

perfect compensation, by revolving slowly in opposite directions.

Then, when the rope is working under a greater tension than the

and G provides for, they will move one way on

taper of pulleys
the shaft F, and the opposite way for a less tension than the taper
of pulleys provides for.
Thus the creep of rope at contact with
pulleys is reduced by the splitting of the pulleys from one into
the two, G and H.

The Chain and Sprocket Wheel.

A wrapping connector, connecting wheels with

an exact velocityengage the teeth

of a spur or sprocket wheel, as in the familiar example found on
the safety bicycle, for a connection between pedal axis and driving
ratio, is

found in the chain so formed that

it

will

wheel.

The chain is made with various forms of link, one of the earlier
ones being shown in Fig. 287, where the links are punched out of
sheet metal and pinned by rivets, while a more modern one is
shown in Fig. 288, all links being of the same form, sometimes
cast and sometimes drop-forged.
The latter possess important
advantages in having the axial pin solid with the rest of the link,
and in having each piece of the chain like every other, all hooked

together.

A link,

turned into the position shown at Z>, may be

less links added, while for

removed from the hook and more or

working positions the shoulders a and

prevent unhooking.

It is

PRINCIPLES OF MECHANISM.

256

thus easy to shorten a chain when worn and slack, and by the
amount of one link length; while for Fig. 287 a smith is required,
and the least that can be removed or added is two link lengths.

FIG. 287.

'

Ml

"

H ITTp
1

FIG. 288.

of a Sprocket Wheel engage at E, F, etc., or H, /, Jr

288
and 289, as the case may be; the proper forms of
Figs.

The Teeth
etc.,

FIG. 289.

the teeth being determined as shown in Fig. 289.

a portion of the chain on the wheel, while at
Take

HGF

runs

off in

Now

as

the tangent

FD

is

F it

FED.

wound upon

scribes a circle arc about

till

the wheel, the center point

dethe link head at
strikes the rim

EDI

will swing about h as a center

of the wheel, when the links
strikes the rim of the wheel, and so on.
Then we will find
till

that the arc from a to the straight line

FJ is

circular about h as

CHAIN AND SPROCKET.

center; from .Fto

GFK

from

a circle arc about

K to L

it

is

it

is

a circle arc with .Fas a center; and

G as a center, etc. Then a

series of circle arcs ef, fg, parallel to ab,

from
wheel

257

Id and

at a distance

dg

will be proper for a sprocket tooth profile for the circular

A. This curve copied around will give all the teeth.

it,

For non-circular sprocket wheels, as in the cases of the elliptic

ones used on some bicycles, the sprocket-tooth outlines, to follow
theory exactly, should each be determined in the manner of Fig.
289.

Non-circular sprocket wheels have a variation of velocity-ratio

is generally simplest when one of the
pair is cir

the law of which

cular; but both may be non-circular and in any ratio of sizes, provided the wheels both have symmetrical axes at right angles to each
other, observing that the pair of wheels should be so far apart that

the inclination of the chain to the line of centers does not become
so excessive as to vary the tension of the chain unduly.

Practical Application of Chains.

Chains are often used to retain a mathematical relation between

a pair of axes where other wrapping connectors would not answer.
They have been tried for the transmission of power, but experi-

ence shows that they must run so very slowly to prevent noise and
shocks that they have. been abandoned for this purpose.

Hooks and projections have been formed, on the

links to

which

be attached conveyor bars, boards, buckets, scoops, etc., when,,

in stretches of considerable length, sometimes several hundred feet,

may

running vertically or on inclined tracks, grain, sand bags, refuse,

may be carried in a continuous current. Thus excavators

have been operated, and coal-cutting machines, where cutting tools-

etc.,

are

made

fast to the links.

PART

IV.

LINK- WORK.
THIS term

applied to such machinery as consists of rods,

cranks, levers, bars, etc., jointed together, either for axes parallel
or meeting, or crossing and not meeting.
is

CHAPTER

XXIII.

THE GENERAL CASE.

The Velocity-Ratio.

B as fixed centers of motion, AD the driving crank

BE the driven crank, and DE the connecting-rod bar or
As AD turns about its center A, the rod DE compels BE to

TAKE A and
or lever,
link.

turn also; Fig. 290.

To determine the velocity-ratio compare with Fig. 267, in which

AD, DE, and

Hence

BE may replace the lines of like

lettering of Fig. 290.

for the latter the

velocity-ratio
-

BC
= V = -r-~.
AC
11

258

THE GENERAL

When

the point

rection,

and

C is beyond

AB

in opposite directions

Peculiar Features of

259

CASE.

the cranks turn in the same di-

when

it is

between.

Link-Work Mechanism.

Link-work movements are the most arbitrary in law of motion

the combinations of mechanism, and in many cases where it
would otherwise be preferred, must be abandoned on this account.
It is the "lightest-running" mechanism known, the resistance
being due to the slight friction of comparatively small pins in bearing holes well lubricated, and with comparatively long arms with
which to turn those pins. Also, a pin rarely makes more than one
complete turn in its bearing hole in a complete movement, and

of

all

usually

much

less;

while in the corresponding

movement

of a

cam

motion the roller (as in the best arrangement) makes from 6 to 12

turns on its pin, and even this is not so prejudicial as regards resistance as the rolling of the roller along the surface of the

cam

groove.

Link-work is consequently much more durable than other forms

mechanism, and should be adopted into machinery whenever it
can be in preference to cam-work, tooth-gearing, etc.
It often happens that the principal or hardest working movements of a machine may be link-work while cam motions adapted
to it may serve for other movements, and give, on the whole, a
more satisfactory machine in operation than where all are cam
movements.
Here, instead of assuming a law of motion and finding the linkwork, as can be done in gearing, cam and belt movements, etc., we
must examine a proposed link-work movement complete, when, if
found unsuitable, try another, etc., till an acceptable one, if possiof

ble, is obtained.

to

The motion sought may be impossible, while an approximation

may answer by conceding some unimportant idiosyncrasy of

it

movement.

I.

AXES PARALLEL.

Most link-work belongs to this case of axes parallel, and the

treatment must largely be by examples, owing to peculiarities and
want of susceptibility of reduction to broad and extended laws.

PRINCIPLES OF MECHANISM.

260

Some Examples

Example
for a shuttle

1.

To

of

illustrate:

Link-work Movements.

An

excellent

needle-bar motion

sewing-machine is obtained by link-work; and it is,

without question, in one case at least, the lightest-running shuttle machine yet built, the whole
machine being link-work mechanism.
The needle-bar motion referred to is shown
in Fig. 291, used in several different sewing-rnaAt
is a
chines.
rocking shaft with a crank

AD

arm

attached, the latter reciprocating between the angular positions

and AF, the
connecting link
raising and lowering the

AE

DB

needle-bar BJ.

As
passes the line A I of crank and link
straightened, the bar reaches its lowest position.
As
moves on to its limit of motion at
the

bar

is

raised an

amount GH, forming the loop

for the shuttle.

Now

not necessary for the

G, but on tarrying a
raised to // for the shuttle point to
it is

needle-bar to return to
FiG.

moment
it may reasonably
enough continue on its
cam it would be given this action, but by

fairly enter the loop,

ward journey. By a

link-work of Fig. 291

fore

making

Now

if

its

it

must return

upthe

to the lowest point again be-

ascent.

this drop

by the amount

HG,

after the shuttle enters

loop, is considered fatal to the machine, the proposed link movement of Fig. 291 must be abandoned; otherwise it may be accepted,
its

giving a much lighter-running and more durable combination than

if the cam and
pin be adopted, or such a movement as in Fig. 252.

Example 2. Another instance is found in the Corliss valve

gear, where the rocker plate swings to carry the pin D back and
The valve and
forth from // to F.
stem B are moved by the lever BE
us it swings from BE to BG.
As D
moves from J to F and return the
valve is opened and closed, and from
J to If and back it remains closed,
but

FIG. 292.

compelled to be moving
If this movement
slightly, as due to the double versed-sine DK.
DfTis counted out of the question, the link-work combination of Fig.
is

261

EXAMPLES OF LINK-WORK.

292 must be rejected, otherwise accepted, as in fact it has been by

hundreds of builders following in the footsteps of Geo. H. Corliss.
Example 3. Another example is given in Fig. 293, where the
link-work movement rotates a shaft
B, by the arm BE, from the position

BF to BE and back, during the halfturn of the main shaft that drives AD
from Alto AD and back; while for H
main
and back,
moves from I to
during which BF is nearly stationthe remaining half-turn of the

shaft,

ary,

its

from

simultaneous movement being

It was preto G and back.

BF

remain
but
the
slight
absolutely stationary,
movement FG was counted less obferred that for this latter

FIG. 293.

jectionable than cam-work, as compared with the linkage of Fig.

293, so that the latter was adopted.
It may be noted that the slight movement FG is less when the
two arcs HI are convex the same way than when convex opposite
ways, and more so as A is nearer to B.
Example 4. As another example, suppose a point is required
to

move from

and return within the sixth part

main shaft A.
A
cam may be used, by which the point
is thus driven and then allowed to remain quiet at E for the 5/6 remaining
But if there is no particular
turn.

to F, Fig. 294,

of

a turn of the

objection to the movement of the

to G and return, instead
point from

of remaining

Fm.

stationary at E, link-

work may be employed, as in Fig. 294,

where A is the main shaft, AD the
crank, De the pitman, and eBG =

294.

HBF

a bell-crank lever, the arrangethat while the crank pin moves from c to b the reand back, and
quired sixth part 'of a turn of A, a moves to
and back, thus meeting the essential conditions of the movement.

ment being such

EtoF

Path and Velocity of Various Points.

In the study of the motion of linkages it is sometimes necessary
to determine simultaneous positions throughout the movement for

PRINCIPLES OF MECHANISM.

262

the joints, beginning with the driver which, for uniform motion,
should have the points equidistant, as illustrated in Fig. 295. Here
the driver A makes its circuit with uniform motion from 0, 1, 2,
all

etc., to 8.

The

link

Corresponding points are given like numbers throughout.

fixed point B, and the end
of the

BE swings about the

FIG. 295.

DEF

describes the curve F, 5, 6, etc., and returns to F,

the spaces being passed in equal times provided A moves over

link

numbered spaces in equal times.

The curve described by any point

of the link

DEF

all
its

may be

in the above instance.

determined, as was done for the point
Modifications of the path F, 5, 6, etc., may be made by changing

the position of B, or length BE, or angle DEF, etc.

link may be connected at F, thus extending the linkage into
a train, and possibly several links in succession, leading through

several elementary combinations.

Sliding Blocks

and Links.

Sliding parts are sometimes introduced, either for realizing the

conditions of a link of infinite length, or for simplifying the
mechanism, a notable example being that of the crosshead of the

steam-engine.

Sometimes a link may be greatly shortened and simplified in

7
construction, as shown in Fig. 296, where the pin J^ moves in some
that
as
described
the
in
curve FE,
In fact
by
point
Fig. 295.
the parts shown in Fig. 296 may be employed in continuation of

those of Fig. 295 into a train,

moving through the points 1, 2, 3, 4,
in
etc.,
equal times, being regarded as the driver for the elementary

combination of Fig. 296. The point G is the fixed fulcrum pin for
the bell crank HGD, and points 1, 2, 3, etc., denoting positions for
be found as corresponding with like figures of the curve
9 may
of Fig. 295, or again,
FE,as if that curve were the one through
as corresponding with the points 1, 2, 3, etc., of AD, Fig. 295.

EXAMPLES IN LINK-WORK.

263

FD

The block
serves as a short link connecting the straight
and D, upon both of which the block slides to accommodate
pins
and of the circle arc about G.
the versed sines of the curve

FE

As

FD

is

these pins are always perpendicular to each other, the block

a simple single piece with the two holes at right angles to

/T\

FIG. 296.

DH

In this way the motion of

is to be found as in
and on this account the movement would seem to
require classification there. To determine the velocity-ratio, find
the center of curvature B, of the curve FE at F, and draw the noreach other.

sliding contact,

mal

FC to the

simple

when

pin D, and the velocity-ratio

the curve

FE is a circle.

This becomes

CHAPTER XXIV.
THE ROLLING CURVE OR NON-CIRCULAR WHEEL EQUIVALENT
FOR LINK-WORK. GABS AND PINS.
FOB every elementary combination in link-work the equivalent
motion can be obtained by wheels in rolling contact.

FIG. 297.

In Fig. 297 the axes A and B are connected with

Example
link -work as shown,
the connectbeing the driving crank,
1.

AG

MG

THE ROLLING CURVE EQUIVALENT FOR LINK-WORK.

ing rod, and

BM the

driven crank.

265

Their lengths are such that

DA

CEB.
they will all come to coincide with the line of centers
To find a rolling curve possessing the same law of velocity-ratio
as the link- work, the links are to be put in several positions, as

AGMB,

etc.,

and the intersections with the

line of centers

found

Now the velocity-ratio in link-work

the position O M.
and BC, also the same
being the inverse ratio of the segments
for rolling wheels in contact at C, it follows that a pair of wheels
as at

C for

AC

in rolling contact at C have the same velocity-ratio as the links

with intersection of link at (7. Therefore, revolving C to

AGMB,
T in BM

prolonged, and C to P in A G prolonged toward P, we

have points T and P in the peripheries of the rolling wheels. Other
points, Q, D, A and R, 8, are found in the same way, when with
points sufficient the curves may be drawn in complete, above and
below the line of centers, giving the rolling-wheel equivalents of
the link-work.

The

positions of these curves in the figure are proper to the

and BE, as if the wheels were finished and

crank positions of

AD

FIG. 298.

made

The

fast to the cranks in these positions.

distance

B8 =

the rolling suddenly stops, corresponding with the limit

and link take posiof the crank movement where the crank
tions on the straight line A 0,
being the extreme position of the

EA, where

AD

BO
BE when AG + GM = AO.

crank
In Fig. 298

is shown as separated from Fig. 297 the link-work

the
and
equivalent wheels due to the intersections of the link DE,

OF THE

UNIVERSITY

PRINCIPLES OF MECHANISM.

266

with the line of centers. Throughout the movement, the curves

remain continually tangent to each other at a point (7, so that
with
will
the point of tangency, and the intersection of
will

DE

AB

remain some common point C on the line of centers.

with the line
In Fig. 298 the intersection C is for the line

DE

of centers

AB.

If

BE be

fixed for the line of centers, the inter

FIG. 300.

curves for which are

AD

and BE, both prolonged, the

and Wa, Xb, and YBZ,
Fig. 297 and shown separately in Figs. 299

section will be that of the lines

LKN, UJV,

Fig. 300, as given in

Fig. 299;

THE ROLLING CURVE EQUIVALENT FOR LINK-WORK.

and 300,

all

parallel to

extending to

BE. One

infinity,

due to

position of the links

267

FH
is

and F'H' becoming

shown at BFHE, Fig.

299, and another at BF'H'E', Fig. 300, the first giving an inter1
The intersection / is revolved to
section at / and the second at I
.

BF

and EH, Fig. 297, for points in the curve, while

the positions
the point I' is revolved to BF' and EH' extended backwards, because this part of the curve is at the other side of the infinitely
distant points.
Thus Fig. 297 embraces the three sets of wheels
of Figs. 298, 299, and 300.

Example 2. The rolling-wheel equivalent

is shown in Fig. 301.

of the crank

The crosshead A

motion at an infinite

and

pit-

man

as driver has its center of

distance, so that the line of centers is

Taking the crank in the position

BH extended to infinity.
BG

and the pitman

the intersection of the latter with the line of centers

FIG

is

at

at

A G,

D inAG

302.

to the crank gives

for one point in the
prolonged. Revolving
wheel B. Also revolving
to the line EA, representing the crank
line from infinity, gives the horizontal line
and the point
in
the mating wheel A.
Proceeding thus, we obtain the curves

DE

BFHB and JEHI for the

and pitman motion for a

rolling- wheel equivalent for the

half- turn of the crank.
The

BFHB

crank
proper

is the line BH.

position of the crank relative to the wheel
The curve IHJ is supposed to be made fast to the crosshead and

moving with

it,

as

shown

in Fig. 302.

PRINCIPLES OF MECHANISM.

268

Example 3. In Fig. 303 we have an example of two cranks

connected by a connecting rod and drag link, the connecting rod

FIG. 303.

having a fulcrum pin near its center carried on a swinging link,

the lower end of which works on a fixed pin.

For this somewhat complicated elementary linkage the rolling

wheels are worked out and teeth set upon them for a pair of gear
wheels, the same being combined with the linkage in the one

movement for a practical illustration of the equivalence of linkwork with its proper rolling wheels.
The gears show that the velocity-ratio of the linkage is far from
constant, though, judged from the link movement alone, might be
taken to be nearly so. By measured radii, taking the driver to be
moving at a constant rate, the ratio of the fastest to the slowest for
the driven wheel is over 3.

Example

4.

An interesting

linkage

is

found in the Peaucelliers

FIG. 304.

parallel motion, called

Fig. 304 in the links

by Prof. Sylvester the "kite/' shown

ABDE.

in

THE ROLLING CURVE EQUIVALENT FOR LINK-WORK.

AB

Making

the fixed

describes the circle

DG about

EB

line

of

centers,

about A, and

and

269

the driver,

describes the circle through

B.

Dotted positions of the links are shown to indicate the nature of

The crank AE, it is readily seen, makes two revothe motion.
lutions to one of BD and there are two positions for dead points,
viz., when the joint D is at G, and at 180 from G.
The equivalent rolling wheels are readily found, one point for
,

DE

each wheel being at the intersection / of

prolonged, J being its
correct position for A, with reference to the crank position AE, and
also the correct position for B relative to the crank position BD-

The

curves being symmetrical,

we may revolve

J about A

to

I and

AE and BD

prolonged, giving points / and Kin

and BG, as
the wheels relative to the cranks for the positions

about

TTin

to

AB

if

the wheels were cut in material and

made

fast to the cranks, the

the larger to the crank BG.

a sufficiency of points and locating them all
with respect to some one position of the cranks, we obtain the outline of the wheels shown.
smaller one to crank

AB, and

Thus determining

fully worked out are shown together with the linkwheel is seen to make one complete
in Fig. 305, where the
circuit of the rirn with a side offset in

The wheels

work

mating wheel, and

wheel makes two complete convolutions, one being out of
the plane of the other to prevent interference and mating respectively
with the offset parts of B.
it

suitable for the

where the

The wheels

in

this

construction

work by

rolling contact of pitch lines,

at
the dead points, where halfexcept
teeth are introduced as shown.

Example 5. The case of two equal

FlG 305
cranks revolving in opposite directions
link
a
of
the
same
and connecting
length as the line of centers, but
longer than the crank, is shown in Fig. 133, accompanied with the
Hence the
equivalent wheels, the latter being the rolling ellipses.
law of velocity-ratio for this linkage is the same as that of a pair of
rolling ellipses, each with the axis at a focus.
-

Example

6.

The same linkage as

member is

shorter instead of a longer

in

Example

5,

except that a

fixed to serve as a line of cen-

PRINCIPLES OF MECHANISM.

270

shown

in Fig. 306, where the equivalent rolling curves are

of ellipses.
instead
The hyperbolic wheel
is fixed
hyperbolas
arm
while
the
is
fixed on the arm AD.
BE,
upon

ters, is

ECG

FCH

For the positions

tangent at the point

A /and BJ of

the arms these hyperbolas are

K of intersection of // with the line of centers

FIG. 306.

and G in the hyperbolas are

AB, both prolonged. The points
obtained by revolving Kio the radii Aland BG. These hyperbolas
will roll in mutual contact from where the link // is parallel to the
line of centers,

through 180 degrees, to where

will

when another

it is

again parallel to

shown dotted,
into rolling contact for the remaining 180 degrees.
dotted hyperbolic half-wheel
is to be fixed upon the

the line of centers,

pair of hyperbolas,

come

The
arm AD,

LM

as well as the half-wheel

EG

FH,

and NP, are to be fixed

half-wheels,
a distance between vertices equal AB.

while the remaining two

upon the arm BE, and at

points B and D are foci to the hyperbolas EG and FH.

A and E are focal points for the dotted hyperbolas. Thus A
D are focal points for the hyperbolas FH and LM, the asymp-

The
Also

and

totes for

which

intersect each other,

and the

line

AD

at its

middle

point.

pair of these hyperbolic wheels mounted for non-circular

is shown in Fig. 49, where AB, as in Fig. 306, is

wheel pitch lines

the constant difference of lines drawn from

all

points

C to

the focal

points.

The elliptic wheel of Example 5 and Fig. 133 may coexist along
with the hyperbolic wheels of Fig. 306, except that one of the
ellipses would be fixed with A and B as focal points, while the

THE ROLLING CURVE EQUIVALENT FOR LINK-WORK.

271

other would be carried on the link //, their point of tangency

being constantly the intersecting point of A I with BJ, as shown in
Fig. 307, while the hyperbolas are tangent where

AB and //inter-

sect at D.

most interesting and instructive figure in this connection is

brought out by aid of his theory of Centroids by Reuleaux, and
'given in his Kinematics of Machinery by Kennedy, p. 194, much as
shown in Fig. 307, where the linkage, the rolling ellipses, and hyperbolas are all presented in one view.
Thus with
the line of centers, // may be a link
connecting

AB

Hi

FIG. 307.

/of PJVwith the focus / of HD, as has been admirably

shown by Geo. B. Grant in his handbook on Teeth of Gears, Second
the focus
Edition.

Examining

Figs. 133

and 307, we find that for the

ellipses

both

the link and line of centers in length equal the sum of the distances from the point of tangency of the rolling ellipses to the pair
of foci A and B on the opposite sides of the center of the ellipse.

In the hyperbolas the link or line of centers equals the difference of

these distances from the point of tangency.
Referring these curves to their conic sections, we find that the
parabola lies intermediate, and is like the ellipse of infinite length,
or the hyperbola of infinite distance between foci.

Example

7.

Therefore we

may

expect that the link connecting

foci of the parabolas would be of infinite length, as shown

by Geo.
B. Grant in his Teeth of Gears, Second Edition, and may be real-

ized in the
ters,

C the

manner

of Fig. 308,

point of contact,

straight guide,

where
and D

AB

foci,

is

the fixed line of cen-

DE a link

sliding on a
to its

mounted on the parabola A, perpendicular

PRINCIPLES OF MECHANISM.

272

DE

extended
the same motion as if
geometric axis and giving to
and were pivoted there to the axis or opposite focus of
slides on a guide FG perpendicular to the
A. The parabola
to infinity

FIG. 308.

The point of contact C is at the intersecting

of D.
geometric axis
and line of centers.
point of the link
In Fig. 309 we realize this link-work movement without the
The gabs and pins will be explained later.
parabolas.

Example

8.

The above examples

are all for curve equivalents

FIG. 309.

that are symmetrical; Example 2, apparently not, becomes so

the remaining half-revolution is provided for.

when

THE ROLLING CURVE EQUIVALENT FOR LINK-WORK.

As an example

273

entirely wanting in symmetry, take the link-work

of Fig. 293, the rolling-curve equivalents for which are shown in

Fig. 310.
The links are

shown

in the position such as places the joint

FIG. 310.

line of centers AB, and in the proper relation to the curves

mounting them upon the crank arms, IL and OP on AE, and
on D.
<7^and
To find a pair of points in the curves JK and IL: Place AE in

on the
for

MN

ED

will follow to the position be,

the position Ab, when the link
giving the intersection C with the line of centers. Then, as before,

revolve the point C to the arm Ab, giving the point e.

Now if
the curves were symmetrical this point could be retained as a point
in proper location of the curve.
But here e must be placed at/'

symmetrically on the opposite side of the line of centers, so that

when the arm moves from
to b this point will move up to the

Also, the mating point a, is to be placed at i, a

DBc. In like manner
being on a line Ba, where the angle CBa
find other points.
line of centers.

DE

These curves reach infinity when the link

becomes parallel
to the line of centers, following which the curves
and
come in from infinity. The point of
at
is in contact with

MN

OP

its

mate when the link

portion

point, as

DE

is

in a line

OP

running through A the

D from its extreme
DA toward the extreme
;

answering to the slight return of

moves from the straight line

For the other extreme, Gf, of movement of E, the points

in contact on the line of centers.
The movement of
D is slight for the movement of E from R to F, while for RG
the crank B makes over a 90-degree movement. The point R is
about midway between F and G, so that D is comparatively quiet

point F.

/ and / are

for half the time.

274

PRINCIPLES OF MECHANISM.

Dead Points

in Link- Work.

dead point or dead center, in link-work mechanism, is a point,

or set of points, or positions of the links, at which, if certain of the
links in combination be made driver, the linkage will be found
positively locked.

Thus when the crank and pitman

are in line

the crank cannot be started into motion by force applied to the

Dead points must always be provided against, either by
crosshead.

by springs, or by extraneous attachments.

In the steam engine the inertia of the fly-wheel serves.
In
some reverse motions in machines springs are employed. In starting inertia is dead also; and so the single-acting steam engine must
not stop on the dead center. In locomotives, two sets of cranks
inertia,

FIG. 311.

are placed at right angles, so that one is at its best advantage when
the other is on its dead center. Any angle will serve with a degree
of efficiency, as illustrated in Fig. 311 of Boehm's movement, where
an extra link is added to destroy the dead point. Several links

may

be added.

Another arrangement

is

shown

in Fig. 312,

where an extra crank

FIG. 312.

D, of radius equal that

side
ratio

extension AD
is

and

of

DB to

is added, together with the

or
The velocitythe main link AB.

constant in the locomotive and in Figs. 311 and 312, the

DEAD POINTS IN LINK-WORK.

275

being obtained from Figs. 133 and 307 by cutting away the
wheels and making the link parallel to the axis.

latter

In the steam engine two pitman links at about right angles

sometimes connected on the same crank pin, thus realizing conditions equivalent to the use of two cranks with parallel rods.
are

Prof. Reuleaux has introduced a gab and pin at the points of

the equivalent rolling curve where they are tangent to each other,
when the linkage is at the dead centers. Thus in Fig. 306 a gab
and pin is to be placed at C, where the hyperbolas are tangent, one

AD

on the link

and the mate on the link BE.

In case a longer link is fixed for the line of centers the gab and
pin attached to it become fixed also, as in Fig. 313.
Also, a gab and pin may be placed where the ellipses become
tangent for the position of the line of centers, as shown in Fig. 314.

Pro. 314.

FIG. 318.

Here

also a

gab and pin become fixed when a shorter link

is

fixed

shown in Fig. 315.

In Fig. 133 the gab and pin are in the form of a gear tooth and
a space for the same, and represent the same case as Fig. 314, except that the elliptic wheel equivalents of the link- work are present
and mounted with their respective links.
In Fig. 305 a half gear tooth and half -space are made to serve
for gab and pin to carry over the dead center.
for the line of centers, as

In Fig. 308 a gab and pin may be placed either at the vertices
of the parabolas, or upon the links, as shown in Fig. 316, one set
being sufficient. The dead center occurs when the swinging piece
is vertical,

move up
between

since at that position the parts DE, FG, Fig. 308,

may
down without control.
One set of gabs and pins

or

and

D will prevent

this.

PRINCIPLES OF MECHANISM.

276

In Fig. 297 the curves show that a gab and pin may be placed
indicated by either system of curves.
In Fig. 298 the pin,
for instance, may be placed on AD extended downward from A to
the curve at F9 while the gab may be placed on the line of
extended to the curve at G. Thus the gab and pin are placed on the
at

O as

BE

FIG. 316.

FIG. 315.

crank arms

AD

and BE,

But

so that both are in motion.

may also be placed on the longer members as at

latter is fixed on AB.
Thus two pairs of gabs

H and

/,

a pair

where the

and pins are available in this linkage, either of which may be adopted, whichever
member, as AB, AD, DE, or BE, is the fixed one, and in any case
one, a gab or pin,

may become

fixed, as at /.

Figs. 298, 299, and 300 show the possible

gabs and pins for this linkage.

arrangement of

all

the

The linkage of Fig. 307 shows eight gabs and pins, any two pairs
of which may be adopted in a particular case sometimes all in
motion, and sometimes two being fixed, as illustrated in Figs. 313
to 315.

In Fig. 316 four of the gabs and pins are at infinity; while of
the four shown, one

is

fixed.

Path of the Gab and Pin.

In Fig. 317 is shown a link and crank connection recently
adopted with success into a machine to transfer motion from one
ehaft to another parallel to it, the gabs and pins being employed.

FG = DE

The connecting link is raised from its position a distance

to uncover the gabs at a and I.
The curves described by the centers of the pins a and b are

DEAD POINTS IN LINK-WORK.

277

drawn in, to show how the gabs must widen in amount of opening.
The pins a and b are placed one-sided, for the reason that, if placed
But an examination
central, they would interfere with the gabs.
of the path curves for

b,

and

shows that these curves are cusp-

FIG. 317.

shaped at the gab positions, and that the central one,

from those at the sides at a and b.

c,

does not

differ materially

As to the advantage or disadvantage of placing the gabs somewhat off of the line of centers, very little difference will be noticed.

The

position c

is

right for the rolling ellipses of Fig. 133, but

here the eccentricity is so slight that interference occurs.

The path curves for , J, and c were traced by means of a paper
templet on the drawing board, the templet being so cut that the
fitted at the points F, a and D, and had a mark at each.
This
and
in the circles,
templet, placed in the various positions of
and a noted for each, gave points through which the curves

edge

were traced.

An example
tion,

is

of a linkage nearly like that of Fig. 299 in applicawhich picks up the staple at the lower

given in Fig. 318,

FIG. 318.

end of the machine and

delivers

it

ing the handling of rods, screws,

articles.

at the

upper end, thus representmanufacture of those

etc., in the

278

PRINCIPLES OF MECHANISM.

In Fig. 319 is given a model of link-work serving to prove that

Thus the pointer is
vibratory motion may be multiplied thereby.
given four movements, to one of the first vibrating bar of the series.

FIG. 319.

CHAPTER XXV.
LINK-WORK

H
THIS

is

(CONTINUED).

AXES MEETING.

sometimes called conic link-work, or

solid link-work, the

in bringing all the axial lines of shafts

principal essential consisting

Fib. 320.

common point, 0, as in Fig. 320. Thus we may have

as
in the counterpart for parallel axes of Figs. 306 and
equal cranks,
or
307;
unequal cranks, as in Fig. 299.

and pins

to a

To

realize the principles of equal cranks, it is only necessary to

and
an equal slant.
the
cones
gives
under
axes parallel may be carried into
of
the
examples
Any
conic link-work, even to the extent of continued trains.

AOD

BOB

The Velocity-Ratio

in Conic Link- Work.

It will be advisable, if not necessary, to refer problems in conic

link-work to spherical surfaces normal to all the axes, or which
have Of Fig. 320, for the center of the sphere.

In practice, avoiding spherical trigonometry, the velocity-ratio

279

280

PRINCIPLES OF MECHANISM.

may

be most readily determined by preparing the proper spherical

wood

surface in

and using

Take

it

or other material,

for the

321

drawing board.

to

represent this
board
and
drawing
drawing.
A and are the points where the
Fig.

axes

and

pierce this spherical

and
where the cranksurface;
the
axes
is
pierce
pin
sphere;
the line of centers and
the line

AB

DE

of the link, both being parts of great

circles, and constant in length on the

sphere.

Suppose A makes a slight turn,

moving E to k, then D will move to
I

so far that the

and
'o
FIG. 321.

Ek upon

other and give

DE
Do

projections of
will

Dl

equal each

equal to En, equal

to pr, equal to st', since the spherical

remains of constant length, s and p being
connecting link
points noted thereon where Ap and Bs are perpendicular to DE.

DE

Then the angle sBt measures the angular displacement of axis B,

corresponding with that of pAr for A. But sB is a circle arc on
the sphere, also Ap. Eevolving s to u and p to v and transferring
the arc Bu and Av to bd and ae in the great-circle section abO, we
readily obtain the perpendiculars eg

which

is

and hd, the inverse

ratio of

the velocity-ratio, because

hd X angle sBt

st

= pr =

eg

angle pAr,

giving
velocity-ratio

=_ angle

sBt

eg

angle

pAr

hd

Hence in practice, for any position of links as AEDB, draw the

perpendiculars to the links Ap and Bs, which arcs transfer to ae
and bd. Then the velocity-ratio equals the inverse ratio of eg
and

dh.

The Rolling- Wheel Equivalent

of Conic Link- Work.

In Fig. 321 draw parallels ef and df to the axes Oa and Ob, and
through /draw Oc. Then ac and be will be the spherical arc radii

AXES MEETING.

II.

281

for the spherical rolling-wheel equivalents of the link-work of Fig.

321, for contact occurring when the links are in the positions
shown. When the links are located for drawing the wheel, as for

instance
place.
.are

AE

on the

line of centers, their radii

Likewise for other

radii, until

may be laid off in

number of points

a sufficient

determined for drawing in the wheel.

The Dead Center and Gab and Pins in Conic Link-work.

In Fig. 322 is given a photo-process copy of an example of conic
link-work for equal cone slants, and where the angle between the
axes A and B is equal to that be-

tween the pins

and

when

in

one plane as in Fig. 320.

Thus conditioned, the cranks

will turn continuously in the same
direction as in Fig. 312, or in op-

posite directions, as in Fig. 313.

The dead center accompanies

conic link-work, and gabs and pins

may be used here as well as in the
case of axes parallel. For Fig. 322,
the elliptic conic pitch lines of Prof.

FIG. 322.

MacCord

will serve to deter-

locations of the gabs and pins, those curves serving as the

rolling-wheel. equivalents of this linkage.

mine the

Other linkages may have the rolling-curve equivalents deteras in Fig. 321, when the location of the gabs and pins is
readily made.

mined

EXAMPLES OF PECULIAR MOVEMENTS.

Example
movement.

1.

In Fig. 323
plunger

is

is

made

what we might term a bent-shaft

to slide in the top

head in a direc-

tion parallel to the shaft.

The joint work could be simplified by using a block and two

If
is a square bar the center line of the
pins, as in Fig. 324.
should strike the intersection 0.
pin

The
shown
bar

is

velocity-ratio is the same as for the swash-plate movement

in Willis, p. 172, where it is proved that the motion of the
the same as that of the crank and crosshead, with infinite

pitman.

The motion is still the same, if in place of the angular part of

the shaft in Fig. 323 an enlarged bearing were used, like an ordi-

PRINCIPLES OF MECHANISM.

282

nary eccentric and strap, and mounted on the straight shaft central,
at an angle like that of the swash plate.

though

A movement like this has been used for working the valve in a
steam engine exhibited at the Centennial of 1876.

FIG. 323.

Example

2.

The Hooke's

universal joint

is

often employed as

a shaft angle-coupling, where the velocity-ratio

is

an important

consideration.

The joint is shown in Fig. 325, where

and
halfto be connected,
hoops between which is a cross with

AD

and

B are

the shafts

FEE

one branch at EF, parallel to the

paper, and the other at D perpendicular to the paper.
The branches
of the cross are pivoted at
and 9

and

at the

two points D, in AD.

In the position shown the velocity

of

is

greatest,

Fm

and the

velocity-ratio

= DP
=,,

while at a 90-degree turn from the position shown the velocity of

B is greatest when the

velocity-ratio

II.

AXES MEETING.

283

because for the first position A acts in effect by an arm aF upon

an arm
from B, since aFis continually in the plane of the axis
of A, and of the arm DF of the cross.

DF

If

revolves uniformly, the ratio of the fastest for

slowest, since db

aF,

to the

is

Fastest for

Slowest for

B _
IDFV
~~
B \~aFj

'

These limiting speeds are in the same ratio as those for elliptic
wheels of Fig. 133, where
and
are the distances from a
focus to the remote and a nearer vertex respectively, though in the

DF

AF

we have but one max. and one min. speed in a revolution,

while in Fig. 325 we have two.
But the law of variation of velocity between extremes is not the same as for the elliptic wheels.
latter

In the case of a pair of two-lobed elliptic wheels, with the

diameters in the same ratio as
to aF,
the ratio of the limiting speeds is the same as for Fig. 325, and the
number of changes in a revolution is the same, but the law of vari-

DF

maximum and minimum

ation of velocity still remains different.

connected by this joint,
pair of overhead shafts A and

the angle

ADB differs

much from

by too great a variation of

when

180 degrees, will be accompanied

velocity-

ratio.

In this case the use of two joints

between A and B, arranged as in Fig.
326, with the branches .Zi^and HI
of the crosses in the same plane

and with the angle

A OB =2 GDO,

motion from
B, with the velocity-ratio con-

will serve to transmit

to

stant.

For the single joint of Fig. 325

IG

the law of velocity-ratio is given by

the formula brought out in connection with Fig. 256,
ang. velocity of
ang. velocity of

__ 1

sin

cos

sin"

viz.,

BDJ

BDJ

the angle of movement of A from the positions shown.

This equation may be constructed and solved graphically by the
with the same angle, BDJ,.
diagram, Fig. 327. Thus, draw

in which x

is

BDJ

284

PRINCIPLES OF MECHANISM.

Lay off DJ = 1 by some scale, and

L M perpendicular to DL and DM respectively.
as in Fig. 325.

L R

draw

JL

and

FIG. 327.

Then

JL =

BDJ

sin

and

JM =
Draw the semicircle
Then

JL

sin

BDJ =

sin'

BDJ.

JPM and lay off any angle x =

JMP.

JM sin x = JP
and
sin

= JQ = JM sin

x.

Then
Z>()

= DJ - JQ =

Draw the

line

/Jf sin 8

a?

sin 8

sin

PS, and we have

DS = DQ sec

J9/

=
cos

2?O/

Hence the
velocity-ratio of

to

B = DS =cos

This supposes

.A/and

also

DS

velocity-ratio.

DJ

1,

but

by the same

if it

BDJ

equals any other value, measure

and divide
by ZVfor the

scale,

DS

AXES MEETING.

II.

In a practical case draw

This much
as explained.

Then

BDJ.

angle

BDJ, JL,
is

lay off all

for,

drawing the

etc.,

perpendicular to

lines

MN

285

LM and the semicircle JPM,

constant for a particular case of an

angles x the velocity-ratio is desired

MP,

DJ when

Then

etc.

we have the

NR

project lines

PS,

series of velocity-ratios

DR, DS,etc.

DL

BD
=

is a minimum and
a maximum; the
velocity-ratio
x
where
to
the
0.
shown,
position
answering
divided by the slowest
If
revolves uniformly, the fastest for

The
latter

gives

Fastest for

Slowest for
since

B _ DB _
~
B ~~DL

IDJ\*

\DLJ

(DF_V

\aF)'

from Fig. 327

DL :DJ

I'.DJi DB,

or
a

and

Thus the

DB

results of Fig. 327 agree with that obtained

from Fig.

325.

This example, the Hooke's

joint, is

found in various forms of con-

struction, the simplest being that for couplings for tumbling rods
for transmitting power from the "horse-power" to the threshing-

machine in agricultural

districts.

much like
may be placed

forked casting,

that in

On
Fisr.

each end of each rod

324, with bosses

is

through

at right angles to the rod. A block

goes
with
at right angles and just
holes
between,
loosely
missing each
other. Two pins or bolts are used at each joint, each passed
through
a fork and the block, and at right" angles.
Thus, between adjacent

which a pin

rods

is

a universal joint, so that the series of rods

may

lie

upon the

ground upon notched blocks, or on blocks and between stakes.

For a considerable angle between rods at a joint some end play
will occur,

when the

holes for the bolts, as above, pass beside each

other.

Example 3. The Almond, Reuleaux, and other joints or couplings, are more compact than the Hooke's, so that they may very
readily be enclosed in an oil-tight case, to facilitate lubrication.
In Fig. 328 is the Almond coupling, serving to couple a pair of

PRINCIPLES OF MECHANISM.

286

axes
to

and

at

an angle, and with constant velocity-ratio equal

1.

At

D is a

fixed shaft, at the intersection of,

to the plane of the axes

and B.

On

and perpendicular

this shaft a sleeve slides

FIG. 328.

from which project two arms E, E, subtending the angle ADB,

and upon the ends of each of which arms is a ball to work in a
socket F in the swinging piece FH, the latter being in two pieces,
held together as one by a bolt ab, and pivoted to J.

When A
other.

is

FH

are identical, it follows that

Since both joined pieces
is a copy of that of A, and hence the
velocity-ratio

the motion of
equals

F is compelled to travel in a curve

D, one curve being identical with the

revolves, each ball

on the cylinder whose axis

1.

This joint or coupling will connect shafts at any angle ADB,

is made the same.
If the
provided the angle between the arms
shafts A and B are in one straight line, the coupling will reverse

EE

the directions of motion.

a somewhat different joint or coupling, where the
have fixed cranks with long crank pins, extending
through the sockets or sleeves F, the latter having right-angled pin
holes passing without meeting, through which are pins fixed in

In Fig. 329

shafts

and

the arms

shaft or

stud

and

is

of the central piece.

Z>,

placed as

The

latter slides

on the fixed
A and B,

before at right angles to

at their point of intersection.

AXES MEETING.

II.

287

the parts D, EE, and FF compel the

maintain the same relation to the shaft B as the

It is readily seen that

crank pin B
crank pin of

to

does to the shaft A, so that the velocity-ratio

is

constant.

The shafts may here also be connected at any angle from to

180 degrees, or until interference of cranks occurs, the angle between the branches
being made the same as that between the
shafts A and B.

EE

Besides this, the shaft

below

arms

by simply making
connecting with

connecting with

Thus by making

may

be placed at any height above or

and placing the

of suitable length

the same

amount above

or below those

as the one shaft is above or below the other.

open, and extended into sliding and revolving
gudgeons above and below, we meet the case of connecting by linkwork axes which cross without meeting, and with a velocity-ratio

unity.

The Reuleaux coupling

is

shown

in Fig.

330, where

and

are the shafts connected, C a head on their ends with holes at right
for a joint pin, the latter passing the forked ends
angles to A or
of
at F, permitting the ends
to swing freely, which ends
are

EF

EE

ing
through D.
have a nut and collar

round prongs of the head D, thus connectThe ends of the prongs of D nearest
may
to prevent D from being thrown outward in

sleeve-like, receiving the

revolving.

This coupling or joint, so put up as to have the angle ^J^Fequal

the angle FFB, will have a velocity-ratio constant.
This, as well as Figs. 327 and 328, should have firm bearings

288

PRINCIPLES OF MECHANISM.

A and B, close to the movement, also in the former ones for /),,
an advisable arrangement being an iron framework especially for
them.
for

One important

practical advantage of this latter over the former

FIG. 330.

two couplings is the fact that the mutual sliding of parts is simply
from rotation upon pins, according to the true ideal in link-work,
while in the former we have this combined with a disproportionately large amount of end sliding.
At
the branches of each part JFm&y be made unequal and
one piece EF like another, so that the bosses of one piece EF will
lie beside those of the other, uniting at F\ and still admitting the
four sockets
to all lie in one plane EEEE.
In Fig. 329, as suggested by Prof. E. A. Hitchcock, we have a
means of connecting the shafting in one shop room above or below

another by link- work.

In fact we may say any number of shafts parallel to one another in any one plane, by means cf one shaft D, Fig. 329, parallel
to the plane, crossing all the shafts at

any angle.

statement corresponds with placing the shafts A and

with
others in parallel in any plane, but at a distance
B, Fig. 329,
from one another along the line of D, where the latter consists of

This

last

a shaft free to slide endwise in bearings with a single-crank armin

at each shaft A, B, etc., all keyed upon the shaft
piece

parallel,

being near the plane of the shafts and parallel to

See Fig. 333.

it.

CHAPTER XXVI.
LINK- WORK

(CONTINUED).

AXES CKOSSING WITHOUT MEETING.

III.

Ratchet and Click Movements.

Fig. 331 we have the typical case of projection of axes which
not
are
parallel and not meeting, where A and B, A' and E' are the
and Eb the crank or lever arms, and ab the connecting
Da
axes,

IN

link.

At a and

some

sort of universal joints are necessary, as, for

instance, the ball-and-socket.

to Fig. 267 it would appear that the velocity-ratio
be obtained by giving the parts a small rotation, so that the

According

may

FIG. 331.

end d of the common perpendicular dj makes the movement df,

which, projected upon the connecting rod, gives effor its endlong
component of displacement; also, that the end of the common perpendicular gk makes the movement gi, which projected upon the
connecting rod gives lii for the endwise component of displacement,,
which components ef and hi must be equal, allowing permanence
of length of connecting rod, so that the velocity-ratio will equal the
289

PKINCIPLES OF MECHANISM.

290

ratio of the angles djf to gki, each

determined as the angle between

radii jd and^/, or kg and ki.

two meridian planes containing the

To

avoid the universal joint at a and

I,

a second intermediate piece between a and

Prof. Willis introduces

#,

as at Fig. 332,

A
B

FIG. 332.

The shafts are shown as not parallel and not meeting, by the
A and PB.
lines O'A', P' B' in elevation, and in plan by the lines
At

is

a crank for A, and

DE a connecting rod with the three

and GF& connecting-rod, with

is an intermediate
piece, with
DE
and
GF.
QP
The parts thus connected may be moved about on their straight
at 0.

At /is

axes meeting
the three axes meeting at P.
and QO to connect
axes

a crank

At

remains a fixed point of the intersection of the axes

when
and
DO,
QO, while P remains a fixed point for the axes BP,
AO,
GP, and QP. Also, Q is the point of intersection of the axes of

axes

In use these parts have long bearing surfaces without cramping

or endlong sliding.
J.

This mechanism becomes somewhat complicated for connecting

In many practical cases some sliding is not
the
since
sliding facilitates lubrication, and by admitobjected to,

axes that do not meet.

ting sliding and rotary motion combined we often greatly simplify

the mechanism, as in the following:

Examples.
In Fig. 333 we have the case of axes crossing uut
Example
not meeting, and yet have but one piece intermediate between +he
cranks upon the axes A and B, that piece serving as a link of in1.

finite length.

The crank

pins are parallel to the axes which support them.

III.

As

AXES CROSSING WITHOUT MEETING.

the axes are both fixed in direction,

it

291

follows that the angle

FIG. 333.

between the pins is fixed, and that a block with long bearing holes
same angle may be employed to connect the crank pins.
Continuous motion is possible, except for the dead centers, and
these may be passed by use of gabs and pins at the
points determined in position, as by the equivalent

at the

non-circular gear pitch lines.

Example 2. In Fig. 334 is given an example

which has been adopted in certain machines, with
hundreds of them in successful operation for some
The axes A and B are at right angles
years past.
and not meeting.

The double
fitting

D has

sleeve

the pins closely.

It

holes at right angles

turns out to be a

simple, compact, and efficient movement, the piece

serving as a short link.

Example

3.

In Fig.

335

is

an example, in

practical use in machines, of a case of axes A and

at right angles and not meeting, the piece

working on an eccentric
it

slides to

accommodate

fixed axis

B, while

the lateral

movement

A
it

as driver,
to the arc

slides

upon

upon which

F about the
to

admit of

of the eccentric.

In practice, the longitudinal sliding of the

knuckle piece D, combined with the rotary, is
found an advantage, as favoring distribution of
lubricant, and smoothness of surfaces in wear.

Example

4.

Here link-work, much

FIG. 334.

like that of Fig. 295, drives

292

PRINCIPLES OF MECHANISM.

a pin

F in a curve

much

like that of

FE, while

between which and

on
both
working freely
pins.
carries a pin G,

is

a lever pivoted at
a knuckle piece D,

FIG. 335.

FIG. 336.

may have
pins are always at right angles, the piece
at
holes
right
angles.
long bearing
of Fig. 295 as driver, and B, Eig. 336, as fulcrum
If we take
cross without meeting.
This is in
of follower, these axes A and
As the

successful operation in hundreds of tacking machines.

Ratchet and Click Movements, Axes Variously Related.

These movements are properly classed with link-work, sometimes called intermittent link-work, because one end of the click or
pawl is usually supported on a pin, while the other in action rests

which serves nearly as if pinned at that point.

A Running Ratchet of simple form is shown in
1.
Fig. 337, such as was employed in the old-fashioned sawmills to
feed along the carriage and log. A is a fixed pin about which AD
swings, causing the end E of the click DE to move forward and
As E moves forward the teeth of the wheel B are engaged
back.
and moved, while on the return E draws back over the teeth, thedetent click F engaging a tooth and preventing the return of the

in a notch,

Example

wheel.

Arranged

as in the figure,

together with the movement of

moves

EB,

in the arc of a circle which,

to change position

causes

ED

OF THE

UNIVERSITY
*2^4TJFORH\^

III.

relative to

AXES CKOSSIKG WITHOUTMEETlSlG.

EB, giving

greater liability of

293

E to slip out for one posi-

tion than for others.

change of position, or swinging of
To reduce this, the pin
in the notch, gives cause for wear.
should be so placed as to swing in a normal to a line AB, or better,
Also, this

FIG. 337.

An approximation to this, while using AD, is

circle about B.
to /, for which the position
obtained by locating
to swing from
of
with respect to
is nearly constant for forward movement of E.

DE

EB

D is mounted on a pin centered at B, or on the

ED is fixed relative to EB when in action, as in

In other cases
axis

so that

the case of Fig. 339.

Example 2.
shown in Fig.

Running Ratchet

338, as used

mometer-plate graduating
over thirty years ago. At
tical

table
etc.,

axis

about which

GH

swings.

The

for

Varied Step Movement

is

in ther-

machines

B is

the

a ver-

slotted

slots db, cd,

each have a stud that can be

made fast at any point in the slot.

These studs are slotted to receive a
flexible ratchet strip DF, and are
made
as

fast in studs

shown

at J.

by thumb screws,
click,

EE,

as long

as the slots works the ratchet strip,

and moves the table HG, notch by
FIG. 338.
notch, between each of which movements the graduating tool cuts a mark in the scale being graduated, the slide supporting the scale, tool, etc., not being shown,

294

PRINCIPLES OF MECHANISM.

the scale and

its slide

being moved in a straight line proportional

to the angular displacement of

The

ratchet strip

DF

is

HG.

shown concentric with

J9,

when

it

gives

a uniform scale; but it may be set in any position, as dotted, on the

table HG, when a correspondingly varied scale results
as finer at

one end, or the other, or in the middle, or at both ends.

This variability is required to meet the case of glass thermometer tubes which cannot be made of uniform calibre.
Example 3. A Reversible Running Ratchet is shown in Fig.
339, where the click A is kept in engagement either way by a
spring action at C. A central notch for C holds the click out of

engagement when

desired.

variety of forms of
for machinists' tools.

Example 4.
shown in Fig.

are in use, especially in feed motions

Reversible

340, where

carrying the pawls or clicks

is

Varied Rate Running Ratchet is

continually reciprocating about B,
and
forth and back on the click

FIG. 339.

FIG. 340,

moves D to the one side or the other a click enguard D. As

several
or
one
teeth, and moves B little or much, according
gages
to extent of movement of D.
When D moves to the left the wheel B is turned right-handed
if D is thrown to the
the
click E, or left-handed by the click
by

right.

The more

is

displaced, the

more rapidly

will

be moved

by the click, and when central, B is stationary.

This movement is found in Snow's Waterwheel Governor.

RATCHET MOVEMENTS.

The

click

guard

295

has had frequent application with good

results.

Example

5.

Continuous Running Ratchet is shown in Fig.

is moved the same way for each movement of

341, where the wheel

the handle

J one

or the other.

way

Thus

the holding or detaining

The clicks may

click of Fig. 337 is here made a working click.
push or pull in action, the former being usually preferred for considerations of strength and shown above in full lines, while the
latter are dotted in.

The

pins

and

are sometimes placed in a

line perpendicular to AB, but the figure gives that relation which
causes least turning of the ends of the clicks in the teeth, and

consequently least wear.

The teeth may be internal as a possibility, but are usually external.

Forms of Teeth.

At D,

Fig, 342, the

normal d to the working surface a of a tooth

FIG. 342.

FIG. 341.

But if it goes outthe

side of D, as for the case that b were
working face of the tooth,
to
the click will be insecure, or very likely
fly out of engagement.
turn back appreciably
will
wheel
the
if Dd is excessive,

may go

inside of D,

when

the click will be secure.

Again,

before coming to bearing against the click after it drops in.

The click may have a shape for engagement with a common
gear tooth, as at F.
At G several clicks may be placed on the same pin, and of dif-

296

PRINCIPLES OF MECHANISM.

ferent lengths, one engaging after another and serving in effect to

divide the tooth pitch into parts answering to a finer toothed
ratchet wheel.
This may be called a differential Ratchet,

At

is

a stationary ratchet click serving to hold the wheel

stationary against

moving

either way.

Friction Ratchets.

In Fig. 343,
may represent a round rod and a washer easily
sliding over E, except when cramped, as by the pull F<. when the
greater the pull the greater the binding or grip
This form of
JEy so as to hold effectually c

upon

ratchet has

been used in the Brush electric

light lamp.

The

part J?

may be

a square rod or a flange

on a wide piece, D fitting properly.

This form of ratchet always works satisfactorily when new, but in practice very soon becomes untrustworthy, and is usually abandoned,
FIG. 343.
especially under heavy service.
Shoe pieces will extend the wearing surfaces, as in Fig. 344, and
they have been used with fluted seats, as shown in plan.
These work admirably for a much longer time than the more
limited bearing surfaces of Figs. 342 or 343, but finally become

---

FIG. 344.

worn

in places
1.

where most used, and

Example
which was once used on

345,

fail to

work

as expected.
shown in Fig.
a rock-drilling machine for feeding

Continuous Friction Ratchet

is

the working parts along as the drilling progressed.

At

is

HATCHET MOVEMENTS.

297

flange fast to the stationary framework, while J is a part oi the

sliding carriage, G and
being the grip clicks, one holding in the

Fro. 345.

opposite sense of the other,

that can be moved towards

comes

to press

spring

/.

upon

it.

H
G

That

is a clamp under slight friction

grip,
as the drilling advances and a tappet
moves G, and in turn
moves by the

F prevents / from moving up, and

ward movement

until

H acts upon

opposes

its

down-

it.

This apparatus operated most admirably for a few days, but soon
most ratchets of this kind.
Wire
Feed
2.
Ratchets, as in Fig. 346, with teeth to
Example

liad to be abandoned, as

grip the wire, the lower ones reciprocating together while the upper ones are stationary,
always operate with satisfaction for a few

hours, for feeding wire, when the teeth become

worn and slip, making the contrivance a failure.

Example

3.

Running Face Ratchets have

the teeth upon the sides of the wheel instead of

edge, as

shown

in Fig. 347.

In this example, recently

adopted with success in

FIG. 346.

wheel

./>,

is a
practice, the click
full circle, as well as the

both having the same number of

teeth, viz., 100.

is made in great variety
so to attempt full description here.
elaborate enumeration and illustration will be

Ratchet Gearing
too

An

much

leaux's Constructor, translated by Suplee.

FIG. 347.

found in Reu-

PART

CHAPTER

V.

XXVII.

REDUPLICATION.
THIS term

is

applied to such movements as consist of circular

pulleys or sheaves, and flexible connectors
passing over them, usually made fast at one
i

Sx

end, mostly ropes, employed to multiply the

Blocks and tackles of

pull, or the motion.

ships are included.

In Fig. 348 is a simple example where the

rope is made fast at G, passes down around

the pulley F, returns and passes over the
pulley E, and on to some point Z), where a
pull may be exerted to raise a weight at F, as
in the case of

When

hay unloaders, stackers, etc.

F up are parallel, the

the ropes from

velocity-ratio is constant; but when the rope

diverges or converges upward, the velocity-ratio is variable, that is,
as compared with that of D.
the velocity of

In this case D must move twice as far as F, and the pull exerted
will be twice as great as at D.
at
Again, by making F the driver, D will be moved twice as far as
the pull exerted at D will be one half that at } so that the
and
F,

velocity-ratio

In Fig. 349,
velocitv-ratio,

is

2,

or 1/2.

To find the
raised faster than in Fig. 348.
lines parallel to the principal figure.

draw abed with

298

290

REDUPLICATION.

Then

if

cause ac

is

is raised a height ab, beis pulled a distance cbd,

perpendicular to GF, and represents the movement of

a point of

GF near F, when

cbd

velocity of
velocity of

Applying

is

removed.

Hence, for Fig. 349,

D ~~
_ cbd _
" 2FH

EF

ab

this to the case of Fig. 348,

we

will find

EF = FH, and

the velocity-ratio reduces to 2, as before

stated.
One make .of a hay-unloader is
as

shown

ratio

is

where the velocityand constant, when the

in Fig. 350,
3 to 1

ropes are parallel as shown.

In the Case of Ships' Tackle, where

several sheaves are placed in a block with

the ropes parallel, the velocity-ratio can

readily be made out on the same principle
as in the

above figures.

The
in

ropes are
blocks and

usually nearly parallel

tackle, so that the velocity-ratio

is

nearly

constant.
FIG.

350.
In Elevators operated by hydraulic
power, the lifting rope passes from the cage up over a pnlley at the
top of the shaft or hoisting way, and down to a series of sheaves,
and finally made fast to a stationary hitch at the lower end.
/>, Fig. 351, represents the cage, G a set of
a set of sheaves attached to the hydraulicstationary sheaves,
rod
at
^7 is drawn back
then
when
will be elevated.
F,
power

If,

for instance,

Suppose the rope passes from the hitch near G. to and arotfnd
and
then over to G, up to E, down to D, thus placing two ropes
F,
between the pulleys
and G. Then when
is drawn back 10 feet
will be elevated 20 feet, the multiplying being as
many times as

the ropes between

and F.

The

raising of

will be

80 feet for

PRINCIPLES OF MECHANISM.

300
8 ropes between
F.

The

F and

G, and for a draft

velocity-ratio will be 8 at the

movement

of 10 feet for

same time.

I)

FIG. 351.

The Weston Differential Block, shown in Fig. 352, is a simple

device for one so powerful.
An endless chain passes around F, then up and around E, then
"
down in a loose " fall
9 then around G, slightly larger than
9

Fi.

352.

F again

G and being in one piece.

;
used instead of a rope, to serve as a hitch at EG,
which are sprocketed to hold to the chain. Thus there is a hitch,
in some measure equivalent to the rope hitch in the preceding
cases, so that the device may be classed here.

and down

to

chain

is

301

REDUPLICATION.
/

Fig. 353 shows that when

raised by the amount GH, while

by the amount J7, and

velocity-ratio, as

between

velocity of
velocity of
if

is

pulled a distance HG, L is

lowered at the same time

is

raised 1/2

D and

is

F,

IJ), so that the

(GH

is

2HG

2R

F~ HG - IJ ~ R - r

R and r are the radii of the two sizes of sheaves, EG and EL

If R = 5" and r = 4", then the velocity -ratio equals 10.

INDEX.

Addendum, dedendum,

PAGE
178

or root line

93, 107, 148, 161, 175,

Alternate motions, circular, teeth for, limited

191

limited and unlimited mangle-wheels

83-86
83

pitch lines for

teeth for

Annular wheels, epicycloidal

123
141

teeth for
,

190

unlimited

interference

141

144

involute teeth
,

Approximate gear

144

interference

155-162

teeth

247

Belt gearing, any position of pulleys

barrel and fusee for chronometers

240

chain and sprocket

cone pulleys for

draw-bridge equalizer

for treadle

256

law of motion given to find the wheels

non-circular, for rifling

pulley with high center

quarter twist, guide pulley

machine

241

246
*

retaining belt on pulley

251-254
241

snail, etc

spinning-mule

the belt and circular pulley

velocity-ratio, circular

244

and non-circular

236

Bevel gearing, circular, epicycloidal, involute

,

circular, pitch lines for

intermittent motion

175
8

82

non-circular pitch lines

teeth for non-circular wheels

Cams, in general
by co-ordinates
,

intersection.

246

245

rope transmission

239
243
238
237

gas-meter prover equalizer

247

lathes, etc

62-74
113
,

192

192
193-195
303

304

INDEX.
PAGE
198

Cams, conical
roller for

206, 213.

easement for
headdle cam

208, 204

207,209
202

return of follower by gravity

roller,

211>

199-202-

211

by spring, cam groove, positive

and its pin for

212.

214, 217

cam

for spherical
best form

at salient points

197

diameter constant
"
breadth

inverse, velocity-ratio
law of motion defined

196-

"

.curved
,

216, 217

cylindric, straight path

217

216>

215
198
202
215
202

spherical

tarrying points
thick and irregular follower extremity

uniform motion for

194

velocity-ratio
with flat-footed follower

199, 205, 208

several followers

208

Circular rolling wheels, pitch lines

,

teeth for

128

Chain and sprocket gearing

Clearing curve and filleting
,

256
149
149-

possible

Conical cams

198

...

link-work

279
247
217
8

pulleys in belt gearing

roller for

cams

wheels for gears, circular

Conjugate gear teeth for circular wheels
non-circular wheels
,

Couplings,
,

145-147
102
168

Sang's theory for

Almond

286
287
283
220-224
288
167

axes not meeting, for

Hooke's
Oldham's
Reuleaux's

Cutters for gear teeth, epicycloidal and involute

Cycle
Dead-points, in link- work
conic link-work

274
281

Directional relation
,

constant, variable.

4,

INDEX.

305
PAGE
30

Elliptic wheels, pitch lines for

interchangeable multilobes
Epicycloidal curves, peculiar properties
engine, to form gear-tooth curves
,

33-35
129

164
140

gear teeth, .annular wheels

flanks radial

130

concave
convex

132
132, 140

for inside pin geariug

interchangeable sets
interference of annular gears

least

crowding and

136
133, 140

141

friction

line of action

37

151

pin annular wheels

and pin teeth

136, 137

rack and pinion

two-tooth pinion

137-139

134
136, 137

tooth cutters

167

Escapements, anchor, for clocks, dead-beat

chronometer, for watches and chronometers
cylinder, for watches
"
"
duplex,
gravity, for clocks, dead-beat
lever, for watches
pin-wheel, for clocks, dead-beat

226

234

231

233

229

282

228

"

.recoil,
,

"

227
225

power escapements

7
213

Friction wheels, pitch lines for

in cams
,

relieved

by

214
296

roller

ratchets

168, 170

Grant's gear-cutting engine

Hindley's corset-shaped

worm

188
283

Hooke's universal joint or coupling

Hyperbolic wheels, pitch lines
Hyperboloids, circular rolling

36

10

13

Intermittent motions, circular, locking arcs

,

easements
spurs and segments
bevel and skew bevel

non-circular, plane and bevel

rolling spurs for
,

Involute bevel gear teeth

13

easement segments
and segments

solid

teeth, spurs,

13

189
81,

82

120

122-125
116-127
175

306

INDEX.
PAGE
167

Involute gear teeth, cutters for

described with log-spiral

142
155

on drawing-board
,

line of action for

151

Line of action of pressures between teeth

,.

in belt gearing
centers, contact

289

with sliding blocks

291, 292

of Willis

Corliss valve motion

259
260

nailing machine motion

261

needle bar motion

260
279

conic, or solid, velocity- ratio

290

axes parallel

Almond's

286

282-288

examples
gab and pin, and dead center

281

for axes not meeting

287

Hooke's joint, and velocity for

rolling wheel equivalent for
Reuleaux's

dead points

282, 283
.

gabs and pins to pass ...

path for
,

path and velocity of various points

peculiar features

rolling curve, equivalent for

and pitman

and drag link

for parabolas
Sylvester's kite

unsym metrical, example

and links for

sliding blocks

velocity-ratio for

Machine, and parts of

teeth

gear-tooth cutters

Mangle wheel and

rack, pitch lines for

teeth for
,

Mechanism, elementary combinations of

primary and secondary trains of
,

276
259
264
264-273

as hyperbolas
as link

264, 275

261

examples
as ellipses
for crank

-made gear

280
288

274

in
,

151

289

237

Link- work, axes crossing without meeting

or skew- bevel link -work, velocity-ratio

271
267

270
268
272
268
273
263, 291

258
1

164
166, 167

84-86
127
1

INDEX.

307
PAGE

Mechanism, train or

trains of

table of elementary combinations of

Motion, uniform, angular

Names and

terms in mechanism

3
93

gearing
Non-circular wheels, plane

107

in general
for intermittent motions

internal or annular

involute, teeth for

laws of motion given, to find the wheels.

limit of eccentricity

log-spiral wheels,

complete
one wheel given, to find its mate
rolling, in extreme eccentricity
five special forms

solutions of practical problems

bevel, drawn direct on normal sphere
,

19
20-24

equal log-spiral, segmental

blocking tendency

44
81
Ill
101
.

48-53
106
24-29
44-47
109

....

73

72

.example

Normal

in general, solution

five special

forms

teeth for

teeth for skew-bevel

sphere, drawing wheels directly on

69

62-66
112
114
62-65, 71, 78

161

Odontograph, Grant's
, templet
,

157

158

Willis'

Olivier spiraloid teeth for

skew bevels

contact between

flat

faces

Path of contact

transformed
with gabs and pins

limited

183
187

184
35,

272
272
41

276
149-150
151
3

Period

Pin and

182

practical at gorge
result of example

in gearing
,

183
185

interchangeability of
interference of

182

away from gorge

Parabolic wheels, equal and similar

equivalent link-work
,

20

54-61

slit

Pitch lines..

movement, inverse cam

219, 220

308

INDEX,
PAGE

Pitch

lines, rolling in

non-circular wheels

109, 110

circumferential

94,

diametral

94, 148

Point of contact

5,
,

between the axes

outside

"

....

148-163

pinion, epicycloidal teeth

"

involute

7
7

"

Practical considerations in circular gearing

Rack and

148

139

144

Radius, rod to carry templet odontograph.

tooth templet

157

Ratchet and click, movements

292

form of

teeth

and

154

295

click

292

running
,

continuous

295

297
296
297

face ratchets

friction ratchets

wire feed

reversible
,

varied rate

for varied steps

294
294

293

Return of follower in cams, by gravity

by spring, by second cam, by groove

211

Reduplication, velocity-ratio
elevator pulley and rope

298

300

298, 299

parallel ropes

ropes not parallel

298

Weston's differential block

300

Revolution, a complete turn

Rolling contact
curve, equivalent for link

4
5

work

264
10, 75

hyperboloids
Roller, in

cam movements

214
,

Rope

212

proper form of

216

pin for

217

transmission, short and long stretch

for haulage lines
,

253
254
4

Rotation, a partial turn

168

Bang's theory of conjugating gear-teeth

Skew-bevel wheels, circular pitch surfaces
error in early statement of

10-13
11

non-circular to given law

pin teeth

76
,

188

289

link-work
Sliding contact, in general, velocity-ratio
and rolling contact, in one model
,

87-90

90

INDEX.

309
PAGE
247

Speeds, geometrical series of speeds in cone pulleys

Swasey's gear-cutting engine

168

Teeth of gear wheels, conjugate

,

102, 145

blocking tendency
for bevel and skew-bevel non-circular

'.

intermittent and alternate motions

involute non-circular

templets for
limited inclination, hooking

names and

short, in eccentric

trachoidal

Templets, for generating gear

motion templets

rules

Tooth

107, 152

99

form and

teeth,

size

95-100
127

odontograph

157

path templets
"
tooth

193

154

profile, epicycloidal, for circular

"

wheels

"

,involute,
for non-circular wheels

"

Transformed wheels, and examples

,unilobed
,

bevel, several

128, 152

143,155
98
38

39-42

examples

66-68
3

Velocity, angular
,

101

92-105
95-101
103-105
93

wheels

112-115
116-127
101

individually constructed
generation of tooth curves for

107, 152

velocity-ratio
,

in rolling contact

ratio in belt-gearing

link-work
reduplication
sliding contact

237

268,279,289
298
87

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