MODULE 4:STEAM TURBINE

LECTURE 18

Steam Turbine
Introduction
A steam turbine converts the energy of high-pressure, high temperature steam produced by a steam generator into
shaft work. The energy conversion is brought about in the following ways:
1. The high-pressure, high-temperature steam first expands in the nozzles emanates as a high velocity fluid
stream.
2. The high velocity steam coming out of the nozzles impinges on the blades mounted on a wheel. The fluid
stream suffers a loss of momentum while flowing past the blades that is absorbed by the rotating wheel
entailing production of torque.
3. The moving blades move as a result of the impulse of steam (caused by the change of momentum) and
also as a result of expansion and acceleration of the steam relative to them. In other words they also act
as the nozzles.
A steam turbine is basically an assembly of nozzles fixed to a stationary casing and rotating blades mounted on
the wheels attached on a shaft in a row-wise manner. In 1878, a Swedish engineer, Carl G. P. de Laval developed
a simple impulse turbine, using a convergent-divergent (supersonic) nozzle which ran the turbine to a maximum
speed of 100,000 rpm. In 1897 he constructed a velocity-compounded impulse turbine (a two-row axial turbine with
a row of guide vane stators between them.
Auguste Rateau in France started experiments with a de Laval turbine in 1894, and developed the pressure
compounded impulse turbine in the year 1900.
In the USA , Charles G. Curtis patented the velocity compounded de Lavel turbine in 1896 and transferred his
rights to General Electric in 1901.
In England , Charles A. Parsons developed a multi-stage axial flow reaction turbine in 1884.
Steam turbines are employed as the prime movers together with the electric generators in thermal and nuclear
power plants to produce electricity. They are also used to propel large ships, ocean liners, submarines and to drive
power absorbing machines like large compressors, blowers, fans and pumps.
Turbines can be condensing or non-condensing types depending on whether the back pressure is below or equal
to the atmosphere pressure.

Flow Through Nozzles

A nozzle is a duct that increases the velocity of the flowing fluid at the expense of pressure drop. A duct
which decreases the velocity of a fluid and causes a corresponding increase in pressure is a diffuser . The
same duct may be either a nozzle or a diffuser depending upon the end conditions across it. If the crosssection of a duct decreases gradually from inlet to exit, the duct is said to be convergent. Conversely if the
cross section increases gradually from the inlet to exit, the duct is said to be divergent. If the crosssection initially decreases and then increases, the duct is called a convergent-divergent nozzle. The
minimum cross-section of such ducts is known as throat. A fluid is said to be compressible if its density
changes with the change in pressure brought about by the flow. If the density does not changes or
changes very little, the fluid is said to be incompressible. Usually the gases and vapors are compressible,
whereas liquids are incompressible .

Nozzle, Steam Nozzle and Steam Turbine

STAGNATION, SONIC PROPERTIES AND ISENTROPIC EXPANSION IN NOZZLE
The stagnation values are useful reference conditions in a compressible flow. Suppose the properties of a flow
(such as T, p, etc.) are known at a point. The stagnation properties at a point are defined as those which are to

be obtained if the local flow were imagined to cease to zero velocity isentropically. The stagnation values are
denoted by a subscript zero. Thus, the stagnation enthalpy is defined as

For a calorically perfect gas, this yields,

(18.1)

which defines the stagnation temperature. It is meaningful to express the ratio of

in the form

(18.2)
or,

If we know the local temperature (T) and Mach number (Ma), we can fine out the stagnation temperature
Consequently, isentropic relations can be used to obtain stagnation pressure and stagnation density as.

(18.3)

(18.4)

In general, the stagnation properties can vary throughout the flow field.

However,

if

the

flow

is

adiabatic,

then

is

constant

throughout

the

flow.

It

follows

that

the
and
are constant throughout an adiabatic flow, even in the presence of friction. Here a is the speed
of sound and the suffix signifies the stagnation condition. It is understood that all stagnation properties are constant
along an isentropic flow. If such a flow starts from a large reservoir where the fluid is practically at rest, then the
properties in the reservoir are equal to the stagnation properties everywhere in the flow (Fig. 18.1).

Fig 18.1

An isentropic process starting from a reservoir

There is another set of conditions of comparable usefulness where the flow is sonic, Ma=1.0. These sonic, or
critical properties are denoted by asterisks:
and.
. These properties are attained if the local fluid is
imagined to expand or compress isentropically until it reachers Ma=1.

We have already discussed that the total enthalpy, hence

, is conserved so long the process is adiabatic,

irrespective of frictional effects. In contrast, the stagnation pressure

friction.

and density

decrease if there is

From Eq.(18.1), we note that

(18.5a)
or,
is the relationship between the fluid velocity and local temperature (T), in an adiabatic flow. The flow can attain a
maximum velocity of

(18.5b)

As it has already been stated, the unity Mach number, Ma=1, condition is of special significance in compressible
flow, and we can now write from Eq.(18.2), (18.3) and (18.4).

(18.6a)

(18.6b)

(18.6c)

For diatomic gases, like air

, the numerical values are

The fluid velocity and acoustic speed are equal at sonic condition and is
(18.7a)

( 18.7b )
or,
We shall employ both stagnation conditions and critical conditions as reference conditions in a variety of one
dimensional compressible flows.

LECTURE 19

Effect of Area Variation on Flow Properties in Isentropic Flow

In considering the effect of area variation on flow properties in isentropic flow, we shall concern ourselves primarily
with the velocity and pressure. We shall determine the effect of change in area, A, on the velocity V, and the
pressure p.
From Bernoulli's equation, we can write

or,

Dividing by

, we obtain

(19.1)

A convenient differential form of the continuity equation can be obtained from Eq. (14.50) as

Substituting from Eq. (19.1),

or,

Invoking the relation (

(19.2)

) for isentropic process in Eq. (19.2), we get

(19.3)

From Eq. (19.3), we see that for Ma<1 an area change causes a pressure change of the same sign, i.e. positive
dAmeans positive dp for Ma<1. For Ma>1, an area change causes a pressure change of opposite sign.
Again, substituting from Eq.(19.1) into Eq. (19.3), we obtain

(19.4)

From Eq. (19.4), we see that Ma<1 an area change causes a velocity change of opposite sign, i.e. positive
dA means negative dV for Ma<1. For Ma>1, an area change causes a velocity change of same sign.

These results are summarized in Fig.19.1, and the relations (19.3) and (19.4) lead to the following important
conclusions about compressible flows:

1.

At subsonic speeds (Ma<1) a decrease in area increases the speed of flow. A subsonic nozzle should
have a convergent profile and a subsonic diffuser should possess a divergent profile. The flow behaviour in
the regime of Ma<1 is therefore qualitatively the same as in incompressible flows.
2. In supersonic flows (Ma>1), the effect of area changes are different. According to Eq. (19.4), a supersonic
nozzle must be built with an increasing area in the flow direction. A supersonic diffuser must be a
converging channel. Divergent nozzles are used to produce supersonic flow in missiles and launch
vehicles.

Fig 19.1

Shapes of nozzles and diffusersin subsonic and supersonic

regimes

Suppose a nozzle is used to obtain a supersonic stream staring from low speeds at the inlet (Fig.19.2). Then the
Mach number should increase from Ma=0 near the inlet to Ma>1 at the exit. It is clear that the nozzle must
converge in the subsonic portion and diverge in the supersonic portion. Such a nozzle is called a convergentdivergent nozzle. A convergent-divergent nozzle is also called a de Laval nozzle, after Carl G.P. de Laval who first
used such a configuration in his steam turbines in late nineteenth century (this has already been mentioned in the
introductory note). From Fig.19.2 it is clear that the Mach number must be unity at the throat, where the area is
neither increasing nor decreasing. This is consistent with Eq. (19.4) which shows that dV can be non-zero at the
throat only if Ma=1. It also follows that the sonic velocity can be achieved only at the throat of a nozzle or a
diffuser.

Fig 19.2 A convergent-divergent nozzle

The condition, however, does not restrict that Ma must necessarily be unity at the throat, According to Eq. (19.4), a
situation is possible where
at the throat if dV=0 there. For an example, the flow in a convergent-divergent
duct may be subsonic everywhere with Ma increasing in the convergent portion and decreasing in the divergent
portion with
at the throat (see Fig.19.3). The first part of the duct is acting as a nozzle, whereas the
second part is acting as a diffuser. Alternatively, we may have a convergent-divergent duct in which the flow is
supersonic everywhere withMa decreasing in the convergent part and increasing in the divergent part and
again

at the throat (see Fig. 19.4).

Fig 19.3 Convergent-divergent duct with

at throat

Fig 19.4 Convergent-divergent duct with

at throat

LECTURE 20

Iscentropic Flow of a vapor or gas through a nozzle

First law of thermodynamics:

(if

where

is enthalpy drop across the nozzle

Again we know, Tds = dh - dp
For the isentropic flow, dh = dp

or,
(20.1)
or,
n

Assuming that the pressure and volume of steam during expansion obey the law p = constant, where n is the
isentropic index

(20.2)

Now, mass flow rate

Therefore, the mass flow rate at the exit of the nozzle

(20.3)

The exit pressure, p2 determines the

For maximum

for a given inlet condition. The mass flow rate is maximum when,

(20.4)

n=

1.4,

for diatomic gases

for super saturated steam
for dry saturated steam
for wet steam with dryness fraction x

For ,

(50%drop in inlet pressure)

If we compare this with the results of sonic properties, as described in the earlier section, we shall observe that the
critical pressure occurs at the throat for Ma = 1. The critical pressure ratio is defined as the ratio of pressure at the
throat to the inlet pressure, for checked flow when Ma = 1.

LECTURE 21
Steam Nozzles

Figure 21.1 Super Saturated Expansion of Steam in a Nozzle

The process 1-2 is the isentropic expansion. The change of phase will begin to occur at point 2
vapour continues to expand in a dry state
Steam remains in this unnatural superheated state untit its density is about eight times that of the
saturated vapour density at the same pressure
When this limit is reached, the steam will suddenly condense
Point 3 is achieved by extension of the curvature of constant pressure line
from the superheated
region which strikes the vertical expansion line at 3 and through which Wilson line also passes. The
point 3 corresponds to a metastable equilibrium state of the vapour.
The process 2-3 shows expansion under super-saturation condition which is not in thermal equilibrium
It is also called under cooling
At any pressure between
and
i.e., within the superheated zone, the temperature of the vapous
is lower than the saturation temperature corresponding to that pressure
Since at 3, the limit of supersaturation is reached, the steam will now condense instantaneously to its
normal state at the constant pressure, and constant enthalpy which is shown by the horizontal
line

where

is on normal wet area pressure line of the same pressure

is again isentropic, expansion in thermal equilibrium.

To be noted that 4 and
are on the same pressure line.
Thus the effect of supersaturation is to reduce the enthalpy drop slightly during the expansion and
consequently a corresponding reduction in final velocity. The final dryness fraction and entropy are also
increased and the measured discharge is greater than that theoretically calculated.

Degree of super heat =

= limiting saturation pressure
= saturation pressure at temperature
degree of undercooling -

shown on T-s diagram

is the saturation temperature at

= Supersaturated steam
temperature at point 3 which is the limit of supersaturation.

(21.1)

(21.2)

Supersaturated vapour behaves like supersaturated steam and the index to expansion,

LECTURE 22

STEAM TURBINES
Turbines

We shall consider steam as the working fluid

Single stage or Multistage
Axial or Radial turbines
Atmospheric discharge or discharge below atmosphere in condenser
Impulse/and Reaction turbine

Impulse Turbines
Impulse turbines (single-rotor or multirotor) are simple stages of the turbines. Here the impulse blades are
attached to the shaft. Impulse blades can be recognized by their shape. They are usually symmetrical and
have entrance and exit angles respectively, around 20 . Because they are usually used in the entrance
high-pressure stages of a steam turbine, when the specific volume of steam is low and requires much
smaller flow than at lower pressures, the impulse blades are short and have constant cross sections.

The Single-Stage Impulse Turbine

The single-stage impulse turbine is also called the de Laval turbine after its inventor. The turbine consists
of a single rotor to which impulse blades are attached. The steam is fed through one or several
convergent-divergent nozzles which do not extend completely around the circumference of the rotor, so
that only part of the blades is impinged upon by the steam at any one time. The nozzles also allow
governing of the turbine by shutting off one or more them.
The velocity diagram for a single-stage impulse has been shown in Fig. 22.1. Figure 22.2 shows the
velocity diagram indicating the flow through the turbine blades.

Figure 22.1 Schematic diagram of an Impulse Trubine

and

and

= Inlet and outlet absolute velocity

= Inlet and outlet relative velocity (Velocity relative to the rotor blades.)

U = mean blade speed

= nozzle angle,

= absolute fluid angle at outlet

It is to be mentioned that all angles are with respect to the tangential velocity ( in the direction of U )

Figure 22.2 Velocity diagram of an Impulse Turbine

and

= Inlet and outlet blade angles

and

= Tangential or whirl component of absolute velocity at inlet and outlet

and

= Axial component of velocity at inlet and outlet

Tangential force on a blade,

(22.1)
(mass flow rate X change in velocity in tangential direction)
or,
(22.2)

Power developed =

(22.3)

Blade efficiency or Diagram efficiency or Utilization factor is given by

or,

(22.4)

(23.1)
stage efficiency

(23.2)
or,
(23.3)
or,
Optimum blade speed of a single stage turbine

(23.4)

where,

= friction coefficient

= Blade speed ratio

is maximum when

(23.5)

also

or,
(23.6)
or,
0

is of the order of 18 to 22

Now,

(For single stage impulse turbine)

The maximum value of blade efficiency

(23.7)

For equiangular blades,

(23.8)

If the friction over blade surface is neglected

(23.9)

LECTURE 23
Compounding in Impulse Turbine
If high velocity of steam is allowed to flow through one row of moving blades, it produces a rotor speed of about
30000 rpm which is too high for practical use.
It is therefore essential to incorporate some improvements for practical use and also to achieve high performance.
This is possible by making use of more than one set of nozzles, and rotors, in a series, keyed to the shaft so that
either the steam pressure or the jet velocity is absorbed by the turbine in stages. This is called compounding. Two
types of compounding can be accomplished: (a) velocity compounding and (b) pressure compounding
Either of the above methods or both in combination are used to reduce the high rotational speed of the single stage
turbine.

The Velocity - Compounding of the Impulse Turbine

The velocity-compounded impulse turbine was first proposed by C.G. Curtis to solve the problems of a single-stage
impulse turbine for use with high pressure and temperature steam. The Curtis stage turbine, as it came to be
called, is composed of one stage of nozzles as the single-stage turbine, followed by two rows of moving blades
instead of one. These two rows are separated by one row of fixed blades attached to the turbine stator, which has
the function of redirecting the steam leaving the first row of moving blades to the second row of moving blades. A
Curtis stage impulse turbine is shown in Fig. 23.1 with schematic pressure and absolute steam-velocity changes
through the stage. In the Curtis stage, the total enthalpy drop and hence pressure drop occur in the nozzles so that
the pressure remains constant in all three rows of blades.

Figure 23.1 Velocity Compounding arrangement

Velocity is absorbed in two stages. In fixed (static) blade passage both pressure and velocity remain constant.
Fixed blades are also called guide vanes. Velocity compounded stage is also called Curtis stage. The velocity
diagram of the velocity-compound Impulse turbine is shown in Figure 23.2.

Figure 23.2 Velocity diagrams for the Velocity-Compounded Impulse turbine

The fixed blades are used to guide the outlet steam/gas from the previous stage in such a manner so as to smooth
entry at the next stage is ensured.
K, the blade velocity coefficient may be different in each row of blades

Work done =

End thrust =

(23.10)

(23.11)

The optimum velocity ratio will depend on number of stages and is given by

Work is not uniformly distributed (1st >2nd )

The fist stage in a large (power plant) turbine is velocity or pressure compounded impulse stage.

LECTURE 24
Pressure Compounding or Rateau Staging
The Pressure - Compounded Impulse Turbine
To alleviate the problem of high blade velocity in the single-stage impulse turbine, the total enthalpy drop through
the nozzles of that turbine are simply divided up, essentially in an equal manner, among many single-stage
impulse turbines in series (Figure 24.1). Such a turbine is called a Rateau turbine , after its inventor. Thus the inlet
steam velocities to each stage are essentially equal and due to a reduced h.

Figure 24.1 Pressure-Compounded Impulse Turbine

Pressure drop - takes place in more than one row of nozzles and the increase in kinetic energy after each nozzle
is held within limits. Usually convergent nozzles are used
We can write

(24.1)

(24.2)

where

is carry over coefficient

Reaction Turbine

A reaction turbine, therefore, is one that is constructed of rows of fixed and rows of moving blades. The fixed
blades act as nozzles. The moving blades move as a result of the impulse of steam received (caused by change in
momentum) and also as a result of expansion and acceleration of the steam relative to them. In other words, they
also act as nozzles. The enthalpy drop per stage of one row fixed and one row moving blades is divided among
them, often equally. Thus a blade with a 50 percent degree of reaction, or a 50 percent reaction stage, is one in
which half the enthalpy drop of the stage occurs in the fixed blades and half in the moving blades. The pressure
drops will not be equal, however. They are greater for the fixed blades and greater for the high-pressure than the
low-pressure stages.
The moving blades of a reaction turbine are easily distinguishable from those of an impulse turbine in that they are
not symmetrical and, because they act partly as nozzles, have a shape similar to that of the fixed blades, although
curved in the opposite direction. The schematic pressure line (Fig. 24.2) shows that pressure continuously drops
through all rows of blades, fixed and moving. The absolute steam velocity changes within each stage as shown
and repeats from stage to stage. Figure 24.3 shows a typical velocity diagram for the reaction stage.

Figure 24.2 Three stages of reaction turbine indicating pressure and velocity distribution

Pressure and enthalpy drop both in the fixed blade or stator and in the moving blade or Rotor

Degree of Reaction =
(24.3)
or,
A very widely used design has half degree of reaction or 50% reaction and this is known as Parson's Turbine. This
consists of symmetrical stator and rotor blades.

Figure 24.3 The velocity diagram of reaction blading

The velocity triangles are symmetrical and we have

Energy input per stage (unit mass flow per second)

(24.4)

(24.5)
From the inlet velocity triangle we have,

Work done (for unit mass flow per second)

(24.6)
Therefore, the Blade efficiency

(24.7)

Reaction Turbine, Continued

Put

then

(25.1)

For the maximum efficiency

and we get
(25.2)

from which finally it yields

(25.3)

Figure 25.1 Velocity diagram for maximum efficiency

Absolute velocity of the outlet at this stage is axial (see figure 25.1). In this case, the energy transfer
(25.4)

can be found out by putting the value of

in the expression for blade efficiency

(25.5)

(25.6)

is greater in reaction turbine. Energy input per stage is less, so there are more number of stages.

Stage Efficiency and Reheat factor

The Thermodynamic effect on the turbine efficiency can be best understood by considering a number of stages
between two stages 1 and 2 as shown in Figure 25.2

Figure 25.2 Different stage of a steam turbine

The total expansion is divided into four stages of the same efficiency

and pressure ratio.

(25.7)

The overall efficiency of expansion is

. The actual work during the expansion from 1 to 2 is

or,

(25.8)

Reheat factor (R.F.)=

or,

(25.9)

R.F is 1.03 to 1.04

If

remains same for all the stages or

is the mean stage efficiency.

(25.10)

(25.11)
or,

We can see:
(25.12)
This makes the overall efficiency of the turbine greater than the individual stage efficiency.
The effect depicted by Eqn (25.12) is due to the thermodynamic effect called "reheat". This does not imply any
heat transfer to the stages from outside. It is merely the reappearance of stage losses an increased enthalpy
during the constant pressure heating (or reheating) processes AX, BY, CZ and D2.