Topic 1: Lifestyle and Risk

1. Water
Dipolar- separation of charge- as oxygen atom has slightly negative charge - and
hydrogen atoms slightly positive +
An excellent solvent due to their uneven charge distribution
Formation of hydrogen bonds
Amphoteric- can act as both acid and base
High specific heat capacity/ high latent heat of vaporisation
Highest known surface tension

2. Carbohydrates- (CH2O)n
Made up of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen atoms, e.g. glucose C 6H12O6
Joined together by condensation reaction, broken by hydrolysis reaction
Monosaccharide

glucose

A single sugar molecule

Primary energy source (cell membrane through respiration)
Reducing sugars
Disaccharides
Two sugar units
A glycosidic bond between the 2 monosaccharides, results from a covalent bond
Molecule of water removed in condensation reaction, and add in hydrolysis
Maltose glucose + glucose

Energy source in germinating seeds

Lactose glucose + galactose
The main carbohydrate in milk
Sucrose glucose + fructose
Form of sugar transported in phloem
Stored in sugar cane and sugar beet
Polysaccharides
Polymers of monosaccharide
Insoluble
Glycogen:
Polysaccharides of glucose molecules
Joined by 1,4 and 1,6 glycosidic bonds
An energy storage in liver cells and muscles for respiration
Compact as branched, which it can be easily hydrolysed to release glucose
Insoluble, therefore no osmotic effect
Starch:
Made up of 30% amylase and 70% amylopectin

Amylase
Unbranched chain polymer
Monomers joined by - 1,4 glycosidic bonds
Coils held together by hydrogen bonds between the OH groups
Amylopectin
-glucose monomers linked with - 1,4 and -1,6 glycosidic bonds
Monomers much branched and coiled into a compact shape
Suited to its function as:
Amylopectin release glucose for cellular respiration rapidly
Amylose releases it more slowly, for longer respiration
Compact
Insoluble
No osmotic effects
Do not involve in chemical reactions
3. Lipids
Contain carbon, hydrogen and oxygen
Made up of fatty acids and glycerol
Function:
Energy storage
Thermal insulation
Cell membrane function
E.g. Triglyceride

An ester bond formed between COOH of a fatty acid and -OH of the glycerol
Formed in condensation reaction and a molecule of water lost

4. Blood circulation
A single circulation
The heart pumps deoxygenated blood to the gills, where the blood takes in oxygen
and becomes oxygenated. The blood then travels around the body, giving oxygen to
the body cells, before returning to the heart.
Double circulation
Involves 2 circulatory systems:
Systemic circulation carries oxygenated blood from the heart to the cells and
carries deoxygenated blood back to the heart
Pulmonary circulation carries deoxygenated blood from the heart to the lungs to
be oxygenated and carries it back to the heart
It allows:
The blood flows faster at high pressure to the body and
blood flows slower at low pressure to the lungs
Increase in efficiency- the fully deoxygenated blood can be
delivered quickly
5. The heart

The structure

Co
nsists of 4 chambers; atrium and ventricles
The right atrium receives the blood from the vena cava
The atriums move the blood into the ventricles
The right ventricle gets blood to the lungs
The left ventricle pumps blood all around the body
The pulmonary arteries carry the deoxygenated blood to the capillary beds of the
lungs
The pulmonary veins are used to receive blood from the lungs to the left side of the
heart
Semi- lunar valves prevent the backflow, into the heart after the ventricles
contract
Bicuspid valve prevent the backflow, when the blood is forced into the left ventricle
Atrioventricular valves prevent the backflow, into atria when the ventricles contract
SAN (Sino atrial node), situated on wall of right atrium, initiates electrical activity
in the heart
6. The Cardiac Cycle
: Sequence of events from one heartbeat to the next, of filling and pumping of blood
Consists of 3 phases
Atrial systole (contraction)
The atria contracts, forcing blood into the ventricles, stimulated an impulse
generated by San
Ventricular systole
Contraction of the ventricles pushes blood up into the arteries
The atrioventricular valves close to prevent the backflow into the atria
Open semi-lunar valves to allow blood from ventricle into aorta and pulmonary artery
Diastole
Atria and ventricles relax, elastic recoil of the heart muscles, lowers the pressure,
this helps to draw blood into the heart from the veins
Closing semi lunar valve, to prevent the blood from arteries in ventricles
Average heart rate- 70 beats per minute
Electrocardiogram can be used to determine the activity of the heart
Affected by: physical exercise, stress, excitement, drugs such as caffeine, nicotine
7. The blood vessels
Arteries
Function
Carry blood from the
heart to tissue
Types

Oxygenated (except in

Veins
Carry blood from
tissues to the heart
Deoxygenated (except

Capillaries
Allow exchange of
materials between the
blood and tissues

Valves

pulmonary artery)
Thick wall- elastic
layer- to cope with the
pressure
/ (except in heart)

Pressure
Lumen

High blood pressure

Small

Wall

in pulmonary vein)
Thin wall with collagen
layer
Valves to prevent
backflow
Lower pressure
Very small

Thin wall- one cell

thick- for exchange of
materials
/
Large- to reduce
resistance

8. Experiment- the effect of caffeine on the heart rate

Procedure
Place a Daphnia (-transparent) on a cavity slide, then add few drops of pond water
Looking under the microscope, record the number of heart beats per minute
Repeat the process using different Daphnia, using caffeine drink such as coffee or
energy drink instead of water
Control variables
Constant temperature
The type and age of Daphnia
Conclusion
The higher the concentration of caffeine solution, the higher the heart rate of
Daphnia
However this level off as there is a limit to how much Daphnia can saturate the
caffeine
9. The blood clotting
It allows to:
Minimise blood loss
Help to prevent the entry of pathogens
Process:
Injured platelets release clotting factor thromboplastin (protein) and calcium ions
Thromboplastin converts prothrombin (protein) into thrombin (enzyme)
Thrombin splits fibrinogen (plasma protein) into fibrin (protein strands)
Fibrin fibres form a mesh, trapping red blood cells and platelets
Bleeding stops, formation of blood clot, clot hardens and new cells grow
Medication:
Platelet inhibitory drugs, e.g. Warfarin
Interferes with the production of prothrombin, low levels of prothrombin make the
blood clotting harder
It must be carefully monitored to make sure the clotting of the blood isnt
prevented, as too much can lead to internal bleeding
Anticoagulant, e.g. Aspirin
Makes the platelets less sticky, which reduces the clotting ability
However it can irritate the stomach lining and can lead to bleeding in the stomach
A blood clot can cause heart attack,
Blood clot blocks coronary artery
Restricts blood flow to heart muscle
Lack of oxygen to heart muscle for respiration
Insufficient energy release for contraction, damage the heart muscle

10. Atherosclerosis
: The hardening of the arteries, caused by atheromas

Build up of atheroma- fatty deposits, cholesterol and plaque (made of calcium

salts and fibrous tissues) on the endothelial lining of the artery

Movement of white blood cells in damaged area

This plaque may narrow/ block the lumen of the artery, restricts blood flow and
increases blood pressure.
This causes the artery to lose its elasticity
Increase the risk of blood clotting
It reduces blood supply to heart muscle cells and also lacking in oxygen, resulting
in damage such as cell death
Complication
Aneurysm- the weakening of the wall of the artery- it may split open, leading to
massive internal bleeding

11. Cardiovascular Disease

Risk factors
Blood cholesterol
Blood pressure
High salt intake
Genes
Body mass index
Smoking
To reduce the risk
Balanced diet (such as reduce saturated fat, cholesterol, salt, increase in
polyunsaturated fat, soluble fibre, oily fish)
Types of heart disease:
Angina
Narrowing of the coronary arteries limits the amount of oxygen reaching the heart
muscle
Therefore has to follow anaerobic respiration, which produces lactic acid and its
accumulation causes chest pain
Shortness of breath, severe indigestion
Myocardial infarction
A fatty plaque in the coronary arteries, leads to rapid clot formation
This blocks the blood supply to part of the heart
Heart muscle is to be ischemic, which they starve of oxygen and become
permanently damaged
Intense chest pain
Arrhythmia
Irregular heartbeat, can lead to heart failure
Palpitations, blackouts, loss of consciousness
May result from a genetic disorder
Treatment:
Surgery

12. Cholesterol
A eukaryotic sterol
Synthesised by the liver and other tissues
Saturated fat
A single covalent bond between the carbon atoms
Form LDLs, which forms atherosclerotic plaques
Reduce the activity of LDL receptors
E.g. dairy and animal
Can lead to fatty plaques in the arteries
Unsaturated
Fatty acids with one or more double bonds
Contain carbon, hydrogen and oxygen
Triglycerides combine with cholesterol and protein to form HDLs
HDLs reduce blood cholesterol deposition as it transport cholesterol from the body

tissues to the liver

Monounsaturated- one double bond
Polyunsaturated- more than one double bond
E.g. sunflower, olive
Found in plans, not much effect and tends to replace the saturated fat with
unsaturated
Hypercholesterolaemia- high blood cholesterol levels as the result of poor diet and
lifestyle

Medication
Statin
Lower the level of cholesterol in the blood
Improve the balance of LDLs and HDLs and reduce inflammation in the lining of
the arteries
Inhibits the enzyme involved in the production of LDL cholesterol
Side effects: muscle and joint aches, nausea, constipation, diarrhoea

13. Experiment- Vitamin C tests

To investigate the vitamin C content of fruit juice
Vitamin C is an antioxidant and reduces the DCPIP, it changes from blue to
colourless
Procedure
Pipette 1cm3 of 1% DCPIP solution into a test tube
Using a burette, add 1% of vitamin C solution drop by drop to the DCPIP solution,
until the blue colour of the DCPIP has disappeared
Repeat the procedure using different fruit juice
Lack of vitamin C can lead to a scurvy, where there is muscle weakness, swollen
and bleeding gum
14. Blood pressure
Normal value- 120/80 mmHg
Hypertension- over 140/90 mmHg
Hypotension- around or lower than 90/60 mmHg
The systolic blood pressure- when the heart is contracting
The diastolic blood pressure- when the heart relaxes and refills
Affected by- salt intake, hormones, caffeine, elasticity and size of the artery
Measured by: a sphygmomanometer
Treatment- Medication
Diuretics
Decrease blood pressure
Increase volume of urine produced by kidney
Less blood- water, decrease in blood volume
Sympathetic nerve inhibitors
Cause constriction in arteries, raising blood pressure
Blood vessels will not constrict and stay wider, keeps the blood pressure low
Beta blockers:
Reduces heart rate
Keeps heart rate stable and reduces variation in heart rate
Nullifies external stimulus
ACE inhibitors
Block the production of angiotensin
Angiotensin which is a hormone that stimulates the constriction of blood vessels,
therefore rise in the blood pressure
Benefits/ risks
Damage to organs such as the kidneys and eyes from the high blood pressure

Have to be carefully monitored, so the blood pressure do not become too low
Side effects: coughs, swelling of ankles, impotence, tiredness and constipation

15. Energy budgets

Causes of obesity
Metabolic rate
Diets
Lack of physical activity
Genetic factor
Hormones
Obesity increase the risk of coronary heart disease, high blood pressure, diabetes
BMR (basal metabolic rate) measures the exemplary kilocalories per day

BMI =

body mass(kg)
height 2 (m2)

Topic 2: Genes and Health

1. Cell membrane
Made up of lipids and proteins
Phospholipid molecules form a bilayer as;
Phosphate heads are hydrophilic- polar, -ve
Fatty acid tails are hydrophobic- non-polar, +ve
Fluid mosaic model
2. Transport process
Diffusion
The movement of the substances (of a liquid or gas) from high to low concentration
until the equilibrium is reached
Move down their concentration gradient
Passive transport
E.g. oxygen, carbon dioxide
Facilitated diffusion
The movement of the substances into and out of the cell
- Down a concentration gradient
- Proteins in the membrane only allows specific substances to move through
E.g. glucose
Osmosis
The net movement of water from high to low concentration until the equilibrium is
reached, across a partially permeable membrane (such as the cell surface membrane
or nuclear membrane)
Active transport
The movement from low to high concentration
Requires channel proteins which can change shape to allow glucose molecules into
the cell
Requires ATP (adenosine triphosphate)
Against the concentration gradient
Active process
E.g. calcium ions moving into muscle cells
Exocytosis
Bulk transport of substances out of the cell, vesicles fuse with the cell membrane,
releasing their contents
Vesicles can fuse and diffuse with cell surface membrane due to the fluid
properties of the membrane
Endocytosis
Bulk transport of substances into the cell, vacuoles created from the cell surface

membrane to bring their contents into the cell

Phagocytosis: tiny bit of the surrounding fluid are taken into vacuole to allow the
substance in
Pinocytosis: bulk up take of a lipid
3. Experiment- investigating membrane permeability
Procedure
Cut out pieces of beetroot, using the cork borer, with same length and thickness
Wash them in distilled water to remove the dye produced by the physical damage
Then place them in the beaker of distilled water and in the water bath at different
temperature such as 30, 40, 50, 60, 70 degrees for 1 minute
Then place each beetroot in equal volume of water for certain amount of time
Then using a colorimeter, measure the concentration of pigment in the solution by
the intensity of colour
Conclusion
As the temperature increase, the intensity of colour (permeability) increase
As the temperature increases the phospholipids molecules have more kinetic
energy, therefore move faster, causing disruption to the membrane. Protein denature
and change shape
4. The human respiratory system
The structure of the lungs
Large surface area
Numerous capillaries surrounding the alveoli
Concentration gradient of oxygen
Thin walls of alveoli and capillaries
Rate of diffusion
Surface area
Thickness of exchange surface
Concentration gradient
Ficks Law,
Rate of diffusion =

surface area concentration difference

thickness of exchange membrane

5. Proteins
Made of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen (often phosphorus)
Long chains of amino acids
Amino acid

Have amino group and carboxyl attached to the carbon atom, also R-group to
differentiate types of amino acids.
Structure:
Primary- sequence of amino acid on a polypeptide chain
It is important in determining its shape as:
R groups in the amino acid is responsible for the shape as specific bond is form
between different R groups
Secondary- the chain of amino acids joined by hydrogen bonds
Alpha- the twisted chain of amino acids (a spiral) held by hydrogen bonds
Beta- straight line of the chain of amino acids
Tertiary- formed by interactions between R groups of different amino acids along
the peptide chain

Quaternary- the three-dimensional arrangement of more than one tertiary

structure
Globular proteins
Complex tertiary and quaternary structure
Spherical (globular) shape
The carboxyl and amino ends give ionic property to dissolve in water to form
solution
Form enzymes and hormones
Maintain the structure of the cytoplasm
Fibrous proteins
Long, parallel polypeptide chains that form into fibres
Insoluble in water and tough property makes it ideal for their functions
Found in connective tissue and the matrix of bones
Conjugated proteins
- Protein molecules joined with or conjugated to a prosthetic group
E.g. glycoprotein are proteins with a carbohydrate prosthetic group
6. Enzymes
Globular proteins which act as biological catalysts
Speed up chemical reactions at the temperature in cells
Lock and key theory
A molecule with a complimentary shape can fit into the active site
The substrate molecules form temporary bonds with the amino acids of the active
site to produce an enzyme-substrate complex
The enzyme holds the substrate molecules in a way that they react more easily
When the reaction is finished the products are released, leaving the enzyme
unchanged
The substrate is known as the key which fits into the enzymes lock
Induced fit theory
Active site is flexible
When the substrate enters the active site of the enzyme molecule changes slightly
to fit more closely round the substrate
Factors affecting enzymes
Temperature
pH

7. Experiment- Enzyme concentrations and activity

Procedure
Add different concentration of diluted trypsin solution into the milk powder
solution
Measure the time taken for milk solution to turn colourless

Conclusion
Greater the enzyme concentration, the quicker the breakdown of protein as there
was quicker colour change from cloudy to colourless

8. DNA structure

Mononucleotide
Contains sugar, phosphate and base

Mononucleotide join together by condensation reaction between the phosphate of

one mononucleotide and the sugar of another, to form polypeptide chain
A double stranded polynucleotide

2 strands are held together by hydrogen bonds between the bases

Anti-parallel
DNA
Deoxyribose sugar
Double stranded
Bases of G, C, T and A
RNA
Oxyribose sugar
Single stranded
Bases of G, C, U and A
Genetic code- the tree bases for one amino acid, which is called codon
9. DNA replication
Semi-conservative replication:
A portion of DNA undergo replication
The strands unwind
The enzyme DNA helicase causes the hydrogen bonds between the base pairs to
break
Then each strand can act as a template
Free nucleotides are attached to their complementary base and become attached
by enzyme DNA ligase
All the nucleotides join together to form a complete poly nucleotide chain,
catalysed by DNA polymerase, which then 2 identical strands are formed
Each strand retains half the original DNA material
10. Protein synthesis
Transcription
The DNA unwinds itself
The hydrogen bonds between the base pairs splits
RNA mononucleotides line up against a template strand by complementary base
pairing
Mononucleotides join together by phosphodiester bonds by condensation reaction
Catalysed by RNA polymerase
mRNA strand separates from the DNA and leaves via nuclear pore
Translation
mRNA lines up the ribosome, exposing 2 codon to large subunits
tRNA in the cytoplasm bind with specific amino acids
tRNA molecules bind with mRNA by complementary base pairing between
anticodon on tRNA and codon on mRNA
Once 2 tRNA molecules are attached to mRNA, a peptide bond will form between 2
adjacent amino acids by condensation reaction
Once the bond has formed, the first tRNA leaves the ribosome
The nest mRNA codon is exposed to the ribosome
This continues until the stop codon is reached and the polypeptide chain is
released from ribosome
11. Cystic fibrosis

Caused by gen mutation; a change in the sequence of bases on the DNA

A recessive mutation in a gene located on chromosome 7
The gene codes for a chloride channel (protein), which is known as the CFTR
It allows diffusion of chloride ions into and out of epithelial cells and located in the
cell surface membrane
CF sufferers are homozygous, have 2 alleles of the faulty gene
The effect of CF
On respiratory system
CFTR channel proteins does not function properly as it has altered tertiary
structure
Therefore chorine ions pumped out of the cells which prevents water from moving
out of the cell into the mucus by osmosis
The mucus becomes thicker and stickier therefore cannot be moved by cilia
Hence build up in the respiratory system
On the digestive system
Have a high basal metabolic rate
Require 120-140% of the recommended daily energy
The pancreatic duct becomes blocked by sticky mucus
The lower concentration of enzymes within the small intestine reduces the rate of
digestion
Food is not fully digested; malabsorption syndrome
Complication such as:
Damage the pancreas- The pancreatic enzymes become trapped behind the
mucus, blocking the pancreatic duct
Form of diabetes- if damage occurs to cells within the pancreas that produce the
hormone insulin, unable to control blood sugar levels
On the reproductive system
A reduced chance of pregnancy
A mucus plug develops in the cervix
Stops sperm from reaching the egg
For male, commonly lacking the vas deferens (sperm duct), which means the
sperm cannot leave the testes
Treatment
Gene therapy
The use of recombinant DNA technology to overcome genetic disease
To supply the missing gene to body cells, so it remains permanently functional
The process
CFTR gene is cut and put into an empty bacterial plasmid
Liposomes (tiny lipid membrane) is combined with DNA to facilitate entry into lung
cells across the plasma membrane
Liposome DNA complex administered to CF patient as aerosol
Liposome DNA complex fuses with epithelium cell membrane
Plasmid with CFTR gene passes into cell and move into the nucleus, where CFTR
gene code is transcribed into mRNA
CFTR mRNA passes to ribosome in cytoplasm and CFTR coded protein is formed
CFTR coded becomes installed in epithelium cell membrane and normal mucus is
formed
Gene delivery systems used in patients
Hypodermic needle injection
Aerosol
Ballistic DNA injection
Gene delivery to extracted cells and cell culture
12. Genetics

Gene- a sequence of bases on a DNA molecule

Allele- different form of a particular gene
Albinism
The natural melanin pigment of the skin, eyes and hair does not form
Inherited through a recessive allele
Thalassaemia
Affect the polypeptide chains of the haemoglobin molecule, which carries oxygen
in the blood
Prevents the formation of either the alpha or beta haemoglobin chains
The haemoglobin cannot carry enough oxygen
Symptoms: anaemia
Use of punnett square
13. Genetic screening
The process of testing for an allele
The analysis of family trees allow to find out the probability of inheriting a
particular condition
For an adult, samples of cells can be obtained by simply collecting mouth and
cheek cells
IVF could be carried out to test an embryo before it is implanted into the uterus
Amniocentesis
A fine needle is inserted through the abdominal wall of the mother into the
amniotic cavity
A sample of amniotic fluid is removed, which will contain some fatal cells
Carried out at around 15-17 weeks of pregnancy
0.5-1% chance of miscarriage
Chorionic villus sampling
A fine tube inserted through the vagina and cervix, or through the wall of the
abdomen
Some cells are obtained from the chorionic villi,
Carried out as early as eight weeks into the pregnancy
1-2% chance of miscarriage
Pre-implantation genetic diagnosis- IVF
Hormone treatment stimulates many Graafian follicles to develop at the same
time
During an operation secondary oocytes are removed
Sample of semen produced by male
Sperm and oocytes are mixed in suitable solution, which then fertilisation occurs
Zygote divide in culture solution to produce embryos
Few early embryos inserted into uterus through the vagina