SOCIAL POLICY

Actions and policies of government can have profound effects on

family

Abolishing the family - after Russia Revolution (1917) gov

wanted to destroy pre-revolutionary family so they changed the
laws to make divorce and abortion more accessibility. Caused
civil war, famine and threat of war so they had to change the
policy.
China's one child policy - couples who did this got extra benefits
and education priority and couples who didn't had to pay a fine.
Caused infanticide and abortion of girls.
Nazi Family Policy - in 1930s Germany state restricted abortion
and contraception to make racially pure breed - sterilised over
300000 disabled people
Divorce only by wealthy - since 1857 marriages was viewed as
sacred, so divorce was only made available by rich causing
empty shell marriages

STATE POLICIES WHICH ENOCOURAGE HAVING CHILDREN

1943 BEVERIDGE REPORT led to set up of Welfare State in 1948,

including the NHS benefits system paid for through National
Insurance
1989 CHILDREN'S ACT - prioritised the needs of children and the
rights of children to feel safe and secure
2003 PATERNITY LEAVE - a father can have 2 weeks paid leave
work when his child is born
2005 ADOPTION AND CHILDREN ACT - allows unmarried
cohabiting couples, both heterosexual and homosexual, to
adopt

STATE POLICIES WHICH REJECT HAVING CHILDREN

1961 CONTRACEPTIVE PILL -available in UK to married woman

(unmarried women in 1964)
1967 ABORTION - legal in uk
1974 CONTRACEPTION AVAILABLE FREE OF CHARGE
1984 MATRIMONAIL AND FAMILY PROCEEDINGS ACT - allowed
divorce after one year of marriage.

CURRENT UK POLICIES

PATERNITY LEAVE - 2002 dads allowed 2 weeks off,

involved more with children
CHILD BENEFIT ONLY FOR LOW EARNING - 2013 to help
economy, may drive mothers back to work as families with
one earner are penalised
NHS FREE FOR ALL - 1947 to improve national health,
longer life span, reduced birth rate as child mortality
decreases
ABSENT PARENTS PAY FOR CHILD - 1993 to make men
more responsible for children and to help single parents
STATE BENEFITS CAPPED - planned for 2013 - encourage
people back to work and discourage those who lack
money to have lots of kids
RAX INCENTIVES FOR MARRIED COUPLES - to encourage
marriage to create more stable families
SAME SEX COUPLES ALLOWED TO ADOPT - implemented in

STATE POLICIES WHICH ENOCOURAGE HETEROSEXUALITY

1988 CLAUSE 28 LAW - bans promotion of homosexuality

in schools as normal family relationship
1998 'SUPPORTING FAMILIES' - Labour stated that
government saw marriage as the best basis for family life
and to raise children

STATE POLICIES WHICH ACCEPT HOMOSEXULAITY

2001 - age of sexual consent for homosexual realtionships

is dropped from 18 to 16
2003 CLAUSE 28 LAW - banned promotion of
homosexuality in schools as a normal family was dropped
2005 INTRODUCTION OF CIVIL PARTNERSHIPS
2013 SAME SEX MARRIAGE - politicians vote in favour of
same sex marriage but no law has been passed on this yet

STATE POLICIES WHICH ENOCOURAGE MARRIED COUPLES

1998 'SUPPORTING FAMILIES' - Labour stated that government

saw marriage as the best basis for family life and to raise
children
2003 CHILD TAX CREDIT - policy which provides families where
both partners are in paid employment but on low pay, with tax
relief on money paid for childcare
2005 INTORDUCTION OF CIVIL PARTNERSHIPS

STATE POLICIES WHICH REJECT MARRIED COUPLES

1964 CONTRACEPTIVE PILL MADE AVAILABLE FOR UNMARRIED

WOMAN - encourages sex before marriage
1967 ABORTION LEGALISED
1984 MATRIMONIAL AND FAMILY PROCEEDINGS ACT - allowed
divorce after one year of marriage
1996 FAMILY LAW ACT - allowed divorce if marriage has broken
down after much thought
2005 ADOPTION ACT

STATE POLICIES WHICH ENOCOURAGE HAVING CHILDREN

1943 BEVERIDGE REPORT led to set up of Welfare State in 1948,

including the NHS benefits system paid for through National
Insurance
1989 CHILDREN'S ACT - prioritised the needs of children and the
rights of children to feel safe and secure
2003 PATERNITY LEAVE - a father can have 2 weeks paid leave
work when his child is born
2005 ADOPTION AND CHILDREN ACT - allows unmarried
cohabiting couples, both heterosexual and homosexual, to
adopt

STATE POLICIES WHICH REJECT HAVING CHILDREN

1961 CONTRACEPTIVE PILL -available in UK to married woman

(unmarried women in 1964)
1967 ABORTION - legal in uk
1974 CONTRACEPTION AVAILABLE FREE OF CHARGE
1984 MATRIMONAIL AND FAMILY PROCEEDINGS ACT - allowed
divorce after one year of marriage.

STATE POLICIES WHICH REJECT MAN AS BREADWINNER

1975 SEX DISCRIMINATION ACT - Job could not be given to

someone purely on the grounds of their sex
1975 EQUAL PAY ACT - if man and woman were doing the
same job they had to be paid the same wage

STATE POLICIES WHICH REJECT WOMAN AS HOUSEMAKER

1961
1967
1974
1975
1975
2010

CONTRACEPTIVE PILL
ABORTION LEGALISED
CONTRACEPTION MADE FREE OF CHARGE
DISCRIMIATION ACT
EQUAL PAY ACT
FATHERS PATERNITY LEAVE

STATE POLICIES WHICH ENOCOURAGE HETEROSEXUALITY

1988 CLAUSE 28 LAW - bans promotion of homosexuality

in schools as normal family relationship
1998 'SUPPORTING FAMILIES' - Labour stated that
government saw marriage as the best basis for family life
and to raise children

STATE POLICIES WHICH ACCEPT HOMOSEXULAITY

2001 - age of sexual consent for homosexual realtionships

is dropped from 18 to 16
2003 CLAUSE 28 LAW - banned promotion of
homosexuality in schools as a normal family was dropped
2005 INTRODUCTION OF CIVIL PARTNERSHIPS
2013 SAME SEX MARRIAGE - politicians vote in favour of
same sex marriage but no law has been passed on this yet

SOCIALOGICAL RESEARCH AND VIEWS ON FAMILY DIVERSITY

ROBERT AND RHONA RAPOPORT

(1982)

were among the first to identify changes taking place

in UK families.
argued that nuclear family was no longer family type
and that range of alt families and households were
increasing in size esp reconstituted and single-parent
they were optimistic about these changes
argue there is no 'right family' - all should be accepted

more recent research - decline of conventional family

European trend not just in the UK

FAMILY DIVERISTY AND TRENDS

SOCIAL CLASS AND FAMILY DIVERSITY

1. Middle class parents may use nannies whereas

WC are more likely to use family or friends
2. WC parents more likely to use physical
punishments like smacking whereas middle class
are more likely to use verbal punishments
3. Children from MC are more likely to attend feepaying school and boarding schools

SOCIALOGICAL RESEARCH AND VIEWS ON FAMILY DIVERSITY

ROBERT CHESTER

Looked at diversity and family life cycle

argues that nuclear family remains most
typical
single-parent families have come from
nuclear families and will remarry and
become nuclear families again
singletons will eventually marry or have
been married
even cohabiting couples will marry the
person they are with
extent of family diversity has been
exaggerated

FAMILY DIVERISTY AND TRENDS - QUESTIONS

1. What do sociologists mean by the term

family diversity?
2. What is meant by the term family life cycle?
3. Name two social class differences that could
exist between families?

Recognition that there are a range of different

family types in contemporary society which vary
in demographic and structural dimensions.
The types of families and households an individual
is likely to experience in their lifetime
Differences in discipline and differences in
babysitters

SOCIALOGICAL RESEARCH AND VIEWS ON FAMILY DIVERSITY

BEANPOLE FAMILIES

nuclear family with one or two children who

maintain regular contact with grandparents
Grandparents are increasingly being used to
look after grand children

ETHNIC DIFFERENCES

ASIAN FAMILIES

1/4 of Asian households are extended

Marriage tends to be arranged and divorce
is uncommon
3/4 of Asian families include children
compared to 1/3 of white families

ETHNIC DIFFERENCES

AFRICAN-CARRIABEAN FAMILIES

more likely to be single parent - 50%

1. legacy of slave trade - families often split
2. Black unemployment - linked to male
underachievement at school
3. Traditionally woman is in charge of
household

SINGLE PARENT FAMILIES

REASONS FOR GROWTH

Divorce - was made cheaper and easier in

UK in early 1970s
Social acceptance - less stigma to being
single parent - linked to secularisation and
media also portrays it in better light
Welfare state - New Right argue it's too easy
to be single parent with state supporting
the mother with range of benefits
Women not marrying - 40% of all lone
parents
Changing attitudes to marriage

SINGLE PARENT FAMILIES

WHY ARE SINGLE-PARENT

FAMILIES NORMALLY HEADED BY
WOMEN?

1. Women more likely to be given custody

2. Men have better-paid jobs and so are more
reluctant to give it up to become single
parent
3. Men reluctant to give up work for fear of
threatening their masculinity
4. More socially accepted for women to look
after children
5. Women typically better nurturers

SINGLE PARENT FAMILIES

CRITICAL VIEWS ON SINGLEPARENT FAMILIES

FUNCTIONALIST AND NEW RIGHT - argue

that cannot provide adequate socialisation
and two parents are needed - female and
male role
Single parents more likely to be dependent
on welfare state and not work - argue this is
not fair on people who work and pay taxes
McLanahan and Booth indicate children in
single-parent families do less well at school
compared to children from nuclear families

SINGLE PARENT FAMILIES

CRITICAL VIEWS

levels of benefits undermine the traditional

family by discouraging men from working to
support their families, and they encourage a
dependency culture of living off welfare
benefits.
However, there is little or no evidence that loneparent families are part of a dependency
culture, nor that their children are more likely
to be delinquent than those brought-up in a twoparent family of the same social class.

SINGLE PARENT FAMILIES

CRITICAL VIEWS ON SINGLEPARENT FAMILIES

FUNCTIONALIST AND NEW RIGHT - argue

that cannot provide adequate socialisation
and two parents are needed - female and
male role
Single parents more likely to be dependent
on welfare state and not work - argue this is
not fair on people who work and pay taxes
McLanahan and Booth indicate children in
single-parent families do less well at school
compared to children from nuclear families

Theories of the family

- Family is universal institution and performs

major func
1. Sexual
a. sexual relations only take place in
socially approved context
b. regulates sexual relationships
2. Reproduction
a. gives stabilisation for reprod and
rearing of children
3. Socialisation
4. Economic
a. provide shelter and safety for
members

MURDOCK

.
Theories of the family

TWO VITAL FUNCTIONS

PARSONS

Primary socialisation
o children taught values and beliefs
ready for society
Stabilisation of adult personality
o family gives individual place where he
or she can relax, escape stress and feel
emotionally secure etc.

Theories of the family

CRITICISMS OF FUNCTIONALIST

o marx and fem criticised 'rose-tinted'

consensus view that family meets needs of
wider society
o theory rejects abuse and exploitations
o Parson's theory too determinists - ignored fact
that children could resist values being taught
to them
.

Theories of family

PARSONS THEORY OF FIT

argues dominant structure of family best suit

needs of economy
Nuclear families fit in industrial economy
because they are geographically mobile and
not reliant on ext kin
only nuclear could provide achievement
orientated an geographically mobile workforce
required by modern economies
WILMOTT AND YOUNG - pre-indust family tended
to be nuclear not extend as pars claims
TAMARA HAREVEN - extend family was best
equipped to meet needs of indust society

Theories of the family

OVERALL EVALUATION OF
FUNCTIONALIST

Theories of family

o analyses tend to be based on middle class

and American versions of family - neglect
ethnicity, social class and religion
o Parsons wrote in 1950s - uk has since become
multi-cultural
o Ignore dark sides of family
o interpretivists argue they ignore what family
means for individuals

need for monogamy arose and family was

created with rise of private property inheritance system
family serves economy and exploits women

MARXIST: EAGLES
EVALUATION
o historically inaccurate and unlikely nuclear
fam emerged from private property
o Parsons rejects an says family socialises
and stabalises

Theories of the family

Family serves capitalism by offering emotional

security for oppressive work
o WC man king of his own castle
o women as housewife - workers cared for

MARXIST: ZARETSKY

Theories of family

MARXIST: ALTHUSSER

Serving functions of ideological state

apparatus by socialising pro-capitalist
ideology - gender roles, heterosexual
marriage, division of labour etc.
o FEMINIST argue that they ignores that
family ideology supports patriarchy

Theories of the family

EVALUATION OF MARXIST

Theories of family

MARXIST FEMINIST

many reject view of capitalism being unjust

emphais in social class and capitalism
undermines importance of gender inequalities
func argue that marx ignore benefits the
family has for its members
interpretivists - marx neglect meaning family
has for individuals - motherhood may be
fulfilling for some women

o nuclear family meets needs of captilism for reproduction

and maintenance of class and patriarchal inequality
o women look after men by satisfying physical, emotional
and sexual needs
o MARGERET BENSTON - women are 'the slaves if wage
slaves
o when men have a bad day at work they take their anger
out on their wives
o FRAN ASHLEY - women are takers of shit
o women give birth to next gen of workers by socializing
children to ruling class norms
o women used in job market as 'reserve army of labour' used in times of economic growth and pushed back into
home as housewives after
criticised for emphasis on capitalism - black fem argue
ignored racism
marx fem can be seen as dates as most women now work

Theories of the family

RADICAL FEMINISTS

Theories of family

EVALUATION OF RADICAL
FEMINISTS

KATE MILLET - modern societies and families

characterised by patriarchy - system of
subordination and domination
family is route of all women's oppression
family socialises children into trad role
Sexual division of labour in families exploit women domestic labour and childcare is unpaid increasing
dependence on men
DELPHY AND LEONARD - family as patriarchal
institution women do most work and men get most
benefit
Support family diversity esp single parent and gay
and supportive of divorce
'radical separatism' - men and women should live
apart "political lesbianism" hetero relationships are
like sleeping with enemy

o some would argue ideas are fated - fails to

consider recent trends e.g. feminisation of
workforce etc
o JENNY SOMMERVILLE - separatism unlikely
to work because of hetero attraction
o HAKIM argues women may choose domestic
roles
o FUNCTIONALIST argue they ignore real
benefits that family provides for its
members

Theories of the family

o
o
o
o

LIBERAL FEMINISTS

Theories of family

have optimistic view on family

focus on increased equality
emergence of 'new man' who takes on active role
and is in touch with 'feminine side'
believe we are moving towards greater equality
roles being shared more
criticised by radical fem - fail to challenge underlying
causes of women's oppression and for believing that
changes in laws or attitudes will be enough to bring
equality

OVERALL EVALUATION OF
FEMINISTS

o
o

fail to account for recent economic and social

changes - feminisation of economy, education and
success of females etc
tend to ignore positive aspects of family life ignore possibility women may enjoy being
housewife
tend to assume families are manipulated in some
way - POSTMODERNIST argue they ignore we may
have choice in creating family
INTERPRITIVISTS - neglect meaning families have
for individuals
different feminists criticise feminists for assuming
all women share same experiences e.g. black
feminists
NEW RIGHT argue children are suffering from
women working

Theories of the family

NEW RIGHT

Theories of family

CHARLES MURRAY (NEW RIGHT)

o conservative commentators
o most influential in UK in 1980s Thatcher Era
o Believe children need mother and father for
adequate socialisation
o argue single-parent families cost too much in welfare
benefits
o men should be breadwinners, women homemakers against cohabitation and divorce
o believe there was a 'golden age'
o 1960s and early 1970s beginning of sustained attack
on trad family
o FAMILIAL IDEOLOGY - set of ideas about what
constitutes an 'ideal family' preferred model trad.
family

wrote about emergence of underclass

increasing in UK

o New Rabble - long-term unemployed, danger to society,

children aren't socialised properly
o NEW VICTORIANS: responsible middle class who marry,
socialise children properly, pay taxes etc.

Theories of the family

EVALUATION OF NEW RIGHT

CHANGES WITHIN FAMILY

o group all single parent families together and criticise

them - don't acknowledge some nuclear families that
fail to socialize children properly
o feminists argue New Right have sexit views on
women and family can no longer survive on single
male wage
o if welfare benefits were cut the children would suffer

PARSONS (Functionalist)
o

nuclear family is uniquely suited to meeting

needs of modern society for geographically
and socially mobile workforce
Nuclear family with a division of labour
between husband and wife best suited to
perform functions effectively - expressive
and instrumental roles
Structural differentiation - now more
specialised social institutes e.g. educational
system and welfare so family really only
have two main functions - socialization and
stabilisation of adult personalities

CHANGES WITHIN FAMILY

o all members of family becoming more equal because

of

WILMOTT AND YOUNG

(SYMMETRICAL FAMILY)

CHANGES WITHIN FAMILY

BOTT

improved living standards

decline of extended family
improved status of women
weaker gender identities

o
2 TYPES OF ROLES
o SEGREGATED CONJUGAL ROLES separate roles, leisure activities - men
in pub, females limited leisure with
other families
o JOINT CONJUGAL ROLES - share task
and leisure time

CHANGES WITHIN FAMILY

EVALUATION

o RAPPORT AND RAPPORT - proved women still mainly

expected to deal with childcare and housework
o OAKLEY - found evidence of husbands help not being
symmetrical - 15% high in housework and 25% in
child care - claims because of their responsibilities
most housewives only work part time
o Most important decisions made by men - EDGELL
found women make less decisions such as food and
clothing

CHANGES WITHIN FAMILY - Division of labour

o

OAKLEY (Feminist)

family not symmetrical - amount men

do is exaggerated -15% high in housework
and 25% in child care - claims because of their
responsibilities most housewives only work part
time

CHANGES WITHIN FAMILY - Division of labour

WARDE AND HETHERINGTON

(Feminist)

o division of domestic tasks based on gender e.g.

women 30x more likely to have been last to have
done washing up whereas men more likely to have
washed the car
o Men only carry out female roles if the female is not
around. However, men do expect to do the fair share
of housework, now.

CHANGES WITHIN FAMILY - Division of labour

1.FUTURE FOUNDATIONS STUDY

2.FERRI AND SMITH
3. ELSTON

1.on average women spend 2+ hours a

day doing housework compared to 60
minutes for men
2.more common for women to take on
main responsibility for childcare
3. 400 couples both partners doctors 80% of female doctors reposted that
they took time off work to look after
their sick children compared to 2% of
male doctors

CHANGES WITHIN FAMILY - Division of labour

1.BURGHES AND BECK

2.SULLIVAN

1. suggest fathers are increasingly taking

active involvement in emotional side when
marriages break down and would like to
spend more time with their children, but are
prevented from doing so due to work
2. analysis of data collected over 25 years
found trend towards greater equality as
men did more domestic labour e.g. men
participating in traditional 'women' tasks
such as ironing

CHANGES WITHIN FAMILY - Impact of paid work

1.MAN-YEE KAN
2.SCHOR AND SILVER
3. GERSHUNNY

1.younger, better educated women did

less housework
2.'Death of housework role' - services
they had to produce are now massproduced e.g. ready meals put
working women at advantage
3. husband of working women still do
less unpaid and paid housework of
women. While women still have dualburden men seem to be doing more
and wives who worked full time did

CHANGES WITHIN FAMILY - Impact of paid work

1.
2.
3.

ARBER AND GINN

GREGSON AND LOWE
DUNCOMBE AND MARDSEN

o greater equality depends on social

class
o WCW can't afford to employ
domestic help and have to carry dual
burden and unpaid domestic work
o another element of women's
domestic work - 'emotional work.'
Argue dual burden is actually triple
burden as they have to do emotion
work to make relationship work

CHANGES WITHIN FAMILY - Impact of paid work

DUNNE

Little change in domestic division of

labour because of ingrained 'gender
scripts'
Different in lesbian couples which are
generally more equal
Supports RADICAL FEMINIST view of
political lesbianism - that women and
men should be seperated

CHANGES WITHIN FAMILY - Resources and decision

making

EDGELL

CHANGES WITHIN FAMILY - Recourses and decision

making

PAHL AND VOGLER

o More important decisions made by

men or jointly with men having last
say.
o Less important cantered around food
and clothing made by women due to
men earning more
Study could be outdated
Feminists argue not to do with
income but instead patriarchal
society

Contribution to family income affects

decision making within family
Increase in 'pooling when partners
have joint account - more common in
full-time working couples
However men still usually made major
financial decisions - allowance system

CHANGES WITHIN FAMILY

EVALUATION (GIDDENS)
o

GIDDENS - in recent decades, the

family and marriage have been
transformed by greater choice and
more equality between men and
women
so basis of family and marriage have
changed and couples are free to
define their relationships themselves
e.g. they can now choose to cohabit

CHANGES WITHIN FAMILY

EVALUATION (BECK)

live in 'risk society where tradition has

less influence and people have more
choice therefore they are aware of the
risk due to decision making involving
risk calculating
NEGOTIATED FAMILY as result of
gender equality which is more equal
than trad. family

DOMESTIC VIOLENCE

OVERVIEW

Common view that domestic

violence is behaviour of sick or
disturbed individuals and causes are
psychological rather than social
Challenged because Domestic
violence is far too widespread
BRITISH CRIME SURVEY - almost
sixth of all violent crime
MIRLEES-BLACK survey of 16000
people estimates about 6.6. million
domestic assaults a year

EXPLANATIONS FOR DOMESTIC

DOBASH AND DOBASH

argue patriarchal society still cultural

support for view that men have the
right to discipline wives
found one of the major motifs for
assault was husband's perception that
wife was not performing domestic
duties to his satisfaction
Societies acceptance of division of
labour leaves women vulnerable to this
study showed that many women are
economically dependent on men since

DOMESTIC VIOLENCE

DOBASH AND DOBASH (RAD

FEM INTERPRETATION)

Findings interpreted by radical

feminists to suggest widespread dom
violence is negative feature of
patriarchal society - preserves power
all men have over women
violence can often be due to man
feeling like authority is challenged
marriage legitimates dom violence
by giving men power

EXPLANATIONS FOR DOMESTIC

EVALUATION

ELLIOT - rejects feminist claim that all

men benefit from dom violence - not all
men are aggressive and most are
opposed to it
Rad fem fail to explain female violence
to children and male partners
o Vanessa George systematically
sexually abused children in nursery

DOMESTIC VIOLENCE

WILKINSON

Sees domestic violence as the result

of stress on family members caused
by social inequality
Argues that families on low incomes
or living into over crowded housing
are likely to experience higher levels
of stress
Stress reduces chances of
maintaining stable and caring
relationships and risk of violence

EXPLANATIONS FOR DOMESTIC

EVALUATION
(WILKINSON)

Findings show that not all people

are equally in danger of dom
violence
o People with less power, status
wealth often at greatest useful in showing how social
inequality has produced conflict
in fam
fails to explain why women are
commonly victims

DOMESTIC VIOLENCE

OFFICAL STATS PROBLEM

Women unwilling to report to police

o Yearnshire - women are likely to
suffer 35 assaults before
reporting
Police reluctant to act due to views
on family life being private and
individuals have freedom to leave
violent relationships

EXPLANATIONS FOR DOMESTIC

RADICAL FEMINISTS

MILLET AND FIRESTONE - society

patriarchal and men are the
enemy. Domestic violence
preserves power men have over
women and police force is male
dominated
ROBERSTON ELLIOT
MIRLEES BLACK

CHILDHOOD

MODERN WESTERN IDEA OF

CHILDHOOD

JANE PILCHER - most important feature of

childhood is separateness, child hood seen as
distinct life stage shown through:
Different laws regulating what
children can or can't do
Differences in dress
Product services esp for children
Idea of childhood as 'golden age' children
seen as vulnerable and in need of protection
from adult world
separate age-status not found in all societies STEPHEN WAGG because childhood is socially
constructed, not universal experience

THEORIES OF CHILDHOOD

1.WAGG,
2.ARIES
3. WILLMOT AND YOUNG

Childhood defined by society with

minimum ages and policies like
child act - African children do not
have as much of childhood as
they contribute to income
in middle ages childhood didn't
exist and children were mini
adults
Concept of childhood has
changed - child-centered

CHILDHOOD

1.PARSONS
2.COCKETT AND TRIPP
3.MURRAY
4.

HASLEY

1. Children are passive - seen not

heard
2. Children of divorces suffer from
low self-esteem, problems in
education, health and anti-social
behaviour
3. Children of single parents
running wild
4. Children of single parents die
younger

THEORIES OF CHILDHOOD

1.QURTROP
2.POSTMAN

childhood disappearing there are

more old people than young due
to falling birth rate
Childhood disappearing, children
wearing more grown up clothes
OPIE - argues childhood not
disappearing based on research
into games, rhymes and songs of
children's culture

CHILDHOOD

1.
2.

PALMER
DENZIN

5. TOXIC CHILDHOOD - rapid

technological and cultural
changes over past 25 years children consume in: junk food,
computer games, intensive
marketing, educational testing
6. UK's children socialized more by
TV than parents

HISTORICAL DIFFERENCES IN CHILDHOOD

PHILLIP ARIES

argued that in pre-industrial

society, children were ' little
adults' taking on adult
responsibility. Children would be
expected to help out in the
household as young as 7 and 8 households unit of production
In eyes of law children could be
seen as criminally responsible at
age of 7 and 8.

CHILDHOOD

PHILLIP ARIES CONT

argued two factors why society

did not regard children as objects
of love and devotion:
7. High infant mortality rate
8. Life very 'hand to mouth' children
had to work for unit to survive

HISTORICAL DIFFERENCES IN CHILDHOOD

ARIES (CHILDHOOD
CHANGE)

Little adults view remained up until

19th century - children freq being
employed to work in mines and
factories
19th vent - infant mortality began
to decrease due to improvement in
health and diet
MC started to change whereas WC
tended to still view children as
adults because they needed their
income for survival

CHILDHOOD

WHY HAS THE POSITION OF

CHILDREN CHANGED?

CHILDHOOD - MOP REVIEW

HAS POSITION OF
CHILDREN IMPROVED?

Lower infant mortality rates and smaller families more infants shriving meant that parents had fewer children
and made a greater financial and emotional investment in
them
Specialist knowledge about children's health e.g.
theories of child development stressed that children need
supervision and protection
Laws banning child labour from the 1940s onwards
changed children from economic assets to economic
liabilities, financially dependent on their parents
Compulsory schooling since 1880 has created a period of
dependency on the family and seperated children from adult
world of work
Children protection and welfare laws and agencies
emphasised children's vulnerability and made their welfare
and central concern
The idea of children's rights e.g. the Children Act (1989)
sees parents as having responsibilities towards their children
rather than rights

Mop argues that the position of children in

western societies has been steadily
improving and today is better than it has
ever been
Aries and shorter hold 'march of progress'
view. They argue that today's children are
more valued, better cared for, protected
and educated, enjoy better health and have
more rights
Children today are protected from harm and
exploitation by laws against child abuse and
child labour, the family has become childcentered, with parents investing a great

CHILDHOOD - CONFLICT VIEW

THE CONFLICT VIEW

CHILDHOOD - CONFLICT VIEW

INEQUALITIES AMONG
CHILDREN

Conflict sociologists argue that the

'march of progress' view f modern
childhood is based on false and
idealised image that ignores
important inequalities - criticised
on two grounds
1.
There are inequalities among
children in terms of opportunities
and risks they face
2.
Inequalities between children
and adults are greater than ever
Nationality differences:. 90% of the world's
low birth-weight babies are born in the 3rd
world
Gender differences between children - boys
are more likely to be allowed to cross or
cycle on roads, use buses, go out after dark
etc
Ethnic differences: study of 15-16 years
olds found Asian parents more likely than
other parents to be strict towards their
daughters
Class differences: poor mothers more likely
to have low birth-weight babies which may

CHILDHOOD - CONFLICT VIEW

CHILD LIBERATIONISTS - ADULTS AND

CHILDREN

Child liberationists see the need to free children from

adult control. Adult control takes number of forms:
Neglect and abuse
Controls over children's space - children told to
play in some areas and are forbidden in others
Controls over children's time - adults in modern
societies control children's daily routines,
including when they get up, eat, go to school, to
bed etc
Control over children's bodies - how they sit, walk,
run and what they wear etc
FIRESTONE - extensive care and protection are just new
forms of oppression e.g. being in paid work is not a
benefit to children but a form of inequality, subjecting

CHILDHOOD - CONFLICT VIEW

AGE PATRIARCHY

GITTINS - used the term to describe inequalities

between adults ad children. There is an age patriarchy
of adult domination that keep children subordinate e.g.
they exercise control over children's time and bodies
and child laws which prevent children from working
allows children to stay economically dependent
CATHY HUMPHREYS AND RACI THIARA - a quarter of the
200 women in their study left their abusing partner
because they feared for their children - which supports
Gittins' view that patriarchy oppresses children as well
as women
RESISTANCE - children may resist restricted status of
child by acting older e.g. by smoking, drinking etc.
HOCKEY AND JAMES say this shows children want to

CHILDHOOD - THE FUTURE OF CHIDHOOD

THE DISAPPEARANCE OF CHILDHOOD

CHILDHOOD - FUTURE OF CHILDHOOD

OPIE

(CRITICISM)

POSTMAN - argues childhood as we know it is

disappearing and children are becoming more
like adults - gaining similar rights and acting in
similar ways. He blames this on television
culture replacing print culture
In print culture children lacked literacy skills
needed to access information and therefore
knowledge about sex, money, violence,
illness, death and other 'adult' themes could
be kept secret from them
Television culture makes information
available to adults and children alike. The
boundary between adulthood and childhood

argues that childhood is not

disappearing. Based on lifetime of
research into children's games, rhymes
and songs she argues that there is
strong evidence of the continued
existence of a separate children's
culture

These findings contradict Postman's

claim that children's own unsupervised
games are dying out and that western
childhood is not disappearing, but

CHILDHOOD - THE FUTURE OF CHIDHOOD

TOXIC CHILDHOOD

CHILDHOOD - FUTURE OF CHILDHOOD

CHANGE OR CONTINUITY?

PALMER - argues that rapid technological

and cultural changes are damaging to
children's development e.g. junk food,
computer games, intensive marketing to
children, testing in education, long hours
worked by parents and as a result children
are deprived of a genuine childhood
JULIE MARGO AND MIKE DIXON - report that
UK youth are near the top of the
international league tables for obesity, selfharm, drug and alcohol abuse, violence,
early sexual experience and teen
pregnancies
UNICEF ranked UK 21.25 for children's well

Whether childhood is changing,

disappearing or continuing depends on
what happens to:

Emphasis on children's rights

Length of time in education
Children's access to communication
Growing similarities between children and
adults
Adult concerns about children's behaviour

LEE concludes that childhood has not disappeared,

but it has become more complex and contradictory
e.g. children are important as consumers but
dependent on parents for purchasing power