VARIATIONS IN PSYCHOLOGICAL ATTRIBUTES

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After reading this chapter, you would be able to:

understand psychological attributes on which people differ from each other,
learn about different methods that are used to assess psychological attributes,
explain what constitutes intelligent behaviour,
learn how psychologists assess intelligence to identify mentally challenged
and gifted individuals,
understand how intelligence has different meaning in different cultures, and
understand the difference between intelligence and aptitude.

CONTENTS

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Introduction
Individual Differences in Human Functioning
Assessment of Psychological Attributes
Intelligence
Theories of Intelligence
Theory of Multiple Intelligences
Triarchic Theory of Intelligence
Planning, Attention-arousal, and Simultaneoussuccessive Model of Intelligence
Individual Differences in Intelligence
Variations of Intelligence
Some Misuses of Intelligence Tests (Box 1.1)
Culture and Intelligence
Emotional Intelligence
Characteristics of Emotionally Intelligent
Persons (Box 1.2)
Special Abilities
Aptitude : Nature and Measurement
Creativity

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Key Terms
Summary
Review Questions
Project Ideas
Weblinks
Pedagogical Hints

Introduction

If you observe your friends, classmates or relatives, you will find how they
differ from each other in the manner they perceive, learn, and think, as
also in their performance on various tasks. Such individual differences can
be noticed in every walk of life. That people differ from one another is obvious.
In Class XI, you have learnt about psychological principles that are applied
to understand human behaviour. We also need to know how people differ,
what brings about these differences, and how such differences can be
assessed. You will recall how one of the main concerns of modern psychology
has been the study of individual differences from the time of Galton. This
chapter will introduce you to some of the fundamentals of individual
differences.
One of the most popular psychological attributes which has been of
interest to psychologists is Intelligence. People differ from each other in
their ability to understand complex ideas, adapt to environment, learn from
experience, engage in various forms of reasoning, and to overcome obstacles.
In this chapter, you will study the nature of intelligence, changing definitions
of intelligence, cultural differences in intelligence, range and variations in
the intellectual competencies of people, and the nature of special abilities
or aptitudes.

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INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES
FUNCTIONING

IN

HUMAN

Individual variations are common within

and across all species. Variations add
colour and beauty to nature. For a
moment, think of a world around you
where each and every object is of the same
colour, say red or blue or green. How would
the world appear to you? Certainly not a
beautiful one! Would you prefer to live in
such a world? In all likelihood, your
answer will be no. Like objects, people too
possess different combinations of traits.
Variability is a fact of nature, and
individuals are no exception to this. They
vary in terms of physical characteristics,
such as height, weight, strength, hair
colour, and so on. They also vary along
psychological dimensions. They may be
intelligent or dull, dominant or submissive,
creative or not so creative, outgoing or
withdrawn, etc. The list of variations can
be endless. Different traits can exist in
varying degrees in an individual. In this
sense, each one of us is unique as s/he

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exemplifies a typical combination of

various traits. The question which you may
like to pose is how and why people differ.
This, in fact, is the subject matter of the
study of individual dif ferences. For
psychologists, individual differences refer to
distinctiveness and variations among
peoples characteristics and behaviour
patterns.
While many psychologists believe that
our behaviours are influenced by our
personal traits, some others hold the view
that our behaviours are influenced more by
situational factors. This latter view is
known as situationism, which states that
situations and circumstances in which one
is placed influence ones behaviour. A
person, who is generally aggressive, may
behave in a submissive manner in the
presence of her/his top boss. Sometimes,
the situational influences are so powerful
that individuals with differing personality
traits respond to them in almost the same
ways. The situationist perspective views
human behaviour relatively more as a
result of influence of external factors.

ASSESSMENT
ATTRIBUTES

OF

PSYCHOLOGICAL

Psychological attributes are involved in

very simple phenomena like in time taken
to react to a stimulus, i.e. reaction time,
and also in highly global concepts like
happiness. It is difficult to count and
specify the number of psychological
attributes that can be assessed.
Assessment is the first step in
understanding a psychological attribute.
Assessment refers to the measurement of
psychological attributes of individuals and
their evaluation, often using multiple
methods in terms of certain standards of
comparison. Any attribute will be said to
exist in a person only if it can be measured
by using scientific procedures. For
example, when we say, Harish is
dominant, we are referring to the degree
of dominance in Harish. This statement is
based on our own assessment of
dominance in him. Our assessment may
be informal or formal. Formal assessment
is objective, standardised, and organised.
On the other hand, informal assessment
varies from case to case and from one
assessor to another and, therefore, is open
to subjective interpretations. Psychologists
are trained in making formal assessment
of psychological attributes.
Once assessment is done, we can use
this information to predict how Harish will
probably behave in future. We may predict
that Harish, if given a chance to lead a
team, will most likely be an authoritarian
leader. If the predicted consequence is not
what we want, we may want to intervene
to effect a change in Harishs behaviour.
The attribute chosen for assessment
depends upon our purpose. In order to
help a weak student perform well in
examinations, we may assess her/his
intellectual strengths and weaknesses. If
a person fails to adjust with members of

her/his family and neighbourhood, we

may consider assessing her/his
personality characteristics. For a poorly
motivated person, we may assess her/his
interests and preferences. Psychological
assessment uses systematic testing
procedures to evaluate abilities, behaviours,
and personal qualities of individuals.
Some Domains of Psychological
Attributes

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Psychological attributes are not linear or

unidimensional. They are complex and
expressed in terms of dimensions. A line
is a mere aggregate of many points. A point
occupies no space. But think of a box. It
occupies space. It can be described only in
terms of its three dimensions, i.e. length,
width, and height. Similar is the case with
psychological attributes. They are usually
multi-dimensional. If you want to have a
complete assessment of a person, you will
need to assess how s/he functions in
various domains or areas, such as
cognitive, emotional, social, etc.
We will discuss in this chapter some
important attributes that are of interest to
psychologists. These attributes are
categorised on the basis of varieties of tests
used in psychological literature.
1. Intelligence is the global capacity to
understand the world, think rationally,
and use available resources effectively
when faced with challenges. Intelligence
tests provide a global measure of a
persons general cognitive competence
including the ability to profit from
schooling. Generally, students having
low intelligence are not likely to do so
well in school-related examinations, but
their success in life is not associated
only with their intelligence test scores.
2. Aptitude r efers to an individuals
underlying potential for acquiring skills.
Aptitude tests are used to predict what
an individual will be able to do if given

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Chapter 1 Variations in Psychological Attributes

proper environment and training. A

person with high mechanical aptitude
can profit from appropriate training and
can do well as an engineer. Similarly,
a person having high language aptitude
can be trained to be a good writer.
3. Interest is an individuals preference for
engaging in one or more specific
activities relative to others. Assessment
of interests of students may help to
decide what subjects or courses they
can pursue comfortably and with
pleasure. Knowledge of interests helps
us in making choices that promote life
satisfaction and performance on jobs.
4. Personality refers to relatively enduring
characteristics of a person that make
her or him distinct from others.
Personality tests try to assess an
individuals unique characteristics, e.g.
whether one is dominant or submissive,
outgoing or withdrawn, moody or
emotionally stable, etc. Personality
assessment helps us to explain an
individuals behaviour and predict how
she/he will behave in future.
5. Values are enduring beliefs about an
ideal mode of behaviour. A person
having a value sets a standard for
guiding her/his actions in life and also
for judging others. In value assessment,
we try to determine the dominant
values of a person (e.g., political,
religious, social or economic).

used for the purposes of clinical

diagnosis, guidance, personnel
selection, placement, and training.
Besides objective tests, psychologists
have also developed certain projective
tests, especially for the assessment of
personality. You will learn about them
in Chapter 2.
Interview involves seeking information
from a person on a one-to-one basis. You
may see it being used when a
counsellor interacts with a client, a
salesperson makes a door-to-door
survey regarding the usefulness of a
particular product, an employer selects
employees for her/his organisation, or a
journalist interviews important people
on issues of national and international
importance.
Case Study is an in-depth study of the
individual in terms of her/his
psychological attributes, psychological
history in the context of her/his
psychosocial and physical environment.
Case studies are widely used by
clinical psychologists. Case analyses of
the lives of great people can also be
highly illuminating for those willing to
learn from their life experiences.
Case studies are based on data
generated by different methods, e.g.
interview, observation, questionnaire,
psychological tests, etc.
Observation involves employing
systematic, organised, and objective
procedures to record behavioural
phenomena occurring naturally in real
time. Certain phenomena such as
mother-child interactions can be easily
studied through observation. The major
problems with observational methods
are that the observer has little control
over the situation and the reports may
suffer from subjective interpretations of
the observer.
Self-Report is a method in which a
person provides factual information
about herself/himself and/or opinions,

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Assessment Methods

Several methods are used for psychological

assessment. You have learnt about some
of these methods in Class XI. Let us recall
their key features.
Psychological Test is an objective
and standardised measure of an
individuals mental and/or behavioural
characteristics. Objective tests have
been developed to measure all the
dimensions of psychological attributes
(e.g., intelligence, aptitude, etc.)
described above. These tests are widely

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beliefs, etc. that s/he holds. Such

information may be obtained by
using an interview schedule or a
questionnaire, a psychological test, or
a personal diary.

we discuss some important theories of

intelligence.

1.

INTELLIGENCE
Intelligence is a key construct employed to
know how individuals differ from one
another. It also provides an understanding
of how people adapt their behaviour
according to the environment they live in.
In this section, you will read about
intelligence in its various forms.
Psychological notion of intelligence is
quite different from the common sensical
notion of intelligence. If you watch an
intelligent person, you are likely to see in
her/him attributes like mental alertness,
r eady wit, quickness in learning, and
ability to understand relationships. The
Oxford Dictionary explains intelligence as
the power of perceiving, learning ,
understanding, and knowing. Early
intelligence theorists also used these
attributes in defining intelligence. Alfred
Binet was one of the first psychologists
who worked on intelligence. He defined
intelligence as the ability to judge well,
understand well, and reason well.
Wechsler, whose intelligence tests are most
widely used, understood intelligence in
terms of its functionality, i.e. its value for
adaptation to environment. He defined it as
the global and aggregate capacity of an
individual to think rationally, act
purposefully, and to deal effectively with
her/his environment. Other psychologists,
such as Gardner and Sternberg have
suggested that an intelligent individual not
only adapts to the environment, but also
actively modifies or shapes it. You will be
able to understand the concept of
intelligence and how it has evolved, when

2.

3.

Discovering the Attributes of

Intelligent Persons
Who is the most intelligent of your
classmates? Think of her/him in
your minds eye, and write down
a few words/phrases describing
that person.
Think of 3 other persons in your
immediate environment, whom
you consider intelligent, and write
down a few wor ds/phrases
describing the attributes of each.
Judge the newer additions with
reference to what you wrote in item
no. 1.
Make a list of all the attributes you
consider as manifestations of
intelligent behaviours. Using these
attributes, try to frame a definition.
Discuss your r eport with your
classmates and the teacher.
Compar e it with what the
researchers have to say about
intelligence.

Activity
1.1

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4.

5.
6.

THEORIES

OF

INTELLIGENCE

Psychologists have proposed several

theories of intelligence. Theories can be
broadly classified as either representing a
psychometric/structural approach or an
information-processing approach.
The psychometric approach considers
intelligence as an aggregate of abilities. It
expresses the individuals performance in
terms of a single index of cognitive abilities.
On the other hand, the informationprocessing approach describes the
p rocesses people use in intellectual
reasoning and problem solving. The major
focus of this approach is on how an
intelligent person acts. Rather than
focusing on structure of intelligence or its
underlying dimensions, information-

Chapter 1 Variations in Psychological Attributes

processing approaches emphasise

studying cognitive functions underlying
intelligent behaviour. We will discuss
some representative theories of these
approaches.
We mentioned above that Alfred Binet
was the first psychologist who tried to
formalise the concept of intelligence in
terms of mental operations. Prior to him,
we find the notion of intelligence described
in general ways in various philosophical
treatises available in different cultural
traditions. Binets theory of intelligence
was rather simple as it arose from his
interest in differentiating more intelligent
from less intelligent individuals. He,
therefore, conceptualised intelligence as
consisting of one similar set of abilities
which can be used for solving any or every
problem in an individuals environment.
His theory of intelligence is called Uni or
one factor theory of intelligence. This
theory came to be disputed when
psychologists started analysing data
of individuals, which was collected using
Binets test.
In 1927, Charles Spearman proposed a
two-factor theory of intelligence
employing a statistical method called factor
analysis. He showed that intelligence
consisted of a general factor (g-factor) and
some specific factors (s-factors). The
g-factor includes mental operations which
are primary and common to all
performances. In addition to the g-factor,
he said that there are also many specific
abilities. These are contained in what he
called the s-factor. Excellent singers,
architects, scientists, and athletes may be
high on g-factor, but in addition to this,
they have specific abilities which allow
them to excel in their respective domains.
Spearmans theory was followed by Louis
Thurstones theory. He proposed the
theory of primary mental abilities. It
states that intelligence consists of seven
primary abilities, each of which is relatively

independent of the others. These primary

abilities are: (i) Verbal Comprehension
(grasping meaning of words, concepts, and
ideas), (ii) Numerical Abilities (speed and
accuracy in numerical and computational
skills), (iii) Spatial Relations (visualising
patterns and forms), (iv) Perceptual Speed
(speed in perceiving details), (v) Word
Fluency (using words fluently and flexibly),
(vi) Memory (accuracy in recalling
information), and (vii) Inductive Reasoning
(deriving general rules from presented
facts).
Arthur Jensen proposed a hierarchical
model of intelligence consisting of abilities
operating at two levels, called Level I and
Level II. Level I is the associative learning
in which output is more or less similar to
the input (e.g., rote learning and memory).
Level II, called cognitive competence,
involves higher-order skills as they
transform the input to produce an effective
output.
J.P. Guilford proposed the structureof-intellect model which classifies
intellectual traits among three dimensions:
operations, contents, and products.
Operations are what the respondent does.
These include cognition, memory
recording, memory retention, divergent
production, convergent production, and
evaluation. Contents refer to the nature of
materials or information on which
intellectual operations are performed.
These include visual, auditory, symbolic
(e.g., letters, numbers), semantic (e.g.,
words) and behavioural (e.g., information
about peoples behaviour, attitudes, needs,
etc.). Products refer to the form in which
information is processed by the respondent.
Products are classified into units, classes,
relations, systems, transformations, and
implications. Since this classification
(Guilford, 1988) includes 656 categories,
therefore, the model has 180 cells. Each cell
is expected to have at least one factor or
ability; some cells may have more than

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one factor. Each factor is described in

terms of all three dimensions.
The above mentioned theories are
representations of psychometric approach
to understand intelligent behaviour.
Theory of Multiple Intelligences
Howard Gardner proposed the theory of
multiple intelligences. According to him,
intelligence is not a single entity; rather
distinct types of intelligences exist. Each
of these intelligences are independent of
each other. This means that, if a person
exhibits one type of intelligence, it does not
necessarily indicate being high or low on
other types of intelligences. Gardner also
put forth that different types of
intelligences interact and work together to
find a solution to a problem. Gardner
studied extremely talented persons, who
had shown exceptional abilities in their
respective areas, and described eight types
of intelligence. These are as follows:
Linguistic (skills involved in the
production and use of language) : It is the
capacity to use language fluently and
flexibly to express ones thinking and
understand others. Persons high on this
intelligence are word-smart, i.e. they are
sensitive to different shades of word
meanings, are articulate, and can create
linguistic images in their mind. Poets and
writers are very strong in this component
of intelligence.
Logical-Mathematical (skills in
scientific thinking and problem solving) :
Persons high on this type of intelligence can
think logically and critically. They engage in
abstract reasoning, and can manipulate
symbols to solve mathematical problems.
Scientists and Nobel Prize winners are likely
to be strong in this component.
Spatial (skills in forming visual images
and patterns) : It refers to the abilities
involved in for ming, using, and
transforming mental images. The person

high on this intelligence can easily

represent the spatial world in the mind.
Pilots, sailors, sculptors, painters,
architects, interior decorators, and
surgeons are likely to have highly
developed spatial intelligence.
Musical (sensitivity to musical rhythms
and patterns) : It is the capacity to
produce, create and manipulate musical
patterns. Persons high on this intelligence
are very sensitive to sounds and vibrations,
and in creating new patterns of sounds.
Bodily-Kinaesthetic (using whole or
portions of the body flexibly and
creatively) : This consists of the use of the
whole body or portions of it for display or
construction of products and problem
solving. Athletes, dancers, actors,
sportspersons, gymnasts, and surgeons
are likely to have such kind of intelligence.
Interpersonal (sensitivity to subtle
aspects of others behaviours) : This is the
skill of understanding the motives, feelings
and behaviours of other people so as to
bond into a comfortable relationship with
others. Psychologists, counsellors,
politicians, social workers, and religious
leaders are likely to possess high
interpersonal intelligence.
Intrapersonal (awareness of ones own
feelings, motives, and desires): This refers
to the knowledge of ones internal
strengths and limitations and using that
knowledge to effectively relate to others.
Persons high on this ability have finer
sensibilities regarding their identity,
human existence, and meaning of life.
Philosophers and spiritual leaders present
examples of this type of intelligence.
Naturalistic (sensitivity to the features
of the natural world) : This involves
complete awareness of our relationship
with the natural world. It is useful in
recognising the beauty of different species
of flora and fauna, and making subtle
discriminations in the natural world.
Hunters, farmers, tourists, botanists,

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Chapter 1 Variations in Psychological Attributes

zoologists, and bird watchers possess

more of naturalistic intelligence.
Triarchic Theory of Intelligence
Robert Sternberg (1985) proposed the
triarchic theory of intelligence. Sternberg
views intelligence as the ability to adapt,
to shape and select environment to
accomplish ones goals and those of ones
society and culture. According to this
theory, there are three basic types of
intelligence: Componential, Experiential,
and Contextual. The elements of the
triarchic theory of intelligence are shown
in Figure 1.1.
Componential Intelligence : Componential or analytical intelligence is the
analysis of information to solve problems.
Persons high on this ability think
analytically and critically and succeed in
schools. This intelligence has three
components, each serving a differ ent
function. First is the knowledge acquisition
component, which is responsible for
learning and acquisition of the ways of
doing things. The second is the meta or a
higher order component, which involves
planning concerning what to do and how
to do. The third is the performance
component, which involves actually doing
things.

Experiential Intelligence: Experiential or

creative intelligence is involved in using
past experiences creatively to solve novel
p roblems. It is reflected in creative
performance. Persons high on this aspect
integrate different experiences in an
original way to make new discoveries and
inventions. They quickly find out which
information is crucial in a given situation.

You have just been admitted into a

school/college. You will take three
examinations during the entire year.
You sincerely want to receive high
marks in the course. How likely are you
to engage in each of the following
actions? Rank the following courses of
action. Match your answer with that
of your classmates.
Attend classes regularly.
Create study groups with your
friends for weekly discussions.
Take detailed notes in the class.
Join a tutorial/coaching centre.
Prepare written notes for each
chapter.
Read the textbook chapters
thoroughly.
Solve the questions of the last three
years.
Talk to your teacher after the class.

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Fig.1.1 : Elements of T riarchic Theory of Intelligence

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Activity
1.2

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On the Practical Track

Contextual Intelligence : Contextual

or practical intelligence involves the ability
to deal with environmental demands
encountered on a daily basis. It may be
called street smartness or business sense.
Persons high on this aspect easily adapt to
their present environment or select a more
favourable environment than the existing
one, or modify the environment to fit their
needs. Therefore, they turn out to be
successful in life.
Sternbergs triarchic theory of
intelligence represents the informationp rocessing approach to understand
intelligence.

you perceive the relations among various

concepts and integrate them into a
meaningful pattern for comprehension. For
example, in Ravens Progressive Matrices
(RPM) Test, a design is presented from
which a part has been removed. You are
required to choose one of the six options
that best completes the design.
Simultaneous processing helps you in
grasping the meaning and relationship
between the given abstract figures.
Successive processing takes place when
you remember all the information serially
so that the recall of one leads to the recall
of another. Learning of digits, alphabets,
multiplication tables, etc. are examples of
successive processing.
Planning : This is an essential feature
of intelligence. After the information is
attended to and processed, planning is
activated. It allows us to think of the
possible courses of action, implement them
to reach a target, and evaluate their
effectiveness. If a plan does not work, it is
modified to suit the requirements of the
task or situation. For example, to take the
test scheduled by your teacher, you would
have to set goals, plan a time schedule of
study, get clarifications in case of problems
and if you are not able to tackle the
chapters assigned for the test, you may
have to think of other ways (e.g., give more
time, study with a friend, etc.) to meet your
goals.
These PASS processes operate on a
knowledge base developed either formally
(by reading, writing, and experimenting) or
informally from the environment. These
processes are interactive and dynamic in
nature; yet each has its own distinctive
functions. Das and Naglieri have also
developed a battery of tests, known as the
Cognitive Assessment System (CAS). It
consists of verbal as well as non-verbal
tasks that measure basic cognitive
functions presumed to be independent of
schooling. The battery of tests is meant for
individuals between 5 and 18 years of age.

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Planning, Attention-arousal, and

Simultaneous-successive (PASS) Model
of Intelligence

This model has been developed by J.P.

Das, Jack Naglieri, and Kirby (1994).
According to this model, intellectual
activity involves the interdependent
functioning of three neurological systems,
called the functional units of brain. These
units are responsible for arousal/attention,
coding or processing, and planning
respectively.
Arousal/Attention : State of arousal is
basic to any behaviour as it helps us in
attending to stimuli. Arousal and attention
enable a person to process information. An
optimal level of arousal focuses our
attention to the relevant aspects of a
problem. Too much or too little arousal
would interfere with attention. For
instance, when you are told by your
teacher about a test which s/he plans to
hold, it would arouse you to attend to the
specific chapters. Arousal forces you to
focus your attention on reading, learning
and revising the contents of the chapters.
Simultaneous and Successive
Processing : You can integrate the
information into your knowledge system
either simultaneously or successively.
Simultaneous processing takes place when

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Chapter 1 Variations in Psychological Attributes

The results of assessment can be used

to remedy cognitive deficits of children
with learning problems.
This model represents the informationprocessing approach to intelligence.

INDIVIDUAL D IFFERENCES

IN

INTELLIGENCE

Why are some people more intelligent than

others? Is it due to their heredity, or is it
due to the influence of environmental
factors? You have already read about the
influence of these factors in the
development of an individual in Class XI.
Intelligence: Interplay of Nature and
Nurture

intelligence while rich nutrition, good

family background, and quality schooling
increases intelligence. There is a general
consensus among psychologists that
intelligence is a product of complex
interaction of heredity (nature) and
environment (nurture). Heredity can best be
viewed as something that sets a range
within which an individuals development is
actually shaped by the support and
opportunities of the environment.

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Assessment of Intelligence

In 1905, Alfred Binet and Theodore Simon,

made the first successful attempt to
formally measure intelligence. In 1908,
when the scale was revised, they gave the
concept of Mental Age (MA), which is a
measure of a persons intellectual
development relative to people of her/his
age group. A mental age of 5 means that
a childs performance on an intelligence
test equals the average performance level
of a group of 5-year olds. Chronological
Age (CA) is the biological age from birth.
A bright childs MA is more than her/his
CA; for a dull child, MA is below the CA.
Retardation was defined by Binet and
Simon as being two mental age years below
the chronological age.
In 1912, William Stern, a German
psychologist, devised the concept of
Intelligence Quotient (IQ). IQ refers to
mental age divided by chronological age,
and multiplied by 100.

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The evidence for hereditary influences on

intelligence comes mainly from studies on
twins and adopted children. The
intelligence of identical twins rear ed
together correlate almost 0.90. Twins
separated early in childhood also
show considerable similarity in their
intellectual, personality and behavioural
characteristics. The intelligence of identical
twins reared in different environments
correlate 0.72, those of fraternal twins
reared together correlate almost 0.60, and
those of brothers and sisters reared
together correlate about 0.50, while
siblings reared apart correlate about 0.25.
Another line of evidence comes from the
studies of adopted children, which
show that childrens intelligence is more
similar to their biological rather than
adoptive parents.
With respect to the role of environment,
studies have reported that as children grow
in age, their intelligence level tends to move
closer to that of their adoptive parents.
Children from disadvantaged homes
adopted into families with higher socioeconomic status exhibit a large increase in
their intelligence scores. There is evidence
that environmental deprivation lowers

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Psychology

IQ =

MA
CA

100

The number 100 is used as a multiplier

to avoid the decimal point. When the MA
equals the CA, the IQ equals 100. If MA is
more than the CA, IQ is more than 100. IQ
becomes less than 100 when the MA is less
than
the
CA.
For
example,
a
10-year-old child with a mental age of 12
would have an IQ of 120 (12/10 100),

Activity
1.3

Intelligent Numbers
(Computing IQ)
Find out the IQ of a 14-year -old
child with a mental age of 16.
Find out the mental age of a 12year-old child with an IQ of 90.

whereas the same child with an MA of 7

would have an IQ of 70 (7/10 100). The
average IQ in the population is 100,
irrespective of age.
IQ scores are distributed in the
population in such a way that the scores
of most people tend to fall in the middle
range of the distribution. Only a few
people have either very high or very low
scores. The frequency distribution for the
IQ scores tends to approximate a bellshaped curve, called the normal curve.
This type of distribution is symmetrical
around the central value, called the mean.
The distribution of IQ scores in the form
of a normal distribution is shown in
Figure 1.2.
The mean IQ score in a population is
100. People with IQ scores in the range of
90110 have normal intelligence. Those
with IQ below 70 are suspected to have

mental retardation, while persons with

IQ above 130 are considered to have
exceptional talents. The IQ score of a
person can be interpreted by referring to
Table 1.1.
Table 1.1 : Classification of People on the
Basis of IQ
IQ Range

Descriptive Label

Per cent in the

Population

Above 130
120 130
110 119
90 109
80 89
70 79
Below 70

Very superior
Superior
High average
Average
Low average
Borderline
Mentally challenged/
retarded

2.2
6.7
16.1
50.0
16.1
6.7
2.2

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All persons do not have the same

intellectual
capacity;
some
are
exceptionally bright and some are below
average. One practical use of intelligence
test is to identify persons at the extremes
of intellectual functioning. If you refer to
Table 1.1, you will notice that about 2 per
cent of the population have IQ above 130,

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Fig.1.2 : Normal Curve Pattern Showing Distribution of IQ Scores in the Population

Chapter 1 Variations in Psychological Attributes

11

and a similar percentage have IQ below 70.

The persons in the first group are called
intellectually gifted; those in the second
group are termed mentally challenged
or mentally retarded. These two
groups deviate considerably from the
normal population in respect of their
cognitive, emotional, and motivational
characteristics.
Variations of Intelligence
Intellectual Deficiency
On the one hand are the gifted and creative
persons we discussed briefly earlier. On the
other hand, there are children who face
enormous difficulty in learning even very
simple skills. Those children who show
intellectual deficiency are termed as
mentally challenged or mentally retarded.
As a group, there is wide variation among
the mentally deficient or retarded. The
American Association on Mental Deficiency
(AAMD) views mental retardation as
significantly sub-average general
intellectual functioning existing concurrently
with deficits in adaptive behaviour and
manifested during the developmental
period. This definition points to three
basic features. First, in order to be judged
as mentally retarded, a person must show
significantly sub-average intellectual
functioning. Persons having IQs below 70
are judged to have sub-average
intelligence. The second relates to deficits
in adaptive behaviour. Adaptive behaviour
r efers to a persons capacity to be
independent and deal effectively with ones
environment. The third feature is that the
deficits must be observed during the
developmental period, that is between 0
and 18 years of age.
Individuals who are categorised as
having mental retardation show significant
variation in their abilities, ranging from
those who can be taught to work and

function with special attention, to those

who cannot be trained and require
institutional care throughout their lives.
You have learnt earlier that the mean IQ
score in the population is 100. These
figures are used to understand the
categories of mentally retarded. The
different levels of retardation are: mild
retardation (IQs 5569), moderate
retardation (IQs 4054), severe
retardation (IQs 2539), and profound
retardation (IQs below 25). Although the
development of people with mild
retardation is typically slower than that of
their peers, they can function quite
independently, hold jobs and families. As
the level of retardation increases, the
difficulties are strongly marked. The people
with moderate retardation lag behind their
peers in language and motor skills. They
can be trained in self-care skills, and
simple social and communication skills.
They need to have moderate degree of
supervision in everyday tasks. Individuals
with profound and severe retardation are
incapable of managing life and need
constant care for their entire lives. You will
read more about the characteristics of the
mentally retarded/challenged in Chapter 4.

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Intellectual Giftedness

Intellectually gifted individuals show higher

performance because of their outstanding
potentialities. The study of gifted
individuals began in 1925, when Lewis
Terman followed the lives of about 1500
children with IQs of 130 and above to
examine how intelligence was related to
occupational success and life adjustment.
Although the ter ms talent and
giftedness are often used inter changeably, they mean different things.
Giftedness is exceptional general ability
shown in superior performance in a wide
variety of areas. Talent is a narrower term
and refers to remarkable ability in a

specific field (e.g., spiritual, social,

aesthetic, etc.). The highly talented are
sometimes called prodigies.
It has been suggested by psychologists
that giftedness from the teachers point of
view depends on a combination of high
ability, high creativity, and high
commitment.
Gifted children show early signs of
intellectual superiority. Even during
infancy and early childhood, they show
larger attention span, good recognition
memory, preference for novelty, sensitivity
to environmental changes, and early
appearance of language skills. To equate
giftedness with brilliant academic
performance is not correct. Athletes who
show superior psychomotor ability are
also gifted. Each gifted student
possesses different strengths, personalities
and characteristics. Some important
characteristics of gifted children are :
Advanced logical thinking, questioning
and problem solving behaviour.
High speed in processing information.
Superior generalisation and discrimination ability.
Advanced level of original and creative
thinking.
High level of intrinsic motivation and
self-esteem.
Independent and non-conformist
thinking.
P reference for solitary academic
activities for long periods.
Performance on intelligence tests is not
the only measure for identifying the gifted.
Many other sources of information, such as
teachers judgment, school achievement
record, parents interviews, peer and selfratings, etc. can be used in combination
with intellectual assessment. To reach their
full potential, gifted children require special
attention and different educational
programmes beyond those provided to
normal children in regular classrooms.

These may include life enrichment

programmes that can sharpen childrens
skills in productive thinking, planning,
decision-making, and communication.
Types of Intelligence Tests
Intelligence tests are of several types. On
the basis of their administration procedure,
they can be categorised as individual or
group tests. They can also be classified as
either verbal or performance tests on the
basis of the nature of items used.
Depending upon the extent to which an
intelligence test favours one culture over
another, it can be judged as either culturefair or culture-biased. You can choose a
test depending on the purpose of your use.

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Individual or Group Tests

An individual intelligence test is one which

can be administered to one person at a
time. A group intelligence test can be
administered to several persons
simultaneously. Individual tests require
the test administrator to establish a
rapport with the subject and be sensitive
to her/his feelings, moods and expressions
during the testing session. Group tests,
however, do not allow an opportunity to be
familiar with the subjects feelings.
Individual tests allow people to answer
orally or in a written form or manipulate
objects as per the testers instructions.
Group tests generally seek written answers
usually in a multiple-choice format.
Verbal, Non-Verbal, or Performance Tests

An intelligence test may be fully verbal,

fully non-verbal or fully performancebased, or it may consist of a mixture of
items from each category. Verbal tests
require subjects to give verbal responses
either orally or in a written form. Therefore,
verbal tests can be administered only to
literate people. The non-verbal tests use

Chapter 1 Variations in Psychological Attributes

13

pictures or illustrations as test items.

Ravens Progressive Matrices (RPM) Test is
an example of a non-verbal test. In this
test, the subject examines an incomplete
pattern and chooses a figure from the
alternatives that will complete the pattern.
A specimen item from RPM is given in
Figure 1.3.

is asked to arrange the blocks within a

time period to produce a given design. A
major advantage of performance tests is
that they can be easily administered to
persons from different cultures.
Culture-Fair or Culture-Biased Tests
Intelligence tests can be culture-fair or
culture-biased. Many intelligence tests
show a bias to the culture in which they
are developed. Tests developed in America
and Europe represent an urban and
middle class cultural ethos. Hence,
educated middle class white subjects
generally perform well on those tests. The
items do not respect the cultural
perspectives of Asia and Africa. The norms
for these tests are also drawn from western
cultural groups. You may be already
familiar with the concept of norms
discussed in Class XI.
It is nearly impossible to design a test
that can be applied equally meaningfully in
all cultures. Psychologists have tried to
develop tests that are culture-fair or
culturally appropriate, i.e. one that does not
discriminate against individuals belonging
to different cultures. In such tests, items
are constructed in a manner that they

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Fig.1.3 : An Item fr om Ravens Progressive

Matrices Test

Performance tests require subjects to

manipulate objects and other materials to
perform a task. Written language is not
necessary for answering the items. For
example, Kohs Block Design Test contains
a number of wooden blocks. The subject

Box
1.1

Some Misuses of Intelligence Tests

You might have learnt by now that intelligence tests serve many useful purposes such as
selection, counselling, guidance, self-analysis, and diagnosis. Unless used by a trained
investigator, they may be misused either intentionally or unintentionally. Some of the illeffects of intelligence testing by naive testers ar e:
Poor performance on a test may attach a stigma to children and thereby adversely
affect their performance and self-respect.
The tests may invite discriminating practices from parents, teachers and elders in the
society.
Administering a test biased in favour of the middle class and higher class populations
may underestimate the IQ of children coming from disadvantaged sections of the society.
Intelligence tests do not capture creative potentialities and practical side of intelligence,
and they also do not relate much to success in life. Intelligence can be a potential factor
for achievement in various spheres of life.
It is suggested that one should guard against erroneous practices associated with
intelligence tests and take the help of trained psychologists to analyse an individuals
strengths and weaknesses.

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assess experiences common to all cultures

or have questions in which language usage
is not required. Non-verbal and
performance tests help reduce the cultural
bias usually associated with verbal tests.
Intelligence Testing in India
S.M. Mohsin made a pioneering attempt in
constructing an intelligence test in Hindi

(NCERT) has documented Indian tests.

Critical reviews of Indian tests are
published in the form of handbooks.
NLEPT has brought out the handbooks in
the area of intelligence, aptitude,
personality, attitudes, and interests.
Table 1.2 lists some tests developed in
India. Among these, Bhatias Battery of
Performance Tests is quite popular.

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Table 1.2 : Some Tests Developed in India

Verbal

Perfor mance

CIE Verbal Group T est of Intelligence by

Uday Shankar

CIE Non-verbal Group Test of Intelligence

Bhatias Battery of Performance Tests

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Group Test of General Mental Ability by

S. Jalota

Group Test of Intelligence by Prayag Mehta

The Bihar Test of Intelligence by S.M. Mohsin

Group Test of Intelligence by Bureau of

Psychology, Allahabad

Indian Adaptation of Stanford-Binet Test

(Third Edition) by S.K. Kulshrestha

Test of General Mental Ability (Hindi) by

M.C. Joshi.

in the 1930s. C.H. Rice attempted to

standardise Binets test in Urdu and
Punjabi. At about the same time,
Mahalanobis attempted to standardise
Binets test in Bengali. Attempts were also
made by Indian researchers to develop
Indian norms for some western tests
including RPM, WAIS, Alexanders
Passalong, Cube Construction, and Kohs
Block Design. Long and Mehta prepared a
Mental Measurement Handbook listing out
103 tests of intelligence in India that were
available in various languages. Since then,
a number of tests have either been
developed or adapted from western
cultures. The National Library of
Educational and Psychological Tests
(NLEPT) at the National Council of
Educational Research and Training

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Draw-a-Man Test by Pramila Pathak

Adaptation of Wechsler Adult Per formance

Intelligence Scale by R. Ramalingaswamy

CULTURE

AND

INTELLIGENCE

A major characteristic of intelligence is that

it helps individuals to adapt to their
environment. The cultural environment
provides a context for intelligence to
develop. Vygotsky, a Russian psychologist,
has argued that culture provides a social
context in which people live, grow, and
understand the world around them. For
example, in less technologically developed
societies, social and emotional skills in
relating to people are valued, while in
technologically advanced societies,
personal achievement founded on abilities
of reasoning and judgment is considered
to represent intelligence.
From your previous reading you know
that culture is a collective system

Chapter 1 Variations in Psychological Attributes

15

of customs, beliefs, attitudes, and

achievements in art and literature. A
persons intelligence is likely to be tuned
by these cultural parameters. Many
theorists have regarded intelligence as
attributes specific to the person without
regard to their cultural background. The
unique features of culture now find some
representation in theories of intelligence.
Sternbergs notion of contextual or
practical intelligence implies that
intelligence is a product of culture.
Vygotsky also believed that cultures, like
individuals, have a life of their own; they
grow and change, and in the process
specify what will be the end-product of
successful intellectual development.
According to him, while elementary mental
functions (e.g., crying, attending to
mothers voice, sensitivity to smells,
walking, and running) are universal, the
manner in which higher mental functions
such as problem solving and thinking
operate are largely culture-produced.
T echnologically advanced societies
adopt child rearing practices that foster
skills of generalisation and abstraction,
speed, minimal moves, and mental
manipulation among children. These
societies promote a type of behaviour,
which can be called technological
intelligence. In these societies, persons
are well-versed in skills of attention,
observation, analysis, performance, speed,
and achievement orientation. Intelligence
tests developed in western cultures look
precisely for these skills in an individual.
Technological intelligence is not so
valued in many Asian and African
societies. The qualities and skills regarded
as intelligent actions in non-western
cultures are sharply different, though the
boundaries are gradually vanishing under
the influence of western cultures. In
addition to cognitive competence that is
very specific to the individual, the nonwestern cultures look for skills to relate to

others in the society. Some non-western

societies value self-reflection and
collectivistic orientation as opposed to
personal achievement and individualistic
orientation.
Intelligence in the Indian Tradition
Contrary to technological intelligence,
intelligence in the Indian tradition can be
termed as integral intelligence, which
gives emphasis on connectivity with the
social and world environment. Indian
thinkers view intelligence from a holistic
perspective where equal attention is paid
to cognitive and non-cognitive processes as
well as their integration.
The Sanskrit word buddhi which is
often used to represent intelligence is far
more pervasive in scope than the western
concept of intelligence. Buddhi, according
to J.P. Das, includes such skills as mental
effort, determined action, feelings, and
opinions along with cognitive competence
such as knowledge, discrimination, and
understanding. Among other things,
buddhi is the knowledge of ones own self
based on conscience, will and desire. Thus,
the notion of buddhi has affective and
motivational components besides a strong
cognitive component. Unlike the western
views, which primarily focus on cognitive
parameters, the following competencies are
identified as facets of intelligence in the
Indian tradition :
Cognitive capacity (sensitivity to
context, understanding, discrimination,
p roblem solving, and ef fective
communication).
Social competence (respect for social
order, commitment to elders, the
young and the needy, concern
about others, recognising others
perspectives).
Emotional
competence
(selfr egulation and self-monitoring of
emotions, honesty, politeness, good
conduct, and self-evaluation).

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Entrepreneurial
competence
(commitment, persistence, patience,
hard work, vigilance, and goal-directed
behaviours).

EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE
The notion of emotional intelligence
broadens the concept of intelligence
beyond the intellectual sphere/domain and
considers that intelligence includes
emotions. You may note that it builds on
the concept of intelligence in the Indian
tradition. Emotional intelligence is a set
of skills that underlie accurate appraisal,
expression, and regulation of emotions. It
is the feeling side of intelligence. A good IQ
and scholastic record is not enough to be
successful in life. You may find many
people who are academically talented, but
are unsuccessful in their own life. They
experience problems in family, workplace
and interpersonal relationships. What do
they lack? Some psychologists believe that
the source of their difficulty may be a lack
of emotional intelligence. This concept was
first introduced by Salovey and Mayer who
considered emotional intelligence as the
ability to monitor ones own and others
emotions, to discriminate among them, and
to use the information to guide ones
thinking and actions. Emotional Quotient
(EQ) is used to express emotional
intelligence in the same way as IQ is used
to express intelligence.
In simple terms, emotional intelligence
refers to the ability to process emotional

information accurately and efficiently. To

know the characteristics of persons who
are high on emotional intelligence, read
Box 1.2.
Emotional intelligence is receiving
increasing attention of educators for
dealing with students who are affected by
stresses and challenges of the outside
world. Programmes aimed at improving
students emotional intelligence have
beneficial ef fects on their academic
achievement. They encourage cooperative
behaviour and reduce their antisocial
activities. These programmes are very
useful in preparing students to face the
challenges of life outside the classroom.

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SPECIAL ABILITIES

Aptitude : Nature and Measurement

By now you have learnt enough about

intelligence. You may recall that
intelligence tests assess a general mental
ability. Aptitude refers to special abilities
in a particular field of activity. It is a
combination of characteristics that indicates
an individuals capacity to acquire some
specific knowledge or skill after training. We
assess aptitude with the help of selected
tests. The knowledge of aptitude can help
us to predict an individuals future
performance.
While
assessing
intelligence,
psychologists often found that people with
similar intelligence differed widely in
acquiring certain knowledge or skills. You

Characteristics of Emotionally Intelligent Persons

Box
1.2

Perceive and be sensitive to your feelings and emotions.

Perceive and be sensitive to various types of emotions in others by noting their body
language, voice and tone, and facial expressions.
Relate your emotions to your thoughts so that you take them into account while solving
problems and taking decisions.
Understand the power ful influence of the nature and intensity of your emotions.
Contr ol and regulate your emotions and their expressions while dealing with self and
others to achieve har mony and peace.

Chapter 1 Variations in Psychological Attributes

17

may observe in your class that there are

certain areas in which some intelligent
students do not do well. When you have a
problem in mathematics, you may turn to
Aman for help, and with similar difficulties
in literature you may consult Avinash. You
may request Shabnam to sing for your
annual function, and may turn to John
when facing a problem with your bike.
These specific skills and abilities are called
aptitudes. With proper training these
abilities can be considerably enhanced.
In order to be successful in a particular
field, a person must have both aptitude
and interest. Interest is a preference for
a particular activity; aptitude is the
potentiality to perform that activity. A
person may be interested in a particular
job or activity, but may not have the
aptitude for it. Similarly, a person may
have the potentiality for performing a job,
but may not be interested in doing that.
In both cases, the outcome will not be
satisfactory. A student with high
mechanical aptitude and strong interest in
engineering is more likely to be a
successful mechanical engineer.
Aptitude tests are available in two
forms: independent (specialised) aptitude
tests and multiple (generalised) aptitude
tests. Clerical Aptitude, Mechanical
Aptitude, Numerical Aptitude, and Typing
Aptitude are independent aptitude tests.
Multiple Aptitude Tests exist in the form
of test batteries, which measure aptitude
in several separate but homogeneous
areas. Differential Aptitude Tests (DAT),
the General Aptitude Tests Battery (GATB),
and the Ar med Services Vocational
Aptitude Battery (ASVAB) are well-known
aptitude test batteries. Among these,
DAT is most commonly used in
educational settings. It consists of 8
independent subtests: (i) Verbal Reasoning,
(ii) Numerical Reasoning, (iii) Abstract
Reasoning, (iv) Clerical Speed and
Accuracy, (v) Mechanical Reasoning,

(vi) Space Relations, (vii) Spelling, and

(viii) Language Usage. J.M. Ojha has
developed an Indian adaptation of DAT.
Several other aptitude tests have been
developed in India for measuring scientific,
scholastic, literary, clerical, and teaching
aptitudes.

CREATIVITY
In the foregoing sections, you have read
that there are variations in psychological
attributes like intelligence, aptitude,
personality and so on. Here, you will learn
that there are differences in the potential
for creativity across individuals and the
manner in which creativity is expressed.
Some are highly creative and others are not
so creative. Some may express creativity in
writing, still others in dance, music, poetry,
science and so on. Manifestations of
creativity can be observed in a novel
solution to a problem, an invention,
composition of a poem, painting, new
chemical process, an innovation in law, a
breakthrough in preventing a disease and
the like. Despite differences, one common
element among these is the production of
something new and unique.
We generally think of creativity in terms
of creative persons like Tagore, Einstein,
C.V. Raman, Ramanujan etc. who have
made outstanding contributions in
different spheres. In recent years, our
understanding of creativity has broadened.
Creativity is not just limited to a selected
few the artist, the scientist, the poet or
the inventor. An ordinary individual who is
engaged in simple occupations like pottery,
carpentry, cooking, etc. can also be
creative. However, it has been said that
they are not working at the same level of
creativity as an eminent scientist or a
writer. Hence, we can say that individuals
vary in terms of the level and the areas in
which they exhibit creativity and that all
may not be operating at the same level.

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Einsteins theory of relativity is an

example of the highest level of creativity
which implies bringing out altogether
new ideas, facts, theory, or a product.
Another level of creativity is working on
what has already been established
earlier by way of modifications, by putting
things in new perspectives or to new use.
Research literature suggests that
children begin to develop their imagination
during the early years of childhood but
they express creativity mostly through
physical activities and in non-verbal ways.
When language and intellectual functions
are fully developed and store of knowledge
is adequately available, creativity is
expressed through verbal modes too. Those
who are outstanding in their creativity may
give an indication about the direction in
which their creativity lies through their
self-chosen activities. In some cases,
however, opportunities need to be provided
before they can manifest their hidden
potential for creativity.
How do we explain variations in the
potential for creativity? As in the case of
other mental and physical characteristics,
such variations can be attributed to the
complex interaction of heredity and
environment. There is no disagreement
that creativity is determined by both
heredity and environment. Limits of the
creative potential are set by heredity,
environmental factors stimulate the
development of creativity. How much of the
creative potential can be realised, when
and in what specific form and direction is
largely determined by environmental
factors such as motivation, commitment,
family support, peer influences, training
opportunities, etc. Although no amount of
training can transform an average person
to the level of Tagore, Shakespeare, etc.
but it is also true that every individual can
raise her/his level of creative potential
beyond its present level. In this context,

you have already read in Class XI about

strategies to enhance creativity.
Creativity and Intelligence
One important debate in understanding
the variations in creativity has been the
relationship of creativity with intelligence.
Let us take an example of two students
in a class. Sunita is regarded by her
teachers as an excellent student. She does
her work on time, scores the highest
grades in her class, listens to instructions
with care, grasps quickly, reproduces
accurately but she rarely comes out with
ideas which are her own. Rita is another
student who is just average in her studies
and has not achieved high grades
consistently. She prefers to learn on her
own. She improvises new ways of helping
her mother at home and comes up with
new ways of doing her work and
assignments. The former is considered to
be more intelligent and the latter as more
creative. Thus, a person who has the
ability to learn faster and reproduce
accurately may be considered intelligent
more than creative unless s/he devises
new ways of learning and doing.
T erman, in the 1920s, found that
persons with high IQ were not necessarily
creative. At the same time, creative ideas
could come from persons who did not have
a very high IQ. Other researches have
shown that not even one of those identified
as gifted, followed up throughout their
adult life, had become well-known for
creativity in some field. Researchers have
also found that both high and low level of
creativity can be found in highly intelligent
children and also children of average
intelligence. The same person, thus, can be
creative as well as intelligent but it is not
necessary that intelligent ones, in the
conventional sense, must be creative.
Intelligence, therefore, by itself does not
ensure creativity.

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Researchers have found that the

r elationship between creativity and
intelligence is positive. All creative acts
require some minimum ability to acquire
knowledge and capacity to comprehend,
retain, and retrieve. Creative writers, for
example, need facility in dealing with
language. The artist must understand the
effect that will be produced by a particular
technique of painting, a scientist must be
able to reason and so on. Hence, a certain
level of intelligence is required for creativity
but beyond that intelligence does not
correlate well with creativity. It can be
concluded that creativity can take many
forms and blends. Some may have more of
intellectual attributes, others may have
more of attributes associated with
creativity. But, what are the attributes of
a creative person? You may like to discuss
the attributes which are common to all
kinds of creative persons.
Creativity tests came into existence to
assess variations in terms of the potential
for creativity in contrast to intelligence.
A general feature of most of the
creativity tests is that they are open-ended.
They permit the person to think of different
answers to the questions or problems in
terms of her/his experiences, whatever
these may have been. These help the
individual to go in different directions.
There are no specified answers to
questions or problems in creativity tests.
Therefore, there is freedom to use ones
imagination and express it in original ways.
Creativity tests involve divergent thinking
and assess such abilities as ability to
produce a variety of ideas, i.e. ideas which

are off-the-beaten track, ability to see new

relationships between seemingly unrelated
things, ability to guess causes and
consequences, ability to put things in a
new context, etc. This is contrary to the
tests of intelligence which mostly involve
convergent thinking. In tests of
intelligence, the person has to think of the
right solution to the problem and the focus
is on assessing abilities such as memory,
logical reasoning, accuracy, perceptual
ability, and clear thinking. There is little
scope for the expression of spontaneity,
originality, and imagination.
Since expressions of creativity are
varied, tests have been developed using
different stimuli like words, figures, action,
and sounds. These tests measure general
creative thinking abilities like ability to
think of a variety of ideas on a given topic/
situation, alternative ways of looking at
things, problems or situations, to guess
causes and consequences, to think of
unusual ideas to improve and to use
common objects, ask unusual questions
and so on. A few investigators have also
developed tests of creativity in different
areas such as literary creativity, scientific
creativity, mathematical creativity, etc.
Some of the famous psychologists who
have developed creativity tests are
Guilford, Torrance, Khatena, Wallach and
Kogan, Paramesh, Baqer Mehdi, and Passi.
Each test has a standardised procedure, a
complete set of manual, and interpretation
guide. These can be used only after
extensive training in administration and
interpretation of test scores.

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Key Terms

Aptitude, Aptitude tests, Case study, Cognitive assessment system, Componential intelligence, Contextual
intelligence, Creativity, Emotional intelligence, Cultur e-fair test, Experiential intelligence, g-factor,
Individual differences, Intellectual giftedness, Intelligence, Intelligence tests, Intelligence quotient (IQ),
Interest, Interview, Mental age (MA), Mental r etardation, Observational method, Planning, Psychological
test, Simultaneous processing, Situationism, Successive processing, Values.
20

Psychology

Individuals vary in their physical and psychological characteristics. Individual

differences refer to distinctiveness and variations in peoples characteristics and
behaviour patterns.
A wide variety of personal attributes such as intelligence, aptitude, interests,
personality, and values can be assessed. Psychologists assess these attributes
through psychological tests, interviews, case studies, observations, and self-reports.
The term intelligence refers to an individuals capacity to understand the world,
think rationally, and use resources effectively to meet the demands of life. Intellectual
development is the product of a complex interplay of hereditary factors (nature), and
environmental conditions (nurture).
The psychometric approaches to intelligence lay emphasis on studying intelligence
as a constellation of abilities, expressed in quantitative terms such as IQ. The more
recent theories r epresenting infor mation-processing approaches, e.g. Sternbergs
triarchic theory and Dass PASS model describe the processes underlying intelligent
behaviour. Howard Gardner suggests that there are eight different kinds of intelligence.
Intelligence is assessed with the help of specially designed tests. Intelligence tests
may be of verbal or perfor mance type; can be administered individually or in groups;
and may be culturally-biased or culturally-fair. At the two extremes of intelligence
are the intellectually deficient persons and the intellectually gifted.
Culture provides a context for intellectual development. Western culture promotes
technological intelligence based on skills of analysis, perfor mance, speed, and
achievement orientation. In contrast, non-western cultures value self-reflection, social
and emotional competence as signs of intelligent behaviour. Indian culture promotes
integral intelligence that emphasises connectivity with people and the larger social
world.
Emotional intelligence involves the ability to perceive and manage ones and others
feelings and emotions; to motivate oneself and restrain ones impulses; and to handle
interpersonal relationships effectively.
Aptitude refers to an individuals potential for acquiring some specific skills. Aptitude
tests predict what an individual will be able to do given proper training and
environment.
Creativity is the ability to produce ideas, objects, or problem solutions that are novel,
appropriate and useful. Certain level of intelligence is necessary to be creative, but a
high level of intelligence, however, does not ensure that a person would certainly be
creative.

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Review Questions

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1. How do psychologists characterise and define intelligence?

2. To what extent is our intelligence the r esult of heredity (nature) and environment
(nurture)? Discuss.
3. Explain briefly the multiple intelligences identified by Gardner.
4. How does the triar chic theory help us to understand intelligence?
5. Any intellectual activity involves the independent functioning of thr ee neurological
systems. Explain with refer ence to PASS model.
6. Are there cultural differences in the conceptualisation of intelligence?
7. What is IQ? How do psychologists classify people on the basis of their IQ scores?
8. How can you dif ferentiate between verbal and per formance tests of intelligence?
9. All persons do not have the same intellectual capacity. How do individuals vary in
their intellectual ability? Explain.
10. Which of the two, IQ or EQ, do you think would be mor e related to success in life
and why?
11. How is aptitude different from interest and intelligence? How is aptitude measured?
12. How is cr eativity related to intelligence?

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Chapter 1 Variations in Psychological Attributes

21

Project
Ideas

1. Observe and interview 5 persons in your neighbourhood in order to see how they differ
from each other in terms of certain psychological attributes. Cover all the five domains.
Prepare a psychological profile of each person and compare.
2. Select 5 vocations and gather information about the nature of work done by people in
these vocations. Also analyse these vocations in terms of the types of psychological
attributes required for successful performance. Write a report.

Weblinks
http://www.indiana.edu/~intell/anastasi.shtml
http://www.chiron.valdosta.edu/whuitt/col/cogsys/intell.html
http://www.humandimensions.org/emotion.htm
http://www.emotionaliq.com/Gdefault.htm
http://edweb.gsn.org/edref.mi.intro.html
http://www.talentsmart.com
http://www.kent.ac.uk/career/psychotests.com

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Pedagogical Hints

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22

Psychology

1. To introduce the topic, teacher can

initiate discussion on psychological
constructs such as intelligence,
personality, aptitude, values, etc.
This would serve to point out the
difficulty in arriving at one single,
universal explanation of these
constructs.
2. T eacher should draw from the
experiences of the students to
intr oduce the differ ent psychological attributes discussed in the
chapter.
3. Some sample items of various tests
(to be collected by the teacher) can
be given to students to generate
their interest.
4. Encourage students to complete the
activities and also to design
activities on their own either
individually or in groups. Initiate
discussion in the class on
observations made by students on
completion of the activities.
5. Students should be encouraged to
relate the concepts to their r eal-life
experiences.