Our Friend, the Sun

Mass

2x1030 kg

Radius

7x105 km

Central temperature 15 million K

Surface temperature
Composition
(by mass)

5780 K

75% hydrogen
25% helium

Our Enemy, the Sun

Mass

2x1030 kg

Radius

7x105 km

Central temperature 15 million K

Surface temperature
Composition
(by mass)

5780 K

75% hydrogen
25% helium

How does the Sun Shine?

Two Stories

How does the Sun Shine?

Antiquity: Greeks/Egyptians/Aztecs

Time to burnout: Infinite

How does the Sun Shine?

Until mid-19th Century:
The sun puts out 4x1026
Joules/second

Assumed made of iron based

upon `meteorite evidence

Heating oil yields

46.2x106 J/kg;
Mass of the Sun is
about 1030kg so if it
were made entirely of
oil that is 4.62x1037 J
possible over its
lifetime--4.62x1037/4x1026 s is
about 1011s=10,000 yrs.

Time to burnout: ~10,000 years

How does the Sun Shine?

Mid-19th Century:

Not happy

Gravitational energy converted into thermal energy

Time to burnout: ~30 million years

How does the Sun Shine?

1919
Sir Arthur Eddington suggests solar fusion (and nuclear weapons!):

A star is drawing on some vast reservoir of energy by means

unknown to us. This reservoir can scarcely be other than the
sub-atomic energy which, it is known, exists abundantly in all
matter The store is well-nigh inexhaustible, if only it could be
tapped. There is sufficient [energy] in the Sun to maintain its
output of heat for 15 billion years.
If, indeed, the sub-atomic energy in the stars is being freely used
to maintain their great furnaces, it seems to bring a little nearer to
fulfillment our dream of controlling this latent power for the wellbeing of the human race--or for its suicide.

How does the Sun Shine?

Nuclear Fusion

Full details of how

this happens called
`Standard Solar
Model

How does the Sun Shine?

Nuclear Fusion

By squeezing protons (hydrogen atoms) together the Sun

converts hydrogen to helium. But a helium atom weighs less
than 4 times 1 hydrogen atom. What happens to the mass
that has been lost?

How does the Sun Shine?

E=mc2
l
l

Nuclear Fusion

Some of the mass is converted to energy!

Mass of Hydrogen Atom 1.008 AMU

Mass of a Helium Atom 4.00260 AMU

4 hydrogen -> one helium - 4.032 AMU

Mass of a Helium Atom 4.002 AMU

Difference is 0.03 AMU

1 atomic mass unit = 1.66 10-27 kg

So E=mc2 = 0.03 AMU x 1.66x10-27 kg/AMU x (3x108 m/s)2

= 4.5x10-12 Joules for every 4 hydrogen atoms
Doesnt sound like muchbut how many H atoms in 1 kg?
About 6x1026! Or 6x1015 J/kg! (Compare to oil!)

How does the Sun Shine?

Nuclear Fusion
So how long can the Sun burn?
Lsun = 4 x 1026 Joules/second

E = mc2 = 4 x 1026 Joules (energy produced each second)

(m=E/c2)
=== m = 4.4 x 109 kg of matter is converted to energy
EACH SECOND!
BUT: For every kilogram of Hydrogen I burn, only 7 grams
gets converted to energy (our 6x1015 J/kg)
= So, this means that we burn ~6 x 1011 kg of Hydrogen a
second
or 2 x 1019 kg/year
The Sun can burn 10% of its Hydrogen or 2 x 1029kg
So the Sun will burn for 1010 years

A direct measurement of the rate of nuclear fusion reactions in

the Sun finds that in fact the Sun is making helium at a rate of
1x1038 atoms/second. If this is true, what should the luminosity
of the Sun be?
A.
B.
C.
D.

4.5x1026 Joules/s
1.7 x 1011 Joules/s
5.2x1026 Joules/s
It shouldnt change because the
total energy is conserved.
E=mc2
C=3x108 m/s
4MH-MHe =0.03 AMU
1 AMU = 1.66 10-27 kg

A direct measurement of the rate of nuclear fusion reactions in

the Sun finds that in fact the Sun is making helium at a rate of
1x1038 atoms/second. If this is true, what should the luminosity
of the Sun be?
A.
B.
C.
D.

4.5x1026 Joules/s
1.7 x 1011 Joules/s
5.2x1026 Joules/s
It shouldnt change because the
total energy is conserved.
E=mc2
C=3x108 m/s
4MH-MHe =0.03 AMU
1 AMU = 1.66 10-27 kg

Mass/second

c2

=(1x1038 atoms/s)x(0.03 AMU/atom)x(1.66x10-27 kg/AMU)x(3x108 m/s)2

=4.5x1026 J/s

How does the Sun Shine?

Nuclear Fusion

This is a nice theory.

Does it make any falsifiable predictions?
That we can test today, rather than weighting 1010 years?

There is one prediction, but this is part of another story

Not on exam

Invention of the Neutrino

The perplexing mystery of beta decay:

Should give electron of same
energy every time

But observed spectrum is continuous

Mass of neutron > (mass of proton+electron) and E=mc2

Not on exam

Invention of the Neutrino

Wolfgang Pauli suggests a third particle (1930)

Designed to be impossible to detectalmost.

Detecting Neutrinos

Not on exam

Weakly Interacting Signal

e-

A block of matter

Detecting Neutrinos

Not on exam

Weakly Interacting Signal

A block of matter

Add more matter

Detecting Neutrinos

Not on exam

Weakly Interacting Signal

A block of matter

Or use more neutrinos

eV

CNB

keV

MeV

GeV

TeV

Radioactive nuclei Reactors Supernovae

Accelerators
The Sun
Atmospherics
Cosmic sources

Detecting Neutrinos
Backgrounds: Muons from Space

Not on exam

Detecting Neutrinos
Backgrounds: Natural Radioactivity

Not on exam

Discovery of the Neutrino

Not on exam

Reines and Cowans original idea

Los Alamos Science, 25, (1997)

`Standard Model Neutrinos

Not on exam

Our best theory of the microscopic Universe

Neutrinos:
Come in three `flavors (e, , )
Are massless
Interact weakly
Cannot change flavor

Over twenty years of tests confirmed

even The most subtle predictions.

Neutrinos and the Sun

If neutrinos can travel

through anything, then
even those produced in
the core can travel to us!
(How long does it take?)

(John Bahcall)

Solar Neutrino Experiments

Experiments need to be:
Big

Deep

Clean

to detect weakly interacting ns

to get away from cosmic rays

to reduce radioactivitiy

Not on exam

Solar Neutrino Experiments

First experiment by Davis et al in 1960s

Radiochemical Method (Chlorine):

Found ~ 1/3 of expected rate!

Solar Neutrino Experiments

After six solar neutrino experiments and 35 years

Whats Going On??

Are experiments wrong?
Or solar theory?
Or the neutrino?

Solar Neutrino Problem

Neutrinos Changing Flavor?

Not on exam

How can neutrinos change from one type to another?

Particles have wavelike properties.

If a e is the sum of two waves

and a nm is the sum of those two

waves shifted relative to one
another

then a e can change into a if Wave 1 (1) travels at a

different speed than Wave 2 (2)
This can happen if the neutrinos have different masses.

Herb Chens Idea (1984):

Use Heavy Water

ES

CC

NC

Not on exam

Where to put it?

Sudbury, Ontario
(Canada)

Creighton Mine

Sudbury Highlights

Not on exam

Sudbury Neutrino Observatory (SNO)

1000 tonnes D2O

Support
Structure for
9500 PMTs
12 m Diameter
Acrylic Vessel
1700 tons Inner
Shielding H2O
5300 tons Outer
Shield H2O
Urylon Liner and
Radon Seal

Underground

Not on exam
but in the Lab.

Detector
From your textbook
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computer, and then open the file again. If the red x still appears, you may have to delete the image and then insert it again.

Construction

Not on exam

SNO Solar Neutrinos

Not on exam

Why This is Hard

Only 3000 of these dots are neutrino
eventsthe rest is radioactivity

Not on exam

Not on exam

Results
Herb Chens original idea becomes possible:

NC

(sensitive to all flavors equally)

CC

(sensitive only to e)

Main Question: Is number of s measured with NC > CC??

Results

Publicity

Not on exam

Publicity

Not on exam

Won Nobel 2002 Nobel Prize!

Epilogue

Did not win

2002 Nobel Prize

What Do I Need to Know?

How energy is generated in the Sun
That neutrinos tell us about those reactions
How to calculate the energy generated, and the Suns
lifetime
That Ray Davis did the first solar neutrino experiment
That the Sudbury Neutrino Observatory (SNO) solved
the solar neutrino problem.
But not:

Details about the 3 generations of matter

Matter vs. antimatter
Details about neutrino oscillations
The details of how SNO worked

Summary of Energy Generation

E=mc2

Some of the mass is converted to energy!

Nuclear Fusion: MHe+2Me++2M< 4Mp

l
l

Mass of Hydrogen Atom 1.008 AMU (Atomic Mass Units)

Mass of a Helium Atom 4.00260 AMU

4 hydrogen = 4.032 AMU

Mass of a Helium Atom = 4.002 AMU
Mass of 2 positrons (2Me+) = 2/1837 AMU
Mass of 2 neutrinos= at least a million times smaller than e+!

Difference is 0.03 AMU

l
l
l

Doesnt sound like muchbut how many H atoms in 1 kg?

l

1 atomic mass unit = 1.66 10-27 kg

About 6x1026! Or 6x1015 J/kg! (Compare to oil!)

Summary of Energy Generation

How long can the Sun burn?
Lsun = 4 x 1026 Joules/second
E = mc2 = 4 x 1026 Joules (energy produced each second)
=== m = 4.4 x 109 kg of matter is converted to energy
EACH SECOND!
BUT: For every kilogram of Hydrogen I burn, only 7 grams
gets converted to energy (our 6x1015 J/kg)
= So, this means that we burn ~6 x 1011 kg of Hydrogen a
second
or 2 x 1019 kg/year
The Sun can burn 10% of its Hydrogen or 2 x 1029kg
So the Sun will burn for 1010 years

The Sun
In the Sun, an exact
balance between the
inward pull of gravity and
the outward pressure of
energy release is
maintained.
Also, the Sun radiates
from its surface exactly
as much energy as it
produces in its core.

The Sun

Photosphere and Granules

The photosphere is the layer visible to
our eyes. Its temperature is ~5800 K.
Sometimes spots are visible. At higher
resolutions, granulation is seen.

The larger granules are roughly

the sizes of continents on Earth.
They are rising bubbles of gas on
the Sun, changing appearance
constantly.

The Sun

Granules and Convection

The hot gas rises. When it gets near the surface it radiates and cools.
It then flows back down.

The Sun

Chromosphere and Corona

Above the photosphere, the density drops off dramatically into the
reddish chromosphere and whitish corona, but the temperature jumps
to almost 106 K! BUT, while it is VERY hot, it has very low density.

Chromosphere

Chromosphere because of color

Spicules rise above

the chromosphere.
From Kirkoffs
Laws what kind of
spectrum is this?

Chromosphere

Anatomy of a Spicule

Which of the following is not a region of the

Sun?
A.
B.
C.
D.

Photosphere
Chromosphere
Corona
Cuervo

The Sun Must Support Itself

Hydrostatic Equilibirum

Balancing pressure and gravity

Overall, the Sun is not

noticeably expanding or
shrinking. It is in
equilibrium. This
precise balance of
inward and outward
pressure is called
hydrostatic equilibrium.
Simply knowing that
this exists allowed us
to begin constructing
theoretical models of
the interior of the Sun.

Helioseismology

`Earthquakes on the Sun

Watching the way the seismic waves ripple tells us about the
solar interior

Pressure waves on the surface of the Sun

Sun Spots

10,000 km across
Umbra 4500 Kelvin
Penumbra - 5500 Kelvin

The Sun Changes

The number of sunspots rises

and falls with an 11-year
period. This is called the
sunspot cycle. The Sun
switches polarity of its
magnetic field every two
cycles, or 22 years. We dont
know why.
This cycle may be connected
with weather here on Earth, in
ways we do not really
understand.

Sunspot Cycles

Sunspots `migrate in Bands

Sunspots and Weather?

Solar Magnetic Field

Magnetic field lines get `wound up

The magnetic field pops out of the surface forming a loop.

Solar Magnetic Field

Sunspots occur near high magnetic fields

The Magnetic Field at a
Sunspot is 1000 times
greater than the rest of
the Sun.
Sunspots are cooler
than the photosphere
because the high
magnetic field
redirects the
convection from the
lower layers.

Solar Magnetic Field

Quiet versus active Sun
(Using ultraviolet lens)

Solar Prominences

Follow Magnetic Field Loops

The magnetic field loops
that create sunspots can
funnel gas through space
to create arch-shaped
prominences. These
bubbles of gas can last
from hours to days.
Can release about
1/10 of the energy
the Sun puts out
each second

Solar Prominences

Solar Flares
-Release as much energy as
a Prominence but in
minutes, not days!
-Temperatures up to
100,000,000K !!!
- Can eject BILLIONS of
tons of matter into the
solar system
Big ones disrupt
communications on Earth

Solar Flares

Coronal Mass Ejections

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Solar flares can send enormous plumes of gas into

space; these are called coronal mass ejections. If
the Earth is in the path of a CME, we can get
aurorae.

Coronal Mass Ejections

Proton `showers

Watch the stars in the background. Whats happening?

Sunspots appear to be caused by:

A.
B.
C.
D.

Solar ares
Solar prominences
Solar magneIc elds
HydrostaIc
equilibrium

Summary

What are the important regions of the Sun?

Core: T = 15 million K, where fusion takes place converting

hydrogen (H) to helium (He)
Radiative zone: Just outside the core, energy is transferred by
radiation (photons) traveling through the material
Convective zone: Next outward, energy is transferred toward
surface by movement of material (like boiling)
Photosphere: Top of the convective zone, it is what we see as
the Suns surface. It has granules and sometimes sunspots.
T= 5700 K.
Chromosphere: Just above the photosphere, it is a hot, thin gas,
with an emission line spectrum and spicules that poke up into
the next layer, and sometimes prominences and solar flares
that release huge amount of material into space.
Corona: Very hot (> 1 million K) and very thin layer of gas,
extending more than a solar radius out from the chromosphere.

Last Time
What are sunspots?

Small, dark regions on the photosphere

They are cooler than the surrounding
photosphere by a few hundred degrees K.
They have high magnetic fields.
Magnetic fields are wound up as the Sun
rotates.
Sunspots come in cycles: 11 years between
maximum activity
Solar magnetic field switches polarity every
22 years.

The Sun at Different Wavelengths