UNIT- I

UNIT I INTRODUCTION
Importance of protective schemes for electrical apparatus and power system. Qualitative
review offaults and fault currents - relay terminology definitions - and essential qualities of
protection.Protection against over voltages due to lightning and switching - arcing grounds Peterson Coil -ground wires - surge absorber and divertersPower System earthing neutral
Earthing - basic ideas of insulation coordination

PART- A

1. What are symmetrical components?

An unbalanced system of N related vectors can be resolved into N
systems of balanced vectors. The N sets of balanced vectors are called
symmetrical components.

2.Write the symmetrical components of three phase system.

1. Positive sequence components.

2. Negative sequence components.
3. Zero sequence components.
3.What are positive sequence components?
The positive sequence components of a 3Phase unbalanced vectors consists
of three vectors of equal magnitude displaced from each other by 120 0 in phase
and having the phase sequence as the original vectors.

4.What are negative sequence components?

The negative sequence components of a 3Phase unbalanced vectors
consists of three vectors of equal magnitude displaced from each other by 1200
in phase and having the phase sequence opposite to that of the original vectors.

5. What are zero sequence components?

The zero sequence components of a 3Phase unbalanced vectors consists of
3-vectors of equal magnitude & with zero phase displacement from each other.

6.Express the symmetrical components Va0,Va1,Va2 in terms of unbalanced

vectors Va, Vb, Vc
1
Va 0 (Va Vb Vc )
3
1
Va1 (Va aVb a 2Vc )
3
1
Va 2 (Va a 2Vb aVc )
3

7. Express the unbalanced voltages Va Vb Vc in terms of symmetrical

components Va1,Va2,Va0.
Va Va 0 Va1 Va 2
Vb Va 0 a 2Va1 aVa 2
Vc Va 0 aVa1 a 2Va 2

8. What is arcing ground?

During a line to ground fault on an ungrounded system till the fault is
cleared, there will be intermitted discharge to ground through the capacitances
between the healthy phases and ground this phenomenon is called arcing
ground.

9.What are sequence networks?

The single phase equivalent circuit of a power system consisting of
impedances to current of anyone sequence only is called sequence network.

10.What is meant by positive, negative & zero sequence reactance

diagram?

The reactance diagram of a power system, when formed using positive,

negative or zero sequence reactances are called positive, negative & zero
sequence reactance diagram respectively.

11. What is meant by positive, negative & zero sequence impedances?

The impedance of a circuit element for positive, negative of zero sequence
component currents are called positive, negative & zero sequence impedances
respectively.

12. What are approximations, in short circuit studies?

a. Representing each machine by a constant voltage source behind proper
reactance which may be Xd11, Xd1, or Xd.
b. Setting all the transformers to nominal taps. Since we work in per unit
system, with this representation, transformers will automatically be out of
circuit.
c. Equating the positive sequence impedance equal to the negative sequence
impedance also for 3 rotating elements, even though these sequence
impedances are equal only in the case of 3 stationary elements.
13. What are the unsymmetrical fault occur in power system?(A.U.2002)
a. Single line to ground fault (LG).
b. Double line to ground fault (LLG).
c. Line to line fault (LL).

14. State the need for short circuit study?

It helps in determining the correct current rating of CB as well as the associated
current transformers.
Another purpose is grading(allocating) the operating time of various circuit
breakers.

15. Why faults occur in a power system?

The faults occur in a power system due to insulation failure of
equipments, flash over of lines initiated by a lightning stroke.

16. What is symmetrical and unsymmetrical faults?

If the fault current is equal in all phases then it is called symmetrical
fault. If the fault current is not equal in all phases then it is called unsymmetrical
fault.

17. Give an application of subtransient reactance?

Sub transient reactance of motors and generators are used to determine

the initial current flowing on the occurrence of the short circuits.

18. State the boundary condition in single line to ground fault

(i)

Va = IaZf

(ii)

Ib = I c = 0

19. What is neutral grounding?

The process of connecting neutral point of 3-phase system to earth (i.e.

soil) either directly or through source circuit element (e.g. resistance, reactance
etc.) is called neutral grounding.

20. What are the advantages of Neutral Grounding?

The following are the advantages of neutral grounding:
i)
ii)
iii)
iv)
v)
vi)
vii)

Voltages of the healthy phases do not exceed line to ground voltage

i.e. they remain nearly constant.
The high voltages due to arcing grounds are eliminated.
The protective relays can be used to provide protection against earth
faults. In case earth fault occurs on any line, the protective relay will
operate to isolate the faulty line.
The over voltages due to lightning are discharged to earth.
It provides greater safety to personnel and equipment.
It provides improved service reliability.
Operating and maintenance expenditures are reduce.

21The methods commonly used for grounding the neutral point of a 3-phase
systems are:
i)
ii)
iii)
iv)

Solid or effective grounding

Resistance grounding
Reactance grounding
Peterson-coil grounding

PART- B
1. Discuss in detail of symmetrical components of a power system?
The analysis of unsymmetrical poly phase network by the method of
symmetrical components was introduced by Dr. C Fortesque. He proved that an
unbalanced system of n related vectors can be resolved into n system of
balanced vectors called symmetrical components are original vectors. The n
vectors of each set of components are equal in length and the phase angles
between adjacent vectors of the set are equal.
In a three phase system, the three unbalanced vectors [either V a1Vb&Vcor
Ia1Ib&Ic] can be resolved into three balanced system of vectors. The vectors of
the balanced system are called symmetrical components of the original system.
The symmetrical components of three phase system are,
1. Positive sequence components
2. Negative sequence components
3. Zero sequence components.
The positive sequence components consists of three vectors equal in
magnitude is placed from each other by 120 0 in phase, and having the same
phase sequence as the original vectors.
The negative sequence components consists of three vectors equal in
magnitude, displaced from each other by 1200 in phase, and having the phase
sequence opposite to that of the original vectors.
The zero sequences components consists of three vectors equal in
magnitude and with zero phase displacement from each other.
Let Va1 Vb and Vc be the set of unbalanced voltage vectors with phase
sequence abc. Each voltage vector can be resolved into positive, negative and
zero sequence components.
Let
Va1 Vb1 and Vc1= Positive sequence components of Va
Vb and Vc respectively with phase sequence abc.
Va2 Vb2 Vc2 = Negative sequence components of Va

Vb and Vc respectively with phase sequence abc.

Va0 Vb0 and Vc0 = Zero sequence components of VaVb& Vc respectively.
The positive negative and zero sequence components are shown in fig.

Fig vector diagram of symmetrical components of unbalanced 3- phase voltage

vectors are shown above.
From the vector diagram of symmetrical components the following conclusions
can be made.
a.
b.
c.
d.

On rotating the vector Va1 by 1200 in anticlockwise direction we get Vc1.

On routing the vector Va1 by 2400 in anticlockwise direction we get Vb1.
On rotating the vector Va2 by 1200 in anticlockwise direction we get Vb2.
On rotating the vector Va2 by 2400 in anticlockwise direction we get Vc2.

Therefore, on rotating the symmetrical component of one vector by 120 0

or multiplies of 1200 we get the symmetrical components of other vectors.
Hence we can define an operator which causes a rotation of 120 0 in the
anticlockwise direction, such an operator is denoted by the letter a.
The operator a is defined as,
a 11200 1e j 2 / cos 2 / 3 j sin 2 / 3 0.5 j 0.866
sin ce, a 11200 0.5 j 0.866.......
a 2 12400 0.5 j 0.866......
a 2 13600 1.......
1+a+a 2 1 (0.5 j 0.866) ( 0.5 j 0.866) 0
1+a+a 2 0........

======================================
==========================
2. Explain in detail of Computation of unbalanced vectors from their
symmetrical components

Each of the original unbalanced vector is the sum of its positive, negative
and zero sequence component. Therefore the original unbalanced three phase
voltage vectors can be expressed in terms of their components as shown below.
Va =Va1+ Vb1 + Vc1(1.87)
Vb =Vb0+ Vb1 + Vb2(1.88)
Vc =Vc0+ Vc1 + Vc2(1.89)
Various symmetrical components.
Vbo Vbo : Vb1 a 2Vb1 :

Vb 2 Vb 2 ........(1.90)

Vc 0 Vc 0 : Vc1 aVc1 :

Vc 2 Vc 2 ........(1.91)

Using equations (1.90) and (1.91), the equations (1.87) to (1.89) can be written
as shown below.
Va =Va0+ Va1 + Va2(1.92)
Vb =Vb0+ a 2Vb1 + aVb2(1.93)
Vc =Vc0+ aVc1 + a 2Vc2(1.94)

The equations (1.92) to (1.94) can be arranged in the matrix form as shown in
equ(1.95).
1 1 1
Va
V 1 a 2 a

b
1 a a 2
Vc

V a 0
V a1 .......(1.95)
V a 2

The equation (1.95) can be used to compute the unbalanced vectors from the
Knowledge of symmetrical components.
======================================
==========================
3.Write short notes on symmetrical components of unbalanced current
vectors.

The symmetrical components of unbalanced current vectors can be

obtained by an analysis similar to that of voltage vectors. All the equations
developed for voltage can be used for current if we replace V by I.
Let,
Ia Ib Ic = Unbalanced current vectors with phase sequence abc.
Ia1 Ib1 Ic1= positive sequence components of Ia Ib Ic respectively with phase
sequence abc.
Ia2 Ib2 Ic2= Negative sequence components of Ia Iband Ic respectively with pulse
sequence acb.
Ia3 Ib3 Ic3=Zero sequence components of Ia Iband Ic respectively.
The following equations are used to compute the unbalanced current vectors
from the knowledge of their symmetrical components [Refer equations (1.92) to
(1.95)].
I a I a 0 I a1 I a 2 ....(1.106)
I b I a 0 a 2 I a1 aI a 2 .....(1.107)
I c I a 0 aI a1 a 2 I a 2 .....(1.108)
1 1 1
I a
1
I 1 a2 a

b
3
1 a a 2
I c

I a 0
I a1 .......(1.109)
I a 2

The following equations are used to compute the symmetrical components of

unbalanced current vectors [Refer equations (1.102)to (1.105)].
1
I a I b I c .......(1.110)
3
1
I a1 I a aI b a 2 I c ......(1.111)
3
1
I a 2 I a a 2 I b aI c ........(1.112)
3
Ia0

 1 1 1
I a 0
I 1 1 a a 2

a1
3
1 a 2 a
I a 2

Ia
I .......(1.113)
b
I c

======================================
=========================
4. The symmetrical components of phase-a fault current in a 3-phase
unbalanced system are Ia0 = 350 900 AIa1=900 -90Aand Ia2=250 900A.
Determine the phase currents Ia,Ib and Ic.
Solution:

The current Ia,Ib and Ic are given by the following matrix equations.

1 1 1
I a
I 1 a2 a

b
1 a a 2
I c

I a 0
I a1
I a 2

I a I a 0 I a1 I a 2
I b I a 0 a 2 I a1 aI a 2
I c I a 0 aI a1 a 2 I a 2

Given that
I a 0 350 900 0 j350
I a1 600 900 0 j 600
I a 2 250 900 0 j 250

aI a1 1 1200 600 900 600 300 519.62 j300

a 2 I a1 1 2400 600 90 0 600 1500 519.62 j300
aI a 2 1 1200 250 900 250 2100 216.51 j125
a 2 I a 2 1 2400 250 900 250 3300 216.51 j125

I a I a 0 I a1 I a 2 j 350 j 600 j 250 0

I b I a 0 a 2 I a1 aI a 2 j 350 j 519.62 j 300 216.51 j125
=-736.13+j525=904.16<1450 A
I b I a 0 aI a1 a 2 I a 2 j 350 j 519.62 j 300 216.51 j125
=-736.13+j525=904.16<350 A

========================================================
5. Discuss about solid Grounding?
When the neutral point of a 3-phase system (e.g. 3- phase generator, 3phase transformer etc.) is directly connected to earth (i.e. soil) through a wire of
negligible resistance and reactance, it is called solid grounding or effective
grounding. Since the neutral point is directly connected to earth through a wire,
the neutral point is held at earth potential under all conditions. Therefore, under
fault conditions, the voltage of any conductor to earth will not exceed the
normal phase voltage of the system.

Advantages. The solid grounding of neutral point has the following

advantages:
i)

The neutral is effectively held at earth potential.

Figure
* This is a metallic connection made form the neutral of the system to one or
more earth electrodes consisting of plates, rods or pipes buried in the ground.
ii)

When earth fault occurs on any phase, the resultant capacitive current I C
is in phase opposition to the fault current IF. the two current completely
cancel each other. Therefore, no arcing ground or over-voltage
conditions can occur. Considering a line to ground fault in line B, the

capacitive currents flowing in the healthy phase R and Y are I R and IY

respectively. The resultant capacitive current IC is the phasor sum of IR
and Iy. In addition to these capacitive currents, the power source also
supplies the fault current IF. This fault current will go from fault point to
earth, then to neutral point N and back to the fault point through the
faulty phase. The path of IC is capacitive and that of IF is *inductive. The
two currents are in phase opposition and completely cancel each other.
Therefore, no arching ground phenomenon or over-voltage conditions can
occur.
iii) When there is an earth fault on any phase of the system, the phase to
earth voltage of the faulty phase becomes zero. However, the phase to
earth voltages of the remaining two healthy phases remain at normal
phase voltage because the potential of the neutral is fixed at earth
potential. This permits to insulate the equipment for phase voltage.
Therefore, there is a saving in the cost of equipment.
Disadvantages: The following are the disadvantages of solid grounding:
i)
ii)
iii)

Since most of the faults on an overhead system are phase to earth

faults, the system has to bear a large number of severe shocks. This
causes the system to become unstable.
The solid grounding results in heavy earth fault currents. Since the
fault has to be cleared by the circuit breakers, the heavy earth fault
currents may cause the burning of circuit breaker contacts.
The increased earth fault current results in greater interference in the
neighboring communication lines.

Applications.
Solid grounding is usually employed where the circuit impedance is
sufficiently high so as to keep the earth fault current within safe limit. This
system of grounding is used for voltages upto 33 kV with total power capacity
not exceeding 5000 kVA.
Discuss about Resistance Grounding?
In order to limit the magnitude of earth fault current, it is a common
practice to connect the neutral point of a 3-phase system to earth through a
resistor. This is called resistance grounding.
When the neutral point of a 3-phase system (e.g. 3-phase generator, 3phase transformer etc.) is connected to earth (i.e. soil) through a resistor, it is
called resistance grounding.

Figure. Shows the grounding of neutral point through a resistor R. The

value of R should neither be very low nor very high. If the value of earthing
resistance R is very low, the earth fault current will be large and the system
becomes similar to the solid grounding system. On the other hand, if he
earthling resistance R is very high, the system conditions become similar to
ungrounded neutral system. the value of R is so chosen such that the earth fault
current is limited to safe value but still sufficient to permit the operation of earth
fault protection system. in practice, that value of R is selected that limits the
earth fault current to 2 times the normal full load current of the earthed
generator or transformer.
Advantages.
The following are the advantages of resistance earthing:

i)

By adjusting the value of R, the arcing grounds can be minimised.

Suppose earth fault occurs in phase B as shown in Fig. the capacitive
currents IR and IY flow in the healthy phases R and Y respectively.
The fault current IF lags behind the phase voltage of the faulted phase
by a certain angle depending upon the earthing resistance R and the
reactance of the system upto the point of fault. The fault current IF can
be resolved into two components viz.
a) IF1 in phase with the faulty phase voltage.
b) IF2 lagging behind the faulty phase voltage by 900,

The lagging component IF2 is in phase opposition to the total capacitive

current IC. If the value of earthing resistance R is so adjusted that I F2 = IC, the
arcing ground is completely eliminated and the operation of the system becomes
that of solidly grounded system. However, if R is so adjusted that I F2<IC, the
operation of the system becomes that of ungrounded neutral system.

ii)
iii)

The earth fault current is small due to the presence for earthing
resistance. Therefore, interference with communication circuits is
reduced.
It improves the stability of the system.

Disadvantages.
The following are the disadvantages of resistance grounding:
i)

Since the system neutral is displaced during earth faults, the

equipment has to be insulated for higher voltages.
ii)
This system is costlier than the solidly grounded system.
iii) A large amount of energy is produced in the earthing resistance during
earth faults. Some times it becomes difficult to dissipate this energy
to atmosphere.,
Applications.
It is used on a system operating at voltages between 2.2 kV and 33 kV
with power source capacity more than 5000 kVA.
=========================================================
================================
6. Write a brief note on Arc Suppression Coil Grounding (or Resonant
Grounding)?
We have seen that capacitive currents are responsible for producing arcing
grounds. These capacitive currents flow because capacitance exists between
each line and earth. If inductance L of appropriate value is connected in parallel
with the capacitance of the system, the fault current IF flowing through L will be
in phase opposition to the capacitive current IC of the system. If L is so adjusted
that IL = IC, then resultant current in the fault will be zero. This condition is
known as resonant grounding.

When the value of L of arc suppression coil is such that the fault current
IF exactly balances the capacitive current IO it is called resonant grounding.

Circuit details. An arc suppression coil (also called Peterson coil) is an

iron-cored coil connected between the neutral and earth as shown in below Fig.

The reactor is provided with tappings to change the inductance of the coil. By
adjusting the tappings on the coil, the coil can be tuned with the capacitance of
the system i.e. resonant grounding can be achieved.

Figure

Operation. Fig. (i) shows the 3-phase system employing Peterson coil
grounding. Suppose line to ground fault occurs in the line B at point F. the
fault current IF and capacitive currents IR and IY will flow as shown in Fig. Note
that IF flows through the Peterson coil (or Arc suppression coil) to neutral and
back through the fault. The total capacitive current I C is the phasor sum of IR
and IY as shown in phasor diagram in Fig. The voltage of the faulty phase is
applied across the arc suppression coil. Therefore, fault current I F lags the faulty
phase voltage by 900. the current IF is in phase opposition to capacitive current
IC [See Fig(ii)]. By adjusting the tappings on the Peterson coil, the resultant

current in the fault can be reduced. If inductance of the coil is so adjusted that
IL = IC, than resultant current in the fault will be zero.
Value of L for resonant grounding.
For resonant grounding the system behaves as an ungrounded neutral
system. therefore, full line voltage appears across capacitors CR and Cr.

IR IY

IC

3Vph
XC

3 IR

3Vph
XC

3Vpv
XC

Here, XC is the line to ground capacitive reactance.

IF

Fault current,

Vph
XL

Here, XL is the inductive reactance of the arc suppression coil.

For resonant grounding,
Vph

Or

XL

XC

XL

XC
3

1
3C

Or

Or
L

3Vph

1
3 2C

IL IC

Exp. (i) gives the value of inductance L of the arc suppression coil for resonant
grounding.
Advantages:
i)
ii)

The Peterson coil is completely effective in preventing and damage by

an arching ground.
The Peterson coil has the advantages of ungrounded neutral system.

Disadvantages:
disadvantages:
i)
ii)

The Peterson coil grounding has the following advantages:

The

Peterson

coil

grounding

has

the

following

Due to varying operational conditions, the capacitance of the network

changes form time to time. Therefore, inductance L of Peterson coil
requires readjustment.
The lines should be transposed.

========================================================
7. What are the Fundamental Requirements of Protective Relaying (or
Essential qualities of protection.
The principal function of protective relaying is to cause the prompt
removal from service of any element of the power system when it starts to
operate in an abnormal manner or interfere with the effective operation of the
rest of the system. In order that protective relay system may perform relay
system may perform this function satisfactorily, it should have the following
qualities.

(i) selectivity

(ii)speed

(iv) reliability

(v) simplicity

(iii) sensitivity
(vi) economy

(i)Selectivity It is the ability of the protective system to select correctly that

part of the system in trouble and disconnect the faulty part without disturbing
the rest of the system.

A well designed and efficient relay system should be selective i.e it

should be able to detect the point at which the fault occurs and cause the
opening of the circuit breakers closest to the fault with minimum or no damage
to the system.
In order to provide selectivity to the system, it is usual practice to divide
the entire system into several protection zones. When a fault occurs in a given
zone, then only the circuit breakers within the zone will be opened. This will
isolate only the faulty circuit or apparatus, leaving the healthy circuits intact.
The system can be divided into the following protection zones:

(a) generators
(b) low-tension switchgear
(c) transformers
(d) high-tension switchgear
(e) transmission lines
There is certain amount of overlap between the adjacent protection zones
in transmission lines. For a failure within the region where two adjacent zones
overlap, more breakers will be opened than the minimum necessary to
disconnect that faulty section. But if there were no overlap, a failure in the
religion between zones would not lie in either region and, therefore, no breaker
would be opened. For this reason, a certain amount of overlap* is provided
between the adjacent zones.

(ii) Speed: The relay system should disconnect the faulty section as fast as
possible for the following reasons:
(a) Electrical apparatus may be damaged if they are made to carry the fault
currents for a long time
(b) A failure on the system leads to a great reduction in the system voltage. If
the faulty section is not disconnected quickly, then the low voltage
created by the fault may shut down consumers motors and generators on
the system may become unstable.

(c) The high speed relay system decreases the possibility of development of
one type of fault into the other more severe type.
(iii) Sensitivity: It is the ability of the relay system to operate with low value
of actuating quantity.

Sensitivity of a relay is a function of the volt-ampere input to the coil of

the relay necessary to cause its operation. The smaller the volt-ampere input
required to cause relay operation, the more sensitive is the relay. Thus, a 1VA
relay is more sensitive than a 3VA relay. It is desirable that relay system should
be sensitive so that it operates with low values of volt-amp here input.

(iv) Reliability:

It is ability of the relay system to operate under the pre-determined

conditions. Without reliability, the protection would be rendered largely
ineffective and could even become a liability.

(v) Simplicity:

The relaying system should be simple so that it can be easily maintained.

Reliability is closely related to simplicity. The simpler the protection scheme,
the greater will be its reliability.
(vi) Economy:
The most important factor in the choice of a particular protection scheme is
the economic aspect. Sometimes it is economically unjustified to used an ideal
scheme of protection and a compromise method has to be adopted. As a rule, the
protective gear should not cost more than 5% of total cost. However, when the
apparatus to be protected is of utmost importance (e.g. generator, main
transmission line etc), economic considerations are often subordinated to
reliability

================================================
======================