Heat Transfer Module: Application Library Manual

Heat Transfer Module
Application Library Manual
Heat Transfer Module Application Library Manual

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Solved with COMSOL Multiphysics 5.2
Heat Generation in a Disc Brake

Introduction
Cars need a brakes for obvious reasons, and you do not want these to fail. Brake failure
can be caused by many things, one of which is the overheating of the brakes disc. This
example models the heat generation and dissipation in a disc brake of an ordinary car
during panic braking and the following release period. When the driver is pressing
down on the brakes, kinetic energy is transformed into thermal energy. If the brake
discs overheat, the brake pads cease to function through brake fade where the material
properties of the brake change due to the temperature overload. Braking power starts
to fade already at temperatures above 600 K. This is why it is so important during the
design-stages to simulate the transient heating and convective cooling to figure out
what the minimum interval between a series of brake engagements is.
In this application, an 1,800 kg car is traveling at 25 m/s (90 km/h or about 56 mph),
until the driver suddenly panic brakes for 2 seconds. At that point the eight brake pads
slow the car down at a rate of 10 m/s2 (assuming the wheels do not skid against the
road). Upon braking for two seconds the driver releases the brake, leaving the car
traveling at 5 m/s for eight seconds without engaging the brakes. The questions to
analyze with the model are:
How hot do the brake discs and pads get when the brake is engaged?
How much do the discs and pads cool down during the rest that follows the
braking?
1 |
HEAT GENERATION IN A DISC BRAKE
Model Definition
Model the brake disc as a 3D solid with shape and dimensions as in Figure 1. The disc
has a radius of 0.14 m and a thickness of 0.013 m.
Figure 1: Model geometry, including disc and pad.

The model also includes heat conduction in the disc and the pad through the transient
heat transfer equation. The heat dissipation from the disc and pad surfaces to the
surrounding air is described by both convection and radiation. Table 1 summarizes the
thermal properties of the materials used in this application (Ref. 1).
TABLE 1: MATERIAL PROPERTIES
PROPERTY
DESCRIPTION
DISC
PAD
AIR
(kg/m )
Density
7870
2000
1.170
Cp (J/(kgK))
Heat capacity at constant pressure
449
935
1100
k (W/(mK))
Thermal conductivity
82
8.7
0.026
Surface emissivity
0.28
0.8
After 2 s, contact is made at the interface between the disc and the pad. Neglecting
drag and other losses outside the brakes, the brakes retardation power is given by the
negative of the time derivative of the cars kinetic energy:
2 |
dv
mv
P = d ----------- = m v -----dt
dt 2
Here m is the cars mass (1800 kg) and v denotes its speed. Figure 2 shows the profile
of v and Figure 3 shows the corresponding acceleration profile.
Figure 2: Velocity profile of the disc.
3 |
Figure 3: Acceleration profile of the disc.

At one of the eight brakes, the frictional heat source is:
1
dv
P
P b = ---- = --- m v -----8
8
dt
The contact pressure between the disc and the pad is related to the frictional heat
source per unit area, Pb, according to:
Pb
p = -----v
where the friction coefficient is here equal to 0.3.
The disc and pad dissipate the heat produced at the boundary between the brake pad
and the disc by convection and radiation. This example models the rotation as
convection in the disc. The local disc velocity vector is
v
v d = ---- ( y, x)
R
4 |
Results and Discussion

The surface temperatures of the disc and the pad vary with both time and position. At
the contact surface between the pad and the disc the temperature increases when the
brake is engaged and then decreases again as the brake is released. You can best see
these results in COMSOL Multiphysics by generating an animation. Figure 4 displays
the surface temperatures just before the end of the braking. A hot spot is visible at
the contact between the brake pad and disc, just at the pads edge. This is the area that
could overheat to the point of brake failure or fade. The figure also shows the
temperature decreasing along the rotational trace after the pad. During the rest, the
temperature becomes significantly lower and more uniform in the disc and the pad.
Figure 4: Surface temperature of the brake disc and pad just before releasing the brake
(t = 3.8 s).
To investigate the position of the hot spot and the time of the temperature maximum,
it is helpful to plot temperature versus time along the line from the center to the pads
edge shown in Figure 5. The result is displayed in Figure 6. You can see that the
maximum temperature is approximately 430 K. The hot spot is positioned close to the
radially outer edge of the pad. The highest temperature occurs approximately 1 s after
engaging the brake.
5 |
Figure 5: The radial line probed in the temperature vs. time plot in Figure 6.
t
r (m)
Figure 6: Temperature profile along the line indicated in Figure 5 at the disc surface
6 |
(z = 0.013 m) as a function of time.

To investigate how much of the generated heat is dissipated to the air, study the surface
integrals of the produced heat and the dissipated heat. These integrals give the total
heat rate (W) for heat production, Qprod, and heat dissipation, Qdiss, as functions of
time for the brake disc. The time integrals of these two quantities, Wprod and Wdiss,
give the total heat (J) produced and dissipated, respectively, in the brake disc. Figure 7
shows a plot of the total produced heat and dissipated heat versus time. Eight seconds
after the driver has stopped braking, a mere fraction of the produced heat has
dissipated. In other words, in order to cool down the system sufficiently the brake
needs to remain disengaged for a lot longer period than these eight seconds (100
seconds, in fact).
Figure 7: Comparison of total heat produced (solid line) and dissipated (dashed).
The results of this application can help engineers investigate how much abuse, in terms
of specific braking sequences, a certain brake-disc design can tolerate before
overheating. It is also possible to vary the parameters affecting the heat dissipation and
investigate their influence.
7 |
Reference
1. J.M. Coulson and J.F. Richardson, Chemical Engineering, vol. 1, eq. 9.88;
material properties from appendix A2.
Application Library path: Heat_Transfer_Module/

Thermal_Contact_and_Friction/brake_disc
Modeling Instructions
From the File menu, choose New.
NEW
1 In the New window, click Model Wizard.

MODEL WIZARD
1 In the Model Wizard window, click 3D.

2 In the Select physics tree, select Heat Transfer>Heat Transfer in Solids (ht).
3 Click Add.
4 Click Study.
5 In the Select study tree, select Preset Studies>Time Dependent.
6 Click Done.
GLOBAL DEFINITIONS
Parameters
1 On the Home toolbar, click Parameters.
Define the global parameters by loading the corresponding text file provided.
2 In the Settings window for Parameters, locate the Parameters section.
3 Click Load from File.
4 Browse to the applications Application Library folder and double-click the file
brake_disc_parameters.txt.
8 |
GEOMETRY 1
Cylinder 1 (cyl1)
1 On the Geometry toolbar, click Cylinder.
2 In the Settings window for Cylinder, locate the Size and Shape section.
3 In the Radius text field, type 0.14.
4 In the Height text field, type 0.013.
Cylinder 2 (cyl2)
1 Right-click Cylinder 1 (cyl1) and choose Build Selected.
6 Locate the Position section. In the z text field, type 0.013.
Work Plane 1 (wp1)

2 On the Geometry toolbar, click Work Plane.
3 In the Settings window for Work Plane, locate the Plane Definition section.
4 In the z-coordinate text field, type 0.013.
5 Right-click Work Plane 1 (wp1) and choose Show Work Plane.
Bzier Polygon 1 (b1)

1 On the Geometry toolbar, click Primitives and choose Bzier Polygon.
2 In the Settings window for Bzier Polygon, locate the Polygon Segments section.
3 Find the Added segments subsection. Click Add Cubic.
4 Find the Control points subsection. In row 1, set yw to 0.135.
5 In row 2, set xw to 0.02.
6 In row 2, set yw to 0.135.
9 |
12 Find the Control points subsection. In row 2, set xw to 0.03.

16 In row 4, set xw to 0.
19 Find the Control points subsection. In row 2, set xw to -0.035.
20 In row 3, set xw to -0.03.
25 Find the Control points subsection. In row 2, set xw to -0.05.
29 Click Close Curve.
To complete the pad cross section, you must make the top-left and top-right corners
sharper. Do so by changing the weights of the Bzier curves.
30 Find the Added segments subsection. In the Added segments list, select Segment 1
(cubic).
31 Find the Weights subsection. In the 3 text field, type 2.5.
32 Find the Added segments subsection. In the Added segments list, select Segment 4
(cubic).
33 Find the Weights subsection. In the 2 text field, type 2.5.
34 Right-click Bzier Polygon 1 (b1) and choose Build Selected.
Extrude 1 (ext1)
1 On the Geometry toolbar, click Extrude.
2 In the Settings window for Extrude, locate the Distances from Plane section.
10 |
3 In the table, enter the following settings:

Distances (m)
0.0065
4 Right-click Extrude 1 (ext1) and choose Build Selected.
The model geometry is now complete.

Next, define some selections of certain boundaries. You will use them when defining
the settings for component couplings, boundary conditions, and so on.
DEFINITIONS
Explicit 1
1 On the Definitions toolbar, click Explicit.
2 In the Settings window for Explicit, type Disc Faces in the Label text field.
3 Locate the Input Entities section. From the Geometric entity level list, choose
Boundary.
4 Select Boundaries 1, 2, 46, 8, 1315, and 18 only.
Explicit 2
2 In the Settings window for Explicit, type Pad Faces in the Label text field.
Boundary.
4 Select Boundaries 9, 10, 12, 16, and 17 only.
Explicit 3
2 In the Settings window for Explicit, type Contact Faces in the Label text field.
Boundary.
To select the contact surface boundary, it is convenient to temporarily switch to

wireframe rendering.
4 Click the Wireframe Rendering button on the Graphics toolbar.
5 Select Boundary 11 only.
11 |
Explicit 4
2 In the Settings window for Explicit, type External Surfaces in the Label text field.
3 Locate the Input Entities section. Select the All domains check box.
4 Locate the Output Entities section. From the Output entities list, choose Adjacent
boundaries.
These instructions make you select the external boundaries of the wheel and the
pad.
Integration 1 (intop1)
1 On the Definitions toolbar, click Component Couplings and choose Integration.
2 In the Settings window for Integration, locate the Source Selection section.
3 From the Geometric entity level list, choose Boundary.
4 From the Selection list, choose Contact Faces.
4 From the Selection list, choose External Surfaces.
Define the velocity and acceleration of car through these two piecewise and analytic
functions.
Piecewise 1 (pw1)
1 On the Definitions toolbar, click Piecewise.
2 In the Settings window for Piecewise, type v in the Function name text field.
3 Locate the Definition section. In the Argument text field, type t.
4 From the Smoothing list, choose Continuous second derivative.
5 From the Transition zone list, choose Absolute size.
6 In the Size of transition zone text field, type 0.2.
12 |
7 Find the Intervals subsection. In the table, enter the following settings:
Start
End
Function
t_brake_star
t
v0
t_brake_star
t
t_brake_end
v0+a0*(t-t_brake_start)
t_brake_end
12
v0+a0*(t_brake_end-t_brake_start)
8 Locate the Units section. In the Arguments text field, type s.

9 In the Function text field, type m/s.
10 Click the Plot button.
Analytic 1 (an1)
1 On the Definitions toolbar, click Analytic.
2 In the Settings window for Analytic, type a in the Function name text field.
3 Locate the Definition section. In the Expression text field, type d(v(t),t).
4 In the Arguments text field, type t.
6 In the Function text field, type m/s^2.
13 |
7 Locate the Plot Parameters section. In the table, enter the following settings:
Argument
Lower limit
Upper limit
10
MATERIALS
Material 1 (mat1)
1 In the Model Builder window, under Component 1 (comp1) right-click Materials and
choose Blank Material.

2 In the Settings window for Material, type Disc in the Label text field.
3 Locate the Material Contents section. In the table, enter the following settings:
Property
Name
Value
Unit
82
W/(mK)
Basic
Density
rho
7870
kg/m
Basic
Cp
449
J/(kgK)
Basic
Material 2 (mat2)
1 Right-click Materials and choose Blank Material.
14 |
Property group
2 In the Settings window for Material, type Pad in the Label text field.
3 Select Domain 3 only.
Property
Name
Value
Unit
Property group
8.7
W/(mK)
Basic
Density
rho
2000
kg/m
Basic
Cp
935
J/(kgK)
Basic
H E A T TR A N S F E R I N S O L I D S ( H T )
Heat Transfer in Solids 1

In the Model Builder window, expand the Component 1 (comp1)>Heat Transfer in Solids
(ht) node, then click Heat Transfer in Solids 1.
Translational Motion 1
1 On the Physics toolbar, click Attributes and choose Translational Motion.
2 Select Domains 1 and 2 only.
3 In the Settings window for Translational Motion, locate the Translational Motion
section.
4 Specify the utrans vector as
-y*v(t)/r_wheel
x*v(t)/r_wheel
Heat Flux 1
1 On the Physics toolbar, click Boundaries and choose Heat Flux.
2 In the Settings window for Heat Flux, locate the Boundary Selection section.
3 From the Selection list, choose All boundaries.
4 Locate the Heat Flux section. Click the Convective heat flux button.
5 From the Heat transfer coefficient list, choose External forced convection.
6 In the L text field, type 0.14.
7 In the U text field, type v(t).
8 In the Text text field, type T_air.
15 |
Thermal Contact 1
1 On the Physics toolbar, click Boundaries and choose Thermal Contact.
3 In the Settings window for Thermal Contact, locate the Contact Surface Properties
section.
4 In the p text field, type ht.tc1.Qb/(mu*v(t)).
5 In the Hc text field, type 800[MPa].
6 Locate the Thermal Friction section. Click the Overall heat transfer rate button.
7 In the Pb text field, type -m_car*v(t)*a(t)/8.
Initial Values 1
1 In the Model Builder window, under Component 1 (comp1)>Heat Transfer in Solids (ht)
click Initial Values 1.

2 In the Settings window for Initial Values, locate the Initial Values section.
3 In the T text field, type T_air.
Diffuse Surface 1
1 On the Physics toolbar, click Boundaries and choose Diffuse Surface.
2 In the Settings window for Diffuse Surface, locate the Boundary Selection section.
3 From the Selection list, choose Disc Faces.
4 Locate the Surface Emissivity section. From the list, choose User defined. In the
associated text field, type 0.28.

5 Locate the Ambient section. In the Tamb text field, type T_air.
Diffuse Surface 2
3 From the Selection list, choose Pad Faces.

5 Locate the Ambient section. In the Tamb text field, type T_air.
Symmetry 1
1 On the Physics toolbar, click Boundaries and choose Symmetry.
16 |
To compute the heat produced and the heat dissipated, integrate the corresponding
heat rate variables, Q_prod and Q_diss, over time. For this purpose, define two
ODEs using a Global Equations node.
3 In the Model Builder windows toolbar, click the Show button and select Advanced
Physics Options in the menu.
Global Equations 1
1 On the Physics toolbar, click Global and choose Global Equations.
2 In the Settings window for Global Equations, locate the Units section.
3 Find the Dependent variable quantity subsection. From the list, choose Energy (J).
4 Find the Source term quantity subsection. From the list, choose Power (W).
5 Locate the Global Equations section. In the table, enter the following settings:
Name
f(u,ut,utt,t) (W)
Initial value
(u_0) (J)
Initial value
(u_t0) (W)
Description
W_prod
W_prodt-intop1(h
t.tc1.Qb)
Produced heat
W_diss
W_disst+(intop2(
ht.q0+ht.rflux))
Dissipated heat
Here, W_prodt (resp. W_disst) is COMSOL Multiphysics syntax for the time
derivative of W_prod (resp. W_diss). The quantities intop1(ht.tc1.Qb) and
intop2(ht.q0+ht.rflux) correspond to Q_prod and Q_diss. The table thus
defines the two uncoupled initial value problems.
W prod diss ( t ) = Q prod diss ( t )

W prod diss ( 0 ) = 0
To obtain the first-order ODEs, take the time derivative of the integrals
t
W prod diss ( t ) =
Qprod diss ( t' ) dt'

0
The initial values follow from setting t = 0.
17 |
MESH 1
Free Triangular 1
1 In the Model Builder window, under Component 1 (comp1) right-click Mesh 1 and
choose More Operations>Free Triangular.

2 Click the Transparency button on the Graphics toolbar.
3 Select Boundaries 4, 7, and 11 only.
4 Click the Transparency button on the Graphics toolbar again to return to the original
state.
Size
1 In the Model Builder window, under Component 1 (comp1)>Mesh 1 click Size.
2 In the Settings window for Size, locate the Element Size section.
3 From the Predefined list, choose Extra fine.
Swept 1
In the Model Builder window, right-click Mesh 1 and choose Swept.
Distribution 1
1 In the Model Builder window, under Component 1 (comp1)>Mesh 1 right-click Swept
1 and choose Distribution.
2 In the Settings window for Distribution, locate the Distribution section.
3 In the Number of elements text field, type 2.
18 |
4 In the Model Builder window, right-click Mesh 1 and choose Build All.
The complete mesh consists of roughly 5700 elements.
STUDY 1
Step 1: Time Dependent

1 In the Model Builder window, expand the Study 1 node, then click Step 1: Time
Dependent.
2 In the Settings window for Time Dependent, locate the Study Settings section.
3 In the Times text field, type range(0,0.5,1.5) range(1.55,0.05,3)
range(3.2,0.2,5) range(6,1,12).
Solution 1 (sol1)
1 On the Study toolbar, click Show Default Solver.
2 In the Model Builder window, expand the Study 1>Solver Configurations node.
3 In the Model Builder window, expand the Solution 1 (sol1) node, then click
Time-Dependent Solver 1.
4 In the Settings window for Time-Dependent Solver, click to expand the Absolute
tolerance section.
19 |
5 Locate the Absolute Tolerance section. In the Tolerance text field, type 1e-4.
6 Click to expand the Time stepping section. Locate the Time Stepping section. From
the Steps taken by solver list, choose Intermediate.

This setting forces the solver to take at least one step in each specified interval.
7 On the Study toolbar, click Compute.
RESULTS
Temperature (ht)
The first of the two default plots displays the surface temperature of the brake disc and
pad at the end of the simulation interval. Modify this plot to show the time just before
releasing the brake.
1 In the Model Builder window, click Temperature (ht).
2 In the Settings window for 3D Plot Group, locate the Data section.
3 From the Time (s) list, choose 3.8.
4 On the Temperature (ht) toolbar, click Plot.
Compare the result to the plot shown in Figure 4.

To compare the total heat produced and the heat dissipated, as done in Figure 7,
follow the steps given below.
1D Plot Group 3
1 On the Home toolbar, click Add Plot Group and choose 1D Plot Group.
2 In the Settings window for 1D Plot Group, type Dissipated and Produced Heat
in the Label text field.

3 Click to expand the Title section. From the Title type list, choose None.
4 Click to collapse the Title section. Locate the Plot Settings section. Select the x-axis
label check box.
5 In the associated text field, type Time (s).
Point Graph 1
On the Dissipated and Produced Heat toolbar, click Point Graph.
Dissipated and Produced Heat

1 Select Point 1 only.
2 In the Settings window for Point Graph, locate the y-Axis Data section.
3 In the Expression text field, type log10(W_prod+1).
20 |
4 Click to expand the Coloring and style section. Locate the Coloring and Style section.
From the Color list, choose Blue.

5 Click to expand the Legends section. Select the Show legends check box.
6 From the Legends list, choose Manual.
Legends
log10(W_prod+1), heat produced
8 Right-click Point Graph 1 and choose Duplicate.

10 In the Expression text field, type log10(W_diss+1).
11 Locate the Coloring and Style section. Find the Line style subsection. From the Line
list, choose Dashed.

12 Locate the Legends section. In the table, enter the following settings:
Legends
log10(W_diss+1), heat dissipated
Finally, follow the steps below to reproduce the plot in Figure 5.
Cut Line 3D 1
On the Results toolbar, click Cut Line 3D.
Data Sets
1 In the Settings window for Cut Line 3D, locate the Line Data section.
2 In row Point 1, set z to 0.013.
3 In row Point 2, set x to -0.047.
4 In row Point 2, set y to 0.1316.
21 |
Parametric Extrusion 1D 1
On the Results toolbar, click More Data Sets and choose Parametric Extrusion 1D.
Data Sets
1 In the Settings window for Parametric Extrusion 1D, locate the Data section.
2 From the Time selection list, choose From list.
3 In the Times (s) list, click and shift-click in the list to select all time steps from 1.5 s
through 5 s.
2D Plot Group 4
1 On the Results toolbar, click 2D Plot Group.
2 In the Settings window for 2D Plot Group, type Temperature Profile vs Time
Temperature Profile vs Time

1 Right-click Temperature Profile vs Time and choose Surface.
2 In the Settings window for Surface, locate the Coloring and Style section.
3 From the Color table list, choose ThermalLight.
4 Right-click Results>Temperature Profile vs Time>Surface 1 and choose Height
Expression.
5 On the Temperature Profile vs Time toolbar, click Plot.
22 |
Buoyancy Flow in Water

Introduction
This example studies the stationary state of free convection in a cavity filled with water
and bounded by two vertical plates. To generate the buoyancy flow, the plates are
heated at different temperatures, bringing the regime close to the transition between
laminar and turbulent.
An important step in setting up a convection model is to assess whether the flow stays
laminar or becomes turbulent. It is also important to approximate how fine should be
the mesh needed to resolve velocity and temperature gradients. Both of these
approximations rely on the velocity scale of the model. This makes the set-up of natural
convection problems challenging since the resulting velocity is part of the nonlinear
solution. There are, however, tools to approximate scales for natural convection
problems. These tools are demonstrated in this application using simple 2D and 3D
geometries.
A first 2D model representing a square cavity (see Figure 1) focuses on the convective
flow.
Thermal insulation
Pressure point
constraint (0 Pa)
Hot temperature (20 C)
on the right plate
Water
Cold temperature (10 C)

on the left plate
Square side length (10 cm)
Thermal insulation
Figure 1: Domain geometry and boundary conditions for the 2D model (square cavity).
1 |
B UOY A N C Y F L OW I N WAT E R
The 3D model (see Figure 2) extends the geometry to a cube. Compared to the 2D
model, the front and back sides are additional boundaries that may influence the fluid
behavior.
Pressure point
constraint (0 Pa)
Cold temperature (10 C)

on the left plate
Water
Hot temperature (20 C)
on the right plate
Cube side length (10 cm)
Figure 2: Domain geometry and boundary conditions for the 3D model (cubic cavity).
Both models calculate and compare the velocity field and the temperature field. The
predefined Non-Isothermal Flow interface available in the Heat Transfer Module
provides appropriate tools to fully couple the heat transfer and the fluid dynamics.
Model Definition
2D MODEL
Figure 1 illustrates the 2D model geometry. The fluid fills a square cavity with
impermeable walls, so the fluid flows freely within the cavity but cannot leak out. The
right and left edges of the cavity are maintained at high and low temperatures,
respectively. The upper and lower boundaries are insulated. The temperature
differential produces the density variation that drives the buoyant flow.
The compressible Navier-Stokes equation contains a buoyancy term on the right-hand
side to account for the lifting force due to thermal expansion that causes the density
variations:
T
2
( u )u = p + ( u + ( u ) ) --- ( ( u ) ) + g
3
2 |
B U OY A N C Y F L OW I N WA T E R
In this expression, the dependent variables for flow are the fluid velocity vector, u, and
the pressure, p. The constant g denotes the gravitational acceleration, gives the
temperature-dependent density, and is the temperature-dependent dynamic
viscosity.
Because the model only contains information about the pressure gradient, it estimates
the pressure field up to a constant. To define this constant, you arbitrarily fix the
pressure at a point. No slip boundary conditions apply on all boundaries. The no slip
condition results in zero velocity at the wall but does not set any constraint on p.
At steady-state, the heat balance for a fluid reduces to the following equation:
C p u T ( k T ) = 0
Here T represents the temperature, k denotes the thermal conductivity, and Cp is the
specific heat capacity of the fluid.
The boundary conditions for the heat transfer interface are the fixed high and low
temperatures on the vertical walls with insulation conditions elsewhere, as shown in
Figure 1.
3D MODEL
Figure 2 shows the geometry and boundary conditions of the 3D model. The cavity is
now a cube with high and low temperatures applied respectively at the right and left
surfaces. The remaining boundaries (top, bottom, front, and back) are thermally
insulated.
MODEL ANALYSIS
Before starting the simulations, it is recommended to estimate the flow regime. To this
end, four indicators are presented: the Reynolds, Grashof, Rayleigh, and Prandtl
numbers. They are calculated using the thermophysical properties of water listed in
Table 1. The thermophysical properties are given at 290 K which is in the range of the
temperatures observed in the model.
TABLE 1: THERMOPHYSICAL PROPERTIES FOR WATER AT 290 K
PARAMETER
DESCRIPTION
VALUE
Density
999 kg/m3
Dynamic viscosity
1.0810-3 Ns/m2
0.60 W/(mK)
Cp
4.18 kJ/(kgK)
Coefficient of thermal expansion
0.1710-3 K-1
3 |
Prandtl Number
Definition The Prandtl number is the ratio of fluid viscosity to thermal diffusivity. It is
defined by:
C p
Pr = ----------k
For air at 300 K, Pr = 0.71 (see, for example, A.4 in Ref. 1) and for water at 300 K,
Pr = 5.8 (see, for example, A.6 in Ref. 1).
Boundary Layers The Prandtl number also indicates the relative thickness of the outer
boundary layer, , and the thermal boundary layer, T. In the present case, it is
reasonable to estimate the ratio T by the relation (7.32 in Ref. 2)
----=
T
(1)
Pr
The outer boundary layer is the distance from the wall to the region where the fluid
stabilizes. It is different from the momentum boundary layer, M, which measures the
distance from the wall to the velocity peak.
Application in this Tutorial With the values given in Table 1, the Prandtl number for
water at 290 K, is found to be of the order 1 or 10. According to Equation 1, and

T should then be of same order of magnitude.
Reynolds Number
Definition The Reynolds number estimates the ratio of inertial forces to viscous forces.
It is defined by the formula

UL
Re = -----------
where U denotes the typical velocity and L the typical length.
At atmospheric pressure and at 300 K, air and water have the following properties (A.4
and A.6 in Ref. 1).
TABLE 2: THERMOPHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF AIR AND WATER AT 300 K AND ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE
4 |
PARAMETER
DESCRIPTION
AIR
WATER
Density
1.16 kg/m3
997 kg/m3
Dynamic viscosity
1.8510-5 Ns/m2
8.5510-4 Ns/m2
You can thus approximate the Reynolds number by:

4
Reair 6 10 UL
Re water 10 UL
In these relations, U has to be in meters per second and L in meters.

The Reynolds number can be rewritten as the velocity ratio
U
Re = ------------------ ( L )
which compares U to (L). The latter quantity is homogeneous to a velocity and
can be seen as the typical velocity due to viscous forces.
Flow Regime The value of the Reynolds number is used to predict the flow regime.
Generally, low values of Re correspond to laminar flow and high values to turbulent
flow, with a critical value for the transition regime that depends on the geometry.
As an indication, Reynolds experiments concerning the flow along a straight and
smooth pipe showed that the transition regime in this case occurs when Re is between
2000 and 104 (see chapter 1.3 in Ref. 3).
Momentum Boundary Layer The momentum boundary layer thickness can be
evaluated, using the Reynolds number, by (5.36 in Ref. 2)

L
M ----------Re
(2)
Application in this Tutorial The typical length L of the model is equal to 10 cm so the
Reynolds number is evaluated as

5
Re 10 U
where U is still unknown. Estimates of this typical velocity are provided later.
Grashof Number
Definition The Grashof number gives the ratio of buoyant to viscous forces. It is
defined by
2
g p
- TL 3
Gr = --------------2
5 |
where g is the gravity acceleration (equal to 9.81 m.s-2) and T is the typical
temperature difference.
At atmospheric pressure and at 300 K, air and water have the following properties (A.4
and A.6 in Ref. 1).
TABLE 3: THERMOPHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF AIR AND WATER AT 300 K AND ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE
Parameter
Description
Air
Water
3
997 kg/m3
Density
1.16 kg/m
Dynamic viscosity
1.8510-5 N.s.m-2
Coefficient of thermal expansion 3.3410
-3
-1
8.5510-4 Ns/m2
2.7610-4 K-1
The value of p for air was here obtained by the ideal gas approximation:
1
p = ---T
You can then evaluate the Grashof number by:
8
Grair 10 TL
Gr water 4 10 TL
In these relations, T is given in kelvin and L in meters.

The Grashof number can also be expressed as the velocity ratio
2
U0
Gr = --------------------------2( ( L ) )
where U0 is defined by
U0 =
g p TL
(3)
This quantity can be considered as the typical velocity due to buoyancy forces.
Flow Regime When buoyancy forces are large compared to viscous forces, the regime
is turbulent; otherwise it is laminar. The transition between these two regimes is

indicated by the critical order of the Grashof number which is 109 (see Figure 7.7 in
Ref. 2).
Application in this Tutorial In this tutorial, T is equal to 10 K so the Grashof number
7
is about 10 which indicates that a laminar regime is expected.
6 |
Table 4 provides the values of the quantities necessary to calculate U0. This velocity is
here of order 10 mm/s.
TABLE 4: THERMOPHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF WATER AT 290 K USED IN THE GRASHOF NUMBER
PARAMETER
DESCRIPTION
VALUE
Gravitational acceleration
9.81 m/s2
0.1710-3 K-1
Rayleigh Number
Definition The Rayleigh number is another indicator of the regime. It is defined by
2
g p C p
3
Ra = ------------------------ TL
k
so it is similar to the Grashof number except that it accounts for the thermal diffusivity,
k, given by
k
= ---------C p
Note: The Rayleigh number can be expressed in terms of the Prandtl and the Grashof
numbers through the relation Ra = Pr Gr.
At atmospheric pressure and at 300 K, you can use the approximations of Ra below
for air and water (A.4 in Ref. 1)
8
Ra air 10 TL
10
Ra water 2 10 TL
In these relations, T is given in kelvin and L in meters.

Using Equation 3, the Rayleigh number can be rewritten as the velocity ratio
2
U0
Ra = -------------------------------( L )( L)
where the ratio L can be seen as a typical velocity due to thermal diffusion.
Flow Regime Like the Grashof number, a critical Rayleigh value indicates the
transition between laminar and turbulent flow. For vertical plates, this limit is about
7 |
109 (9.23 in Ref. 1).

Typical Velocity Because the viscous forces limit the effects of buoyancy, U0 may give
an overestimated typical velocity. Another approach (see 7.25 in Ref. 2) is to use U1

instead, defined by
U 1 = ---- Ra
L
that is
k
U 1 = --------------- Ra
C p L
(4)
or
U0
U 1 = ---------Pr
This should be a more accurate estimate of U because the fluids thermal diffusivity
and viscosity are used in the calculations. From now on, U1 is the preferred estimate
of U.
Thermal Boundary Layer The Rayleigh number can be used to estimate the thermal
boundary layer thickness, T. When Pr is of order 1 or greater, it is approximated by

the formula (7.25c in Ref. 2)
L
T -----------4 Ra
(5)
8
Application in this Tutorial Here, Ra is of order 10 . The laminar regime is confirmed
but the Rayleigh number found is near the transition zone. The thermal boundary
layer thickness is then found to be of order 1 mm and U1 of order 10 mm/s.
Synthesis
To prepare the simulation, it is very useful to follow the steps below that give
indications of what results to expect. It is important to remember that the quantities
computed here are only order of magnitude estimates, which should not be considered
with more than one significant digit.
First evaluate the Grashof and Rayleigh numbers. If they are significantly below the
critical order of 109, the regime is laminar. In this case, Equation 3 or Equation 4
8 |
provide estimates of the typical velocity U that you can use to validate the model after
performing the simulation.
According to Equation 1, the Prandtl number determines the relative thickness of the
thermal boundary layer and the outer layer. Equation 2 and Equation 5 then provide
orders of magnitude of the thicknesses. When defining the mesh, refinements have to
be done at the boundary layers by, for instance, inserting three to five elements across
the estimated thicknesses.
Here, Gr and Ra are 107 and 108, respectively, and thus below the critical value of 109
for vertical plates. A laminar regime is therefore expected but because these values are
not significantly below 109, convergence is not straightforward. In this regime, the
estimates U0 and U1 of the typical velocity are both of the order 10 mm/s.
For water at 290 K, Pr is about 10 so and T are of same orders of magnitude. Here,
T is of the order 1 mm.
The Reynolds number calculated with U1 is about 103, which confirms that the model
is close to the transition regime. Using U1 and Equation 2, the momentum boundary
layer thickness M is found to be about 1 mm.
9 |

2D MODEL
Figure 3 shows the velocity distribution in the square cavity.
Figure 3: Velocity magnitude for the 2D model.

The regions with faster velocities are located at the lateral boundaries. The maximum
velocity is 4.20 mm/s which is in agreement with the estimated typical velocity U1 of
the order 10 mm/s. According to Figure 4, the momentum boundary layer thickness
10 |
BUOYANCY FLOW IN WATER
is of order 1 mm, as calculated before.
Figure 4: Velocity profile at the left boundary.
11 |
Figure 5 shows the temperature field (surface) and velocity field (arrows) of the 2D
model.
Figure 5: Temperature field (surface plot) and velocity (arrows) for the 2D model.
A large convective cell occupies the whole square. The fluid flow follows the
boundaries. As seen in Figure 3, it is faster at the vertical plates where the highest
variations of temperature are located. The thermal boundary layer is of the order 1 mm
according to Figure 6, which is in agreement with the estimate provided by
12 |
Equation 5. The outer layer is slightly thicker than the boundary layer.
Figure 6: Temperature profile at the left boundary.
13 |
Figure 7 shows the correlation between density and temperature.
Figure 7: Water density for the 2D model.

As expected, has the same profile as the temperature field. High variations are located
at the boundaries, especially at lateral walls, and are responsible for the free convection.
The variations are smoother at the center.
14 |
3D MODEL
Figure 8 illustrates the velocity plot parallel to the heated plates.
Figure 8: Velocity magnitude field for the 3D model, slices parallel to the heated plates.
15 |
A second velocity magnitude field is shown in Figure 9. The plot is close to what was
obtained in 2D in Figure 3.
Figure 9: Velocity magnitude field for the 3D model, slices perpendicular to the heated
plates.
16 |
In Figure 10, velocity arrows are plotted on temperature surface at the middle vertical
plane parallel to the plates.
Figure 10: Temperature (surface plot) and velocity (arrows) fields in the cubic cavity, for
a temperature difference of 10 K between the vertical plates.
New small convective cells appear on the vertical planes perpendicular to the plates at
the four corners. They are more visible at lower Gr values, that is, far from the
transition regime. In Figure 11, the temperature difference between the vertical plates
is reduced to 1 K and 0.1 K to decrease the Grashof number to 105 and 106.
17 |
Observe the bigger cells at the four corners of the plane.
Figure 11: Temperature (surface plot) and velocity (arrows) fields in the cubic cavity,
with, for a temperature difference of 1 K (top) and 0.1 K (bottom) between the vertical
plates.
18 |
Notes About the COMSOL Implementation

The material properties for water are available in the Material Library. The density and
dynamic viscosity are functions of the temperature.
At high Gr values, using a good initial condition becomes important in order to
achieve convergence. Moreover, a well-tuned mesh is needed to capture the solution,
especially the temperature and velocity changes near the walls. Use the Stationary
study steps continuation option with T as the continuation parameter to get a solver
sequence that uses previous solutions to estimate the initial condition. For this tutorial,
it is appropriate to ramp up T from 10-3 K to 10 K, which corresponds to a Grashof
number range of 103107. At Gr = 103, the model is easy to solve. The regime is
dominated by conduction and viscous effects. At Gr = 107, the model becomes more
difficult to solve. The regime is greatly influenced by convection and buoyancy.
To get a well-tuned mesh when Gr reaches 107, the element size near the prescribed
temperature boundaries has to be smaller than the momentum and thermal boundary
layer thicknesses, which are of order 1 mm according to Equation 2 and Equation 5.
It is recommended to have three to five elements across the layers when using
P1 elements (the default setting for fluid flows).
References
1. F.P. Incropera, D.P. DeWitt, T.L. Bergman, and A.S. Lavine, Fundamentals of
Heat and Mass Transfer, 6th ed., John Wiley & Sons, 2006.
2. A. Bejan, Heat Transfer, John Wiley & Sons, 1985.
3. P. A. Davidson, Turbulence: An Introduction for Scientists and Engineers, Oxford
University Press, 2004.

Tutorials,_Forced_and_Natural_Convection/buoyancy_water
19 |
NEW

MODEL WIZARD

2 In the Select physics tree, select Fluid Flow>Non-Isothermal Flow>Laminar Flow.
3 Click Add.
4 Click Study.
5 In the Select study tree, select Preset Studies for Selected Physics Interfaces>Stationary.
6 Click Done.
GLOBAL DEFINITIONS
Parameters
20 |

Name
Expression
Value
Description
10[cm]
0.1 m
Square side length
DeltaT
10[K]
10 K
Temperature difference
Tc
283.15[K]
283.2 K
Low temperature
Th
Tc+DeltaT
293.2 K
High temperature
rho
999[kg/m^3]
999 kg/m
Density
mu
1.08e-3[N*s/
m^2]
0.00108 Ns/
(mm)
Dynamic viscosity
0.60[W/(m*K)]
0.6 W/(mK)
Cp
4.18[kJ/
(kg*K)]
4180 J/(kgK)
Heat capacity
alpha
0.17e-3[1/K]
1.7E-4 1/K
Coefficient of thermal
expansion
U0
sqrt(g_const*a
lpha*DeltaT*L)
0.04083 m/s
Typical velocity due to

buoyancy
U1
U0/sqrt(Pr)
0.01489 m/s
Typical velocity
estimation
Pr
mu*Cp/k
7.524
Prandtl number
Gr
(U0*rho*L/
mu)^2
1.426E7
Grashof number
Ra
Pr*Gr
1.073E8
Rayleigh number
Re0
rho*U0*L/mu
3777
Reynolds number
approximation with U0
Re1
rho*U1*L/mu
1377
Reynolds number
approximation with U1
eps_t
L/(Ra)^0.25
9.825E-4 m
Thermal boundary layer

thickness
eps_m
L/sqrt(Re1)
0.002695 m
Momentum boundary layer

thickness
The Grashof and Rayleigh numbers should be less than 109, indicating that a
laminar regime is expected.
GEOMETRY 1
Square 1 (sq1)
1 On the Geometry toolbar, click Primitives and choose Square.
21 |
2 In the Settings window for Square, locate the Size section.

3 In the Side length text field, type L.
4 Click the Build All Objects button.
ADD MATERIAL
1 On the Home toolbar, click Add Material to open the Add Material window.
2 Go to the Add Material window.
3 In the tree, select Built-In>Water, liquid.
4 Click Add to Component in the window toolbar.
MATERIALS
Water, liquid (mat1)

On the Home toolbar, click Add Material to close the Add Material window.
LAMINAR FLOW (SPF)
Initial Values 1
1 In the Model Builder window, under Component 1 (comp1)>Laminar Flow (spf) click
Initial Values 1.
3 In the p text field, type rho*g_const*(L-y).
This setting gives an initial pressure field consistent with the volume force. The
initial pressure field must be also consistent with the pressure constraint (see the
Pressure Point Constraint 1 section below).
Volume Force 1
1 On the Physics toolbar, click Domains and choose Volume Force.
3 In the Settings window for Volume Force, locate the Volume Force section.
4 Specify the F vector as
0
-nitf1.rho*g_const
In this expression for the buoyancy flow, g_const is a predefined constant

corresponding to the gravity acceleration.
22 |
Pressure Point Constraint 1

1 On the Physics toolbar, click Points and choose Pressure Point Constraint.
Fixing the pressure at an arbitrary point is necessary to define a well-posed model.

H E A T TR A N S F E R I N F L U I D S ( H T )
Define the initial temperature as the mean value between the high and low temperature
values.
Initial Values 1
1 In the Model Builder window, under Component 1 (comp1)>Heat Transfer in Fluids (ht)

3 In the T text field, type (Tc+Th)/2.
4 In the Model Builder window, click Heat Transfer in Fluids (ht).
Temperature 1
1 On the Physics toolbar, click Boundaries and choose Temperature.
3 In the Settings window for Temperature, locate the Temperature section.
4 In the T0 text field, type Tc.
Temperature 2
4 In the T0 text field, type Th.
Now modify the default mesh size settings to ensure that the mesh satisfies the
criterion discussed in the Introduction section.
MESH 1
1 In the Model Builder window, under Component 1 (comp1) click Mesh 1.

2 In the Settings window for Mesh, locate the Mesh Settings section.
3 From the Element size list, choose Extra fine.
4 Click the Build All button.
23 |
STUDY 1
Because the Grashof number is near the critical value of around 109, the model is
highly nonlinear. To achieve convergence, use continuation to ramp up the
temperature difference value from 10-3 K to 10 K, which corresponds to a Grashof
number from 103 to 107.
Step 1: Stationary
1 In the Model Builder window, under Study 1 click Step 1: Stationary.
2 In the Settings window for Stationary, click to expand the Study extensions section.
3 Locate the Study Extensions section. Select the Auxiliary sweep check box.
4 Click Add.
Parameter name
Parameter value list
DeltaT
1e-3 1e-2 1e-1 1 10
Parameter unit
The pseudo stepping time option is generally useful to help the convergence of a
stationary flow model. However, a continuation approach is already used here. In
this precise model, disabling the pseudo time stepping option improves the
convergence. Follow the instructions below to do so.
LAMINAR FLOW (SPF)
On the Physics toolbar, click Heat Transfer in Fluids (ht) and choose Laminar Flow (spf).
1 In the Model Builder window, under Component 1 (comp1) click Laminar Flow (spf).
2 In the Settings window for Laminar Flow, click to expand the Advanced settings
section.
3 Locate the Advanced Settings section. Find the Pseudo time stepping subsection.
Clear the Use pseudo time stepping for stationary equation form check box.
STUDY 1
On the Home toolbar, click Compute.
24 |
RESULTS
Velocity (spf)
The first default plot group shows the velocity magnitude as in Figure 3. Notice the
high velocities near the lateral walls due to buoyancy effects.
1 Click the Zoom Extents button on the Graphics toolbar.
Temperature (ht)
The third default plot shows the temperature distribution. Add arrows of the velocity
field to see the correlations between velocity and temperature, as in Figure 5.
1 In the Model Builder window, under Results click Temperature (ht).
3 Right-click Results>Temperature (ht) and choose Arrow Surface.
4 In the Settings window for Arrow Surface, locate the Coloring and Style section.
5 From the Color list, choose Black.
To reproduce the plot of Figure 7, follow the steps below.
2D Plot Group 5
2 In the Settings window for 2D Plot Group, type Density in the Label text field.
Density
1 Right-click Density and choose Surface.
2 In the Settings window for Surface, click Replace Expression in the upper-right corner
of the Expression section. From the menu, choose Component 1>Laminar

Flow>Material properties>spf.rho - Density.
3 On the Density toolbar, click Plot.
In the following steps, the temperature and velocity profiles are plotted near the left
boundary in order to estimate the boundary layer thicknesses of the solution.
Cut Line 2D 1
Data Sets
2 In row Point 1, set y to 5[cm].
25 |
3 In row Point 2, set x to 1[cm].

4 In row Point 2, set y to 5[cm].
1D Plot Group 6
2 In the Settings window for 1D Plot Group, type Temperature at Boundary Layer

3 Locate the Data section. From the Data set list, choose Cut Line 2D 1.
4 From the Parameter selection (DeltaT) list, choose Last.
Line Graph 1
On the Temperature at Boundary Layer toolbar, click Line Graph.
Temperature at Boundary Layer

1 In the Settings window for Line Graph, click Replace Expression in the upper-right
corner of the y-axis data section. From the menu, choose Component 1>Heat Transfer
in Fluids>Temperature>T - Temperature.
2 On the Temperature at Boundary Layer toolbar, click Plot.
The thermal boundary layer is around 3 mm.
1D Plot Group 7
2 In the Settings window for 1D Plot Group, type Velocity at Boundary Layer in
the Label text field.

4 From the Parameter selection (DeltaT) list, choose Last.
Line Graph 1
On the Velocity at Boundary Layer toolbar, click Line Graph.
Velocity at Boundary Layer

corner of the y-axis data section. From the menu, choose Component 1>Laminar
Flow>Velocity and pressure>spf.U - Velocity magnitude.
26 |
2 On the Velocity at Boundary Layer toolbar, click Plot.
The momentum boundary layer is around 1 mm and the outer layer between 5 mm
and 10 mm.
Now create the 3D version of the model.
ROOT
1 In the Model Builder window, click the root node.

2 On the Home toolbar, click Add Component and choose 3D.
ADD PHYSICS
1 On the Home toolbar, click Add Physics to open the Add Physics window.
2 Go to the Add Physics window.
3 In the Add physics tree, select Recently Used>Laminar Flow.
LAMINAR FLOW 2 (SPF2)
On the Home toolbar, click Add Physics to close the Add Physics window.
ADD STUDY
1 On the Home toolbar, click Add Study to open the Add Study window.
2 Go to the Add Study window.
3 Find the Studies subsection. In the Select study tree, select Preset Studies.
4 In the Select study tree, select Preset Studies>Stationary.
5 Click Add Study in the window toolbar.
STUDY 2
Step 1: Stationary
On the Home toolbar, click Add Study to close the Add Study window.
GEOMETRY 2
Block 1 (blk1)
1 On the Geometry toolbar, click Block.
2 In the Settings window for Block, locate the Size and Shape section.
3 In the Width text field, type L.
4 In the Depth text field, type L/2.
27 |
5 In the Height text field, type L.

ADD MATERIAL
MATERIALS

Initial Values 1
1 In the Model Builder window, under Component 2 (comp2)>Laminar Flow 2 (spf2) click
Initial Values 1.
3 In the p text field, type rho*g_const*(L-z).
Volume Force 1
0
-nitf2.rho*g_const

Symmetry 1
28 |

H E A T TR A N S F E R I N F L U I D S 2 ( H T 2 )
Initial Values 1
1 In the Model Builder window, under Component 2 (comp2)>Heat Transfer in Fluids 2
(ht2) click Initial Values 1.
3 In the T2 text field, type (Tc+Th)/2.
4 In the Model Builder window, click Heat Transfer in Fluids 2 (ht2).
Temperature 1
Temperature 2
Symmetry 1
MESH 2
To obtain reliable results in a reasonable computational time, create a structured mesh

according to the steps below.
Mapped 1
choose More Operations>Mapped.

Distribution 1
1 Right-click Component 2 (comp2)>Mesh 2>Mapped 1 and choose Distribution.
2 Select Edges 1, 3, 5, and 9 only.
29 |

4 From the Distribution properties list, choose Predefined distribution type.
6 In the Element ratio text field, type 3.
7 Select the Symmetric distribution check box.
Figure 12: The front face mesh has smaller elements near the edges because large variations
in velocity and temperature are expected there.
Now extend the front mesh to the remaining structure.
Swept 1
Distribution 1
30 |

6 Select the Reverse direction check box.
To resolve the boundary layers, use a Boundary Layers feature to generate smaller
mesh elements near the walls. The thermal boundary layer for the temperature
difference of 10 K is approximately 9.8e-4 m (see the parameter eps_t defined
previously). Use this value to define the thickness of the boundary layers.
7 In the Model Builder window, right-click Mesh 2 and choose Boundary Layers.
Boundary Layer Properties

1 In the Model Builder window, under Component 2 (comp2)>Mesh 2>Boundary Layers
1 click Boundary Layer Properties.
2 Select Boundaries 1 and 36 only.
3 In the Settings window for Boundary Layer Properties, locate the Boundary Layer
Properties section.
4 In the Number of boundary layers text field, type 5.
5 From the Thickness of first layer list, choose Manual.
6 In the Thickness text field, type 9.8e-4/5.
7 Click the Build Selected button.
STUDY 2
Step 1: Stationary
2 In the Settings window for Stationary, locate the Study Extensions section.
3 Select the Auxiliary sweep check box.
4 Click Add.
Parameter name
DeltaT
1e-3 1e-2 1e-1 1 10
Parameter unit
31 |

Physics interface
Solve for
Discretization
Laminar Flow (spf)
physics
Heat Transfer in Fluids (ht)
physics
On the Physics toolbar, click Heat Transfer in Fluids 2 (ht2) and choose Laminar Flow 2
(spf2).
1 In the Model Builder window, under Component 2 (comp2) click Laminar Flow 2 (spf2).
section.
Clear the Use pseudo time stepping for stationary equation form check box.
STUDY 2

RESULTS
Velocity (spf2)
This default plot group shows the fluid velocity magnitude in only half of the cube. To
plot the other half, proceed as follows.
Mirror 3D 1
On the Results toolbar, click More Data Sets and choose Mirror 3D.
Data Sets
1 In the Settings window for Mirror 3D, locate the Plane Data section.
2 From the Plane list, choose zx-planes.
A new data set containing mirror values is now created. Return to the velocity plot
to use this data set.
Velocity (spf2)
1 In the Model Builder window, under Results click Velocity (spf2).
3 From the Data set list, choose Mirror 3D 1.
4 On the Velocity (spf2) toolbar, click Plot.
32 |
Temperature (ht2)
This default plot group shows the temperature distribution. The mirror data set
created previously can be reused here to plot the entire cube.
3D Plot Group 12
2 In the Settings window for 3D Plot Group, type Velocity, Front Plane in the
Label text field.
3 Locate the Data section. From the Data set list, choose Mirror 3D 1.
Velocity, Front Plane

1 Right-click Velocity, Front Plane and choose Slice.
2 In the Settings window for Slice, click Replace Expression in the upper-right corner
of the Expression section. From the menu, choose Component 2>Laminar Flow
2>Velocity and pressure>spf2.U - Velocity magnitude.
3 Locate the Plane Data section. From the Plane list, choose zx-planes.
4 On the Velocity, Front Plane toolbar, click Plot.
This slice view shows the velocity magnitude in the same plane as in the 2D model
(Figure 9).
Next, plot arrows of the tangential velocity field in the vertical plane parallel to the
plates to reproduce Figure 10.
3D Plot Group 13
2 In the Settings window for 3D Plot Group, type Temperature, 10 K Offset in

Temperature, 10 K Offset
1 Right-click Temperature, 10 K Offset and choose Slice.
of the Expression section. From the menu, choose Component 2>Heat Transfer in
Fluids 2>Temperature>T2 - Temperature.
3 Locate the Plane Data section. In the Planes text field, type 1.
4 Locate the Coloring and Style section. From the Color table list, choose ThermalLight.
5 On the Temperature, 10 K Offset toolbar, click Plot.
6 Right-click Temperature, 10 K Offset and choose Arrow Volume.
33 |
7 In the Settings window for Arrow Volume, locate the Expression section.
8 In the x component text field, type 0.
9 Locate the Arrow Positioning section. Find the x grid points subsection. In the Points
text field, type 1.

10 Find the y grid points subsection. In the Points text field, type 25.
11 Find the z grid points subsection. In the Points text field, type 25.
12 Locate the Coloring and Style section. From the Color list, choose Black.
The arrows follow convective cells at the four corners for a temperature difference
of 10 K. Follow the steps below to reproduce Figure 11 and to see these cells when
the temperature difference is reduced to 1 K and 0.1 K.
Temperature, 10 K Offset 1
1 Right-click Temperature, 10 K Offset and choose Duplicate.
2 In the Settings window for 3D Plot Group, type Temperature, 1 K Offset in the
Label text field.
3 Locate the Data section. From the Parameter value (DeltaT) list, choose 1.
Temperature, 1 K Offset 1
1 Right-click Results>Temperature, 1 K Offset and choose Duplicate.
2 In the Settings window for 3D Plot Group, type Temperature, 0.1 K Offset in

3 Locate the Data section. From the Parameter value (DeltaT) list, choose 0.1.
4 On the Temperature, 0.1 K Offset toolbar, click Plot.
34 |
Parameterized Woven Carbon Fibers

Geometry
This is a template MPH-file containing the geometry for the model Anisotropic Heat
Transfer through Woven Carbon Fibers. For a description of that model, including
detailed step-by-step instructions showing how to build it, see Anisotropic Heat
Transfer through Woven Carbon Fibers.
Application Library path: Heat_Transfer_Module/Tutorials,_Conduction/

carbon_fibers_geom
1 |
P A R A M E T E R I Z E D WO V E N C A R B O N F I B E R S G E O M E T R Y
2 |
P A R A M E T E R I Z E D WO V E N C A R B O N F I B E R S G E O M E T R Y
Anisotropic Heat Transfer through

Wo v e n C a r bo n Fi b ers
Introduction
Composite materials such as carbon-fiber-reinforced polymer (CFRP) have
outstanding properties. It is a lightweight material with high stiffness and high
temperature tolerance and therefore used in aerospace industry, civil engineering and
also for high-end sports goods.
Carbon crystals form flat ribbons. Large numbers of these ribbons are bundled
together and woven in different structures as required by the application area. The
bundles have anisotropic material properties. For thermal properties this means that
the thermal conductivity along the fiber axis is much higher than perpendicular to it.
Infinite domains
Carbon fibers
Figure 1: Model geometry: fibers embedded in an epoxy matrix (hidden) with infinite
element domain.
1 |
A N I S O T R O P I C H E A T TR A N S F E R T H R O U G H WO V E N C A R B O N F I B E R S
In COMSOL Multiphysics, implementing anisotropic properties is straightforward in

the global coordinate system, which is set by default. However, in the present case, an
anisotropic thermal conductivity needs to be defined along woven fibers where the
global coordinate system is inapplicable. The curvilinear coordinate system provides
the possibility to create a coordinate system following the curves of a geometry in
which anisotropic material properties or anisotropic physics can be defined.
This tutorial shows how to use the curvilinear coordinates interface and how to apply
it to define anisotropic thermal conductivity.
Model Definition
The model represents a cutout of a carbon-fiber-reinforced polymer. The geometry
used in this case is shown in Figure 1. The fiber bundles have circular cross-sections
and are embedded in a matrix made of epoxy.
The infinite domains truncate the geometry to model a few fibers only. With the
Heat Transfer Module you can assign them as Infinite Element Domains and thus
suppress boundary effects. Without the Heat Transfer Module the boundary
conditions at the outer side affects the solution-in this case the maximum temperature.
Increase the number of fibers to reduce these effects.
MATERIAL PROPERTIES
The material properties are summarized in Table 1.

MATERIAL PROPERTY
EPOXY
CARBON (CORE)
CARBON (INFINITE DOMAIN)
0.2 W/(mK)
{60,4,4} W/(mK)
60 W/(mK)
Density
1200 kg/m
1500 kg/m
1500 kg/m
Heat capacity at
constant pressure
1000 J/(kgK)
1000 J/(kgK)
1000 J/(kgK)
Note the syntax of the thermal conductivity for carbon (core). In the general case of
an anisotropic thermal conductivity, it is a second order tensor. In the present case, the
tensor is diagonal.
k xx k xy k xz
k = k yx k yy k yz
k k k
zx zy zz
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60 0 0
=
0 40
0 04
Note that the conductivity is high in the fibers direction and low in perpendicular
direction. The coordinate system used for k must then provide an x-component
following the shape of the fibers. The Curvilinear Coordinates interface provides
appropriate tools to create such a base vector system.
CURVILINEAR COORDINATES
Three predefined methods and a user-defined method are available to set up a

curvilinear coordinate system. Further details can be found in the COMSOL
Multiphysics Reference Guide in the Curvilinear Coordinates interface section.
Here you use the diffusion method which solves Laplaces equation resulting in a scalar
potential. It is the same as solving the stationary heat transfer equation with
temperature boundary conditions resulting in a temperature gradient and forming the
first base vector of the new coordinate system. The second base vector is specified
manually and the cross-product of both forms the third base vector.
Figure 2 shows the base vector system for a single fiber.
Figure 2: Curvilinear coordinate system from diffusion method.

Alternatively the Flow Method is available, which results in a vector potential. This is
equivalent to solving Stokes flow (also known as creeping flow) where the obtained
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velocity field forms the first base vector. The third option is to choose the Elasticity
Method for solving an eigenvalue problem.
If the Create base vector system option is selected, the new curvilinear system is
available as input for the Coordinate System Selection drop-down menu and thus
providing new (x, y, z) coordinates.
BOUNDARY CONDITIONS
For the curvilinear coordinates interface, the inlet and outlet boundaries define the
direction of the first base vector. The heat transfer analogy consists in setting a high
temperature at the inlet and a low temperature at the outlet. All other boundaries are
thermally insulated walls.
For the heat transfer interface, a constant temperature boundary condition is set at the
outermost walls. A boundary heat source described with a Gaussian pulse in the center
of the geometry is applied and a convective cooling boundary condition on both sides.
INFINITE ELEMENTS
To truncate the geometry the Infinite Element Domain feature can be used. Boundary
conditions applied to these elements can be imagined as boundary conditions at an
infinite distance of the modeling domain. So it does not affect the solution of this
particular problem. This works by scaling the width of the domain to be much larger
than the original geometry.

From the Curvilinear Coordinates interface a new coordinate system is obtained as
shown in Figure 1. The temperature distribution on the surface shows a high
temperature at the center where the maximum of the Gaussian function is located and
decreases with increasing distance from the center. The temperature drop to 293 K as
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specified in the boundary conditions occurs mainly in the Infinite Element Domains.
Figure 3: Temperature distribution on the surface.
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Figure 4 shows clearly that the heat spreads preferentially along the fiber axis.
Figure 4: Temperature at the center plane and fiber structure (gray).

This tutorial demonstrates how to use the Curvilinear Coordinate interface for
defining anisotropic thermal conductivity. Hence, the instructions focus on this part
and start with loading the file carbon_fiber_geom.mph. The steps needed to create
this file are quite complex. This document does not go into details but provides a short
summary instead.
The geometry sequence calls geometry subsequences depending on the global
parameter q. The subsequences define different cross-sections and can be found under
the Global Definitions node. Call the elliptical cross-section with q = 1 and the
rectangular cross-section with q = 2.
All subsequent geometry features are based on these subsequences. Inside some of the
features, a selection of geometric entities is created automatically by selecting the
Create Selections option. Instead of selecting objects manually, these selections are used
as input in the following geometry node. This approach ensures that all geometry
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operations adapt and produce the desired geometry automatically, even if a geometry
parameter changes.
Selections are also used on the finalized geometry to ensure that physical properties are
assigned to the intended entities. These selections are defined under Component
1>Definitions. They are used to automatically set up boundary and domain conditions
as well as the mesh. The resulting model is consistent for any choice of parameters. The
extra time needed to set up this kind of geometry sequence and to define selections is
regained through an accelerated physics modeling and meshing process.

carbon_fibers_infinite_elements
ROOT
Start with loading the model file that contains the geometry and selections used
throughout the modeling process.
1 From the File menu, choose Open.
carbon_fibers_geom.mph.
COMPONENT 1 (COMP1)
Add the Curvilinear Coordinates interface for the fibers.

ADD PHYSICS
3 In the Add physics tree, select Mathematics>Curvilinear Coordinates (cc).
CURVILINEAR COORDINATES (CC)
1 On the Home toolbar, click Add Physics to close the Add Physics window.
2 In the Model Builder window, under Component 1 (comp1) click Curvilinear
Coordinates (cc).
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3 In the Settings window for Curvilinear Coordinates, locate the Domain Selection
section.
4 From the Selection list, choose Fibers (Core).
5 Locate the Settings section. Select the Create base vector system check box.
According to the Curvilinear Coordinates section, the second basis vector is specified
manually. The y-direction feels natural.
Coordinate System Settings 1

1 In the Model Builder window, under Component 1 (comp1)>Curvilinear Coordinates
(cc) click Coordinate System Settings 1.
2 In the Settings window for Coordinate System Settings, locate the Settings section.
3 From the Second basis vector list, choose y-axis.
Diffusion Method 1
1 On the Physics toolbar, click Domains and choose Diffusion Method.
Wall is the default boundary condition where the normal component of the vector
field is zero. The direction of the first basis vector is specified with inlet and outlet
boundary conditions.
2 In the Settings window for Diffusion Method, locate the Domain Selection section.
Inlet 1
1 On the Physics toolbar, click Attributes and choose Inlet.
2 In the Settings window for Inlet, locate the Boundary Selection section.
3 From the Selection list, choose Inlets.
Diffusion Method 1
In the Model Builder window, under Component 1 (comp1)>Curvilinear Coordinates (cc)
click Diffusion Method 1.
Outlet 1
1 On the Physics toolbar, click Attributes and choose Outlet.
2 In the Settings window for Outlet, locate the Boundary Selection section.
3 From the Selection list, choose Outlets.
MESH 1
Now, build a suitable mesh manually. Start with meshing the fibers.
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Free Triangular 1

2 In the Settings window for Free Triangular, locate the Boundary Selection section.
3 From the Selection list, choose Inlets.
Distribution 1
1 Right-click Component 1 (comp1)>Mesh 1>Free Triangular 1 and choose Distribution.
2 In the Settings window for Distribution, locate the Edge Selection section.
3 From the Selection list, choose Inlet Edges.
4 Locate the Distribution section. In the Number of elements text field, type 2.
5 On the Mesh toolbar, click Swept.
Swept 1
1 In the Model Builder window, under Component 1 (comp1)>Mesh 1 click Swept 1.
2 In the Settings window for Swept, locate the Domain Selection section.
3 From the Geometric entity level list, choose Domain.
Distribution 1
1 Right-click Component 1 (comp1)>Mesh 1>Swept 1 and choose Distribution.
2 In the Settings window for Distribution, locate the Domain Selection section.
4 Locate the Distribution section. In the Number of elements text field, type 6.
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Convert the surface elements into triangles in order to use a free tetrahedral mesh for
the epoxy domain.
Convert 1
1 In the Model Builder window, right-click Mesh 1 and choose More
Operations>Convert.
2 In the Settings window for Convert, locate the Geometric Entity Selection section.
4 From the Selection list, choose Fiber Walls.
Use a triangular mesh at the remaining core boundaries and extrude the resulting
boundary mesh into the infinite element domains.
5 On the Mesh toolbar, click Boundary and choose Free Triangular.
Free Triangular 2
1 In the Model Builder window, under Component 1 (comp1)>Mesh 1 click Free
Triangular 2.
3 From the Selection list, choose Epoxy Boundaries (Core).
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Size 1
1 Right-click Component 1 (comp1)>Mesh 1>Free Triangular 2 and choose Size.
4 On the Mesh toolbar, click Swept.
Swept 2
1 In the Model Builder window, under Component 1 (comp1)>Mesh 1 click Swept 2.
4 From the Selection list, choose Infinite Element Domains.
Distribution 1
4 On the Mesh toolbar, click Free Tetrahedral.
Free Tetrahedral 1
Mesh the remaining part with a free tetrahedral mesh.
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1 In the Model Builder window, under Component 1 (comp1)>Mesh 1 right-click Free

Tetrahedral 1 and choose Build All.
The final mesh looks like this:
ADD STUDY
Add a stationary study to compute the new coordinate system with the Diffusion
Method.
3 Find the Studies subsection. In the Select study tree, select Preset Studies>Stationary.
5 On the Home toolbar, click Add Study to close the Add Study window.
STUDY 1
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RESULTS
Vector Field (cc)

The default plots show the coordinate system with volume arrows plots and a
streamlines plot for the vector field. To create the plot shown in Figure 3, add a
selection to the data set. The plot group then will use this subset of the whole
geometry only.
Selection
On the Results toolbar, click Selection.
Data Sets
1 In the Settings window for Selection, locate the Geometric Entity Selection section.
3 Click Paste Selection.
4 In the Paste Selection dialog box, type 20, 34, 54, 68, 88, 102, 122, 136 in
the Selection text field.

5 Click OK.
Coordinate system (cc)

1 In the Model Builder window, expand the Coordinate system (cc) node, then click
Coordinate System Volume 1.
2 In the Settings window for Coordinate System Volume, locate the Positioning
section.
3 Find the x grid points subsection. In the Points text field, type 16.
5 Find the z grid points subsection. In the Points text field, type 2.
6 On the Coordinate system (cc) toolbar, click Plot.
7 Click the Go to Default 3D View button on the Graphics toolbar.
Now, add the Heat Transfer in Solids interface to the component.

ADD PHYSICS
3 In the Add physics tree, select Heat Transfer>Heat Transfer in Solids (ht).
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4 Find the Physics interfaces in study subsection. In the table, enter the following
settings:
Studies
Solve
Study 1
Infinite Element Domain 1 (ie1)

On the Definitions toolbar, click Infinite Element Domain.
DEFINITIONS
Infinite Element Domain 1 (ie1)

1 In the Settings window for Infinite Element Domain, locate the Domain Selection
section.
2 From the Selection list, choose Infinite Element Domains.
In order to apply a heat source right in the center of the model, the Mass Properties
feature is used. It computes the center of mass, which is automatically the center of the
geometry.
3 In the Model Builder window, right-click Definitions and choose Mass Properties.
4 In the Settings window for Mass Properties, locate the Source Selection section.
Define a heat source via a local variable, which is defined on the boundary only. Use
the mass properties variable for the center of mass to apply the source term exactly in
the center.
Variables 1
1 On the Definitions toolbar, click Local Variables.
2 In the Settings window for Variables, locate the Variables section.
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Name
Expression
Unit
Description
Q_in
1e5[W/m^2]*exp(-5e6[1/
m^2]*((x-mass1.CMx)^2+
(z-mass1.CMz)^2))
W/m
Boundary heat source
In the next section, you define the materials according to the Material Properties
section.
MATERIALS
Material 1 (mat1)

2 In the Settings window for Material, type Epoxy in the Label text field.
Property
Name
Value
Unit
Property group
0.2
W/(mK)
Basic
Density
rho
1200
kg/m
Basic
Cp
1000
J/(kgK)
Basic
Material 2 (mat2)
1 Right-click Component 1 (comp1)>Materials>Epoxy and choose Blank Material.
2 In the Settings window for Material, type Carbon in the Label text field.
3 Locate the Geometric Entity Selection section. From the Selection list, choose Fibers.
Property
Name
Value
Unit
Property group
{60,
4, 4}
W/(mK)
Basic
Density
rho
1500
kg/m
Basic
Cp
1000
J/(kgK)
Basic
Material 3 (mat3)
1 Right-click Component 1 (comp1)>Materials>Carbon and choose Blank Material.
2 In the Settings window for Material, type Carbon (Infinite Element Domain)
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3 Locate the Geometric Entity Selection section. From the Selection list, choose Fibers
(Infinite Element Domain).
Property
Name
Value
Unit
60
Property group
W/(mK)
Basic
Density
rho
1500
kg/m
Basic
Cp
1000
J/(kgK)
Basic
Add a second Heat Transfer in Solids node for the fibers and choose the curvilinear
system as reference system. This way the thermal conductivity is high along the fiber
axis and low perpendicular to it.

1 On the Physics toolbar, click Domains and choose Heat Transfer in Solids.
2 In the Settings window for Heat Transfer in Solids, locate the Domain Selection
section.
4 Locate the Coordinate System Selection section. From the Coordinate system list,
choose Curvilinear System (cc) (cc_cs).

Set up the boundary conditions: the heat source, a convective heat flux accounting for
cooling and a fixed temperature at the very outer boundaries of the infinite domain.
Boundary Heat Source 1

1 On the Physics toolbar, click Boundaries and choose Boundary Heat Source.
2 In the Settings window for Boundary Heat Source, locate the Boundary Selection
section.
3 From the Selection list, choose Heat Source Boundary.
4 Locate the Boundary Heat Source section. In the Qb text field, type Q_in.
Heat Flux 1
3 From the Selection list, choose Cooling Boundaries.
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5 In the h text field, type 10.
Temperature 1
2 In the Settings window for Temperature, locate the Boundary Selection section.
3 From the Selection list, choose Temperature Boundaries.
The first study was used to compute the curvilinear system. Add a second study to solve
for the heat transfer only. Refer to Study 1 in the Values of Dependent Variables section
by selecting the solution as input for the variables not solved in this second study. This
way the new coordinate system, which is initially unknown by Study 2, can be used for
the heat transfer computation.
ADD STUDY
settings:
Physics
Solve
Curvilinear Coordinates (cc)

STUDY 2
Step 1: Stationary
3 In the Settings window for Stationary, click to expand the Values of dependent
variables section.
4 Locate the Values of Dependent Variables section. Find the Values of variables not
solved for subsection. From the Settings list, choose User controlled.
5 From the Method list, choose Solution.
6 From the Study list, choose Study 1, Stationary.
7 On the Home toolbar, click Compute.
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RESULTS
Temperature (ht)
The default temperature plot shows the temperature distribution on the surface
(Figure 3).
To create Figure 4 follow the steps below:
Selection
1 In the Model Builder window, under Results>Data Sets right-click Study 2/Solution 2
(sol2) and choose Duplicate.
2 On the Results toolbar, click Selection.
Data Sets
3 From the Selection list, choose Core Domains.
Surface 1
On the Results toolbar, click More Data Sets and choose Surface.
Data Sets
1 In the Settings window for Surface, locate the Data section.
2 From the Data set list, choose Study 2/Solution 2 (2) (sol2).
3 Locate the Selection section. From the Selection list, choose Fiber Walls.
3D Plot Group 5
2 In the Settings window for 3D Plot Group, type Temperature at Middle Slice

3 Locate the Data section. From the Data set list, choose Study 2/Solution 2 (3) (sol2).
4 On the Temperature at Middle Slice toolbar, click Slice.
Temperature at Middle Slice

1 In the Model Builder window, under Results>Temperature at Middle Slice click Slice 1.
Solids>Temperature>T - Temperature.
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4 In the Planes text field, type 1.

6 On the Temperature at Middle Slice toolbar, click Surface.
7 In the Model Builder window, under Results>Temperature at Middle Slice click Surface
1.
8 In the Settings window for Surface, locate the Expression section.
9 In the Expression text field, type 1.
10 Locate the Data section. From the Data set list, choose Surface 1.
11 Locate the Coloring and Style section. From the Coloring list, choose Uniform.
12 From the Color list, choose Gray.
13 On the Temperature at Middle Slice toolbar, click Plot.
14 Click the Go to ZX View button on the Graphics toolbar.
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Radiation in a Cavity
Introduction
The following example shows how to build and solve a radiative heat transfer problem
using the Heat Transfer with Surface-to-Surface Radiation interface. This examples
simple geometry allows a comparison of results from COMSOL Multiphysics with a
theoretical solution.
Model Definition
The geometry consists of three rectangles with lengths 3 m, 4 m, and 5 m, and all have
a width of 1 m. The rectangles are situated such that they form a triangular cavity (see
Figure 1).
q3
q2
T1
Figure 1: Three domains form a triangular cavity to study heat radiation.
The rectangles are made of copper, which is a good thermal conductor, and they
transfer heat internally by conduction. Further, the three inner boundaries that form
the cavity can exchange heat only by means of surface-to-surface radiation. The surface
emissivities are 1 = 0.4 on the bottom boundary, 2 = 0.6 on the vertical boundary,
and 3 = 0.8 on the inclined boundary.
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RADIATION IN A CAVITY
The system holds the temperature on the (outer) lower boundary at T1 = 300 K.
Further, the system experiences an inward heat flux of q2 = 2000 W/m2 on the outer
boundary of the vertical rectangle and q3 = 1000 W/m2 on the outer boundary of the
tilted one. All remaining outer boundaries are insulated.
This example examines the steady state of the cavitys interior boundaries. Specifically,
you know the value of the heat flux on the inclined and vertical boundaries, and you
want to find the temperature along these boundaries. Conversely, you know the
temperature of the bottom boundary and want to determine the heat flux that leaves
through it.

Figure 2 shows the temperature field resulting from a simulation. If you run the model
as described later in this section you can see from the color display that the
temperatures are fairly constant within the three rectangles. The theoretical results
predict that a heat flux Q1 = 11,000 W/m leaves the cavity through the bottom
boundary, that the vertical boundary has a temperature of T2 = 641 K, and that the
inclined boundary has a temperature of T3 = 600 K. The results obtained are very close
to these theoretical values. The section Comparing Results with Theory provides more
details on the verification of these results.
Figure 2: Temperature as a function of position.
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Figure 3 details the temperature distribution along the inclined boundary of the cavity.
Note that while the temperature is not constant, it varies by only a few percent. The
lowest temperature appears on the bottom left, and the highest temperature is on the
right, which seems reasonable because that portion of the boundary is located adjacent
to the vertical boundary, which has the highest inward heat flux.
Figure 3: Temperature distribution along the inclined boundary of the cavity.
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Figure 4 plots the radiosity along the inclined boundary (in other words, the total heat
flux that leaves the boundary into the cavity). The radiosity is the sum of the heat flux
the boundary emits plus the heat flux it reflects.
Figure 4: Radiosity along the inclined boundary of the cavity.

Like temperature, the radiosity is fairly constant along the boundary. The small
variations have roughly the same distribution as the temperature in Figure 3.
COMPARING RESULTS WITH THEORY
As mentioned at the start of this section, you can compare the results from this tutorial
to theoretical values, which are based on the sketch in Figure 5 and whose theory
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appears in the section Enclosures with More Than Two Surfaces in Ref. 1.
Q3
L3
L2
2
Q2
L1 1
T1
Figure 5: Problem sketch for theoretical analysis of radiation in a triangular cavity.
The theoretical model considers only the three boundaries that form the cavity. On
these boundaries, the model either holds the temperature at a constant value or
specifies a heat flux. Note that this approach differs somewhat from the model, which
sets temperatures and heat fluxes on the rectangles outer boundaries.
The COMSOL Multiphysics model shows that the temperatures and heat fluxes are
nearly equal on the inner and outer boundaries of the rectangles. Therefore, the
COMSOL Multiphysics and the theoretical model show good agreement.
Using the notation from Figure 5 with the same assumptions as for the model, you
obtain the following lengths and emissivities:
L1 = 4 m, 1 = 0.4
L2 = 3 m, 2 = 0.6
L3 = 5 m, 3 = 0.8
The boundary conditions define either the temperature or the heat flux on each
boundary. Now apply the same boundary conditions as in the problem where you set
values for T1, Q2, and Q3. You must, however, make a small adjustment for T1 because
the theoretical configuration sets it on the outer boundary and not on the cavity side.
T1 is therefore slightly higher than 300 K in the theoretical analysis:
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T 1 = 307 K
W
Q 2 = q 2 L 2 = 2000 ----- 3 m = 6000 W
m
W
Q 3 = q 3 L 3 = 1000 ----- 5 m = 5000 W
m
You describe the heat flux from a boundary with the following two equations:
i
4
Q i = L i ------------- ( T i J i )
1 i
Qi = Li
Fik ( Ji Jk )
k
For a triangular cavity, the following equation gives the view factor between surface i
and surface j:
Li + Lj Lk
F ij = -----------------------------2L i
Substituting this expression for the view factor into the second equation for the heat
fluxes results in a linear system of six equations. The six unknowns for this particular
problem are J1, J2, J3, Q1, T2, and T3, and you would like to compare the three last
to those from the solution. Solving the linear system yields the following values:
Q1 = 11,000 W/m, T2 = 641 K, and T3 = 600 K.
To compare these results with the model, you must find the total heat flux through the
cavitys bottom (horizontal) boundary and also calculate the average temperatures on
the other two boundaries.
The following table compares the results from COMSOL Multiphysics with the
theoretical values:
QUANTITY
COMSOL MULTIPHYSICS
THEORY
Q1
-10,965 W/m
-11,000 W/m
T2
645 K
641 K
T3
601 K
600 K
The differences are quite small. Also note that the theoretical model includes some
simplifications. For example, it assumes that heat fluxes and temperatures are constant
along each boundary. It also assumes a constant view factor for each pair of boundaries,
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whereas COMSOL Multiphysics computes a local view factor at each point of the
cavity.
Reference
1. A. Bejan, Heat Transfer, John Wiley & Sons, 1993.
Application Library path: Heat_Transfer_Module/Verification_Examples/

cavity_radiation
NEW

MODEL WIZARD

2 In the Select physics tree, select Heat Transfer>Radiation>Heat Transfer with
Surface-to-Surface Radiation (ht).
3 Click Add.
4 Click Study.
6 Click Done.
GEOMETRY 1
The geometry consists of three rectangles positioned such that they create a triangular
cavity.
Rectangle 1 (r1)
1 On the Geometry toolbar, click Primitives and choose Rectangle.
2 In the Settings window for Rectangle, locate the Size and Shape section.
3 In the Width text field, type 4.
4 Locate the Position section. In the y text field, type -1.001.
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Rectangle 2 (r2)
3 In the Height text field, type 3.
4 Locate the Position section. In the x text field, type 4.001.
Rectangle 3 (r3)
4 Locate the Position section. In the x text field, type -0.001.
5 In the y text field, type 0.001.
6 Locate the Rotation Angle section. In the Rotation text field, type atan(3/4)[rad].
This completes the geometry modeling stage.

H E A T TR A N S F E R W I T H S U R F A C E - T O - S U R F A C E R A D I A T I O N ( H T )

1 In the Model Builder window, under Component 1 (comp1)>Heat Transfer with
Surface-to-Surface Radiation (ht) click Heat Transfer in Solids 1.
2 In the Settings window for Heat Transfer in Solids, locate the Heat Conduction, Solid
section.
3 From the k list, choose User defined. In the associated text field, type 400.
4 Locate the Thermodynamics, Solid section. From the Cp list, choose User defined. In
the associated text field, type 385.

5 From the list, choose User defined. In the associated text field, type 8700.
Initial Values 1
Surface-to-Surface Radiation (ht) click Initial Values 1.
3 In the T text field, type 300.
Next define the boundary conditions.
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Heat Flux 1
3 In the Settings window for Heat Flux, locate the Heat Flux section.
4 In the q0 text field, type 1000.
Heat Flux 2
4 In the q0 text field, type 2000.
Temperature 1
4 In the T0 text field, type 300.
Diffuse Surface 1
3 In the Settings window for Diffuse Surface, locate the Ambient section.
4 In the Tamb text field, type 300.

By default the radiation direction is controlled by the opacity of the domains. The
solid parts are automatically defined as opaque. You can change this setting by
adding or modifying Opaque subnodes under the Heat Transfer in Solids node.
Diffuse Surface 2
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Diffuse Surface 3

MESH 1
Edge 1
choose More Operations>Edge.

2 In the Settings window for Edge, locate the Boundary Selection section.
3 From the Geometric entity level list, choose Entire geometry.
Size 1
1 Right-click Component 1 (comp1)>Mesh 1>Edge 1 and choose Size.
2 In the Settings window for Size, locate the Geometric Entity Selection section.
5 Locate the Element Size section. Click the Custom button.
6 Locate the Element Size Parameters section. Select the Maximum element size check
box.
7 In the associated text field, type 0.05.
Size 2
1 Right-click Edge 1 and choose Size.
3 From the Geometric entity level list, choose Point.
4 Select Points 2, 4, 6, and 810 only.
box.
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Free Triangular 1
1 In the Model Builder window, right-click Mesh 1 and choose Free Triangular.
2 In the Settings window for Free Triangular, click to expand the Tessellation section.
3 From the Method list, choose Advancing front.
4 Right-click Mesh 1 and choose Build All.
The complete mesh consists of roughly 2700 elements.

STUDY 1

RESULTS
Temperature (ht)
The computation takes around 10 seconds.
The first default plot shows the temperature field; compare with Figure 2.
The two additional default plots visualize the temperature field and the radiosity on
the boundaries.
Add a 1D plot for the temperature field on the inclined boundary (Figure 3).
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1D Plot Group 4
2 In the Settings window for 1D Plot Group, type Temperature Profile vs Arc
Length in the Label text field.
Line Graph 1
On the Temperature Profile vs Arc Length toolbar, click Line Graph.
Temperature Profile vs Arc Length

2 On the Temperature Profile vs Arc Length toolbar, click Plot.
Add another 1D plot showing the radiosity on the inclined boundary (Figure 4).
Temperature Profile vs Arc Length 1

1 In the Model Builder window, right-click Temperature Profile vs Arc Length and
choose Duplicate.
2 In the Settings window for 1D Plot Group, type Surface Radiosity Profile vs
Arc Length in the Label text field.
Surface Radiosity Profile vs Arc Length

1 In the Model Builder window, expand the Results>Surface Radiosity Profile vs Arc
Length node, then click Line Graph 1.
corner of the y-axis data section. From the menu, choose Model>Component 1>Heat
Transfer with Surface-to-Surface Radiation>Radiation>Surface radiosity>ht.J - Surface
radiosity.
3 On the Surface Radiosity Profile vs Arc Length toolbar, click Plot.
Derived Values
Determine the conductive heat flux through the cavity's bottom boundary as follows.
Line Integration 1
On the Results toolbar, click More Derived Values and choose Integration>Line
Integration.
Derived Values
2 In the Settings window for Line Integration, click Replace Expression in the
upper-right corner of the Expression section. From the menu, choose
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Model>Component 1>Heat Transfer with Surface-to-Surface Radiation>Boundary

fluxes>ht.ndflux - Normal conductive heat flux.
3 Click the Evaluate button.
TA BL E
1 Go to the Table window.
The result displayed in the Table window should be approximately 11,000 W/m.
Next, find the mean temperature on the vertical boundary of the cavity.
RESULTS
Line Integration 2
Integration.
Derived Values
2 In the Settings window for Line Integration, locate the Expression section.
3 In the Expression text field, type T/3.
TA BL E
The resulting temperature, read from the table, should be approximately 641 K.
Finally, evaluate the mean temperature on inclined boundary of the cavity.
RESULTS
Line Integration 3
Integration.
Derived Values
2 In the Settings window for Line Integration, locate the Expression section.
3 In the Expression text field, type T/5.
13 |
TABLE
The resulting temperature, read from the table, should be approximately 600 K.
14 |
Composite Thermal Barrier

Introduction
This example shows how to set up multiple sandwiched thin layers with different
thermal conductivities in two different ways.
First, the composite is modeled as a 3D object. In the second approach the Thin Layer
boundary condition is used to avoid resolving the thin domains.
The technique is useful when modeling heat transfer through thermal barriers like
multilayer coatings.
Model Definition
This tutorial uses a simple geometry as shown in Figure 1. The cylinder has a radius of
2 cm and a height of 4 cm.
Hot Surface
Thin Thermally
Resistive Layer
Cold Surface
Figure 1: Geometry.
1 |
COMPOSITE THERMAL BARRIER
The composite consists of two layers with different thermal conductivities. The first
approach resolves each layer as a 3D domain. The height of the layers is about three
orders of magnitude smaller than the bulk height. This often requires to build a mesh
manually to accurately resolve the thin structure.
COMSOL Multiphysics provides a special boundary condition which is available from
the Heat Transfer Module. The second approach uses the Thin Layer feature with
resistive property. It simplifies the geometry and thus the mesh. In complex
geometries, this boundary condition can reduce the amount of memory and time
required for the simulation significantly.
The underlying equation assumes the heat flux through the layer proportional to the
temperature difference between upper and lower bulk. It is based on the assumption
that the bulk on each side is well stirred so that all resistance against heat transfer is
within a thin layer near the wall. Due to the additivity of resistance the flux over the
composite can be lumped to
k tot
n d ( k d T d ) = ---------- ( T u T d )
d tot
k tot
n u ( k u T u ) = ---------- ( T d T u )
d tot
where the overall thermal conductivity ktot can be calculated as
dn
n
k tot = ------------dn
-----kn
MATERIAL PROPERTIES
The cylinder is made of steel. The composite consist of two layers of different ceramics.
TABLE 1: CERAMICS MATERIAL PROPERTIES
PROPERTY
2 |
CERAMIC 1
CERAMIC 2
1 W/(mK)
0.5 W/(mK)
Density
6000 kg/m3
5800 kg/m3
320 J/(kgK)
280 J/(kgK)
BOUNDARY CONDITIONS
The temperature at the bottom is fixed to 20 C whereas one half of the top boundary
is held at 1220 C (1493 K). All other outer boundaries are perfectly insulated.

Figure 2 shows the temperature distribution in the cylinder. The composite acts as a
thermal barrier resulting in a jump of the temperature over the layer.
Figure 2: Temperature distribution.

Of interest is if the thin layer boundary condition produces reliable results compared
to resolving the thin layers in 3D. This can be done with a comparative line graph as
in Figure 3. It shows that the 2D approach, with or without an extra dimension,
produces accurate results for the bulk temperatures.
3 |
Figure 3: Temperature profile for 3D, 2D and 1D extra dimension approaches.

Another important question for simulating is the influence on the mesh size and on
the required RAM.
With the default tetrahedral mesh the number of mesh elements is about 130,000
elements and the meshing algorithm gives some warnings.
With the swept mesh feature you can significantly reduce the number of elements to
about 12,800 elements which is only 10%. In complex geometries the swept mesh
algorithm is often not applicable. Using the thin layer boundary condition, the
number of mesh elements reduces from 12,800 to 9,700 which is about 25% less, even
in this simple geometry. You can see the number of mesh elements used in the
messages box on the bottom right window.

To compare the results directly, both approaches are handled within one mph-file.
4 |

Tutorials,_Thin_Structure/composite_thermal_barrier
NEW

MODEL WIZARD

3 Click Add.
4 Click Study.
6 Click Done.
GLOBAL DEFINITIONS
Parameters
Name
Expression
Value
Description
d_ceram1
50[um]
5E-5 m
Thickness of layer 1
d_ceram2
75[um]
7.5E-5 m
Thickness of layer 2
T_hot
1220[degC]
1493 K
Hot temperature
GEOMETRY 1
1 In the Model Builder window, under Component 1 (comp1) click Geometry 1.

2 In the Settings window for Geometry, locate the Units section.
3 From the Length unit list, choose cm.
5 |
Cylinder 1 (cyl1)
3 In the Radius text field, type 2.
Use thin cylinders to define the ceramic layers between the two steel domains.
Cylinder 2 (cyl2)
4 In the Height text field, type d_ceram1.
5 Locate the Position section. In the z text field, type 2-(d_ceram1+d_ceram2)/2.
Cylinder 3 (cyl3)
5 In the Height text field, type d_ceram2.
6 Locate the Position section. In the z text field, type 2-(d_ceram1+d_ceram2)/
2+d_ceram1.
Polygon 1 (pol1)
2 On the Geometry toolbar, click More Primitives and choose Polygon.
3 In the Settings window for Polygon, locate the Coordinates section.
4 In the x text field, type 0 0.
5 In the y text field, type -2 2.
6 In the z text field, type 4 4.
7 On the Geometry toolbar, click Build All.
ADD MATERIAL
6 |
3 In the tree, select Built-In>Steel AISI 4340.

5 On the Home toolbar, click Add Material to close the Add Material window.
MATERIALS
Material 2 (mat2)

2 In the Settings window for Material, type Ceramic 1 in the Label text field.
Property
Name
Value
Unit
Property group
W/
(mK)
Basic
Density
rho
6000
kg/m
Basic
Heat capacity at constant

pressure
Cp
320
J/
(kgK)
Basic
Material 3 (mat3)
2 In the Settings window for Material, type Ceramic 2 in the Label text field.
Property
Name
Value
Unit
Property group
0.5
W/
(mK)
Basic
Density
rho
5800
kg/m
Basic

pressure
Cp
280
J/
(kgK)
Basic
Temperature 1
7 |
Temperature 2
3 In the T0 text field, type T_hot.
MESH 1
First, mesh the top surface with a free triangular mesh and extrude it in layers through
the cylindrical geometry. With a Distribution node, specify how many mesh layers are
to be created within the domain. Resolve the composite layers with two elements in
thickness.
Free Triangular 1

Swept 1
Distribution 1
STUDY 1

RESULTS
Temperature (ht)
The following plots are produced by default: the temperature on the surface as in
Figure 2 and an isothermal contour plot.
1 In the Model Builder window, expand the Temperature (ht) node, then click Surface 1.
8 |
3 From the Unit list, choose degC.

Next, create a temperature profile along the height of the cylinder. You will later
compare the graph with the results of the 2D approach.
1D Plot Group 3
2 In the Settings window for 1D Plot Group, type Temperature Profile in the Label
text field.
Line Graph 1
On the Temperature Profile toolbar, click Line Graph.
Temperature Profile
2 In the Settings window for Line Graph, locate the y-Axis Data section.
4 Locate the x-Axis Data section. From the Parameter list, choose Expression.
5 In the Expression text field, type z.
In the Width text field, type 2.

Legends
Temperature, 3D approach
10 In the Model Builder window, click Temperature Profile.

11 In the Settings window for 1D Plot Group, locate the Plot Settings section.
12 Select the x-axis label check box.
13 In the associated text field, type Height (cm).
14 Click to expand the Title section. From the Title type list, choose Manual.
15 In the Title text area, type Temperature Profile.
16 Click to expand the Legend section. From the Position list, choose Upper left.
9 |
17 On the Temperature Profile toolbar, click Plot.
Create the second model which uses the Thin Layer feature and compare the results
to the first approach.
ROOT

ADD PHYSICS
settings:
Studies
Solve
Study 1
H E A T TR A N S F E R I N S O L I D S 2 ( H T 2 )
ADD STUDY
settings:
Physics
Solve
Heat Transfer in Solids (ht)

STUDY 2
Step 1: Stationary
10 |
GEOMETRY 2

Cylinder 1 (cyl1)
5 Click to expand the Layers section. In the table, enter the following settings:
Layer name
Thickness (cm)
Layer 1
6 Clear the Layers on side check box.

7 Select the Layers on bottom check box.
Polygon 1 (pol1)
3 In the x text field, type 0 0.
4 In the y text field, type -2 2.
5 In the z text field, type 4 4.
ADD MATERIAL
3 In the tree, select Recent Materials>Steel AISI 4340.
Thin Layer 1
1 On the Physics toolbar, click Boundaries and choose Thin Layer.
11 |
2 In the Settings window for Thin Layer, locate the Thin Layer section.
3 Select the Multiple layers check box.
4 Locate the Heat Conduction section. From the Number of layers list, choose 2.
6 Find the Layer 1 subsection. From the list, choose Ceramic 1 (mat2).
7 In the ds1 text field, type d_ceram1.
Thin Layer 2
3 From the Layer type list, choose General.
4 Locate the Heat Conduction section. From the Number of layers list, choose 2.
Temperature 1
Temperature 2
4 In the T0 text field, type T_hot.
STUDY 2
Step 1: Stationary
12 |
2 In the Settings window for Stationary, locate the Physics and Variables Selection
section.
3 Select the Modify physics tree and variables for study step check box.
Disable Thin Layer 2 in this study. First Thin Layer 1 is used to show the results with
the Resistive option. Then another study will use Thin Layer 2 with the General
option.
4 In the Physics and variables selection tree, select Component 2 (comp2)>Heat Transfer
in Solids 2 (ht2)>Thin Layer 2.
5 Click Disable.
MESH 2
Free Triangular 1

3 In the Model Builder window, right-click Mesh 2 and choose Swept.
4 Right-click Mesh 2 and choose Build All.
STUDY 2

RESULTS
Temperature (ht2)
1 In the Model Builder window, expand the Temperature (ht2) node, then click Surface
1.
Temperature Profile
In the Model Builder window, under Results click Temperature Profile.
Line Graph 2
Temperature Profile
1 In the Settings window for Line Graph, locate the Data section.
13 |
3 Select Edges 9 and 11 only.

4 Click Replace Expression in the upper-right corner of the y-axis data section. From
the menu, choose Model>Component 2>Heat Transfer in Solids 2>Temperature>T2 Temperature.

5 Locate the y-Axis Data section. From the Unit list, choose degC.
Find the Line style subsection. From the Line list, choose None.
9 From the Color list, choose Magenta.
10 Find the Line markers subsection. From the Marker list, choose Cycle.
11 In the Number text field, type 15.
12 Locate the Legends section. Select the Show legends check box.
Legends
Temperature, 2D approach
Add a new study to solve Component 2 with Thin Layer 2 instead of Thin Layer 1. Thin
Layer 2 uses the General option which creates a 1D extra dimension formed by two
intervals to represent the two ceramic layers.
ADD STUDY
settings:
Physics
Solve

14 |
STUDY 3
Step 1: Stationary
section.
in Solids 2 (ht2)>Thin Layer 1.
6 Click Disable.
RESULTS
Temperature (ht2) 1
1 In the Model Builder window, expand the Temperature (ht2) 1 node, then click Surface
1.
Temperature Profile
In the Model Builder window, under Results click Temperature Profile.
Line Graph 3
Temperature Profile
3 Select Edges 9 and 11 only.
4 Locate the y-Axis Data section. In the Expression text field, type T2.
Find the Line style subsection. From the Line list, choose None.
15 |

11 Find the Line markers subsection. From the Marker list, choose Triangle.
Legends
Temperature, 1D extra dimension approach
The plot should look like that in Figure 3.
16 |
Condensation Detection in an
Electronic Device
Introduction
Many systems, for example electronic devices, risk being damaged if exposed to
condensation. Given an amount of moisture in the air, condensation occurs when the
temperature decreases to reach the dew point. Numerical simulations are useful for
obtaining knowledge relevant for preventing the formation of condensation.
Changes in air properties are the primary cause of condensation in some systems. This
example simulates the thermodynamical evolution of moist air in an electronic box
with the aim of detecting whether condensation occurs when the external environment
properties change. The model imports measured data for the air temperature, pressure,
and water vapor concentration and represents it by interpolation functions. The
property data corresponds to conditions observed during a stormy day when the
temperature dropped and humidity increased.
In this simulation, you assume the water vapor concentration to be homogeneous
inside the box and equal to the external concentration. Also, the model setup neglects
diffusion but considers the external concentration changes during the simulation.
Note: An extension of this application solves for an inhomogeneous concentration

computed from the Transport of Diluted Species interface and takes transport and
diffusion of the water vapor into account, see Condensation Detection in an
Electronic Device with Transport and Diffusion. It requires the Chemical Reaction
Engineering Module.
Model Definition
A box with square cross section of side 5 cm is placed in a moist air environment. It
contains a heated electronic component and two small slits (1 mm thick) located at the
left and right sides. The simulation is in a 2D cross section of the box, which is
supposed to be long enough in the orthogonal direction. It is made of aluminum and
1 |
CONDENSATION DETECTION IN AN ELECTRONIC DEVICE
the electronic component is made of silicon. Figure 1 shows the model geometry.
Figure 1: Geometry of the model.

The box is placed in a changing environment. This means that during the simulation,
temperature, pressure, and water vapor concentration change. The data provided
correspond to a storm with a fall of pressure. Figure 2 shows the temperature, pressure,
and water vapor concentration as functions of time.
In this simulation, assume the moist air concentration inside the box to be equal to the
external concentration.
Outside the box, you apply a convective cooling condition with a heat transfer
coefficient h equal to 10 W/(m2K) and a time-dependent external temperature. The
central component produces a total power of 1 W during the simulation. At the slit
boundaries, set a condition of open boundary to let external moist air freely enter or
exit from the box.
2 |
The study computes a simulation over one day and the solution is stored every
30 minutes. The goal is to observe if some condensation appears.
Figure 2: Temperature, pressure, and water vapor concentration interpolation curves over
the course of a day.

Figure 3 shows the temperature and relative humidity profiles at the final time step.
3 |
Figure 3: Temperature and relative humidity profiles after 24 hours.
4 |
While the temperature gradient is not very large, the power dissipated from the
electronic component clearly influences the temperature field: it heats the surrounding
air and the walls. Cold air enters through the slits by convection. In addition, the air
inside the box is cooled by conduction through the walls. The relative humidity
depends on temperature, pressure, and moisture content. Moreover, the pressure fall
is small enough to consider the relative humidity to be primarily influenced by
temperature and concentration. The relative humidity maximum is located where the
temperature is the lowest but also where the water vapor concentration is the highest.
Figure 4: Maximum relative humidity over time inside the box.

Figure 4 represents the evolution of the maximum relative humidity inside the box
over the simulation period. This curve reaches a maximum of 100%, meaning that
condensation occurs. A Boolean condensation indicator is inserted in order to
distinguish the exact condensation period. The condensation indicator is set to 1 when
condensation is detected (relative humidity equals 1) and to 0 otherwise.
5 |

Power_Electronics_and_Electronic_Cooling/
condensation_electronic_device
NEW

MODEL WIZARD

2 In the Select physics tree, select Heat Transfer>Conjugate Heat Transfer>Laminar Flow.
3 Click Add.
4 Click Study.
5 In the Select study tree, select Preset Studies for Selected Physics Interfaces>Time
Dependent.
6 Click Done.
GEOMETRY 1
Import 1 (imp1)
1 On the Home toolbar, click Import.
2 In the Settings window for Import, locate the Import section.
3 Click Browse.
condensation_electronic_device.mphbin.
5 Click Import.
The imported geometry is represented in Figure 1.

MATERIALS
A material is only needed on the solid part as the fluid part is going to be defined at
the feature level through the moist air functionality.
6 |
ADD MATERIAL
3 In the tree, select Built-In>Aluminum.
MATERIALS
Aluminum (mat1)
1 In the Model Builder window, under Component 1 (comp1)>Materials click Aluminum
(mat1).
ADD MATERIAL

2 In the tree, select Built-In>Silica glass.
MATERIALS
Silica glass (mat2)

1 In the Model Builder window, under Component 1 (comp1)>Materials click Silica glass
(mat2).
DEFINITIONS
This part is dedicated to defining the interpolation function of external temperature,

pressure and water vapor concentration. The use of piecewise cubic interpolation
smooths the curves between measurement points.
Interpolation 1 (int1)
1 On the Home toolbar, click Functions and choose Local>Interpolation.
2 In the Settings window for Interpolation, locate the Definition section.
3 From the Data source list, choose File.
4 Click Browse.
7 |
condensation_electronic_device_temperature_data.txt.
6 Click Import.
7 In the Function name text field, type T_ext.
8 Locate the Interpolation and Extrapolation section. From the Interpolation list,
choose Piecewise cubic.

10 In the Function text field, type K.
This figure should look like the left curve of Figure 2.
4 Click Browse.
condensation_electronic_device_pressure_data.txt.
6 Click Import.
7 In the Function name text field, type p_ext.

10 In the Function text field, type Pa.
This figure should look like the right curve of Figure 2.

Next, define probes for the maximum relative humidity and the condensation indicator
at the solver time steps.
4 Click Browse.
8 |
condensation_electronic_device_concentration_data.txt.
6 Click Import.
7 In the Function name text field, type c_ext.

10 In the Function text field, type mol/m^3.
This figure should look like the bottom curve of Figure 2.

H E A T TR A N S F E R ( H T )
Heat Transfer in Fluids 1

1 In the Model Builder window, under Component 1 (comp1)>Heat Transfer (ht) click
Heat Transfer in Fluids 1.
3 In the Settings window for Heat Transfer in Fluids, locate the Thermodynamics, Fluid
section.
4 From the Fluid type list, choose Moist air.
5 From the Input quantity list, choose Concentration.
6 Locate the Model Inputs section. In the c text field, type c_ext(t).
7 Locate the Domain Selection section. Click Create Selection.
8 In the Create Selection dialog box, type Moist air in the Selection name text field.
9 Click OK.
LAMINAR FLOW (SPF)
On the Physics toolbar, click Heat Transfer (ht) and choose Laminar Flow (spf).
2 In the Settings window for Laminar Flow, locate the Domain Selection section.
3 From the Selection list, choose Moist air.
Choose a compressible formulation of the Navier-Stokes equations and set the

reference pressure level to 0 in the interface properties.
9 |
4 Locate the Physical Model section. From the Compressibility list, choose Compressible
flow (Ma<0.3).
5 In the pref text field, type 0.
Fluid Properties 1
Fluid Properties 1.
2 In the Settings window for Fluid Properties, locate the Fluid Properties section.
3 From the list, choose Dynamic viscosity (ht/fluid1).
Initial Values 1
Initial Values 1.
3 In the p text field, type p_ext(0).
4 In the Model Builder window, click Laminar Flow (spf).
Open Boundary 1
1 On the Physics toolbar, click Boundaries and choose Open Boundary.
3 In the Settings window for Open Boundary, locate the Boundary Condition section.
4 In the f0 text field, type p_ext(t).
Initial Values 1
Initial Values 1.
3 In the T text field, type T_ext(0).
4 In the Model Builder window, click Heat Transfer (ht).
Heat Flux 1
2 Select Boundaries 1, 2, 5, 7, 21, and 23 only.
4 Click the Convective heat flux button.
10 |

6 In the Text text field, type T_ext(t).
Heat Source 1
1 On the Physics toolbar, click Domains and choose Heat Source.
3 In the Settings window for Heat Source, locate the Heat Source section.
4 Click the Overall heat transfer rate button.
5 In the P0 text field, type 1.
Open Boundary 1
3 In the Settings window for Open Boundary, locate the Open Boundary section.
4 In the T0 text field, type T_ext(t).
DEFINITIONS
Then, two probes are defined in order to get the maximum relative humidity and the
condensation indicator at the solver time steps.
Domain Probe 1 (dom1)

1 On the Definitions toolbar, click Probes and choose Domain Probe.
2 In the Settings window for Domain Probe, locate the Source Selection section.
3 Click Clear Selection.
5 Locate the Probe Type section. From the Type list, choose Maximum.
6 Click Replace Expression in the upper-right corner of the Expression section. From
the menu, choose Component 1 (comp1)>Heat Transfer>Moist air>ht.phi - Relative

humidity.
Domain Probe 2 (dom2)

1 On the Definitions toolbar, click Probes and choose Domain Probe.
2 In the Settings window for Domain Probe, locate the Source Selection section.
5 Locate the Probe Type section. From the Type list, choose Maximum.
11 |
the menu, choose Component 1 (comp1)>Heat Transfer>Moist air>ht.condInd Condensation indicator.

STUDY 1

1 In the Model Builder window, under Study 1 click Step 1: Time Dependent.
3 From the Time unit list, choose h.
4 Click Range.
5 In the Range dialog box, type 0.5 in the Step text field.
6 In the Stop text field, type 24.
7 Click Replace.
Solution 1 (sol1)
2 In the Model Builder window, expand the Solution 1 (sol1) node.
3 In the Model Builder window, expand the Study 1>Solver Configurations>Solution 1
(sol1)>Time-Dependent Solver 1>Segregated 1 node, then click Segregated Step 1.
4 In the Settings window for Segregated Step, click to expand the Method and
termination section.
5 Locate the Method and Termination section. From the Jacobian update list, choose On
every iteration.
Because the problem is nonlinear, updating the Jacobian on every iteration yields
faster resolution.
6 In the Model Builder window, under Study 1>Solver Configurations>Solution 1
(sol1)>Time-Dependent Solver 1>Segregated 1 click Segregated Step 2.
7 In the Settings window for Segregated Step, click to expand the Method and
8 Locate the Method and Termination section. From the Jacobian update list, choose On
every iteration.
9 In the Model Builder window, under Study 1>Solver Configurations>Solution 1 (sol1)
click Time-Dependent Solver 1.

10 In the Settings window for Time-Dependent Solver, click to expand the Time
stepping section.
12 |
11 Locate the Time Stepping section. Select the Maximum step check box.
Because the temperature and pressure variations can be quick, imposing a reduced
time step helps to capture all curve variations.
RESULTS
Temperature (ht)
This default plot represents the temperature profile at the last time step, as shown in
the top panel of Figure 3.
Velocity (spf)
This default plot shows the velocity profile at the last time step.
2D Plot Group 6
2 In the Settings window for 2D Plot Group, type Relative Humidity in the Label
text field.
Relative Humidity
1 Right-click Relative Humidity and choose Surface.
of the Expression section. From the menu, choose Component 1>Heat Transfer>Moist
air>ht.phi - Relative humidity.
3 On the Relative Humidity toolbar, click Plot.
Compare with the relative humidity profile in the bottom panel of Figure 3.
Probe Plot Group 5

Follow the steps below to reproduce the relative humidity evolution shown in
Figure 4.
1 In the Model Builder window, under Results click Probe Plot Group 5.
2 In the Settings window for 1D Plot Group, type Maximum Relative Humidity in
Maximum Relative Humidity

1 In the Model Builder window, expand the Results>Maximum Relative Humidity node,
then click Probe Table Graph 1.

2 In the Settings window for Table Graph, click to expand the Legends section.
13 |
3 Select the Show legends check box.

Legends
Maximum Relative Humidity - Study 1
Condensation Indicator - Study 1
6 In the Model Builder window, click Maximum Relative Humidity.

7 In the Settings window for 1D Plot Group, click to expand the Legend section.
8 From the Position list, choose Lower right.
9 Click to expand the Window settings section. Locate the Window Settings section.
From the Plot window list, choose Graphics.

10 On the Maximum Relative Humidity toolbar, click Plot.
14 |
M o de li ng a C o n i c al D i el ect ri c Prob e
for Skin Cancer Diagnosis
Introduction
The response of a millimeter wave with frequencies of 35 GHz and 95 GHz is known
to be very sensitive to water content. This model utilizes a low-power 35 GHz
Ka-band millimeter wave and its reflectivity to moisture for non-invasive cancer
diagnosis. Since skin tumors contain more moisture than healthy skin, it leads to
stronger reflections on this frequency band. Hence the probe detects abnormalities in
terms of S-parameters at the tumor locations. A circular waveguide at the dominant
mode and a conically tapered dielectric probe are quickly analyzed, along with the
probes radiation characteristics, using a 2D axisymmetric model. Temperature
variation of the skin and the fraction of necrotic tissue analysis are also performed as
well.
Chunk of skin
Tapered PTFE probe
Circular waveguide
Figure 1: 3D visualization of the 2D axisymmetric model. The probe consists of a circular

waveguide and a tapered dielectric rod.
1 |
MODELING A CONICAL DIELECTRIC PROBE FOR SKIN CANCER DIAGNOSIS
Model Definition
The model consists of a metallic circular waveguide, a tapered PTFE dielectric rod, and
a phantom of skin chunk shown in Figure 1. The entire model is enclosed by an air
domain which is truncated at its outermost shell with perfectly matched layers (PML)
to absorb any radiation directly from the rod or reflected from the skin phantom. One
end of the waveguide is terminated with a circular port and excited using the dominant
TE1m mode, where m is the azimuthal mode number of this 2D axisymmetric model
defined as 1 in the Electromagnetic Waves, Frequency Domain physics interface
settings. The other end is connected to a tapered conical PTFE dielectric (r = 2.1)
rod. The shape of the rod is symmetrically tapered so the radius is increasing from the
inside to the outside of the waveguide, then it is decreasing gradually for the
impedance matching between the waveguide and the air domain. There is a ring
structure in the middle to support the rod on the rim of the waveguide. The tip of the
rod is touching the skin phantom.
The conductivity of the metallic waveguide is assumed to be high enough to neglect
any loss and is modeled as perfect electric conductor (PEC). With the given radius of
the waveguide and excited TE mode, the cutoff frequency is around 29.3 GHz, which
is calculated by
c 0 p' nm
f cml = ----------------2a
where c0 is the speed of light, pnm are the roots of the derivative of the Bessel
functions Jn(x), m and n are the mode indices, and a is the radius of the waveguide.
The value of p11 is approximately 1.841. The operating frequency of the probe,
35 GHz, is higher than the waveguide cutoff frequency. The excited wave is
propagating along the waveguide.
The circular port boundary condition is placed on the interior boundary where the
reflection and transmission characteristics are computed automatically in terms of
S-parameters. The interior port boundary with PEC backing for one-way excitation
requires the slit condition. The port orientation is specified to define the inward
direction for the S-parameter calculation.
First, the electromagnetic properties of the model are analyzed without a phantom to
check the design validity of the waveguide and dielectric rod. Then, complexity is
2 |
added, first with a healthy phantom, then a phantom with a skin tumor. See Table 1.
TABLE 1: MATERIAL PROPERTY VARIATION
PROPERTY
PROBE ONLY
WITH A HEALTHY
PHANTOM
TUMOR ADDED
Relative permittivity
(imaginary part)
10
15
(real part)
Healthy skin
Added tumor part

0.7 mm thick
Figure 2: Zoomed 3D visualization of the skin tumor area. The entire probe model is
simulated in a 2D axisymmetric space dimension. The measured S-parameters vary due
to the different moisture content in each skin phantom.
Though the waveguide excited by low power is expected to be harmless, its effect on
necrotic tissue is reviewed by studying Bioheat Transfer as well as temperature, over a
10 minute period.
3 |

Figure 3 shows the real part of the electric field Er excited from one end of the
waveguide without a phantom. Its radiation pattern is visualized in the Modeling
Instructions section.
Figure 3: Wave propagation from the dielectric rod plotted with the Er component of the
E-field (probe-only case without a phantom).
Temperature change on the surface of the phantom with the tumor is plotted in
Figure 4. Since the input power from the waveguide port is low, 1 mW, the
temperature change is within 0.06 even after 10 minutes of millimeter wave exposure.
The color difference shows the relatively hotter spot where the temperature is still very
close to the initial temperature, 34 C. Though the temperature analysis for the
healthy phantom case is not included, it is easily expected that the temperature
variation is less than the case with the tumor because the resistive loss should be lower
due to the smaller imaginary part of the permittivity of the healthy skin. So the
visualized temperature profile is the worst-case scenario of temperature increase among
all three cases. The damaged tissue ratio is visualized in Figure 5. It shows that the
effect of the low-power millimeter wave is negligible.
4 |
The computed S-parameters indicate more reflection when touching the skin with the
tumor due to its higher moisture content, and they are approximately summarized
below:
TABLE 2: S-PARAMETER RESPONSE OF THE PROBE
S11
PROBE ONLY
WITH A HEALTHY
PHANTOM
TUMOR ADDED
-29.5 dB
-9.84 dB
-8.97 dB
Figure 4: The temperature after 10 minutes. The variation compared to the initial
temperature is negligible in the case where the tumor is added at the center of the center
top of skin surface.
The modeling instructions show how to access the data plotted in Figure 6 which is
not the dependent variable of the Electromagnetic Waves, Frequency Domain, by
tweaking the solver settings.
5 |
Figure 5: Fraction of necrotic (damaged) tissue is extremely low even after 10 minutes of
millimeter wave exposure in the case where the tumor is added at the center of the center
Figure 6: The resistive losses in the case where the tumor is added at the center of the center
6 |

The electromagnetic material properties of skin and tumor at 35 GHz are
approximated to show the feasibility of the S-parameter method by detecting the areas
with higher moisture content. For any further research, extracting accurate data in the
given frequency range is recommended.
Application Library path: Heat_Transfer_Module/Medical_Technology/

conical_dielectric_probe
NEW

MODEL WIZARD
1 In the Model Wizard window, click 2D Axisymmetric.

2 In the Select physics tree, select Radio Frequency>Electromagnetic Waves, Frequency
Domain (emw).
3 Click Add.
4 Click Study.
5 In the Select study tree, select Preset Studies>Frequency Domain.
6 Click Done.
GLOBAL DEFINITIONS
Parameters
7 |

Name
Expression
Value
Description
r1
0.003[m]
0.003 m
Waveguide radius
fc
1.841*c_const/
2/pi/r1
2.928E10 1/s
Cutoff frequency
f0
35[GHz]
3.5E10 Hz
Frequency
lda0
c_const/f0
0.008565 m
Wavelength, free space
l_probe
12.8[mm]
0.0128 m
Tapered probe length
w1_probe
3[mm]
0.003 m
Tapered probe width1
w2_probe
0.58[mm]
5.8E-4 m
Tapered probe width2
T0
34[degC]
307.2 K
Initial skin
temperature
GEOMETRY 1

3 From the Length unit list, choose mm.
Circle 1 (c1)
1 On the Geometry toolbar, click Primitives and choose Circle.
2 In the Settings window for Circle, locate the Size and Shape section.
4 In the Sector angle text field, type 180.
5 Locate the Rotation Angle section. In the Rotation text field, type 270.
Layer name
Thickness (mm)
Layer 1
lda0
Rectangle 1 (r1)
3 In the Width text field, type r1.
8 |
Rectangle 2 (r2)
4 Locate the Position section. In the r text field, type 3.

3 Find the Added segments subsection. Click Add Linear.
4 Find the Control points subsection. In row 1, set z to -l_probe.
5 In row 2, set r to w2_probe.
6 In row 2, set z to -l_probe.
8 Find the Control points subsection. In row 2, set z to 0.
9 In row 2, set r to w1_probe.
11 Find the Control points subsection. In row 2, set r to 0.
13 Find the Control points subsection. In row 2, set z to -l_probe.
Mirror 1 (mir1)
2 On the Geometry toolbar, click Transforms and choose Mirror.
3 Select the object b1 only.
4 In the Settings window for Mirror, locate the Input section.
5 Select the Keep input objects check box.
6 Locate the Normal Vector to Line of Reflection section. In the r text field, type 0.
7 In the z text field, type 1.
Rectangle 3 (r3)
1 Right-click Mirror 1 (mir1) and choose Build Selected.
9 |

6 Locate the Position section. In the z text field, type -1.
Fillet 1 (fil1)
1 On the Geometry toolbar, click Fillet.
2 Click the Select Box button on the Graphics toolbar.
3 On the object r3, select Point 2 only.
4 In the Settings window for Fillet, locate the Radius section.
Rectangle 4 (r4)
Fillet 2 (fil2)
3 On the object r4, select Points 2 and 3 only.
Rectangle 5 (r5)
3 In the Width text field, type 6.5.
5 Locate the Position section. In the z text field, type -13.5.
10 |
DEFINITIONS
Perfectly Matched Layer 1 (pml1)

1 On the Definitions toolbar, click Perfectly Matched Layer.
11 |
ADD MATERIAL
3 In the tree, select Built-In>Air.
MATERIALS
Air (mat1)
Material 2 (mat2)
1 In the Model Builder window, under Component 1 (comp1)>Materials right-click Air
(mat1) and choose Blank Material.
2 In the Settings window for Material, type PTFE in the Label text field.
12 |
Property
Name
Value
Unit
Property group
epsilonr
2.1
Basic
Relative permeability
mur
Basic
Electrical conductivity
sigma
S/m
Basic
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES, FREQUENCY DOMAIN (EMW)
1 In the Model Builder window, under Component 1 (comp1) click Electromagnetic

Waves, Frequency Domain (emw).
2 In the Settings window for Electromagnetic Waves, Frequency Domain, locate the
Out-of-Plane Wave Number section.
3 In the m text field, type 1.
4 Locate the Physics-Controlled Mesh section. Select the Enable check box.
5 In the Maximum element size text field, type lda0/8.
6 Locate the Analysis Methodology section. From the Methodology options list, choose
Fast.
Perfect Electric Conductor 2

1 On the Physics toolbar, click Boundaries and choose Perfect Electric Conductor.
13 |

Port 1
1 On the Physics toolbar, click Boundaries and choose Port.
3 In the Settings window for Port, locate the Port Properties section.
4 From the Type of port list, choose Circular.
5 From the Wave excitation at this port list, choose On.
6 In the Pin text field, type 1[mW].
The input power is 0 dBm.

7 Select the Activate slit condition on interior port check box.
14 |
8 From the Port orientation list, choose Reverse.
Far-Field Domain 1
On the Physics toolbar, click Domains and choose Far-Field Domain.
15 |
MESH 1
choose Build All.
STUDY 1
Step 1: Frequency Domain

1 In the Model Builder window, under Study 1 click Step 1: Frequency Domain.
2 In the Settings window for Frequency Domain, locate the Study Settings section.
3 In the Frequencies text field, type f0.
Electric Field (emw)

RESULTS

1 In the Model Builder window, expand the Electric Field (emw) node, then click Surface
1.
16 |
3 In the Expression text field, type emw.Er.

4 Locate the Coloring and Style section. From the Color table list, choose Wave.
5 On the Electric Field (emw) toolbar, click Plot.
See Figure 3 for the plot of the real part of Er, showing wave propagation from the
input port to the air domain via the tapered dielectric probe.
2D Far Field (emw)

1 In the Settings window for Polar Plot Group, type Far Field, Polar in the Label
text field.
Far Field, Polar

1 In the Model Builder window, expand the 2D Far Field (emw) node, then click
Results>Far Field, Polar>Far Field 1.
2 In the Settings window for Far Field, locate the Evaluation section.
3 Find the Normal subsection. In the x text field, type 1.
4 In the y text field, type 0.
5 On the Far Field, Polar toolbar, click Plot.
The Far-field pattern on the yz-plane shows the radiation from the tapered probe
toward the bottom side.
17 |
3D Far Field (emw)

1 In the Model Builder window, expand the Results>3D Far Field (emw) node, then click
3D Far Field (emw).
2 In the Settings window for 3D Plot Group, type Far Field, 3D in the Label text
field.
The 3D far-field pattern is directed along the z-axis.
Derived Values
1 In the Model Builder window, expand the Results>Derived Values node.
2 Right-click S-parameter, S11dB (emw) and choose Evaluate.
The evaluated S-parameter is the input matching property of the circular waveguide
without a human body phantom when the dominant mode is excited.
E LE C TROM A GN E TI C WAVES , FRE QU E NC Y D OM AI N ( EM W )
Add another Wave Equation which describe the human body phantom in term of
dielectric loss using a complex permittivity.
Wave Equation, Electric 2

1 On the Physics toolbar, click Domains and choose Wave Equation, Electric.
18 |
3 In the Settings window for Wave Equation, Electric, locate the Electric Displacement
Field section.
4 From the Electric displacement field model list, choose Dielectric loss.
ADD MATERIAL
3 In the tree, select Bioheat>Skin.
MATERIALS
Skin (mat3)
1 In the Model Builder window, under Component 1 (comp1)>Materials click Skin
(mat3).
3 In the Model Builder window, click Skin (mat3).

4 In the Settings window for Material, locate the Material Contents section.
19 |

Property
Name
Value
Unit
Property group
(imaginary part)
epsilonBis
10
Dielectric losses
Relative permittivity (real part)
epsilonPrim
Dielectric losses
mur
Basic
sigma
S/m
Basic

RESULTS
Derived Values
Evaluate the S-parameter assuming the probe is touching a phantom representing a
healthy body.
Far Field, 3D
1 In the Model Builder window, under Results>Derived Values right-click S-parameter,
S11dB (emw) and choose Evaluate.
20 |
Due to the body, the radiation is reflected back.

MATERIALS
Skin (mat3)
Now, add a tip of tumor skin.
Skin 1 (mat4)
1 In the Model Builder window, under Component 1 (comp1)>Materials right-click Skin
(mat3) and choose Duplicate.
2 In the Settings window for Material, type Skin Tumor in the Label text field.
3 Locate the Geometric Entity Selection section. Click Clear Selection.
21 |
Property
Name
Value
Unit
Property group
(imaginary part)
epsilonBis
15
Dielectric losses
Relative permittivity (real part)
epsilonPrim
J/(kgK)
Basic
The effect of millimeter wave radiation on a human body will be investigated using
the Bioheat Transfer physics interface.
COMPONENT 1 (COMP1)
On the Home toolbar, click Windows and choose Add Physics.

ADD PHYSICS

2 In the Add physics tree, select Heat Transfer>Bioheat Transfer (ht).
B I O H E A T TR A N S F E R ( H T )
2 In the Model Builder window, under Component 1 (comp1) click Bioheat Transfer (ht).
3 In the Settings window for Bioheat Transfer, locate the Domain Selection section.
Biological Tissue 1
1 In the Model Builder window, under Component 1 (comp1)>Bioheat Transfer (ht) click
Biological Tissue 1.
2 In the Settings window for Biological Tissue, locate the Damaged Tissue section.
3 Select the Include damage integral analysis check box.
4 From the Damage integral form list, choose Energy absorption.
Initial Values 1
Initial Values 1.
3 In the T text field, type T0.
22 |
Open Boundary 1
2 Select Boundaries 4, 8, 19, 29, 30, 37, and 38 only.
MULTIPHYSICS
1 In the Model Builder window, under Component 1 (comp1) right-click Multiphysics
and choose Electromagnetic Heat Source.

ADD STUDY
3 Find the Studies subsection. In the Select study tree, select Custom Studies>Preset
Studies for Some Physics Interfaces>Frequency Domain.
settings:
Physics
Solve
Bioheat Transfer (ht)

STUDY 2

4 In the Frequencies text field, type f0.
Time Dependent
On the Study toolbar, click Study Steps and choose Time Dependent>Time Dependent.

2 From the Time unit list, choose min.
3 In the Times text field, type range(0,15[s],10).
23 |
4 Locate the Physics and Variables Selection section. In the table, enter the following
settings:
Physics interface
Solve for
Electromagnetic Waves, Frequency

Domain (emw)
Discretization
physics
5 In the Model Builder window, click Study 2.

6 In the Settings window for Study, locate the Study Settings section.
7 Clear the Generate default plots check box.
Solution 2 (sol2)
2 In the Model Builder window, right-click Solution 2 (sol2) and choose Other>Solution
Store.
3 Right-click Study 2>Solver Configurations>Solution 2 (sol2)>Solution Store 1 (sol3)
and choose Move Up three times, so it locates right below Stationary Solver 1. This
allows to access the solution more than the dependent variable in Frequency Domain
study step.
RESULTS
Revolution 2D 2
On the Results toolbar, click More Data Sets and choose Revolution 2D.
Data Sets
1 In the Settings window for Revolution 2D, locate the Data section.
2 From the Data set list, choose Study 2/Solution 2 (sol2).
3 Click to expand the Revolution layers section. Locate the Revolution Layers section.
In the Start angle text field, type -90.

4 In the Revolution angle text field, type 270.
Revolution 2D 2
Derived Values
1 In the Model Builder window, expand the Results node, then click Derived
Values>S-parameter, S11dB (emw).
2 In the Settings window for Global Evaluation, locate the Data section.
24 |
3 From the Data set list, choose Study 2/Solution Store 1 (sol3).
The computed S-parameter shows more reflection on the probe due to the skin
tumor.
3D Plot Group 4
2 In the Settings window for 3D Plot Group, type Temperature in the Label text field.
3 Locate the Data section. From the Data set list, choose Revolution 2D 2.
4 From the Time (min) list, choose 10.
Temperature
1 Right-click Temperature and choose Surface.
3 In the Expression text field, type T-T0.
4 On the Temperature toolbar, click Plot.
6 Click the Zoom In button on the Graphics toolbar.
The temperature variation in the skin is shown in Figure 4.
2D Plot Group 5
2 In the Settings window for 2D Plot Group, type Fraction of Necrotic Tissue

3 Locate the Data section. From the Data set list, choose Study 2/Solution 2 (sol2).
Fraction of Necrotic Tissue

1 Right-click Fraction of Necrotic Tissue and choose Surface.
of the Expression section. From the menu, choose Component 1>Bioheat

Transfer>Biological tissue>ht.theta_d - Fraction of necrotic tissue.
3 On the Fraction of Necrotic Tissue toolbar, click Plot.
4 Click the Zoom In button on the Graphics toolbar.
The reproduced plot addresses the fraction of necrotic tissue as shown in Figure 5.
25 |
2D Plot Group 6
2 In the Settings window for 2D Plot Group, type Resistive Losses in the Label
text field.
Resistive Losses
1 Right-click Resistive Losses and choose Surface.
3 From the Data set list, choose Study 2/Solution Store 1 (sol3).
4 In the Model Builder window, under Results>Resistive Losses click Surface 1.
of the Expression section. From the menu, choose Component 1>Electromagnetic

Waves, Frequency Domain>Heating and losses>emw.Qrh - Resistive losses.
6 Locate the Coloring and Style section. From the Color table list, choose Thermal.
7 Select the Reverse color table check box.
8 On the Resistive Losses toolbar, click Plot.
Finish the result analysis by regenerating Figure 6, the resistive losses plot.
26 |
Contact Switch
Introduction
A contact switch is used to regulate whether or not an electrical current is passing from
a power source into an electrical device. These switches are found in many types of
equipment and they are used to control, for example, the power output from a wall
socket into a device when it is plugged in; the currents passing across the circuit board
of a computer; or the electricity powering a light bulb when the switch is flipped on.
Because of their prevalence, simulating contact switches is a fundamental step in
designing electronic applications.
The working principle behind a contact switch is simple: two conductive pieces of
metal with an electrical voltage difference across them are brought into contact,
allowing a current to flow between them. The metallic surfaces of the two components
that touch one another are called contacts, and when the connection between the two
contacts is broken, the current stops flowing.
The current flow between the two contacts contributes to an increase in temperature
in the switch due to the Joule heating effect.
Figure 1: A contact switch.

The heating of the contact switch can change the material properties of the metal as
well as the surface area of contact, and therefore is an important effect to consider
when modeling the switch. Letting the temperature become too high can even cause
the switch to burn out, meaning the switch is no longer functional. Therefore, it is
important to analyze its current-carrying capability in order to prevent this from
happening. It is also important to consider that when the two metallic pieces come into
contact, the surfaces touching each other experience a mechanical pressure or contact
pressure. This mechanical pressure on the contacts can alter the electrical and thermal
1 |
CONTACT SWITCH
properties of the material locally around the region surrounding the contacts.
Therefore, in order to accurately simulate the current-carrying capability and
temperature rise in the switch, it is important to take a more comprehensive approach
in the simulation and incorporate the effect of contact pressure to compute the
electrical and thermal conductance of the contact surfaces.This tutorial illustrates how
to implement a multiphysics contact. It models the thermal and electrical behavior of
two contacting parts of a switch. The electric current and the heat cross from one part
to the other only at the contact surface.
The contact switch device has a cylindrical body and plate hook shapes at the contact
area (see Figure 1). There, the thermal and electrical apparent resistances are coupled
to the mechanical contact pressure at the interface, which the application solves for.
The initial temperature is equal to the external room temperature. A potential
difference between the left and right parts leads to heating through the Joule effect.
Model Definition
The geometry of the switch is shown in Figure 2. Only half of the device is represented
due to symmetry considerations.
Ground
1 mV
Figure 2: Switch geometry.
2 |
CONTACT SWITCH
The switch is made of copper, with two fixed cylindrical elements and a central region
where the contacts are located. On the end of each contact are plate hooks that enable
contact between the two pieces. In the simulation, an electric potential of 1 mV is
applied to the left side of the switch, while the right side is grounded.
The thermal and electrical contact conductances are assumed to be related only to the
contact pressure.
The exposed surfaces of the switch lose heat due to their interaction with air via natural
convection. In the simulation, this is modeled by specifying a heat transfer coefficient
and the ambient temperature of the surrounding air (a more ambitious simulation
might also include the fluid flow of the air). The application first solves for structural
contact to obtain the contact pressure on the contact surfaces. These results are then
used to compute the electrical and thermal conductance of the contacts surfaces in a
Joule heating simulation.

Figure 3 shows the electric potential distribution, ranging from the grounded right
side to the applied 1 mV on the left.
Figure 3: Electric potential profile.
3 |
CONTACT SWITCH
A potential difference across the two components in the switch creates a current flow,
which in turn leads to Joule heating. This causes a rise in temperature in the switch. If
you leave the switch on for a while, temperature distribution in the switch reaches an
equilibrium. Figure 4 shows the temperature distribution in the contact switch. In this
example, Joule heating causes the temperature in the switch to rise about 5 K above
room temperature, although only a small temperature variation is seen within the
switch itself.

The internal temperature distribution is almost constant. Introducing the effect of
electrical and thermal conductance allows us to predict the temperature rise more
accurately. The simulation also shows that the switch gets slightly hotter at the contact
region.
4 |
CONTACT SWITCH
Finally, Figure 5 plots the temperature distribution at the contact region. Streamlines
show the current density.
Figure 5: Temperature distribution (volume plot) and current density (streamlines) at the
contact region.

Thermal_Contact_and_Friction/contact_switch
NEW

MODEL WIZARD

2 In the Select physics tree, select Structural Mechanics>Solid Mechanics (solid).
5 |
CONTACT SWITCH
3 Click Add.
4 In the Select physics tree, select Heat Transfer>Electromagnetic Heating>Joule Heating.
5 Click Add.
6 Click Study.
8 Click Done.
GEOMETRY 1
Import 1 (imp1)
3 Click Browse.
contact_switch.mphbin.
5 Click Import.
Form Union (fin)

1 In the Model Builder window, under Component 1 (comp1)>Geometry 1 click Form
Union (fin).
2 In the Settings window for Form Union/Assembly, locate the Form Union/Assembly
section.
3 From the Action list, choose Form an assembly.
4 From the Pair type list, choose Contact pair.
5 Clear the Create pairs check box.
6 On the Home toolbar, click Build All.
DEFINITIONS
Contact Pair 1 (p1)

1 On the Definitions toolbar, click Pairs and choose Contact Pair.
3 In the Settings window for Pair, locate the Destination Boundaries section.
4 Select the Active toggle button.
6 |
CONTACT SWITCH
ADD MATERIAL
3 In the tree, select Built-In>Copper.
MATERIALS
Copper (mat1)
SOLID MECHANICS (SOLID)
Fixed Constraint 1
1 On the Physics toolbar, click Boundaries and choose Fixed Constraint.
2 Select Boundaries 4, 5, 34, and 35 only.
Symmetry 1
Contact 1
1 On the Physics toolbar, in the Boundary section, click Pairs and choose Contact.
2 In the Settings window for Contact, locate the Pair Selection section.
3 In the Pairs list, select Contact Pair 1 (p1).
4 Locate the Initial Values section. In the Tn text field, type 1e7.
In the Model Builder window, under Component 1 (comp1) click Heat Transfer in Solids
(ht).
Heat Flux 1
7 |
CONTACT SWITCH
Symmetry 1
ELECTRIC CURRENTS (EC)
In the Model Builder window, under Component 1 (comp1) click Electric Currents (ec).
Ground 1
1 On the Physics toolbar, click Boundaries and choose Ground.
Electric Potential 1
1 On the Physics toolbar, click Boundaries and choose Electric Potential.
3 In the Settings window for Electric Potential, locate the Electric Potential section.
4 In the V0 text field, type 1[mV].
(ht).
Pair Thermal Contact 1

1 On the Physics toolbar, in the Boundary section, click Pairs and choose Pair Thermal
Contact.
2 In the Settings window for Pair Thermal Contact, locate the Pair Selection section.
4 Locate the Contact Surface Properties section. From the p list, choose Contact
pressure (solid/cnt1).
Pair Electrical Contact 1

1 On the Physics toolbar, in the Boundary section, click Pairs and choose Pair Electrical
Contact.
2 In the Settings window for Pair Electrical Contact, locate the Pair Selection section.
8 |
CONTACT SWITCH
4 Locate the Contact Surface Properties section. From the p list, choose Contact
pressure (solid/cnt1).
MESH 1
Free Tetrahedral 1
In the Model Builder window, under Component 1 (comp1) right-click Mesh 1 and choose
Free Tetrahedral.
Size 1
Tetrahedral 1 and choose Size.
box.
7 In the associated text field, type 5e-4.
Size
3 From the Predefined list, choose Fine.
STUDY 1
Solve the model in two steps. The first step only computes for Solid Mechanics while
the second solves for Joule Heating (Electric Currents and Heat Transfer In Solids).
Step 1: Stationary
section.
9 |
CONTACT SWITCH

Physics interface
Solve for
Discretization
Electric Currents (ec)
physics
physics
Stationary 2
On the Study toolbar, click Study Steps and choose Stationary>Stationary.
Step 2: Stationary 2
section.
Physics interface
Solve for
Solid Mechanics (solid)
Discretization
physics

RESULTS
Stress (solid)
In this first default plot, the switch is slightly deformed due to the contact pressure.
The von Mises stress is located at the switch base and at the contact area.
Follow the next steps to visualize the second and third default plots as in Figure 3 and
Figure 4.
Mirror 3D 1
Data Sets
2 From the Plane list, choose XY-planes.
Electric Potential (ec)

1 In the Model Builder window, under Results click Electric Potential (ec).
4 On the Electric Potential (ec) toolbar, click Plot.
10 |
CONTACT SWITCH
Temperature (ht)
Data Sets
To observe the temperature and current density only at the contact region (Figure 5),
proceed as follows:
Surface 1
Data Sets
1 In the Settings window for Surface, locate the Parameterization section.
2 From the x- and y-axes list, choose XY-plane.
2D Plot Group 5
2 In the Settings window for 2D Plot Group, type Temperature (Contact Region)
Temperature (Contact Region)

1 Right-click Temperature (Contact Region) and choose Surface.
4 Right-click Temperature (Contact Region) and choose Streamline.
5 In the Settings window for Streamline, click Replace Expression in the upper-right
corner of the Expression section. From the menu, choose Component 1>Electric
Currents>Currents and charge>ec.Jx,ec.Jy - Current density (Spatial).
6 Locate the Streamline Positioning section. From the Positioning list, choose Uniform
density.
7 In the Separating distance text field, type 0.02.
8 On the Temperature (Contact Region) toolbar, click Plot.
11 |
CONTACT SWITCH
12 |
CONTACT SWITCH
Continuous Casting
Introduction
This example simulates the process of continuous casting of a metal rod from a molten
state (Figure 1). To optimize the casting process in terms of casting rate and cooling,
it is helpful to model the thermal and fluid dynamic aspects of the process. To get
accurate results, you must model the melt flow field in combination with the heat
transfer and phase change. The model includes the phase transition from melt to solid,
both in terms of latent heat and the varying physical properties.
Holding furnace
Mould (water
cooled)
Brake ring
Strand
Saw
Modeled geometry
air exposure
mould
die
Figure 1: Continuous metal-casting process with a view of the modeled section.
1 |
CONTINUOUS CASTING
This example simplifies the rods 3D geometry in Figure 1 to an axisymmetric 2D

model in the rz-plane. Figure 2 shows the dimensions of the 2D geometry.
mold
air exposure
die
brake ring
inlet
Figure 2: 2D axisymmetric model of the casting process.

As the melt cools down in the mold it solidifies. The phase transition releases latent
heat, which the model includes. Furthermore, for metal alloys, the transition is often
spread out over a temperature range. As the material solidifies, the material properties
change considerably. Finally, the model also includes the mushy zonea mixture of
solid and melted material that occurs due to the rather broad transition temperature of
the alloy and the solidification kinetics.
This example models the casting process as being stationary using the Heat Transfer
in Fluids interface combined with the Laminar Flow interface.
Model Definition
The process operates at steady state, because it is a continuous process. The heat
transport is described by the equation:
C p u T + ( kT ) = Q
2 |
CONTINUOUS CASTING
where k, Cp, and Q denote thermal conductivity, specific heat, and heating power per
unit volume (heat source term), respectively.
As the melt cools down in the mold, it solidifies. During the phase transition, a
significant amount of latent heat is released. The total amount of heat released per unit
mass of alloy during the transition is given by the change in enthalpy, H. In addition,
the specific heat capacity, Cp, also changes considerably during the transition. The
difference in specific heat before and after transition can be approximated by
H
C p = --------T
As opposed to pure metals, an alloy generally undergoes a broad temperature
transition zone, over several kelvin, in which a mixture of both solid and molten
material co-exist in a mushy zone. To account for the latent heat related to the phase
transition, the Apparent Heat capacity method is used through the Heat Transfer with
Phase Change domain condition. The half-width of the transition interval, T, is set
to 10 K in this case, and represents half the transition temperature span.
This example models the laminar flow by describing the fluid velocity, u, and the
pressure, p, according to the equations
u
2
T
+ u u = pI + ( u + ( u ) ) ------- ( u )I + F
3
+ ( u ) = 0
t
where is the density (in this case constant), is the viscosity, and is the dilatational
viscosity (here assumed to be zero). Here, the role of the source term, F, is to dampen
the velocity at the phase-change interface so that it becomes that of the solidified phase
after the transition. The source term follows from the equation (see Ref. 1)
2
(1 )
F = -------------------A mush ( u u cast )
3
+
where can be seen as the volume fraction of the liquid phase; Amush and represent
arbitrary constants (Amush should be large and small to produce a proper damping);
and ucast is the velocity of the cast rod.
3 |
CONTINUOUS CASTING
Table 1 reviews the material properties in this model.

PROPERTY
SYMBOL
MELT
SOLID
Density
(kg/m3)
8500
8500
Cp (J/(kgK))
530
380
k (W/(mK))
200
200
0.0434
Dynamic viscosity
(Ns/m )
Furthermore, the melting temperature, Tm, and enthalpy, H, are set to 1356 K and
205 kJ/kg, respectively.
The model uses the parametric solver in combination with adaptive meshing to solve
the problem efficiently. In particular, using an adaptive mesh makes it possible to
resolve the steep gradients in the mushy zone at a comparatively low computational
cost.

The plots in Figure 3 display the temperature and phase distributions, showing that the
melt cools down and solidifies in the mold region. Interestingly, the transition zone
stretches out towards the center of the rod because of poorer cooling in that area.
4 |
CONTINUOUS CASTING
Figure 3: Temperature distribution (top) and fraction of liquid phase (bottom) in the
lower part of the cast at a casting rate of 1.6 mm/s.
5 |
CONTINUOUS CASTING
With the modeled casting rate, the rod is fully solidified before leaving the mold (the
first section after the die). This means that the process engineers can increase the
casting rate without running into problems, thus increasing the production rate.
The phase transition occurs in a very narrow zone although the model uses a transition
half width, T, of 10 K. In reality it would be even more distinct if a pure metal were
being cast but somewhat broader if the cast material were an alloy with a wider T.
It is interesting to study in detail the flow field in the melt as it exits the die.
Figure 4: Velocity field with streamlines in the lower part of the process.
In Figure 4, notice the disturbance in the streamlines close to the die wall resulting in
a vortex. This eddy flow could create problems with nonuniform surface quality in a
real process. Process engineers can thus use the model to avoid these problems and find
an optimal die shape.
To help determine how to optimize process cooling, Figure 5 plots the conductive
heat flux. It shows that the conductive heat flux is very large in the mold zone. This is
a consequence of the heat released during the phase transition, which is cooled by the
water-cooling jacket of the mold. An interesting phenomenon of the process is the
peak of conductive heat flux appearing in the center of the flow at the transition zone.
6 |
CONTINUOUS CASTING
Figure 5: The cooling viewed as conductive heat flux in the domains (top), and through
the outer boundary (the cooling zones) after the die (bottom).
7 |
CONTINUOUS CASTING
Furthermore, by plotting the conductive heat flux at the outer boundary for the
process as in the lower plot in Figure 5, you can see that a majority of the process
cooling occurs in the mold. More interestingly, the heat flux varies along the mold wall
length. This information can help in optimizing the cooling of the mold (that is, the
cooling rate and choice of cooling method).
You solve the model using a built-in adaptive meshing technique. This is necessary
because the transition zonethat is, the region where the phase change occurs
requires a fine discretization. Figure 6 depicts the final mesh of the model. Notice that
the majority of the elements are concentrated to the transition zone.
Figure 6: Close-up of the final computational mesh, resulting from the built-in adaptive
technique.
The adaptive meshing technique allows for fast and accurate calculations even if the
transition width is brought down to a low value, such as for pure metals.
Reference
1. V.R. Voller and C. Prakash, A fixed grid numerical modeling methodology for
convectiondiffusion mushy region phase-change problems, Int.J.Heat Mass
Transfer, vol. 30, pp. 17091719, 1987.
8 |
CONTINUOUS CASTING
Application Library path: Heat_Transfer_Module/Thermal_Processing/

continuous_casting
NEW

MODEL WIZARD

2 In the Select physics tree, select Heat Transfer>Heat Transfer in Fluids (ht).
3 Click Add.
4 In the Select physics tree, select Fluid Flow>Single-Phase Flow>Laminar Flow (spf).
5 Click Add.
6 Click Study.
8 Click Done.
GLOBAL DEFINITIONS
Parameters
continuous_casting_parameters.txt.
Note, in particular, the value of the parameter dT, which represents the parameter
T in the Model Definition section. It will apply when you solve with adaptive mesh
refinement because that solution stage does not use the parametric. It is then crucial
that the value of dT matches that of the final parameter step for the parametric
solution that is used as the initial solution.
9 |
CONTINUOUS CASTING
DEFINITIONS
Variables 1
1 On the Home toolbar, click Variables and choose Local Variables.
2 In the Settings window for Variables, locate the Geometric Entity Selection section.
4 From the Selection list, choose All domains.
Define the variables by loading the corresponding text file provided.

5 Locate the Variables section. Click Load from File.
continuous_casting_variables.txt.
GEOMETRY 1
Rectangle 1 (r1)
Rectangle 2 (r2)
1 Right-click Rectangle 1 (r1) and choose Build Selected.
Rectangle 3 (r3)
10 |
CONTINUOUS CASTING
Rectangle 4 (r4)
Rectangle 5 (r5)
Rectangle 6 (r6)

1 Use the Zoom Box button in the Graphics toolbar to zoom in on the gap between
two rectangles in the geometry.

2 Click Geometry 1. Then, using the Draw Line toolbar button, close the gap with a
solid polygon. Note that you need to right-click at the end to close the polygon.
This completes the geometry modeling stage.
11 |
CONTINUOUS CASTING
MATERIALS
Now, add the following two materials to the model. The Solid Metal Alloy material is
used in the Heat Transfer with Phase Change feature for the solid phase while the Liquid
Metal Alloy material is used for the liquid phase. The Liquid Metal Alloy also defines
fluid properties used in the Laminar Flow interface.
Material 1 (mat1)

2 In the Settings window for Material, type Solid Metal Alloy in the Label text field.
Property
Name
Value
Unit
Property group
200
W/(mK)
Basic
Density
rho
8500
kg/m
Basic

pressure
Cp
Cp_s
J/(kgK)
Basic
Ratio of specific heats
gamma
Basic
Dynamic viscosity
mu
0.0434
Pas
Basic
Material 2 (mat2)
2 In the Settings window for Material, type Liquid Metal Alloy in the Label text
field.
3 Locate the Geometric Entity Selection section. From the Selection list, choose All
domains.
12 |
Property
Name
Value
Unit
Property group
200
W/(mK)
Basic
Density
rho
8500
kg/m
Basic

pressure
Cp
Cp_l
J/(kgK)
Basic
gamma
Basic
Dynamic viscosity
mu
0.0434
Pas
Basic
CONTINUOUS CASTING
Heat Transfer with Phase Change 1

1 On the Physics toolbar, click Domains and choose Heat Transfer with Phase Change.
2 In the Settings window for Heat Transfer with Phase Change, locate the Domain
Selection section.
4 Locate the Model Inputs section. From the pA list, choose Absolute pressure (spf).
5 From the u list, choose Velocity field (spf).
6 Locate the Phase Change section. In the Tpc,1 2 text field, type T_m.
7 In the T1 2 text field, type 2*dT.
The parameter dT is multiplied by 2 because it is only the half width of the phase
change interval.
8 In the L1 2 text field, type dH.
9 Locate the Phase 1 section. From the Material, phase 1 list, choose Solid Metal Alloy
(mat1).
10 Locate the Phase 2 section. From the Material, phase 2 list, choose Liquid Metal Alloy
(mat2).
Initial Values 1

3 In the T text field, type T_in.
Temperature 1
4 In the T0 text field, type T_in.
Heat Flux 1
13 |
CONTINUOUS CASTING
5 In the h text field, type h_br.

6 In the Text text field, type T0.
Heat Flux 2
5 In the h text field, type h_mold.
Heat Flux 3
5 In the h text field, type h_air.
Diffuse Surface 1
3 In the Settings window for Diffuse Surface, locate the Surface Emissivity section.
4 From the list, choose User defined. In the associated text field, type eps_s.
5 Locate the Ambient section. In the Tamb text field, type T0.
Outflow 1
1 On the Physics toolbar, click Boundaries and choose Outflow.
LAMINAR FLOW (SPF)
Fluid Properties 1
Fluid Properties 1.
14 |
CONTINUOUS CASTING
3 From the list, choose User defined. In the associated text field, type ht.rho.
The Heat Transfer interface provides ht.rho which is the mixture density between
solid and liquid phases. Using this variable as the fluid density in the flow interface
ensures that the continuity equation is verified. This should be done in all models
coupling the continuity equation and Heat Transfer with Phase Change. Note that in
this model both phases have the same density so this change would not affect the
results.
Initial Values 1
Initial Values 1.
3 Specify the u vector as
0
v_cast
Volume Force 1
2 In the Settings window for Volume Force, locate the Domain Selection section.
4 Locate the Volume Force section. Specify the F vector as
Fr
Fz
Inlet 1
1 On the Physics toolbar, click Boundaries and choose Inlet.
3 In the Settings window for Inlet, locate the Boundary Condition section.
4 From the list, choose Pressure.
Outlet 1
1 On the Physics toolbar, click Boundaries and choose Outlet.
3 In the Settings window for Outlet, locate the Boundary Condition section.
15 |
CONTINUOUS CASTING
4 From the list, choose Velocity.

5 Locate the Velocity section. Click the Velocity field button.
6 Specify the u0 vector as
0
v_cast
section.
Select the Use pseudo time stepping for stationary equation form check box.
To improve convergence, the pseudo time stepping option is enabled.
MESH 1

3 From the Element size list, choose Finer.
Boundary Layers 1
1 Right-click Component 1 (comp1)>Mesh 1 and choose Edit Physics-Induced Sequence.
2 In the Model Builder window, under Component 1 (comp1)>Mesh 1 right-click
Boundary Layers 1 and choose Delete. Click Yes to confirm.
This is necessary to be able to use the adaptive mesh functionality.
Size 1
1 In the Model Builder window, under Component 1 (comp1)>Mesh 1 click Size 1.
2 Select Boundaries 1621 only.
Calculate the solution using a three-step process. First, solve the problem using dT as
a continuation parameter with the parametric solver on the default mesh, gradually
16 |
CONTINUOUS CASTING
decreasing the value of dT. Then, use the adaptive solver to adapt the mesh. Finally, use
the parametric solver again to decrease dT further down to a value of 10 K.
STUDY 1

Disable default plots from this study because they will be added from the last study.
Step 1: Stationary
4 Click Add.
Parameter name
dT
300 100 50 30
Parameter unit
Stationary 2
variables section.
2 Locate the Values of Dependent Variables section. Find the Initial values of variables
5 Click to expand the Study extensions section. Locate the Study Extensions section.
Select the Adaptive mesh refinement check box.

Before proceeding with the final solution stage, inspect the adapted mesh. You find it
under the automatically created Meshes branch in the model tree.
MESH 2
1 In the Model Builder window, expand the Meshes node, then click Mesh 2.
17 |
CONTINUOUS CASTING
2 Click the Zoom Box button on the Graphics toolbar and then use the mouse to zoom
in on the transition zone where the mesh is the densest.

The mesh should look like that in Figure 6.
Add a second study for the second parametric study step.
ADD STUDY
1 On the Study toolbar, click Add Study to open the Add Study window.
5 On the Study toolbar, click Add Study to close the Add Study window.
STUDY 2
In order to get faster convergence, you use the previous solution as the initial value for
this study.
Step 1: Stationary
1 In the Model Builder window, expand the Component 1 (comp1)>Meshes node, then
click Study 2>Step 1: Stationary.

variables section.
5 From the Study list, choose Study 1, Stationary 2.
7 Click Add.
Parameter name
dT
25 20 16 13 10
Parameter unit
Notice that Mesh 2, the adapted mesh, is the default selection in the Mesh list. Keep
this setting.
In the parametric sweep of dT from 25 K to 10 K, the model becomes highly nonlinear.
You have to make sure that each solution converges enough since it is used as initial
18 |
CONTINUOUS CASTING
condition for the next parametric sweep step. To do so, specify a lower error tolerance
than the default setting.
Solution 4 (sol4)
3 In the Model Builder window, expand the Solution 4 (sol4) node, then click Stationary
Solver 1.
4 In the Settings window for Stationary Solver, locate the General section.
5 In the Relative tolerance text field, type 1e-6.
(sol4)>Stationary Solver 1 node, then click Fully Coupled 1.
7 In the Settings window for Fully Coupled, click to expand the Method and
8 Locate the Method and Termination section. From the Nonlinear method list, choose
Automatic (Newton).
RESULTS
Temperature, 3D (ht)
The first default plot shows the temperature in 3D obtained by a revolution of the 2D
axisymmetric data set.
Isothermal Contours (ht)

The second default plot shows the isothermal contours in the 2D slice.
Velocity (spf)
To reproduce the upper plot in Figure 4, plot the velocity field as a combined surface
and streamline plot.
1 In the Model Builder window, expand the Velocity (spf) node, then click Surface 1.
3 From the Unit list, choose mm/s.
4 On the Velocity (spf) toolbar, click Plot.
5 Again, use the mouse to zoom in on the transition zone.
6 Right-click Results>Velocity (spf) and choose Streamline.
7 In the Settings window for Streamline, locate the Streamline Positioning section.
19 |
CONTINUOUS CASTING
8 From the Positioning list, choose Magnitude controlled.

Compare the plot in the Graphics window with that in Figure 4.
Pressure (spf)
This default plot shows the pressure profile in the 2D slice.
Velocity (spf) 1
This default plot shows the velocity magnitude in 3D obtained by a revolution of the
2D axisymmetric data set.
Proceed to reproduce the lower plot in Figure 3, showing the fraction of liquid phase.
2D Plot Group 6
2 In the Settings window for 2D Plot Group, type Fraction of Liquid Phase in

Fraction of Liquid Phase

1 Right-click Fraction of Liquid Phase and choose Surface.
of the Expression section. From the menu, choose Component

1>Definitions>Variables>alpha - Fraction of liquid phase.
3 On the Fraction of Liquid Phase toolbar, click Plot.
Notice, in particular, the narrow transition zone between the two phases.
To reproduce the upper plot in Figure 3, which visualizes the temperature and velocity
fields, proceed as follows.
2D Plot Group 7
2 In the Settings window for 2D Plot Group, type Temperature in the Label text field.
Temperature
1 Right-click Temperature and choose Surface.
3 From the Color table list, choose ThermalLight.
20 |
CONTINUOUS CASTING
5 Right-click Temperature and choose Arrow Surface.

6 In the Settings window for Arrow Surface, locate the Arrow Positioning section.
7 Find the r grid points subsection. In the Points text field, type 8.
Proceed to reproduce the heat flux plots shown in Figure 3.
2D Plot Group 8
2 In the Settings window for 2D Plot Group, type Conductive Heat Flux in the
Label text field.
Conductive Heat Flux

1 Right-click Conductive Heat Flux and choose Surface.
Fluids>Domain fluxes>ht.dfluxMag - Conductive heat flux magnitude.
3 On the Conductive Heat Flux toolbar, click Plot.
4 Right-click Conductive Heat Flux and choose Arrow Surface.
5 In the Settings window for Arrow Surface, click Replace Expression in the upper-right
corner of the Expression section. From the menu, choose Component 1>Heat Transfer
in Fluids>Domain fluxes>ht.dfluxr,ht.dfluxz - Conductive heat flux.
6 Locate the Arrow Positioning section. Find the r grid points subsection. In the Points
text field, type 8.

8 On the Conductive Heat Flux toolbar, click Plot.
Compare the result with the upper plot in Figure 5.

The following steps reproduce the lower plot in the same figure, showing the
conductive heat flux through the outer boundary after the die.
1D Plot Group 9
2 In the Settings window for 1D Plot Group, type Conductive Heat Flux through
Outer Boundary in the Label text field.
21 |
CONTINUOUS CASTING
4 From the Parameter selection (dT) list, choose Last.

5 Click to expand the Title section. From the Title type list, choose Manual.
6 In the Title text area, type Conductive heat flux through outer boundary.
7 Locate the Plot Settings section. Select the x-axis label check box.
8 In the associated text field, type z-coordinate (m).
9 Select the y-axis label check box.
10 In the associated text field, type Normal conductive heat flux (W/m^2).
Line Graph 1
On the Conductive Heat Flux through Outer Boundary toolbar, click Line Graph.
Conductive Heat Flux through Outer Boundary

corner of the y-axis data section. From the menu, choose Component 1>Heat Transfer
in Fluids>Boundary fluxes>ht.ndflux - Normal conductive heat flux.
3 Click Replace Expression in the upper-right corner of the x-axis data section. From
the menu, choose Geometry>Coordinate>z - z-coordinate.

4 Click to expand the Legends section. Click to collapse the Legends section. Click to
expand the Quality section. From the Recover list, choose Within domains.
5 Click to collapse the Quality section. On the Conductive Heat Flux through Outer
Boundary toolbar, click Plot.
Compare the result with the lower plot of Figure 5.
Data Sets
Finally, verify that the final mesh is sufficiently fine to resolve the latent heat's
temperature-dependence.
Cut Line 2D 1
Data Sets
2 In row Point 1, set r to 0.045.
4 In row Point 2, set r to 0.085.
22 |
CONTINUOUS CASTING
These values are chosen such that the two points are on opposite sides of and
approximately perpendicular to the transition zone.
Alternatively, you can select the two end points and create the Cut Line 2D data set
by first clicking the Fraction of Liquid Phase node and then clicking in the Graphics
window after first selecting, in turn, First Point for Cut Line and Second Point for Cut
Line on the main toolbar.
1D Plot Group 10
2 In the Settings window for 1D Plot Group, type Temperature Dependence,
Latent Heat in the Label text field.
Line Graph 1
On the Temperature Dependence, Latent Heat toolbar, click Line Graph.
Temperature Dependence, Latent Heat

corner of the y-axis data section. From the menu, choose Component
1>Definitions>Variables>D - Temperature dependence, latent heat.
23 |
CONTINUOUS CASTING
3 On the Temperature Dependence, Latent Heat toolbar, click Plot.
As you can see, the curves for the lower T values, in particular T = 10 K, are not
entirely smooth. Thus, if you were to reduce T further to model the casting of
some pure metal, you would need to increase the mesh resolution.
24 |
CONTINUOUS CASTING
Temperature Field in a Cooling

Fla ng e
Introduction
Chemical reaction fluids can be cooled using glass flanges. The reaction fluid is passed
through the flange and the air surrounding the flange then serves as the coolant.
Engineers looking to optimize the cooling performance of such flanges can look to
simulation for help.
Hot process
fluid
Cooling air
Figure 1: Operating principle of the cooling flange.

First off, the physics to analyze in this case is heat transfer, involving both convection
and conduction. Heat transfer occurs via convection to and from the surfaces of the
flange, while the flanges interior experiences conduction. In other words, the inside
of the tube is heated by the process fluid, and the flange then conducts the heat and
transfers it into the air, in turn causing a convective flow due to buoyancy effects. The
cooling performance of the flange therefore depends on both convection and
conduction.
1 |
TE M P E R A T U R E F I E L D I N A C O O L I N G F L A N G E
To simplify the simulation convection cooling is analyzed using the heat transfer
coefficient, h. Since this describes the fluid-flow field influence and the convective
fluxes, the flow field doesnt have to be computed.
This particular example uses external research data (Ref. 1) for the outer surface heat
transfer coefficient, which was originally obtained through semi-empirical data for
natural convection around a cylinder. For the tube-facing surface a coefficient for
forced convection in a tube is used.
Model Definition
Figure 2 presents a drawing of the modeled geometry.
Figure 2: Drawing of the cooling flange.

The glass flange consists of a 4 mm thick pipe and 4 mm thick and 10 mm tall flanges,
with a connecting pipe that has a 3 mm thick wall and an inner diameter of 16 mm.
Note that during the simulation, the pipe diameter varies while the other dimensions
remain fixed.
During operation, the hot process fluid heats the inside of the tube. The flange
conducts the heat and transfers it to the surrounding air. As the air is heated, buoyancy
effects cause a convective flow.
2 |
The heat transfer within the flange is described by the stationary heat equation
( kT ) = 0
where k is the thermal conductivity (W/(mK)), and T is the temperature (K). On the
flanges exterior boundaries, which face the air and process fluid, the applicable
boundary condition is
n ( kT ) = h ( T inf T )
where n is the normal vector of the boundary, h, is the heat transfer coefficient (W/
(m2K)), and Tinf is the temperature of the surrounding medium (K). For this
simulation, set Tinf to 298 K for the cooling air and to 363 K for the process fluid.
You can approximate the value for the heat transfer coefficient, h, on the process fluid
side with a constant value of 15 W/(m2K) because the fluids velocity is close to
constant and the model assumes that its temperature decreases only slightly.
The h expression on the air side is more elaborate. Assume that the free-convection
process around the flange is similar to that around a cylinder. The heat transfer
coefficient for a cylinder is available in the literature (Ref. 1), and you can use the
expression
14
k
h = ---- f ( )Gr
L
where k is the thermal conductivity of air (26.2 mW/(mK) at 298 K); L is the typical
length, which in this case is the outer diameter of the flange (44 mm); and f() is an
empirical coefficient tabulated in Table 1 as a function of the incidence angle , which
is shown in Figure 3. Finally, Gr is the Grashof number defined as
3
g p TL
Gr = ------------------------2
where p is the coefficient of thermal expansion (1/K), which equals that for an ideal
gas, g is the gravitational acceleration (9.81 m/s2), and is the kinematic viscosity
(18106 m2s). For the flange material, use silica glass.
TABLE 1: EMPIRICAL TRANSFER COEFFICIENT VS. INCIDENCE ANGLE.
(DEG)
f()
0.48
90
0.46
3 |
TABLE 1: EMPIRICAL TRANSFER COEFFICIENT VS. INCIDENCE ANGLE.
(DEG)
f()
100
0.45
110
0.435
120
0.42
130
0.38
140
0.35
150
0.28
160
0.22
180
0.15
gravity
Figure 3: Definition of the incidence angle .
4 |

Figure 4 shows the flange surface temperature at steady state.
Figure 4: Stationary surface temperature of the flange.

As you can see in the surface temperature plot above to the left, the tube surface
temperature is about 13 K higher than the flange shoulders. From the results, we can
learn that the heat transfer from the outer surfaces of the flange is pretty efficient; there
is a temperature difference of roughly 19 K between the outer flange surface and the
air stream.
5 |
Figure 5 shows the heat transfer coefficient for the flanges outer walls.
Figure 5: Heat transfer film coefficient, h, for the flanges outer walls.
As you can see, the coefficient decreases significantly along the vertical position of the
flanges outer boundary.
Calculating the flanges total cooling power by integrating the normal total heat flux
over the outer surfaces gives a value of 0.51 W which correspond to 1.02 W for the full
geometry.
The surface temperature plot shown on Figure 4 further gives light to an inefficiency
in the current flange design. When it enters the flange the process fluid is 363 K, while
the inner surface of the pipe is only 32 K lower. Increasing the tube diameter would
improve the heat transfer here, which is performed in a second stage of the modeling
by varying the pipes diameter, but keeping all other factors constant. By plotting in
Figure 6 the global cooling power as a function of the inner pipe radius, you can now
analyze how altering the radius impacts the performance of the cooling flange.
6 |
Figure 6: Total cooling power versus inner pipe radius.
Reference
1. B. Sundn, Kompendium i vrmeverfring [Notes on Heat Transfer], Sec. 10-3,
Dept. of Heat and Power Engineering, Lund Inst. of Technology, 2003 (in Swedish).

cooling_flange
NEW
7 |
MODEL WIZARD

3 Click Add.
4 Click Study.
6 Click Done.
GLOBAL DEFINITIONS
Parameters
In addition to relevant temperatures and material properties, define parameters also

for the cooling flange's geometric dimensions. This makes it easy to perform
parametric studies where you let some of these dimensions vary.
8 |
Name
Expression
Value
Description
T_air
298[K]
298 K
Temperature, cooling
air
26.2[mW/(m*K)]
0.0262 W/(mK)
Thermal conductivity,
air
T_inner
363[K]
363 K
Temperature, process
fluid
Hh
15[W/(m^2*K)]
15 W/(mK)
Heat transfer
coefficient
nu
18e-6[m^2/s]
1.8E-5 m/s
Kinematic viscosity
alphap
1/T_air
0.003356 1/K
expansion
r_inner
8[mm]
0.008 m
Inner pipe radius
l1
12[mm]
0.012 m
Pipe length excluding

flanges
t1
3[mm]
0.003 m
Pipe thickness
t2
4[mm]
0.004 m
Pipe thickness, flange

section
hf
10[mm]
0.01 m
Flange height
Name
Expression
Value
Description
wf
4[mm]
0.004 m
Flange width
2*(r_inner+t2+
hf)
0.044 m
Outer flange diameter
Next, create an interpolation function defined by the data in Table 1.
1 On the Home toolbar, click Functions and choose Global>Interpolation.
3 In the Function name text field, type f.
t
f(t)
0.48
90
0.46
100
0.45
110
0.435
120
0.42
130
0.38
140
0.35
150
0.28
160
0.22
180
0.15
9 |
10 |
GEOMETRY 1
In a first geometry modeling stage, create the following 2D geometry:
Work Plane 1 (wp1)

On the Geometry toolbar, click Work Plane.
Rectangle 1 (r1)
1 On the Work Plane toolbar, click Primitives and choose Rectangle.
3 In the Width text field, type 2*wf.
4 In the Height text field, type t2.
5 Locate the Position section. In the yw text field, type r_inner.

1 On the Work Plane toolbar, click Primitives and choose Bzier Polygon.
3 Find the Added segments subsection. Click Add Quadratic.
11 |
4 Find the Control points subsection. In row 1, set yw to r_inner+t2.

5 In row 2, set xw to wf/2.
6 In row 2, set yw to r_inner+t2.
7 In row 3, set xw to wf/2.
8 In row 3, set yw to r_inner+t2+wf/2.
10 Find the Control points subsection. In row 2, set xw to 3*wf/2.
13 In row 3, set xw to 2*wf.
Rectangle 2 (r2)
3 In the Width text field, type wf.
4 In the Height text field, type hf-wf.
5 Locate the Position section. In the xw text field, type wf/2.
6 In the yw text field, type r_inner+t2+wf/2.
Circle 1 (c1)
1 On the Work Plane toolbar, click Primitives and choose Circle.
3 In the Radius text field, type wf/2.
4 In the Sector angle text field, type 180.
5 Locate the Position section. In the xw text field, type wf.
6 In the yw text field, type r_inner+t2+hf-wf/2.
7 Right-click Circle 1 (c1) and choose Build Selected.
12 |
Array 1 (arr1)
1 On the Work Plane toolbar, click Transforms and choose Array.
2 Click in the Graphics window and then press Ctrl+A to select all objects.
3 In the Settings window for Array, locate the Size section.
4 From the Array type list, choose Linear.
5 In the Size text field, type 3.
6 Locate the Displacement section. In the xw text field, type 2*wf.
7 On the Work Plane toolbar, click Build All.

1 On the Work Plane toolbar, click Primitives and choose Bzier Polygon.
4 Find the Control points subsection. In row 1, set yw to r_inner.
5 In row 2, set xw to -l1.
6 In row 2, set yw to r_inner.
10 Find the Control points subsection. In row 2, set xw to -2*l1/3.
12 Find the Control points subsection. In row 2, set xw to -l1/3.
13 In row 3, set xw to -l1/3.
15 In row 4, set xw to 0.
13 |
Next, revolve the embedded 2D geometry to create the 3D model geometry.
Revolve 1 (rev1)
1 On the Geometry toolbar, click Revolve.
2 In the Settings window for Revolve, locate the Revolution Angles section.
3 Click the Angles button.
4 In the End angle text field, type 180.
5 Locate the Revolution Axis section. Find the Direction of revolution axis subsection.
In the xw text field, type 1.

6 In the yw text field, type 0.
7 Right-click Revolve 1 (rev1) and choose Build Selected.
14 |
DEFINITIONS
Variables 1
2 In the Settings window for Variables, locate the Geometric Entity Selection section.
4 Select Boundaries 3, 7, 9, 10, 13, 19, 23, 25, 29, 32, 35, 3842, 45, 51, 55, 57,
61, 64, 67, 7074, 77, 83, 87, 89, 93, 96, 99, and 102106 only. To do this, first
copy the list of boundaries from this text, then use the Paste button in the Boundary
15 |
Selection section, to paste these numbers.
For use when specifying the boundary condition for the flange's outer surface,
create a selection.
5 Click Create Selection.
6 In the Create Selection dialog box, type Outer Boundaries in the Selection name
text field.
7 Click OK.
Name
Expression
Unit
Gr
g_const*alphap*(T-T
_air)*D^3/nu^2
Grashof number
theta
atan(y/z)[1/deg]+90
Incidence angle in
degrees
Hc
k*f(theta)*Gr^0.25/
D
W/(mK)
Description
Heat-transfer film
coefficient
ADD MATERIAL
16 |

Initial Values 1
1 In the Model Builder window, expand the Component 1 (comp1)>Heat Transfer in
Solids (ht) node, then click Initial Values 1.
3 In the T text field, type 323.15[K].
Symmetry 1
3 Select Boundaries 2, 8, 12, 15, 21, 22, 24, 27, 33, 34, 44, 47, 53, 54, 56, 59, 65,
66, 76, 79, 85, 86, 88, 91, 97, and 98 only.
Heat Flux 1
17 |
2 Select Boundaries 4, 6, 16, 18, 48, 50, 80, and 82 only.
5 In the h text field, type Hh.
6 In the Text text field, type T_inner.
Heat Flux 2
3 From the Selection list, choose Outer Boundaries.
5 In the h text field, type Hc.
MESH 1
Mapped 1
18 |
2 Click the Go to XY View button on the Graphics toolbar twice to see the boundary
mesh.
3 Select Boundaries 8, 21, 22, 33, 53, 54, 65, 85, 86, and 97 only.
Size 1
1 Right-click Component 1 (comp1)>Mesh 1>Mapped 1 and choose Size.
Free Triangular 1
1 In the Model Builder window, right-click Mesh 1 and choose More Operations>Free
Triangular.
19 |
Swept 1
Right-click Mesh 1 and choose Swept.
Distribution 1
20 |
STUDY 1

RESULTS
Temperature (ht)
The first default plot group shows the temperature field on the surface; compare
with Figure 4.
Delete the second plot group to make a new surface plot of the heat transfer film
coefficient.

1 In the Model Builder window, expand the Temperature (ht) node.
2 Right-click Results>Isothermal Contours (ht) and choose Delete. Click Yes to confirm.
3D Plot Group 2
21 |
2 In the Settings window for 3D Plot Group, type Heat Transfer Film
Coefficient in the Label text field.
Heat Transfer Film Coefficient

1 Right-click Heat Transfer Film Coefficient and choose Surface.
of the Expression section. From the menu, choose Model>Component

1>Definitions>Variables>Hc - Heat-transfer film coefficient.
3 On the Heat Transfer Film Coefficient toolbar, click Plot.
Compare this plot with that in Figure 5.
Surface Integration 1
On the Results toolbar, click More Derived Values and choose Integration>Surface
Integration.
Derived Values
1 In the Settings window for Surface Integration, locate the Selection section.
the menu, choose Model>Component 1>Heat Transfer in Solids>Boundary

fluxes>ht.q0 - Inward heat flux.
TABLE
The integrated value, approximately 0.51 W, appears in the Table window below the
Graphics window. Taking both flange halves into account, the total cooling power
of the flange is thus roughly 1 W.
Finally, extend the model by performing a parametric sweep over the inner pipe radius.
Before adding a separate study for this purpose, define a variable for the total cooling
power.
DEFINITIONS
2 In the Settings window for Integration, type Integration, Outer in the Label text
field.
22 |
3 In the Operator name text field, type intop_outer.

4 Locate the Source Selection section. From the Geometric entity level list, choose
Boundary.
Variables 2
1 On the Definitions toolbar, click Local Variables.
Name
Expression
Unit
Description
P_cooling
2*intop_outer(ht.q0)
Cooling power
ADD STUDY
STUDY 2
Parametric Sweep
1 On the Study toolbar, click Parametric Sweep.
2 In the Settings window for Parametric Sweep, locate the Study Settings section.
3 Click Add.
Parameter name
Parameter unit
r_inner
range(6,1,10)
mm
This gives a sweep centered around the original radius value.

23 |
RESULTS
Temperature (ht) 1
You get a new surface plot of the temperature for the parametric solution. From the
Parameter value list you can choose the radius value for which to display the result.
Surface temperature for an inner radius of 10 mm.

Finally, replace the slice plot in the fourth plot group by a graph of the total cooling
power versus tube radius.

1 In the Model Builder window, under Results right-click Isothermal Contours (ht) and
choose Delete. Click Yes to confirm.
1D Plot Group 4
2 In the Settings window for 1D Plot Group, type Cooling Power in the Label text
field.
3 Locate the Data section. From the Data set list, choose Study 2/Parametric Solutions
1 (sol3).
24 |
Global 1
On the Cooling Power toolbar, click Global.
Cooling Power
1 In the Settings window for Global, click Add Expression in the upper-right corner of
the y-axis data section. From the menu, choose Model>Component

1>Definitions>Variables>P_cooling - Cooling power.
2 Click to expand the Legends section. Clear the Show legends check box.
3 In the Model Builder window, click Cooling Power.
5 Select the x-axis label check box.
6 In the associated text field, type Inner pipe radius (m).
7 On the Cooling Power toolbar, click Plot.
Compare the result with the graph in Figure 6.
25 |
26 |
Cooling and Solidification of Metal

Introduction
This example is a model of a continuous casting process. Liquid metal is poured into
a mold of uniform cross section. The outside of the mold is cooled and the metal
solidifies as it flows through the mold. When the metal leaves the mold, it is completely
solidified on the outside but still liquid inside. The metal then continues to cool and
eventually solidify completely, at which point it can be cut into sections. This tutorial
simplifies the problem somewhat by not computing the flow field of the liquid metal
and assuming there is no volume change during solidification. It is also assumed that
the velocity of the metal is constant and uniform throughout the modeling domain.
The phase transition from molten to solid state is modeled via the apparent heat
capacity formulation. Issues of convergence and mesh refinement are addressed for this
highly nonlinear model.
The Continuous Casting application is similar to this one, except that the velocity is
computed from the Laminar Flow interface instead of being considered constant and
uniform. For a detailed description of the application, see Continuous Casting.
Molten metal
Tundish
Nozzle
Cooled mold
Spray cooling
Saw
Modeling region
Solid metal billet
Figure 1: A continuous casting process. The section where the metal is solidifying is being
modeled.
1 |
COOLING AND SOLIDIFICATION OF METAL
Model Overview
The model simplifies the 3D geometry of the continuous casting to a 2D axisymmetric
model composed of two rectangular regions: one representing the strand within the
mold, and one the spray cooled region outside of the mold, prior to the saw cutoff. In
the second section, there is also significant cooling via radiation to the ambient. In this
region it is assumed that the molten metal is in a hydrostatic state, that the only motion
in the fluid is due to the bulk downward motion of the strand. This simplification
allows the assumption of bulk motion throughout the domain.
Since this is a continuous process, the system can be modeled at steady state. The heat
transport is described by the equation:
C p u T + ( kT ) = 0
where k and Cp denote thermal conductivity and specific heat, respectively. The
velocity, u, is the fixed casting speed of the metal in both liquid and solid states.
As the metal cools down in the mold, it solidifies. During the phase transition, a
significant amount of latent heat is released. The total amount of heat released per unit
mass of alloy during the transition is given by the change in enthalpy, H. In addition,
the specific heat capacity, Cp, also changes considerably during the transition. The
difference in specific heat before and after transition can be approximated by
H
C p = --------T
As opposed to pure metals, an alloy generally undergoes a broad temperature
transition zone, over several Kelvin, in which a mixture of both solid and molten
material co-exist in a mushy zone. To account for the latent heat related to the phase
transition, the Apparent Heat capacity method is used through the Heat Transfer with
Phase Change domain condition. The objective of the analysis is to make T, the
half-width of the transition interval small, such that the solidification front location is
well defined.
Table 1 reviews the material properties in this tutorial.
2 |
PROPERTY
SYMBOL
MELT
SOLID
Density
(kg/m3)
8500
8500
PROPERTY
SYMBOL
MELT
SOLID
Cp (J/(kgK))
531
380
k (W/(mK))
150
300
The melting temperature, Tm, and enthalpy, H, are 1356 K and 205 kJ/kg,
respectively.
This example is a highly nonlinear problem and benefits from taking an iterative
approach to finding the solution. The location of the transition between the molten
and solid state is a strong function of the casting velocity, the cooling rate in the mold,
and the cooling rate in the spray cooled region. A fine mesh is needed across the
solidification front to resolve the change in material properties. However, it is not
known where this front will be.
By starting with a gradual transition between liquid and solid, it is possible to find a
solution even on a relatively coarse mesh. This solution can be used as the starting
point for the next step in the solution procedure, which uses a sharper transition from
liquid to solid. This is done using the continuation method. Given a monotonic list of
values to solve for, the continuation method uses the solution to the last case as the
starting condition for the next. Once a solution is found for the smallest desired T,
the adaptive mesh refinement algorithm is used to refine the mesh to put more
elements around the transition region. This finer mesh is then used to find a solution
with an even sharper transition. This can be repeated as needed to get better and better
resolution of the location of the solidification front.
In this example, the parameter T is first ramped down from 300 K to 75 K, then the
adaptive mesh refinement is used such that a finer mesh is used around the
solidification front. The resultant solution and mesh are then used as starting points
for a second study, where the parameter T is further ramped down from 50 K to
25 K. The double-dogleg solver is used to find the solution to this highly nonlinear
problem. Although it takes more time, this solver converges better in cases when
material properties vary strongly with respect to the solution.

The solidification front computed with the coarsest mesh, and for T = 75 K, is shown
in Figure 2. A wide transition between the molten and solid state is observed. The
adaptive mesh refinement algorithm then refines the mesh along the solidification
front because this is the region where the results are strongly dependent upon mesh
size. This solution, and refined mesh, is used as the starting point for the next solution,
3 |
which ramps the T parameter down to 25 K. These results are shown in Figure 3.
The point of complete solidification moves slightly as the transition zone is made
smaller. As the transition zone becomes smaller, a finer mesh is needed, otherwise the
model might not converge. If it is desired to get an even better resolution of the
solidification front, the solution procedure used here should be repeated to get an even
finer mesh, and further ramp down the T parameter.
The liquid phase fraction is plotted along the r-direction at the line at the bottom of
the mold in Figure 4, and Figure 5 shows the liquid fraction along the centerline of
the strand. For smaller values of T, the transition becomes sharper, and the model
gives confidence that the metal is completely solidified before the strand is cut.
Figure 2: The fraction of liquid phase for T = 75 K shows a gradual transition between
the liquid and solid phase.
4 |
Figure 3: The fraction of liquid phase for T = 25 K shows a sharp transition between the
liquid and solid phase.
5 |
Figure 4: The fraction of liquid phase through the radius for all values of T. For smaller
values of T, the transition is sharper.
6 |
Figure 5: The fraction of liquid phase along the centerline for all values of T. For smaller
values of T, the transition is sharper.

cooling_solidification_metal
NEW

MODEL WIZARD

3 Click Add.
4 Click Study.
7 |

6 Click Done.
GLOBAL DEFINITIONS
First, set up parameters and variables used in the continuous casting process model
analysis.
Parameters
cooling_solidification_metal_parameters.txt.
GEOMETRY 1
Create two rectangles representing the strand within the mold, and spray cooled
region outside of the mold.
Rectangle 1 (r1)
Rectangle 2 (r2)
8 |
MATERIALS
Material 1 (mat1)

2 In the Settings window for Material, type Solid Metal Alloy in the Label text field.
Property
Name
Value
Unit
Property group
300
W/(mK)
Basic
Density
rho
8500
kg/m
Basic
Cp
Cp_s
J/(kgK)
Basic
gamma
Basic
Material 2 (mat2)
2 In the Settings window for Material, type Liquid Metal Alloy in the Label text
field.
9 |
Property
Name
Value
Unit
Property group
150
W/(mK)
Basic
Density
rho
8500
kg/m
Basic
Cp
Cp_l
J/(kgK)
Basic
gamma
Basic

Set up the physics.
Initial Values 1

3 In the T text field, type T_in.
Heat Transfer with Phase Change 1

1 On the Physics toolbar, click Domains and choose Heat Transfer with Phase Change.
3 In the Settings window for Heat Transfer with Phase Change, locate the Model Inputs
section.
0
-v_cast
5 Locate the Phase Change section. In the Tpc,1 2 text field, type T_m.
6 In the T1 2 text field, type dT.
7 In the L1 2 text field, type dH.
8 Locate the Phase 1 section. From the Material, phase 1 list, choose Solid Metal Alloy
(mat1).
9 Locate the Phase 2 section. From the Material, phase 2 list, choose Liquid Metal Alloy
(mat2).
Temperature 1
10 |

4 In the T0 text field, type T_in.
Heat Flux 1
11 |
5 In the h text field, type h_mold.
Heat Flux 2
12 |
5 In the h text field, type h_spray.
Diffuse Surface 1
4 From the list, choose User defined. In the associated text field, type eps_s.
5 Locate the Ambient section. In the Tamb text field, type T0.
Outflow 1
13 |
MESH 1

3 From the Element size list, choose Extremely fine.
STUDY 1

Step 1: Stationary
Set up an auxiliary continuation sweep for the dT parameter.
4 Click Add.
14 |

Parameter name
Parameter unit
dT
300 200 150 100 75
6 Select the Adaptive mesh refinement check box.
Solution 1 (sol1)
(sol1)>Stationary Solver 1 node, then click Adaptive Mesh Refinement.
4 In the Settings window for Adaptive Mesh Refinement, locate the Mesh Refinement
section.
5 From the Refinement method list, choose Mesh initialization.
(sol1)>Stationary Solver 1 click Fully Coupled 1.
7 In the Settings window for Fully Coupled, click to expand the Method and
8 Locate the Method and Termination section. From the Nonlinear method list, choose
Double dogleg.
RESULTS
2D Plot Group 1
2 In the Settings window for 2D Plot Group, type Solid and Liquid Phases
(Adaptive Mesh) in the Label text field.
Solid and Liquid Phases (Adaptive Mesh)

1 Right-click Solid and Liquid Phases (Adaptive Mesh) and choose Surface.
of the Expression section. From the menu, choose Model>Component 1>Heat Transfer
in Fluids>Phase change>ht.theta1 - Phase indicator, phase 1.
3 On the Solid and Liquid Phases (Adaptive Mesh) toolbar, click Plot.
The reproduced figure describes the fraction of liquid phase for T = 75 K.
15 |
ADD STUDY
STUDY 2
Step 1: Stationary
5 In the Model Builder window, click Step 1: Stationary.
variables section.
10 From the Solution list, choose Adaptive Mesh Refinement 1 (sol2).
11 From the Parameter value (dT) list, choose 75.
12 Click to expand the Mesh selection section. Locate the Study Extensions section.
Select the Auxiliary sweep check box.

13 Click Add.
Parameter name
Parameter unit
dT
50 25
Solution 3 (sol3)
16 |

(sol3)>Stationary Solver 1 node, then click Fully Coupled 1.
4 In the Settings window for Fully Coupled, locate the Method and Termination
section.
5 From the Nonlinear method list, choose Double dogleg.
RESULTS
2D Plot Group 2
2 In the Settings window for 2D Plot Group, type Solid and Liquid Phases in the
Label text field.
Solid and Liquid Phases

1 Right-click Solid and Liquid Phases and choose Surface.
of the Expression section. From the menu, choose Model>Component 1>Heat Transfer
in Fluids>Phase change>ht.theta1 - Phase indicator, phase 1.
3 On the Solid and Liquid Phases toolbar, click Plot.
This shows the fraction of liquid phase for T = 25 K.
1D Plot Group 3
2 In the Settings window for 1D Plot Group, type Phase Indicator at Symmetry
Axis in the Label text field.
Line Graph 1
On the Phase Indicator at Symmetry Axis toolbar, click Line Graph.
Phase Indicator at Symmetry Axis

2 In the Settings window for Line Graph, locate the y-axis data section.
3 Click ht.theta1 - Phase indicator, phase 1 in the upper-right corner of the section.
Locate the x-Axis Data section. From the Parameter list, choose Expression.
17 |
6 Right-click Line Graph 1 and choose Duplicate.

9 On the Phase Indicator at Symmetry Axis toolbar, click Plot.
Compare the resulting plot with Figure 5 showing the fraction of liquid phase
through the centerline for all values of T.
Phase Indicator at Symmetry Axis 1

1 In the Model Builder window, right-click Phase Indicator at Symmetry Axis and choose
Duplicate.
2 In the Settings window for 1D Plot Group, type Phase Indicator through
Radius in the Label text field.
Phase Indicator through Radius

1 In the Model Builder window, expand the Results>Phase Indicator through Radius
node, then click Line Graph 1.

2 In the Settings window for Line Graph, locate the Selection section.
5 Locate the x-Axis Data section. In the Expression text field, type r.
6 On the Phase Indicator through Radius toolbar, click Plot.
7 In the Model Builder window, under Results>Phase Indicator through Radius click Line
Graph 2.
11 Locate the x-Axis Data section. In the Expression text field, type r.
12 In the Model Builder window, click Phase Indicator through Radius.
13 In the Settings window for 1D Plot Group, click to expand the Legend section.
14 From the Position list, choose Upper left.
15 On the Phase Indicator through Radius toolbar, click Plot.
Compare the resulting plot with Figure 4 showing the fraction of liquid phase
through the radius for all values of T.
18 |
Steady-State 2D Axisymmetric Heat

Transfer with Conduction
Introduction
The following example illustrates how to build and solve a conductive heat transfer
problem using the Heat Transfer interface. The model, taken from a NAFEMS
benchmark collection, shows an axisymmetric steady-state thermal analysis. As
opposed to the NAFEMS benchmark model, we use the temperature unit Kelvin
instead of degrees Celsius for this model.
Model Definition
The modeling domain describes the cross section of a 3D solid as shown in Figure 1.
273.15 K
z = 1.4 m
Insulation
z = 0.1 m
5
2
510 W/m
273.15 K
z = 0.04 m
Insulation
273.15 K
z=0m
Figure 1: Model geometry and boundary conditions.

You set three types of boundary conditions:
Prescribed heat flux
Insulation/Symmetry
Prescribed temperature
The governing equation for this problem is the steady-state heat equation for
conduction with the volumetric heat source set to zero:
1 |
S T E A D Y - S T A T E 2 D A X I S Y M M E T R I C H E A T TR A N S F E R W I T H C O N D U C T I O N
( k T ) = 0
The thermal conductivity k is 52 W/(mK).
Results
The plot in Figure 2 shows the temperature distribution.

The benchmark result for the target location (r = 0.04 m and z = 0.04 m) is a
temperature of 59.82 C (332.97 K). The COMSOL Multiphysics model, using a
default mesh with about 540 elements, gives a temperature of 332.957 K at the same
location.
Reference
1. A.D. Cameron, J.A. Casey, and G.B. Simpson, NAFEMS Benchmark Tests for
Thermal Analysis (Summary), NAFEMS, 1986.
2 |

cylinder_conduction
NEW

MODEL WIZARD

3 Click Add.
4 Click Study.
6 Click Done.
GEOMETRY 1
Rectangle 1 (r1)
5 Locate the Position section. In the r text field, type 0.02.
Point 1 (pt1)
1 On the Geometry toolbar, click Primitives and choose Point.
2 In the Settings window for Point, locate the Point section.
3 In the r text field, type 0.02.
4 In the z text field, type 0.04.
Point 2 (pt2)
3 |


click Heat Transfer in Solids 1.

section.
4 Locate the Thermodynamics, Solid section. From the Cp list, choose User defined.
From the list, choose User defined.
Temperature 1
3 In the T0 text field, type 273.15[K].
Heat Flux 1
3 In the q0 text field, type 5e5.
MESH 1
Build All.
STUDY 1
4 |
RESULTS
The first default plot is a revolved 3D plot visualizing the temperature field on the
surface; compare with Figure 2.

The second default plot shows a contour plot of the temperature field.
To obtain the temperature value at any point, just click at that point in the Graphics
window; The result appears in the Table window at the bottom of the COMSOL
Desktop.
Alternatively, you can create a Cut Point data set and Point Evaluation feature as
follows.
Cut Point 2D 1
On the Results toolbar, click Cut Point 2D.
Data Sets
1 In the Settings window for Cut Point 2D, locate the Point Data section.
5 |

Point Evaluation 1
On the Results toolbar, click Point Evaluation.
Derived Values
1 In the Settings window for Point Evaluation, locate the Data section.
2 From the Data set list, choose Cut Point 2D 1.
TABLE
The result is approximately 333 K.
6 |
Radiative Heat Transfer in Finite

C y li ndr i c a l M e d i a
This application uses the discrete ordinates method (DOM) to solve a 3D radiative
transfer problem in an emitting, absorbing, and linearly anisotropic-scattering finite
cylindrical medium. Using the S6 quadrature of DOM leads to accurate results, which
are needed in combined modes of heat transfer. The calculated incident radiation and
heat fluxes agree well with published results obtained by transformed integral methods
(see Ref. 1). In addition, the Heat Transfer Modules DOM formulation easily handles
the effects of boundary emission and reflection.
Introduction
There are numerous engineering applications of radiative transfer in absorbing,
emitting, and anisotropically scattering media with variable radiation properties.
Examples include, among others, coal-fired combustion systems, light-weight fibrous
insulations, and heat transfer systems containing small scattering particles.
Furthermore, the efficiency of radiative transfer depends on the boundary conditions,
for example, the temperature and the emissivity of the surrounding walls, and the
target where heat transfer is desired. Studies have shown that radiative transfer is highly
sensitive to the wall emissivity. In this study you build a validation model representing
a cylinder with homogeneous walls. Then you go on to consider walls with
space-dependent emissivity and investigate the effects of albedo and scattering.
Model Definition
In this tutorial you validate the DOM formulation in COMSOL Multiphysics by
examining three benchmark cases. You investigate the methods efficiency through
parametric analyses by changing the single-scattering albedo, wall emissivity, and linear
function. In particular, in the final case, you approximate the scattering phase function
by a linear function reflecting highly backward, isotropic, and highly forward
scattering.
The model geometry, shown in Figure 1, is a cylinder of radius R = 0.5 m and height
L = 1 m.
1 |
R A D I A T I V E H E A T TR A N S F E R I N F I N I T E C Y L I N D R I C A L M E D I A
Surface 3
Surface 2
Surface 1
Figure 1: Schematic diagram of the physical model.

These examples use the S6 discrete ordinate method for predicting the heat flux on the
enclosure side walls and the incident radiation distribution inside the domain.
VE R I F I C A T I O N C A S E
For the initial study, assume cold boundaries, that is, Ii = 0 where i = 1, 2, 3 refers to
the surface index in Figure 1. Furthermore, assume that the walls diffusively reflect
radiation, that is, i = 0.5 for i = 1, 2, 3. The medium is at a uniform temperature T
such that the blackbody radiation intensity in an arbitrary direction per unit area and
solid angle Ib(T) = T4 equals 1 W/(m2sr).
WA LL S WI TH VA RIA BL E EMI SSI VIT Y
Two cases are computed for comparison purposes. These 3D cases represent opaque
partial side wall diffuse emission and/or reflection. In both cases, the radiosity on the
side walls (Surface 3) varies with the angular coordinate along the full height of the
finite cylinder according to 3 = (1 y R) 2. Both cases also have cold walls at the
cylinder top (Surface 1) and bottom (Surface 2).
2 |
Case 1 has isotropic scattering function and compares results for different albedos.
Case 2 has constant albedo and compares results with highly forward, isotropic, and
highly backward scattering function parameterized by the Legendre coefficient a1.
TABLE 1: NONSTANDARD TEST CASES
CASE
MEDIUM PROPERTIES)
albedo = 0.1, 0.5, 0.9

a1 = 0
albedo = 0.5
a1 = 0.99, 0, 0.99
THERMAL ANALYSIS
The discrete ordinates method relies on the discrete representation of the directional
dependence of the radiation intensity. It involves solving the radiative equation for a
set of directions that span the full solid angle range of 4 around a point in space.
The radiation transport equation (RTE) for this type of configuration can be written as
s
I ( , s ) = I b ( T ) I ( , s ) + -----4
I ( , ) ( , )
where
I(, s) is the radiation intensity at a given position s in the direction
T is the temperature
, , and s are absorption, extinction, and scattering coefficients, respectively
Ib(T) is the blackbody radiation intensity
(, ) = 1 + a10 where 0 = is the cosine of the scattering angle.
The boundary intensities at the cylinder walls are given by the sum of the effective
emitted intensity and the reflected incident intensities in the given direction:
d
I bnd ( ) = w I b ( T ) + ------ q out
for all such that n < 0
where
w is the surface emissivity, which is in the range [0, 1]
d = 1 w is the diffusive reflectivity
n is the outward normal vector
3 |
qout is the heat flux striking the wall:

q out =
( n )I ( , s )
n j > 0
The above equations can be discretized in Cartesian coordinates for monochromatic

or gray radiation as
s
i I i = I b ( T ) I i + -----4
I ( , ) ( , )
The Sn approximation of the RTE in the direction i can be expressed as

s
i I i = I b ( T ) I i + -----4
w j I j ( j, i )
j=1
For a discrete direction, i, the values of i,1, i,2, and i,3 define the direction
cosines of i obeying the condition i,12 + i,22 + i,32 = 1. The index j in the above
equation denotes the direction of incoming radiation contributing to the direction i.
For a diffuse reflecting surface on a wall boundary, the boundary condition equation
is transformed as
d
I i, bnd = w I b ( T ) + -----
wj Ij n j
for all i such that n i < 0
n j > 0

The results demonstrate that the DOM procedure for the prediction of radiation is an
elegant and accurate method for modeling multidimensional radiative heat transfer in
cylindrical geometries.
This case treats the effects of the scattering albedo on the incident radiation and heat
fluxes. Figure 2 shows the distribution of the net heat flux qr, net(R, 0, z) versus axial
optical thickness. There is good overall agreement of the present work with published
literature results (Ref. 2, Ref. 3, and Ref. 4).
4 |
Figure 2: The effects of the scattering albedo on the radial heat flux qr, net(R, 0, z); for a
hot cylindrical medium enclosed by cold walls, 1 = 2 = 3 =0.5.
The effects of albedo on the distribution of centerline incident radiation in axial
direction are shown in Figure 3. The incident radiation is symmetric with respect to
5 |
z = L 2 plane and decrease with increasing scattering albedo. Furthermore, results

become more uniform with larger scattering albedo.
Figure 3: The effects of the scattering albedo on the distribution of centerline incident
radiation G(0, 0, z) for a hot cylindrical medium enclosed by cold walls,
1 = 2 = 3 = 0.5.
Figure 4 displays the distributions of the incident radiation across the mid-plan radius
G(x, 0, L 2) with respect to normalized optical thickness x R.
6 |
Figure 4: The effects of the scattering albedo on the distributions of the incident radiation
G(x, 0, L 2) with respect to normalized optical thickness x R for a hot cylindrical
medium enclosed by cold walls, 1 = 2 = 3 = 0.5.
WAL LS W IT H VARI ABL E E M IS SI VI TY
The incident radiation at the mid-plane z = L 2 at the radial position R 2 is shown in

Figure 5. At the side surface R 2 distance from the cylinder axis, G(R, 0, L 2)
changes with the azimuthal angle. The changes in scattering albedo are also illustrated.
The smallest albedo makes the biggest change around the azimuthal angle.
7 |
Figure 5: The effects of scattering albedo on the distribution of incident radiation at

mid-plane z = L 2 at R 2 distance from the cylinder axis with respect to an azimuthal
coordinate for Case 1.
8 |
Figure 6 shows the effect of a nonzero linear anisotropic scattering coefficient a1. As
expected, the differences between isotropic scattering, forward scattering, and
backward scattering are most accentuated far from the boundary.
Figure 6: The effects of linear anisotropic scattering coefficient a1 on the distribution of

incident radiation G(0, y, L 2) with respect to normalized optical thickness y R for
Case 2.
References
1. X.L. Chen and W.H. Sutton, Radiative Transfer in Finite Cylindrical Media Using
Transformed Integral Equations, J. Quantitative Spectroscopy and Radiative
Transfer, vol. 77, pp. 233271, 2003.
2. X. Chen, Transformed Integral Equations of Radiative Transfer and Combined
Convection-radiation Heat Transfer Enhancement with Porous Insert, Doctoral
Thesis, University of Oklahoma, 2003.
3. S.T. Thynell and M.N. Ozisik, Radiation Transfer in Absorbing, Emitting,
Isotropically Scattering, Homogeneous Cylindrical Media, J. Quantitative
Spectroscopy and Radiative Transfer, vol. 38, no. 6, pp. 413426, 1987.
9 |
4. H.Y. Li, M.N. Ozisik, and J.R. Tsai, Two-dimensional radiation in a cylinder with
spatially varying albedo, J. Thermophysics and Heat Transfer, vol. 6, no. 1, pp. 180
182, 1992.

cylinder_participating_media
Modeling InstructionsValidation Case

NEW

MODEL WIZARD

2 In the Select physics tree, select Heat Transfer>Radiation>Radiation in Participating
Media (rpm).
3 Click Add.
4 Click Study.
6 Click Done.
GLOBAL DEFINITIONS
Parameters
10 |
Name
Expression
Value
Description
T0
(1[W/m^2]*pi/
sigma_const)^(
1/4)
86.27 K
Body temperature
Tw
0[K]
0K
Wall temperature
ew
0.5
0.5
Wall emissivity
Name
Expression
Value
Description
omega
0.9
0.9
Single-scattering
albedo
sigma_s
omega
0.9
Scattering coefficient
kappa
sigma_s*(1/
omega-1)
0.1
Absorption coefficient
0.5[m]
0.5 m
Cylinder radius
1[m]
1m
Cylinder length
GEOMETRY 1
Cylinder 1 (cyl1)
3 In the Radius text field, type R.
MATERIALS
Add a material to specify the absorption and scattering coefficients inside the cylinder.
Material 1 (mat1)

2 In the Settings window for Material, type Domain in the Label text field.
Property
Name
Value
Unit
Property group
kappa
R
kappa
1/m
Basic
sigmaS
sigma_
s
1/m
Basic
Analogously, specify the emissivity of the walls using a material.
Material 2 (mat2)
2 In the Settings window for Material, type Walls in the Label text field.
11 |
3 Locate the Geometric Entity Selection section. From the Geometric entity level list,
choose Boundary.
Property
Surface emissivity
Name
Value
Unit
Property group
epsilo
n_rad
ew
Basic
RADIATION IN PARTICIPATING MEDIA (RPM)
1 In the Model Builder window, under Component 1 (comp1) click Radiation in

Participating Media (rpm).
2 In the Settings window for Radiation in Participating Media, locate the Participating
Media Settings section.
3 From the Pindex list, choose 0.3.
With this performance index value, solving the model requires roughly 2GB of
RAM. If your computer has less available memory than that, try a value in the range
0.5--1.
4 From the Discrete ordinates method list, choose S6.
Radiation in Participating Media 1

1 In the Model Builder window, expand the Radiation in Participating Media (rpm) node,
then click Radiation in Participating Media 1.

2 In the Settings window for Radiation in Participating Media, locate the Model Inputs
section.
Opaque Surface 1
1 In the Model Builder window, under Component 1 (comp1)>Radiation in Participating
Media (rpm) click Opaque Surface 1.
2 In the Settings window for Opaque Surface, locate the Model Inputs section.
3 In the T text field, type Tw.
MESH 1

3 From the Element size list, choose Coarse.
12 |
Free Triangular 1
1 Right-click Component 1 (comp1)>Mesh 1 and choose More Operations>Free
Triangular.
Swept 1
2 Right-click Swept 1 and choose Build All.
STUDY 1
Parametric Sweep
3 Click Add.
Parameter name
omega
0.1 0.5 0.9
Parameter unit
Before solving, switch to an iterative solver to reduce memory consumption.
Solution 1 (sol1)
4 Right-click Stationary Solver 1 and choose Iterative.
Incident Radiation (rpm)

1 Right-click Study 1>Solver Configurations>Solution 1 (sol1)>Stationary Solver
1>Iterative 1 and choose Enable.
13 |
RESULTS

The first default plot shows the incident radiation distribution in 3D and the second
default plot represents the net radiative heat flux distribution in 3D, see figure below.
Add a new 1D Plot to represent the net radiative heat flux along the z-coordinate and
compare with Figure 2.
1D Plot Group 3
2 In the Settings window for 1D Plot Group, type Net Radiative Heat Flux vs
z, 1D in the Label text field.
Line Graph 1
On the Net Radiative Heat Flux vs z, 1D toolbar, click Line Graph.
Net Radiative Heat Flux vs z, 1D

2 Select Edge 12 only.
14 |
state.
corner of the y-axis data section. From the menu, choose Component 1>Radiation in
Participating Media>Boundary fluxes>rpm.qr_net - Net radiative heat flux.

Finish the plot by adjusting the title and axis labels.

7 In the Model Builder window, click Net Radiative Heat Flux vs z, 1D.
8 In the Settings window for 1D Plot Group, click to expand the Title section.
9 From the Title type list, choose None.
12 On the Net Radiative Heat Flux vs z, 1D toolbar, click Plot.
Cut Line 3D 1
Data Sets
2 In row Point 2, set x to 0.
3 In row Point 2, set z to L.
15 |
The Graphics window shows the location of the line in the model geometry.
Add a new 1D Plot to represent the incident radiation along the z-coordinate and
1D Plot Group 4
2 In the Settings window for 1D Plot Group, type Incident Radiation vs z, 1D

Line Graph 1
On the Incident Radiation vs z, 1D toolbar, click Line Graph.
Incident Radiation vs z, 1D
corner of the x-axis data section. From the menu, choose Geometry>Coordinate>z z-coordinate.
3 In the Model Builder window, click Incident Radiation vs z, 1D.
4 In the Settings window for 1D Plot Group, locate the Title section.
16 |

8 On the Incident Radiation vs z, 1D toolbar, click Plot.
Cut Line 3D 2
Data Sets
2 In row Point 1, set z to L/2.
3 In row Point 2, set x to R.
Add a new 1D Plot to represent the incident radiation along the x-coordinate and
Incident Radiation vs z, 1D 1
1 In the Model Builder window, under Results right-click Incident Radiation vs z, 1D and
choose Duplicate.
17 |
2 In the Settings window for 1D Plot Group, type Incident Radiation vs x, 1D

4 Locate the Plot Settings section. In the x-axis label text field, type x-coordinate
(m).
Incident Radiation vs x, 1D
1 In the Model Builder window, expand the Results>Incident Radiation vs x, 1D node,
then click Line Graph 1.

corner of the x-axis data section. From the menu, choose Geometry>Coordinate>x x-coordinate.
3 On the Incident Radiation vs x, 1D toolbar, click Plot.
Modeling Instructions---Case 1
Opaque Surface 2
1 On the Physics toolbar, click Boundaries and choose Opaque Surface.
These are the vertical wall boundaries. To reach all of them, you can rotate the
geometry or click either the Transparency button or the Wireframe Rendering button
on the Graphics toolbar.
5 Locate the Wall Settings section. From the list, choose User defined. In the
associated text field, type ew*(1-y/R).

Now, disable Opaque Surface 2 in Study 1 to be able to re run the same Study 1
configuration.
STUDY 1
Step 1: Stationary
1 In the Model Builder window, expand the Study 1 node, then click Step 1: Stationary.
section.
18 |
4 In the Physics and variables selection tree, select Component 1 (comp1)>Radiation in
Participating Media (rpm)>Opaque Surface 2.
5 Click Disable.
ADD STUDY
STUDY 2
Step 1: Stationary
Parametric Sweep
3 Click Add.
Parameter name
omega
0.1 0.5 0.9
Parameter unit
Solution 2 (sol2)
3 In the Model Builder window, expand the Solution 2 (sol2) node, then click Dependent
Variables 1.
4 In the Settings window for Dependent Variables, locate the General section.
5 From the Defined by study step list, choose User defined.
6 Locate the Initial Values of Variables Solved For section. From the Method list, choose
Solution.
7 From the Solution list, choose Solution 1 (sol1).
19 |
right-click Stationary Solver 1 and choose Iterative.
Incident Radiation (rpm) 1

RESULTS

Parameterized Curve 3D 1
On the Results toolbar, click More Data Sets and choose Parameterized Curve 3D.
Data Sets
1 In the Settings window for Parameterized Curve 3D, locate the Data section.
3 Locate the Parameter section. In the Name text field, type phi.
20 |
4 In the Maximum text field, type 2*pi.

5 Locate the Expressions section. In the x text field, type R*cos(phi)/2.
6 In the y text field, type R*sin(phi)/2.
7 In the z text field, type L/2.
Add a new 1D Plot to represent the incident radiation in function of the azimuthal
angle and compare with Figure 5.
1D Plot Group 8
2 In the Settings window for 1D Plot Group, type Incident Radiation vs
Azimuthal Angle, 1D in the Label text field.
3 Locate the Data section. From the Data set list, choose Parameterized Curve 3D 1.
Line Graph 1
On the Incident Radiation vs Azimuthal Angle, 1D toolbar, click Line Graph.
Incident Radiation vs Azimuthal Angle, 1D

1 In the Settings window for Line Graph, locate the Legends section.
3 In the Model Builder window, click Incident Radiation vs Azimuthal Angle, 1D.
21 |
7 In the associated text field, type Azimuthal angle (rad).
9 On the Incident Radiation vs Azimuthal Angle, 1D toolbar, click Plot.
GLOBAL DEFINITIONS
Parameters
For Case 2, you need to modify the value of the single-scattering albedo that you
defined previously and add a parameter for the Legendre coefficient a1 in the
scattering phase function.
1 In the Model Builder window, under Global Definitions click Parameters.
Name
Expression
Value
Description
omega
0.5
0.5
Single-scattering
albedo
a1
0.99
0.99
Legendre coefficient

Media (rpm) click Radiation in Participating Media 1.
2 In the Settings window for Radiation in Participating Media, locate the Scattering
section.
3 From the Scattering type list, choose Linear anisotropic.
4 In the a1 text field, type a1.
ADD STUDY
22 |

STUDY 3
Step 1: Stationary
Parametric Sweep
3 Click Add.
Parameter name
a1
-0.99 0 0.99
Parameter unit
Note that the value a1 = 0 gives the same solution as for omega = 0.5 in Case 1.
Solution 3 (sol3)
Variables 1.
Solution.
right-click Stationary Solver 1 and choose Iterative.

23 |
RESULTS

Data Sets
3 Locate the Expressions section. In the y text field, type -s*R.
With the above definition, s = -y/R equals the optical thickness along the negative
y-axis for the given constant values of x and z.
24 |
Add a new 1D Plot to represent the incident radiation in function of the normalized
optical thickness and compare with Figure 6.
1D Plot Group 11
Normalized Optical Thickness, 1D in the Label text field.
Line Graph 1
On the Incident Radiation vs Normalized Optical Thickness, 1D toolbar, click Line Graph.
Incident Radiation vs Normalized Optical Thickness, 1D

1 In the Settings window for Line Graph, locate the x-Axis Data section.
2 From the Parameter list, choose Expression.
3 In the Expression text field, type s.
5 In the Model Builder window, click Incident Radiation vs Normalized Optical Thickness,
1D.
25 |

9 In the associated text field, type Normalized optical thickness (y/R).
11 On the Incident Radiation vs Normalized Optical Thickness, 1D toolbar, click Plot.
26 |
Radiative Heat Transfer in Finite

C y li ndr i c a l M e d i aP1 Met h od
This application uses the P1 approximation to solve a 3D radiative transfer problem in
an emitting, absorbing, and linearly anisotropic-scattering finite cylindrical medium.
The calculated incident radiation and heat fluxes are compared to the results obtained
with the highly accurate S6 discrete ordinates method (see Radiative Heat Transfer in
Finite Cylindrical Media). The results obtained with this method show fairly good
agreement with published results obtained by transformed integral methods (see Ref.
1) for optically thick media.
Introduction
There are numerous engineering applications of radiative transfer in absorbing,
emitting, and anisotropically scattering media with variable radiation properties.
Examples include, among others, coal-fired combustion systems, light-weight fibrous
insulations, and heat transfer systems containing small scattering particles.
Furthermore, the efficiency of radiative transfer depends on the boundary conditions,
for example, the temperature and the emissivity of the surrounding walls, and the
target where heat transfer is desired. Studies have shown that radiative transfer is highly
sensitive to the wall emissivity. In this study you build a validation model representing
a cylinder with homogeneous walls. Then you go on to consider walls with
space-dependent emissivity and investigate the effects of albedo and scattering.
Model Definition
In this tutorial you validate the P1 formulation in COMSOL Multiphysics by
examining three benchmark cases. You investigate the methods efficiency through
parametric analyses by changing the single-scattering albedo, wall emissivity, and linear
function. In particular, in the final case, you approximate the scattering phase function
by a linear function reflecting highly backward, isotropic, and highly forward
scattering. The results are compared to the results obtained with the DOM
formulation as shown in Radiative Heat Transfer in Finite Cylindrical Media.
The model geometry, shown in Figure 1, is a cylinder of radius R = 0.5 m and height
L = 1 m.
1 |
R A D I A T I V E H E A T TR A N S F E R I N F I N I T E C Y L I N D R I C A L M E D I A P 1 M E T H O D
Surface 3
Surface 2
Surface 1
Figure 1: Schematic diagram of the physical model.

These examples use the P1 approximation method for predicting the heat flux on the
enclosure side walls and the incident radiation distribution inside the domain.
For the initial study, assume cold boundaries, that is, T = 0. Furthermore, assume that
the walls diffusively reflect radiation, that is, = 0.5. The medium is at a uniform
temperature T such that the blackbody radiation intensity Ib(T) = T4 is equal to
1 W/m2.
Two cases are computed for comparison purposes. These 3D cases represent opaque
partial side wall diffuse emission and/or reflection. In both cases, the radiosity on the
side walls (Surface 3) varies with the angular coordinate along the full height of the
finite cylinder according to 3 = (1 y R) 2. Both cases also have cold walls at the
cylinder top (Surface 1) and bottom (Surface 2).
2 |
Case 1 has isotropic scattering function and compares results for different albedos.
Case 2 has constant albedo and compares results with highly forward, isotropic, and
highly backward scattering function parameterized by the Legendre coefficient a1.
TABLE 1: NONSTANDARD TEST CASES
CASE
MEDIUM PROPERTIES)
albedo = 0.1, 0.5, 0.9

a1 = 0
albedo = 0.5
a1 = 0.99, 0, 0.99
THERMAL ANALYSIS
The P1 approximation method is the simplest form of the method of spherical

harmonics (PN) to describe radiative transport in participating media. The radiation
transport equation (RTE) for this type of configuration can be written as
s
I ( , s ) = I b ( T ) I ( , s ) + -----4
I ( , ) ( , )
where
I(, s) is the radiation intensity at a given position s in the direction
T is the temperature
, , and s are absorption, extinction, and scattering coefficients, respectively
Ib(T) is the blackbody radiation intensity
(, ) = 1 + a10 where 0 = is the cosine of the scattering angle.
The RTE (an integro-partial differential equation) is transformed into a set of partial
differential equations. The remaining task is to solve an additional equation for
4
G =
I ( ) d
0
which adds a heat source/sink to account for radiative heat transfer.

( D P1 G ) = Q r
where DP1 is a diffusion coefficient and Qr is the radiative heat source. The boundary
condition for opaque surfaces then is
3 |
n D P1 G = q r, net

The results demonstrate that the P1 method provides a fast alternative to the DOM
method. The solution time is only a few seconds whereas it is about 4 hours for the
DOM method. The results represent the radiation characteristics well. The numerical
values show good agreement for small scattering coefficients (omega) and high
absorption coefficients (kappa). The relation between both values is = ( 1).
This case examines the effects of the scattering albedo on the incident radiation and
heat fluxes. Figure 2 shows the distribution of the net heat flux qr, net(R, 0, z) versus
axial optical thickness. There is good agreement with the results obtained from the
DOM model. The results for the net radiative heat flux (Figure 2) shows good
agreement with distance to the top and bottom boundary. The relative error for small
scattering albedo is below 10% and increases with increasing scattering albedo.
Figure 2: The effects of the scattering albedo on the radial heat flux qr, net(R, 0, z); for a
hot cylindrical medium enclosed by cold walls, 1 = 2 = 3 = 0.5.
4 |
The effects of albedo on the distribution of centerline incident radiation in axial

direction are shown in Figure 3. The incident radiation is symmetric with respect to
z = L 2 plane and decrease with increasing scattering albedo. Furthermore, results
become more uniform with larger scattering albedo.
Figure 3: The effects of the scattering albedo on the distribution of centerline incident
radiation G(0, 0, z) for a hot cylindrical medium enclosed by cold walls,
1 = 2 = 3 = 0.5.
Figure 4 displays the distributions of the incident radiation across the mid-plane radius
G(x, 0, L 2) with respect to normalized optical thickness x R.
5 |
Figure 4: The effects of the scattering albedo on the distributions of the incident radiation
G(x, 0, L 2) with respect to normalized optical thickness x R for a hot cylindrical
medium enclosed by cold walls, 1 = 2 = 3 = 0.5.
For the validation case the relative error compared to the DOM model is below 20%.
The incident radiation at the mid-plane z = L 2 at the radial position R 2 is shown in

Figure 5. At the side surface R 2 distance from the cylinder axis, G(R, 0, L 2)
changes with the azimuthal angle. The changes in scattering albedo are also illustrated.
The smallest albedo makes the biggest change around the azimuthal angle. The
numerical error for small scattering albedo again is low (around 10%).
6 |
Figure 5: The effects of scattering albedo on the distribution of incident radiation at

mid-plane z = L 2 at R 2 distance from the cylinder axis with respect to an azimuthal
coordinate for Case 1.
7 |
Figure 6 shows the effect of a nonzero linear anisotropic scattering coefficient a1. As
expected, the differences between isotropic scattering, forward scattering, and
backward scattering are most accentuated far from the boundary.
Figure 6: The effects of linear anisotropic scattering coefficient a1 on the distribution of

incident radiation G(0, y, L 2) with respect to normalized optical thickness y R for
Case 2.
Unlike the discrete ordinates method, the P1 method is computationally inexpensive
and gives fast results at the expense of accuracy in most cases. For large optical
thickness the results show good agreement with the results obtained from the discrete
ordinate method and hence with the results presented in the literature.
References
1. X.L. Chen and W.H. Sutton, Radiative Transfer in Finite Cylindrical Media Using
Transformed Integral Equations, J. Quantitative Spectroscopy and Radiative
Transfer, vol. 77, pp. 233271, 2003.
2. X. Chen, Transformed Integral Equations of Radiative Transfer and Combined
Convection-radiation Heat Transfer Enhancement with Porous Insert, Doctoral
Thesis, University of Oklahoma, 2003.
8 |
3. S.T. Thynell and M.N. Ozisik, Radiation Transfer in Absorbing, Emitting,

Isotropically Scattering, Homogeneous Cylindrical Media, J. Quantitative
Spectroscopy and Radiative Transfer, vol. 38, no. 6, pp. 413426, 1987.
4. H.Y. Li, M.N. Ozisik, and J.R. Tsai, Two-dimensional radiation in a cylinder with
spatially varying albedo, J. Thermophysics and Heat Transfer, vol. 6, no. 1, pp. 180
182, 1992.

cylinder_participating_media_p1
Modeling InstructionsValidation Case

NEW

MODEL WIZARD

2 In the Select physics tree, select Heat Transfer>Radiation>Radiation in Participating
Media (rpm).
3 Click Add.
4 Click Study.
6 Click Done.
GLOBAL DEFINITIONS
Parameters
9 |

Name
Expression
Value
Description
T0
(1[W/m^2]*pi/
sigma_const)^(
1/4)
86.27 K
Body temperature
Tw
0[K]
0K
Wall temperature
ew
0.5
0.5
Wall emissivity
omega
0.9
0.9
Single-scattering
albedo
sigma_s
omega
0.9
kappa
sigma_s*(1/
omega-1)
0.1
0.5[m]
0.5 m
Cylinder radius
1[m]
1m
Cylinder length
GEOMETRY 1
Cylinder 1 (cyl1)
3 In the Radius text field, type R.
MATERIALS
Add a material to specify the absorption and scattering coefficients inside the cylinder.
Material 1 (mat1)

2 In the Settings window for Material, type Domain in the Label text field.
10 |
Property
Name
Value
Unit
Property group
kappa
R
kappa
1/m
Basic
sigmaS
sigma_
s
1/m
Basic
Analogously, specify the emissivity of the walls using a material.
Material 2 (mat2)
2 In the Settings window for Material, type Walls in the Label text field.
choose Boundary.
Property
Name
Value
Unit
Property group
Surface emissivity
epsilo
n_rad
ew
Basic
1 In the Model Builder window, under Component 1 (comp1) click Radiation in

Participating Media (rpm).
2 In the Settings window for Radiation in Participating Media, locate the Participating
Media Settings section.
3 From the Radiation discretization method list, choose P1 approximation.

2 In the Settings window for Radiation in Participating Media, locate the Model Inputs
section.
Opaque Surface 1
Media (rpm) click Opaque Surface 1.
11 |
STUDY 1
Parametric Sweep
3 Click Add.
Parameter name
omega
0.1 0.5 0.9
Parameter unit

RESULTS

12 |
Add a new 1D Plot to represent the net radiative heat flux along the z-coordinate and
1D Plot Group 3
2 In the Settings window for 1D Plot Group, type Net Radiative Heat Flux vs
z, 1D in the Label text field.
Line Graph 1
On the Net Radiative Heat Flux vs z, 1D toolbar, click Line Graph.
Net Radiative Heat Flux vs z, 1D

state.
corner of the y-axis data section. From the menu, choose Model>Component
1>Radiation in Participating Media>Boundary fluxes>rpm.qr_net - Net radiative heat
flux.
the menu, choose Model>Geometry>Coordinate>z - z-coordinate.

Finish the plot by adjusting the title and axis labels.

7 In the Model Builder window, click Net Radiative Heat Flux vs z, 1D.
12 On the Net Radiative Heat Flux vs z, 1D toolbar, click Plot.
Cut Line 3D 1
Data Sets
2 In row Point 2, set x to 0.
13 |
3 In row Point 2, set z to L.

The Graphics window shows the location of the line in the model geometry.
Add a new 1D Plot to represent the incident radiation along the z-coordinate and
1D Plot Group 4
2 In the Settings window for 1D Plot Group, type Incident Radiation vs z, 1D

Line Graph 1
On the Incident Radiation vs z, 1D toolbar, click Line Graph.
Incident Radiation vs z, 1D
corner of the x-axis data section. From the menu, choose

Model>Geometry>Coordinate>z - z-coordinate.
3 In the Model Builder window, click Incident Radiation vs z, 1D.
14 |
8 On the Incident Radiation vs z, 1D toolbar, click Plot.
Cut Line 3D 2
Data Sets
3 In row Point 2, set x to R.
Add a new 1D Plot to represent the incident radiation along the x-coordinate and
Incident Radiation vs z, 1D 1
1 In the Model Builder window, under Results right-click Incident Radiation vs z, 1D and
choose Duplicate.
15 |
2 In the Settings window for 1D Plot Group, type Incident Radiation vs x, 1D

4 Locate the Plot Settings section. In the x-axis label text field, type x-coordinate
(m).
Incident Radiation vs x, 1D
1 In the Model Builder window, expand the Results>Incident Radiation vs x, 1D node,
then click Line Graph 1.

corner of the x-axis data section. From the menu, choose

Model>Geometry>Coordinate>x - x-coordinate.
3 On the Incident Radiation vs x, 1D toolbar, click Plot.
Opaque Surface 2
1 On the Physics toolbar, click Boundaries and choose Opaque Surface.
These are the vertical wall boundaries. To reach all of them, you can rotate the
geometry or click either the Transparency button or the Wireframe Rendering button
on the Graphics toolbar.
5 Locate the Wall Settings section. From the list, choose User defined. In the
associated text field, type ew*(1-y/R).

Now, disable Opaque Surface 2 in Study 1 to be able to re run the same Study 1
configuration.
STUDY 1
Step 1: Stationary
section.
16 |
4 In the Physics and variables selection tree, select Component 1 (comp1)>Radiation in
Participating Media (rpm)>Opaque Surface 2.
5 Click Disable.
ADD STUDY
STUDY 2
Step 1: Stationary
Parametric Sweep
3 Click Add.
Parameter name
omega
0.1 0.5 0.9
Parameter unit
17 |
RESULTS

Data Sets
3 Locate the Parameter section. In the Name text field, type phi.
4 In the Maximum text field, type 2*pi.
5 Locate the Expressions section. In the x text field, type R*cos(phi)/2.
6 In the y text field, type R*sin(phi)/2.
18 |
Add a new 1D Plot to represent the incident radiation in function of the azimuthal
angle and compare with Figure 5.
1D Plot Group 8
Azimuthal Angle, 1D in the Label text field.
Line Graph 1
On the Incident Radiation vs Azimuthal Angle, 1D toolbar, click Line Graph.
Incident Radiation vs Azimuthal Angle, 1D

3 In the Model Builder window, click Incident Radiation vs Azimuthal Angle, 1D.
7 In the associated text field, type Azimuthal angle (rad).
19 |

9 On the Incident Radiation vs Azimuthal Angle, 1D toolbar, click Plot.
Modeling Instructions--Case 2
GLOBAL DEFINITIONS
Parameters
For Case 2, you need to modify the value of the single-scattering albedo that you
defined previously and add a parameter for the Legendre coefficient a1 in the
scattering phase function.
Name
Expression
Value
Description
omega
0.5
0.5
Single-scattering
albedo
a1
0.99
0.99
Legendre coefficient

2 In the Settings window for Radiation in Participating Media, locate the Scattering
section.
3 From the Scattering type list, choose Linear anisotropic.
4 In the a1 text field, type a1.
ADD STUDY
20 |
STUDY 3
Step 1: Stationary
Parametric Sweep
3 Click Add.
Parameter name
a1
-0.99 0 0.99
Parameter unit
Note that the value a1 = 0 gives the same solution as for omega = 0.5 in Case 1.
21 |
RESULTS

Data Sets
3 Locate the Expressions section. In the y text field, type -s*R.
With the above definition, s = -y/R equals the optical thickness along the negative
y-axis for the given constant values of x and z.
22 |
Add a new 1D Plot to represent the incident radiation in function of the normalized
optical thickness and compare with Figure 6.
1D Plot Group 11
Normalized Optical Thickness, 1D in the Label text field.
Line Graph 1
On the Incident Radiation vs Normalized Optical Thickness, 1D toolbar, click Line Graph.
Incident Radiation vs Normalized Optical Thickness, 1D

1 In the Settings window for Line Graph, locate the x-Axis Data section.
2 From the Parameter list, choose Expression.
3 In the Expression text field, type s.
5 In the Model Builder window, click Incident Radiation vs Normalized Optical Thickness,
1D.
23 |

9 In the associated text field, type Normalized optical thickness (y/R).
11 On the Incident Radiation vs Normalized Optical Thickness, 1D toolbar, click Plot.
24 |
Di s k - S ta c k H e a t Si n k
Introduction
This example studies the cooling effects of a disk-stack heat sink on an electronic
component. The heat sink shape (see Figure 1) shows several thin aluminum disks
piled up around a central hollow column. Such a configuration allows cooling of large
surfaces of aluminum fins by air at ambient temperature.
Figure 1: Steady-state surface temperature distribution of the electronic device.

To evaluate the efficiency of the heat sink, this tutorial follows a typical preliminary
board-level thermal analysis. First, a simulation of the board with some Integrated
Circuits (ICs) is performed. Then, the disk-stack heat sink is added above the main hot
electronic component to observe cooling effects. The final part adds a copper layer to
the bottom of the board in order to obtain a more uniform temperature distribution
and see how it affects the heat transfer in the circuit board.
1 |
DISK-STACK HEAT SINK
This exercise highlights a number of important modeling techniques such as

combining 3D solids and shells and using thin layer boundary conditions when
replacing 3D thin geometries by 2D boundaries.
Model Definition
GEOMETRY
Figure 2 shows that the first studied geometry is made of a circuit board with several
ICs on it.
Figure 2: First geometry without heat sink.

This typical board-level thermal analysis determines the temperature profile in and
around a high-power chip. The printed-circuit board usually consists of multiple layers
of FR4 material (Flame Resistant 4) and copper traces along the board. Hence, the
thermal conductivity along the board is much higher than the conductivity through it.
It is possible to take several approaches for simulating such a board in COMSOL
Multiphysics. This example uses a macro-level approach and assumes a homogeneous
PC board with anisotropic thermal material properties. In this case, the heat diffusion
through the board and the one lost due to natural convection is insufficient to
2 |
adequately cool the chip. Hence, a disk-stack heat sink is required to increase the
effective cooling area for the chip.
REGARDING MATERIALS
The IC packages and the PC board on which they are mounted must be defined. In
reality, these components have very detailed structures and are made of a variety of
materials. For a board-level analysis such as the present one, though, it is much simpler
to lump all these detailed structures into single homogeneous materials for each
component, instead of accounting for the thermal characteristics of a multi-layer PC
board, which typically consist of multiple layers of FR4 (insulator) interspersed with
layers of copper traces. The thermal result of this construction is that the thermal
conductivity along the board is considerably higher than through it. Physical property
values depend on the number of layers, how dense the lines are, and how many vias
(interconnections between layers) per unit area are present. The numbers in an
estimate for a highly layered board which are used to create a strong difference in
conductivity between the printed-circuit board plane (x, y) and the orthogonal
direction z. Those properties are presented in Table 1. The units are W/(mK) for
thermal conductivity, kg/m3 for density and J/(kgK) for heat capacity.
TABLE 1: MATERIALS PROPERTIES
MATERIALS
CONDUCTIVITY
DENSITY
HEAT CAPACITY
Copper
400
8700
385
FR-4
0.3
1900
1369
Aluminum
160
2700
900
IC Packages (Silica Glass)
1.38
2203
703
PC Board (x, y and z directions)
{80, 80, 0.3}
1900
1369
THERMAL CONFIGURATION
In this problem the large central chip dissipates 20 W, the array of smaller chips are 1 W
each, and the two elongated chips are 2 W each. The volumetric heat source is
calculated by dividing the heat power by the volume of the considered IC.
In this example, you assume that a fan cools the board, and specify a convective heat
transfer coefficient for the boundary heat flux. Here, you look for a preliminary sizing
calculation and simply assume a convective coefficient, h, of 20 W/(m2K). This
corresponds to a fan blowing air at approximately 1 m/s on a plate. The air
temperature is set to T0 = 273.15 K during the whole modeling process.
3 |
Without a heat sink, the temperature rise in the main chip is higher than the maximum
operating temperature. A stacked disk heat sink increases the effective area and
therefore cools the chip further. This heat sink consists of a series of thin disks
supported by a central hollow column that is mounted to the chip with an aluminum
base corresponding to the size of the chip. The heat sink is mounted dry and must
therefore account for contact resistance. Figure 3 shows the new geometry with the
main chip equipped with the heat sink.
Figure 3: Full geometry of the PC board equipped with the heat sink.
Thermal linkage between the IC and the added heat sink is made using the Thermal
Contact boundary condition. It provides a heat transfer coefficient at the two surfaces
in contact according to (1.9 in Ref. 1):

k gap
m p 0.95
h interface = h constriction + h gap = 1.25k s ----- -------
+ -----------------------Y + M gap
Hc
This expression involves two parameters related to the surface microscopic asperities:
, the average asperities height, and m, the average asperities slope. In this case, and
m are set to 1 m and 0.5, respectively. The microhardness of the softer material, Hc,
is here the hardness of aluminum, equal to 165 MPa. The contact pressure, p, is set to
4 |
20 kPa. The thermal conductivity kgap is related to the material in the interstitial gap,
here assumed to be air at atmospheric pressure. It is equal to 0.025 W/(mK).
A design value of 0.3 mm is chosen for the thickness of the fins and the central hollow
column.
Finally, the last part explores the possibility of evening out the temperature distribution
across the PC board. For instance, add a 0.4 mm layer of copper across the board
entire bottom surface. The previous cross section does not suggest much success for
this approach. However, it is interesting to check such an analysis for the sake of
comparison. In COMSOL Multiphysics, this is easily done using the Thin Layer
boundary condition.

Figure 4 shows the stationary temperature field on the surfaces of the board and chips
in Kelvin: the central IC becomes rather hot (337 K) and needs extra cooling.
Figure 4: Temperature distribution of the PC board without the heat sink.

As Figure 5 shows, there is a steep thermal gradient between the IC and the heat sink
base which is caused by the contact resistance and the significant cooling by the heat
5 |
sink fins. The maximum device temperature has now dropped to 313 K, which is 24 K
lower than without the heat sink.
Figure 5: Temperature distribution of the PC board with its heat sink.

Finally, Figure 6 shows that adding a layer of copper at the bottom of the Circuit Board
is ineffective. This phenomenon agrees with the fact that the Circuit Board material
6 |
has a rather poor thermal conductivity along the vertical z-axis (orthogonal to the PC
plane).
Figure 6: Temperature distribution of the PC board with its heat sink and a layer of copper
at bottom

In this application, use the Heat Transfer in Thin Shells interface to model thermal
behavior of fins. The number of elements is significantly reduced because, instead of
creating a thin 3D geometry, only a 2D layer is meshed.
References
1. A.D. Kraus and A. Bejan, Heat Transfer Handbook, John Wiley & Sons, 2003.

Thermal_Contact_and_Friction/disk_stack_heat_sink
7 |
NEW

MODEL WIZARD

3 Click Add.
4 Click Study.
6 Click Done.
GLOBAL DEFINITIONS
Parameters
disk_stack_heat_sink_parameters.txt.
GEOMETRY 1

Block 1 (blk1)
3 In the Width text field, type CB_w.
4 In the Depth text field, type CB_l.
5 In the Height text field, type CB_t.
6 Locate the Position section. In the x text field, type -CB_w/2.
8 |
7 In the y text field, type -CB_l/2.

8 In the z text field, type -CB_t.
Block 2 (blk2)
1 Right-click Block 1 (blk1) and choose Build Selected.
4 In the Width text field, type IC1_w.
5 In the Depth text field, type IC1_l.
6 In the Height text field, type IC1_t.
7 Locate the Position section. In the x text field, type -CB_w/2+IC1_w.
8 In the y text field, type -CB_l/2+IC1_l.
Block 3 (blk3)
4 In the Width text field, type IC2_l.
5 In the Depth text field, type IC2_w.
7 Locate the Position section. In the x text field, type -60.
8 In the y text field, type -60.
Copy 1 (copy1)
2 On the Geometry toolbar, click Transforms and choose Copy.
3 Select the object blk3 only.
4 In the Settings window for Copy, locate the Displacement section.
5 In the x text field, type 0 0 0 0 range(30,30,60) 30.
6 In the y text field, type range(25, 25, 100) 0 0 100.
Block 4 (blk4)
1 Right-click Copy 1 (copy1) and choose Build Selected.
9 |

7 Locate the Position section. In the x text field, type 40.
8 In the y text field, type -50.
Copy 2 (copy2)
5 In the y text field, type 50.
DEFINITIONS
Explicit 1
2 In the Settings window for Explicit, type ICs, Type 1 in the Label text field.
Explicit 2
Explicit 3
Union 1
1 On the Definitions toolbar, click Union.
2 In the Settings window for Union, type ICs in the Label text field.
3 Locate the Input Entities section. Under Selections to add, click Add.
4 In the Add dialog box, select ICs, Type 1 in the Selections to add list.
10 |
5 In the Selections to add list, select ICs, Type 1.

6 Click OK.
7 In the Settings window for Union, locate the Input Entities section.
8 Under Selections to add, click Add.
11 Click OK.
12 In the Settings window for Union, locate the Input Entities section.
13 Under Selections to add, click Add.
16 Click OK.
ADD MATERIAL
MATERIALS
Silica glass (mat1)

(mat1).
2 In the Settings window for Material, locate the Geometric Entity Selection section.
3 From the Selection list, choose ICs.
ADD MATERIAL

2 In the tree, select Built-In>FR4 (Circuit Board).
MATERIALS
FR4 (Circuit Board) (mat2)

11 |
2 In the Model Builder window, under Component 1 (comp1)>Materials click FR4 (Circuit
Board) (mat2).
Here, the PC board needs to have an orthotropic thermal conductivity to account

for conduction induced by several copper tracks in the xy-planes of the board.
Property
Name
Value
Unit
Property group
{80,80,0.3}
W/(mK)
Basic
Initial Values 1

Heat Source 1
2 In the Settings window for Heat Source, locate the Domain Selection section.
3 From the Selection list, choose ICs, Type 1.
4 Locate the Heat Source section. Click the Overall heat transfer rate button.
5 In the P0 text field, type P1.
Heat Source 2
5 In the P0 text field, type P2*8.
Heat Source 3
12 |
5 In the P0 text field, type P3*2.
Heat Flux 1
4 In the h text field, type htc.
In the followings, select boundaries 1 to 72. For more convenience, use the Paste
Selection button.
6 Locate the Boundary Selection section. Click Paste Selection.
7 In the Paste Selection dialog box, type 1-72 in the Selection text field.
8 Click OK.
STUDY 1

RESULTS
Temperature (ht)
This is the first temperature distribution. It clearly outlines that the main chip needs
more efficient cooling. This is the aim of the next part in which a disk-stack heat sink
will be added on the top of the central chip.
GEOMETRY 1
Block 5 (blk5)
6 Locate the Position section. In the x text field, type -CB_w/2+IC1_w.
7 In the y text field, type -CB_l/2+IC1_l.
8 In the z text field, type IC1_t.
13 |
Cylinder 1 (cyl1)
3 In the Settings window for Cylinder, locate the Object Type section.
4 From the Type list, choose Surface.
5 Locate the Size and Shape section. In the Radius text field, type i_radius.
6 In the Height text field, type t_h.
7 Locate the Position section. In the z text field, type IC1_t*2.
8 Locate the Selections of Resulting Entities section. Click New.
9 In the New Cumulative Selection dialog box, type Fins in the Name text field.
10 Click OK.
Work Plane 1 (wp1)

4 From the Plane type list, choose Face parallel.
5 On the object blk5, select Boundary 4 only.
6 In the Offset in normal direction text field, type air_sp.
Circle 1 (c1)
3 In the Radius text field, type i_radius.
Circle 2 (c2)
3 In the Radius text field, type o_radius.
14 |
Difference 1 (dif1)
1 On the Work Plane toolbar, click Booleans and Partitions and choose Difference.
2 Select the object c2 only.
3 In the Settings window for Difference, locate the Difference section.
4 Find the Objects to subtract subsection. Select the Active toggle button.
5 Select the object c1 only.
Work Plane 1 (wp1)

1 Right-click Difference 1 (dif1) and choose Build Selected.
2 In the Settings window for Work Plane, locate the Selections of Resulting Entities
section.
3 From the Contribute to list, choose Fins.
4 In the Model Builder window, expand the Work Plane 1 (wp1) node.
Array 1 (arr1)
1 Right-click Component 1 (comp1)>Geometry 1>Work Plane 1 (wp1) and choose Build
Selected.
2 On the Geometry toolbar, click Transforms and choose Array.
3 Select the object wp1 only.
5 From the Array type list, choose Linear.
6 In the Size text field, type n_fins.
7 Locate the Displacement section. In the z text field, type air_sp.
Work Plane 1 (wp1)

1 In the Settings window for Array, locate the Selections of Resulting Entities section.
2 From the Contribute to list, choose Fins.
ADD MATERIAL
15 |
MATERIALS
Aluminum (mat3)
1 In the Model Builder window, expand the Component 1 (comp1)>Geometry 1>Work
Plane 1 (wp1) node, then click Component 1 (comp1)>Materials>Aluminum (mat3).
ADD MATERIAL

MATERIALS
Aluminum 1 (mat4)
1 (mat4).
5 From the Selection list, choose Fins.
It is necessary to add a second Aluminum material since the first one is used on a
different geometry entity level.
Heat Flux 1
Add the newly created external boundaries of the heat sink base.
click Heat Flux 1.

4 In the Paste Selection dialog box, type 49 50 52 64 115 in the Selection text field.
5 Click OK.
Thermal Contact 1
1 On the Physics toolbar, click Boundaries and choose Thermal Contact.
16 |
2 In the Settings window for Thermal Contact, locate the Boundary Selection section.
4 In the Paste Selection dialog box, type 51 in the Selection text field.
5 Click OK.
6 In the Settings window for Thermal Contact, locate the Thermal Contact section.
7 From the hg list, choose Parallel-plate gap gas conductance.
8 Locate the Contact Surface Properties section. In the p text field, type 20[kPa].
9 In the Hc text field, type 165[MPa].
10 Click to expand the Gap properties section. Locate the Gap Properties section. From
the kgap list, choose User defined.

ADD PHYSICS
1 On the Physics toolbar, click Add Physics to open the Add Physics window.
3 In the Add physics tree, select Heat Transfer>Heat Transfer in Thin Shells (htsh).
4 Click to expand the Dependent variables section. Locate the Dependent Variables
section. In the Temperature text field, type T.

A new physics interface is required here to take into account out-of-plane convective
cooling. In the physics interface selection, you have to use the same temperature
variable T to couple the two physics interfaces.
H E A T TR A N S F E R I N T H I N S H E L L S ( H T S H )
1 On the Physics toolbar, click Add Physics to close the Add Physics window.
2 In the Model Builder window, under Component 1 (comp1) click Heat Transfer in Thin
Shells (htsh).
3 In the Settings window for Heat Transfer in Thin Shells, locate the Boundary
Selection section.
5 Locate the Shell Thickness section. In the ds text field, type e_fins.
Initial Values 1
1 In the Model Builder window, under Component 1 (comp1)>Heat Transfer in Thin
Shells (htsh) click Initial Values 1.
17 |
Heat Flux 1
4 Locate the Upside Inward Heat Flux section. Click the Convective heat flux button.
5 In the hu text field, type htc.
6 In the Text,u text field, type T0.
7 Locate the Downside Inward Heat Flux section. Click the Convective heat flux button.
8 In the hd text field, type htc.
9 In the Text,d text field, type T0.
STUDY 1

RESULTS
Temperature (ht)
This is the temperature profile once the heat sink has been added. The heat sink
significantly reduces the average temperature of the main chip.
ADD MATERIAL
MATERIALS
Copper (mat5)
2 In the Model Builder window, under Component 1 (comp1)>Materials click Copper
(mat5).
18 |

On the Physics toolbar, click Heat Transfer in Thin Shells (htsh) and choose Heat Transfer
in Solids (ht).
(ht).
Thin Layer 1
4 From the Layer type list, choose Conductive.
5 In the ds text field, type 0.4[mm].
STUDY 1

RESULTS
Temperature (ht)
This is the temperature profile once the copper layer has been added. No significant
effect due to the addition of the copper layer can be observed.
Derived Values
Finally, check the maximum temperature over the component.
Volume Maximum 1
On the Results toolbar, click More Derived Values and choose Maximum>Volume
Maximum.
Derived Values
1 In the Settings window for Volume Maximum, type Maximum Temperature in the
Label text field.
2 Locate the Selection section. From the Selection list, choose All domains.
3 Locate the Expression section. Select the Description check box.
4 In the associated text field, type Maximum temperature.
19 |
TABLE
Go to the Table window.
20 |
Forced Convection Cooling of an

Enclosure with Fan and Grille
Introduction
This study simulates the thermal behavior of a computer power supply unit (PSU).
Such electronic enclosures typically include cooling devices to avoid electronic
components being damaged by excessively high temperatures. In this application, an
extracting fan and a perforated grille generate an air flow in the enclosure to cool
internal heating.
Air extracted from the enclosure is related to the static pressure (the pressure difference
between outside and inside), information that is generally provided by the fan
manufacturers as a curve representing fluid velocity as a function of pressure difference.
As shown in Figure 1, the geometry is rather complicated and requires a fine mesh to
solve. This results in large computational costs in terms of time and memory.
Figure 1: The complete model geometry.
1 |
FORCED CONVECTION COOLING OF AN ENCLOSURE WITH FAN AND GRILLE
Model Definition
Figure 1 shows the geometry of the PSU. It is composed of a perforated enclosure of
14 cm-by-15 cm-by-8.6 cm and is made of aluminum 6063-T83. Inside the
enclosure, only obstacles having a characteristic length of at least 5 mm are
represented.
The bottom of the box represents the printed circuit board (PCB). It has an
anisotropic thermal conductivity of 10, 10, and 0.36 W/(mK) along the x-, y-, and
z-axes, respectively. Its density is 430 kg/m3 and its heat capacity at constant pressure
is 1100 J/(kgK). Because the thermal conductivity along the z-axis is relatively low,
and that the PCB and the enclosure sides are separated by a thin air layer, it is not
necessary to model the bottom wall, nor take into account the cooling on these sides.
The capacitors are approximated by aluminum components. The heat sink fins and the
enclosure are made of the same aluminum alloy. The inductors are mainly composed
of steel cores and copper coils. The transformers are made of three materials: copper,
steel, and plastic. The transistors are modeled as two-domain components: a core made
of silicon held in a plastic case. The core is in contact with an aluminum heat sink to
allow a more efficient heat transfer. Air speed is assumed to be slow enough for the
flow to be considered as laminar.
The simulated PSU consumes a maximum of 230 W. Components have been grouped
and assigned to various heat sources as listed in Table 1. The overall heat loss is 41 W,
which is about 82% of efficiency.
TABLE 1: HEAT SOURCES OF ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS
Components
Dissipated heat rate (W)
Transistor cores
25
Large transformer coil
Small transformer coils
Inductors
Large capacitors
Medium capacitors
Small capacitors
The inlet air temperature is set at 30 C because it is supposed to come from the
computer case in which air has already cooled other components. The inlet boundary
is configured with a Grille boundary condition. This pressure must describe head loss
caused by air entry into the enclosure. The head loss coefficient kgrille is represented
2 |
by the following 6th order polynomial (Ref. 1):

6
k grille = 12084 42281 + 60989 46559
(1)
+ 19963 4618.5 + 462.89

where is the opening ratio of the grille.
Figure 2: Head loss coefficient as a function of the opening ratio.

The head loss, P (Pa), is given by
2
U
P = k grille ----------2
where is the density (kg/m3), and U is the velocity magnitude (m/s).

The box, the PCB, the inductor surfaces, and the heat sink fins are configured as thin
conductive layers.
3 |

The most interesting aspect of this simulation is to locate which components are
subject to overheating. Figure 3 clearly shows that the temperature distribution is not
homogeneous.
Figure 3: Temperature and fluid velocity fields.

The maximum temperature is about 70 C and is located at one of the transistor cores.
The components furthest away from the air inlet are subject to the highest
temperature. Although transistor cores are rather hot, Figure 3 shows that they are
significantly cooled by the aluminum heat sinks. The printed circuit board has a
significant impact as well by distributing and draining heat off.
On the flow side, air avoids obstacles and tends to go through the upper space of the
enclosure. The maximum velocity is about 1.6 m/s.
4 |
Figure 4 shows the head loss created by obstacles encountered by air on its path.
Figure 4: Pressure isosurfaces show the head loss created by electronic components.
As shown in Figure 4, the fluid flow is impacted by obstacles and yields to local head
losses.

To model heat sink fins, enclosure walls and circuit board it is strongly recommended
to use the Thin Layer feature, which is completely adapted for thin geometries and
significantly reduces the number of degrees of freedom in the model.
COMSOL Multiphysics provides a useful boundary condition for modeling fan
behavior. You just need to provide a few points of a static pressure curve to configure
this boundary condition. These data are, most of the time, provided by fan
manufacturers.
Reference
1. R.D. Blevins, Applied Fluid Dynamics Handbook, Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1984.
5 |

electronic_enclosure_cooling
ROOT
The file electronic_enclosure_cooling_geom.mph contains a parameterized

geometry and prepared selections for the model. Start by loading this file.
electronic_enclosure_cooling_geom.mph.
GLOBAL DEFINITIONS
Analytic 1 (an1)
1 On the Home toolbar, click Functions and choose Global>Analytic.
Define an analytic function to represent the polynomial expression of the head loss
coefficient (Equation 1). This coefficient is a function of the open ratio OR of the
grille.
2 In the Settings window for Analytic, type k_grille in the Function name text field.
3 Locate the Definition section. In the Expression text field, type
12084*OR^6-42281*OR^5+60989*OR^4-46559*OR^3+19963*OR^2-4618.5*OR+
462.89.
4 In the Arguments text field, type OR.

5 Locate the Units section. In the Arguments text field, type 1.
6 In the Function text field, type m^-4.
Argument
Lower limit
Upper limit
OR
0.8
6 |
MATERIALS
In this section, you define the materials of the enclosure and its components. The
prepared selections make it more easy to select the appropriate domains and
boundaries.
ADD MATERIAL
MATERIALS
Air (mat1)
1 In the Model Builder window, under Component 1 (comp1)>Materials click Air (mat1).
3 From the Selection list, choose Air.
ADD MATERIAL

2 In the tree, select Built-In>Acrylic plastic.
MATERIALS
Acrylic plastic (mat2)

1 In the Model Builder window, under Component 1 (comp1)>Materials click Acrylic
plastic (mat2).
3 From the Selection list, choose Plastic.
ADD MATERIAL

2 In the tree, select Built-In>Aluminum 6063-T83.
7 |
MATERIALS
Aluminum 6063-T83 (mat3)

6063-T83 (mat3).
4 From the Selection list, choose Aluminum Boundaries.
ADD MATERIAL

MATERIALS
Steel AISI 4340 (mat4)

1 In the Model Builder window, under Component 1 (comp1)>Materials click Steel AISI
4340 (mat4).
3 From the Selection list, choose Steel Parts.
ADD MATERIAL

MATERIALS
Aluminum (mat5)
(mat5).
3 From the Selection list, choose Capacitors.
ADD MATERIAL
8 |

MATERIALS
Copper (mat6)
(mat6).
3 From the Selection list, choose Transformer Coils.
ADD MATERIAL

MATERIALS
Copper 1 (mat7)
1 In the Model Builder window, under Component 1 (comp1)>Materials click Copper 1
(mat7).
4 From the Selection list, choose Copper Layers.
ADD MATERIAL

MATERIALS

Board) (mat8).
9 |
4 From the Selection list, choose Circuit Board.
Modify the thermal conductivity of the FR4 material to model anisotropic

properties of a printed circuit board.
Property
Name
Value
Unit
Property group
{10, 10, 0.3}
W/(mK)
Basic
ADD MATERIAL

2 In the tree, select Built-In>Silicon.
MATERIALS
Silicon (mat9)
1 In the Model Builder window, under Component 1 (comp1)>Materials click Silicon
(mat9).
3 From the Selection list, choose Transistors Silicon Cores.
The next steps define the boundary conditions of the model.


1 In the Model Builder window, expand the Component 1 (comp1)>Heat Transfer (ht)
node, then click Heat Transfer in Fluids 1.

2 In the Settings window for Heat Transfer in Fluids, locate the Domain Selection
section.
Initial Values 1
Initial Values 1.
10 |
Now, define the heat rate produced by similar groups of components. Table 1
summarizes the values chosen for each group.
Heat Source 1
2 In the Settings window for Heat Source, type Heat Source 1: Transistors in

3 Locate the Domain Selection section. From the Selection list, choose Transistors
Silicon Cores.
Heat Source 2
2 In the Settings window for Heat Source, type Heat Source 2: Large
Transformer Coil in the Label text field.
3 Locate the Domain Selection section. From the Selection list, choose Large
Transformer Coil.
Heat Source 3
2 In the Settings window for Heat Source, type Heat Source 3: Small
Transformer Coils in the Label text field.
5 Locate the Domain Selection section. From the Selection list, choose Small
Transformer Coils.
Heat Source 4
2 In the Settings window for Heat Source, type Heat Source 4: Inductor in the
Label text field.
3 Locate the Domain Selection section. From the Selection list, choose Inductors.
11 |
Heat Source 5
2 In the Settings window for Heat Source, type Heat Source 5: Large Capacitors

3 Locate the Domain Selection section. From the Selection list, choose Large Capacitors.
Heat Source 6
2 In the Settings window for Heat Source, type Heat Source 6: Medium
Capacitors in the Label text field.
3 Locate the Domain Selection section. From the Selection list, choose Medium
Capacitors.
Heat Source 7
2 In the Settings window for Heat Source, type Heat Source 7: Small Capacitors

3 Locate the Domain Selection section. From the Selection list, choose Small Capacitors.
Temperature 1
3 From the Selection list, choose Grille.
4 Locate the Temperature section. In the T0 text field, type T0.
Thin Layer 1
To model heat transfer in thin conductive parts of the enclosure, use the Thin Layer
boundary condition on thin domains made of aluminum, copper and FR4.
12 |
2 In the Settings window for Thin Layer, locate the Boundary Selection section.
3 From the Selection list, choose Conductive Layers.
4 Locate the Thin Layer section. From the Layer type list, choose Conductive.
5 In the ds text field, type 2[mm].
Outflow 1
2 In the Settings window for Outflow, locate the Boundary Selection section.
3 From the Selection list, choose Fan.
TU R B U L E N T F L O W, A L G E B R A I C Y P L U S ( S P F )
1 In the Model Builder window, under Component 1 (comp1) click Turbulent Flow,
Algebraic yPlus (spf).
2 In the Settings window for Turbulent Flow, Algebraic yPlus, locate the Domain
Selection section.
Since the density variation is not small, the flow can not be regarded as
incompressible. Therefore set the flow to be compressible.
4 Locate the Physical Model section. From the Compressibility list, choose Compressible
flow (Ma<0.3).
The thin heat sink fins are represented by interior boundaries in the geometry. An
interior wall condition is used to prevent the fluid from flowing through these
boundaries.
Interior Wall 1
1 On the Physics toolbar, click Boundaries and choose Interior Wall.
2 In the Settings window for Interior Wall, locate the Boundary Selection section.
Fan 1
1 On the Physics toolbar, click Boundaries and choose Fan.
Here, the fan condition is set up by loading a data file for the static pressure curve.
2 In the Settings window for Fan, locate the Boundary Selection section.
3 From the Selection list, choose Fan.
13 |
4 Locate the Flow Direction section. From the Flow direction list, choose Outlet.
The Graphics window displays an arrow indicating the orientation of the flow
through the fan. Compare with the figure below.
5 Locate the Parameters section. From the Static pressure curve list, choose Static
pressure curve data.
6 Locate the Static Pressure Curve Data section. Click Load from File.
electronic_enclosure_cooling_fan_curve.txt.
8 Locate the Static Pressure Curve Interpolation section. From the Interpolation
function type list, choose Piecewise cubic.
The exhaust fan previously defined extracts air entering from an opposite grille.
Proceed to create the corresponding boundary condition.
Grille 1
1 On the Physics toolbar, click Boundaries and choose Grille.
2 In the Settings window for Grille, locate the Boundary Selection section.
3 From the Selection list, choose Grille.
14 |
4 Locate the Parameters section. From the Static pressure curve list, choose Quadratic
loss.
5 In the qlc text field, type k_grille(OR)*nitf1.rho/2.
Initial Values 1
1 In the Model Builder window, under Component 1 (comp1)>Turbulent Flow, Algebraic
yPlus (spf) click Initial Values 1.
1
MESH 1
You now configure the meshing part. Start by discretizing the surfaces of key
components. They would drive the tetrahedral mesh of the whole domain. Boundary
layers at walls are added at the end.
Mapped 1

2 In the Settings window for Mapped, locate the Boundary Selection section.
3 From the Selection list, choose Wire Group Surface.
4 Click to expand the Advanced settings section. Locate the Advanced Settings section.
Select the Adjust evenly distributed edge mesh check box.
Size 1
3 From the Predefined list, choose Finer.
4 Click the Custom button.
box.
7 Select the Minimum element size check box.
15 |
Mapped 2
Operations>Mapped.
2 In the Settings window for Mapped, locate the Boundary Selection section.
3 From the Selection list, choose Small Wire Surface.
4 Locate the Advanced Settings section. Select the Adjust evenly distributed edge mesh
check box.
Size 1
3 From the Calibrate for list, choose Fluid dynamics.
box.
16 |
Convert 1
Operations>Convert.
2 Right-click Convert 1 and choose Build Selected.
This conversion divides the quadrilateral mesh obtained into triangular elements.
This is necessary to make it compatible with the tetrahedral elements created a few
steps later.
Free Triangular 1
1 Right-click Mesh 1 and choose More Operations>Free Triangular.
3 From the Selection list, choose Heat Exchange Surface.
Size 1
box.
6 Select the Minimum element size check box.
8 Select the Maximum element growth rate check box.
10 Select the Curvature factor check box.
11 In the associated text field, type 1.
12 Select the Resolution of narrow regions check box.
Free Triangular 2
Triangular.
3 From the Selection list, choose Curved Area.
17 |
Size 1
3 From the Calibrate for list, choose Fluid dynamics.
5 In the Model Builder window, right-click Mesh 1 and choose Free Tetrahedral.
Size
3 From the Predefined list, choose Coarse.
Boundary Layers 1
2 In the Settings window for Boundary Layers, locate the Domain Selection section.
5 Click to expand the Corner settings section. Locate the Corner Settings section. From
the Handling of sharp edges list, choose Trimming.

2 In the Settings window for Boundary Layer Properties, locate the Boundary Selection
section.
3 From the Selection list, choose Walls.
4 Locate the Boundary Layer Properties section. In the Number of boundary layers text
field, type 3.
5 In the Thickness adjustment factor text field, type 5.
18 |
STUDY 1
Now, edit the solver sequence. The default suggestion is a segregated solver. For more
robustness, use direct solvers for the temperature group and for the velocity-pressure
group.
Solution 1 (sol1)
(sol1)>Stationary Solver 2>Segregated 1 node, then click Segregated Step 2.
4 In the Settings window for Segregated Step, locate the General section.
5 From the Linear solver list, choose Direct.
(sol1)>Stationary Solver 2>Segregated 1 click Segregated Step 3.
7 In the Settings window for Segregated Step, locate the General section.
8 From the Linear solver list, choose Direct.
19 |

(sol1)>Stationary Solver 2>Iterative 1 node, then click Multigrid 1.
10 In the Settings window for Multigrid, locate the General section.
11 In the Mesh coarsening factor text field, type 1.5.
You are now ready to launch the simulation. The computation may take a few hours
to complete.
RESULTS
Temperature (ht)
The first default plot shows the temperature field. To reproduce the plot in Figure 3
of the temperature and the air velocity, proceed as follows.
4 In the Model Builder window, right-click Temperature (ht) and choose Streamline.
corner of the Expression section. From the menu, choose Component 1>Turbulent
Flow, Algebraic yPlus>Velocity and pressure>u,v,w - Velocity field.
6 Locate the Selection section. From the Selection list, choose Grille.
7 Locate the Coloring and Style section. From the Line type list, choose Tube.
8 Right-click Results>Temperature (ht)>Streamline 1 and choose Color Expression.
9 In the Settings window for Color Expression, click Replace Expression in the
upper-right corner of the Expression section. From the menu, choose Component
1>Turbulent Flow, Algebraic yPlus>Velocity and pressure>spf.U - Velocity magnitude.
Velocity (spf)
The third default plot group shows the air velocity profile through a slice plot.
Pressure (spf)
The fourth default plot group shows the pressure field plot of Figure 4.
20 |
Parameterized Electronic Enclosure

Geometry
This is a template MPH-file containing the physics interfaces and the parameterized
geometry for the application Forced Convection Cooling of an Enclosure with Fan
and Grille. For a description of that application, including detailed step-by-step
instructions showing how to build it, see Forced Convection Cooling of an Enclosure
with Fan and Grille.

electronic_enclosure_cooling_geom
1 |
PARAMETERIZED ELECTRONIC ENCLOSURE GEOMETRY
2 |
PARAMETERIZED ELECTRONIC ENCLOSURE GEOMETRY
Evaporation in Porous Media with

S m a ll E v a po r a t i on R at es
Introduction
Evaporation in porous media is an important process in food and paper industry
among others. Many physical effects must be considered: fluid flow, heat transfer and
transport of participating fluids and gases. All of these effects are strongly coupled and
can be handled by using the predefined interfaces of COMSOL Multiphysics. When
having a liquid and a gaseous phase inside the porous domain, some adjustments of the
predefined equations are required. In this tutorial, evaporation is assumed to have a
negligible impact on the amount of liquid water, making it possible to describe the
transport of water vapor with a convection-diffusion equation.
Free flow domain
Air flow
Porous domain
Figure 1: Geometry and principle of the model.
1 |
EVAPORATION IN POROUS MEDIA WITH SMALL EVAPORATION RATES
Model Definition
This tutorial describes laminar air flow through a humid porous medium. The air is dry
at the inlet and its moisture content increases as it flows through the porous media.
The flow inside the porous medium is described with Brinkman equation. The flow in
the surrounding domain is described with the laminar Navier-Stokes equation. The
geometry and basic set-up is shown in Figure 1.
THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES
The thermodynamic properties of air with water vapor can be described using mixture
laws, based on the amount of water vapor and dry air. This is done automatically when
choosing Moist air as fluid type and the governing equations can be found in the Heat
Transfer Module Users Guide. As input term for water vapor, the concentration c
(mol/m) from the transport equation is used.
FLOW PROPER TIES
To model the fluid flow from the air domain, using the laminar Navier-Stokes equation
into the porous domain using Brinkman equation the Laminar Flow Interface is used
and extended by enabling porous media domains. This way, the coupling of both flow
regimes is done automatically. The resulting velocity field then can be used to model
convective heat and species transport.
TR A N S P O R T P R O P E R T I E S
The fraction of water vapor is small and the Transport of Diluted Species interface is
used to describe the transport properties in the free flow and porous domain. In the
porous domain, the diffusion coefficient for water vapor into air DL (m/s) needs to
be adjusted according to
p
D e = ----- D L .
L
This describes the effective diffusivity inside a porous medium, depending on its
structure, characterized by the dimensionless numbers porosity p and tortuosity L.
Here, the Bruggeman correction is used, which is
32
De = p DL
2 |
(1)
EVAPORATION
Including the evaporation process is done by adding the mass of water vapor that is
evaporated as source term in the transport equation. Evaporation takes place, if the
concentration of water vapor is below the saturation concentration, which is
determined by the saturation pressure psat (Pa)
p sat ( T )
c sat = -------------------RT
(2)
with the ideal gas constant R = 8.314 J/(molK) and hence:

m vap = K ( c sat c )
(3)
where K (1/s) is the evaporation rate, and c the current concentration. The
evaporation rate depends on the material properties and the process which causes the
evaporation. It must be chosen so that the solution is not affected if further increased.
This corresponds to assuming that vapor is in equilibrium with the liquid or in other
words, the time scale for evaporation is much smaller than the smallest time scale of
the transport equations. This is true for pore sizes that are not too large (Ref. 1).
The heat of evaporation is then inserted as source term in the heat transfer equation
according to:
Q = H vap m vap
(4)
where Hvap (J/mol) is the latent heat of evaporation.
3 |

After one minute the temperature field shows strong cooling due to evaporation.As
seen below, evaporation mainly occurs at the surface of the porous medium. Inside the
domain, the temperature gradients remain moderate.
Figure 2: Temperature distribution after 60 s.
4 |
The concentration distribution is shown in the next plot.
Figure 3: Concentration distribution after 60 s
5 |
The pressure field shows steep gradients at the interface boundaries.
Figure 4: Pressure field combining the pressure from the Laminar Flow interface and the
Darcys Law interface.

Using a proper mesh size is important to resolve the steep gradients at the interface
boundaries. Therefore a customized mesh with boundary layers is used.
To get good convergence of the time dependent behavior, first solve the stationary
flow equation only. This solution will then be used as initial value for the time
dependent study step providing smooth initial conditions in the modeling domain.
Instead of coupling the Transport of Dilutes Species Interface with the flow interface
manually, the Reacting Flow in Porous Media interface provides a predefined coupling
of both equations. Then, the coupling to the heat transfer interface is the only coupling
that has to be done manually. This interface is available with one of the following
modules: Batteries and Fuel Cells Module, CFD Module or Chemical Reaction
Engineering Module.
6 |
Reference
1. A. Halder, A. Dhall and A.K. Datta, Modeling Transport in Porous Media with
Phase Change: Applications to Food Processing, J. Heat Transfer, vol. 133, no. 3,
2011.
Application Library path: Heat_Transfer_Module/Phase_Change/

evaporation_porous_media_small_rate
NEW

MODEL WIZARD

3 Click Add.
4 In the Select physics tree, select Chemical Species Transport>Transport of Diluted
Species (tds).
5 Click Add.
6 In the Select physics tree, select Fluid Flow>Single-Phase Flow>Laminar Flow (spf).
7 Click Add.
8 Click Study.
10 Click Done.
GEOMETRY 1

7 |
Rectangle 1 (r1)
Rectangle 2 (r2)
4 Locate the Position section. In the x text field, type 6.
Fillet 1 (fil1)
2 On the object r2, select Points 3 and 4 only.
8 |
Start with defining some parameters.
Parameters
On the Home toolbar, click Parameters.
GLOBAL DEFINITIONS
Parameters
Name
Expression
Value
Description
p0
1[atm]
1.013E5 Pa
Ambient pressure
T0
20[degC]
293.2 K
Ambient temperature
u0
0.1[m/s]
0.1 m/s
Free stream velocity
D_wa
2.6e-5[m^2/s]
2.6E-5 m/s
Water-air diffusivity
M_w
0.018[kg/mol]
0.018 kg/mol
Molar mass of water
9 |
Name
Expression
Value
Description
H_vap
2.454e6[J/
kg]*M_w
4.417E4 J/mol
Heat of vaporization
K_evap
1000[1/s]
1000 1/s
Evaporation rate
Set up the different physics interfaces. Start with the heat transfer interface, where you
define the thermodynamic properties of moist air for the free flow and porous domain.
1 In the Model Builder window, under Component 1 (comp1) click Heat Transfer in Fluids
(ht).
2 In the Settings window for Heat Transfer in Fluids, locate the Physical Model section.
3 Select the Heat transfer in porous media check box.
Heat Transfer in Porous Media 1

1 On the Physics toolbar, click Domains and choose Heat Transfer in Porous Media.
Use the velocity from the Laminar Flow interface as input. Later it is customized to
take the porous properties into account.
3 In the Settings window for Heat Transfer in Porous Media, locate the Model Inputs
section.
4 From the pA list, choose Absolute pressure (spf).
Select Moist Air as fluid type. The moisture content is evaluated using the
concentration from the Transport of Dilutes Species interface.
6 Locate the Thermodynamics, Fluid section. From the Fluid type list, choose Moist air.
8 Locate the Model Inputs section. From the c list, choose Concentration (tds).
9 Locate the Immobile Solids section. In the p text field, type 0.2.
Similar settings apply for the Heat Transfer in Fluids node.

click Heat Transfer in Fluids 1.

2 In the Settings window for Heat Transfer in Fluids, locate the Model Inputs section.
3 From the pA list, choose Absolute pressure (spf).
10 |

Temperature 1
4 In the T0 text field, type T0.
Outflow 1
The next step is to set up the source term for the heat of vaporization according to
Equation 4.
Heat Source 1
4 In the Q0 text field, type -H_vap*m_evap.
The variable m_evap is defined according to Equation 3 and depends on the

saturation concentration (Equation 2).
DEFINITIONS
Variables 1
1 In the Model Builder window, under Component 1 (comp1) right-click Definitions and
choose Variables.
11 |

Name
Expression
Unit
Description
c_sat
ht.fluid1.fpsat(T)/
(R_const*T)
mol/m
Saturation vapor
concentration
m_evap
K_evap*(c_sat-c)
mol/(ms)
Evaporated mass of
water vapor
Continue with the Transport of Diluted Species interface. Water vapor is produced
(m_evap) and saturation concentration is reached in the porous domain. For water-air
diffusivity the Bruggeman correction (Equation 1) is used to describe the diffusive
transport.
TR A N S P O R T O F D I L U T E D S P E C I E S ( T D S )
Transport Properties 1
1 In the Model Builder window, under Component 1 (comp1)>Transport of Diluted
Species (tds) click Transport Properties 1.
2 In the Settings window for Transport Properties, locate the Model Inputs section.
4 Locate the Diffusion section. In the Dc text field, type D_wa.
At the inlet for the free air flow the concentration is set to zero which implies dry air.
5 In the Model Builder window, click Transport of Diluted Species (tds).
Concentration 1
1 On the Physics toolbar, click Boundaries and choose Concentration.
3 In the Settings window for Concentration, locate the Concentration section.
4 Select the Species c check box.
Outflow 1
Initial Values 2
1 On the Physics toolbar, click Domains and choose Initial Values.
12 |
4 In the c text field, type ht.porous1.fpsat(T0)/(R_const*T0).
Reactions 1
1 On the Physics toolbar, click Domains and choose Reactions.
3 In the Settings window for Reactions, locate the Reaction Rates section.
4 In the Rc text field, type m_evap.
Porous Media Transport Properties 1

1 On the Physics toolbar, click Domains and choose Porous Media Transport Properties.
3 In the Settings window for Porous Media Transport Properties, locate the Model
Inputs section.
5 Locate the Diffusion section. In the DF,c text field, type D_wa.
6 From the Effective diffusivity model list, choose Bruggeman model.
The remaining task is to set up the flow interface for the free and porous domain.
LAMINAR FLOW (SPF)
The next step enables additional features for the flow interface to account for porous
domains also.
2 In the Settings window for Laminar Flow, locate the Physical Model section.
3 Select the Enable porous media domains check box.
Fluid Properties 1
Fluid Properties 1.
4 From the list, choose Dynamic viscosity (ht).
This step sets the density to the density that is calculated by the moist air feature
within the Heat Transfer interface.
Set up the porous domain properties.
13 |
Fluid and Matrix Properties 1

1 On the Physics toolbar, click Domains and choose Fluid and Matrix Properties.
3 In the Settings window for Fluid and Matrix Properties, locate the Fluid Properties
section.
5 From the list, choose Dynamic viscosity (ht).
Inlet 1
4 From the list, choose Laminar inflow.
5 Locate the Laminar Inflow section. In the Uav text field, type u0.
The Entrance length value must be large enough so that the flow can reach a laminar
profile. For a laminar flow, Lentr should be significantly greater than 0.06ReD,
where Re is the Reynolds number and D is the inlet length scale. In this case 30 m
is a good value.
6 In the Lentr text field, type 30.
Outlet 1
Specify the porous material properties.

MATERIALS
Material 1 (mat1)

2 In the Settings window for Material, type Porous Matrix in the Label text field.
14 |
Property
Name
Value
Unit
Property group
0.21
W/(mK)
Basic
Density
rho
1528
kg/m
Basic
Cp
1650
J/(kgK)
Basic
Porosity
epsilon
0.4
Basic
Permeability
kappa
1e-13
Basic
Steep gradients are present and the default mesh is adjusted to resolve the flow and
transport equations with high accuracy.
MESH 1
Free Triangular 1
Free Triangular.
Size 1
Triangular 1 and choose Size.
5 Locate the Element Size section. From the Calibrate for list, choose Fluid dynamics.
Size 2
1 Right-click Free Triangular 1 and choose Size.
5 Locate the Element Size section. From the Calibrate for list, choose Fluid dynamics.
Boundary Layers 1
2 In the Settings window for Boundary Layers, locate the Domain Selection section.
15 |


Properties section.
First, solve the stationary flow equations only to provide a fully developed flow profile
for the whole equation system that is solved in a time interval of 1 min.
STUDY 1
Step 1: Stationary
section.
Physics interface
Solve for
Discretization
Heat Transfer in Fluids (ht)
physics
Transport of Diluted Species (tds)
physics
Time Dependent

2 Click Range.
3 In the Range dialog box, type 0 in the Start text field.
4 In the Step text field, type 1.
6 Click Replace.
16 |

RESULTS
Temperature (ht)
Several default plots are created automatically. The first plot group shows the
temperature field as in Figure 2.
Concentration (tds)
The concentration distribution (see Figure 3) is computed from the Transport of
Diluted Species interface.
Pressure (spf)
The last plot group shows the pressure field computed from the Laminar Flow
interface (Figure 4).
17 |
18 |
E v a po r a ti v e C ool i n g of W at er
Introduction
This tutorial shows how to simulate cooling of water including evaporative cooling. As
an example, a beaker filled with water is used surrounded by an air domain. The airflow
transports the water vapor which causes the liquid to cool down. The approach used
here neglects volume change of the water inside the beaker. This is a reasonable
assumption for problems where the considered time is short compared to the time
needed to evaporate a noticeable amount of water.
Model Definition
The model geometry is shown in Figure 1. Symmetry is used to reduce the model size.
Symmetry Axis
Air Domain
Beaker Filled
with Water
Figure 1: Model geometry, using symmetry.

The beaker is made of glass and contains hot water at 80 C. The air has an initial
temperature of 20 C and enters the modeling domain with this temperature.
1 |
E V AP O R A T IVE C O O L I N G O F WAT E R
For modeling evaporative cooling, three effects must be taken into account: turbulent
flow of the air around the beaker, heat transfer in all domains, and transport of water
vapor in the air. This is a real multiphysics problem and this tutorial shows how to set
it up.
TU R B U L E N T F L OW
The air flow is modeled with the Turbulent Flow, Low Re k- interface, because the
Reynolds number is about 1500 and turbulent effects must be considered. In addition
they must be taken into account in the transport equations correctly. With the Low Re
k- turbulence model, the turbulence variables are solved in the whole domain down
to the walls and thus provide accurate input values for the transport equations.
Assuming that the velocity and pressure field are independent of the air temperature
and moisture content. This allows to calculate the turbulent flow field in advance and
then use it as input for the heat transfer and species transport equations.
H E A T TR A N S F E R
The heat transfer inside the beaker and water is due to conduction only. For the air,
convection dominates the heat transfer and the turbulent flow field is required. The
material properties are determined by the moist air theory.
During evaporation, latent heat is released from the water surface which cools down
the water in addition to convective and conductive cooling by the surrounding. This
additional heat flux depends on the amount of evaporated water. This means that the
fraction of convective and diffusive flux normal to the water surface contributes to the
evaporative heat flux.
n ( k T ) = H vap n ( D c + uc )
(1)
The latent heat of vaporization Hvap is given in kJ/mol.

TR A N S P O R T O F W A T E R VA P O R
To obtain the correct amount of water which is evaporated from the beaker into the
air, the Transport of Diluted Species interface is used in the air domain. The initial
concentration is chosen so that there is an initial relative humidity of 20 %. The source
term for water vapor at the water surface is given by the ideal gas law at saturation
pressure.
p sat
c vap = ----------Rg T
2 |
EVAPORATIVE COOLING OF WATER
(2)
The transport equation again uses the turbulent flow field as input. Turbulence must
also be considered for the diffusion coefficient, by adding the following turbulent
diffusivity to the diffusion tensor:
T
D T = ---------- I
Sc T
(3)
where T is the turbulent kinematic viscosity, ScT is the turbulent Schmidt number and
I the unit matrix.

The image below shows the temperature field after 20 s with streamlines indicating the
flow field.
Figure 2: Temperature distribution after 20 min and streamlines indicating the flow
field.
3 |
Due to convection, conduction, and evaporation the water cools down over time. As
shown in Figure 3 the average temperature after 20 minutes is about 61 C.
Figure 3: Average water temperature over time.

Figure 4 shows the concentration and relative humidity at the symmetry plane. Close
to the water surface, the relative humidity is about 100% as expected. Behind the
beaker the relative humidity can become even smaller than 20%. Due to the high
temperature, air can absorb a higher amount of water.
4 |
Figure 4: Concentration distribution and contour lines for the relative humidity.
A last study computes for a fictive situation where the evaporation effects are
neglected. Figure 5 shows the comparison between average water temperatures with
5 |
and without evaporation to see the its importance in the cooling process. A difference
of 6 K can be observed.
Figure 5: Average water temperature with and without evaporation accounted.

evaporative_cooling
NEW
The first step is to compute the turbulent flow field. After that, the resulting velocity
field will be used to compute the transport properties of heat and moisture. To get
accurate input values for the turbulent transport equations, the Low-Reynolds k-
turbulence model is used here.
6 |
MODEL WIZARD

2 In the Select physics tree, select Fluid Flow>Single-Phase Flow>Turbulent
Flow>Turbulent Flow, Low Re k- (spf).
3 Click Add.
4 Click Study.
5 In the Select study tree, select Preset Studies>Stationary with Initialization.
6 Click Done.
GEOMETRY 1
Load the geometry sequence from an existing MPH file.

1 On the Geometry toolbar, click Insert Sequence.
evaporative_cooling_geom_sequence.mph.
Cone 1 (cone1)
1 In the Model Builder window, under Component 1 (comp1)>Geometry 1 right-click
Cone 1 (cone1) and choose Build All Objects.
The flow calculation is done for the air domain only. For now, air is the only material
you need.
ADD MATERIAL
MATERIALS
Air (mat1)
TU R B U L E N T F L O W, L O W R E K - ( S P F )
Since the density variation is not small, the flow can not be regarded as incompressible.
Therefore set the flow to be compressible.
7 |
1 In the Model Builder window, under Component 1 (comp1) click Turbulent Flow, Low
Re k- (spf).
2 In the Settings window for Turbulent Flow, Low Re k-, locate the Physical Model
section.
3 From the Compressibility list, choose Compressible flow (Ma<0.3).
4 Locate the Domain Selection section. Click Clear Selection.
Create a selection from this domain. It can be used later to create new selections or
to assign physical properties.
7 In the Create Selection dialog box, type Air in the Selection name text field.
8 Click OK.
Now, define the boundary conditions.
Inlet 1
3 In the Settings window for Inlet, locate the Velocity section.
4 In the U0 text field, type 2.
Outlet 1
Symmetry 1
The default Physics-controlled mesh is used. It is optimized for flow field calculations
using a suitable mesh size and boundary layers according to the settings of the flow
interface.
MESH 1

3 From the Element size list, choose Extra coarse.
8 |
STUDY 1

RESULTS
Velocity (spf)
The resulting velocity field is shown below:
With this velocity field, the transport equations can be computed. The Heat Transfer
in Fluids interface together with the Transport of Diluted Species interface are used to
describe the transport of heat and water vapor and the interaction of both processes.
COMPONENT 1 (COMP1)
Click Windows and choose Add Physics.

ADD PHYSICS

2 In the Add physics tree, select Heat Transfer>Heat Transfer in Fluids (ht).
9 |
settings:
Studies
Solve
Study 1
ADD PHYSICS

2 In the Add physics tree, select Chemical Species Transport>Transport of Diluted Species
(tds).
settings:
Studies
Solve
Study 1
The transport equation is active in the air domain only, precisely where the flow
equation was solved.
2 In the Model Builder window, under Component 1 (comp1) click Transport of Diluted
Species (tds).
3 In the Settings window for Transport of Diluted Species, locate the Domain Selection
section.
MATERIALS
Add the materials needed for the heat transfer calculations.

ADD MATERIAL
10 |
E V AP O R A T I VE C O O L I N G O F WA T E R
MATERIALS

1 In the Model Builder window, under Component 1 (comp1)>Materials click Water,
liquid (mat2).
5 In the Create Selection dialog box, type Water in the Selection name text field.
6 Click OK.
With this selection and the one for the air domain, it is easy to create the selection for
the glass body.
DEFINITIONS
Complement 1
1 On the Definitions toolbar, click Complement.
2 In the Settings window for Complement, type Glass in the Label text field.
3 Locate the Input Entities section. Under Selections to invert, click Add.
4 In the Add dialog box, In the Selections to invert list, choose Air and Water.
5 Click OK.
ADD MATERIAL

2 In the tree, select Built-In>Glass (quartz).
MATERIALS
Glass (quartz) (mat3)

1 In the Model Builder window, under Component 1 (comp1)>Materials click Glass
(quartz) (mat3).
3 From the Selection list, choose Glass.
11 |
Switch to the Heat Transfer in Fluids Interface: on the Physics toolbar, click Transport
of Diluted Species (tds) and choose Heat Transfer in Fluids (ht).
Configure the settings of Heat Transfer in Fluids 1 for the water domain. To save
computational time, the velocity field driven by natural convection is not computed.
Instead, an increased thermal conductivity determined by built-in Nusselt number
correlations is defined in the next steps to compensate the missing convective heat flux.


3 In the Settings window for Heat Transfer in Fluids, click to expand the Equivalent
conductivity for convection section.
4 Locate the Equivalent Conductivity for Convection section. Select the Equivalent
conductivity for convection check box.
5 From the Nusselt number correlation list, choose Vertical rectangular cavity.
6 In the H text field, type 7.5[cm].
7 In the L text field, type 3[cm].
Now, add a second Heat Transfer in Fluids node for the air domain. Here, the
thermodynamic properties will be determined for moist air. This also enables
additional postprocessing variables such as relative humidity.

1 On the Physics toolbar, click Domains and choose Heat Transfer in Fluids.
section.
The humidity is obtained from the concentration distribution calculated within the
Transport of Diluted Species interface.
12 |
In the glass body, heat is only transported by conduction.

Then, add a Heat Transfer in Solids node for the glass domain.

1 On the Physics toolbar, click Domains and choose Heat Transfer in Solids.
section.
3 From the Selection list, choose Glass.
The air enters the domain at room temperature. At the outlet, heat is transported by
convection.
Temperature 1
Outflow 1
Symmetry 1
2 Click the Go to YZ View button on the Graphics toolbar.
With this tool, draw a box around all symmetry boundaries, which corresponds to:
13 |
You should see the following in your Graphics window:
The fluid in the beaker has an initial temperature of 80 C.
Initial Values 2
3 In the Settings window for Initial Values, locate the Domain Selection section.
4 From the Selection list, choose Water.
5 Locate the Initial Values section. In the T text field, type 80[degC].
The water will cool down over time. To include the heat loss by evaporation, add a heat
source at appropriate boundaries according to Equation 1.
Boundary Heat Source 1

1 On the Physics toolbar, click Boundaries and choose Boundary Heat Source.
3 In the Settings window for Boundary Heat Source, locate the Boundary Heat Source
section.
14 |
4 In the Qb text field, type -H_vap*c_lm[mol/(s*m^2)].
The two variables H_vap and c_lm in this expression are not defined yet. The Lagrange
multiplier, c_lm, is the flux corresponding to a prescribed concentration condition at
this boundary. This variable will hence be defined later in the Transport of Diluted
Species physics interface yet to be created. For H_vap, use the global parameters to
define it according to the steps below.
GLOBAL DEFINITIONS
Parameters
Name
Expression
Value
Description
M_w
18.015[g/mol]
0.01802 kg/mol
Molar mass of water
H_vap
2454[kJ/
kg]*M_w
4.421E4 J/mol
Heat of vaporization
To couple the flow field in the air domain to the heat transport equation, follow the
steps below:
MULTIPHYSICS
and choose Non-Isothermal Flow.

The water inside the beaker is assumed to be at rest. To disable the flow coupling there,
go back to the heat transfer in fluids node and set the velocity field to zero.


2 In the Settings window for Heat Transfer in Fluids, locate the Model inputs section.
3 Click Make All Model Inputs Editable in the upper-right corner of the section. Locate
the Model Inputs section. From the T list, choose Temperature (ht).
The next step is to set up the Transport of Diluted Species interface which is active in the
air domain only. Use the Flow Coupling feature from the Multiphysics node and define
the diffusion coefficient for water in air.
15 |
MULTIPHYSICS
and choose Flow Coupling.

2 In the Settings window for Flow Coupling, locate the Coupled Interfaces section.
3 From the Destination list, choose Transport of Diluted Species (tds).
Define the diffusion coefficient for water vapor taking into account turbulent effects
according to Equation 3.
Transport Properties 1
Species (tds) click Transport Properties 1.
2 In the Settings window for Transport Properties, locate the Diffusion section.
3 In the Dc text field, type 2.6e-5[m^2/s].
Turbulent Mixing 1
1 On the Physics toolbar, click Attributes and choose Turbulent Mixing.
2 In the Settings window for Turbulent Mixing, locate the Turbulent Mixing Parameters
section.
3 From the T list, choose Turbulent kinematic viscosity (spf/fp1).
GLOBAL DEFINITIONS
Parameters
16 |
Name
Expression
Value
Description
rho_w_max
0.0172[kg/m^3]
0.0172 kg/m
Maximum amount of water

for 100% humidity at
20C
rel_hum
0.2
0.2
Relative humidity
c0
rel_hum*rho_w_
max/M_w
0.191 mol/m
Initial concentration
Initial Values 1
Species (tds) click Initial Values 1.
3 In the c text field, type c0.
Concentration 1
5 In the c0,c text field, type c0.
At the water surface the saturation pressure is reached and the saturation concentration
is applied at that boundary, according to Equation 2. With the moist air feature, the
saturation pressure is calculated automatically and can be accessed directly.
Concentration 2
5 In the c0,c text field, type ht.psat/(R_const*T).
In the following steps, use weak constraints for this boundary condition to create
the Lagrange multiplier, c_lm, that corresponds to the flux. This variable have been
used in the expression of the heat source at this same boundary in the Heat Transfer
in Fluids physics interface.
6 Click to expand the Constraint settings section. Locate the Constraint Settings
section. Select the Use weak constraints check box.
Outflow 1
Symmetry 1
17 |
Since the turbulent flow is already solved, the new mesh can be optimized for the
transport equations. A fine mesh at the water-air interface is required.
COMPONENT 1 (COMP1)
Mesh 2
On the Mesh toolbar, click Add Mesh.
MESH 2
Free Tetrahedral 1
1 In the Model Builder window, under Component 1 (comp1)>Meshes right-click Mesh 2
and choose Free Tetrahedral.

Size 1
1 In the Model Builder window, under Component 1 (comp1)>Meshes>Mesh 2
right-click Free Tetrahedral 1 and choose Size.

4 Locate the Element Size section. From the Predefined list, choose Extremely fine.
box.
Size
1 In the Model Builder window, under Component 1 (comp1)>Meshes>Mesh 2 click Size.
3 From the Predefined list, choose Extremely fine.
5 Locate the Element Size Parameters section. In the Resolution of narrow regions text
field, type 1.5.

18 |
Add a transient study to model the cooling over time.

ROOT
On the Home toolbar, click Windows and choose Add Study.

ADD STUDY

settings:
Physics
Solve
Turbulent Flow, Low Re k- (spf)

4 Find the Studies subsection. In the Select study tree, select Preset Studies>Time
Dependent.
19 |
STUDY 2

5 Click Range.
6 In the Range dialog box, type 12[s] in the Step text field.
8 Click Replace.
The second study requires the result from the first one. To make the data from Study
1 available for Study 2 follow these steps:
9 In the Settings window for Time Dependent, click to expand the Values of dependent
variables section.
10 Locate the Values of Dependent Variables section. Find the Values of variables not
The heat transfer and transport equations are strongly coupled via the moist air feature
using the concentration as input. This requires to configure a Direct solver in a Fully
Coupled approach.
Solution 3 (sol3)
stepping section.
4 Locate the Time Stepping section. From the Steps taken by solver list, choose
Intermediate.
5 Right-click Study 2>Solver Configurations>Solution 3 (sol3)>Time-Dependent Solver 1
and choose Fully Coupled.
20 |
Temperature (ht)
1 Right-click Study 2>Solver Configurations>Solution 3 (sol3)>Time-Dependent Solver
1>Direct and choose Enable.
RESULTS
Temperature (ht)
Create the plot shown in Figure 2.
Surface 2
Data Sets
3 Locate the Selection section. From the Selection list, choose All boundaries.
4 Remove boundaries 1, 2 and 33 from the list.
Temperature (ht)
3 From the Data set list, choose Surface 2.
7 On the Temperature (ht) toolbar, click Streamline.
8 In the Model Builder window, under Results>Temperature (ht) click Streamline 1.
9 In the Settings window for Streamline, locate the Data section.
11 Locate the Coloring and Style section. From the Color list, choose White.
12 Locate the Streamline Positioning section. From the Positioning list, choose On
selected boundaries.
13 Locate the Selection section. Select the Active toggle button.
15 Locate the Streamline Positioning section. In the Number text field, type 40.
21 |

Data Sets
To visualize the concentration distribution as in Figure 4, follow the next steps.
Cut Plane 1
On the Results toolbar, click Cut Plane.
Data Sets
1 In the Settings window for Cut Plane, locate the Plane Data section.
2 From the Plane list, choose xz-planes.
2D Plot Group 8
2 In the Settings window for 2D Plot Group, type Concentration and Relative
Humidity in the Label text field.
3 Locate the Data section. From the Data set list, choose Cut Plane 1.
Concentration and Relative Humidity

1 Right-click Concentration and Relative Humidity and choose Surface.
of the Expression section. From the menu, choose Component 1>Transport of Diluted
Species>c - Concentration.
3 On the Concentration and Relative Humidity toolbar, click Plot.
4 Right-click Concentration and Relative Humidity and choose Contour.
5 In the Settings window for Contour, click Replace Expression in the upper-right
corner of the Expression section. From the menu, choose Component 1>Heat Transfer
in Fluids>Moist air>ht.phi - Relative humidity.
6 Locate the Levels section. In the Total levels text field, type 7.
7 Locate the Coloring and Style section. From the Contour type list, choose Tube.
8 Select the Radius scale factor check box.
10 Select the Level labels check box.
11 In the Precision text field, type 2.
22 |
12 From the Label color list, choose White.

13 On the Concentration and Relative Humidity toolbar, click Plot.
The relative humidity decreases quickly with the distance to the surface. Due to the
high temperature behind the beaker, the relative humidity becomes even lower than
20%.
Derived Values
It is interesting to see how the average temperature decreases with time.
Volume Average 1
On the Results toolbar, click More Derived Values and choose Average>Volume Average.
Derived Values
1 In the Settings window for Volume Average, type Average Water Temperature in

the menu, choose Component 1>Heat Transfer in Fluids>Temperature>T Temperature.

5 Locate the Expression section. From the Unit list, choose degC.
TA BL E

2 Click Table Graph in the window toolbar.
RESULTS
1D Plot Group 9
1 In the Model Builder window, click 1D Plot Group 9.
2 In the Settings window for 1D Plot Group, type Average Water Temperature
over Time in the Label text field.
Finally, compute how much water is evaporated in the air.
Integration.
23 |
Derived Values
1 In the Settings window for Surface Integration, type Amount of Evaporated
Water in the Label text field.
4 Locate the Expression section. In the Expression text field, type
2*tds.dflux_cz*M_w.
5 Locate the Data Series Operation section. From the Operation list, choose Integral.
6 Right-click Amount of Evaporated Water and choose Evaluate>New Table.
TABLE
The factor 2 in the expression is based on the use of a symmetry condition. Within
20 minutes, about 2.5 g of water have been evaporated.
ROOT
Repeat now the previous instructions to create a third study that solves for a fictive
model where evaporation is neglected. A comparison with the results returned by Study
2 would then highlight and quantify the cooling effects of evaporation.
1 On the Home toolbar, click Windows and choose Add Study.
ADD STUDY

settings:
Physics
Solve
Turbulent Flow, Low Re k- (spf)

4 Find the Studies subsection. In the Select study tree, select Preset Studies>Time
Dependent.
24 |
STUDY 3

5 Click Range.
6 In the Range dialog box, type 12[s] in the Step text field.
8 Click Replace.
9 In the Settings window for Time Dependent, locate the Physics and Variables
Selection section.
in Fluids (ht)>Boundary Heat Source 1.
12 Click Disable.
By disabling Boundary Heat Source 1 in this study, evaporation is neglected.

13 Click to expand the Values of dependent variables section. Locate the Values of
Dependent Variables section. Find the Values of variables not solved for subsection.
From the Settings list, choose User controlled.

Solution 4 (sol4)
stepping section.
Intermediate.
5 Right-click Study 3>Solver Configurations>Solution 4 (sol4)>Time-Dependent Solver 1
and choose Fully Coupled.
25 |
Temperature (ht) 1
1 Right-click Study 3>Solver Configurations>Solution 4 (sol4)>Time-Dependent Solver
1>Direct and choose Enable.
RESULTS
Derived Values
Compute the average temperature of water when evaporation is neglected.
Volume Average 2
On the Results toolbar, click More Derived Values and choose Average>Volume Average.
Derived Values
1 In the Settings window for Volume Average, type Average Water Temperature,
Evaporation Neglected in the Label text field.
the menu, choose Component 1>Heat Transfer in Fluids>Temperature>T Temperature.

Average Water Temperature over Time

1 Right-click Average Water Temperature, Evaporation Neglected and choose
Evaluate>Table 1 - Average Water Temperature (T).
2 In the Model Builder window, under Results>Average Water Temperature over Time
click Table Graph 1.

3 In the Settings window for Table Graph, click to expand the Legends section.
Legends
Temperature (degC), evaporation accounted
Temperature (degC), evaporation neglected
26 |
7 On the Average Water Temperature over Time toolbar, click Plot.
In this model, evaporation accounts for a decrease of about 6 K at the end of the
simulation (see Figure 5).
27 |
28 |
V i s c o us H e a ti ng i n a Fl u i d D amp er
Introduction
Fluid dampers are used in military devices for shock isolation and in civil structures for
suppressing earthquake-induced shaking and wind-induced vibrations, among many
other applications. Fluid dampers work by dissipating the mechanical energy into heat
(Ref. 1). This example shows the phenomenon of viscous heating and consequent
temperature increase in a fluid damper. Viscous heating is also important in microflow
devices, where a small cross-sectional area and large length of the device can generate
significant heating and affect the fluid flow consequently (Ref. 2).
Model Definition
The structural elements of a fluid damper are relatively few. Figure 1 depicts a
schematic of the fluid damper modeled herein with its main components: damper
cylinder housing, piston rod, piston head, and viscous fluid in the chamber. There is a
small annular space between the piston head and the inside wall of the cylinder
housing. This acts as an effective channel for the fluid. As the piston head moves back
and forth inside the damper cylinder, fluid is forced to pass through the annular
channel with large shear rate, which leads to significant heat generation. The heat is
transferred in both the axial and radial directions. In the radial direction, the heat is
conducted through the cylinder house wall and convected to the air outside the
damper, which is modeled using the Newtons convective cooling law.
Cylinder
Fluid
Orifice
Piston rod
P(t)
Chamber 1
Chamber 2
Fistor head
Figure 1: A sketch of a typical fluid damper with its major components

You make use of the axially symmetric nature of the fluid damper and model it in a
2D-axisymmetric geometry as shown in Figure 2. The geometric dimensions and
1 |
VISCOUS HEATING IN A FLUID DAMPER
other parameters of the damper are taken according to Ref. 1 to represent the smaller,
15 kip damper experimentally studied therein. Thus, the piston head has a diameter of
8.37 cm, the piston rod diameter is 2.83 cm, and the gap thickness is about 1/100 of
the piston head diameter. The damper has the maximum stroke U0 of 0.1524 m. The
damper solid parts are made of steel, and the damping fluid is silicone oil.
Figure 2: Geometry and mesh. The domains (from left to right) represent: piston rod,
piston head and damping fluid space, the damper outer wall.
FLUID FLOW
The fluid flow in the fluid damper is described by the weakly compressible
Navier-Stokes equations, solving for the velocity field u = (u, w) and the pressure p:
u
T
2
+ u u = p + ( u + ( u ) ) --- ( u )I
t
3
+ ( u ) = 0
t
The density is assumed independent of the temperature, while the temperature

dependence of the fluid viscosity is taken into account as:
2 |
= 0 ( T T0 )
(1)
The reference material properties of silicone oil are used.

No Slip wall boundary conditions are applied for both ends of the damper cylinder and
on the inner wall of the damper cylinder house. Moving/sliding wall with the given
velocity is applied on the boundaries of the piston head and on the piston rod.
CONJUGATE HEAT TRANSFER
The conjugate heat transfer is solved both in the fluid domain and the damper cylinder
house wall: heat transfer by convection and conduction in the fluid domain, heat
transfer by conduction only in the solid domain, and the temperature field is
continuous between the fluid and solid domains. In the fluid domain, the viscous
heating is activated and pressure work can be included when the slight compressibility
of the damper fluid needs to be considered:
C p
p
T
T 2
+ C p u T + q = p T + u + ( u ) --- ( u )I : u + Q
t
t
3
where the first term and second terms on the right-hand side represent the heat source
from pressure work and viscous dissipation, respectively. Hence, the problem is a fully
coupled fluid-thermal interaction problem.
In the solid domain of the cylinder house wall, this equation reduces to conductive
heat transfer equation without any heating source.
The heat flux boundary condition based on the Newtons cooling law is applied on the
outside boundaries of the cylinder house wall. The temperature field is continuous
between the fluid and solid domains. The ends of the damper connected to the
structures outside are kept at constant temperature.
The piston head movement is provided as harmonic oscillations with given amplitude
and frequency, z = a0sin(2f ). The motion is modeled using the arbitrary
Lagrangian-Eulerian (ALE) deformed mesh. The ALE method handles the dynamics
of the deforming geometry and the moving boundaries with a moving grid. The
Navier-Stokes equations for fluid flow and heat equations for temperature variation are
formulated in these moving coordinates.
3 |

The modeled loading has the amplitude of 0.127 m, and the excitation frequency is
0.4 Hz. This represents the long-stroke loading experiment performed in Ref. 1. The
loading time period is 40 s.
Note that the simulation results for the temperature are presented in degrees
Fahrenheit for the sake of easier comparison with the experimental measurements.
Figure 3 gives the temperature field in the damper at the end the loading. It also shows
a typical streamline configuration for the flow induced in the damping fluid.
Figure 3: Temperature field in the damper at the end of simulation.

Figure 4 shows the temperature of the inner wall of the damper at the end-of-stroke
position z = U0. This corresponds to the internal probe position under experiments
performed in Ref. 1. The simulation results show very good agreement with the
experimental measurements (see Fig. 9 in Ref. 1).
4 |
Figure 4: Temperature at the probe position.

Figure 5 shows the temperature variation along the inner wall of the damper after 10 s
and 40 s of loading. It clearly shows that the temperature at the probe position does
not represent the maximum temperature within the damper. This supports the
conclusion drawn in Ref. 1, where the choice of the probe positioning was limited by
the construction of the outer shell of the damper. Figure 5 also shows that the
temperature near the center of the damper increases by more than 100 degrees already
after few loading cycles.
5 |
Figure 5: Temperature of the damper inner wall. The probe position corresponds to
z U0 = 1.

You decompose the computational domain into several parts and mesh the domains
with mapped meshes to resolve the very thin annular space. For the moving mesh you
prescribe the displacement of the mesh in each domain so that their alignment remains
unchanged with a zero displacement at the top and the bottom of the damper cylinder
housing connecting to the high-performance seal, and the displacement equal to that
of the piston head is used for the domain lined up with the piston head. This is achieved
by specifying the mesh displacement field as a linear function of the deformed mesh
frame coordinate and the reference (material) frame coordinate.
The steel material needed for the damper solid parts is available in the built-in material
library. You create a user-defined material for the silicone oil. Such damping fluids are
typically characterized by the density, kinematic viscosity at the temperature 25 C, and
so-called viscosity temperature coefficient, VTC = 1(viscosity at 98.9 C)/(viscosity
at 37.8 C). Using this parameters, you create the linear correlation for the dynamic
viscosity given by Equation 1.
6 |
References
1. C.J. Black and N. Makris, Viscous Heating of Fluid Dampers Under Small and
Large Amplitude Motions: Experimental Studies and Parametric Modeling, J. Eng.
Mech., vol. 133, pp. 566577, 2007.
2. G.L. Morini, Viscous Heating in Liquid Flows in Micro-Channels, Int. J. Heat
Mass Transfer, vol. 48, pp. 36373647, 2005.

Buildings_and_Constructions/fluid_damper
NEW

MODEL WIZARD

3 Click Add.
4 In the Select physics tree, select Mathematics>Deformed Mesh>Moving Mesh (ale).
5 Click Add.
6 Click Study.
Dependent.
8 Click Done.
GLOBAL DEFINITIONS
Parameters
7 |
fluid_damper_parameters.txt.
DEFINITIONS
Variables 1
fluid_damper_variables.txt.
GEOMETRY 1
Rectangle 1 (r1)
3 In the Width text field, type Dr/2.
4 In the Height text field, type 2*Ld.
5 Locate the Position section. In the z text field, type -Ld.
Rectangle 2 (r2)
3 In the Width text field, type Dp/2.
Rectangle 3 (r3)
3 In the Width text field, type Dd/2-Hw.
Rectangle 4 (r4)
8 |
3 In the Width text field, type Dd/2.
Rectangle 5 (r5)
3 In the Width text field, type Dd/2.
4 In the Height text field, type 2*Lp.
5 Locate the Position section. In the z text field, type -Lp.

LAMINAR FLOW (SPF)
On the Physics toolbar, click Laminar Flow (spf) and choose Heat Transfer (ht).

3 In the Settings window for Heat Transfer in Fluids, locate the Thermodynamics, Fluid
section.
4 From the list, choose User defined.
ADD MATERIAL
9 |
MATERIALS
In the following steps, you create a new material for the damping fluid, Silicone oil.
Material 2 (mat2)

2 In the Settings window for Material, type Silicon Oil in the Label text field.
Silicon Oil (mat2)

1 In the Model Builder window, expand the Component 1 (comp1)>Materials>Silicon Oil
(mat2) node, then click Basic (def).
2 In the Settings window for Property Group, locate the Output Properties and Model
Inputs section.
3 Find the Quantities subsection. In the tree, select Model Inputs>Temperature.
4 Click Add.
5 Locate the Local Properties section. In the Local properties table, enter the following
settings:
Property
Expression
Unit
nu_25C
0.0125[m^2/s]
m/s
VTC
0.6[1]
6 In the Model Builder window, click Silicon Oil (mat2).

Property
10 |
Name
Value
Unit
Property group
22.5
W/
(mK)
Basic
Density
rho
950
kg/m
Basic
Property
Name
Value
Unit
Property group

pressure
Cp
2e3
J/
(kgK)
Basic
Dynamic viscosity
mu
nu_25C
*rho*(
1-VTC*
(T-311
[K])/
(61[K]
))/
(1+VTC
*0.210
7)
Pas
Basic
MOVING MESH (ALE)
On the Physics toolbar, click Heat Transfer (ht) and choose Moving Mesh (ale).
1 In the Model Builder window, under Component 1 (comp1) click Moving Mesh (ale).
2 In the Settings window for Moving Mesh, locate the Frame Settings section.
3 From the Geometry shape order list, choose 1.
Prescribed Deformation 1
1 On the Physics toolbar, click Domains and choose Prescribed Deformation.
2 Select Domains 2, 5, 8, and 11 only.
3 In the Settings window for Prescribed Deformation, locate the Prescribed Mesh
Displacement section.
4 In the dz text-field array, type zp on the 2nd row.
4 In the dz text-field array, type zlin1 on the 2nd row.
11 |
4 In the dz text-field array, type zlin2 on the 2nd row.

LAMINAR FLOW (SPF)
In the Model Builder window, under Component 1 (comp1) click Laminar Flow (spf).
Wall 2
1 On the Physics toolbar, click Boundaries and choose Wall.
3 In the Settings window for Wall, locate the Boundary Condition section.
4 From the Boundary condition list, choose Moving wall.
5 Specify the uw vector as
0
d(zp,t)
Wall 3
4 From the Boundary condition list, choose Sliding wall.
5 In the Uw text field, type d(zp,t).
Initial Values 1
Initial Values 1.
3 In the p text field, type p0.
Initial Values 1
Initial Values 1.
12 |
Temperature 1
Heat Flux 1
6 In the h text field, type hwall.
LAMINAR FLOW (SPF)
Because the damper is a closed container, you need to pin-point the pressure level
within. To achieve that, use the point constraint as follows.

3 In the Settings window for Pressure Point Constraint, locate the Pressure Constraint
section.
4 In the p0 text field, type p0.
MULTIPHYSICS
1 In the Model Builder window, under Component 1 (comp1)>Multiphysics click

Non-Isothermal Flow 1 (nitf1).
2 In the Settings window for Non-Isothermal Flow, locate the Flow Heating section.
3 Select the Include work done by pressure changes check box.
4 Select the Include viscous dissipation check box.
13 |
MESH 1
Mapped 1
Mapped.
Distribution 1
1 In the Model Builder window, under Component 1 (comp1)>Mesh 1 right-click Mapped
7 From the Distribution method list, choose Geometric sequence.
Distribution 2
1 Right-click Mapped 1 and choose Distribution.
Distribution 3
14 |
Distribution 4
Distribution 5
2 Select Boundaries 3, 10, 17, 24, and 30 only.
Distribution 6
The mesh is now complete. It should look similar to that shown in Figure 2.
STUDY 1

Start the simulation when the piston is in the lowest position consistent with the steady
flow initial conditions.
This will not give constant temperature at t = 0, but the overall effect is small.
Dependent.
3 In the Times text field, type -0.25/f range(0,tstep,tmax).
4 Click to expand the Results while solving section. Locate the Results While Solving
section. Select the Plot check box.
Solution 1 (sol1)
15 |
stepping section.
To control the time-step manually, use the Generalized alpha solver.

5 Locate the Time Stepping section. From the Method list, choose Generalized alpha.
6 From the Steps taken by solver list, choose Manual.
7 In the Time step text field, type tstep/20.
8 In the Amplification for high frequency text field, type 0.5.
Before computing the solution, set up some plots, including the one to display in the
Graphics window while solving.
RESULTS
Cut Point 2D 1
Data Sets
2 In the r text field, type Dd/2-Hw.
3 In the z text field, type U0.
2D Plot Group 1
2 In the Settings window for 2D Plot Group, type Temperature Surface and
Velocity Streamlines, 2D in the Label text field.
Temperature Surface and Velocity Streamlines, 2D

1 Right-click Temperature Surface and Velocity Streamlines, 2D and choose Surface.
3 From the Unit list, choose degF.
4 In the Expression text field, type T.
5 Right-click Temperature Surface and Velocity Streamlines, 2D and choose Streamline.
corner of the Expression section. From the menu, choose Component 1 (comp1)>Heat
Transfer>ht.ur,ht.uz - Velocity field (Spatial).
16 |
7 Locate the Streamline Positioning section. From the Positioning list, choose Start
point controlled.
1D Plot Group 2
2 In the Settings window for 1D Plot Group, type Temperature along Inner Wall
Line Graph 1
On the Temperature along Inner Wall toolbar, click Line Graph.
Temperature along Inner Wall

4 From the Unit list, choose degF.
6 In the Expression text field, type z/U0.
7 In the Model Builder window, click Temperature along Inner Wall.
9 From the Title type list, choose Manual.
10 In the Title text area, type Temperature along inner wall.
12 In the associated text field, type z/U0.
14 In the associated text field, type T (degF).
1D Plot Group 3
2 In the Settings window for 1D Plot Group, type Inner Wall Temperature at
End-of-Stroke Position in the Label text field.
Point Graph 1
On the Inner Wall Temperature at End-of-Stroke Position toolbar, click Point Graph.
Inner Wall Temperature at End-of-Stroke Position

17 |

3 Locate the Data section. From the Data set list, choose Cut Point 2D 1.
4 Locate the y-Axis Data section. From the Unit list, choose degF.
5 In the Model Builder window, click Inner Wall Temperature at End-of-Stroke Position.
6 In the Settings window for 1D Plot Group, click to expand the Axis section.
7 Locate the Title section. From the Title type list, choose Manual.
8 In the Title text area, type Temperature of inner wall at end-of-stroke
position.
10 In the associated text field, type time (s).
12 In the associated text field, type T (degF).
STUDY 1
Now return to the Study 1 branch to compute the solution.

2 In the Settings window for Time Dependent, locate the Results While Solving section.
3 From the Plot group list, choose Inner Wall Temperature at End-of-Stroke Position.
RESULTS
Temperature Surface and Velocity Streamlines, 2D

During the solution time, a plot of the temperature at the probe position will be
displayed and updated following the solver time steps.
When the solution is finished, click the Zoom Extents button on the Graphics toolbar.
This will produce a plot of the temperature field and the flow streamlines within the
damper, which should appear similar to that shown in Figure 3.
Temperature along Inner Wall

1 In the Model Builder window, under Results click Temperature along Inner Wall.
4 In the Times (s) list, choose 10 and 40.
18 |
5 On the Temperature along Inner Wall toolbar, click Plot.
This will show the temperature distribution along the damper inner wall at times
10 s and 40 s, it should look similar to that shown in Figure 5.
Inner Wall Temperature at End-of-Stroke Position

1 In the Model Builder window, under Results click Inner Wall Temperature at
End-of-Stroke Position.
2 On the Inner Wall Temperature at End-of-Stroke Position toolbar, click Plot.
This will show the temperature variation at the probe position aver the complete
loading time period, it should look similar to that shown in Figure 4.
19 |
20 |
Ground Heat Recovery for Radiant

Flo o r He a ti ng
Introduction
Geothermal heating is an environmentally friendly and energy efficient method to
supply modern and well insulated houses with heat. The investment costs are higher
than for gas or oil heating so there is a need to investigate the possibilities of arranging
heat collectors in the subsurface.
Figure 1: Example of heat recovery coils in a garden, connected to a dwelling via a heat
pump.
This example compares three different patterns embedded in the subsurface. Typical
thermal properties of an uppermost soil layer in a garden are used for the calculations.
Note: This application requires the Pipe Flow Module.
1 |
GROUND HEAT RECOVERY FOR RADIANT FLOOR HEATING
Pattern 3
Pattern 2
Pattern 1
Figure 2: Patterns for the heat collectors.
Model Definition
The three patterns for the pipe arrangement are shown in Figure 2. The geometry
subsequence functionality in COMSOL Multiphysics offers the possibility to perform
the analysis over different pipe arrangements within the same model using a parametric
sweep.
This model uses functions and events to describe the real operating conditions. For the
subsurface, a temperature gradient with depth is prescribed. At the surface, a time
dependent temperature is applied which corresponds to typical temperature variations
in central Europe.
Assuming that the fluid properties are temperature-independent, the inlet temperature
of the heat collector required to reach a certain heat extraction rate, P(t) is given by
P
T in = T out --------------C p V
(1)
where and Cp the density and specific heat capacity for the fluid inside the pipes and
V the volumetric flow rate.
2 |
The dynamic heat extraction is triggered according to a typical daily heat demand of a
single-family house. The heat extraction process is active each day until the demanded
heat is extracted.

The pipe temperature for pattern 3 after three days is shown below.
As expected, the three collectors show a different thermal behavior (Figure 3). It is
important to make sure that the fluid inside the pipes stays above a certain value. In
this example, water is used as working fluid. To avoid freezing, the water temperature
must be above 0 C. The third pattern tends to go below this point if a long and cold
period is present and is not the preferred pattern.
3 |
Figure 3: Outlet temperatures for the different patterns.

This model uses several interpolation functions, which are based on rough estimations
and local temperature variations, which may differ for your case. The functions needs
to be replaced by your own measured data. Then, you need to make sure that the time
stepping is still fine enough to resolve them.

Buildings_and_Constructions/ground_heat_recovery
4 |
NEW

MODEL WIZARD

3 Click Add.
4 In the Select physics tree, select Heat Transfer>Heat Transfer in Pipes (htp).
5 Click Add.
6 In the Select physics tree, select Mathematics>ODE and DAE Interfaces>Events (ev).
7 Click Add.
8 In the Select physics tree, select Mathematics>ODE and DAE Interfaces>Global ODEs and
DAEs (ge).
9 Click Add.
10 Click Study.
Dependent.
12 Click Done.
GLOBAL DEFINITIONS
1 In the Model Builder window, right-click Global Definitions and choose Geometry
Parts.
The way how to set up a model that uses different geometries for the same calculation
is shown here. This includes how to use parts and programming for the geometry
creation. First import the three parts used in this model, from the
ground_heat_recovery_geom_sequence.mph file, as shown below.
Geometry Parts
1 On the Geometry toolbar, click Parts and choose Load Part.
ground_heat_recovery_geom_sequence.mph.
3 In the Load Part dialog box, In the Select parts list, choose Pattern 1, Pattern 2, and
Pattern 3.
4 Click OK.
5 |
GLOBAL DEFINITIONS
Define the parameter that will be used to call the different patterns.
Parameters
Name
Expression
Value
Description
pattern
Parameter for selecting

the pattern
This parameter is now used to import the different patterns into the work plane
based on a logical expression.
GEOMETRY 1
Work Plane 1 (wp1)

3 In the z-coordinate text field, type -2.
5 In the New Cumulative Selection dialog box, type Pipes in the Name text field.
6 Click OK.
The above step ensures that, independently of the pattern you choose, the pipes are
allocated correctly.
If 1 (if1)
1 On the Work Plane toolbar, click Programming and choose If + End If.
2 In the Settings window for If, locate the If section.
3 In the Condition text field, type pattern==1.
Import 1 (imp1)
On the Work Plane toolbar, click Import.
Import 1 (imp1)
2 From the Source list, choose Geometry sequence.
3 From the Geometry list, choose Pattern 1.
6 |
Else If 1 (elseif1)
1 In the Model Builder window, under Component 1 (comp1)>Geometry 1>Work Plane
1 (wp1) right-click Plane Geometry and choose Programming>Else If.
2 In the Settings window for Else If, locate the Else If section.
3 In the Condition text field, type pattern==2.
Import 2 (imp2)
Import 2 (imp2)
Plane Geometry
Right-click Plane Geometry and choose Programming>Else.
Import 3 (imp3)
Import 3 (imp3)
Polygon 1 (pol1)
3 In the x text field, type 2.5 2.5.
4 In the y text field, type 20 20.
5 In the z text field, type 0 -2.
6 Locate the Selections of Resulting Entities section. From the Contribute to list, choose
Pipes.
Copy 1 (copy1)
2 Select the object pol1 only.
7 |
4 In the x text field, type 0.5.

5 Locate the Selections of Resulting Entities section. From the Contribute to list, choose
Pipes.
Block 1 (blk1)
4 In the Depth text field, type 22.
8 In the New Cumulative Selection dialog box, type Ground in the Name text field.
9 Click OK.
GLOBAL DEFINITIONS
Define the functions for the surface temperature and the initial temperature.
3 In the Function name text field, type T_z0.
ground_heat_recovery_T_surface.txt.

7 Locate the Units section. In the Arguments text field, type a.
8 In the Function text field, type degC.
8 |
3 In the Function name text field, type T0.
ground_heat_recovery_T_init.txt.

7 Locate the Units section. In the Arguments text field, type m.
8 In the Function text field, type degC.
9 |
MATERIALS
Next, add the material properties for the pipes and the subsurface. Here, water from
the built-in material library is used for the fluid inside the pipes. Its thermal and flow
properties are similar to common cooling fluids. The material for the soil uses some
typical values.
ADD MATERIAL
MATERIALS

liquid (mat1).
10 |
3 From the Geometric entity level list, choose Edge.
4 From the Selection list, choose Pipes.
Material 2 (mat2)

2 In the Settings window for Material, type Soil in the Label text field.
3 Locate the Geometric Entity Selection section. From the Selection list, choose Ground.
Property
Name
Value
Unit
Property group
1.5
W/(mK)
Basic
Density
rho
1742
kg/m
Basic
Cp
1175
J/(kgK)
Basic
Set up the Heat Transfer in Solids interface. Set the initial conditions to the depth
dependent temperature up the Heat Transfer in Solids interface. Set the initial
conditions to the which you defined as a function before.
Initial Values 1

3 In the T text field, type T0(z).
The surface temperature, also defined as a function T_z0, varies in time.
Temperature 1
4 In the T0 text field, type T_z0(t+10/12[1/a]).
11 |
GLOBAL DEFINITIONS
Parameters
Name
Expression
Value
Description
d_pipe
36[mm]
0.036 m
Pipe diameter in soil
flowrate_pipe
1[l/s]
0.001 m/s
Flowrate inside pipes
heat_demand
30[kW*h]
1.08E8 J
Daily heat demand
power
4[kW]
4000 W
Heat pump power
H E A T TR A N S F E R I N P I P E S ( H T P )
On the Physics toolbar, click Heat Transfer in Solids (ht) and choose Heat Transfer in
Pipes (htp).
1 In the Model Builder window, under Component 1 (comp1) click Heat Transfer in Pipes
(htp).
2 In the Settings window for Heat Transfer in Pipes, locate the Edge Selection section.
Heat Transfer 1
1 In the Model Builder window, under Component 1 (comp1)>Heat Transfer in Pipes
(htp) click Heat Transfer 1.
2 In the Settings window for Heat Transfer, locate the Heat Convection and Conduction
section.
3 In the u text field, type heater_state*flowrate_pipe/htp.A.
Pipe Properties 1
(htp) click Pipe Properties 1.
2 In the Settings window for Pipe Properties, locate the Pipe Shape section.
3 From the list, choose Circular.
4 In the di text field, type d_pipe.
12 |
DEFINITIONS
Use an integration operator for evaluating the outlet temperature. Then the inlet
temperature for the pipes can be evaluated according to Equation 1.
Variables 1
1 In the Model Builder window, right-click Definitions and choose Variables.
Name
Expression
Unit
Description
T_out
intop1(T2)
Water temperature at
pipe outlet
T_in
T_out-power/
(intop1(htp.rho)*intop1(
htp.Cp)*flowrate_pipe)
Inlet temperature for

pipes
H E A T TR A N S F E R I N P I P E S ( H T P )
Temperature 1
(htp) click Temperature 1.
3 In the Tin text field, type T_in.
Initial Values 1
(htp) click Initial Values 1.
13 |
3 In the T2 text field, type T0(z).
Heat Outflow 1
1 On the Physics toolbar, click Points and choose Heat Outflow.
Wall Heat Transfer 1

1 On the Physics toolbar, click Edges and choose Wall Heat Transfer.
2 In the Settings window for Wall Heat Transfer, locate the Edge Selection section.
4 Locate the Heat Transfer Model section. From the Text list, choose Temperature (ht).
5 Right-click Wall Heat Transfer 1 and choose Internal Film Resistance.
Wall Heat Transfer 1

In the Model Builder window, under Component 1 (comp1)>Heat Transfer in Pipes (htp)
click Wall Heat Transfer 1.
Wall Layer 1
1 On the Physics toolbar, click Attributes and choose Wall Layer.
2 In the Settings window for Wall Layer, locate the Specification section.
3 From the k list, choose User defined.
5 From the w list, choose User defined.
6 In the associated text field, type 3.25[mm].
EVENTS (EV)
In the Model Builder window, collapse the Events (ev) node.
Discrete States 1
1 On the Physics toolbar, click Global and choose Discrete States.
2 In the Settings window for Discrete States, locate the Discrete States section.
14 |
Name
Initial value (u0)
Description
heater_stat
e
Indicator States 1
1 On the Physics toolbar, click Global and choose Indicator States.
2 In the Settings window for Indicator States, locate the Indicator Variables section.
Name
g(v,vt,vtt,t)
Initial value (u0)
Description
heat_di
ff
heat_demand-heat_
prod
Explicit Event 1
1 On the Physics toolbar, click Global and choose Explicit Event.
2 In the Settings window for Explicit Event, locate the Event Timings section.
3 In the ti text field, type 24[h].
4 In the T text field, type 24[h].
5 Locate the Reinitialization section. In the table, enter the following settings:
Variable
Expression
heat_prod
heater_state
Implicit Event 1
1 On the Physics toolbar, click Global and choose Implicit Event.
2 In the Settings window for Implicit Event, locate the Event Conditions section.
3 In the Condition text field, type heat_diff<0.
4 Locate the Reinitialization section. In the table, enter the following settings:
Variable
Expression
heater_state
GLOBAL ODES AND DAES (GE)
Global Equations 1
1 In the Model Builder window, under Component 1 (comp1)>Global ODEs and DAEs (ge)
click Global Equations 1.

2 In the Settings window for Global Equations, locate the Global Equations section.
15 |

Name
f(u,ut,utt,t) (1)
Initial value
(u_0) (1)
Initial value
(u_t0) (1/s)
heat_prod
power*heater_stated(heat_prod,t)
Description
4 Locate the Units section. Find the Dependent variable quantity subsection. From the
list, choose Energy (J).

5 Find the Source term quantity subsection. From the list, choose Power (W).
MESH 1
Edge 1
choose More Operations>Edge.

2 In the Settings window for Edge, locate the Edge Selection section.
Size 1
1 Right-click Component 1 (comp1)>Mesh 1>Edge 1 and choose Size.
3 From the Predefined list, choose Normal.
Free Tetrahedral 1
In the Model Builder window, right-click Mesh 1 and choose Free Tetrahedral.
Size 1
STUDY 1
Parametric Sweep
16 |
3 Click Add.
Parameter name
pattern
1 2 3
Parameter unit

4 Click Range.
5 In the Range dialog box, type 1 in the Step text field.
7 Click Replace.
Solution 1 (sol1)
stepping section.
4 Locate the Time Stepping section. From the Steps taken by solver list, choose Strict.
This forces the time dependent solver to at least calculate the time steps given in the
settings. It ensures that the time steps taken by solver are small enough to resolve
the time dependence of the functions. Alternatively you can specify the Maximum
step to use an even finer resolution than one hour, but without saving every
intermediate step.
RESULTS
Temperature (htp)
1 In the Model Builder window, expand the Temperature (htp) node, then click Line 1.1.
2 In the Settings window for Line, locate the Expression section.
17 |
1D Plot Group 5
Create the plot shown in Figure 3.
1 In the Model Builder window, under Results right-click 1D Plot Group 5 and choose
Duplicate.
1D Plot Group 5
1 In the Model Builder window, under Results click 1D Plot Group 5.
2 In the Settings window for 1D Plot Group, type Outlet Temperature in the Label
text field.
Outlet Temperature
1 In the Model Builder window, expand the Results>Outlet Temperature node, then
click Global 1.
2 In the Settings window for Global, locate the y-Axis Data section.
Expression
Unit
Description
T_out
degC
Water temperature at pipe outlet
4 Click to expand the Legends section. From the Legends list, choose Automatic.
5 Find the Include subsection. Clear the Description check box.
6 On the Outlet Temperature toolbar, click Plot.
18 |
Heat Conduction in a Finite Slab

Introduction
This simple example covers the heat conduction in a finite slab, modeling how the
temperature varies with time. You first set up the problem in COMSOL Multiphysics
and then compare it to the analytical solution given in Ref. 1.
In addition, this example also shows how to avoid oscillations due to a jump between
initial and boundary conditions by using a smoothed step function.
Model Definition
The model domain is defined between x = b and x = b. The initial temperature is
constant, equal to T0, over the whole domain; see the figure below. At time t = 0, the
temperature at both boundaries is lowered to T1.
T(b,0) = T1
T(b,0) = T1
Figure 1: Modeling domain.

To compare the modeling results to the literature (Ref. 1), introduce new
dimensionless variables according to the following definitions:
T1 T
= ------------------T1 T0
t
= -----2b
x
= --b
The model equation then becomes

2
-----
= ---------2
with the associated initial condition

= 0
= 1
and boundary conditions
1 |
HEAT CONDUCTION IN A FINITE SLAB
= 1
= 0
The analytical solution of this problem is (see Ref. 1, equation 12.1-31):
= 2
2 2
( 1 )
1
---------------------- exp n + 1
--- cos n + ---
2
2
n + 1
---
n = 0
To model the temperature decrease at the boundaries use a smoothed step function of
time f().
= 1
= f( )
This method is usually more realistic from a physical point of view than the sudden
change in the temperature, and it is also better from a numerical point of view.

Figure 2 shows the temperature as a function of position at the dimensionless times
= 0.01, 0.04, 0.1, 0.2, 0.4, and 0.6. In this plot, the slabs center is situated at x = 0
with its end faces located a x = 1 and x = 1. The temperature profiles shown in the
2 |
graph are identical to the analytical solution given in Ref. 1.
Figure 2: Temperature profiles.

The plot of the L2 error between the analytical and numerical solutions over time (see
Figure 3) confirms this conclusion.
3 |
Figure 3: L2 error between analytical and numerical solutions over time.
Reference
1. R.B. Bird, W.E. Stewart, and E.N. Lightfoot, Transport Phenomena, 2nd ed., John
Wiley & Sons, 2007.

heat_conduction_in_slab
NEW
4 |
MODEL WIZARD

3 Click Add.
4 Click Study.
6 Click Done.
GEOMETRY 1
The Heat Transfer in Solids interface can be used for solving the dimensionless
equations. You can switch off the dimensions using the following commands:
COMPONENT 1 (COMP1)
1 In the Model Builder window, click Component 1 (comp1).

2 In the Settings window for Component, locate the General section.
3 From the Unit system list, choose None.
GEOMETRY 1
Interval 1 (i1)
1 On the Geometry toolbar, click Interval.
2 In the Settings window for Interval, locate the Interval section.
3 In the Left endpoint text field, type -1.
DEFINITIONS
Add a step function for use in the boundary conditions.
Step 1 (step1)
1 On the Home toolbar, click Functions and choose Local>Step.
2 In the Settings window for Step, locate the Parameters section.
3 In the Location text field, type 5e-5.
4 In the From text field, type 1.
5 In the To text field, type 0.
5 |
6 Click to expand the Smoothing section. In the Size of transition zone text field, type
1e-4.
Optionally, you can inspect the shape of the step function.

Add an integration operator for the computation of the relative L2 error between
numerical and analytical solutions.

click Heat Transfer in Solids 1.

section.
6 |
4 Locate the Thermodynamics, Solid section. From the list, choose User defined. In
the associated text field, type 1.

5 From the Cp list, choose User defined. In the associated text field, type 1.
Initial Values 1

Temperature 1
4 In the T0 text field, type step1(t).
MESH 1

3 From the Sequence type list, choose User-controlled mesh.
Size
Size 1
1 In the Model Builder window, under Component 1 (comp1)>Mesh 1 right-click Edge 1
and choose Size.

box.
7 |

STUDY 1

3 In the Times text field, type range(0,0.01,1).
To make sure that the transition of the boundary temperature from 1 to zero is
represented correctly by the transient solver, use the initial time step that is smaller than
the transition zone of the step function.
Solution 1 (sol1)
stepping section.
4 Locate the Time Stepping section. Select the Initial step check box.
6 Select the Maximum step check box.
RESULTS
Temperature (ht)
The default plot shows the temperature distribution along the slab for all time steps.
You can compare the computed solution to that of Ref. 1 by plotting the temperature
for a given set of output times, as in Figure 2.
3 In the Times (s) list, choose 0.01, 0.04, 0.1, 0.2, 0.4, and 0.6.
5 In the Model Builder window, expand the Temperature (ht) node, then click Line
Graph 1.
8 |
6 In the Settings window for Line Graph, click to expand the Legends section.
Find the Line markers subsection. From the Marker list, choose Cycle.
Next plot the relative L2 error between the numerical and analytical solutions over
time.
1D Plot Group 2
2 In the Settings window for 1D Plot Group, type Relative L2 Error in the Label
text field.
Line Graph 1
On the Relative L2 Error toolbar, click Line Graph.
Relative L2 Error
3 Locate the y-Axis Data section. In the Expression text field, type
sqrt(intop1((T-2*sum((-1)^n/
((n+0.5)*pi)*exp(-(n+0.5)^2*pi^2*t)*cos((n+0.5)*pi*x),n,0,1000))^
2))/sqrt(intop1(T^2)).
4 Select the Description check box.

5 In the associated text field, type L2 error from analytical solution.
7 In the Expression text field, type t.
9 On the Relative L2 Error toolbar, click Plot.
As the analytical solution shows oscillations at initial time, change the settings of the
graph for a better readability, to get the plot of Figure 3.
10 In the Model Builder window, click Relative L2 Error.
11 In the Settings window for 1D Plot Group, locate the Axis section.
12 Select the Manual axis limits check box.
13 In the x minimum text field, type 1e-3.
9 |
14 In the x maximum text field, type 1.

15 In the y minimum text field, type 0.
16 In the y maximum text field, type 1e-3.
17 On the Relative L2 Error toolbar, click Plot.
10 |
Heat Sink
Introduction
This example is intended as a first introduction to simulations of fluid flow and
conjugate heat transfer. It shows the following important points:
How to draw an air box around a device in order to model convective cooling in
this box.
How to set a total heat flux on a boundary using automatic area computation.
How to display results in an efficient way using selections in data sets.
The application is also described in detail in the book Introduction to the Heat
Transfer Module. An extension of the application that takes surface-to-surface
radiation into account is also available; see Heat Sink with Surface-to-Surface
Radiation.
Inlet
Outlet
Base surface
Figure 1: The application set-up including channel and heat sink.
1 |
HEAT SINK
Model Definition
The modeled system consists of an aluminum heat sink for cooling of components in
electronic circuits mounted inside a channel of rectangular cross section (see Figure 1).
Such a set-up is used to measure the cooling capacity of heat sinks. Air enters the
channel at the inlet and exits the channel at the outlet. The base surface of the heat
sink receives a 1 W heat flux from an external heat source. All other external faces are
thermally insulated.
The cooling capacity of the heat sink can be determined by monitoring the
temperature of the base surface of the heat sink.
The model solves a thermal balance for the heat sink and the air flowing in the
rectangular channel. Thermal energy is transported through conduction in the
aluminum heat sink and through conduction and convection in the cooling air. The
temperature field is continuous across the internal surfaces between the heat sink and
the air in the channel. The temperature is set at the inlet of the channel. The base of
the heat sink receives a 1 W heat flux. The transport of thermal energy at the outlet is
dominated by convection.
The flow field is obtained by solving one momentum balance for each space coordinate
(x, y, and z) and a mass balance. The inlet velocity is defined by a parabolic velocity
profile for fully developed laminar flow. At the outlet, the normal stress is equal the
outlet pressure and the tangential stress is canceled. At all solid surfaces, the velocity is
set to zero in all three spatial directions.
The thermal conductivity of air, the heat capacity of air, and the air density are all
temperature-dependent material properties.
You can find all of the settings mentioned above in the predefined multiphysics
coupling for Conjugate Heat Transfer in COMSOL Multiphysics. You also find the
material properties, including their temperature dependence, in the Material Browser.
2 |
HEAT SINK
Results
In Figure 2, the hot wake behind the heat sink visible in the plot is a sign of the
convective cooling effects. The maximum temperature, reached at the heat sink base,
is about 380 K.
Figure 2: The surface plot shows the temperature field on the channel walls and the heat
sink surface, while the arrow plot shows the flow velocity field around the heat sink.

Tutorials,_Forced_and_Natural_Convection/heat_sink
NEW
3 |
HEAT SINK
MODEL WIZARD

3 Click Add.
4 Click Study.
6 Click Done.
GEOMETRY 1
The model geometry is available as a parameterized geometry sequence in a separate

MPH-file. If you want to build it from scratch, follow the instructions in the section
Appendix: Geometry Modeling Instructions. Otherwise load it from file with the
following steps.
heat_sink_geom_sequence.mph.
The applications Application Library folder is shown in the Application Library path
section immediately before the current section. Note that the path given there is
relative to the COMSOL Application Library root, which for a standard installation
on Windows is C:\Program
Files\COMSOL\COMSOL52\Multiphysics\applications.
Import 1 (imp1)
To facilitate face selection in the next steps, use the Wireframe Rendering option (skip
this step if you followed the instructions in the appendix):
4 |
HEAT SINK
LAMINAR FLOW (SPF)
Since the density variation is not small, the flow cannot be regarded as incompressible.
Create a selection for the air domain used the physics interfaces to define the fluid.
7 Click OK.
5 |
HEAT SINK

section.
MATERIALS
Next, add materials.

ADD MATERIAL
MATERIALS
Air (mat1)
ADD MATERIAL

2 In the tree, select Built-In>Aluminum 3003-H18.
MATERIALS
Aluminum 3003-H18 (mat2)

3003-H18 (mat2).
ADD MATERIAL
6 |
HEAT SINK

MATERIALS
Silica glass (mat3)

(mat3).
Material 4 (mat4)

2 In the Settings window for Material, type Thermal Grease in the Label text field.
choose Boundary.
5 Click to expand the Material properties section. Locate the Material Properties
section. In the Material properties tree, select Basic Properties>Thermal Conductivity.

6 Click Add to Material.
Property
Name
Value
Unit
Property group
2[W/m/K]
W/(mK)
Basic
GLOBAL DEFINITIONS
Parameters
1 In the Model Builder window, expand the Global Definitions node, then click
Parameters.
Name
Expression
Value
Description
U0
5[cm/s]
0.05 m/s
Mean inlet velocity
7 |
HEAT SINK
Name
Expression
Value
Description
T0
20[degC]
293.2 K
Inlet temperature
P0
1[W]
1W
Total power dissipated

by the electronics
package
Now define the physical properties of the model. Start with the fluid domain.
LAMINAR FLOW (SPF)
The no-slip condition is the default boundary condition for the fluid. Define the inlet
and outlet conditions as described below.
Inlet 1
4 From the list, choose Laminar inflow.
5 Locate the Laminar Inflow section. In the Uav text field, type U0.
Outlet 1
Thermal insulation is the default boundary condition for the temperature. Define the
inlet temperature and the outlet condition as described below.
1 In the Model Builder window, under Component 1 (comp1) click Heat Transfer (ht).
Temperature 1
8 |
HEAT SINK
Outflow 1
Next, use the P0 parameter to define the total heat source in the electronics package.
Heat Source 1
5 In the P0 text field, type P0.
Finally, add the thin thermal grease layer.
Thin Layer 1
4 In the ds text field, type 50[um].
MESH 1

3 From the Element size list, choose Extra coarse.
To get a better view of the mesh, hide some of the boundaries.

5 Click the Click and Hide button on the Graphics toolbar.
6 Click the Select Boundaries button on the Graphics toolbar.
9 |
HEAT SINK
The finished mesh should look like that in the figure below.
To achieve more accurate numerical results, this mesh can be refined by choosing
another predefined element size. However, doing so requires more computational
time and memory.
STUDY 1

RESULTS
Temperature (ht)
Four default plots are generated automatically. The first one shows the temperature on
the wall boundaries, the third one shows the velocity magnitude on five parallel slices,
and the last one shows the pressure field. Add an arrow plot to visualize the velocity
field with temperature field.
1 In the Model Builder window, under Results right-click Temperature (ht) and choose
Arrow Volume.
10 |
HEAT SINK
2 In the Settings window for Arrow Volume, click Replace Expression in the upper-right
corner of the Expression section. From the menu, choose Component 1>Laminar
Flow>Velocity and pressure>u,v,w - Velocity field.
text field, type 40.

5 Find the z grid points subsection. From the Entry method list, choose Coordinates.
6 In the Coordinates text field, type 5[mm].
7 Right-click Results>Temperature (ht)>Arrow Volume 1 and choose Color Expression.
1>Laminar Flow>Velocity and pressure>spf.U - Velocity magnitude.
Global Evaluation 1
On the Results toolbar, click Global Evaluation.
Derived Values
1 In the Settings window for Global Evaluation, type Net Energy Rate in the Label
text field.
the menu, choose Component 1>Heat Transfer>Global>Net powers>ht.ntefluxInt Total net energy rate.
TA BL E

RESULTS
Global Evaluation 2
Derived Values
1 In the Settings window for Global Evaluation, type Heat Source in the Label text
field.
11 |
HEAT SINK
the menu, choose Component 1>Heat Transfer>Global>Heat source powers>ht.QInt Total heat source.
TABLE
The total rate of net energy and heat generation should be close to 1 W.
Appendix: Geometry Modeling Instructions

ROOT
On the Home toolbar, click Add Component and choose 3D.

GLOBAL DEFINITIONS
First define the geometry parameters.
Parameters
Name
Expression
Value
Description
L_channel
7[cm]
0.07 m
Channel length
W_channel
3[cm]
0.03 m
Channel width
H_channel
1.5[cm]
0.015 m
Channel height
L_chip
1.5[cm]
0.015 m
Chip size
H_chip
2[mm]
0.002 m
Chip height
GEOMETRY 1
Build the geometry in three steps. First, import the heat sink geometry from a file.
Import 1 (imp1)
3 Click Browse.
12 |
HEAT SINK
heat_sink.mphbin.
5 Click Import.
Next, define a work plane containing the bottom surface of the heat sink to draw the
imprints of the chip and of the air channel.
Work Plane 1 (wp1)

3 From the Plane type list, choose Face parallel.
4 Find the Planar face subsection. Select the Active toggle button.
5 Select the surface shown in the figure below.
6 Locate the Unite Objects section. Clear the Unite objects check box.
Square 1 (sq1)
1 On the Work Plane toolbar, click Primitives and choose Square.
13 |
HEAT SINK
3 In the Side length text field, type L_chip.

4 Locate the Position section. From the Base list, choose Center.
5 Right-click Square 1 (sq1) and choose Build Selected.
Rectangle 1 (r1)
3 In the Width text field, type L_channel.
4 In the Height text field, type W_channel.
5 Locate the Position section. In the xw text field, type -45[mm].
6 In the yw text field, type -W_channel/2.
Now extrude the chip imprint to define the chip volume.
Extrude 1 (ext1)
2 Select the object wp1.sq1 only.
Distances (m)
H_chip

To finish the geometry, extrude the channel imprint in the opposite direction to define
the air volume.
Extrude 2 (ext2)
2 Select the object wp1.r1 only.
14 |
HEAT SINK

Distances (m)
H_channel

15 |
HEAT SINK
16 |
HEAT SINK
He a t S i nk wi th Su rfac e- t o- Su rfac e
Radiation
This application extends the Heat Sink model by taking surface-to-surface radiation
into account. For a detailed description of the application, see Heat Sink. Both
applications are also described in detail in the book Introduction to the Heat Transfer
Module.

Tutorials,_Forced_and_Natural_Convection/
heat_sink_surface_radiation
ROOT
In this second part you modify and solve the model to study the effects of
surface-to-surface radiation between the heat sink and the channel walls.
heat_sink.mph.
COMPONENT 1 (COMP1)
Now modify the model to include surface-to-surface radiation effects. First you need
to enable the surface-to-surface radiation property.
1 In the Model Builder window, expand the Component 1 (comp1) node, then click Heat
Transfer (ht).
2 In the Settings window for Heat Transfer, locate the Physical Model section.
3 Select the Surface-to-surface radiation check box.
By default, the radiation direction is controlled by the opacity of the domains. The
solid parts are automatically defined as opaque while the fluid parts are transparent.
1 |
HEAT SINK WITH SURFACE-TO-SURFACE RADIATION
You can change these settings by modifying or adding an Opaque subnode under
Heat Transfer in Solids and Heat Transfer in Fluids nodes.
When the Diffuse Surface boundary condition defines the radiation direction as
opacity controlled (default) the selected boundaries should be located between an
opaque and a transparent domain. The exterior is defined as transparent by default.
Change this setting to make the exterior opaque and have the radiation direction
automatically defined on the channel walls.
4 Locate the Radiation Settings section. From the Exterior radiation list, choose Exterior
is opaque.
Now you can add a surface-to-surface boundary condition to the model.
Diffuse Surface 1
4 From the list, choose User defined. In the associated text field, type 0.85.
COMPONENT 1 (COMP1)
Hide the boundaries on the top and fronts to see the interior of the channel and the
heat sink.
1 Click the Click and Hide button on the Graphics toolbar.
2 Click the Select Boundaries button on the Graphics toolbar.
3 In the Model Builder window, click Component 1 (comp1).
ROOT
In order to keep the previous solution and to be able to compare it with this version
of the model, create a new stationary study.
ADD STUDY
2 |
STUDY 2

RESULTS
Temperature (ht) 1
The same default plots as before are generated automatically. Modify the temperature
plot to compare both cases.
1 In the Model Builder window, under Results right-click Temperature (ht) 1 and choose
Arrow Volume.
2 In the Settings window for Arrow Volume, click Replace Expression in the upper-right
Flow>Velocity and pressure>u,v,w - Velocity field.
text field, type 40.

6 Find the z grid points subsection. From the Entry method list, choose Coordinates.
7 In the Coordinates text field, type 5[mm].
8 Right-click Results>Temperature (ht) 1>Arrow Volume 1 and choose Color Expression.
3 |
10 On the Temperature (ht) 1 toolbar, click Plot.
The plot in the Graphics window should look like that in the figure below.
4 |
Heating Circuit
Introduction
Small heating circuits find use in many applications. For example, in manufacturing
processes they heat up reactive fluids. Figure 1 illustrates a typical heating device for
this application. The device consists of an electrically resistive layer deposited on a glass
plate. The layer causes Joule heating when a voltage is applied to the circuit. The layers
properties determine the amount of heat produced.
Electric heater
Air
Glass plate
Heated fluid
stream
Figure 1: Geometry of a heating device.

In this particular application, you must observe three important design considerations:
Non-invasive heating
Minimal deflection of the heating device
Avoidance of overheating the process fluid
The heater must also work without failure. You achieve the first and second
requirements by inserting a glass plate between the heating circuit and the fluid; it acts
as a conducting separator. Glass is an ideal material for both these purposes because it
is non-reactive and has a low coefficient of thermal expansion.
You must also avoid overheating due to the risk of self-ignition of the reactive fluid
stream. Ignition is also the main reason for separating the electrical circuit from direct
contact with the fluid. The heating device is tailored for each application, making
virtual prototyping very important for manufacturers.
For heating circuits in general, detachment of the resistive layer often determines the
failure rate. This is caused by excessive thermally induced interfacial stresses. Once the
layer has detached, it gets locally overheated, which accelerates the detachment.
1 |
HEATING CIRCUIT
Finally, in the worst case, the circuit might overheat and burn. From this perspective,
it is also important to study the interfacial tension due to the different
thermal-expansion coefficients of the resistive layer and the substrate as well as the
differences in temperature. The geometric shape of the layer is a key parameter to
design circuits for proper functioning. You can investigate all of the above-mentioned
aspects by modeling the circuit.
This multiphysics example simulates the electrical heat generation, the heat transfer,
and the mechanical stresses and deformations of a heating circuit device. The model
uses the Heat Transfer in Solids interface of the Heat Transfer Module in combination
with the Electric Currents, Shell interface from the AC/DC Module and the Solid
Mechanics and Shell interfaces from the Structural Mechanics Module.
Note: This application requires the AC/DC Module, the Heat Transfer Module, and
the Structural Mechanics Module.
Model Definition
Figure 2 shows a drawing of the modeled heating circuit.
Nichrome Circuit
Silver Pads
Figure 2: Drawing of the heating circuit deposited on a glass plate.

The device consists of a serpentine-shaped Nichrome resistive layer, 10 m thick and
5 mm wide, deposited on a glass plate. At each end, it has a silver contact pad
measuring 10 mm-by-10 mm-by-10 m. When the circuit is in use, the deposited side
of the glass plate is in contact with surrounding air, and the back side is in contact with
the heated fluid. Assume that the edges and sides of the glass plate are thermally
insulated.
2 |
HEATING CIRCUIT
Table 1 gives the resistors dimensions.

TABLE 1: DIMENSIONS
OBJECT
LENGTH
WIDTH
THICKNESS
Glass Plate
130 mm
80 mm
2 mm
Pads and Circuit
10 m
During operation the resistive layer produces heat. Model the electrically generated
heat using the Electric Currents, Shell interface from the AC/DC Module. An electric
potential of 12 V is applied to the pads. In the model, you achieve this effect by setting
the potential at one edge of the first pad to 12 V and that of one edge of the other pad
to 0 V.
To model the heat transfer in the thin conducting layer, use the Thin Layer feature
from the Heat Transfer in Solids interface. The heat rate per unit area (measured in
W/m2) produced inside the thin layer is given by
q prod = d QDC
(1)
where QDC = J E = |tV|2 (W/m3) is the power density. The generated heat
appears as an inward heat flux at the surface of the glass plate.
At steady state, the resistive layer dissipates the heat it generates in two ways: on its up
side to the surrounding air (at 293 K), and on its down side to the glass plate. The glass
plate is similarly cooled in two ways: on its circuit side by air, and on its back side by a
process fluid (353 K). You model the heat fluxes to the surroundings using heat
transfer coefficients, h. For the heat transfer to air, h = 5 W/(m2K), representing
natural convection. On the glass plates back side, h = 20 W/(m2K), representing
convective heat transfer to the fluid. The sides of the glass plate are insulated.
The model simulates thermal expansion using static structural-mechanics analyses. It
uses the Solid Mechanics interface for the glass plate, and the Shell interface for the
circuit layer. The equations of these two interfaces are described in the Structural
Mechanics Module Users Guide. The stresses are set to zero at 293 K. You determine
the boundary conditions for the Solid Mechanics interface by fixing one corner with
respect to x-, y-, and z-displacements and rotation.
3 |
HEATING CIRCUIT
Table 2 summarizes the material properties used in the model.

MATERIAL
E [GPa]
[1/K]
k [W/(mK)]
[kg/m3]
Cp [J/(kgK)]
Silver
83
0.37
1.89e-5
420
10500
230
Nichrome
213
0.33
1e-5
15
9000
20
Glass
73.1
0.17
5.5e-7
1.38
2203
703

Figure 3 shows the heat that the resistive layer generates.
Figure 3: Stationary heat generation in the resistive layer when 12 V is applied.

The highest heating power occurs at the inner corners of the curves due to the higher
current density at these spots. The total generated heat, as calculated by integration, is
approximately 13.8 W.
4 |
HEATING CIRCUIT
Figure 4 shows the temperature of the resistive layer and the glass plate at steady state.
Figure 4: Temperature distribution in the heating device at steady state.

The highest temperature is approximately 428 K, and it appears in the central section
of the circuit layer. It is interesting to see that the differences in temperature between
the fluid side and the circuit side of the glass plate are quite small because the plate is
very thin. Using boundary integration, the integral heat flux on the fluid side evaluates
to approximately 8.5 W. This means that the device transfers the majority of the heat
it generates8.5 W out of 13.8 Wto the fluid, which is good from a design
perspective, although the thermal resistance of the glass plate results in some losses.
The temperature rise also induces thermal stresses due the materials different
coefficients of thermal expansion. As a result, mechanical stresses and deformations
arise in the layer and in the glass plate. Figure 5 shows the effective stress distribution
5 |
HEATING CIRCUIT
in the device and the resulting deformations. During operation, the glass plate bends
towards the air side.
Figure 5: The thermally induced von Mises effective stress plotted with the deformation.
The highest effective stress, approximately 13 MPa, occurs at the inner corners of the
curves of the Nichrome circuit. The yield stress for high quality glass is roughly
250 MPa, and for Nichrome it is 360 MPa. This means that the individual objects
remain structurally intact for the simulated heating power loads.
You must also consider stresses in the interface between the resistive layer and the glass
plate. Assume that the yield stress of the surface adhesion in the interface is in the
region of 50 MPaa value significantly lower than the yield stresses of the other
materials in the device. If the effective stress increases above this value, the resistive
layer locally detaches from the glass. Once it has detached, heat transfer is locally
impeded, which can lead to overheating of the resistive layer and eventually cause the
device to fail.
Figure 6 displays the effective forces acting on the adhesive layer during heater
operation. As the figure shows, the device experiences a maximum interfacial stress that
is an order of magnitude smaller than the yield stress. This means that the device are
OK in terms of adhesive stress.
6 |
HEATING CIRCUIT
Figure 6: The effective forces in the interface between the resistive layer and the glass plate.
Finally study the devices deflections, shown in Figure 7.
Figure 7: Total displacement on the fluid side of the glass plate.
7 |
HEATING CIRCUIT
The maximum displacement, located at the center of the plate, is approximately

50 m. For high-precision applications, such as semiconductor processing, this might
be a significant value that limits the devices operating temperature.

Power_Electronics_and_Electronic_Cooling/heating_circuit
NEW

MODEL WIZARD

2 In the Select physics tree, select Structural Mechanics>Thermal Stress.
3 Click Add.
4 In the Select physics tree, select AC/DC>Electric Currents, Shell (ecs).
5 Click Add.
6 In the Select physics tree, select Structural Mechanics>Shell (shell).
7 Click Add.
8 Click Study.
10 Click Done.
GEOMETRY 1
The Thermal Stress interface includes Heat Transfer in Solids and Solid Mechanics. In the
volume, these two interfaces solve for temperature and displacement, respectively. In
the shell representing the circuit, only the temperature is solved, by Heat Transfer In
Solids. The Electric Currents, Shell and Shell interfaces only apply on the circuit shell.
They solve for electric potential and for the displacement, respectively.
8 |
HEATING CIRCUIT
GLOBAL DEFINITIONS
Parameters
Name
Expression
Value
Description
V_in
12[V]
12 V
Input voltage
d_layer
10[um]
1E-5 m
Layer thickness
sigma_sil
ver
6.3e7[S/m]
6.3E7 S/m
Electric conductivity
of silver
sigma_nic
hrome
9.3e5[S/m]
9.3E5 S/m
Electric conductivity
of Nichrome
T_air
20[degC]
293.2 K
Air temperature
h_air
5[W/(m^2*K)]
5 W/(mK)
Heat transfer film

coefficient, air
T_fluid
353[K]
353 K
Fluid temperature
h_fluid
20[W/(m^2*K)]
20 W/(mK)
Heat transfer film

coefficient, fluid
GEOMETRY 1

Block 1 (blk1)
Work Plane 1 (wp1)

9 |
HEATING CIRCUIT
4 In the z-coordinate text field, type 2.
Plane Geometry
1 Right-click Work Plane 1 (wp1) and choose Build Selected.
Square 1 (sq1)
1 On the Work Plane toolbar, click Primitives and choose Square.
3 In the Side length text field, type 10.
4 Locate the Position section. In the xw text field, type 7.
6 Right-click Square 1 (sq1) and choose Build Selected.
Square 2 (sq2)
1 Right-click Square 1 (sq1) and choose Duplicate.
2 In the Settings window for Square, locate the Position section.
3 In the xw text field, type 30.
Polygon 1 (pol1)
1 Right-click Component 1 (comp1)>Geometry 1>Work Plane 1 (wp1)>Plane
Geometry>Square 2 (sq2) and choose Build Selected.
2 On the Work Plane toolbar, click Primitives and choose Polygon.
5 Click Browse.
heating_circuit_polygon.txt.
Fillet 1 (fil1)
1 Right-click Polygon 1 (pol1) and choose Build Selected.
2 On the Work Plane toolbar, click Fillet.
3 On the object pol1, select Points 28, 2329, 34, 36, 37, 41, and 42 only.
10 |
HEATING CIRCUIT
Fillet 2 (fil2)
1 Right-click Fillet 1 (fil1) and choose Build Selected.
2 On the Work Plane toolbar, click Fillet.
3 On the object fil1, select Points 612, 2631, 37, 40, 43, 46, 49, and 50 only.
6 On the Work Plane toolbar, click Build All.
Form Union (fin)

The geometry should look like the figure below.
DEFINITIONS
Add a selection that you can use later when applying boundary conditions and shell
physics settings.
Explicit 1
2 In the Settings window for Explicit, type Circuit in the Label text field.
11 |
HEATING CIRCUIT
Boundary.
Before creating the materials for use in this model, it is a good idea to specify which
boundaries are to be modeled as conducting shells. Using this information, COMSOL
Multiphysics can detect which material properties are needed.
(ht).
Thin Layer 1
3 From the Selection list, choose Circuit.
5 In the ds text field, type d_layer.
ELECTRIC CURRENTS, SHELL (ECS)
1 In the Model Builder window, under Component 1 (comp1) click Electric Currents, Shell
(ecs).
2 In the Settings window for Electric Currents, Shell, locate the Boundary Selection
section.
4 Locate the Shell Thickness section. In the ds text field, type d_layer.
SHELL (SHELL)
On the Physics toolbar, click Electric Currents, Shell (ecs) and choose Shell (shell).
1 In the Model Builder window, under Component 1 (comp1) click Shell (shell).
2 In the Settings window for Shell, locate the Boundary Selection section.
4 Locate the Thickness section. In the d text field, type d_layer.
5 Click to expand the Dependent variables section. Locate the Dependent Variables
section. In the Displacement field text field, type u.
12 |
HEATING CIRCUIT
Linear Elastic Material 1

In the Model Builder window, expand the Shell (shell) node, then click Linear Elastic
Material 1.
Thermal Expansion 1
1 On the Physics toolbar, click Attributes and choose Thermal Expansion.
2 In the Settings window for Thermal Expansion, locate the Model Inputs section.
3 From the T list, choose Temperature (ht).
ADD MATERIAL
MATERIALS
Now set up the materials.
Material 2 (mat2)

2 In the Settings window for Material, type Silver in the Label text field.
choose Boundary.
Property
Name
Value
Unit
Property group
420
W/
(mK)
Basic
Density
rho
10500
kg/m
Basic

pressure
Cp
230
J/
(kgK)
Basic
sigma
sigma_
silver
S/m
Basic
13 |
HEATING CIRCUIT
Property
Name
Value
Unit
Property group
epsilo
nr
Basic
Young's modulus
83e9
Pa
Basic
Poisson's ratio
nu
0.37
Basic
alpha
18.9e6
1/K
Basic
expansion
Material 3 (mat3)
2 In the Settings window for Material, type Nichrome in the Label text field.
choose Boundary.
Property
Name
Value
Unit
Property group
15
W/
(mK)
Basic
Density
rho
9000
kg/m
Basic

pressure
Cp
20
J/
(kgK)
Basic
sigma
sigma_
nichro
me
S/m
Basic
epsilo
nr
Basic
Young's modulus
213e9
Pa
Basic
Poisson's ratio
nu
0.33
Basic
expansion
alpha
10e-6
1/K
Basic
With the materials defined, set up the remaining physics of the model. In the next
section, the resistive loss within the circuit is defined as a heat source for the thermal
stress physics. The resistive loss is calculated automatically within the Electric
Currents, Shell physics interface. Add the coupling feature Boundary Electromagnetic
Heat Source to take the resistive loss into account.
14 |
HEATING CIRCUIT
MULTIPHYSICS
and choose Boundary Electromagnetic Heat Source.

2 In the Settings window for Boundary Electromagnetic Heat Source, locate the
Boundary Selection section.
(ht).
Heat Flux 1
Heat Flux 2
5 In the h text field, type h_fluid.
6 In the Text text field, type T_fluid.
Next, add constraints to restrain the glass plate movements.

In the Model Builder window, under Component 1 (comp1) click Solid Mechanics (solid).
Fixed Constraint 1
1 On the Physics toolbar, click Points and choose Fixed Constraint.
Prescribed Displacement 1
1 On the Physics toolbar, click Points and choose Prescribed Displacement.
15 |
HEATING CIRCUIT

3 In the Settings window for Prescribed Displacement, locate the Prescribed
4 Select the Prescribed in y direction check box.
5 Select the Prescribed in z direction check box.
Finally, add a voltage and ground.

ELECTRIC CURRENTS, SHELL (ECS)
In the Model Builder window, under Component 1 (comp1) click Electric Currents, Shell
(ecs).
Electric Potential 1
1 On the Physics toolbar, click Edges and choose Electric Potential.
3 In the Settings window for Electric Potential, locate the Electric Potential section.
4 In the V0 text field, type V_in.
Ground 1
1 On the Physics toolbar, click Edges and choose Ground.
MESH 1
Use a relatively coarse mesh to reduce the model size.
Free Triangular 1

Size 1
16 |
HEATING CIRCUIT
box.
Swept 1
Distribution 1
STUDY 1

RESULTS
Stress (solid)
The default plots show the von Mises stress including the deformation (Figure 5) and
the temperature (Figure 4) on the surface of the full 3D geometry, the electric
potential on the circuit layer, and the von Mises stress on the top and bottom of the
circuit layer.
To generate Figure 3 follow the steps below.
3D Plot Group 7
2 In the Settings window for 3D Plot Group, type Surface Losses in the Label text
field.
Surface Losses
1 Right-click Surface Losses and choose Surface.
17 |
HEATING CIRCUIT
of the Expression section. From the menu, choose Model>Component 1>Electric

Currents, Shell>Heating and losses>ecs.Qsh - Surface losses.
3 On the Surface Losses toolbar, click Plot.
4 Click the Scene Light button on the Graphics toolbar.
The following steps generate a plot of the norm of the surface traction vector in the
surface plane (see Figure 6):
Data Sets
In the Model Builder window, expand the Results>Data Sets node.
Selection
1 Right-click Study 1/Solution 1 (sol1) and choose Duplicate.
Data Sets
3D Plot Group 8
2 In the Settings window for 3D Plot Group, type Interface Stress in the Label
text field.
Interface Stress
1 Right-click Interface Stress and choose Surface.
3 In the Expression text field, type sqrt(solid.Tax^2+solid.Tay^2).
4 From the Unit list, choose MPa.
5 On the Interface Stress toolbar, click Plot.
Finally, to obtain Figure 7, proceed as follows.
Surface 1
18 |
HEATING CIRCUIT
Data Sets
Select Boundary 3 only.
2D Plot Group 9
2 In the Settings window for 2D Plot Group, type Displacement, Bottom
Boundary in the Label text field.
Displacement, Bottom Boundary

1 Right-click Displacement, Bottom Boundary and choose Surface.
of the Expression section. From the menu, choose Model>Component 1>Solid

Mechanics>Displacement>solid.disp - Total displacement.
3 Locate the Expression section. In the Unit field, type um.
4 On the Displacement, Bottom Boundary toolbar, click Plot.
Derived Values
To calculate the values for the total generated heat and the integrated heat flux on the
fluid side, perform a boundary integration:
Integration.
Derived Values
2 In the Settings window for Surface Integration, click Replace Expression in the
upper-right corner of the Expression section. From the menu, choose

Model>Component 1>Heat Transfer in Solids>Boundary fluxes>ht.q0 - Inward heat
flux.
TA BL E

The result should be close to 8.5 W.
19 |
HEATING CIRCUIT
RESULTS
Integration.
Derived Values
the menu, choose Model>Component 1>Electric Currents, Shell>Heating and

losses>ecs.Qsh - Surface losses.
TABLE

The result should be close to 13.8 W.
20 |
HEATING CIRCUIT
Fr e e C o nv e c ti on i n a Li gh t Bu l b
Introduction
This application simulates the non-isothermal flow of argon gas inside a light bulb. The
purpose of the model is to show the coupling between energy transportthrough
conduction, radiation, and convectionand momentum transport induced by density
variations in the argon gas.
All three forms of heat transfer are taken into account. First, you have conduction,
when a 60 W filament is heated thus transferring heat from the heat source to the light
bulb. Then there is convection, which drives a flow inside the bulb transferring the heat
from the filament throughout the bulb via the movement of fluids (in this case, argon
gas). Finally, there is the radiation portion of the problem, and in this case that includes
surface-to-surface and surface-to-ambient radiation. The Heat Transfer Module
includes both of these types of radiation, so that you can account for shading and
reflections between radiating surfaces, as well as ambient radiation that can be fixed or
given by an arbitrary function. The light bulb physics involves both heat transfer and
gas flow, which makes this a multiphysics problem and not just a heat transfer
example.
Note: This application requires the Heat Transfer Module and the Material Library.
Model Definition
A light bulb contains a tungsten filament that is resistively heated when a current is
conducted through it. At temperatures around 2000 K the filament starts to emit
visible light. To prevent the tungsten wire from burning up, the bulb is filled with a
gas, usually argon. The heat generated in the filament is transported to the
surroundings through radiation, convection, and conduction. As the gas heats up,
density and pressure changes induce a flow inside the bulb.
1 |
FREE CONVECTION IN A LIGHT BULB
Figure 1 shows a cross section of the axially symmetric model geometry.

Glass
Argon
Filament
Figure 1: The model geometry.

The filament is approximated with a solid torus, an approximation that implies
neglecting any internal effects inside the filament wire.
The equations governing the non-isothermal flow in the argon gas are
u
2
------ + ( u u ) = p + ( u + ( u ) T ) ------- ( u )I + g
t
3
----+ ( u ) = 0
t
where denotes the density (kg/m3), u the velocity (m/s), the viscosity (Pas), p
the pressure (Pa), and g the gravity vector (m/s2). The density is given by the ideal
gas law
Mp
= --------RT
where M denotes the molar weight (kg/mol), R the universal gas constant (J/
(molK)), and T the temperature (K).
2 |
The convective and conductive heat transfer inside the bulb is described by the
equation
T
C p ------- + ( kT ) = C p u T + Q
t
where Cp denotes the heat capacity (J/(kgK)), k is the thermal conductivity (W/
(mK)), and Q refers to the power density (W/m3) in the filament that serves as a heat
source. The total light bulb power is 60 W.
BOUNDARY CONDITIONS
At the bulbs inner surfaces, radiation is described by surface-to-surface radiation. This

means that the mutual irradiation from the surfaces that can be seen from a particular
surface and radiation to the surroundings are accounted for. At the outer surfaces of
the bulb, radiation is described by surface-to-ambient radiation, which means that
there is no reflected radiation from the surroundings (blackbody radiation).
The top part of the bulb, where the bulb is mounted on the cap, is insulated:
n ( kT ) = 0
Results
The heating inside the bulb has a long and a short time scale from t = 0, when the light
is turned on. The shorter scale captures the heating of the filament and the gas close
to it. The following series of pictures shows the temperature distribution inside the
bulb at t = 2, 6, and 10 s.
Figure 2: Temperature distribution at t = 2, 6, and 10 s. The color ranges differ between

the plots.
3 |
When the temperature changes, the density of the gas changes, inducing a gas flow
inside the bulb. The following series of pictures shows the velocity field inside the bulb
after 2, 6, and 10 s.
Figure 3: Velocity field after 2, 6, and 10 s. The color ranges differ between the plots.
On the longer time scale, the glass on the bulbs outer side heats up. The following
plot shows the temperature distribution in the bulb after 5 minutes.
Figure 4: Temperature distribution after 5 minutes.
4 |
Figure 5 shows the temperature distribution at a point on the boundary of the bulb at
the same vertical level as the filament. This plot shows the slow heating of the bulb.
After 5 minutes, the bulb has reached a steady-state temperature of 580 K.
Figure 5: Temperature distribution at a point on the boundary of the bulb at the same
vertical level as the filament.
Heat is transported from the boundary of the bulb through both convective heat flux
and radiation. The net radiative heat flux leaving the bulb at t = 300 s is plotted in
Figure 6, as function of the z-coordinate. The top boundaries of the bulb where the
bulb is mounted on the cap are excluded from this plot. The distinct bump in the curve
occurs at the same vertical level as the filament.
5 |
Figure 6: The net radiative heat flux leaving the bulb.

To set up the model, use the Heat Transfer Modules Conjugate Heat Transfer
predefined multiphysics coupling. The model uses material from the Material Library
to accurately account for temperature-dependent properties over a wide range. The
model setup is straightforward and also shows how to create your own material to treat
argon as an ideal gas. When working with surface-to-surface radiation in COMSOL,
fluid domains are considered as transparent and solid domains as opaque by default,
which are the expected properties for this model. The assumption that the glass on the
bulb is opaque might seem odd, but it is valid because glass is almost opaque to heat
radiation but transparent to radiation in the visible spectrum.
Application Library path: Heat_Transfer_Module/Thermal_Radiation/

light_bulb
6 |
NEW

MODEL WIZARD

3 Click Add.
4 Click Study.
Dependent.
6 Click Done.
GEOMETRY 1
Import 1 (imp1)
3 Click Browse.
light_bulb.mphbin.
5 Click Import.
GLOBAL DEFINITIONS
Parameters
Name
Expression
Value
Description
h0
5[W/(m^2*K)]
5 W/(mK)
Heat transfer
coefficient
Qf
60[W]
60 W
Heat source in filament
7 |
Name
Expression
Value
Description
p0
50[kPa]
5E4 Pa
Initial pressure
rho_glass
2595[kg/m^3]
2595 kg/m
Density, glass
k_glass
1.09[W/(m*K)]
1.09 W/(mK)
glass
Cp_glass
750[J/(kg*K)]
750 J/(kgK)
Heat capacity, glass
eps_glass
0.8
0.8
Surface emissivity,
glass
Mw_a
39.94[g/mol]
0.03994 kg/mol
Molar mass, argon
ADD MATERIAL
3 In the tree, select Material Library>Elements>Tungsten>Tungsten [solid]>Tungsten
[solid,Ho et al].
MATERIALS
Tungsten [solid,Ho et al] (mat1)

1 In the Model Builder window, under Component 1 (comp1)>Materials click Tungsten
[solid,Ho et al] (mat1).
To apply the surface emissivity for tungsten as a material property, you also need to
define tungsten as the material for the filament surface.
ADD MATERIAL

2 In the tree, select Material Library>Elements>Tungsten>Tungsten [solid]>Tungsten
[solid,Ho et al].
8 |
MATERIALS
Tungsten [solid,Ho et al] 1 (mat2)

1 In the Model Builder window, under Component 1 (comp1)>Materials click Tungsten
[solid,Ho et al] 1 (mat2).
Material 3 (mat3)

2 In the Settings window for Material, type Glass in the Label text field.
Property
Name
Value
Unit
Property group
k_glass
W/(mK)
Basic
Density
rho
rho_glass
kg/m
Basic

pressure
Cp
Cp_glass
J/(kgK)
Basic
You will return to the Materials branch shortly to specify glass at the boundaries of
the glass domain and argon as the material for the interior of the bulb. However,
first set up the physics to let COMSOL Multiphysics flag what properties you need
to specify manually.
LAMINAR FLOW (SPF)
Define the pressure reference level in the interface properties.

5 In the pref text field, type p0.
9 |
8 In the Create Selection dialog box, type Argon in the Selection name text field.
9 Click OK.

section.
3 From the Selection list, choose Argon.
6 Select the Surface-to-surface radiation check box.
Initial Values 1
Initial Values 1.
3 In the T text field, type 25[degC].
Diffuse Surface 1
4 In the Tamb text field, type T.
By default, the radiation direction is controlled by the opacity of the domains. The
solid parts are automatically defined as opaque while the fluid parts are transparent.
You can change these settings by deleting or adding, as the case may be, an Opaque
subnode under Heat Transfer in Solids and Heat Transfer in Fluids nodes. For this
model, the default settings apply.
Diffuse Surface 2
10 |

4 In the Tamb text field, type 25[degC].
Heat Source 1
5 In the P0 text field, type Qf.
Heat Flux 1
5 In the h text field, type h0.
6 In the Text text field, type 25[degC].
LAMINAR FLOW (SPF)
Volume Force 1
0
-nitf1.rho*g_const
MATERIALS
Material 4 (mat4)
11 |
2 In the Settings window for Material, type Glass (Boundaries) in the Label text
field.
choose Boundary.
Property
Name
Value
Unit
Property group
Surface emissivity
epsilon_rad
eps_glass
Basic
ADD MATERIAL
3 In the tree, select Material Library>Elements>Argon>Argon [gas].
MATERIALS
Argon [gas] (mat5)

1 In the Model Builder window, under Component 1 (comp1)>Materials click Argon [gas]
(mat5).
As you can see, COMSOL Multiphysics warns about required properties that have
not been defined yet. Define these as follows.
Property
Name
Value
Unit
Property group
gamma
1.6
Basic
rho
ht.pA*Mw_a/
(R_const*T)
kg/m
Basic
Density
MESH 1

12 |
3 From the Element size list, choose Fine.

STUDY 1

Dependent.
3 In the Times text field, type range(0,0.1,1) range(1.5,0.5,20)
range(21,3,300).
4 Select the Relative tolerance check box.

Solution 1 (sol1)
Variables 1.
4 In the Settings window for Dependent Variables, locate the Scaling section.
5 From the Method list, choose Manual.
For a nonlinear time-dependent problem such as this one, a judicious manual scaling
of the variables can improve convergence during solving.
(sol1)>Dependent Variables 1 node, then click Velocity field (comp1.u).
7 In the Settings window for Field, locate the Scaling section.
9 In the Scale text field, type 0.1.
(sol1)>Dependent Variables 1 click Surface radiosity (comp1.ht.J).
13 In the Scale text field, type 1e5.
(sol1)>Dependent Variables 1 click Temperature (comp1.T).
13 |

(sol1)>Dependent Variables 1 click Pressure (comp1.p).

stepping section.
24 Locate the Time Stepping section. From the Method list, choose Generalized alpha.
25 From the Steps taken by solver list, choose Manual.
26 In the Time step text field, type 0.02*if(t<10,1,10).
27 Click to expand the Advanced section.
RESULTS
The first default 3D plot shows the temperature at the end of the simulation interval
(Figure 4). Look at the temperature field at different times and compare the resulting
series of plots with those in Figure 2.
3 From the Time (s) list, choose 2.
4 On the Temperature, 3D (ht) toolbar, click Plot.
Compare with the left panel in Figure 2.

Compare with the middle panel in Figure 2.

14 |
Compare with the right panel in Figure 2.
Pressure (spf)
This default plot shows the pressure field in a 2D contour plot. Change the unit to kPa
as follows.
1 In the Model Builder window, expand the Pressure (spf) node, then click Contour 1.
2 In the Settings window for Contour, locate the Expression section.
3 From the Unit list, choose kPa.
4 On the Pressure (spf) toolbar, click Plot.
Velocity (spf) 1
This default plot shows the velocity magnitude in a 3D plot, obtained by a revolution
of the 2D axisymmetric data set, at the end of the simulation interval. Now proceed to
reproduce the velocity field plots in Figure 3.
Because the velocity magnitude is a quadratic expression in the basic velocity variables
it looks less smooth than the temperature plot. You can easily remedy the situation by
adjusting the Quality settings.
1 In the Model Builder window, expand the Velocity (spf) 1 node, then click Surface 1.
2 In the Settings window for Surface, click to expand the Quality section.
3 From the Resolution list, choose Fine.
4 On the Velocity (spf) 1 toolbar, click Plot to verify that the resolution is sufficient.
5 In the Model Builder window, click Velocity (spf) 1.
8 On the Velocity (spf) 1 toolbar, click Plot.
Compare with the left panel in Figure 3.

Compare with the middle panel in Figure 3.

Compare with the right panel in Figure 3.
15 |
1D Plot Group 7
To visualize the heating of the bulbs surface with time by plotting the temperature
at a point at the same vertical level as the filament, follow the steps below.
2 In the Settings window for 1D Plot Group, type Temperature vs Time in the Label
text field.
Point Graph 1
On the Temperature vs Time toolbar, click Point Graph.
Temperature vs Time
2 In the Settings window for Point Graph, click Replace Expression in the upper-right
corner of the y-axis data section. From the menu, choose Component 1>Heat
Transfer>Temperature>T - Temperature.
3 On the Temperature vs Time toolbar, click Plot.
Finally, study the radiative heat flux from the bulb. First plot the radiative heat flux
versus the vertical coordinate, z.
1D Plot Group 8
2 In the Settings window for 1D Plot Group, type Radiative Heat Flux along
z-Coordinate in the Label text field.
3 Locate the Data section. From the Time selection list, choose Last.
Line Graph 1
On the Radiative Heat Flux along z-Coordinate toolbar, click Line Graph.
Radiative Heat Flux along z-Coordinate

corner of the y-axis data section. From the menu, choose Component 1>Heat
Transfer>Boundary fluxes>ht.rflux - Radiative heat flux.

4 Locate the x-Axis Data section. From the Unit list, choose cm.
5 On the Radiative Heat Flux along z-Coordinate toolbar, click Plot.
16 |
Derived Values
You can readily compute the total radiative heat flux from the bulb at steady state as
follows.
Line Integration 1
Integration.
Derived Values
1 In the Settings window for Line Integration, locate the Data section.
2 From the Time selection list, choose Last.
the menu, choose Component 1>Heat Transfer>Boundary fluxes>ht.rflux - Radiative

heat flux.
5 Locate the Integration Settings section. Select the Compute surface integral check
box.
TA BL E
The result should be close to 45 W.
17 |
18 |
Heat Conduction with a Localized

Heat Source on a Disk
Introduction
This classical verification example solves the steady-state temperature distribution in a
plane disk heated by a localized heat source at its center. It shows and compares
different ways to define a heat source localized on a small domain by representing it
either as a geometrical point or as a small disk.
Both modelings have analytical solutions to which the obtained numerical results can
be compared. The results bring guidelines to select the suitable option depending on
the ratio of source to surrounding geometry typical size.
Model Definition
The model computes the temperature field on a cork disk of radius Rdisk = 0.1 m. A
fixed temperature T0 = 300 K is set on the disk boundary, and a heat source of total
power P = 1 W is applied on a small circular area (radius Rsource = 10-2 m) centered at
the origin.
T0
Rdisk
Rsource
P0 = 1 W
Figure 1: Geometry and boundary conditions.

The model configuration shows an axial symmetry which implies that the temperature
profile is only a function of the distance to the disks center. In cylindrical coordinates
it means that the temperature profile is a function of r only: T(r, ) = T(r, 0). Despite
the fact that this tutorial can be set up using a 1D axisymmetric geometry, defining it
1 |
HEAT CONDUCTION WITH A LOCALIZED HEAT SOURCE ON A DISK
in 2D makes its extension to non-axial symmetric cases easier. Recall that Cartesian
coordinates (x, ,y) and cylindrical coordinates (r, ) are related by:
2
r = x +y
y
= atan -------------------------------
2
2
x + x + y
In this document both coordinate systems are used jointly.
PUNCTUAL HEAT SOURCE MODEL
In order to simplify the geometry and to avoid high aspect ratio when Rsource is
significantly smaller than Rdisk, represent the source as a punctual source applied on
the origin point. This model corresponds to the following equation with a singular
source term, with the following formal formulation:
( k T ) = Q in the disk domain
on the disk boundary

T = T0
where k is the thermal conductivity, Q = P dz is the volumetric heat source, dz is the

out-of-plane thickness and is the Dirac distribution centered at the origin. The
solution of this equation is:
Q
r
T ( r ) = T 0 ---------- ln --------------
2k R disk
(1)
According to Equation 1, the temperature goes to when approaching the origin

(r = 0). This singularity is illustrated on Figure 2 where the temperature value increases
indefinitely when refining the mesh.
2 |
Figure 2: Distribution of relative temperature on the disk with a point heat source at the
center.
VO L U M E H E A T S O U R C E
You can also model the heat source explicitly and apply it on a disk of radius Rsource
around the origin. Then, the formulation of the problem to solve is:
( k T ) = f in the disk domain
T = T0
on the disk boundary
where f is a smoothed heat source distribution defined by
Q
----------------------2
f ( r ) = R source
if r < R source
if r R source
The analytical solution in this case is:
3 |
R source
Q 1 r2
- if r < R source
- 1 + ln ------------------ T 0 ---------- --- ------------------2
R disk
2k 2 R
source
T( r) =
Q
r
T 0 ---------- ln --------------
if r R source
2k R disk
The spatial extension of the heat source has a smoothing effect that removes the
singularity at the origin, as shown on Figure 3 for Rsource = 10-2 m:
Figure 3: Distribution of relative temperature on the disk with a volume heat source.
Equation 1 and Equation 2 show that the temperature profiles are identical for
r Rsource. The only difference is observed inside the source disk (r < Rsource), as
shown on Figure 4:
4 |
(2)
Figure 4: Analytical temperature distribution along a disk radius for punctual vs volume
source, for a source radius of 10-2 m.
Notes about the COMSOL implementation

COMSOL Multiphysics provides different options to model a localized heat source.
1 The source support can be defined as a geometrical point. In this case, use the Line
Heat Source (2D and 2D axisymmetric), Point Heat Source on Axis (2D axisymmetric)
or Point Heat Source (3D) features. This leads to a singularity in the temperature field
at the point where the source is applied. Numerically, the finer the mesh, the larger
the temperature variation. In general, the two alternatives described below should
be considered instead of this option, except for cases where a singular source is
needed.
2 The heat source definition described above can be modified so that COMSOL
Multiphysics accounts for the source size without needing a mesh nor a geometry
change. In Line Heat Source (2D and 2D axisymmetric), Point Heat Source on Axis
(2D axisymmetric) or Point Heat Source (3D) features, select the Specify heat source
radius check-box and set the Heat source radius to Rsource. Then the heat source is
automatically distributed over a disk in 2D (a torus in 2D axisymmetric or a sphere
5 |
in 3D) as illustrated by the black disk on the right image of Figure 5, even if the
mesh elements size is larger than Rsource.
3 If the size of the source is not too small compared to the surrounding geometry
details, then a domain representing the heat source can be drawn (see the disk of
radius Rsource on the left image of Figure 5) and a Heat Source feature can be defined
there. This option can be considered when the increase of the number of mesh
elements induced by the geometry change can be afforded.
Figure 5: Different mesh configurations: elements size smaller (left) and larger (right)
than the source radius. The source domain is delimited by a black circle at the center.

In this section, first take advantage of the simple geometrical configuration to verify
the accuracy of the different methods by comparing the numerical results with the
analytical solutions in the Numerical accuracy of the different methods subsection.
However in many practical cases, the use of the Heat Source feature is not an option
because of the prohibitive computational cost induced by the meshing of the heat
source domain. The accuracy of the Line Heat Source feature, with or without the
Specify heat source radius option is analyzed in the Coarse mesh case subsection.
Finally the results are summarized to define Guidelines for modeling a heat source
localized on a small domain.
NUMERICAL ACCURACY OF THE DIFFERENT METHODS
In order to check the accuracy of the Line Heat Source feature for a punctual heat
source, the mesh is gradually refined around the heat source, by lowering the
6 |
maximum size mh of the elements in the neighborhood of the origin from 10-2 m to
10-6 m.
Figure 6: Relative L2 error (punctual analytical vs numerical solution with Line Heat
Source feature) as a function of mesh refinement
Figure 6 shows that the relative L2 error diminishes with mesh refinement, which
validates the use of the Line Heat Source for this kind of problems.
7 |
The maximum temperature value obtained with different meshes, shown in Figure 7,
illustrates the temperature amplitude increase as the mesh size decreases.
Figure 7: Maximum temperature as a function of mesh refinement (numerical solution

for a punctual heat source)
A model with a volume source (Rsource = 10-2 m) is now considered and the
convergence of the numerical solution as the mesh is refined is investigated.
First, the Heat Source feature is used on the domain of radius Rsource, which has to be
explicitly drawn in the geometry. Figure 8 shows the very good agreement between
the computed temperature and the analytical solution.
8 |
Figure 8: Temperature distribution along a disk radius for a volume source, analytical
and numerical computations (Heat Source feature)
The accuracy of the Line Heat Source feature with Specify heat source radius checkbox
selected is verified using comparable mesh configurations on a geometry representing
the source as a point.
9 |
Figure 9: Temperature distribution along a disk radius for a volume source, analytical
and numerical solutions (Line Heat Source with Specify heat source radius check-box
selected)
Figure 9 shows the very good agreement between the analytical solution and the
temperature computed using the Line Heat Source feature with Specify heat source
radius checkbox selected.
10 |
Figure 10: Relative L2 error (volume source analytical vs numerical solution Line Heat
Source with Specify heat source radius check-box selected) as a function of mesh refinement
The convergence of the relative L2 error for fine mesh cases (mh 10-2 m) is shown
on Figure 10. This validates the accuracy of the Line Heat Source feature with Specify
heat source radius check-box selected.
COARSE MESH CASE
When the meshing of the heat source domain is not be affordable, the Heat Source
feature is not applicable any more. Low mesh resolution configurations are now
considered to compare the accuracy of the Line Heat Source feature, with or without
the Specify heat source radius.
11 |
Figure 11: Relative L2 error as a function of mesh size, using Line Heat Source feature
with Specify heat source radius check-box selected
The case mh = 0.06 m (first point in the top left corner) corresponds to the mesh
displayed on the right column of Figure 5, for which the circle of radius Rsource is
much smaller than the mesh element size. Even for this case, the relative L2 error
remains in an acceptable range (relative error less than 0.03).
12 |
To go further, the error on this very coarse mesh is compared for the two versions of
the Line Heat Source feature, namely with and without the Specify heat source radius
checkbox selected.
Figure 12: Temperature distribution along a disk radius for the two versions of the Line
Heat Source feature (with and without specified radius), on a coarse mesh (mh = 0.06 m)
Figure 12 shows that the error close to the heat source is greatly reduced by selecting
the Specify heat source radius checkbox.
GUIDELINES
This tutorial brings the following conclusions regarding the modeling of localized heat
sources with COMSOL Multiphysics.
If the heat source radius is large enough so that it can be drawn and meshed without
prohibitive computational cost, then the Heat Source feature is the best option. In other
cases, the Line Heat Source (2D and 2D axisymmetric), Point Heat Source on axis (2D
axisymmetric) or Point Heat Source (3D) features with Specify heat source radius
checkbox selected should be preferred. The Specify heat source radius checkbox is left
unselected only for cases where the source is intended to be singular.
13 |
The Line Heat Source with specified radius option appears therefore as an accurate
alternative to the punctual approach. In particular the temperature at the heat source
location converges to a finite value when the mesh is refined.

localized_heat_source
NEW

MODEL WIZARD

3 Click Add.
4 Click Study.
6 Click Done.
GLOBAL DEFINITIONS
Parameters
14 |

Name
Expression
Value
Description
R_disk
0.1[m]
0.1 m
Disk radius
R_source
0.01[m]
0.01 m
Source radius
T0
300[K]
300 K
Disk boundary
temperature
k_cork
0.042[W/(m*K)]
0.042 W/(mK)
cork
cp_cork
1.88[kJ/
(kg*K)]
1880 J/(kgK)
Heat capacity at
constant pressure, cork
rho_cork
150[kg/m^3]
150 kg/m
Density, cork
mh
0.01[m]
0.01 m
Mesh size parameter
Define an analytic function for the solution of the problem with a punctual heat
source.
Analytic 1 (an1)
2 In the Settings window for Analytic, locate the Definition section.
3 In the Expression text field, type -1/(2*pi*k_cork)*log(sqrt(x^2+y^2)/
R_disk) + T0.
4 In the Arguments text field, type x,y.

Argument
Lower limit
Upper limit
-R_disk
R_disk
-R_disk
R_disk
Define an analytic function for the solution of the problem with a volume heat
source.
Analytic 2 (an2)
2 In the Settings window for Analytic, locate the Definition section.
15 |
3 In the Expression text field, type if(sqrt(x^2+y^2)>R_source, (-1/

(2*pi*k_cork)*log(sqrt(x^2+y^2)/R_disk) + T0), (1/
(2*pi*k_cork)*(-(x^2+y^2)/(2*R_source^2)+0.5-log(R_source/
R_disk)) + T0)).
4 In the Arguments text field, type x,y.

Argument
Lower limit
Upper limit
-R_disk
R_disk
-R_disk
R_disk

The geometry consists of a circle and a point at the origin of the circle. This
geometry is suitable for the definition of either a punctual or a volume heat source
with the Line Heat Source feature.
GEOMETRY 1
Circle 1 (c1)
3 In the Radius text field, type R_disk.
Point 1 (pt1)
2 In the Model Builder window, right-click Point 1 (pt1) and choose Build All Objects.
Next, create a new material (Cork) for the disk, and define the needed properties.
MATERIALS
Material 1 (mat1)

2 In the Settings window for Material, type Cork in the Label text field.
16 |
Property
Name
Value
Unit
Property group
k_cork
W/
(mK)
Basic
Density
rho
rho_co
rk
kg/m
Basic

pressure
Cp
cp_cor
k
J/
(kgK)
Basic
Temperature 1
4 Locate the Temperature section. In the T0 text field, type T0.
As a first step, consider the case of a punctual heat source. Use the Line Heat Source
feature with default settings for that. You will disable this branch later when defining
a volume heat source.
Line Heat Source 1

1 On the Physics toolbar, click Points and choose Line Heat Source.
3 In the Settings window for Line Heat Source, locate the Line Heat Source section.
5 In the Pl text field, type 1.
Next, define a parameterized mesh that can be refined around the origin of the disk.
This way you can study the effect of mesh refinement on the heat source
computation without increasing too much the mesh size.
MESH 1

Size
17 |
Size 1
5 Locate the Element Size section. From the Predefined list, choose Coarse.
box.
8 In the associated text field, type mh.
Now, define integration and maximum operators on the whole domain, for
postprocessing.
DEFINITIONS
Maximum 1 (maxop1)
1 On the Definitions toolbar, click Component Couplings and choose Maximum.
2 In the Settings window for Maximum, locate the Source Selection section.
STUDY 1

2 In the Settings window for Study, type Study 1: Point Source in the Label text
field.
Parametric Sweep
On the Study toolbar, click Parametric Sweep.
18 |
STUDY 1: POINT SOURCE
Parametric Sweep
Define a parametric sweep on the maximum size of mesh elements in order to study
the effects of mesh refinement on the heat source computation.
2 Click Add.
Parameter name
Parameter unit
mh
4 Click Range.
5 In the Range dialog box, type -6 in the Start text field.
6 In the Step text field, type 0.5.
7 In the Stop text field, type -2.
8 From the Function to apply to all values list, choose exp10.
9 Click Replace.
Parameter name
Parameter unit
mh
10^{range(-6,0.5,-2)}

RESULTS
Temperature (ht)
The first default plot shows the temperature distribution in a 2D plot for mh = 10-2 m.
Proceed as follows to reproduce the plot of Figure 2 that corresponds to mh = 10-3 m.
1 In the Settings window for 2D Plot Group, type Temperature - Study 1 in the
Label text field.
2 Locate the Data section. From the Parameter value (mh (m)) list, choose 0.001.
3 On the Temperature - Study 1 toolbar, click Plot.
19 |
Temperature - Study 1
1 In the Model Builder window, expand the Results>Temperature - Study 1 node, then
click Surface 1.
4 Right-click Results>Temperature - Study 1>Surface 1 and choose Height Expression.
Then, proceed to reproduce the plot of Figure 6, by plotting the relative L2 error
between numerical and analytical solutions as a function of 1/mh, in order to check
numerical convergence.
1D Plot Group 3
2 In the Settings window for 1D Plot Group, type L2 Error from Analytical
Solution - Study 1 in the Label text field.
3 Locate the Data section. From the Data set list, choose Study 1: Point Source/
Parametric Solutions 1 (sol2).
Line Graph 1
On the L2 Error from Analytical Solution - Study 1 toolbar, click Line Graph.
L2 Error from Analytical Solution - Study 1

sqrt(intop1((T-an1(x,y))^2))/sqrt(intop1((T-T0)^2)).
5 In the Expression text field, type 1/mh.
From the Color list, choose Blue.

8 On the L2 Error from Analytical Solution - Study 1 toolbar, click Plot.
9 Click the x-Axis Log Scale button on the Graphics toolbar.
Next, plot the maximum temperature as a function of 1/mh, as in the plot of

Figure 7.
20 |
1D Plot Group 4
2 In the Settings window for 1D Plot Group, type Maximum Temperature - Study
1 in the Label text field.
3 Locate the Data section. From the Data set list, choose Study 1: Point Source/
Parametric Solutions 1 (sol2).
Line Graph 1
On the Maximum Temperature - Study 1 toolbar, click Line Graph.
Maximum Temperature - Study 1

3 Locate the y-Axis Data section. In the Expression text field, type maxop1(T).
6 Locate the Coloring and Style section. From the Color list, choose Blue.
8 On the Maximum Temperature - Study 1 toolbar, click Plot.
As a second step, consider the case of a volume heat source. Use the Line Heat Source
feature with the Specify heat source radius option selected, and the Heat source radius
set to a positive value.
Line Heat Source 2

1 On the Physics toolbar, click Points and choose Line Heat Source.
3 In the Settings window for Line Heat Source, locate the Line Heat Source section.
5 In the Pl text field, type 1.
6 Locate the Heat Source Radius section. Select the Specify heat source radius check
box.
21 |
7 In the R text field, type R_source.
In the next steps, configure Study 1 to use Line Heat Source 1 and create a second
study that uses Line Heat Source 2.
ST UDY 1: PO INT S OURCE
Step 1: Stationary
1 In the Model Builder window, under Study 1: Point Source click Step 1: Stationary.
section.
in Solids (ht)>Line Heat Source 2.
5 Click Disable.
ADD STUDY
STUDY 2
Step 1: Stationary
section.
6 Click Disable.
Again, define a parametric sweep on the maximum size of mesh elements in order
to study the effects of mesh refinement on the heat source computation.
22 |
8 In the Settings window for Study, type Study 2: Point Source with Radius in
Parametric Sweep
STUDY 2: POINT SOURCE WITH RADIUS
Parametric Sweep
2 Click Add.
Parameter name
Parameter unit
mh
4 Click Range.
5 In the Range dialog box, type -6 in the Start text field.
7 In the Stop text field, type -2.
8 From the Function to apply to all values list, choose exp10.
9 Click Replace.
Parameter name
Parameter unit
mh
10^{range(-6,0.5,-2)}

RESULTS
Temperature (ht)
Proceed as follows to reproduce the plot in Figure 3.
Label text field.
2 Locate the Data section. From the Parameter value (mh (m)) list, choose 0.001.
23 |
Temperature - Study 2
1 In the Model Builder window, expand the Results>Temperature - Study 2 node, then
click Surface 1.
4 Right-click Results>Temperature - Study 2>Surface 1 and choose Height Expression.
Plot the analytical solutions of the two problems (punctual and volume heat
sources) along a disk radius, to reproduce the plot of Figure 4.
Cut Line 2D 1
Data Sets
1 In the Settings window for Cut Line 2D, locate the Data section.
2 From the Data set list, choose Study 2: Point Source with Radius/Parametric Solutions
2 (sol13).
3 Locate the Line Data section. In row Point 2, set x to R_disk.
1D Plot Group 7
2 In the Settings window for 1D Plot Group, type Analytical Solutions, Point
Source with/without Radius in the Label text field.
4 From the Parameter selection (mh) list, choose First.
Line Graph 1
On the Analytical Solutions, Point Source with/without Radius toolbar, click Line Graph.
Analytical Solutions, Point Source with/without Radius

2 In the Expression text field, type an1(x,y).
3 Locate the Coloring and Style section. In the Width text field, type 3.
24 |

Legends
Temperature, point source
7 In the Model Builder window, click Analytical Solutions, Point Source with/without
Radius.
Line Graph 2
On the Analytical Solutions, Point Source with/without Radius toolbar, click Line Graph.
Analytical Solutions, Point Source with/without Radius

Legends
Temperature, point source with specified radius
7 On the Analytical Solutions, Point Source with/without Radius toolbar, click Plot.
Next, proceed to reproduce the plot of Figure 9, by plotting the temperature

distribution for numerical and analytical solutions along a disk radius, for
mh = 10-2 m.
1D Plot Group 8
2 In the Settings window for 1D Plot Group, type Temperature vs Radius - Study
4 From the Parameter selection (mh) list, choose Last.
Line Graph 1
On the Temperature vs Radius - Study 2 toolbar, click Line Graph.
Temperature vs Radius - Study 2

1 In the Settings window for Line Graph, locate the Coloring and Style section.
25 |
2 Find the Line style subsection. From the Line list, choose None.
3 Find the Line markers subsection. From the Marker list, choose Circle.
Legends
Numerical, mh = 0.01
8 In the Model Builder window, click Temperature vs Radius - Study 2.
Line Graph 2

Legends
Analytical
7 On the Temperature vs Radius - Study 2 toolbar, click Plot.
Proceed to reproduce the plot of Figure 10, by plotting the relative L2 error
between numerical and analytical solutions as a function of mesh size parameter 1/
mh, to check numerical convergence.
1D Plot Group 9
3 Locate the Data section. From the Data set list, choose Study 2: Point Source with
Radius/Parametric Solutions 2 (sol13).
26 |
Line Graph 1

Next, proceed to reproduce the plot of Figure 12, by plotting the absolute value of
the error along a disk radius between each numerical solution and the analytical one
for a volume heat source, for mh = 10-2 m.
Cut Line 2D 2
Data Sets
2 From the Data set list, choose Study 1: Point Source/Parametric Solutions 1 (sol2).
1D Plot Group 10
Solutions - Study 1 and Study 2 in the Label text field.
Line Graph 1
On the L1 Error from Analytical Solutions - Study 1 and Study 2 toolbar, click Line Graph.
27 |
L1 Error from Analytical Solutions - Study 1 and Study 2

2 In the Expression text field, type abs(T-an2(x,y)).
Legends
Point source without specified radius
7 In the Model Builder window, click L1 Error from Analytical Solutions - Study 1 and
Study 2.
Line Graph 2
On the L1 Error from Analytical Solutions - Study 1 and Study 2 toolbar, click Line Graph.
L1 Error from Analytical Solutions - Study 1 and Study 2

2 From the Data set list, choose Cut Line 2D 1.
4 Locate the y-Axis Data section. In the Expression text field, type abs(T-an2(x,y)).
Legends
Point source with specified radius
9 On the L1 Error from Analytical Solutions - Study 1 and Study 2 toolbar, click Plot.
Now, define a new mesh that is not refined any more at the origin of the disk, but
is parameterized to be coarsened instead, with parameter mh.
COMPONENT 1 (COMP1)
Mesh 2
On the Mesh toolbar, click Add Mesh.
28 |
MESH 2
Use the parameter mh to control the maximum and minimum size of the mesh
elements.
Size
1 In the Model Builder window, under Component 1 (comp1)>Meshes>Mesh 2 click Size.
4 Locate the Element Size Parameters section. In the Maximum element size text field,
type mh.
5 In the Minimum element size text field, type mh.
Define a new study corresponding to the problem with a volume source on a coarse
mesh.
ADD STUDY
STUDY 3
Step 1: Stationary
section.
29 |
6 Click Disable.
Define a parametric sweep on the size of mesh elements in order to check that the
heat source is still well approximated on coarse meshes.
8 In the Settings window for Study, type Study 3: Point Source with Radius,
Coarse Mesh in the Label text field.
Parametric Sweep
ST UDY 3: PO INT S OURCE W IT H RADIUS , COARSE MESH
Parametric Sweep
2 Click Add.
Parameter name
Parameter unit
mh
4 Click Range.
5 In the Range dialog box, type 0.01 in the Start text field.
7 In the Stop text field, type 0.06.
8 Click Replace.
Parameter name
Parameter unit
mh
range(0.01,0.012,0.06)

RESULTS
Temperature (ht)
Proceed as follows to reproduce the plots for mesh configurations in Figure 5.
30 |
1 In the Settings window for 2D Plot Group, type Mesh Resolution - Study 3 in
Mesh Resolution - Study 3

1 In the Model Builder window, expand the Results>Mesh Resolution - Study 3 node,
then click Surface 1.

3 From the Coloring list, choose Uniform.
4 Select the Wireframe check box.
5 In the Model Builder window, right-click Mesh Resolution - Study 3 and choose
Contour.
7 In the Expression text field, type sqrt(x^2+y^2).
8 Locate the Levels section. From the Entry method list, choose Levels.
9 In the Levels text field, type R_source.
10 Locate the Coloring and Style section. From the Contour type list, choose Tube.
11 From the Coloring list, choose Uniform.
13 Clear the Color legend check box.
14 On the Mesh Resolution - Study 3 toolbar, click Plot.
Now change the mesh resolution to a finer configuration.

16 In the Model Builder window, click Mesh Resolution - Study 3.
18 From the Parameter value (mh (m)) list, choose 0.01.
19 On the Mesh Resolution - Study 3 toolbar, click Plot.
Next, proceed to reproduce the plot of Figure 11, by plotting the relative L2 error
between numerical and analytical solutions as a function of 1/mh, to check
numerical convergence.
1D Plot Group 13
31 |
3 Locate the Data section. From the Data set list, choose Study 3: Point Source with
Radius, Coarse Mesh/Parametric Solutions 3 (sol24).
Line Graph 1

As a last step, you can check that the computation of a volume heat source can also
be performed by using the Heat Source feature. In order to do that, you need to
include a smaller circle of radius R_source into the geometry, and to change the
physics branch. Define a new component to include these changes and keep this step
separated from the previous ones.
ROOT

GEOMETRY 2
Import the previously defined geometry, and complete it with the circle of radius
R_source.
Import 1 (imp1)
4 From the Geometry list, choose Geometry 1.
5 Click Import.
32 |
Circle 1 (c1)
3 In the Radius text field, type R_source.
This time, use the Heat Source feature to apply the source in the domain delimited
by the circle of radius R_source. This replaces the use of the Line Heat Source feature
in previous steps.
ADD PHYSICS
settings:
Studies
Solve
Study 1: Point Source

Study 2: Point Source with Radius
Study 3: Point Source with Radius, Coarse Mesh
Temperature 1
Heat Source 1
33 |
Define the same material as before.

MATERIALS
Material 2 (mat2)

2 In the Settings window for Material, type Cork in the Label text field.
Property
Name
Value
Unit
Property group
k_cork
W/
(mK)
Basic
Density
rho
rho_co
rk
kg/m
Basic

pressure
Cp
cp_cor
k
J/
(kgK)
Basic
You can visualize the mesh generated by default for this new geometry.
MESH 3
choose Build All.

Add a new study for the computation of the volume heat source with the Heat Source
feature.
ADD STUDY
settings:
Physics
Solve

34 |
STUDY 4
Step 1: Stationary
3 In the Settings window for Study, type Study 4: Surface Source in the Label text
field.
RESULTS
Temperature (ht2)
Label text field.
Finally, proceed to reproduce the plot of Figure 8, by plotting the temperature

distribution for numerical and analytical solutions along a disk radius.
Cut Line 2D 3
Data Sets
2 From the Data set list, choose Study 4: Surface Source/Solution 30 (8) (sol30).
1D Plot Group 16
2 In the Settings window for 1D Plot Group, type Temperature vs Radius - Study
Line Graph 1

1 In the Settings window for Line Graph, locate the Coloring and Style section.
35 |

Legends
Numerical
8 In the Model Builder window, click Temperature vs Radius - Study 4.
Line Graph 2

Legends
Analytical
7 On the Temperature vs Radius - Study 4 toolbar, click Plot.
36 |
M a r a ng o ni E f f ec t
Introduction
Marangoni convection occurs when the surface tension of an interface (generally
liquid-air) depends on the concentration of a species or on the temperature
distribution. In the case of temperature dependence, the Marangoni effect is also called
thermo-capillary convection. It is of primary importance in the fields of:
Welding
Crystal growth
Electron beam melting of metals
Direct experimental studies are not easy to carry out in these systems because the
materials are often metals and temperatures are very high. One possibility is to replace
the real system with an experimental setup using a transparent liquid at ambient
temperatures.
Model Definition
This tutorial describes the 2D stationary behavior of a vessel filled with silicone oil, for
which the thermo-physical properties are known. The aim of the study is to compute
the temperature field that induces a flow through the Marangoni effect. The model
shows this effect using the simple geometry in the figure below.
Free surface
T = T
Silicone oil
T=0
Insulation
GOVERNING EQUATIONS
A stationary momentum balance equation describes the velocity field and the pressure
distribution (Navier-Stokes equations, see Incompressible Flow). To include the
heating of the fluid, the fluid flow is coupled to an energy balance.
1 |
MARANGONI EFFECT
You can use the Boussinesq approximation to include the effect of temperature on the
velocity field. In this approximation, variations in temperature produce a buoyancy
force (or Archimedes force) that lifts the fluid. Enter this force into the F source term
representing external forces per unit volume (N/m3) in the Navier-Stokes equation as
F
0
F = x = g ( T T )
F y
p
ref
where g is the acceleration due to gravity (m/s2), p is the coefficient of thermal
expansion (1/K), T is the temperature (K) and Tref is the reference temperature at
which has been measured.
The following equation describes the forces that the Marangoni effect induces on the
interface (liquid/air):
u
T
------ = ------y
x
(1)
Here is the temperature derivative of the surface tension (N/(mK)). Equation 1

states that the shear stress on a surface is proportional to the temperature gradient
(Ref. 1).

To solve the momentum and energy balance equations, use the predefined
Non-Isothermal Flow multiphysics coupling. It automatically couples a Laminar Flow
interface for the fluid flow to a Heat Transfer in Fluids interface for the heat transfer
by convection and conduction in each direction:
The Boussinesq approximation means that an expression including temperature acts
as a force in the y direction in the momentum balance.
The convective heat transfer depends on the velocities from the momentum balance.
This means that you must solve the coupled system directly using the nonlinear solver.
To impose the condition that the shear stress is proportional to the temperature
gradient on the surface, use the Marangoni Effect multiphysics feature in the
Multiphysics node.
2 |
MARANGONI EFFECT
Results
The Marangoni effect becomes more pronounced as the temperature difference
increases:
Figure 1: Marangoni convection with a temperature difference of 0.001 K.

For the very low temperature difference of 0.001 K, the temperature field is almost
decoupled from the velocity field. Therefore, the temperature decreases almost linearly
from left to right.
3 |
MARANGONI EFFECT
Figure 2: Marangoni convection with a temperature difference of 0.05 K.

For the temperature difference of 0.05 K notice how the Marangoni convection
influences the flow of fluid and the distribution of temperature. The temperature is no
longer decreasing linearly and you can clearly see the advection of the isotherms caused
by the flow.
4 |
MARANGONI EFFECT
Figure 3: Marangoni convection with a temperature difference of 2 K.

At higher temperature differences (2 K in Figure 3 above), the physical coupling
between the temperature and the velocity field is clearly visible. The heat conduction
is small compared to the convection, and at the surface the fluid accelerates where the
temperature gradient is high.
Reference
1. V.G. Levich, Physicochemical Hydrodynamics, Prentice-Hall, N.J., 1962.

Tutorials,_Forced_and_Natural_Convection/marangoni_effect
5 |
MARANGONI EFFECT
NEW

MODEL WIZARD

2 In the Select physics tree, select Fluid Flow>Non-Isothermal Flow>Laminar Flow.
3 Click Add.
4 Click Study.
6 Click Done.
GEOMETRY 1
Rectangle 1 (r1)
3 In the Width text field, type 10[mm].
4 In the Height text field, type 5[mm].
GLOBAL DEFINITIONS
Parameters
marangoni_effect_parameters.txt.
DEFINITIONS
Variables 1
6 |
MARANGONI EFFECT

Name
Expression
Unit
Description
deltaT
T-T_right
Excess temperature in
model domain
This variable is useful when visualizing the model results.

MATERIALS
Material 1 (mat1)

2 In the Settings window for Material, type Silicone Oil in the Label text field.
Property
Name
Value
Unit
Property group
Dynamic viscosity
mu
mu1
Pas
Basic
k1
W/
(mK)
Basic
Density
rho
rho1
kg/m
Basic
Cp
Cp1
J/(kgK)
Basic
gamma
Basic
LAMINAR FLOW (SPF)
Volume Force 1
0
rho1*g_const*alphap1*(T-T_ref)
Here, T_ref is the reference temperature at which the material properties are
evaluated. It is defined in Parameters under Global Definitions.
Wall 2
7 |
MARANGONI EFFECT

4 From the Boundary condition list, choose Slip.

Initial Values 1

3 In the T text field, type T_right.
Temperature 1
4 In the T0 text field, type T_right.
Temperature 2
4 In the T0 text field, type T_right+DeltaT.
MULTIPHYSICS
and choose Marangoni Effect.

3 In the Settings window for Marangoni Effect, locate the Surface Tension section.
4 In the text field, type gamma*T.
8 |
MARANGONI EFFECT
MESH 1
Free Triangular 1
Free Triangular.
Size 1
box.
Size 2
4 Select Points 2 and 4 only.
box.
Size
5 Locate the Element Size Parameters section. In the Maximum element growth rate text
field, type 1.1.

9 |
MARANGONI EFFECT
STUDY 1
Parametric Sweep
3 Click Add.
Parameter name
DeltaT
1e-3 0.05 2
Parameter unit

RESULTS
Velocity (spf)
To show the temperature field as a surface plot along with overlaid temperature
contours and the velocity field using arrows, follow the steps given below.

1 In the Model Builder window, under Results click Isothermal Contours (ht).
3 From the Parameter value (DeltaT) list, choose 0.001.
4 In the Model Builder window, expand the Isothermal Contours (ht) node, then click
Contour 1.
corner of the Expression section. From the menu, choose Component

1>Definitions>Variables>deltaT - Excess temperature in model domain.
6 Locate the Coloring and Style section. From the Coloring list, choose Uniform.
7 Right-click Results>Isothermal Contours (ht)>Contour 1 and choose Arrow Surface.
8 Right-click Isothermal Contours (ht) and choose Surface.
of the Expression section. From the menu, choose Component

1>Definitions>Variables>deltaT - Excess temperature in model domain.
10 On the Isothermal Contours (ht) toolbar, click Plot.
10 |
MARANGONI EFFECT
The Marangoni effect becomes more pronounced as the temperature difference

increases. Visualize this by changing the Parameter value selection.
12 In the Model Builder window, click Isothermal Contours (ht).
14 From the Parameter value (DeltaT) list, choose 0.05.
17 From the Parameter value (DeltaT) list, choose 2.
11 |
MARANGONI EFFECT
12 |
MARANGONI EFFECT
Microwave Heating of a Cancer

Tumor
Introduction
Electromagnetic heating appears in a wide range of engineering problems and is ideally
suited for modeling in COMSOL Multiphysics because of its multiphysics capabilities.
This example comes from the area of hyperthermic oncology and it models the
electromagnetic field coupled to the bioheat equation. The modeling issues and
techniques are generally applicable to any problem involving electromagnetic heating.
In hyperthermic oncology, cancer is treated by applying localized heating to the tumor
tissue, often in combination with chemotherapy or radiotherapy. Some of the
challenges associated with the selective heating of deep-seated tumors without
damaging surrounding tissue are:
Control of heating power and spatial distribution
Design and placement of temperature sensors
Among possible heating techniques, RF and microwave heating have attracted much
attention from clinical researchers. Microwave coagulation therapy is one such
technique where a thin microwave antenna is inserted into the tumor. The microwaves
heat up the tumor, producing a coagulated region where the cancer cells are killed.
This model computes the temperature field, the radiation field, and the specific
absorption rate (SAR)defined as the ratio of absorbed heat power and tissue
densityin liver tissue when using a thin coaxial slot antenna for microwave
coagulation therapy. It closely follows the analysis found in Ref. 1. It computes the
temperature distribution in the tissue using the bioheat equation.
Note: This application requires the RF Module and the Heat Transfer Module.
Model Definition
Figure 1 shows the antenna geometry. It consists of a thin coaxial cable with a
ring-shaped slot measuring 1 mm cut on the outer conductor 5 mm from the
1 |
M I C R O W A V E H E A T I N G O F A C A N C E R TU M O R
short-circuited tip. For hygienic purposes, the antenna is enclosed in a sleeve (catheter)
made of PTFE (polytetrafluoroethylene). The following tables give the relevant
geometrical dimensions and material data. The antenna operates at 2.45 GHz, a
frequency widely used in microwave coagulation therapy.
TABLE 1: DIMENSIONS OF THE COAXIAL SLOT ANTENNA.
PROPERTY
VALUE
Diameter of the central conductor
0.29 mm
Inner diameter of the outer conductor
0.94 mm
Outer diameter of the outer conductor
1.19 mm
Diameter of catheter
1.79 mm
TABLE 2: MATERIAL PROPERTIES.

PROPERTY
INNER DIELECTRIC OF
COAXIAL CABLE
CATHETER
2.03
2.60
Conductivity
2 |
LIVER TISSUE
43.03
1.69 S/m
1.79 mm
Feed
Conductor
Dielectric
Coaxial antenna
Catheter
Liver tissue
1.0 mm
Slot
5.0 mm
2D cross section
Figure 1: Antenna geometry for microwave coagulation therapy. A coaxial cable with a
ring-shaped slot cut on the outer conductor is short-circuited at the tip. A plastic catheter
surrounds the antenna.
The model takes advantage of the problems rotational symmetry, which allows
modeling in 2D using cylindrical coordinates as indicated in Figure 2. When modeling
in 2D, you can select a fine mesh and achieve excellent accuracy. The model uses a
3 |
frequency-domain problem formulation with the complex-valued azimuthal

component of the magnetic field as the unknown.
z
r
Computational domain
Figure 2: The computational domain appears as a rectangle in the rz-plane.

The radial and axial extent of the computational domain is in reality larger than
indicated in Figure 2. This problem does not model the interior of the metallic
conductors, and it models metallic parts using boundary conditions, setting the
tangential component of the electric field to zero.
DOMAIN AND BOUNDARY EQUATIONSELECTROMAGNETICS
An electromagnetic wave propagating in a coaxial cable is characterized by transverse

electromagnetic fields (TEM). Assuming time-harmonic fields with complex
amplitudes containing the phase information, the appropriate equations are
C
E = e r ---- e j ( t kz )
r
C
H = e ------- e j ( t kz )
rZ
r outer
P av =
r outer
*
1
C2
Re --- E H 2r dr = e z ------- ln --------------
Z
r inner
2
inner
where z is the direction of propagation, and r, , and z are cylindrical coordinates

centered on the axis of the coaxial cable. Pav is the time-averaged power flow in the
cable, Z is the wave impedance in the dielectric of the cable, while rinner and router are
4 |
the dielectrics inner and outer radii, respectively. Further, denotes the angular
frequency. The propagation constant, k, relates to the wavelength in the medium, , as
2
k = -----
In the tissue, the electric field also has a finite axial component whereas the magnetic
field is purely in the azimuthal direction. Thus, you can model the antenna using an
axisymmetric transverse magnetic (TM) formulation. The wave equation then
becomes scalar in H:
2
j 1
r --------- H r k 0 H = 0
The boundary conditions for the metallic surfaces are

nE = 0
The feed point is modeled using a port boundary condition with a power level set to
10 W. This is essentially a first-order low-reflecting boundary condition with an input
field H0:
n E H = 2 H 0
where
H 0
P av Z
-------------------------------r outer
r ln ------------- r inner
= ------------------------------------r
for an input power of Pav deduced from the time-average power flow.
The antenna radiates into the tissue where a damped wave propagates. Because you can
discretize only a finite region, you must truncate the geometry some distance from the
antenna using a similar absorbing boundary condition without excitation. Apply this
boundary condition to all exterior boundaries.
D O M A I N A N D B O U N D A R Y E Q U A T I O N S H E A T TR A N S F E R
The bioheat equation describes the time-dependent heat transfer problem as

C p
T
+ ( k T ) = b C b b ( T b T ) + Q met + Q ext
t
5 |
where k is the livers thermal conductivity (W/(mK)), b represents the blood density
(kg/m3), Cb is the bloods specific heat capacity (J/(kgK)), b denotes the blood
perfusion rate (1/s), and Tb is the arterial blood temperature (K). Further, Qmet is the
heat source from metabolism, and Qext is an external heat source, both measured in
W/m3.
The initial temperature equals Tb in all domains.
This model neglects the heat source from metabolism. The external heat source is
equal to the resistive heat generated by the electromagnetic field:
1
*
Q ext = --- Re [ ( j )E E ]
2
The model assumes that the blood perfusion rate is b = 0.0036 s-1, and that the blood
enters the liver at the body temperature Tb = 37 C and is heated to a temperature, T.
The bloods specific heat capacity is Cb = 3639 J/(kgK).
For a more realistic model, you might consider letting b be a function of the
temperature. At least for external body parts such as hands and feet, it is evident that
a temperature increase results in an increased blood flow.
This example models the heat-transfer problem only in the liver domain. Where this
domain is truncated, it uses insulation, that is
n T = 0
In addition to the heat transfer equation, this model computes the tissue damage
integral. This gives an idea about the degree of tissue injury during the process,
based on the Arrhenius equation:
d
dE
= A exp --------
dt
RT
where A is the frequency factor (s-1) and dE is the activation energy for irreversible
damage reaction (J/mol). These two parameters are dependent on the type of tissue.
The fraction of necrotic tissue, d, is then expressed by:
d = 1 exp ( )
6 |

Figure 3 shows the resulting steady-state temperature distribution in the liver tissue for
an input microwave power of 10 W. The temperature is highest near the antenna. It
then decreases with distance from the antenna and reaches 37 C closer to the outer
boundaries of the computational domain. The perfusion of relatively cold blood seems
to limit the extent of the area that is heated.
Figure 3: Temperature in the liver tissue.

Figure 4 shows the distribution of the microwave heat source. Clearly the temperature
field follows the heat-source distribution quite well. That is, near the antenna the heat
source is strong, which leads to high temperatures, while far from the antenna, the heat
source is weaker and the blood manages to keep the tissue at normal body
temperature.
7 |
Figure 4: The computed microwave heat-source density takes on its highest values near the
tip and the slot. The scale is cut off at 1 W/cm3.
Figure 5 plots the specific absorption rate (SAR) along a line parallel to the antenna
and at a distance of 2.5 mm from the antenna axis. The results are in good agreement
8 |
with those found in Ref. 1.
Figure 5: SAR in W/kg along a line parallel to the antenna and at a distance 2.5 mm
from the antenna axis. The tip of the antenna is located at 70 mm, and the slot is at
65 mm.
9 |
You can visualize the fraction of necrotic tissue in the surface plot of Figure 6.
Figure 6: Fraction of necrotic tissue.
10 |
Figure 7 shows the fraction of necrotic tissue at four different point of the domain.
Observe that necrosis happens faster at the antenna area.
Figure 7: Fraction of necrotic tissue at four points of the domain.
Reference
1. K. Saito, T. Taniguchi, H. Yoshimura, and K. Ito, Estimation of SAR Distribution
of a Tip-Split Array Applicator for Microwave Coagulation Therapy Using the Finite
Element Method, IEICE Trans. Electronics, vol. E84-C, 7, pp. 948954, July 2001.
Application Library path: Heat_Transfer_Module/Medical_Technology/

microwave_cancer_therapy
11 |
NEW

MODEL WIZARD

2 In the Select physics tree, select Radio Frequency>Electromagnetic Waves, Frequency
Domain (emw).
3 Click Add.
4 In the Select physics tree, select Heat Transfer>Bioheat Transfer (ht).
5 Click Add.
6 Click Study.
7 In the Select study tree, select Custom Studies>Preset Studies for Some Physics
Interfaces>Frequency Domain.
The frequency domain study is for the electromagnetic part of the model. You add
a transient analysis for the heat transfer part before solving.
8 Click Done.
GEOMETRY 1
Import 1 (imp1)
3 Click Browse.
microwave_cancer_therapy.mphbin.
5 Click Import.
Form Union (fin)

In the Model Builder window, under Component 1 (comp1)>Geometry 1 right-click Form
Union (fin) and choose Build Selected.
GLOBAL DEFINITIONS
Parameters
The relevant material properties and other model data are provided in a text file.
12 |

microwave_cancer_therapy_parameters.txt.
ADD MATERIAL
3 In the tree, select Bioheat>Liver.
MATERIALS
Liver (mat1)
1 In the Model Builder window, under Component 1 (comp1)>Materials click Liver
(mat1).
Property
Name
Value
Unit
Property group
epsilonr
eps_liver
Basic
mur
Basic
sigma
sigma_liver
S/m
Basic
The remaining materials take part only in the RF simulation, making any definitions
of their thermal properties redundant.
Material 2 (mat2)

2 In the Settings window for Material, type Catheter in the Label text field.
Property
Name
Value
Unit
Property group
epsilonr
eps_cat
Basic
13 |
Property
Name
Value
Unit
Property group
mur
Basic
sigma
S/m
Basic
Material 3 (mat3)
2 In the Settings window for Material, type Dielectric in the Label text field.
Property
Name
Value
Unit
Property group
epsilonr
eps_diel
Basic
mur
Basic
sigma
S/m
Basic
ADD MATERIAL

MATERIALS
Air (mat4)
The bioheat equation applies only in the liver tissue.

E LE C TROM A GN E TI C WAVES , FRE QU E NC Y D OM AI N ( EM W )
1 In the Model Builder window, under Component 1 (comp1) click Electromagnetic

Waves, Frequency Domain (emw).
2 In the Settings window for Electromagnetic Waves, Frequency Domain, click to
expand the Equation section.

3 From the Equation form list, choose Frequency domain.
14 |
4 From the Frequency list, choose User defined. In the f text field, type f.
Because you will use a study with a Frequency Domain step for a single frequency
followed by a Time Dependent step, this is a convenient way to define the frequency
in the second study step.
Port 1
1 On the Physics toolbar, click Boundaries and choose Port.
3 In the Settings window for Port, locate the Port Properties section.
4 From the Type of port list, choose Coaxial.
5 From the Wave excitation at this port list, choose On.
6 In the Pin text field, type P_in.
Scattering Boundary Condition 1

1 On the Physics toolbar, click Boundaries and choose Scattering Boundary Condition.
B I O H E A T TR A N S F E R ( H T )
1 In the Model Builder window, under Component 1 (comp1) click Bioheat Transfer (ht).
2 In the Settings window for Bioheat Transfer, locate the Domain Selection section.
Biological Tissue 1
Biological Tissue 1.
2 In the Settings window for Biological Tissue, locate the Damaged Tissue section.
3 Select the Include damage integral analysis check box.
4 From the Damage integral form list, choose Energy absorption.
Bioheat 1
1 In the Model Builder window, expand the Biological Tissue 1 node, then click Bioheat
1.
2 In the Settings window for Bioheat, locate the Bioheat section.
3 In the Tb text field, type T_blood.
4 In the b text field, type rho_blood.
15 |
5 In the Cb text field, type Cp_blood.

6 In the b text field, type omega_blood.
You have now supplied all the parameters needed for the heat removal by the blood
perfusion.
Initial Values 1
Initial Values 1.
3 In the T text field, type T_blood.
MULTIPHYSICS
and choose Electromagnetic Heat Source.

2 In the Settings window for Electromagnetic Heat Source, locate the Domain
Selection section.
This brings the heat created by the electromagnetic waves to the heat transfer
simulation.
MESH 1
Free Triangular.
Size
4 Locate the Element Size Parameters section. In the Maximum element size text field,
type 3[mm].
Size 1
16 |

box.
7 In the associated text field, type 0.15[mm].
The mesh is now reasonably fine everywhere, and especially fine in the coaxial cable,
where the wave is created.
STUDY 1

3 In the Frequencies text field, type f.
settings:
Physics interface
Solve for
Discretization
Bioheat Transfer (ht)
physics
Add a transient analysis for the heat transfer problem.
Time Dependent

3 In the Times text field, type range(0,15[s],10).
settings:
Physics interface
Solve for
Electromagnetic Waves, Frequency

Domain (emw)
Discretization
physics
17 |
RESULTS

You have now solved the model first for the electromagnetic wave distribution, then
for the temperature distribution resulting from the electromagnetic heating. Such a
sequential solution is faster and consumes less memory than a fully coupled analysis,
but works only if the material properties do not depend on the temperature.
The default plot shows the distribution of the electric field norm. The range is
dominated by the locally very high values in and in the near vicinity of the coaxial cable.
One way to get a more useful picture is to plot the logarithm of the field.
1 In the Model Builder window, expand the Electric Field (emw) node, then click Surface
1.
3 In the Expression text field, type log10(comp1.emw.normE).
The local heating power density is an important result of this model. As it is

proportional to the electric field squared, this entity is also going to have a very
18 |
uneven distribution. Manually specifying the range is another option to keep the
plot readable.
the menu, choose Model>Component 1>Electromagnetic Waves, Frequency

Domain>Heating and losses>emw.Qh - Total power dissipation density.
8 Click to expand the Range section. Select the Manual color range check box.
9 In the Maximum text field, type 1e6.
Any values greater than 1 MW/m3 are now displayed as red.

If you divide the power loss density with the density of the liver tissue, you get the
SAR. Try plotting this on a vertical line some distance away from the antenna. Take
the liver density to be the same as that of blood.
Cut Line 2D 1
Data Sets
2 In row Point 1, set r to 2.5e-3.
4 In row Point 2, set r to 2.5e-3.
1D Plot Group 4
2 In the Settings window for 1D Plot Group, type Qh/rho vs Arc Length in the
Label text field.
Line Graph 1
On the Qh/rho vs Arc Length toolbar, click Line Graph.
Qh/rho vs Arc Length

2 In the Expression text field, type emw.Qh/rho_blood.
19 |
3 On the Qh/rho vs Arc Length toolbar, click Plot.

The plot you just created should look like Figure 5.
Derived Values
To evaluate the total deposited power, integrate the power loss in the liver domain.
Integration.
Derived Values
1 In the Settings window for Surface Integration, locate the Data section.
the menu, choose Model>Component 1>Electromagnetic Waves, Frequency

Domain>Heating and losses>emw.Qh - Total power dissipation density.
5 Locate the Integration Settings section. Select the Compute volume integral check
box.
TABLE
The value of 9.35 W indicates that the tissue absorbs most of the 10 W input power.
RESULTS
Create a new plot group for the surface plot of the temperature in the tissue (Figure 3).
2D Plot Group 5
2 In the Settings window for 2D Plot Group, type Temperature, 2D in the Label text
field.
Temperature, 2D
1 Right-click Temperature, 2D and choose Surface.
of the Expression section. From the menu, choose Model>Component 1>Bioheat

Transfer>Temperature>T - Temperature.
20 |
5 On the Temperature, 2D toolbar, click Plot.
Click the Zoom Extents button on the Graphics toolbar.
2D Plot Group 6
Generate a plot to show the fraction of necrotic tissue in 2D.

2 In the Settings window for 2D Plot Group, type Damaged Tissue, 2D in the Label
text field.
Damaged Tissue, 2D
1 Right-click Damaged Tissue, 2D and choose Surface.
of the Expression section. From the menu, choose Model>Component 1>Bioheat

Transfer>Biological tissue>ht.theta_d - Fraction of necrotic tissue.
3 Click to expand the Quality section. From the Resolution list, choose No refinement.
4 On the Damaged Tissue, 2D toolbar, click Plot.
Cut Point 2D 1
Data Sets
2 In the r text field, type ge(0.0050,0.0050,0.02).
3 In the z text field, type 2e-2.
4 In the r text field, type range(0.0050,0.0050,0.02).
1D Plot Group 7
2 In the Settings window for 1D Plot Group, type Temperature, 1D in the Label text
field.
21 |
Point Graph 1
On the Temperature, 1D toolbar, click Point Graph.
Temperature, 1D
1>Bioheat Transfer>Temperature>T - Temperature.
2 On the Temperature, 1D toolbar, click Plot.
1D Plot Group 8
2 In the Settings window for 1D Plot Group, type Damaged Tissue, 1D in the Label
text field.
Point Graph 1
On the Damaged Tissue, 1D toolbar, click Point Graph.
Damaged Tissue, 1D
1>Bioheat Transfer>Biological tissue>ht.theta_d - Fraction of necrotic tissue.
In the Width text field, type 3.

3 On the Damaged Tissue, 1D toolbar, click Plot.
22 |
Mixed Diffuse-Specular Radiation

Benchmark
This tutorial shows how to use the Mathematical Particle Tracing interface to simulate
radiative heat transfer with mixed diffuse-specular reflection between surfaces in an
enclosure. This application is separated in two parts. The first part compares the heat
fluxes computed by the Mathematical Particle Tracing interface with the exact solution
for two identical infinitely long parallel gray plates under mixed diffuse-specular
reflection at constant temperature. The second part couples the Mathematical Particle
Tracing interface with the Heat Transfer in Solids interface for the parallel plate
geometry but with different characteristics and spatially varying temperatures.
Introduction
Gray surfaces in an enclosure can reflect radiant energy specularly, that is, they reflect
light like a mirror. This is particularly true for optically smooth surfaces like clean
metals and glassy materials. For these materials the reflectance of a surface can be
adequately represented by a combination of a diffuse and a specular component.
Following Ref. 1, the reflectance of a surface can be expressed as
s
= +
= 1 = 1
Where s and d are respectively the specular and diffusive reflectance of the surface,
and where the symbols and are the emissivity and absorptivity of the surface.
The heat flux q at surfaces in an enclosure is then defined by:
s
q = J ( 1 )H
Where J is the surface radiosity
d
J = E b + H
Eb is the blackbody emissive power
E b = T
and H is the irradiance
1 |
MIXED DIFFUSE-SPECULAR RADIATION BENCHMARK
H =
J ( r ) dFdA dA + H0
s
A
s
The latter expression depends on the external irradiation H 0 and on the differential
s
specular view factor dF dA dA .
For more details on the terminology see Ref. 1.
Model Definition
The model uses the Mathematical Particle Tracing interface to model radiative heat
transfer using a discrete transfer method. The heat flux at each boundary element on
the surface is computed by sending rays outward from the surface to query the
temperatures of other surfaces in the geometry. The following three features are used:
The Inlet feature is used to determine the irradiance of a surface by backward ray
tracing. Particles, which represent rays, are released uniformly on the inlet surfaces
using a constant velocity. Particles are release uniformly within a hemisphere in velocity
space (in 3D) or a semicircle (in 2D) centered about the surface normal.
In 2D the irradiance per ray Hij is defined as
1
H ij = --- E b cos ( )d
2
where Eb is the blackbody emissive power of the surface at which the ray arrives and
is the acute angle between the initial particle velocity vector and the surface normal.
The angle is the plane angle subtended by each ray. The additional factor 1/2 is
used for normalization purposes and compensates for the use of cos() to assign
weights to different rays based on their angles of incidence; this is validated by the
integral
2
2 --2- cos ( ) d = 1
Similarly in 3D, the irradiance per ray is defined as
1
H ij = --- E b cos ( )d
where is the solid angle subtended by each ray. The validity of the correction factor
1/ is confirmed by the integral
2 |
2 2
0 0
1
--- cos ( ) sin ( ) ( d ) d = 1
The Nonlocal Accumulator subnode, which can be added to the Inlet node, transmits
the value of a variable at the particles current position and communicates this
information back to the mesh element from which the particle was released, where it
can be used to change the value of a dependent variable. With the Nonlocal
Accumulator it is possible to map the irradiance per ray to the mesh elements from
which the rays are initially released. For a mesh element i, the irradiance is
N
Hi =
Hij
j=1
Where N is the number of rays released from the mesh element i.

The Wall node is used to make particles freeze, reflect diffusely, or reflect specularly at
boundaries. The irradiance per ray is only set to a nonzero value when a ray is frozen
to the wall, so the study must continue for enough time for all particles to freeze. The
time a ray (particle) take to be absorbed depends on the emittance and reflectance of
the walls.
The following algorithm is implemented to fulfill the first equation above:
1 Generate a random number rn1 between 0 and 1.
2 If rn1 > the ray is absorbed (Freeze condition).
3 If rn1 generation of a second random number rn2 between 0 and 1.
4 If rn2 < s the ray undergoes specular reflection (Bounce condition).
5 If rn2 s the ray undergoes diffuse reflection with a probability distribution
based on Knudsens cosine law (Diffuse scattering condition).

The model is separated into two parts.
In the first part, we compare the exact analytical solution to the numerical result
obtained with the Mathematical Particle Tracing interface.
This computes the heat flux at the surfaces of two identical infinitely long
(out-of-plane on Figure 1) parallel plates placed in cold surroundings with mixed
diffuse-specular radiation at their surfaces.
3 |
The geometry is illustrated in Figure 1. For the benchmark model the lower and upper
plates have the same temperature Tl = Tu = T, the same emittance l = u = , and the
same probability of specular reflection l = u = .
Using symmetries, it is possible to determine the heat flux (ql = qu = q) on the lower
and upper plates using the following analytical solution see Ref. 1.
W2
1
--1 (1 )
W 2 2
s
s k1 2
( )
k d - =
---------------------------------------------2
2 32
k = 1 ( k + ( ) )
()
----------- -----
W2
1
( ) --2
W 2
s k1 2
( )
k d
-
---------------------------------------------2
2 3 2
k = 1(
k + ( ) )
Where = x d, W = w d and = q Eb. The heat flux can be computed using

numerical quadrature; a typical solution is presented on Figure 2.
Figure 1: Schematics of the problem. The width of the plates are w = 10 cm, their thickness
th = w/20, and the distance between the plates set to d = 10 cm. The temperature,
emittance and probability of specular reflection are equal for both plates and respectively
set to T = 300 K, = 0.6, and s = 0.8.
In the second part, we keep the parallel plates arrangement (same geometry) but
change the surface properties and couple the radiation model developed above to the
Heat Transfer in Solids interface. Table 1 displays the surface parameters used for this
4 |
part of the application.

TABLE 1: SURFACE PARAMETERS
Surfaces
Surrounding
Lower plate
0.9
0.1
Upper plate
0.6
0.8
For this model, the upper plate, made of copper, is heated locally from the top. The
lower plate, made of quartz, is heated by the radiation emitted from the upper plate
and cooled by natural convection on the bottom surface. The plates surrounding
temperature is set to 300 K.

Figure 2 shows a comparison of the normalized heat flux at the plates surfaces for the
exact and ray tracing solutions (benchmark model). A good agreement is observed
between the curves. Because the Diffuse scattering wall condition is stochastic in
nature, the solutions on the top and bottom surfaces differ slightly from each other
and from the exact solution.
When the heat source computed using the Mathematical Particle Tracing interface is
coupled to the Heat Transfer in Solids interface, the temperature field shown in
Figure 3 is obtained. The temperature on the surface of the bottom plate is plotted in
Figure 4. Figure 5 displays the normalized heat flux at the top of the lower plate (blue)
and at the bottom of the upper plate (green).
5 |
Figure 2: Normalized heat flux at the top of the lower plate (blue) and at the bottom of
the upper plate (green) for T = 300 K, = 0.6, s = 0.8 and w/d = 1. The black circles
represent the exact solution (the same for both surfaces) obtained from numerical
quadrature see Ref. 1.
Figure 3: Temperature at the surface of the plates for the coupled model.
6 |
Figure 4: Temperature at the surface of the lower plate for the coupled model.
Figure 5: Heat flux at the top of the lower plate (blue) and at the bottom of the upper plate
(green) for the coupled model.
7 |

This 3D model uses a bounce boundary condition to simulate the effect of infinitely
long plates (symmetry conditions).
An auxiliary dependent variable is necessary to define the release angle of each ray.
The second study consists of two study steps, a Stationary study step to compute the
temperature and a Time Dependent study step to compute the particle trajectories and
radiative heat flux. A self-consistent solution is obtained via an iterative process in
which a For-End For loop is used to alternate between the stationary and
time-dependent solvers. The loop should be continued until the change in
temperature at each successive iteration is negligibly small. For this application, an
acceptable self-consistent solution is obtained in three iterations.
Reference
1. M. F. Modest, Radiative Heat Transfer, 2nd. ed., Academic Press, 2003.

parallel_plates_diffuse_specular
NEW

MODEL WIZARD

2 In the Select physics tree, select Mathematics>Mathematical Particle Tracing (pt).
3 Click Add.
4 Click Study.
6 Click Done.
8 |
GLOBAL DEFINITIONS
Parameters
Name
Expression
Value
Description
10[cm]
0.1 m
Width of the plates
10[cm]
0.1 m
Distance between the

plates
2*w
0.2 m
Length of the plates
th
w/20
0.005 m
Thickness of the plates
20
20
Number of ray bundles

along the width of the
plates (number of
elements)
300
300
Number of rays per

bundle
Delta_the
ta
2*pi/N
0.02094
Solid angle subtended

per ray
T0
300[K]
300 K
Room temperature
GEOMETRY 1
Block 1 (blk1)
3 In the Width text field, type 2*w.
4 In the Depth text field, type l.
5 In the Height text field, type 2*w.
Block 2 (blk2)
3 In the Width text field, type w.
4 In the Depth text field, type l.
9 |
5 In the Height text field, type th.

7 In the z text field, type -(d+th)/2.
Block 3 (blk3)
1 Right-click Block 2 (blk2) and choose Duplicate.
2 In the Settings window for Block, locate the Position section.
3 In the z text field, type (d+th)/2.
4 Click the Transparency button on the Graphics toolbar in order to see the entire
geometry.
Work Plane 1 (wp1)

Partition the lower upper plate in two sections. The lines created by the partition
will be used to display the heat flux across the plates' width.
3 From the Plane list, choose xz-plane.
Partition Objects 1 (par1)

1 On the Geometry toolbar, click Booleans and Partitions and choose Partition Objects.
3 Click in the Graphics window and then press Ctrl+A to select all objects.
4 In the Settings window for Partition Objects, locate the Partition Objects section.
5 From the Partition with list, choose Work plane.
Define a selection list for the surrounding, lower and upper plate.
DEFINITIONS
Explicit 1
2 In the Settings window for Explicit, type Surrounding in the Label text field.
Boundary.
10 |
Explicit 2
2 In the Settings window for Explicit, type Lower Plate in the Label text field.
Boundary.
Explicit 3
2 In the Settings window for Explicit, type Upper Plate in the Label text field.
Boundary.
Define the model variables.
Variables 1
2 In the Settings window for Variables, type Definitions in the Label text field.
3 Locate the Variables section. In the table, enter the following settings:
Name
Expression
H_ij
nojac(1/
pi*sigma_const*bnde
nv(Ts)^4*abs(cos(th
eta_emit))*Delta_th
eta)
Unit
Description
Irradiance per ray
Eb
sigma_const*Ts^4
Blackbody emissive
power
rho
1-epsilon
Surface reflectance
-epsilon*(Eb-pt.inl
1.nacc1.rpi)
Heat flux
Variables 2
1 Right-click Definitions and choose Variables.
2 In the Settings window for Variables, type Surrounding: Study 1 in the Label text
field.
choose Boundary.
11 |
4 From the Selection list, choose Surrounding.

Name
Expression
Unit
Description
Ts
0[K]
Temperature of the
surrounding
epsilon
Emittance of the
surrounding
gamma_s
Probability of specular
reflection
Variables 3
2 In the Settings window for Variables, type Lower Plate: Study 1 in the Label text
field.
choose Boundary.
4 From the Selection list, choose Lower Plate.
Name
Expression
Unit
Description
Ts
T0
Temperature of the
lower plate
epsilon
0.6
Emittance of the lower

plate
gamma_s
0.8
reflection
Variables 4
2 In the Settings window for Variables, type Upper Plate: Study 1 in the Label text
field.
choose Boundary.
4 From the Selection list, choose Upper Plate.
12 |
Name
Expression
Unit
Description
Ts
T0
Temperature of the
upper plate
epsilon
0.6
Emittance of the upper

plate
gamma_s
0.8
reflection
Variables 5
2 In the Settings window for Variables, type Surrounding: Study 2 in the Label text
field.
choose Boundary.
4 From the Selection list, choose Surrounding.
Name
Expression
Unit
Description
Ts
T0
Temperature of the
surrounding
epsilon
Emittance of the
surrounding
gamma_s
reflection
Variables 6
2 In the Settings window for Variables, type Lower Plate: Study 2 in the Label text
field.
choose Boundary.
4 From the Selection list, choose Lower Plate.
13 |
Name
Expression
Ts
Unit
Description
Temperature of the
lower plate
epsilon
0.9
Emittance of the lower

plate
gamma_s
0.1
reflection
Variables 7
2 In the Settings window for Variables, type Upper Plate: Study 2 in the Label text
field.
choose Boundary.
4 From the Selection list, choose Upper Plate.
Name
Expression
Unit
Description
Ts
Temperature of the
upper plate
epsilon
0.6
Emittance of the upper

plate
gamma_s
0.8
reflection
Now define the mathematical particle tracing model. Set the Maximum number of
secondary particles to zero and avoid allocating unnecessary degrees of freedom to
the problem.
M A T H E M A T I C A L PA R T I C L E TR A C I N G ( P T )
1 In the Model Builder window, under Component 1 (comp1) click Mathematical Particle
Tracing (pt).
2 In the Settings window for Mathematical Particle Tracing, locate the Advanced
Settings section.
3 In the Maximum number of secondary particles text field, type 0.
4 Locate the Domain Selection section. Click Clear Selection.
14 |
Auxiliary Dependent Variable 1

1 On the Physics toolbar, click Global and choose Auxiliary Dependent Variable.
Add an auxiliary dependent variable that will be used to compute the released angle
of the particles.
2 In the Settings window for Auxiliary Dependent Variable, locate the Auxiliary
Dependent Variable section.
3 In the Field variable name text field, type theta_emit.
list, choose Plane angle (rad).

Add an inlet to the surface to which we want to compute the flux, i.e. the lower and
upper plate surfaces with the exception of the bottom surface of the lower plate and
the top surface of the upper plate.
Inlet 1
2 Select Boundaries 10, 13, 14, 16, 18, 21, 22, 24, and 2831 only.
3 In the Settings window for Inlet, locate the Initial Velocity section.
4 From the Initial velocity list, choose Constant speed, hemispherical in order to have
an equidistant distribution of rays.

Enter the number of rays per bundle in the Number of particles in velocity space field.
5 In the Nvel text field, type N.
6 Select the Specify tangential and normal vector components check box.
7 Specify the r vector as
0
t1
t2
n
Enter the built-in variable for the release angle in the theta_emit0 field.
8 Locate the Initial Value of Auxiliary Dependent Variables section. In the thetaemit0
text field, type pt.inl1.thetarel.

Add a nonlocal accumulator to map the computed irradiance per ray to the constant
discontinuous Lagrange elements associated to the release sites (in this case at the
center of the mesh elements).
15 |
Nonlocal Accumulator 1
1 On the Physics toolbar, click Attributes and choose Nonlocal Accumulator.
2 In the Settings window for Nonlocal Accumulator, locate the Accumulator Settings
section.
3 From the Accumulator type list, choose Count.
4 In the R text field, type H_ij.
5 From the Source geometric entity level list, choose Boundaries.
list, choose Radiative intensity (W/(m^2*sr)).

Add the bounce boundary condition at the extremities of the domain (symmetry
condition). Note that the effect of temperature and emittance of the boundary set
in the surrounding variables have no effect of the computation as the walls are, here,
purely specular.
Wall 2
3 In the Settings window for Wall, locate the Wall Condition section.
4 From the Wall condition list, choose Bounce.
Select the remaining wall boundaries and set the probability of diffuse and specular
reflection as well as the probability of absorption of the rays (rho). This wall
boundary condition computes the probability of specular reflection (bounce
otherwise Knudsen cosine law) if the ray hasn't been absorbed before. The
probability of absorption is entered as rho in the Probability field of the Primary
Particle Condition section.
Wall 3
2 Select Boundaries 1, 35, 7, 8, 10, 1214, 1618, 2022, 24, 25, and 2833 only.
3 In the Settings window for Wall, locate the Wall Condition section.
4 From the Wall condition list, choose Mixed diffuse and specular reflection.
5 In the s text field, type gamma_s.
6 Locate the Primary Particle Condition section. From the Primary particle condition
list, choose Probability.
16 |
7 In the text field, type rho.
To save on computation time, create a simple mesh on one extremity of the domain
and sweep it over the entire domain using the swept mesh feature.
MESH 1
Mapped 1

Distribution 1
1 Right-click Component 1 (comp1)>Mesh 1>Mapped 1 and choose Distribution.
4 In the Number of elements text field, type M.
Distribution 2
3 Click the Zoom Box button on the Graphics toolbar.
Free Triangular 1
Triangular.
Swept 1
1 Right-click Mesh 1 and choose Swept.
1 and choose Build All.
17 |
STUDY 1
Generate the default solver sequence and enter a proper maximum time step for the
time dependent solver. The particles must travel a distance lower than the distance
between the walls for a given time step.
Solution 1 (sol1)
stepping section.
Enter 1.5 s as the final time step. This will give enough time for the majority of the
particle to freeze.

3 In the Times text field, type 0,1.5.
Select the boundary definitions for the first study.

4 In the Model Builder window, click Step 1: Time Dependent.
Selection section.
7 In the Physics and variables selection tree, select Component 1
(comp1)>Definitions>Surrounding: Study 2.
8 Click Disable.
(comp1)>Definitions>Lower Plate: Study 2.
10 Click Disable.
(comp1)>Definitions>Upper Plate: Study 2.
12 Click Disable.
18 |
RESULTS
Load the heat flux data computed by Gauss quadrature. These data represent an exact
solution of the model.
Table 1
1 On the Results toolbar, click Table.
2 In the Settings window for Table, type epsilon=0.6, gamma_s=0.8 in the Label
text field.
3 Locate the Data section. Click Import.
parallel_plates_diffuse_specular_data.txt.
5 Click the Update button.
1D Plot Group 1
Generate the heat flux comparison. By symmetry, the heat flux at the upper and
lower plate should be the same.
2 In the Settings window for 1D Plot Group, type Validation in the Label text field.
Line Graph 1
On the Validation toolbar, click Line Graph.
Validation
2 In the Expression text field, type q/(epsilon*Eb).
6 In the Expression text field, type x/w.
19 |

Legends
Lower plate
Legends
Upper plate

17 In the Model Builder window, click Validation.
Table Graph 1
On the Validation toolbar, click Table Graph.
Validation
1 In the Settings window for Table Graph, locate the Coloring and Style section.
4 Find the Line markers subsection. From the Marker list, choose Circle.
5 From the Positioning list, choose In data points.
Legends
Gauss quadrature
9 On the Validation toolbar, click Plot.
Now add a Heat Transfer in Solids interface to the model. Here we are going to
couple the radiative heat transfer to the heat transfer in the plates. For this model
the top of the upper plate (copper) is heated by a local heat source with one side
20 |
held at a constant temperature. The bottom of the lower plate (glass) is cooled by
convection.
COMPONENT 1 (COMP1)
On the Home toolbar, click Windows and choose Add Physics.

ADD PHYSICS

settings:
Studies
Solve
Study 1
1 In the Model Builder window, under Component 1 (comp1) click Heat Transfer in Solids
(ht).
section.
3 In the list, choose 1 and 2.
4 Click Remove from Selection.
5 Select Domains 36 only.
Add the material properties to each plate.

MATERIALS
Material 1 (mat1)

2 In the Settings window for Material, type Quartz in the Label text field.
3 Locate the Geometric Entity Selection section. Click Clear Selection.
21 |
Property
Name
Value
Unit
Property group
1.1[W/
(m*K)]
W/
(mK)
Basic
Density
rho
2200[k
g/m^3]
kg/m
Basic

pressure
Cp
480[J/
(kg*K)
]
J/
(kgK)
Basic
Material 2 (mat2)
2 In the Settings window for Material, type Copper in the Label text field.
Property
Name
Value
Unit
Property group
400[W/
(m*K)]
W/
(mK)
Basic
Density
rho
8700[k
g/m^3]
kg/m
Basic

pressure
Cp
385[J/
(kg*K)
]
J/
(kgK)
Basic
In the Model Builder window, expand the Component 1 (comp1)>Definitions node.
Initial Values 1
1 In the Model Builder window, expand the Heat Transfer in Solids (ht) node, then click
Initial Values 1.
Temperature 1
Add a fixed temperature on one side of the upper plate.

22 |

Heat Flux 1
Add a localized heat flux on the top of the upper plate.

4 In the q0 text field, type 5e6[W/m^2]*exp(-((x+0.025[m])^2+y^2)/
0.0001[m^2]).
Heat Flux 2
Add a convective flux on the bottom of the lower plate.

Heat Flux 3
Add the radiative heat flux computed by the Mathematical Particle Tracing interface.
2 Select Boundaries 10, 13, 14, 16, 18, 21, 22, 24, and 2831 only.
4 In the q0 text field, type q.
Add a second study to solve the coupled model.

ROOT
On the Home toolbar, click Windows and choose Add Study.

ADD STUDY

23 |
settings:
Physics
Solve
Mathematical Particle Tracing (pt)

Start by adding a stationary study for the Heat Transfer in Solids interface only and
select the boundary conditions associated to the second study.
STUDY 2
Step 1: Stationary
3 Click to collapse the Study extensions section. Locate the Physics and Variables
Selection section. Select the Modify physics tree and variables for study step check box.
5 Click Disable.
7 Click Disable.
9 Click Disable.
Then add a time dependent study for the Mathematical Particle Tracing only.
Time Dependent
1 On the Study toolbar, click Study Steps and choose Time Dependent>Time Dependent.
Use the same time steps as in Study 1.

Selection section.
24 |

Physics interface
Solve for
Discretization
physics
3 Locate the Study Settings section. In the Times text field, type 0,1.5.
Select the boundary definitions for the second study.

4 In the Model Builder window, click Step 2: Time Dependent.
Selection section.
8 Click Disable.
10 Click Disable.
12 Click Disable.
Generate the default study sequence for the two steps defined above.
Solution 2 (sol2)
Add a for loop and move the generated sequence in the loop. The purpose of the
for loop is to match the temperature given by the Heat Transfer in Solids interface to
the surface temperature used by the radiative model.
3 Right-click Solution 2 (sol2) and choose Programming>For.
Three loops are expected to be sufficient to match the radiative flux with the Heat
Transfer in Solids interface with a negligible error.
4 In the Settings window for For, locate the General section.
25 |
5 In the Number of iterations text field, type 3.
Move the For node on top of the study sequence. This will include the sequence in
the loop.
6 Right-click Study 2>Solver Configurations>Solution 2 (sol2)>For 1 and choose Move
Up.
Up.
Up.
Up.
Up.
Up.
Up.
Generate the initial radiative heat flux for the Heat Transfer in Solids interface
computation.
13 Right-click Solution 2 (sol2) and choose Compile Equations.
14 In the Settings window for Compile Equations, locate the Study and Step section.
15 From the Use study step list, choose Step 2: Time Dependent.
Move the Compile Equations: Stationary node on top of the sequence above the For
node.
16 Right-click Study 2>Solver Configurations>Solution 2 (sol2)>Compile Equations:
Stationary (3) and choose Move Up.
26 |

25 Right-click Solution 2 (sol2) and choose Dependent Variables.
26 In the Settings window for Dependent Variables, type Dependent Variables 0 in

Move the Dependent Variables node in between the Compile Equations node and the
For node.
27 Right-click Study 2>Solver Configurations>Solution 2 (sol2)>Dependent Variables 0
and choose Move Up.

and choose Move Up.

and choose Move Up.

and choose Move Up.

and choose Move Up.

and choose Move Up.

and choose Move Up.

and choose Move Up.

and choose Move Up.

36 Locate the General section. From the Defined by study step list, choose User defined.
click Compile Equations: Time Dependent (3).
27 |
38 In the Settings window for Compile Equations, type Compile Equations: Time
Dependent 0 in the Label text field.
Use the initial solution given by the Mathematical Particle Tracing interface as Values
of variables not solved for for the Heat Transfer in Solids interface computation.
click Dependent Variables 1.

42 Locate the Values of Variables Not Solved For section. From the Method list, choose
Solution.
Use the solution given by the Heat transfer in solids interface as Values of variables
not solved for for the Mathematical Particle Tracing interface computation.
click Dependent Variables 2.

Initial expression.
48 From the Solution list, choose Zero.

stepping section.
53 Click the Compute button.
Generate a plot of the surface temperatures.

RESULTS
3D Plot Group 2
28 |

4 Right-click 3D Plot Group 2 and choose Surface.
6 On the 3D Plot Group 2 toolbar, click Plot.
Create a surface dataset to display the temperature on the top of the lower plate.
Surface 1
Data Sets
1 In the Settings window for Surface, locate the Parameterization section.
2 From the x- and y-axes list, choose xy-plane.
2D Plot Group 3
2 In the Model Builder window, right-click 2D Plot Group 3 and choose Surface.
Generate a figure displaying heat flux across the width of the plates.
1D Plot Group 4
5 Click to expand the Legend section. From the Position list, choose Lower right.
Line Graph 1
On the 1D Plot Group 4 toolbar, click Line Graph.
29 |
1D Plot Group 4
3 In the Expression text field, type q.
5 In the Expression text field, type x.
Legends
Lower plate
Legends
Upper plate

30 |
Suns Radiation Effect on Two

Coolers Placed Under a Parasol
Introduction
A warm sunny day at the beach can be more enjoyable with a steady supply of frosty
beverages. This example considers two Styrofoam coolers containing cold beverage
cans sitting on a sandy beach. A parasol provides partial shade for one of the coolers
over the course of the day. The difference in beverage temperature over time is
computed. This tutorial demonstrates the usage of the external radiation source
boundary condition, as well as how to model structures exposed to ambient
conditions.
Figure 1: A parasol provides shade on the beach. Two Styrofoam coolers contain beverage
cans that should remain as cold as possible.
Model Definition
A system of a parasol and two coolers is modeled as shown in Figure 1. The coolers,
made of Styrofoam, contain six beverage cans each. The beverage cans are represented
by water-filled cylinders with walls modeled as thin thermally resistive layers of
1 |
S U N S R A D I A T I O N E F F E C T O N TW O C O O L E R S P L A C E D U N D E R A P A R A S O L
aluminum. Because a slit is defined for the temperature on the walls, the temperature
can differ between the inner and outer faces. This is used to define initial conditions
that are discontinuous between the exterior and interior can surfaces. Because
aluminum has higher thermal conductivity than the surrounding materials, the thin
thermally resistive layer condition behaves like a continuity condition as soon as the
initial temperature difference vanishes. The initial can temperature is 1 C. The spacing
between the cans and the cooler walls is small, so the model neglects free convection
inside the cooler for simplicity.
The parasol primarily provides shade but otherwise has no significant thermal effect on
the beverage temperature. For this reason, it is not too important to have a high fidelity
model of the parasol. It is only the shadow cast by the parasol that contributes to the
beverage temperature profile. The material used for the parasol is acrylic plastic.
The primary source of heat in this model is the solar irradiation, which is included
using the External Radiation Source feature. This feature uses the longitude, latitude,
time zone, time of year, and time of day to compute the direction of the incident solar
radiation over the simulation time. A sunny location at the equator in the middle of
the Pacific ocean is chosen for this analysis. Assuming no cloud cover, the solar flux at
the surface is about 1000 W/m2. All of the ambient surfaces of the model are included
in the solar loading calculation, and shadowing effects are included.
The temperature of the sun is about 5800 K, and it emits primarily short-wavelength
infrared and visible light at wavelengths shorter than 2.5 microns. The fraction of this
short-wavelength solar radiation that is absorbed by the various materials is quantified
by the solar absorptivity. Because the surfaces are at a much lower temperature, they
reradiate in the long-wavelength infrared band, at wavelengths above 2.5 microns, and
the fraction of reradiated energy is quantified by the surface emissivity. The solar and
ambient wavelength dependence of emissivity model is used to account for differing
emissivities in different wavelength bands.
There are three ambient temperature conditions in this model. First, the ground at 1 m
below the sand surface is assumed to be at a constant temperature of 27 C throughout
the day, corresponding to the average water temperature at this location.
The second ambient condition is the surrounding air temperature. There exists a
combination of free and forced convection, due to wind, from all exposed surfaces to
the ambient air, the temperature of which is assumed to vary sinusoidally through the
day. In this application, the Convective Heat Flux boundary condition uses a bulk heat
transfer coefficient of 20 W/(m2K) for all exposed surfaces.
2 |
The third boundary condition is the radiative view factor to ambient. The gray body
radiative view factors are computed between all exposed faces in the model, and
radiative heat transfer is computed between these faces. However, these computed
view factors do not sum to unity. There is a significant view factor to surrounding
regions that is not modeled; this is the residual view factor. The temperature of the
ambient is the same as the ambient air temperature.

Figure 2 plots the temperature profile at 4 p.m. Observe the decrease of temperature
where the parasol shade stands.

Figure 3 plots the temperature of the beverage inside two of the cans. This shows
clearly the advantage of placing the cooler in the shade. At 2 p.m., the parasol shade
3 |
starts to leave the cooler corresponding to the green curve, which is responsible for the
sudden variation in the temperature increase at that moment.
Figure 3: Beverage temperature over time inside of the two coolers at the left side of the
parasol (blue curve) and at the right side (green curve).
Reference
1. F.P. Incropera, D.P. DeWitt, T.L. Bergman, and A.S. Lavine, Fundamentals of
Heat and Mass Transfer, 6th ed., John Wiley & Sons, 2006.

parasol
4 |
NEW

MODEL WIZARD

2 In the Select physics tree, select Heat Transfer>Radiation>Heat Transfer with
3 Click Add.
4 Click Study.
6 Click Done.
GEOMETRY 1
Define an analytic function for the time-dependent ambient temperature.

GLOBAL DEFINITIONS
Parameters
Name
Expression
Value
Description
Tavg
27[degC]
300.2 K
Average ambient
temperature
dT
3[K]
3K
Half diurnal
temperature variation
coordLat
Latitude
coordLong
-176.5
-176.5
Longitude
coordTime
zone
12
12
Time zone
dateDay
Day
dateMonth
Month
dateYear
2012
2012
Year
Analytic 1 (an1)
2 In the Settings window for Analytic, type T_ambient in the Function name text field.
5 |
3 Locate the Definition section. In the Expression text field, type Tavg[1/K]+dT[1/
K]*cos(2*pi*(x-14)/24).
4 Locate the Units section. In the Arguments text field, type h.

Argument
Lower limit
Upper limit
24*3600
GEOMETRY 1
Block 1 (blk1)
6 In the z text field, type -0.5.
6 |
This first block corresponds to a large region of sand. The next two blocks are the
styrofoam coolers on the sand.
Block 2 (blk2)
4 In the Depth text field, type 0.22.
Block 3 (blk3)
4 In the Depth text field, type 0.18.
6 Right-click Component 1 (comp1)>Geometry 1>Block 3 (blk3) and choose Build
Selected.
In the next few steps, you create two six-pack cans by building one cylinder that is
duplicated in two 3 2 arrays. Because the cans are located inside the two styrofoam
coolers, you need to enable the Wireframe Rendering option to see them.
Cylinder 1 (cyl1)
5 Locate the Position section. In the x text field, type 0.42.
7 |
Array 1 (arr1)
2 On the Geometry toolbar, click Transforms and choose Array.
3 Select the object cyl1 only.
5 In the x size text field, type 3.
6 In the y size text field, type 2.
7 Locate the Displacement section. In the x text field, type 0.08.
8 In the y text field, type -0.08.
Copy 1 (copy1)
1 Right-click Array 1 (arr1) and choose Build Selected.
3 Select the objects blk2, arr1(3,2,1), arr1(1,1,1), arr1(2,2,1), arr1(2,1,1), blk3,
arr1(3,1,1), and arr1(1,2,1) only.
For more convenience, use the Select Box button to select the above-mentioned
objects.
5 In the x text field, type -1.5.
6 Right-click Copy 1 (copy1) and choose Build Selected.
Now, create the parasol.
Cone 1 (cone1)
1 On the Geometry toolbar, click Cone.
2 In the Settings window for Cone, locate the Size and Shape section.
4 In the Semi-angle text field, type 70.
6 Right-click Cone 1 (cone1) and choose Build Selected.
Cone 2 (cone2)
1 Right-click Cone 1 (cone1) and choose Duplicate.
2 In the Settings window for Cone, locate the Position section.
8 |
Difference 1 (dif1)
1 Right-click Component 1 (comp1)>Geometry 1>Cone 2 (cone2) and choose Build
Selected.
2 On the Geometry toolbar, click Booleans and Partitions and choose Difference.
3 Select the object cone1 only.
6 Select the object cone2 only.
Cylinder 2 (cyl2)
Form Union (fin)

DEFINITIONS
The following selection gathers the boundaries of the twelve cans.
Explicit 1
2 In the Settings window for Explicit, type Beverage Can Walls in the Label text
field.
boundaries.
The next selection is for the irradiated surfaces.
Explicit 2
9 |
2 In the Settings window for Explicit, type Irradiated Surfaces in the Label text
field.
Boundary.
4 Select Boundaries 4, 6, 7, 9, 10, 3840, 5662, 6572, 74, 75, and 118 only.
ADD MATERIAL
ADD MATERIAL

MATERIALS
Air (mat2)
ADD MATERIAL

2 In the tree, select Built-In>Acrylic plastic.
MATERIALS
Acrylic plastic (mat3)

1 In the Model Builder window, under Component 1 (comp1)>Materials click Acrylic
plastic (mat3).
ADD MATERIAL
10 |

MATERIALS
Aluminum (mat4)
(mat4).
4 From the Selection list, choose Beverage Can Walls.
Material 5 (mat5)

2 In the Settings window for Material, type Styrofoam in the Label text field.
Property
Name
Value
Unit
Property group
0.05
W/(mK)
Basic
Density
rho
200
kg/m
Basic
Cp
1300
J/(kgK)
Basic
Material 6 (mat6)
2 In the Settings window for Material, type Sand in the Label text field.
Property
Name
Value
Unit
Property group
0.3
W/(mK)
Basic
Density
rho
1500
kg/m
Basic
Cp
800
J/(kgK)
Basic
11 |
H E A T TR A N S F E R W I T H S U R F A C E - T O - S U R F A C E R A D I A T I O N ( H T )
1 In the Model Builder window, under Component 1 (comp1) click Heat Transfer with
2 In the Settings window for Heat Transfer with Surface-to-Surface Radiation, locate
the Radiation Settings section.

3 From the Wavelength dependence of emissivity list, choose Solar and ambient.
Initial Values 1
Surface-to-Surface Radiation (ht) click Initial Values 1.
3 In the T text field, type T_ambient(t).
Initial Values 2
4 In the T text field, type 1[degC].
External Radiation Source 1

1 On the Physics toolbar, click Global and choose External Radiation Source.
2 In the Settings window for External Radiation Source, locate the External Radiation
Source section.
3 From the Source position list, choose Solar position.
4 In the Location table, enter the following settings:
Latitude (+ to N), in
Longitude (+ to E), in
Time zone (+UTC)
coordLat
coordLong
coordTimezone
5 In the Date table, enter the following settings:

Day
Month
Year
dateDay
dateMonth
dateYear
6 In the Local time table, enter the following settings:
12 |
Hour
Minute
Second
Temperature 1
4 In the T0 text field, type 27[degC].
Diffuse Surface 1
3 From the Selection list, choose Irradiated Surfaces.
4 Locate the Ambient section. In the Tamb text field, type T_ambient(t).
5 Locate the Surface Emissivity section. Find the Solar spectral band subsection. From
the B1 list, choose User defined. In the associated text field, type 0.2.
6 Find the Ambient spectral band subsection. From the B2 list, choose User defined.
In the associated text field, type 0.8.
Diffuse Surface 2
3 In the Tamb text field, type T_ambient(t).
4 Locate the Surface Emissivity section. Find the Solar spectral band subsection. From
the B1 list, choose User defined. In the associated text field, type 0.94.
5 Find the Ambient spectral band subsection. From the B2 list, choose User defined.
In the associated text field, type 0.76.

Thin Layer 1
3 From the Selection list, choose Beverage Can Walls.
4 Locate the Thin Layer section. In the ds text field, type 300[um].
Heat Flux 1
3 From the Selection list, choose Irradiated Surfaces.
13 |
6 In the Text text field, type T_ambient(t).
STUDY 1

4 Click Range.
5 In the Range dialog box, type 10 in the Start text field.
6 In the Step text field, type 10[min].
8 Click Replace.
The study starts at 10 a.m. and ends at 4 p.m. with timesteps of 10 minutes.
RESULTS
Temperature (ht)
The first default plot shows the temperature distribution as in Figure 2.

The second default plot shows the isothermal contours.
Radiosity (ht)
This default plot shows the surface radiosity. Proceed to plot the external irradiation at
2 p.m. and see the parasol shade as in Figure 1.
1 In the Model Builder window, under Results click Radiosity (ht).
3 From the Time (h) list, choose 14.
14 |
4 In the Model Builder window, expand the Radiosity (ht) node, then click Surface 1.
of the Expression section. From the menu, choose Component 1>Heat Transfer with
Surface-to-Surface Radiation>Radiation>External irradiation>ht.G_extB1u - External
irradiation, upside.
6 Locate the Coloring and Style section. From the Color table list, choose GrayPrint.
7 On the Radiosity (ht) toolbar, click Plot.
Next, observe the temperature of the beverages as in Figure 3.
1D Plot Group 4
2 In the Settings window for 1D Plot Group, type Temperature in the Coolers in
Point Graph 1
On the Temperature in the Coolers toolbar, click Point Graph.
Temperature in the Coolers

1 Select Points 41 and 126 only.
For more convenience, you can click the Paste Selection button and paste the point
numbers.
4 On the Temperature in the Coolers toolbar, click Plot.
15 |
16 |
Shell-and-Tube Heat Exchanger

Introduction
Shell-and-tube heat exchangers are one of the most widely used type of heat exchanger
in the processing industries (65% of the market according to Ref. 1) and are commonly
found in oil refineries, nuclear power plants, and other large-scale chemical processes.
Additionally, they can be found in many engines and are used to cool hydraulic fluid
and oil. In this application, two separated fluids at different temperatures flow through
the heat exchanger: one through the tubes (tube side) and the other through the shell
around the tubes (shell side). Several design parameters and operating conditions
influence the optimal performance of a shell-and-tube heat exchanger.
The main purpose of this tutorial is to show the basic principles for setting up a heat
exchanger model. It can also serve as a starting point for more sophisticated
applications, such as parameter studies or adding additional effects like corrosion,
thermal stress, and vibration.
Inlet, air
Shell
Outlet, water
Tubes
Baffles
Inlet, water
Outlet, air
Figure 1: Geometry of the shell-and-tube heat exchanger.
1 |
S H E L L - A N D - TU B E H E A T E X C H A N G E R
Model Definition
The concept used to design a shell-and-tube heat exchanger is examined by exploring
the working model of a straight, cross-flow, one pass shell-and-tube heat exchanger.
The geometry of such a model is shown in Figure 1.
The heat exchanger is made of structural steel. In this example, two fluids pass through
the heat exchanger. The first fluid, in this case water, flows through the tubes, while
the second fluid, air, circulates within the shell of the heat exchanger but outside of the
tubes. Both of these fluids have different starting temperatures when entering the heat
exchanger, however after circulating within it, the fluids are brought closer to an
equilibrium temperature. The baffles introduce some cross-flow to the air and such
increasing the area of heat exchange. Another advantage is that baffles reduce vibration
due to the fluid motion.
This model uses the Non-Isothermal Flow predefined multiphysics coupling
configured with the k- turbulence model. It takes advantage of symmetries to model
only one half of the heat exchanger, thereby reducing model size and computational
costs.
BOUNDARY CONDITIONS
All heat exchanger walls including the baffles are modeled as shells in 3D. This requires
special boundary conditions for the flow and heat transport equations.
The interior wall boundary condition for the flow separates the fluids from each other
and is also used to describe the baffles. On both sides, it applies the wall functions
needed for simulating walls with the k- turbulence model.
To account for the in-plane heat flux in the shell, the Thin Layer boundary condition is
applied. This boundary condition simulates heat transfer in thin shell structures. Here,
the shell is supposed made of steel and with a 5 mm thickness.
Water enters the tube side with a velocity of 0.1 m/s and a temperature of 80 C. Air
enters the shell side with a velocity of 1 m/s and a temperature of 5 C. At both inlets,
the recommended values for the turbulence length scale is 0.07 L, where L is the
channel radius (see Inlet Values for the Turbulence Length Scale and Turbulent
Intensity). For the water inlet, this radius is equal to 5 cm and for the air inlet, it is
4.5 cm.
Beside the symmetry plane, all remaining exterior boundaries are thermally insulated
walls.
2 |

An important criterion for estimating the accuracy of a turbulence model is the wall
resolution. Hence, COMSOL Multiphysics creates a plot of the wall resolution by
default. The value for w+ has to be 11.06, which corresponds to the distance from the
wall where the logarithmic layer meets the viscous sublayer. Furthermore, the wall
lift-off w has to be small compared to the dimension of the geometry. On interior
walls you have w for the upside and downside of the wall. To visualize the upside and
downside directions, use an arrow surface plot with the components unx, uny, and unz
for the up direction and dnx, dny, and dnz for the down direction.
Figure 2 shows the upside wall lift-off. This is the wall lift-off inside the tubes where
the probably most critical area in terms of mesh resolution is located. It is about 10%
of the tube radius, which is sufficient.
Figure 2: Wall lift-off for the tubes.

The tube side velocity shows a uniform distribution in the tubes. Before water enters
the tubes, recirculation zones are present. The streamline colors represent the
3 |
temperature and you can see that the temperatures at both outlets are close to each
other.
Figure 3: Velocity streamlines.
4 |
Figure 4 shows the temperature distribution on the heat exchanger boundaries.
Figure 4: Temperature on the heat exchanger boundaries.

There are several quantities that describe the characteristics and effectiveness of a heat
exchanger. One is the equivalent heat transfer coefficient given by
P
h eq = ----------------------------------------A ( T hot T cold )
(1)
where P is the total exchanged power and A is the surface area through which P flows.
In this model the value of heq is 5.4 W/(m2K).
The pressure drop is about 33 Pa on the tube side and 12 Pa on the shell side.

Solve the model using a physics-controlled mesh. For flow applications this means that
COMSOL Multiphysics automatically generates a mesh sequence where the mesh size
depends on whether the flow is laminar or turbulent and where a boundary layer mesh
is applied to all no slip walls. Even if the coarsest mesh size is used, the mesh is still fine
enough to resolve the flow pattern and thus the temperature distribution well.
5 |
Nevertheless, this application requires about 10 GB RAM. Alternatively, you can set
up a coarser mesh manually, but keep in mind that this can lead to lower accuracy.
The first part of the modeling process is the preprocessing. This includes defining
parameters, preparing the geometry, and defining relevant selections. You can skip this
part by loading the file shell_and_tube_heat_exchanger_geom.mph. However, we
recommend that you take a look at these steps at least once. Especially when
developing models intended for optimization and sophisticated analyses, these steps
can significantly simplify and accelerate the modeling process.
Defining parameters beforehand enables setting up a parametric study immediately,
also for multiple parameter sets. In addition, this provides a fast overview of the
operating conditions. In the Modeling Instructions, several selections are also created.
Once defined, they are available in every step of the modeling process. If you want to
change from concurrent to countercurrent heat exchanger, you only need to redefine
the selections.
Application Library path: Heat_Transfer_Module/Heat_Exchangers/

shell_and_tube_heat_exchanger
Reference
1. H. S. Lee, Thermal Design, John Wiley & Sons, 2010.
ROOT
The file shell_and_tube_heat_exchanger_geom.mph contains a parameterized

geometry and prepared selections for the model. Start by loading this file.
shell_and_tube_heat_exchanger_geom.mph.
ADD MATERIAL
6 |

ADD MATERIAL

MATERIALS

liquid (mat2).
3 From the Selection list, choose Water Domain.
The heat exchanger itself is made of structural steel. Apply this material to the walls of
the heat exchanger.
ADD MATERIAL

2 In the tree, select Built-In>Structural steel.
MATERIALS
Structural steel (mat3)

1 In the Model Builder window, under Component 1 (comp1)>Materials click Structural
steel (mat3).
TU R B U L E N T F L OW K - ( S P F )
7 |
1 In the Model Builder window, under Component 1 (comp1) click Turbulent Flow, k-
(spf).
2 In the SettingsTurbulent Flow, k- window for , locate the Physical Model section.
The next step is to set the boundary conditions. At first the boundary conditions for
the flow equations are applied. These are the inlet and outlet boundary conditions,
symmetry as well as the interior walls which separate the air from the water domain.
The default wall boundary condition then applies to the outer boundaries.
Inlet 1
2 In the Settings window for Inlet, type Inlet 1: Water in the Label text field.
3 Locate the Boundary Selection section. From the Selection list, choose Inlet, Water.
4 Locate the Turbulence Conditions section. In the LT text field, type 0.07*5[cm].
This is an estimation for the turbulence length scale as explained in the Model
Definition section.
5 Locate the Velocity section. In the U0 text field, type u_water.
Outlet 1
2 In the Settings window for Outlet, type Outlet 1: Water in the Label text field.
3 Locate the Boundary Selection section. From the Selection list, choose Outlet, Water.
4 Locate the Pressure Conditions section. Select the Normal flow check box.
Inlet 2
2 In the Settings window for Inlet, type Inlet 2: Air in the Label text field.
3 Locate the Boundary Selection section. From the Selection list, choose Inlet, Air.
4 Locate the Turbulence Conditions section. In the LT text field, type 0.07*4.5[cm].
This is an estimation for the turbulence length scale as explained in the Model
Definition section.
5 Locate the Velocity section. In the U0 text field, type u_air.
Outlet 2
2 In the Settings window for Outlet, type Outlet 2: Air in the Label text field.
8 |
3 Locate the Boundary Selection section. From the Selection list, choose Outlet, Air.
4 Locate the Pressure Conditions section. Select the Normal flow check box.
Symmetry 1
2 In the Settings window for Symmetry, locate the Boundary Selection section.
3 From the Selection list, choose Symmetry.
Interior Wall 1
1 On the Physics toolbar, click Boundaries and choose Interior Wall.
2 In the Settings window for Interior Wall, locate the Boundary Selection section.
The boundary conditions that set up the heat transfer equation are the temperatures
at the inlets and the outflow at the outlets, the symmetry and for all walls the highly
conductive layer feature accounts for the heat conduction through the shell.
In the Model Builder window, under Component 1 (comp1) click Heat Transfer in Fluids
(ht).
Temperature 1
2 In the Settings window for Temperature, type Temperature 1: Water in the Label
text field.
3 Locate the Boundary Selection section. From the Selection list, choose Inlet, Water.
4 Locate the Temperature section. In the T0 text field, type T_water.
Outflow 1
2 In the Settings window for Outflow, type Outflow 1: Water in the Label text field.
3 Locate the Boundary Selection section. From the Selection list, choose Outlet, Water.
Temperature 2
2 In the Settings window for Temperature, type Temperature 2: Air in the Label
text field.
3 Locate the Boundary Selection section. From the Selection list, choose Inlet, Air.
9 |
4 Locate the Temperature section. In the T0 text field, type T_air.
Outflow 2
2 In the Settings window for Outflow, type Outflow 2: Air in the Label text field.
3 Locate the Boundary Selection section. From the Selection list, choose Outlet, Air.
Symmetry 1
2 In the Settings window for Symmetry, locate the Boundary Selection section.
3 From the Selection list, choose Symmetry.
Thin Layer 1
5 In the ds text field, type 0.005[m].
The physics is now defined. For evaluating the equivalent heat transfer coefficient
according to Equation 1 directly after solving the model, you need to define the
following component coupling operator. It can also be defined and evaluated after
computing the simulation, but in this case you need to choose Update Solution (after
right-clicking on the Study 1 node) to make this operator available without running
the model again.
DEFINITIONS
Average 1 (aveop1)
1 On the Definitions toolbar, click Component Couplings and choose Average.
2 In the Settings window for Average, type Average Operator on Water-Air
Interface in the Label text field.
Boundary.
4 From the Selection list, choose Water-Air Interface.
The heat exchanger properties and operating conditions are well defined and the
model is ready to solve. For a first estimation of the heat exchanger performance a
coarse mesh is satisfying. The solution is obtained very fast and provides qualitatively
10 |
good results. Reliable quantitative results require a good resolution especially of the
wall regions.
The default physics-controlled mesh is a good starting point and can be customized to
reduce computational costs. Here you reduce the number of boundary layers and scale
the geometry for the meshing sequence in the x-direction. This results in an
anisotropic mesh that is suitable for the minor changes of the flow field and
temperature field in the x-direction.
MESH 1

3 From the Element size list, choose Extremely coarse.
Free Tetrahedral 1
1 In the Model Builder window, under Component 1 (comp1)>Mesh 1 click Free
Tetrahedral 1.
2 In the Settings window for Free Tetrahedral, click to expand the Scale geometry
section.
3 Locate the Scale Geometry section. In the x-direction scale text field, type 0.5.
Boundary Layer Properties 1

1 In the Model Builder window, expand the Component 1 (comp1)>Mesh 1>Boundary
Layers 1 node, then click Boundary Layer Properties 1.
Properties section.
STUDY 1

RESULTS
Velocity (spf)
A slice plot of the velocity field, a surface plot of the wall resolution and a surface plot
of the temperature are generated by default. You can either customize these plots or
create new plot groups to visualize the results.
11 |
The wall resolution indicates the accuracy of the flow close to the walls where the wall
functions are applied. The variable spf.d_w_plus should be 11.06 and the wall lift-off
spf.delta_w needs to be significantly smaller than the dimension of the geometry.
On interior boundaries, these variables are available for the upside and downside of the
wall indicated by spf.d_w_plus_u/d or spf.delta_w_u/d, respectively. The critical
regions in terms of the wall resolution are in the tubes.
Wall Resolution (spf)

1 In the Model Builder window, expand the Results>Wall Resolution (spf) node.
2 Right-click Upside Wall Lift-Off and choose Delete.
3 Right-click Downside Wall Lift-Off and choose Delete.
5 From the Data set list, choose Interior Walls.
6 Locate the Expression section. In the Expression text field, type spf.delta_w_u.
7 On the Wall Resolution (spf) toolbar, click Plot.
Figure 4 shows the temperature distribution on all wall boundaries. The default
temperature plot uses the Surface 1 data set created automatically and contains exterior
walls only. It is easy to change it by using the selection created at the beginning.
Data Sets
1 In the Model Builder window, expand the Results>Data Sets node, then click All Walls.
2 In the Settings window for Surface, locate the Selection section.
Temperature (ht)
1 In the Model Builder window, expand the Results>Temperature (ht) node, then click
Surface 1.
In Figure 3, the streamlines are plotted for the full 3D geometry. Even if only one half
of the heat exchanger is modeled the solution can be mirrored to obtain a full 3D view
of the results. To do so, follow the steps below:
Mirror 3D 1
Data Sets
12 |
2 From the Plane list, choose zx-planes.
3D Plot Group 6
2 In the Settings window for 3D Plot Group, type Velocity, Streamlines in the
Label text field.
Velocity, Streamlines
1 Right-click Velocity, Streamlines and choose Streamline.
3 In the Points text field, type 100.
4 Locate the Coloring and Style section. From the Line type list, choose Tube.
5 Right-click Results>Velocity, Streamlines>Streamline 1 and choose Color Expression.
1>Heat Transfer in Fluids>Temperature>T - Temperature.
7 Locate the Coloring and Style section. From the Color table list, choose Thermal.
Evaluate the equivalent heat transfer coefficient by using the component coupling
operators defined previously.
Global Evaluation 1
Derived Values
1 In the Settings window for Global Evaluation, type Heat Transfer Coefficient

aveop1(nitf1.qwf_u)/(T_water-T_air).
The variable nitf1.qwf_u efficiently computes the heat flux through the wall
separating water and air domains, based on the wall function definition.
TA BL E
To evaluate the pressure drop, the average inlet pressures are computed.
13 |
RESULTS
Surface Average 1
On the Results toolbar, click More Derived Values and choose Average>Surface Average.
Derived Values
1 In the Settings window for Surface Average, type Inlet Pressure, Water in the
Label text field.
2 Locate the Selection section. From the Selection list, choose Inlet, Water.
the menu, choose Component 1>Turbulent Flow, k->Velocity and pressure>p Pressure.
TABLE

RESULTS
Surface Average 2
On the Results toolbar, click More Derived Values and choose Average>Surface Average.
Derived Values
1 In the Settings window for Surface Average, type Inlet Pressure, Air in the
Label text field.
2 Locate the Selection section. From the Selection list, choose Inlet, Air.
the menu, choose Component 1>Turbulent Flow, k->Velocity and pressure>p Pressure.
TABLE
The tube side pressure drop is 33 Pa and the shell side pressure drop is 12 Pa.
14 |
Parameterized Shell-and-Tube Heat

Exchanger Geometry
This is a template MPH-file containing the physics interfaces and the parameterized
geometry for the application Shell-and-Tube Heat Exchanger. For a description of that
application, including detailed step-by-step instructions showing how to build it, see
Shell-and-Tube Heat Exchanger.
Application Library path: Heat_Transfer_Module/Heat_Exchangers/

shell_and_tube_heat_exchanger_geom
1 |
P A R A M E T E R I Z E D S H E L L - A N D - TU B E H E A T E X C H A N G E R G E O M E T R Y
2 |
P A R A M E T E R I Z E D S H E L L - A N D - TU B E H E A T E X C H A N G E R G E O M E T R Y
Shell Conduction
Introduction
The following example illustrates how to build and solve a model using the Heat
Transfer in Thin Shells interface. This example is a 2D NAFEMS benchmark (Ref. 1),
which was transformed to 3D.
Model Definition
Figure 1 describes the 2D benchmark example.
Heat transfer by convection
2
h = 750 W/(m K)
External temperature
Text = 273.15 K
Insulated
1.0 m
Material properties:
k = 52 W/(mK)
T = 373.15 K
0.6 m
Figure 1: A 2D benchmark example for a thin conductive shell.
1 |
SHELL CONDUCTION
The 3D model bends this plate so that it becomes a quarter of a cylinder (Figure 2).
Figure 2: The 3D geometry based on the 2D model.
2 |
SHELL CONDUCTION
Results
The temperature at point A in Figure 2 (291.40 K) is in agreement with that from the
NAFEMS benchmark (Ref. 1). Figure 3 shows the temperature distribution.
Figure 3: The resulting temperature field of the 3D model.
Reference
1. J.A. Casey and G.B Simpson, Two-dimensional Steady State, Benchmark Tests
for Thermal Analysis, NAFEMS, Test 10, p. 2.9, 1986.

Tutorials,_Thin_Structure/shell_conduction
3 |
SHELL CONDUCTION
NEW

MODEL WIZARD

2 In the Select physics tree, select Heat Transfer>Heat Transfer in Thin Shells (htsh).
3 Click Add.
4 Click Study.
6 Click Done.
GLOBAL DEFINITIONS
Parameters
Name
Expression
Value
Description
T_edge
373.15[K]
373.2 K
Edge temperature
T_ext
273.15[K]
273.2 K
External temperature
ht
750[W/(m^2*K)]
750 W/(mK)
Heat transfer
coefficient
GEOMETRY 1
Cylinder 1 (cyl1)
2 In the Settings window for Cylinder, locate the Object Type section.
4 Locate the Size and Shape section. In the Radius text field, type 2/pi.
Delete Entities 1 (del1)

1 Right-click Geometry 1 and choose Delete Entities.
2 On the object cyl1, select Boundaries 13 only.
4 |
SHELL CONDUCTION
3 Right-click Component 1 (comp1)>Geometry 1>Delete Entities 1 (del1) and choose

Build Selected.
Point 1 (pt1)
1 On the Geometry toolbar, click More Primitives and choose Point.
This step embeds the point where you compare the calculated solution with the
benchmark.
5 Right-click Point 1 (pt1) and choose Build Selected.
MATERIALS
Material 1 (mat1)

Property
Name
Value
Unit
Property group
52
W/
(mK)
Basic
Density
rho
8800
kg/m
Basic

pressure
Cp
420
J/
(kgK)
Basic
H E A T TR A N S F E R I N T H I N S H E L L S ( H T S H )
Temperature 1
1 On the Physics toolbar, click Edges and choose Temperature.
4 In the T0 text field, type T_edge.
Heat Flux 1
1 On the Physics toolbar, click Edges and choose Heat Flux.
5 |
SHELL CONDUCTION
2 Select Edges 1, 2, and 4 only.

5 In the h text field, type ht.
6 In the Text text field, type T_ext.
MESH 1
Mapped 1

STUDY 1

RESULTS
Temperature (htsh)
The default plot is the surface plot of the temperature and the arrow plot of the
conductive heat flux; compare with Figure 3.
Derived Values
Follow the steps below to obtain the temperature at the benchmark verification point.
Point Evaluation 1
On the Results toolbar, click Point Evaluation.
Derived Values
TABLE
The result shown in the Table window below the Graphics window should be
approximately 290.4 K.
6 |
SHELL CONDUCTION
He a t T r a ns f e r i n a S u rface- Mou n t
Package for a Silicon Chip
Introduction
All integrated circuitsespecially high-speed devicesproduce heat. In todays dense
electronic system layouts heat sources are many times placed close to heat-sensitive
ICs. Designers of printed-circuit boards often need to consider the relative placement
of heat-sensitive and heat-producing devices, so that the sensitive ones do not
overheat.
One type of heat-generating device is a voltage regulator, which can produce several
watts of heat and reach a temperature higher than 70 C. If the board design places
such a device close to a surface-mounted package that contains a sensitive silicon chip,
the regulators heat could cause reliability problems and failure due to overheating.
Q
Silicon chip
Interconnect
Circuit board
Ground plate
Voltage regulator
Figure 1: Layout of the simulated silicon device, its package, and a voltage regulator. The
chip and the voltage regulator are connected through a ground plate, a pin, and the
interconnect.
This simulation investigates the thermal situation for a silicon chip in a surface-mount
package placed on a circuit board close to a hot voltage regulator. The chip is subjected
to heat from the regulator and from internally generated heat.
1 |
H E A T TR A N S F E R I N A S U R F A C E - M O U N T P A C K A G E F O R A S I L I C O N C H I P
Model Definition
The model is based on a SMD IC and voltage regulator layout as in Figure 1. The
silicon chip sits in the center of the package and dissipates its heat to the surrounding
environments. The chip also connects to a ground plane through an interconnect and
one of the pins. A heat generating voltage regulator is placed on the same ground
plane. This means that the voltage regulator may affect the silicon chip by the
conducted heat and this may lead to overheating of the chip.
Heat transfers through the mounted package to the surroundings through conduction
according to:
( k T ) = Q
The heat source, Q, is negligible in the circuit board, pins and package, while in the
chip, this model sets that parameter to a value equivalent to 20 mW. The conductivities
of the components are chosen to be similar to:
silicon, for the chip
aluminum, for the pins
FR4, for the PC board
copper, for the ground plane and interconnect
an arbitrary plastic, for the chip package
Heat dissipates from all air-exposed surfaces through forced heat convection, which is
modeled using a heat transfer coefficient, h:
n q = h ( T inf T )
The voltage regulator is simulated by setting a fixed temperature at that surface. The
thin conducting layers of the ground plane and interconnect within the package is
modeled using a 2D shell approximation, according to:
t ( ds k t T ) = 0
where ds is the layers thickness, and t represents the nabla operator projected onto
the direction of the plane. The model uses a Heat Transfer interface to describe the 3D
heat transfer as well as the 2D shell heat transfer.
2 |
Results and Discussions

Figure 2 illustrates the temperature distribution through the thickness. Being a good
conductor, the interconnect delivers heat to the outer edge of the package, which gives
the fairly constant temperature distribution around the interconnect.
Figure 2: Slice plot of the temperature through the circuit board, interconnect, chip, and
package. The effect of the interconnect is evident by its ability to conduct heat from the chip
to the outer parts of the package.
An alternative view is achieved by using the transparency feature in the visualization
tools of COMSOL Multiphysics. This results in a transparent 3D view of the
temperature distribution, as shown in Figure 3. In that figure you can see the
temperature distribution around the chip and along the interconnect.
3 |
Figure 3: Boundary plot of the temperature created with the assistance of the transparency
tool in COMSOL Multiphysics. This view also gives the temperature distribution on the
chip and along the interconnect.
4 |
To get a closer look at the stationary temperature of the silicon chip, plot the
temperature at the bottom boundary of the chip.
Figure 4: Temperature distribution on the bottom surface of the silicon chip.

The simulation predicts a maximum temperature of the silicon device of 47.7 C. This
means that the device does not overheat in the present configuration.

Power_Electronics_and_Electronic_Cooling/surface_mount_package

This tutorial uses the Heat Transfer interface from the Heat Transfer Module and, in
particular, its Thin Layer feature. These are thin layers that conduct heat well so you
need not define them in 3D. The two layers that have this definition are:
The interconnect between the chip and the grounded pin.
The ground plate that is also thermally connected to the temperature constraint
coming from the voltage regulator.
5 |
While the numerical method considers these two modeling domains as interior
boundaries, the model still includes a thickness to take the 3D heat flux into account.
NEW

MODEL WIZARD

3 Click Add.
4 Click Study.
6 Click Done.
GEOMETRY 1
The 3D workspace is now ready. While you can, of course, create the 3D geometry
with the built-in CAD tools of COMSOL Multiphysics, it is provided here in the form
of a CAD-file.
Import 1 (imp1)
3 From the Source list, choose COMSOL Multiphysics file.
4 Click Browse.
surface_mount_package.mphtxt.
6 Click Import.
6 |
The geometry in the Graphics window should now look like that in the figure
below.
The imported geometry is complete. In particular, it includes the interconnect

between the pin and the chip as well as the ground plate and the temperature surface
resulting from the voltage regulator. To see the interconnect and the chip, you need
to turn on transparency:
7 |
This returns the transparency setting to its default.

DEFINITIONS
Define a selection that contains all exterior boundaries. You will use it when defining
the boundary conditions.
Explicit 1
2 In the Settings window for Explicit, type Exterior Boundaries in the Label text
field.
3 Locate the Input Entities section. Select the All domains check box.
boundaries.
Now, define the domain settings including material properties, element order, heat
source, and initial values.
To define material properties for the model domains, use three predefined materials
from the Material Browser and also one newly defined material.
8 |
ADD MATERIAL
MATERIALS
Aluminum (mat1)
The first material you add to a model applies to all domains by default. Keep this
setting and use overrides for the domains of different materials.
ADD MATERIAL

MATERIALS

Board) (mat2).
Material 3 (mat3)

2 In the Settings window for Material, type Plastic in the Label text field.
Plastic (mat3)
1 In the Model Builder window, expand the Component 1 (comp1)>Materials>Plastic
(mat3) node, then click Basic (def).
2 In the Settings window for Property Group, locate the Output Properties and Model
Inputs section.
3 Find the Quantities subsection. In the tree, select Output Properties>Density.
4 Click Add.
9 |
5 Find the Output properties subsection. In the table, enter the following settings:
Property
Variable
Expression
Unit
Size
Density
rho
2700
kg/m
1x1
6 Find the Quantities subsection. In the tree, select Output Properties>Heat Capacity at
Constant Pressure.
7 Click Add.
Property
Variable
Expression
Unit
Size
Heat capacity at
constant pressure
Cp
900
J/(kgK)
1x1
9 Find the Quantities subsection. In the tree, select Output Properties>Thermal

Conductivity.
10 Click Add.
Property
Variable
Expression
Unit
Size
k ; kii = k,
kij = 0
0.2
W/(mK)
3x3
ADD MATERIAL

2 In the tree, select Built-In>Silicon.
MATERIALS
Silicon (mat4)
1 In the Model Builder window, under Component 1 (comp1)>Materials click Silicon
(mat4).
This completes the materials settings.
10 |
Heat Source 1
4 In the Q0 text field, type 2e8.
This completes the domain settings. Now, turn to the boundary conditions.
Heat Flux 1
3 From the Selection list, choose Exterior Boundaries.
Temperature 1
4 In the T0 text field, type 50[degC].
Thin Layer 1
5 In the ds text field, type 1e-4.
6 Locate the Heat Conduction section. From the ks list, choose User defined. In the
associated text field, type 400.
Thin Layer 2
11 |

5 In the ds text field, type 5e-6.
6 Locate the Heat Conduction section. From the ks list, choose User defined. In the
associated text field, type 400.

MESH 1
Size 1
choose Size.
5 Locate the Element Size section. From the Predefined list, choose Extra fine.
Size
The mesh should consist of around 30,000 elements.

STUDY 1

RESULTS
Temperature (ht)
By default, you get surface and isosurface plots for the temperature. Note that the
temperature is displayed in kelvin, which is the default temperature unit in the SI
system.
To get a surface temperature plot in degrees Celsius, simply change the unit for the
first default plot group.
12 |

To see the chip as well, turn on transparency:

Compare the resulting plot to that in Figure 3.

Reproduce the plot in Figure 2 with the following steps:
3D Plot Group 3
2 In the Settings window for 3D Plot Group, type Temperature, Slices in the Label
text field.
Temperature, Slices
1 Right-click Temperature, Slices and choose Slice.
2 In the Settings window for Slice, locate the Expression section.
13 |
6 On the Temperature, Slices toolbar, click Plot.
Compare the result to that in Figure 2.

To visualize the temperature distribution on the silicon chip's bottom surface, follow
the steps given below.
Study 1/Solution 1 (2) (sol1)

On the Results toolbar, click More Data Sets and choose Solution.
Selection
Data Sets
3D Plot Group 4
2 In the Settings window for 3D Plot Group, type Temperature, Chip Surface in

4 Locate the Plot Settings section. Clear the Plot data set edges check box.
Temperature, Chip Surface

1 Right-click Temperature, Chip Surface and choose Surface.
5 On the Temperature, Chip Surface toolbar, click Plot.
Compare the resulting plot to that in Figure 4.
14 |
T he r m o - M e c ha n i c al A n al ysi s of a
S ur f a c e - M o unt ed R esi st or
Introduction
The drive for miniaturizing electronic devices has resulted in todays extensive use of
surface-mount electronic components. An important aspect in electronics design and
the choice of materials is a products durability and lifetime. For surface-mount
resistors and other components producing heat it is a well-known problem that
temperature cycling can lead to cracks propagating through the solder joints, resulting
in premature failure (Ref. 1). For electronics in general there is a strong interest in
changing the soldering material from lead- or tin-based solder alloys to other mixtures.
The following multiphysics example models the heat transport and structural stresses
and deformations resulting from the temperature distribution using the Heat Transfer
in Solids and Solid Mechanics interfaces.
Note: This application requires either the Structural Mechanics Module or the
MEMS Module.
1 |
THERMO-MECHANICAL ANALYSIS OF A SURFACE-MOUNTED RESISTOR
Model Definition
Figure 1 shows a photograph of a surface-mount resistor together with a diagram of it
on a printed circuit board (PCB).
Termination
Resistor
Solder
Copper pad
Printed circuit board
Figure 1: A photo and diagram of a typical surface-mounted resistor soldered to a PCB.

Table 1 shows the dimensions of the resistor and other key components in the model
including the PCB.
TABLE 1: COMPONENT DIMENSIONS
2 |
COMPONENT
LENGTH
WIDTH
HEIGHT
Resistor (Alumina)
6 mm
3 mm
0.5 mm
PCB (FR4)
16 mm
8 mm
1.6 mm
Cu pad
2 mm
3 mm
35 m
Termination (Silver)
0.5 mm
3 mm
25 m
Stand-off (gap to PCB)
105 m
The simulation makes use of the symmetry so that it needs to include only half of the
component (Figure 2). The modeling of the PCB is terminated a distance away from
the resistor, in order to reduce effects of the boundary conditions.
Figure 2: The simulation models only one half of the resistor.

In operation, the resistor dissipates 0.2 W of power as heat. Conduction to the PCB
and convection to the surrounding air provide cooling. In this model, the heat transfer
occurs through conduction in the subdomains. The model simplifies the surface
cooling and describes it using a heat transfer coefficient, h, in this case set to 10 W/
(m2K); the surrounding air temperature, Tinf, is at 300 K. The resulting heat transfer
equation and boundary condition (included in the model using the Heat Transfer
interface) are
( kT ) = Q
n ( kT ) = h ( T T )
inf
where k is the thermal conductivity, and Q is the heating power per unit volume of the
resistor (equal to 22.2 MW/m3 corresponding to 0.2 W in total).
The model handles thermal expansion using a static structural analysis using the
Structural Mechanics interface (a description of the corresponding equations is
3 |
available in the Structural Mechanics Module Users Guide). The thermal and
mechanical material properties in this model are taken from the material library The
data for the solid materials are temperature independent, and the reference values are
shown in the table below.
MATERIAL
E (GPa)
(ppm)
k (W/(mK))
(kg/m3)
Cp (J/(kgK))
Silver
83
0.37
18.9
420
10500
230
Alumina
300
0.222
8.0
27
3900
900
Cu
110
0.35
17
400
8700
385
Fr4
22
0.28
18
0.3
1900
1369
60Sn-40Pb
10
0.4
21
50
9000
150
Air has temperature-dependent and pressure-dependent properties in the built-in

material library. Because the temperature is a variable of the problem, it is automatically
used. The pressure is by default set to 1 atm.
The stresses are zero at room temperature, 293 K. The boundary condition for the
Solid Mechanics interface is that the cuts in the PCB do not rotate and have no net
force normal to the cut.
4 |

The isosurfaces in Figure 3 show the temperature distribution at steady state. The
highest temperature occurs in the center of the resistor. The circuit board also heats up
significantly.
Figure 3: Temperature distribution in the resistor and the circuit board at steady state.
Thermal stresses appear as a result of the temperature increase; they arise from the
materials different expansion coefficients and from the bending of the PCB. Figure 4
plots the effective stress (von Mises) together with the resulting deformation of the
assembly.
5 |
Figure 4: The thermally induced distribution of von Mises effective stress together with the
deformation (magnified).
The highest stresses seem to occur in the termination material. It is interesting to
compare these effective stresses to the yield stress and thereby investigate whether or
not the material is irreversibly deformed. In that case the solder is the weak point.
Figure 5 the stress in the solder alone.
6 |
Figure 5: Close-up of the von Mises effective stresses in the solder joints.
The yield stress for solder is approximately 220 MPa. The highest effective stress
appears to be about 60 percent of this value. The structure does not get permanently
deformed directly when heated. However, it is possible that the solder displays creep
strains over time because of the combination of fairly high stress levels and elevated
temperatures.

In this example, the Thermal Stress interface automatically adds and couples the Solid
Mechanics interface and the Heat Transfer interface. This is done by the two
predefined multiphysics features Thermal Expansion and Temperature Coupling.
Build the geometry as an assembly of the bottom plate and the resistor to make it
possible to mesh the parts independently. Use continuity conditions for the
temperature and the displacements to connect the top and bottom parts of the
geometry.
It is assumed that the temperature gradient in the normal direction on the cuts in the
PCB is zero. The mechanical boundary conditions on the cuts must not impose a
7 |
general state of compressive stress due to thermal expansion. At the same time, the
restraint from the part of the PCB that is not modeled means that there is no rotation
of the cross section. To obtain this effect, the entire cut must have the same (but
unknown) displacement in the direction normal to the cut.
You can achieve this by using the roller constraint at the left cut of the plate that
prevents the boundary to move in the direction normal to the cut. For remaining two
cuts, introduce two new degrees of freedom (named uface and vface) in the model
and prescribe the displacements of the cut faces to them.
You solve the problem sequentially using two stationary study steps. The heat transfer
problem is nonlinear because the air has temperature-dependent properties. The
structural problem, on the other hand, is linear. For the structural analysis, use a
memory-efficient iterative solver to make it possible to solve the problem also on
computers with limited memory.
References
1. H. Lu, C. Bailey, M. Dusek, C. Hunt, and J. Nottay, Modeling the Fatigue Life of
Solder Joints of Surface Mount Resistors, EMAP, 2000.
2. J.M. Coulson and J.F. Richardson, Chemical Engineering, vol. 1, Pergamon Press,
appendix, 1990.
Application Library path: Heat_Transfer_Module/Thermal_Stress/

surface_resistor
NEW

MODEL WIZARD

3 Click Add.
8 |
4 Click Study.
6 Click Done.
GLOBAL DEFINITIONS
Parameters
Name
Expression
Value
Description
T_air
300[K]
300 K
Air temperature
h_air
10[W/(m^2*K)]
10 W/(mK)
Heat transfer
coefficient
Psource
0.2[W]/2
0.1 W
Heat dissipated by the

resistor on the half
geometry
p0
1[atm]
1.013E5 Pa
Air pressure
T0
80[degC]
353.2 K
Initial temperature
guess
GEOMETRY 1

Create the 2D geometry. To simplify this step, insert a prepared geometry sequence.
On the Geometry toolbar, point to Import/Export and choose Insert Sequence.
Browse to the applications Application Library folder and double-click the file
surface_resistor.mph.
9 |
The 2D geometry should now look as in the figure below.
Extrude 1 (ext1)
2 Select the object wp1 only.
Distances (mm)
1.5
Block 1 (blk1)
6 Locate the Position section. In the y text field, type -4.
10 |
7 In the z text field, type -1.6.

Now, create an imprint of the resistors bottom boundary on the printed circuit board
to make a pair with matching parts.
Form Union (fin)

1 In the Model Builder window, under Component 1 (comp1)>Geometry 1 click Form
Union (fin).
2 In the Settings window for Form Union/Assembly, locate the Form Union/Assembly
section.
3 From the Action list, choose Form an assembly.
4 Select the Create imprints check box.
The completed geometry is shown in Figure 2.

ADD MATERIAL
MATERIALS

Board) (mat1).
3 From the Selection list, choose Manual.
ADD MATERIAL

2 In the tree, select Built-In>Alumina.
11 |
MATERIALS
Alumina (mat2)
1 In the Model Builder window, under Component 1 (comp1)>Materials click Alumina
(mat2).
ADD MATERIAL

MATERIALS
Copper (mat3)
(mat3).
ADD MATERIAL

2 In the tree, select Material Library>Elements>Silver>Silver [solid].
MATERIALS
Silver [solid] (mat4)

1 In the Model Builder window, under Component 1 (comp1)>Materials click Silver
[solid] (mat4).
ADD MATERIAL

2 In the tree, select Built-In>Solder, 60Sn-40Pb.
12 |
MATERIALS
Solder, 60Sn-40Pb (mat5)

1 In the Model Builder window, under Component 1 (comp1)>Materials click Solder,
60Sn-40Pb (mat5).
ADD MATERIAL

MATERIALS
Air (mat6)
1 In the Model Builder window, under Component 1 (comp1) click Solid Mechanics
(solid).
Symmetry 1
Continuity 1
1 On the Physics toolbar, in the Boundary section, click Pairs and choose Continuity.
2 In the Settings window for Continuity, locate the Pair Selection section.
3 In the Pairs list, select Identity Pair 1 (ap1).
Roller 1
1 On the Physics toolbar, click Boundaries and choose Roller.
Create the special boundary conditions on the cuts in the PCB by introducing new
degrees of freedom, uface and vface, for the normal displacements.
13 |
Global Equations 1
1 On the Physics toolbar, click Global and choose Global Equations.
2 In the Settings window for Global Equations, locate the Global Equations section.
Name
f(u,ut,utt,t) (1)
Initial value
(u_0) (1)
Initial value
(u_t0) (1/s)
uface
vface
Description
list, choose Displacement field (m).
1 On the Physics toolbar, click Boundaries and choose Prescribed Displacement.
4 Select the Prescribed in y direction check box.
5 In the u0y text field, type vface.
1 On the Physics toolbar, click Boundaries and choose Prescribed Displacement.
4 Select the Prescribed in x direction check box.
5 In the u0x text field, type uface.
14 |
(ht).

Heat Source 1
5 In the P0 text field, type Psource.
Heat Flux 1
Next, add the continuity condition on the identity pair to couple the domains
together.
Continuity 1
1 On the Physics toolbar, in the Boundary section, click Pairs and choose Continuity.
2 In the Settings window for Continuity, locate the Pair Selection section.
3 In the Pairs list, select Identity Pair 1 (ap1).
Because the material properties are temperature dependent, the solution converges
better if you supply an initial guess of the temperature.
Initial Values 1

15 |

MESH 1
Free Triangular 1

Size 1
5 Locate the Element Size Parameters section. Select the Minimum element size check
box.
Swept 1
4 Select Domains 29 only.
Distribution 1
Free Tetrahedral 1
In the Model Builder window, right-click Mesh 1 and choose Free Tetrahedral.
Size 1
16 |

5 Locate the Element Size section. From the Predefined list, choose Extra fine.
STUDY 1
Because the heat transfer problem is independent of the displacements, use the first
stationary study step to find the temperature distribution and the second stationary
step to solve for the displacements.
Step 1: Stationary
section.
Physics interface
Solve for
Solid Mechanics
Discretization
physics
Stationary 2
17 |
section.
Physics interface
Solve for
Heat Transfer in Solids
Discretization
physics
Solution 1 (sol1)
(sol1)>Stationary Solver 1 node.
4 Right-click Direct and choose Enable.
Set up an iterative solver that can significantly save on the memory needed for the
computations.
click Stationary Solver 2.

6 In the Settings window for Stationary Solver, locate the General section.
7 From the Linearity list, choose Linear.
(sol1)>Stationary Solver 2 node.
9 Right-click Study 1>Solver Configurations>Solution 1 (sol1)>Stationary Solver 2 and
choose Iterative.
10 In the Settings window for Iterative, locate the General section.
11 In the Factor in error estimate text field, type 2000.
2>Iterative 1 and choose Multigrid.
18 |
RESULTS
Stress (solid)
The first plot shows the effective stress together with the resulting deformation.
Modify it to reproduce Figure 4.
1 In the Model Builder window, expand the Stress (solid) node.
2 In the Model Builder window, expand the Results>Stress (solid)>Surface 1 node, then
click Deformation.
3 In the Settings window for Deformation, locate the Expression section.
4 In the Y component text field, type v-vface.
5 On the Stress (solid) toolbar, click Plot.
6 Hold down the left mouse button and drag in the Graphics window to rotate the
geometry so that you see the opposite side of the resistor, which is where the largest
stresses occur. Similarly, use the right mouse button to translate the geometry and
the middle button to zoom.
Now, study the stresses in the solder.
Study 1/Solution 1 (3) (sol1)

On the Results toolbar, click More Data Sets and choose Solution.
Selection
Data Sets
3D Plot Group 4
2 In the Settings window for 3D Plot Group, type Stress in Solder Joint in the
Label text field.
4 Locate the Plot Settings section. Clear the Plot data set edges check box.
Stress in Solder Joint

1 Right-click Stress in Solder Joint and choose Volume.
19 |
2 In the Settings window for Volume, click Replace Expression in the upper-right
corner of the Expression section. From the menu, choose Component 1>Solid
Mechanics>Stress>solid.mises - von Mises stress.
3 Locate the Expression section. From the Unit list, choose MPa.
4 On the Stress in Solder Joint toolbar, click Plot.
5 Click the Go to YZ View button on the Graphics toolbar.
Compare the resulting plot with that in Figure 5.
Temperature (ht)
The second default plot group shows the temperature on the modeled geometrys
surface.
Click the Go to Default 3D View button on the Graphics toolbar.

The third default plot shows the isosurfaces (Figure 3).
20 |
Thermal Bridges in Building

C o ns tr uc t i o n3 D Iron Bar Th rou gh
Insulation Layer
Introduction
The European standard EN ISO 10211:2007 for thermal bridges in building
constructions provides four test casestwo 2D and two 3Dfor validating a
numerical method (Ref. 1). If the values obtained by a method conform to the results
of all these four cases, the method is classified as a three-dimensional steady-state high
precision method.
COMSOL Multiphysics successfully passes all the test cases described by the standard.
This document presents an implementation of the second 3D model (Case 4).
This tutorial studies the heat conduction in a thermal bridge made up of an iron bar
and an insulation layer that separates a hot internal side from a cold external side. The
iron bar is embedded in the insulation layer as shown in Figure 1. After solving the
model, the heat flux between the internal and external sides and the maximum
temperature on the external wall are calculated, and the results are compared to the
expected values.
Cold surface
Insulation layer
Hot surface
Iron bar
Figure 1: Back side (left) and front side (right) views of the iron bar embedded in an
insulation layer, ISO 10211:2007 test case 4. Colored regions correspond to internal and
external boundaries.
1 |
THERMAL BRIDGES IN BUILDING CONSTRUCTION3D IRON BAR THROUGH INSULATION LAYER
Model Definition
The geometry is illustrated above in Figure 1. The square insulation layer, with a low
thermal conductivity k of 0.1 W/(mK), has a cold and a hot surface. The iron bar has
a higher thermal conductivity, 50 W/(mK). Its boundaries are mainly located in the
hot environment but one of them reaches the cold side.
Cold and hot surfaces are subject to convective heat flux. The ISO 10211:2007
standard specifies the values of the thermal resistance, R, which is related to the heat
transfer coefficient, h, according to
1
h = ---R

Compared to the rest of the structure, the dimensions of the intersection between the
iron bar and the insulation layer are relatively small but the temperature gradients are
large. Therefore, the element size is reduced in this area to give sufficient accuracy. To
save computational time, this refinement is not applied on the remaining mesh.
2 |

In Figure 2, the temperature profile shows the effects of the thermal bridge where the
heat variations are most pronounced.
Figure 2: Temperature distribution of ISO 10211:2007 test case 4.

Table 1 compares the numerical results of COMSOL Multiphysics with the expected
values provided by EN ISO 10211:2007 (Ref. 1).
TABLE 1: COMPARISON BETWEEN EXPECTED VALUES AND COMPUTED VALUES
MEASURED QUANTITY
EXPECTED
VALUE
COMPUTED
VALUE
DIFFERENCE
Highest temperature on external side
0.805 C
0.8015 C
4.310-3 C
Heat flux
0.540 W
0.5415 W
0.28%
The maximum permissible differences to pass this test case are 510-3 C for
temperature and 1% for heat flux. The measured values are completely coherent and
meet the validation criteria.
3 |
Reference
1. European Committee for Standardization, EN ISO 10211, Thermal bridges in
building construction Heat flows and surface temperatures Detailed
calculations (ISO 10211:2007), Appendix A, pp. 3036, 2007.

Buildings_and_Constructions/thermal_bridge_3d_iron_bar
NEW

MODEL WIZARD

3 Click Add.
4 Click Study.
6 Click Done.
GLOBAL DEFINITIONS
Parameters
Define the geometrical parameters.

4 |
Name
Expression
Value
Description
w1
1[m]
1m
Insulation layer width
d1
0.2[m]
0.2 m
Insulation layer depth
Name
Expression
Value
Description
h1
1[m]
1m
Insulation layer height
w2
0.1[m]
0.1 m
Iron bar width
d2
0.6[m]
0.6 m
Iron bar depth
h2
50[mm]
0.05 m
Iron bar height
GEOMETRY 1
Block 1 (blk1)
3 In the Width text field, type w1.
4 In the Depth text field, type d1.
5 In the Height text field, type h1.
Create the iron bar at the center of the insulation layer.
Block 2 (blk2)
3 In the Width text field, type w2.
4 In the Depth text field, type d2.
5 In the Height text field, type h2.
6 Locate the Position section. In the x text field, type w1/2-w2/2.
7 In the z text field, type h1/2-h2/2.
Choose wireframe rendering to get a better view of the interior parts.

To remove an unnecessary internal boundary proceed as follows:
Ignore Faces 1 (igf1)

1 On the Geometry toolbar, click Virtual Operations and choose Ignore Faces.
2 On the object fin, select Boundary 11 only.
Note that you can create the selection by clicking the Paste Selection button and
typing the indices in the dialog box that opens.
5 |
3 Right-click Ignore Faces 1 (igf1) and choose Build Selected.

DEFINITIONS
Create a set of selections for use when setting up the physics. First, select the
boundaries inside the region y 0.1.
Box 1
1 On the Definitions toolbar, click Box.
2 In the Settings window for Box, type Internal in the Label text field.
3 Locate the Geometric Entity Level section. From the Level list, choose Boundary.
4 Locate the Box Limits section. In the y minimum text field, type 0.1.
5 Locate the Output Entities section. From the Include entity if list, choose Entity inside
box.
Next, select all boundaries inside the region y 0.1.
Box 2
1 On the Definitions toolbar, click Box.
2 In the Settings window for Box, type External in the Label text field.
6 |
3 Locate the Geometric Entity Level section. From the Level list, choose Boundary.
4 Locate the Box Limits section. In the y maximum text field, type 0.1.
5 Locate the Output Entities section. From the Include entity if list, choose Entity inside
box.
MATERIALS
Material 1 (mat1)

2 In the Settings window for Material, type Insulation in the Label text field.
Property
Name
Value
Unit
Property group
0.1
W/(mK)
Basic
Density
rho
500
kg/m
Basic
Cp
1700
J/(kgK)
Basic
Material 2 (mat2)
2 In the Settings window for Material, type Iron in the Label text field.
Property
Name
Value
Unit
Property group
50
W/(mK)
Basic
Density
rho
7800
kg/m
Basic
Cp
460
J/(kgK)
Basic
Heat Flux 1
3 From the Selection list, choose Internal.
7 |
5 In the h text field, type 1/0.10.
Heat Flux 2
3 From the Selection list, choose External.
MESH 1
Because the greatest variations of temperature are expected at the iron bar's external
boundary, refine the mesh in this region. Use default settings in the remaining
domains.
Free Tetrahedral 1
Free Tetrahedral.
Size 1
5 Locate the Element Size section. From the Predefined list, choose Extremely fine.
STUDY 1

RESULTS
Temperature (ht)
The first default plot group shows the temperature distribution; compare with
Figure 2.
8 |
Derived Values
Follow the steps below to calculate the maximum temperature on the external surface
and the heat flux between the internal and external sides. Compare the values with the
expected results listed in Table 1.
Surface Maximum 1
On the Results toolbar, click More Derived Values and choose Maximum>Surface
Maximum.
Derived Values
1 In the Settings window for Surface Maximum, locate the Selection section.
TA BL E

RESULTS
Derived Values
The displayed value should be close to 0.805 C.
Integration.
Derived Values

TA BL E
The measured flux should be close to 0.540 W.
9 |
10 |
Thermal Bridges in Building

Construction3D Structure Between
Two Floors
Introduction
The European standard EN ISO 10211:2007 for thermal bridges in building
constructions provides four test casestwo 2D and two 3Dfor validating a
numerical method (Ref. 1). If the values obtained by a method conform to the results
of all these four cases, the method is classified as a three-dimensional steady-state high
precision method.
COMSOL Multiphysics successfully passes all the test cases described by the standard
and is hence classified as a three-dimensional steady-state high precision method. This
document presents an implementation of the first 3D model (Case 3).
External surface
Internal surface
Internal surface
Thermally insulated surface
Figure 1: Geometry and boundary conditions of ISO 10211:2007 test case 3.
1 |
T H E R M A L B R I D G E S I N B U I L D I N G C O N S T R U C T I O N 3 D S T R U C T U R E B E T W E E N TW O F L O O R S
This tutorial studies the heat conduction in a building structure separating two floors
from the external environment. The structures surfaces are divided into four parts:
the lower level, ;
the upper level, ;
the outside, ;
and the remaining thermally insulated surfaces, .
The values of interest for validation are the lowest temperatures at surfaces and ,
and the heat fluxes through , , and .
Model Definition
Figure 1 illustrates the geometry. The external surface is at 0 C and the interior
surface is at 20 C. Four materials with distinct thermal conductivities k are used in the
structure. The horizontal block separating the two floors has the highest thermal
conductivity (2.5 W/(mK)). It crosses the wall, thereby creating a thermal bridge in
the structure.
The surfaces , , and are subject to convective heat flux. The ISO 10211:2007
standard specifies the values of the thermal resistance, R, which is related to the heat
transfer coefficient, h, according to
1
h = ---R
2 |

Figure 2 shows the temperature profile. The heat losses are greater near the thermal
bridge formed by the horizontal block that crosses the wall.
Figure 2: Temperature distribution of ISO 10211:2007 test case 3.

The numerical results of COMSOL Multiphysics are compared with the expected
values provided by ISO 10211:2007 (Ref. 1) in Table 1.
TABLE 1: COMPARISON BETWEEN EXPECTED VALUES AND COMPUTED VALUES
MEASURED QUANTITY
EXPECTED VALUES
COMPUTED VALUES
DIFFERENCE
Minimum temperature on
11.32 C
11.318 C
0.002 C
Minimum temperature on
11.11 C
11.107 C
0.003 C
Heat flux through
46.09 W
46.196 W
0.23%
Heat flux through
13.89 W
13.92 W
0.22%
Heat flux through
59.98 W
60.116 W
0.23%
The maximum permissible differences to pass this test case are 0.1 C for temperature
and 1% for heat flux. The measured values are completely consistent and meet the
validation criteria.
3 |
As shown in Figure 3 and Figure 4, the minimum temperature of the surfaces and
are located at their respective corners.
Figure 3: Minimum and maximum temperatures on surface , ISO 10211:2007 test

case 3.
4 |
Figure 4: Minimum and maximum temperatures on surface , ISO 10211:2007 test

case 3.
Reference
1. European Committee for Standardization, EN ISO 10211, Thermal bridges in
building construction Heat flows and surface temperatures Detailed
calculations (ISO 10211:2007), Appendix A, pp. 3036, 2007.

Buildings_and_Constructions/thermal_bridge_3d_two_floors
5 |
NEW

MODEL WIZARD

3 Click Add.
4 Click Study.
6 Click Done.
GLOBAL DEFINITIONS
Parameters
Define the geometrical parameters.

6 |
Name
Expression
Value
Description
wall_t1
5[cm]
0.05 m
Insulation layer thickness
wall_t2
30[cm]
0.3 m
Wall thickness
rect1
1.2[m]
1.2 m
Wall first rectangle basis
rect2
1.3[m]
1.3 m
Wall second rectangle basis
rect_shift
-10[cm]
-0.1 m
Shift for the rectangles
wall_h
2.15[m]
2.15 m
Wall height
blk_w
1.15[m]
1.15 m
Rectangle horizontal block

width
blk_d
1.9[m]
1.9 m

depth
blk_h
0.15[m]
0.15 m

height
blk_shiftx
5[cm]
0.05 m

x-shift
blk_shifty
-0.7[m]
-0.7 m

y-shift
Name
Expression
Value
Description
blk_shiftz
1[m]
1m

z-shift
sq_l
1[m]
1m
Square horizontal block

side length
sq_h
5[cm]
0.05 m

height
sq_shift
0.2[m]
0.2 m

shift
GEOMETRY 1
To build the walls separating the external and internal surfaces, create the cross section
geometry and extrude it.
Work Plane 1 (wp1)

The first two rectangles below correspond to the insulation layer of the wall.
Rectangle 1 (r1)
3 In the Width text field, type rect1.
4 In the Height text field, type wall_t1.
Rectangle 2 (r2)
3 In the Width text field, type wall_t1.
4 In the Height text field, type rect1.
Union 1 (uni1)
1 On the Work Plane toolbar, click Booleans and Partitions and choose Union.
2 Select the objects r1 and r2 only.
3 In the Settings window for Union, locate the Union section.
4 Clear the Keep interior boundaries check box.
7 |
5 Right-click Union 1 (uni1) and choose Build Selected.
Build the remaining layers of the walls in a similar manner.
Rectangle 3 (r3)
3 In the Width text field, type rect2.
4 In the Height text field, type wall_t2.
5 Locate the Position section. In the xw text field, type rect_shift.
6 In the yw text field, type rect_shift.
Rectangle 4 (r4)
3 In the Width text field, type wall_t2.
4 In the Height text field, type rect2.
5 Locate the Position section. In the xw text field, type rect_shift.
8 |
6 In the yw text field, type rect_shift.

Union 2 (uni2)
1 On the Work Plane toolbar, click Booleans and Partitions and choose Union.
2 Select the objects r4 and r3 only.
3 In the Settings window for Union, locate the Union section.
4 Clear the Keep interior boundaries check box.
Extrude 1 (ext1)
1 Right-click Union 2 (uni2) and choose Build Selected.
Distances (m)
wall_h
9 |
Block 1 (blk1)
This block separates the two floors of the structure.

3 In the Width text field, type blk_w.
4 In the Depth text field, type blk_d.
5 In the Height text field, type blk_h.
6 Locate the Position section. In the x text field, type blk_shiftx.
7 In the y text field, type blk_shifty.
8 In the z text field, type blk_shiftz.
To remove unnecessary edges, you need to remove the parts of the walls that
intersect this block. To do so, use the boolean operation Difference to subtract a
copy of the block from the walls. Begin by creating the copy.
10 |
Difference 1 (dif1)
2 Select the object ext1 only.
The object labeled ext1 is made up of the walls previously obtained by extrusion.
Block 3 (blk3)
This block corresponds to the floor of the inside upper level.

4 In the Width text field, type sq_l.
5 In the Depth text field, type sq_l.
6 In the Height text field, type sq_h.
7 Locate the Position section. In the x text field, type sq_shift.
8 In the y text field, type sq_shift.
9 In the z text field, type blk_shiftz+blk_h.
Ignore Edges 1 (ige1)

2 On the Geometry toolbar, click Virtual Operations and choose Ignore Edges.
In the first steps of the geometry sequence, six unused vertical edges were created
on the walls. They are responsible for unnecessary constraints on the mesh and they
generate extra boundaries by splitting some faces. For these reasons, follow the
instructions below to remove them.
3 On the object fin, select Edges 6, 17, 33, 38, 60, and 63 only.
To be able to reach the edges click the Wireframe Rendering button on the Graphics
toolbar. Note that you can make the selection by clicking the Paste Selection button
and typing the indices in the dialog box that opens.
11 |
4 Right-click Ignore Edges 1 (ige1) and choose Build Selected.
MATERIALS
Material 1 (mat1)

2 In the Settings window for Material, type Interior Wall in the Label text field.
Property
Name
Value
Unit
Property group
0.7
W/(mK)
Basic
Density
rho
1700
kg/m
Basic
Cp
800
J/(kgK)
Basic
Material 2 (mat2)
2 In the Settings window for Material, type Isolation in the Label text field.
12 |

Property
Name
Value
Unit
Property group
0.04
W/(mK)
Basic
Density
rho
200
kg/m
Basic
Cp
1000
J/(kgK)
Basic
Material 3 (mat3)
2 In the Settings window for Material, type Exterior Wall in the Label text field.
Property
Name
Value
Unit
Property group
W/(mK)
Basic
Density
rho
2000
kg/m
Basic
Cp
1000
J/(kgK)
Basic
Material 4 (mat4)
2 In the Settings window for Material, type Horizontal Structure in the Label text
field.
Property
Name
Value
Unit
Property group
2.5
W/(mK)
Basic
Density
rho
5000
kg/m
Basic
Cp
600
J/(kgK)
Basic
Material 5 (mat5)
2 In the Settings window for Material, type Floor in the Label text field.
13 |
Property
Name
Value
Unit
Property group
W/(mK)
Basic
Density
rho
1000
kg/m
Basic
Cp
800
J/(kgK)
Basic
Heat Flux 1
5 In the Create Selection dialog box, type alpha in the Selection name text field.
6 Click OK.
Heat Flux 2
5 In the Create Selection dialog box, type beta in the Selection name text field.
6 Click OK.
Heat Flux 3
14 |

5 In the Create Selection dialog box, type gamma in the Selection name text field.
6 Click OK.
STUDY 1

RESULTS
Temperature (ht)
The first default plot group shows the temperature distribution.
Derived Values
Follow the steps below to find the minimum temperatures of and as well as the
heat flux of , , and .
Surface Minimum 1
On the Results toolbar, click More Derived Values and choose Minimum>Surface
Minimum.
Derived Values
1 In the Settings window for Surface Minimum, locate the Selection section.
2 From the Selection list, choose alpha.
15 |
TABLE

RESULTS
Derived Values
Surface Minimum 2
On the Results toolbar, click More Derived Values and choose Minimum>Surface
Minimum.
Derived Values
1 In the Settings window for Surface Minimum, locate the Selection section.
2 From the Selection list, choose beta.
TABLE

RESULTS
Derived Values
Integration.
Derived Values

TABLE
16 |
RESULTS
Derived Values
The displayed value should be close to 46.09 W.
Integration.
Derived Values

TA BL E

RESULTS
Derived Values
Integration.
Derived Values
2 From the Selection list, choose gamma.

TA BL E
17 |
RESULTS
Temperature (ht)
To plot the location of the minimum temperature on , follow the instructions below.
Data Sets
Selection
1 Right-click Study 1/Solution 1 (sol1) and choose Duplicate.
Data Sets
The data set Solution 2 is restricted to the surfaces .
3D Plot Group 3
2 In the Settings window for 3D Plot Group, type Minimum Temperature on Alpha

Minimum Temperature on Alpha

1 Right-click Minimum Temperature on Alpha and choose Surface.
5 In the Model Builder window, click Minimum Temperature on Alpha.
Max/Min Surface 1
On the Minimum Temperature on Alpha toolbar, click More Plots and choose Max/Min
Surface.
Minimum Temperature on Alpha

1 In the Settings window for Max/Min Surface, locate the Expression section.
3 On the Minimum Temperature on Alpha toolbar, click Plot.
18 |
TA BL E
As shown in Figure 3, the minimum temperature is at the corner of .

Now plot the location of the minimum temperature on .
Data Sets
1 In the Model Builder window, under Results>Data Sets right-click Study 1/Solution 1
(2) (sol1) and choose Duplicate.
2 In the Model Builder window, expand the Results>Data Sets>Study 1/Solution 1 (3)
(sol1) node, then click Selection.
The data set Solution 3 is restricted to the surfaces .
Minimum Temperature on Beta

1 In the Model Builder window, under Results right-click Minimum Temperature on
Alpha and choose Duplicate.
2 In the Settings window for 3D Plot Group, type Minimum Temperature on Beta

4 On the Minimum Temperature on Beta toolbar, click Plot.
19 |
20 |
Thermoelectric Leg
Introduction
A thermocouple is made of two different conductors (legs) in contact with each other
at one point (junction). When a temperature difference is established between the two
legs, then a voltage is established across the junction. Therefore a thermocouple
properly calibrated is a temperature sensor and can convert temperature gradients into
electric currents. In this validation example, we verify the response of one leg when a
current is passed through the device. A cooling effect, known as the Peltier effect, is
expected.
Model Definition
The component is 1-by-1-by-6 mm, as shown in Figure 1. The core of the device, the
thermoelectric part, is made of bismuth telluride (Bi2Te3). It is capped by two thin
copper electrodes, 0.1 mm thick.
Copper
Bismuth telluride
Copper
Figure 1: Thermoelectric leg geometry.
1 |
THERMOELECTRIC LEG
The material properties are available in COMSOL Multiphysics Material Library.

However, since the properties for bismuth telluride slightly differ from these from the
original benchmark, values from Ref. 1 are used in this application.
TABLE 1: MATERIAL PROPERTIES FOR BISMUTH TELLURIDE
Property
Value
1.6 W/(mK)
Density
7740 kg/m
154.4 J/(kgK)
1.1e5 S/m
Seebeck coefficient
2e-4 V/K
In addition Seebeck coefficient for copper, 6.510-6 V/K, is also taken from Ref. 1.
The bottom electrode surface is held at 0 C while the top electrode and the lateral
surfaces are thermally insulated.
The bottom electrode is electrically grounded at 0 V. The total inward electric current
through the top electrode is 0.7 A. The lateral surfaces are electrically insulated.

The current circulating in the thermoelectric device is responsible for the cooling effect
shown in Figure 2. The temperature field is in complete agreement with the results
from Ref. 1.
2 |
THERMOELECTRIC LEG
Figure 2: Temperature field on the thermoelectric leg surface.

Figure 3 shows the isothermal surfaces and the heat flux which is in the same direction
as the electric current (from the top to the bottom).
3 |
THERMOELECTRIC LEG
Figure 3: Isothermal surfaces in the thermoelectric leg.

The top level electrode reaches an electric potential of around 49.1 mV due to the
inward current density set on this boundary. This corresponds to the value presented
in Ref. 1.
4 |
THERMOELECTRIC LEG
Figure 4: Electric potential in the thermoelectric leg.
Reference
1. M. Jaegle, Multiphysics Simulation of Thermoelectric Systems, Modeling of
Peltier-Cooling and Thermoelectric Generation, Proc. COMSOL Conf. 2008
Hanover, 2008.

thermoelectric_leg
NEW
5 |
THERMOELECTRIC LEG
MODEL WIZARD

2 In the Select physics tree, select Heat Transfer>Thermoelectric Effect.
3 Click Add.
4 Click Study.
6 Click Done.
GEOMETRY 1

Block 1 (blk1)
Layer name
Thickness (mm)
Layer 1
0.1
5 Find the Layer position subsection. Select the Top check box.
Now define the parameters that will be used for the model. The inward current density,
J0, corresponds to a total current of 0.7 A through a 1 1 mm square.
GLOBAL DEFINITIONS
Parameters
6 |
THERMOELECTRIC LEG

Name
Expression
Value
Description
T0
0[degC]
273.2 K
Temperature reference
J0
0.7[A]/(1[mm])^2
7E5 A/m
Inward current density
MATERIALS
Material 1 (mat1)

2 In the Settings window for Material, type Bismuth Telluride - Bi2Te3 in the
Label text field.
Property
Name
Value
Unit
Property group
1.6
W/(mK)
Basic
Density
rho
7740
kg/m
Basic

pressure
Cp
154.4
J/(kgK)
Basic
sigma
1.1e5
S/m
Basic
epsilonr
Basic
Seebeck coefficient
2e-4
V/K
Basic
ADD MATERIAL
MATERIALS
Copper (mat2)
(mat2).
7 |
THERMOELECTRIC LEG
Property
Name
Value
Unit
Property group
Seebeck coefficient
6.5e-6
V/K
Basic
Temperature 1
Ground 1
1 On the Physics toolbar, click Boundaries and choose Ground.
Normal Current Density 1

1 On the Physics toolbar, click Boundaries and choose Normal Current Density.
3 In the Settings window for Normal Current Density, locate the Normal Current
Density section.
4 In the Jn text field, type J0.
Due to the geometrical properties, replacing the default tetrahedral mesh by a

hexahedral sweep mesh is more suited.
MESH 1
Swept 1
choose Swept.
2 In the Settings window for Swept, click to expand the Source faces section.
8 |
THERMOELECTRIC LEG
Now visualize the mesh and compare it with the figure below.
STUDY 1

RESULTS
Temperature (ht)
The first default plot shows the temperature field; compare with Figure 2.

The second default plot, corresponding to Figure 3, shows the isothermal surfaces.
9 |
THERMOELECTRIC LEG
Isosurface 1.
2 In the Settings window for Isosurface, locate the Expression section.
Electric Potential (ec)

The third default plot group shows the electric potential distribution as in Figure 4.
10 |
THERMOELECTRIC LEG
Tin Melting Front

Introduction
This example demonstrates how to model phase transition by a moving boundary
interface according to the Stefan problem. It is adapted from the benchmark study in
Ref. 1.
A square cavity containing both solid and liquid tin is submitted to a temperature
difference between left and right boundaries. Fluid and solid parts are solved in
separate domains sharing a moving melting front (see Figure 1). The position of this
boundary through time is calculated according to the Stefan energy balance condition.
Convection
Liquid
Solid
Liquid
Solid
Figure 1: Square cavity with moving phase interface

In the melt, motion generated by natural convection is expected due to the
temperature gradient. This motion, in turn, influences the front displacement.
Model Definition
The geometry presented in Figure 2 shows a square of side length 10 cm filled with
pure tin. The left and right boundaries are maintained at 508 K and 503 K,
1 |
TIN MELTING FRONT
respectively. Because the fusion temperature of pure tin is 505 K, both liquid and solid
phases co-exist in the square.
Thermal insulation
Fusion temperature
(505 K)
Hot temperature
(508 K)
Liquid
Solid
Cold temperature
(503 K)
Thermal insulation
Figure 2: Geometry and boundary conditions at starting time.

The initial temperature distribution is assumed to vary linearly in the horizontal
direction as shown in Figure 3.
Figure 3: Initial temperature profile.
2 |
TIN MELTING FRONT
The melting front is the vertical line located at x = 6 cm where the temperature is
505 K.
The liquid part on the left is governed by the Navier-Stokes equations in the
Boussinesq approximation:
0
u
T
+ 0 ( u ) u = p + ( u + ( u ) ) + g
t
u = 0
= 0 p ( T T f )
In these expressions, 0 (kg/m3) is the reference density of the fluid, (kg/m3) is the
linearized density formula used for the gravity force, p (1/K) is the tin coefficient of
thermal expansion, and Tf (K) denotes the fusion temperature of tin.
As the metal melts, the solid-liquid interface moves toward the solid side. The energy
balance at this front is expressed by
0 Hv n = ( l s ) n
(1)
where H is the latent heat of fusion, equal to 60 kJ/kg, v (m/s) is the front velocity
vector, n is the normal vector at the front, and l and s (W/m2) are the heat fluxes
coming from the liquid and solid sides, respectively (see Figure 4).
Liquid
Solid
Melting front
Figure 4: Heat fluxes at the melting front
3 |
TIN MELTING FRONT
Table 1 reviews the material properties of tin (Ref. 2) used in this model.
TABLE 1: MATERIAL PROPERTIES OF TIN
PARAMETER
DESCRIPTION
VALUE
Density
7500 kg/m3
Cp
Heat capacity
200 J/(kgK)
60 W/(mK)
2.6710-4 K-1
Kinematic viscosity
8.010-7 m2/s
Tf
Fusion temperature
505 K
Latent heat of fusion
60 kJ/kg

Figure 5 shows the velocity profile in the fluid domain. The convective cell due to
buoyancy increases the melting speed at the upper part of the cavity.
Figure 5: Velocity profile in the fluid at the end of the simulation.
4 |
TIN MELTING FRONT
At the end of the simulation, the melting front does not move anymore because
balance between left and right adjacent fluxes has been reached.
In Figure 6, the temperature profile is represented jointly by a heat flux arrow plot.
Figure 6: Temperature profile at the end of the simulation.

The quantities l and s, illustrated in Figure 4, can be computed using the up and
down operators. The components of l s would then be given by
up(ht.tfluxx)-down(ht.tfluxx) and up(ht.tfluxy)-down(ht.tfluxy).
However, this method evaluates the temperature gradient which may lead to
imprecisions due to the mesh discretization. Instead, the quantity (l s) n,
involved in Equation 1, is more precisely evaluated through the Lagrange multiplier
for temperature, T_lm. This variable is available when weak constraints are enabled in
the region of interest, as it is the case here with the fixed temperature constraint at the
melting front. For more information about weak constraints, refer to the section Weak
Constraint in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.
To handle the melting front movement, a mesh deformation is necessary. During such
a transformation, matter from solid tin is removed while the same amount of liquid tin
5 |
TIN MELTING FRONT
is added to the fluid. The appropriate tool for deforming the mesh without reflecting
any expansion or contraction effects to the material properties is the Deformed
Geometry interface.
References
1. F. Wolff and R. Viskanta, Solidification of a Pure Metal at a Vertical Wall in the
Presence of Liquid Superheat, Int.J. Heat and Mass Transfer, vol. 31, no. 8,
pp. 17351744, 1988.
2. V. Alexiades, N. Hannoun, and T.Z. Mai, Tin Melting: Effect of Grid Size and
Scheme on the Numerical Solution, Proc. 5th Mississippi State Conf. Differential
Equations and Computational Simulations, pp. 5569, 2003.

tin_melting_front
NEW

MODEL WIZARD

3 Click Add.
4 In the Select physics tree, select Mathematics>Deformed Mesh>Deformed Geometry
(dg).
5 Click Add.
6 Click Study.
Dependent.
8 Click Done.
6 |
TIN MELTING FRONT
GLOBAL DEFINITIONS
Parameters
Name
Expression
Value
Description
k_Sn
60[W/(m*K)]
60 W/(mK)
Cp_Sn
200[J/(kg*K)]
200 J/(kgK)
Specific heat capacity
alpha_Sn
2.67e-4[1/K]
2.67E-4 1/K
expansion
nu_Sn
8e-7[m^2/s]
8E-7 m/s
Kinematic viscosity
rho_Sn
7500[kg/m^3]
7500 kg/m
Density
DelH
60[kJ/kg]
6E4 J/kg
Latent heat of fusion
Tf
505[K]
505 K
Melting point
Th
508[K]
508 K
Hot wall temperature
Tc
503[K]
503 K
Cold wall temperature
p_ref
100[Pa]
100 Pa
Gauge pressure
GEOMETRY 1
Square 1 (sq1)
1 On the Geometry toolbar, click Primitives and choose Square.
3 In the Side length text field, type 0.1.
Layer name
Thickness (m)
Layer 1
0.06
5 Select the Layers to the left check box.

6 Clear the Layers on bottom check box.
7 |
TIN MELTING FRONT
MATERIALS
Material 1 (mat1)

2 In the Settings window for Material, type Tin (Solid) in the Label text field.
Property
Name
Value
Unit
Property group
k_Sn
W/(mK)
Basic
Density
rho
rho_Sn
kg/m
Basic
Cp
Cp_Sn
J/(kgK)
Basic
Material 2 (mat2)
2 In the Settings window for Material, type Tin (Liquid) in the Label text field.
4 Locate the Geometric Entity Selection section. Click Create Selection.
5 In the Create Selection dialog box, type Tin (liquid) in the Selection name text
field.
6 Click OK.
Before defining the material properties of liquid tin, indicate which is the fluid domain
to let COMSOL Multiphysics flag what properties you need to specify.
LAMINAR FLOW (SPF)
3 From the Selection list, choose Tin (liquid).

8 |
TIN MELTING FRONT
section.
MATERIALS
Tin (Liquid) (mat2)

1 In the Model Builder window, under Component 1 (comp1)>Materials click Tin (Liquid)
(mat2).
Property
Name
Value
Unit
Property group
k_Sn
W/(mK)
Basic
Density
rho
rho_Sn
kg/m
Basic
Cp
Cp_Sn
J/(kgK)
Basic
gamma
1.4
Basic
Dynamic viscosity
mu
rho_Sn
*nu_Sn
Pas
Basic
Initial Values 1
Define the initial temperature as a function of Xg, the first coordinate on the
undeformed geometry.
Initial Values 1.
3 In the T text field, type Th-Xg/0.1[m]*(Th-Tc).
LAMINAR FLOW (SPF)
Initial Values 1
Initial Values 1.
3 In the p text field, type p_ref.
9 |
TIN MELTING FRONT
Volume Force 1
0
rho_Sn*g_const*alpha_Sn*(T-Tf)
In the Model Builder window, under Component 1 (comp1) click Heat Transfer (ht).
Temperature 1
Temperature 2
4 In the T0 text field, type Tf.
Show advanced physics options as follows to enable weak constraints on the melting
front. This creates the Lagrange multiplier for temperature, which evaluates the heat
flux jump between the adjacent liquid and solid domains more accurately.
6 Click to expand the Constraint settings section. Locate the Constraint Settings
section. Select the Use weak constraints check box.
Temperature 3
10 |
TIN MELTING FRONT

LAMINAR FLOW (SPF)

3 In the Settings window for Pressure Point Constraint, locate the Pressure Constraint
section.
4 In the p0 text field, type p_ref.
The model only contains information about the pressure gradient and estimates the
pressure field up to a constant. To define this constant, you arbitrarily fix the
pressure at a point.
DEFORMED GEOMETRY (DG)
In the Model Builder window, under Component 1 (comp1) click Deformed Geometry
(dg).
Free Deformation 1
1 On the Physics toolbar, click Domains and choose Free Deformation.
2 In the Settings window for Free Deformation, locate the Domain Selection section.
Prescribed Mesh Displacement 2

1 On the Physics toolbar, click Boundaries and choose Prescribed Mesh Displacement.
3 In the Settings window for Prescribed Mesh Displacement, locate the Prescribed
Mesh Displacement section.
4 Clear the Prescribed y displacement check box.
Prescribed Mesh Displacement 1

1 In the Model Builder window, under Component 1 (comp1)>Deformed Geometry (dg)
click Prescribed Mesh Displacement 1.

2 In the Settings window for Prescribed Mesh Displacement, locate the Prescribed
Mesh Displacement section.
3 Clear the Prescribed x displacement check box.
11 |
TIN MELTING FRONT
Prescribed Normal Mesh Velocity 1

1 On the Physics toolbar, click Boundaries and choose Prescribed Normal Mesh Velocity.
3 In the Settings window for Prescribed Normal Mesh Velocity, locate the Normal Mesh
Velocity section.
4 In the vn text field, type T_lm[W/m^2]/(rho_Sn*DelH).
The variable T_lm is the Lagrange multiplier for temperature.

MESH 1

3 From the Element size list, choose Fine.
STUDY 1

3 Click Range.
4 In the Range dialog box, type 100 in the Step text field.
6 Click Replace.
8 Select the Relative tolerance check box.
Solution 1 (sol1)
stepping section.
Intermediate.
12 |
TIN MELTING FRONT

RESULTS
Temperature (ht)
This default plot shows the temperature profile. To reproduce Figure 6, add arrows of
the heat flux field to see the relation between temperature and velocity.
1 Right-click Results>Temperature (ht) and choose Arrow Surface.
Flow>Velocity and pressure>u,v - Velocity field (Material).
3 Locate the Coloring and Style section. From the Arrow type list, choose Cone.
Velocity (spf)
This default plot shows the velocity profile in the fluid region. To reproduce Figure 5,
add arrows of the velocity field to visualize the convective flow direction.
1 In the Model Builder window, under Results right-click Velocity (spf) and choose
Arrow Surface.
Flow>Velocity and pressure>u,v - Velocity field (Material).
3 Locate the Coloring and Style section. From the Arrow type list, choose Cone.
Finally, plot the mesh deformation as follows.
2D Plot Group 5
2 In the Settings window for 2D Plot Group, type Mesh Deformation in the Label
text field.
Mesh Deformation
1 Right-click Mesh Deformation and choose Mesh.
2 In the Settings window for Mesh, locate the Color section.
3 From the Element color list, choose None.
13 |
TIN MELTING FRONT
4 From the Wireframe color list, choose Blue.

5 Right-click Results>Mesh Deformation>Mesh 1 and choose Filter.
6 In the Settings window for Filter, locate the Element Selection section.
7 In the Logical expression for inclusion text field, type dom==1.
This logical expression restricts the plot to the fluid domain.

8 On the Mesh Deformation toolbar, click Plot.
9 Right-click Mesh 1 and choose Duplicate.
10 In the Settings window for Mesh, locate the Color section.
11 From the Wireframe color list, choose Red.
12 In the Model Builder window, expand the Results>Mesh Deformation>Mesh 2 node,
then click Filter 1.

13 In the Settings window for Filter, locate the Element Selection section.
14 In the Logical expression for inclusion text field, type dom==2.
This logical expression filters the solid domain.

15 On the Mesh Deformation toolbar, click Plot.
The plot should look like that in the figure below.
14 |
TIN MELTING FRONT
Thermal Stress Analysis of a Turbine

S ta t o r B la de
Introduction
The conditions within gas turbines are extreme. The pressure can be as high as 40
bars, and the temperature far above 1000 K. Any new component must therefore be
carefully designed to be able to withstand thermal stress, vibrations due to the rotating
machinery and aerodynamic loads exerted by the fluid rushing through the turbine. If
a component fails, the high rotational speeds can result in a complete rupture of the
whole turbine.
The most extreme conditions are found in the high pressure part downstream of the
combustion chamber where hot combustion gas flows through a cascade of rotors and
stators. To prevent the parts from melting, relatively cold air is taken from bleeding
vanes located in the high-pressure compressor casing, then led past the combustion
chamber into the turbine casing in order to be used as a coolant. Directly behind the
combustion chamber, both internal cooling within ducts and film cooling over the
blade side surfaces are applied. Further downstream, where the temperature is
somewhat lower, it may suffice with internal cooling. For more details on gas turbines,
see Ref. 1.
Since the physics within a gas turbine is very complex, simplified approaches are often
used at initial stages of the development of the new components. In this tutorial, the
thermal stresses in a stator blade with internal cooling are analyzed.
Note: This application requires the Structural Mechanics Module and the CFD
Module or Heat Transfer Module. It also uses the Material Library.
Model Definition
The model geometry is shown in Figure 1. The stator blade profile is a modified
version of a design shown in Ref. 2. The model includes some generic mounting details
as well as a generic internal cooling duct.
1 |
T H E R M A L S T R E S S A N A L Y S I S O F A TU R B I N E S T A T O R B L A D E
Figure 1: A stator blade with mounting details.

Use the Thermal Stress interface from the Structural Mechanics Module to set up the
model. The blade and the mounting details are assumed to be made of the M-152 alloy
which is a 12 Cr alloy with high tensile strength (Ref. 1). M-152 is available in the
COMSOL Material Library. In addition to the data covered by the Material Library,
the linear elastic model requires a reference temperature that is set to 300 K and a
Poissons Ratio that is set to 0.33, a number comparable to that for other stainless
steels. Any coating has been neglected.
Figure 2 shows the cooling duct. The duct geometry is simplified and does not include
details such as the ribs (Ref. 3) typical for cooling ducts. Instead of simulating the
complicated flow in the duct, an average Nusselt number correlation from Ref. 3 is
used to calculate a heat transfer coefficient. Assume the cooling fluid to be air at 30 bar
and 600 K.
2 |
Figure 2: The internal cooling duct.

The heat flux on the stator blade surfaces is calculated using the heat transfer
coefficient. The pressure and suction sides are approximated as two flat plates using the
local heat transfer coefficient for external forced convection. The combustion gases are
approximated as air at 30 bar and 1100 K. The corresponding speed of sound is
approximately 650 m/s.
Ref. 4 contains a Mach number plot of stators without film cooling. A typical Mach
number is 0.7 on the pressure side (the concave side) and 0.45 on the suction side (the
convex side). This corresponds to approximately 450 m/s on the pressure side and
300 m/s on the suction side.
The platform walls adjacent to the stator blades are treated in the same way as the stator
itself but with the free stream velocity set to 350 m/s.
The stator blade exchanges heat with the cooling air through the boundaries
highlighted in Figure 3. It is assumed that the turbine has a local working temperature
3 |
of 900 K, and that the heat transfer coefficient to the stator is 25 W/(m2K).
Figure 3: Boundaries through which heat is exchanged with the cooling air.
The attachment of the stator element to a ring support is simulated via roller and
spring foundation boundary conditions on few boundaries. All other boundaries are
free to deform as a result of thermal expansion.

Figure 4 shows a temperature surface plot. The internal cooling creates significant
temperature gradients within the blade. However, the trailing edge reaches a
temperature close to that of the combustion gases, which indicates that the cooling
4 |
might be insufficient. The side walls also become very hot, and some additional
cooling can be beneficial.
Figure 4: Surface temperature plot.

Figure 5 shows a surface plot of the von Mises stress. The maximum stress with a value
close to the yield stress for the material (Ref. 5) occurs in the internal cooling duct. No
5 |
definite assessment can however be made without conducting a more advanced

analysis that includes details of the flow inside the duct.
Figure 5: Surface plot of the von Mises stress.
6 |
Figure 6: Surface plot of the displacement.
References
1. M.P. Boyce, Gas Turbine Engineering Handbook, 2nd ed., Gulf Professional
Publishing, 2001.
2. NASA, Power Turbine, Glenn Research Center, www.grc.nasa.gov/WWW/
K-12/airplane/powturb.html.
3. J. Bredberg, Turbulence Modelling for Internal Cooling of Gas-Turbine Blades,
Thesis for the degree of doctor of philosophy, Chalmers University of Technology,
2002.
4. P. Dahlander, Source Term Model Approaches to Film Cooling Simulations,
Thesis for the degree of doctor of philosophy, Chalmers University of Technology,
2001.
5. http://www.cnalloys.co.uk/stainless-jethete-m152
7 |
Application Library path: Heat_Transfer_Module/Thermal_Stress/

turbine_stator
Note: Instructions below require to select entities corresponding to a particular

numbers list. For example:
Select Boundaries 113 and 139 only.
In most cases the easiest way to select them is to click the Paste Selection button
and paste the numbers as they are printed in the document (for example paste 113
and 139 for the example above).

NEW

MODEL WIZARD

3 Click Add.
4 Click Study.
6 Click Done.
GLOBAL DEFINITIONS
Parameters
8 |

Name
Expression
Value
Description
Pr_cool
0.72
0.72
Cooling Prandtl number
U_suction
_side
450[m/s]
450 m/s
Gas velocity on stator

suction side
U_pressur
e_side
300[m/s]
300 m/s
Gas velocity on stator

pressure side
U_platfor
m
350[m/s]
350 m/s
Gas velocity along

platform walls
T_gas
1100[K]
1100 K
Gas temperature
p_high
30[bar]
3E6 Pa
High pressure level
mu_cool
3.1e-5[Pa*s]
3.1E-5 Pas
Viscosity of the
cooling air
Cp_cool
770[J/kg/K]
770 J/(kgK)
Heat capacity of the

cooling air
T_cool
800[K]
800 K
Cooling air temperature
H_cool
0.01[m]
0.01 m
Characteristic length
scale of cooling
channels
T_work
900[K]
900 K
Working temperature
Nu_cool
400
400
Average Nusselt number

in cooling channel
GEOMETRY 1
Import 1 (imp1)
3 Click Browse.
turbine_stator.mphbin.
5 Click Import.
6 Click the Transparency button on the Graphics toolbar to see the interior.
The imported geometry should look as shown in the Figure 1.

9 |
DEFINITIONS
Define a number of sections to simplify the model setup. First define the internal
cooling duct boundaries.
Explicit 1
2 In the Settings window for Explicit, type Cooling_Duct in the Label text field.
Boundary.
5 In the Paste Selection dialog box, type 222-225, 236, 261-266, 270-271,
278-279, 283-285, 292-305, 308-311, 313-314, 316, 321 in the Selection
text field.
If you are reading an electronic version of this document, you can copy the
geometric entity numbers from the text.
6 Click OK.
The selection is shown in Figure 2.

Proceed to select the boundaries through which heat exchanger with the rest of
turbine occur Figure 3.
Explicit 2
2 In the Settings window for Explicit, type Exchange_Boundaries in the Label text
field.
Boundary.
5 In the Paste Selection dialog box, type 3-4, 9, 12, 14, 16, 19-20, 22-24,
28-96, 98-117, 122-135, 138-162, 166-221, 223, 226-231, 239-260,
267-269, 272-277, 280-282, 322-444 in the Selection text field.
6 Click OK.
MATERIALS
On the Home toolbar, click Windows and choose Add Material.
10 |
ADD MATERIAL

2 In the tree, select Material Library>Iron Alloys>JETHETE M-152 or Moly Ascoloy (UNS
S64152)>JETHETE M-152 or Moly Ascoloy (UNS S64152) [solid].
MATERIALS
JETHETE M-152 or Moly Ascoloy (UNS S64152) [solid] (mat1)

1 In the Model Builder window, under Component 1 (comp1)>Materials click JETHETE
M-152 or Moly Ascoloy (UNS S64152) [solid] (mat1).
Property
Poisson's ratio
Name
Value
Unit
Property group
nu
0.33
Young's modulus and

Poisson's ratio
1 In the Model Builder windows toolbar, click the Show button and select Discretization
in the menu.
2 In the Model Builder window, under Component 1 (comp1) click Solid Mechanics
(solid).
3 In the Settings window for Solid Mechanics, click to expand the Discretization
section.
4 From the Displacement field list, choose Linear.
MULTIPHYSICS
1 In the Model Builder window, under Component 1 (comp1)>Multiphysics click Thermal

Expansion 1 (te1).
2 In the Settings window for Thermal Expansion, locate the Thermal Expansion
Properties section.
3 In the Tref text field, type 300[K].
11 |
On the Physics toolbar, click Solid Mechanics (solid) and choose Heat Transfer in Solids
(ht).
Initial Values 1

3 In the T text field, type T_gas.
4 In the Model Builder window, click Heat Transfer in Solids (ht).
Heat Flux 1
3 From the Selection list, choose Exchange_Boundaries.
6 In the Text text field, type T_work.
Heat Flux 2
3 From the Selection list, choose Cooling_Duct.
5 In the h text field, type Nu_cool*mu_cool*Cp_cool/2/Pr_cool/H_cool.
6 In the Text text field, type T_cool.
Heat Flux 3
6 From the list, choose Plate, local transfer coefficient.
7 In the xpl text field, type 0.1675-x.
8 In the U text field, type U_suction_side.
12 |
9 In the pA text field, type p_high.

10 In the Text text field, type T_gas.
Heat Flux 4
8 In the U text field, type U_pressure_side.
Heat Flux 5
2 Select Boundaries 15, 21, 118121, 164, 165, 232, 234, 235, 237, 286, 289291,
306, 307, 315, 317, and 320 only.

8 In the U text field, type U_platform.
In the Model Builder window, under Component 1 (comp1) click Solid Mechanics (solid).
Roller 1
1 On the Physics toolbar, click Boundaries and choose Roller.
13 |
Spring Foundation 1
1 On the Physics toolbar, click Boundaries and choose Spring Foundation.
3 In the Settings window for Spring Foundation, locate the Spring section.
4 From the list, choose Diagonal.
5 In the kA table, enter the following settings:
1e9
Spring Foundation 2
0
1e10
Spring Foundation 3
14 |
1e9
MESH 1
Size
choose Size.
Size 1
1 In the Model Builder window, under Component 1 (comp1)>Mesh 1 click Size 1.
4 From the Selection list, choose Cooling_Duct.
5 Locate the Element Size section. From the Predefined list, choose Fine.
Free Tetrahedral 1
2 Right-click Free Tetrahedral 1 and choose Build All.
STUDY 1

RESULTS
Stress (solid)
The first default plot show the von Mises stress. Disable the deformation and create a
max/min plot to display the critical point in the stator.
1 In the Model Builder window, expand the Stress (solid) node.
2 In the Model Builder window, expand the Results>Stress (solid)>Surface 1 node.
Deformation
1 Right-click Deformation and choose Disable.
2 On the Stress (solid) toolbar, click More Plots and choose Max/Min Surface.
Stress (solid)
1 In the Settings window for Max/Min Surface, click Replace Expression in the
1>Solid Mechanics>Stress>solid.mises - von Mises stress.
2 On the Stress (solid) toolbar, click Plot.
15 |

The second default plot shows the temperature distribution Figure 4.
Temperature (ht)
3 Clear the Plot data set edges check box.
Finally, plot the total displacement (Figure 6).
3D Plot Group 4
2 In the Model Builder window, right-click 3D Plot Group 4 and choose Volume.
3 In the Settings window for Volume, click Replace Expression in the upper-right
corner of the Expression section. From the menu, choose Component 1>Solid
Mechanics>Displacement>solid.disp - Total displacement.
4 Locate the Expression section. From the Unit list, choose mm.
16 |
Turbulent Flow Over a Backward

Facing Step
Introduction
The backward facing step has long been a central benchmark case in computational
fluid dynamics. The geometry is shown in Figure 1.
Figure 1: Backstep geometry. Dimensions in SI units.

Fully developed channel flow enters at the domain from the left. When the flow
reaches the step, it detaches and a recirculation zone is formed behind the step.
Because of the expansion of the channel, the flow slows down and eventually
1 |
TU R B U L E N T F L O W O V E R A B A C K W A R D F A C I N G S T E P
reattaches. The flow field is displayed in Figure 2.
Figure 2: Resulting flow field.

Though seemingly simple, the flow field is a challenge for turbulence models that
utilize wall functions. The reason is that wall functions are derived by invoking
equilibrium assumptions. Separation and reattachment do not adhere to these
assumptions and it must therefore be asserted by numerical experiments that the wall
functions can give accurate results even if the underlying theoretical assumptions are
not strictly satisfied. The experiment is motivated by the fact that flow with separation
and subsequent reattachment are of central importance in many engineering
applications.
2 |
Model Definition
The model data is taken from Ref. 1. The parameters are given in Table 1. The
Reynolds number based on Vinl and the step height, S, is 4.8104 and the flow is
therefore clearly turbulent.
TABLE 1: MODEL PARAMETERS
Property
Value
Description
0.0381 m
Step height
hc
2S
Inlet channel height
3S
Outlet channel height
L1
0.3048 m
Inlet channel length
L2
1.3335 m
Outlet channel length
Vinl
18.2 m/s
Velocity at center of upstream channel

3
1.23 kg/m
-5
1.7910
Density
Dynamic viscosity
You build the model in two steps:

1 Simulate flow in a long channel of the same height as the inlet to give inlet boundary
conditions for the actual geometry.

2 Simulate the flow over the backward facing step using the inlet boundary condition
from Step 1.
THE INLET CHANNEL
Ref. 1 suggests to simulate a channel that is 100hc in length. Because the channel is
symmetric around the midplane, the geometry is taken to be a rectangle with lower left
corner at (x, y) = (0, 0) and upper right corner at (x, y) = (100hc, 0.5hc). The upper
boundary at y = 0.5hc is a symmetry plane and the lower boundary at y = 0 is the wall.
Inlet Boundary Conditions

At the inlet x = 0, a plug flow boundary condition with 3% turbulent intensity and a
turbulent length scale according to the Turbulent Non-Isothermal Flow Theory in the
Heat Transfer Module Users Guide is prescribed. The inflow velocity cannot be set
directly to 18.2 m/s since the resulting centerline velocity at the outlet then becomes
too high. While it is possible to set up an ODE that automatically computes the
appropriate inlet velocity, it is far easier for small models like this one to find it by trial
and error. A few iterations reveal that an inlet velocity of 16.58 m/s gives a centerline
value at the outlet very close to 18.2 m/s.
3 |
Outlet Boundary Conditions

Outlet boundary conditions can give local artifacts at the outlet. One possible strategy
is to elongate the channel and extract data some distance before the outlet. That is
however not necessary since fully developed flow in a channel only has a velocity
component tangential to the wall, that is normal to the outflow. By prescribing that
the outflow must have no tangential component, the outlet artifacts can be removed.
THE BACKWARD FACING STEP
There are two aspects of the backward facing step that need special consideration.
Mesh Generation
It is important to apply a fine enough mesh at the separation point to accurately
capture the creation of the shear layer. It must also be remembered that both the flow
field and turbulence variables can feature strong gradients close to the walls and that
the mesh must be fine enough there to represent these gradients.
Solver Settings
The balance between the turbulence transport equations and the Navier-Stokes
equations is rather delicate. If an iteration brings the flow into a state with unphysically
large gradients, there is a considerable risk that the simulation diverges. It is therefore
advisable to use the parametric solver to gradually increase the Reynolds number of the
flow. The most robust way is to decrease the viscosity which is done in this model.

As shown in Figure 3, the recirculation length normalized by the step height becomes
6.73. Ref. 2 gives an experimental result of 7.1. The result provided by COMSOL is
well within the range shown by other investigations (see Ref. 1 and Ref. 3). The
separation lengths in Ref. 1 ranges between 6.12 and 7.24. In Ref. 3, recirculation
lengths between 5.4 and 7.1 are obtained. Furthermore, Ref. 3 shows that the
4 |
recirculation length can differ significantly by just changing some implementation

details in the wall functions.
Figure 3: Contour plot of streamwise velocity equal to zero, colored by x/S where S is the
step height.
Finally, note that the recirculation length can shift quite significantly with the mesh
resolution. The current result does not shift much if the mesh is refined, but coarser
meshes can yield very different recirculation lengths. This emphasizes the need to
ensure that the mesh is fine enough.
References
1. 1st NAFEMS Workbook of CFD Examples. Laminar and Turbulent
Two-Dimensional Internal Flows, NAFEMS, 2000.
2. J. Kim, S.J. Kline, and J.P. Johnston, Investigation of a Reattaching Turbulent
Shear Layer: Flow Over a Backward Facing Step, Transactions of the ASME, vol.
102, p. 302, 1980.
3. D. Kuzmin, O. Mierka, and S. Turek, On the Implementation of the k-
Turbulence Model in Incompressible Flow Solvers Based on a Finite Element
5 |
Discretization, Intl J Computing Science and Mathematics, vol. 1, no. 24, pp.
193206, 2007.

turbulent_backstep
NEW

MODEL WIZARD

2 In the Select physics tree, select Fluid Flow>Single-Phase Flow>Turbulent
Flow>Turbulent Flow, k- (spf).
3 Click Add.
4 Click Study.
6 Click Done.
GLOBAL DEFINITIONS
Parameters
6 |
Name
Expression
Value
Description
0.0381[m]
0.0381 m
Step height
hc
0.0762[m]
0.0762 m
Inlet channel height
0.1143[m]
0.1143 m
Outlet channel height
L1
0.3048[m]
0.3048 m
Inlet channel length
L2
1.3335[m]
1.334 m
Outlet channel length
Name
Expression
Value
Description
Vinl
16.58[m/s]
16.58 m/s
Centerline inlet
velocity
rhof
1.23[kg/m^3]
1.23 kg/m
Density
muf
1.79e-5[Pa*s]*
fact
1.79E-5 Pas
Dynamic viscosity
fact
1.0
Viscosity scaling
factor
GEOMETRY 1
Rectangle 1 (r1)
3 In the Width text field, type 100*L1.
4 In the Height text field, type hc/2.
MATERIALS
Material 1 (mat1)

Property
Name
Value
Unit
Property group
Density
rho
rhof
kg/m
Basic
Dynamic viscosity
mu
muf
Pas
Basic
Turbulent Flow, k- (spf)
Inlet 1
4 In the U0 text field, type Vinl.
5 Locate the Turbulence Conditions section. In the LT text field, type 0.07*hc.
7 |
6 In the IT text field, type 0.03.
Symmetry 1
Outlet 1
3 In the Settings window for Outlet, locate the Pressure Conditions section.
4 Select the Normal flow check box.
MESH 1
Mapped 1
Mapped.
Distribution 1
1 In the Model Builder window, under Component 1 (comp1)>Mesh 1 right-click Mapped
Distribution 2
8 |
Distribution 3
STUDY 1

RESULTS
Velocity (spf)
Check that the flow is fully developed by plotting the turbulent dynamic viscosity
along the centerline.
1D Plot Group 4
On the Home toolbar, click Add Plot Group and choose 1D Plot Group.
Line Graph 1
On the 1D Plot Group 4 toolbar, click Line Graph.
1D Plot Group 4
This is the top surface.

corner of the y-axis data section. From the menu, choose Component 1>Turbulent
Flow, k->Turbulence variables>spf.muT - Turbulent dynamic viscosity.
3 In the Model Builder window, right-click 1D Plot Group 4 and choose Rename.
4 In the Rename 1D Plot Group dialog box, type Turbulent viscosity in the New
label text field.
5 Click OK.
9 |
6 On the Turbulent viscosity toolbar, click Plot.
As can be seen in the resulting plot, the turbulent viscosity has obtained a constant
value well before the outlet.
Turbulent viscosity along the centerline of the inlet channel.

With the initial simulation step completed, create the backstep model.
ROOT

ADD PHYSICS
3 In the Add physics tree, select Recently Used>Turbulent Flow, k- (spf).
10 |
settings:
Studies
Solve
Study 1
ADD STUDY
settings:
Physics
Solve
Turbulent Flow, k- (spf)

GEOMETRY 2
Rectangle 1 (r1)
3 In the Width text field, type L1+L2.
4 In the Height text field, type hc.
5 Locate the Position section. In the x text field, type -L1.
6 In the y text field, type S.
Point 1 (pt1)
3 In the x text field, type -L1.
4 In the y text field, type S+hc/2.
11 |
Union 1 (uni1)
1 On the Geometry toolbar, click Booleans and Partitions and choose Union.
2 Select the objects r1 and pt1 only.
Rectangle 2 (r2)
3 In the Width text field, type L2.
4 In the Height text field, type S.
Union 2 (uni2)
2 On the Geometry toolbar, click Booleans and Partitions and choose Union.
3 Select the objects uni1 and r2 only.
Mesh Control Edges 1 (mce1)

1 On the Geometry toolbar, click Virtual Operations and choose Mesh Control Edges.
2 On the object fin, select Boundary 7 only.
DEFINITIONS
In the Model Builder window, under Component 1 (comp1) click Definitions.
Linear Extrusion 1 (linext1)

1 On the Definitions toolbar, click Component Couplings and choose Linear Extrusion.
2 In the Settings window for Linear Extrusion, locate the Source Selection section.
5 Locate the Source Vertices section. Select the Active toggle button.
9 Click to expand the Destination section. From the Destination geometry list, choose
Geometry 2.
10 Locate the Destination Vertices section. Select the Active toggle button.
12 |

Linear Extrusion 2 (linext2)

1 On the Definitions toolbar, click Component Couplings and choose Linear Extrusion.
2 In the Settings window for Linear Extrusion, locate the Source Selection section.
5 Locate the Source Vertices section. Select the Active toggle button.
9 Click to expand the Destination section. From the Destination geometry list, choose
Geometry 2.
10 Locate the Destination Vertices section. Select the Active toggle button.
MATERIALS
Material 2 (mat2)

Property
Name
Value
Unit
Property group
Density
rho
rhof
kg/m
Basic
Dynamic viscosity
mu
muf
Pas
Basic
Turbulent Flow, k- 2 (spf2)
Inlet 1
13 |

4 Click the Velocity field button.
comp1.linext1(comp1.u)
6 Locate the Turbulence Conditions section. Click the Specify turbulence variables
button.
7 In the k0 text field, type comp1.linext1(comp1.k).
8 In the 0 text field, type comp1.linext1(comp1.ep).
Inlet 2
4 Click the Velocity field button.
comp1.linext2(comp1.u)
6 Locate the Turbulence Conditions section. Click the Specify turbulence variables
button.
7 In the k0 text field, type comp1.linext2(comp1.k).
8 In the 0 text field, type comp1.linext2(comp1.ep).
Outlet 1
3 In the Settings window for Outlet, locate the Pressure Conditions section.
4 Select the Normal flow check box.
MESH 2

14 |
3 From the Element size list, choose Coarse.
Size 1
2 In the Model Builder window, under Component 2 (comp2)>Mesh 2 right-click Size 1
and choose Build Selected.
Size 2
1 Right-click Mesh 2 and choose Size.
6 Locate the Element Size Parameters section. Select the Maximum element growth rate
check box.
Size 3
1 Right-click Mesh 2 and choose Size.
box.
Boundary Layer Properties 1

1 In the Model Builder window, expand the Component 2 (comp2)>Mesh 2>Boundary
Layers 1 node, then click Boundary Layer Properties 1.
Properties section.
15 |
STUDY 2
Step 1: Stationary
4 Click Add.
Parameter name
fact
5 1
Parameter unit
RESULTS
Velocity (spf2)
Check that the wall lift-off is 11.06 almost everywhere by selecting the Wall Resolution
(spf2) plot group.
Wall Resolution (spf2)

Next, reproduce the flow-field plot with the following steps:
Velocity (spf2)
1 In the Model Builder window, under Results right-click Velocity (spf2) and choose
Streamline.
3 From the Positioning list, choose Uniform density.
4 In the Separating distance text field, type 0.007.
5 Locate the Coloring and Style section. From the Color list, choose White.
6 On the Velocity (spf2) toolbar, click Plot.
Finally, visualize the recirculation length.
16 |
2D Plot Group 8
4 Right-click 2D Plot Group 8 and choose Contour.
corner of the Expression section. From the menu, choose Component 2>Turbulent
Flow, k- 2>Velocity and pressure>Velocity field>u2 - Velocity field, x component.
6 Locate the Levels section. From the Entry method list, choose Levels.
7 Right-click Results>2D Plot Group 8>Contour 1 and choose Color Expression.
8 In the Settings window for Color Expression, locate the Expression section.
9 In the Expression text field, type x/S.
10 In the Model Builder window, right-click 2D Plot Group 8 and choose Rename.
11 In the Rename 2D Plot Group dialog box, type Recirculation length in the New
label text field.
12 Click OK.
13 On the Recirculation length toolbar, click Plot.
17 |
18 |
Natural Convection Cooling of a

Vacuum Flask
Introduction
This example solves a pure conduction problem and a free-convection problem in
which a vacuum flask holding hot coffee dissipates thermal energy. The main interest
is to calculate the flasks cooling power; that is, how much heat it loses per unit time.
Figure 1: Schematic picture of the flask.

The coffee has an initial temperature of 90 C and cools down over time. The
observation period is 10 h. This tutorial compares two different approaches to model
natural convection cooling:
Using heat transfer coefficients to describe the thermal dissipation
Modeling the convective flow of air outside the flask to describe the thermal
dissipation
The first approach describes the outside heat flux using a heat transfer coefficient
function from the Heat Transfer Coefficients library included with the Heat Transfer
Module. This results in a rather simple model that predicts the stationary cooling well
and produces accurate results for temperature distribution and cooling power.
1 |
NATURAL CONVECTION COOLING OF A VACUUM FLASK
The second approach solves for both the total energy balance and the flow equations
of the outside cooling air. This application produces detailed results for the flow field
around the flask as well as for the temperature distribution and cooling power.
However, it is more complex and requires more computational resources than the first
version.
Model Definition
Figure 2 shows the model geometry.
Figure 2: The 2D-axisymmetric representation of the vacuum flask.

C O N T R O L VO L U M E
For the first approach, the model does not include a control volume around the flask
to represent the domain of the surrounding air. Instead, it uses a heat transfer
coefficient correlation for vertical and horizontal plates.
For the second approach, the model uses a control volume around the flask to
represent the domain of the surrounding air. Choosing an appropriate control volume
for natural convection models is difficult. Your choice strongly influences the model,
the mesh, the convergence, and especially the flow behavior. The real-world air domain
surrounding the flask is the entire room or atmosphere in which the flask is placed.
2 |
N A T U R A L C O NVE C T I O N C O O L I N G O F A VA C U U M F L A S K
Making the rectangle as large as the external room would result in a very large model
requiring a supercomputer to solve. At the other extreme, if you make the control
volume too small, the solution is affected by the imposed artificial boundary
conditions, and there can also be a truncation of flow eddies, making convergence
difficult.
An appropriate truncation should resolve the flow field around the flask but avoid
modeling a large surrounding. One way to approach this task is to start with a small
control volume, set up and solve the model, then expand the control volume, solve the
model again, and see if the results change. This example uses a sufficiently large control
volume by truncating the air domain at r = 0.1 m and z = 0.5 m. The boundary
condition at the boundaries that are open to large volumes can handle both entering
and leaving fluid. The entering fluid has the temperature of the surroundings whereas
the leaving fluid has an unknown temperature that results from the cooling effects of
the flow field.
MATERIAL PROPERTIES
Next consider the materials that make up the flask model. The flask contains coffee that
has almost exactly the same material properties as water. The screw stopper and
insulation ring are made of nylon. The flask bottle consists of stainless steel, and the
filling material between the inner and outer walls is a plastic foam. The material library
includes all materials used in this model except the foam, which you specify manually.
Table 1 provides a list of standard foams thermal properties.
TABLE 1: FOAM MATERIAL PROPERTIES
PROPERTY
VALUE
Conductivity
0.03 W/(mK)
Density
60 kg/m3
Heat Capacity
200 J/(kgK)
H E A T TR A N S F E R P HY S I C S
This example assumes the hot liquid (coffee) to have a uniform temperature
distribution that changes only with time. This is a reasonable approximation since the
observation period is long and effects of spatially varying temperatures in the liquid are
small. The Heat Transfer Module provides the isothermal domain feature. It solves
only an additional ordinary differential equation of the form:
dT
mC p -------- = Q
dt
3 |
where m is the total mass of the domain, which can be prescribed or is calculated
automatically from the material properties. The source term Q is calculated from the
adjacent entities.
The walls of the flask, that are made of steel are modeled as thin conductive layers, so
that their thickness does not need to be resolved by the mesh.
Approach 1Loading a Heat Transfer Coefficient Function

This application uses a simplified approach and solves the time-dependent
thermal-conduction equation making use of a heat transfer coefficient, h, to describe
the natural convection cooling on the outside surfaces of the flask. This approach is
very powerful in many situations, especially if the main interest is not the flow behavior
but rather its cooling power. By using the appropriate h correlations, you can generally
arrive at accurate results at a very low computational cost. In addition, many
correlations are valid for the entire flow regime, from laminar to turbulent flow. This
makes it possible to approach the problem directly without predicting whether the
flow is laminar or turbulent.
BOUNDARY CONDITIONS
Vertical boundaries along the axis of symmetry have a symmetry condition (zero
gradients, set by COMSOL Multiphysics automatically); the bottom is modeled as
perfectly insulated (zero flux). The flask surfaces are exposed to air and are cooled by
convection. The use of a thin layer feature models the thickness of the steel shell.
The only remaining energy-balance boundary condition is for the flask surface. In the
first approach a convective heat-transfer coefficient together with the ambient
temperature, 25 C, describes the heat flux.
C O NVE C T I VE H E A T TR A N S F E R C O E F F I C I E N T
The outer surfaces dissipate heat via natural convection. This loss is characterized by
the convective heat transfer coefficient, h, which in practice you often determine with
empirical handbook correlations. Because these correlations depend on the surface
temperature, Tsurface, engineers must estimate Tsurface and then iterate between h and
Tsurface to obtain a converged value for h. Most of these correlations require tedious
computations and property interpolations that make this iterative process quite
unpleasant and labor intensive.
A typical handbook correlation (see Ref. 1) for h for the case of natural convection in
air on a vertical heated wall RaL 109 is
4 |
k Nu L
h = ------------------L
0.670Ra L1 / 4
Nu L = 0.68 + ----------------------------------------------------0.492 9 / 16 4 / 9
1 + ---------------
Pr
where RaL and Pr are the Rayleigh and Prandtl dimensionless numbers. A similar
relation involving Nusselt numbers holds for inclined and horizontal planes (see The
Heat Transfer Coefficients in the Heat Transfer Module Users Guide for details).
COMSOL Multiphysics handles these types of nonlinearities internally and adds much
convenience to such computations, so there is no need to iterate.
The Heat Transfer Module provides heat transfer coefficient functions that you can
access easily in the Convective Heat Flux feature.
Approach 2Modeling the External Flow

Another approach for simulating the cooled flask is to produce a model that computes
the convective velocity field around the flask in detail. Before proceeding with a
simulation of this kind, it is a good idea to try to estimate the Rayleigh number because
that number influences the choice between assuming laminar flow and applying a
turbulence model.
The Rayleigh number describes the ratio between buoyancy and viscous forces in free
convection problems. It is defined as
3
g p Th
Ra = ------------------------
with g as the gravity (SI unit: m/s2), the thermal diffusivity (SI unit: m2/s), T the
Temperature difference (SI unit: K), h the height of the convective object (SI unit: m),
p the coefficient of thermal expansion (SI unit: 1/K), and the kinematic viscosity
(SI unit: m2/s).
The models length scale is the length of the heated fluids flow path, in this example
0.5 m. Notice that this value increases if the modeled flow domain is extended in the
direction of the flow. T is about 15 K (assuming that the flask surface temperature is
15 C above the ambient temperature). Together with the material properties of air at
atmospheric pressure and T about 25 C the result is below 1109, which indicates that
5 |
the flow is still laminar rather than turbulent. Thus, it makes sense to model the flow
using a physics interface for laminar flow.
BUOYANCY-DRIVEN FLOW
To model non-isothermal buoyancy-driven flow, the following example uses ?. It

provides a generalized Navier-Stokes formulation that takes varying density into
account as well as the energy equation.
The buoyancy forces are included by specifying a volume force in this way
F = ( ref )g
with g(r, z) = (0, 9.81 m/s2), the density and ref the reference density at
atmospheric pressure and 25 C.
BOUNDARY CONDITIONS
When solving flow problems numerically, your engineering intuition is crucial in

setting good boundary conditions. In this problem, the warm flask drives vertical air
currents along its walls, and they eventually join in a thermal plume above the top of
the flask. Air is pulled from the surroundings toward the flask where it eventually feeds
into the vertical flow.
The open boundary condition is a boundary condition for the heat and flow equation
and can handle incoming flow with ambient temperature and leaving flow with a-priori
unknown temperature.
You would expect this flow to be quite weak and therefore do not anticipate any
significant changes in dynamic pressure.
Flow Boundary Conditions

On the top and right boundaries, the normal stress is zero as an open boundary with
ambient temperature of 25 C.
On the upper-left boundary, the flow domain coincides with the axis of symmetry
where the Axial Symmetry condition is applied automatically.
All other boundaries (the flask surface and the bottom horizontal line) are walls
where you use the No slip condition.
Thermal Boundary Conditions

The top and right boundaries are the exit and entrance of the flow domain
respectively where convection dominates; accordingly, use an open boundary
condition.
6 |
Again, the top left is described by axial symmetry, which is set by default.
Assume that the bottom is perfectly insulated.
All other boundaries (the flask surface) have continuity in temperature and flux by
default.

Figure 3 shows the temperature distribution in both the flask and the surrounding air.
However, the temperature results in the solid parts are close to identical for the case of
modeling with a heat transfer coefficient.
Figure 3: Temperature results for the model including the fluid flow.
One objective of the model is to predict the coffee temperature over time. The plot
below shows the results of both approaches and one can see that both results produce
almost exactly the same curve.
7 |
Figure 4: Isothermal domain temperature over time for both approaches.
8 |
A second question concerns how the cooling power is distributed on the flask surface.
The heat transfer coefficient represents this property. Figure 5 shows a comparison of
the predicted distribution of h along the height of the flask between the two models.
Figure 5: Heat transfer coefficient along the vertical flask walls. Blue line: modeling
approach using the heat transfer coefficient library, green line: modeling approach
including the fluid flow.
Figure 6 depicts the flow of air around the flask calculated from the flow model. This
fluid flow model does a better job at describing local cooling power.
9 |
One interesting result is the vortex formed above the lid. It reduces the cooling in this
region.
Figure 6: Fluid velocity for air around the flask.

CONCLUSIONS
Using the Convective Heat Flux feature you can easily obtain simulation results. The
predicted heat transfer coefficient is in the same range as the results from the model
that includes the correlations, and the total cooling power is almost identical.
However, the predefined heat transfer coefficients do not predict the local effects of air
flow surrounding the flask. For this purpose, a flow model is more accurate. This
means that you can use this type of model to create and calibrate functions for heat
transfer coefficients for your geometries. Once calibrated, the functions allow you to
use the first approach when solving large-scale and time-dependent models.

Tutorials,_Forced_and_Natural_Convection/vacuum_flask
10 |
Reference
1. F. Incropera, D. Dewitt, T. Bergman, and A. Lavine, Fundamentals of Heat and
Mass Transfer, 6th ed., John Wiley & Sons, 2007.
NEW

MODEL WIZARD

3 Click Add.
4 Click Study.
6 Click Done.
GEOMETRY 1
The geometry sequence for the model is available in a file. If you want to create it from
scratch yourself, you can follow the instructions in the Geometry Modeling
Instructions section. Otherwise, insert the geometry sequence as follows:
vacuum_flask_geom_sequence.mph.

1 In the Model Builder window, under Component 1 (comp1)>Geometry 1 right-click
Bzier Polygon 1 (b1) and choose Build All Objects.
You should now see the geometry shown in Figure 2.

DEFINITIONS
In the following section you define selections which will be needed during the model
set up, for example the boundaries that represent the steel shell of the flask and the
boundaries that are convectively cooled by the surrounding air.
11 |
Explicit 1
2 In the Settings window for Explicit, type Shell in the Label text field.
Boundary.
Explicit 2
2 In the Settings window for Explicit, type Flask, Vertical Walls in the Label text
field.
Boundary.
12 |
GLOBAL DEFINITIONS
Parameters
1 In the Model Builder window, expand the Global Definitions node, then click
Parameters.
Name
Expression
Value
Description
T_amb
25[degC]
298.2 K
Temperature of
surrounding air
T_coffee
90[degC]
363.2 K
Coffee temperature
d_shell
0.5[mm]
5E-4 m
Steel-shell thickness
p_amb
1[atm]
1.013E5 Pa
Ambient pressure
MATERIALS
On the Home toolbar, click Windows and choose Add Material.
13 |
ADD MATERIAL

MATERIALS
Air (mat1)
Leave the default geometric entity selection; subsequent materials that you add will
override air as the material for the domains where it does not apply.
The properties of coffee are almost the same as for water.
ADD MATERIAL

MATERIALS

liquid (mat2).
ADD MATERIAL

2 In the tree, select Built-In>Nylon.
MATERIALS
Nylon (mat3)
1 In the Model Builder window, under Component 1 (comp1)>Materials click Nylon
(mat3).
ADD MATERIAL
14 |

MATERIALS

4340 (mat4).
5 From the Selection list, choose Shell.
Material 5 (mat5)

2 In the Settings window for Material, type Foam in the Label text field.
Property
Name
Value
Unit
Property group
0.03
W/
(mK)
Basic
Density
rho
60
kg/m
Basic

pressure
Cp
200
J/
(kgK)
Basic
Assuming that the coffee temperature is uniform and depends on the time only, the
domain can be defined as isothermal domain with the initial coffee temperature.
1 In the Model Builder window, under Component 1 (comp1) click Heat Transfer in Solids
(ht).
2 In the Settings window for Heat Transfer in Solids, locate the Physical Model section.
3 Select the Isothermal domain check box.
Isothermal Domain 1
1 On the Physics toolbar, click Domains and choose Isothermal Domain.
15 |
For the Isothermal Domain Interface boundary condition use a heat flux condition
that describes a good heat transmission from the coffee to the thin conductive shell
boundary.
Isothermal Domain Interface 1

click Isothermal Domain Interface 1.

2 In the Settings window for Isothermal Domain Interface, locate the Isothermal
Domain Interface section.
3 From the Interface type list, choose Convective heat flux.
Initial Values 2
4 In the T text field, type T_coffee.
The steel walls of the flask are represented by a special boundary condition for highly
conductive layers:
Thin Layer 1
5 In the ds text field, type d_shell.
To allow for cooling to the surrounding, add heat flux conditions that use
appropriate heat transfer coefficients from a library.
Heat Flux 1
3 From the Selection list, choose Flask, Vertical Walls.
5 From the Heat transfer coefficient list, choose External natural convection.
16 |
6 In the L text field, type height.

7 In the Text text field, type T_amb.
Heat Flux 2
5 From the Heat transfer coefficient list, choose External natural convection.
6 From the list, choose Horizontal plate, upside.
7 In the L text field, type radius.
8 In the Text text field, type T_amb.
MESH 1

3 From the Element size list, choose Extra fine.
STUDY 1

Dependent.
4 In the Times text field, type range(0,0.1,10).
Constrict the initial time step to capture the strong gradient between the initial
coffee temperature and the initial flask temperature.
Solution 1 (sol1)
stepping section.
17 |
4 Locate the Time Stepping section. Select the Initial step check box.
5 In the associated text field, type 10[s].
RESULTS
A 3D temperature plot and an isothermal contour plot are produced by default. To
display the temperatures in Celsius degrees, you can edit these existing plots:
1 In the Model Builder window, expand the Temperature, 3D (ht) node, then click
Surface 1.

Contour 1.
Approach 2 - Modeling the External Flow

The second modeling approach is done within the same MPH-file. This way the results
from both approaches can be compared directly. Add a second model as follows:
5 On the Home toolbar, click Add Component and choose 2D Axisymmetric.
ADD PHYSICS
3 In the Add physics tree, select Heat Transfer>Conjugate Heat Transfer>Laminar Flow.
18 |
settings:
Studies
Solve
Study 1
H E A T TR A N S F E R 2 ( H T 2 )
ADD STUDY
settings:
Physics
Solve

This way, the new study solves for the coupled heat transfer and laminar flow
interfaces only.
STUDY 2

GEOMETRY 2
The flask's geometry is already present in Component 1. Import the geometry sequence
from above as follows:
Import 1 (imp1)
19 |
4 From the Geometry list, choose Geometry 1.

5 Click Import.
In this approach, you model the fluid flow explicitly, so you need to add a flow
domain to the model.
Rectangle 1 (r1)
3 In the Width text field, type 0.1[m].
4 In the Height text field, type 0.5[m].
DEFINITIONS
Define the same selections as before, which you can use during the model setup and
for comparing the results of this approach to the first one.
Explicit 3
2 In the Settings window for Explicit, type Shell in the Label text field.
Boundary.
Explicit 4
2 In the Settings window for Explicit, type Flask, Vertical Walls in the Label text
field.
Boundary.
MATERIALS
You have added the materials in Model 1 already, you can now choose them from the
Recent Materials folder in the Add Material window easily.
1 On the Home toolbar, click Windows and choose Add Material.
20 |
ADD MATERIAL

2 In the tree, select Recent Materials>Air.
COMPONENT 1 (COMP1)
In the Model Builder window, expand the Component 1 (comp1) node.

ADD MATERIAL

2 In the tree, select Recent Materials>Water, liquid.
MATERIALS

1 In the Model Builder window, expand the Component 1 (comp1)>Materials node, then
click Component 2 (comp2)>Materials>Water, liquid (mat7).

ADD MATERIAL

2 In the tree, select Recent Materials>Nylon.
MATERIALS
Nylon (mat8)
1 In the Model Builder window, under Component 2 (comp2)>Materials click Nylon
(mat8).
ADD MATERIAL

2 In the tree, select Recent Materials>Steel AISI 4340.
21 |
MATERIALS

4340 (mat9).
Material 10 (mat10)

2 In the Settings window for Material, type Foam in the Label text field.
Property
Name
Value
Unit
Property group
0.03
W/
(mK)
Basic
Density
rho
60
kg/m
Basic
Cp
200
J/
(kgK)
Basic

pressure
After setting up the physics interfaces, the warning for missing material, marked
with red crosses in the materials node, will disappear.
LAMINAR FLOW (SPF)
5 Locate the Domain Selection section. Click Create Selection.
7 Click OK.
22 |
On the Physics toolbar, click Laminar Flow (spf) and choose Heat Transfer 2 (ht2).

The interface provides nodes for the solid and fluid domain by default and the
remaining step is to assign the surrounding air domain to the Fluid Properties node.
Because the density depends on the temperature and the pressure, choose the
calculated pressure as input for this material property.
1 In the Model Builder window, under Component 2 (comp2)>Heat Transfer 2 (ht2) click
section.
To get a good initial guess for the solver, set the initial value for the temperature to
the ambient temperature.
Initial Values 1
Initial Values 1.
3 In the T2 text field, type T_amb.
LAMINAR FLOW (SPF)
On the Physics toolbar, click Heat Transfer 2 (ht2) and choose Laminar Flow (spf).
Volume Force 1
23 |

0
-g_const*(nitf1.rho-rho_ref)
The above steps define the buoyancy force acting on the air due to a density
difference between the actual density nitf1.rho and a reference density rho_ref,
which is initially unknown and will be defined in the next step.
Open Boundary 1
DEFINITIONS
Variables 1
Name
Expression
Unit
Description
rho_ref
mat6.def.rho(p_amb[
1/Pa],T_amb[1/
K])[kg/m^3]
kg/m
Reference density for

buoyancy force
The above expression calls the density function of Material 6 which is air. The
density depends on the temperature and pressure. Here the density will be evaluated
for T_amb and p_amb, which are defined under the Global Definitions node.
1 In the Model Builder window, under Component 2 (comp2) click Heat Transfer 2 (ht2).
3 Select the Isothermal domain check box.
Isothermal Domain 1
1 On the Physics toolbar, click Domains and choose Isothermal Domain.
Isothermal Domain Interface 1

Isothermal Domain Interface 1.
24 |
2 In the Settings window for Isothermal Domain Interface, locate the Isothermal
Domain Interface section.
3 From the Interface type list, choose Convective heat flux.
Initial Values 2
4 In the T2 text field, type T_coffee.

Heat Transfer in Solids 1.
2 In the Settings window for Heat Transfer in Solids, locate the Model inputs section.
3 Click Make All Model Inputs Editable in the upper-right corner of the section. Locate
the Model Inputs section. From the T list, choose Temperature (ht2).
Thin Layer 1
5 In the ds text field, type d_shell.
Open Boundary 1
4 In the T0 text field, type T_amb.
MESH 2
Use a finer mesh to get a good resolution of the flow field.

3 From the Element size list, choose Finer.
25 |

STUDY 2
Large differences of the initial values T_coffee and T_amb can cause numerical
instabilities if time steps become too large. Forcing the solver to use small time steps
in the beginning until the strong gradients are blurred out helps to overcome this
problem. To do so, add two time dependent solver steps in one study. Set up the time
intervals as follows:

Dependent.
4 In the Times text field, type range(0,0.1,10)[s] range(0.1,0.1,10).
Solution 2 (sol2)
3 In the Settings window for Time-Dependent Solver, locate the Time Stepping
section.
4 From the Steps taken by solver list, choose Strict.
RESULTS
Temperature, 3D (ht2)
Change the default temperature plot to use degrees Celsius as quantity unit (as in
Figure 3).
1 In the Model Builder window, expand the Temperature, 3D (ht2) node, then click
Surface 1.
Velocity (spf) 1
The velocity field is automatically shown in its dedicated plot group (see Figure 6).
26 |
Create a 2D plot of the velocity streamlines.
2D Plot Group 8
2 In the Settings window for 2D Plot Group, type Velocity, Streamlines in the
Label text field.
4 From the Time (h) list, choose 10.
Velocity, Streamlines
1 Right-click Velocity, Streamlines and choose Streamline.
Flow>Velocity and pressure>u,w - Velocity field.
3 Locate the Streamline Positioning section. From the Positioning list, choose Magnitude
controlled.
4 Right-click Results>Velocity, Streamlines>Streamline 1 and choose Color Expression.
6 On the Velocity, Streamlines toolbar, click Plot.
27 |
To compare both approaches, evaluate the coffee temperature over time and use a
1D Plot to visualize the results. The solutions are stored under the Data Sets node
and for each plot you can choose which data set should be used.
1D Plot Group 9
2 In the Settings window for 1D Plot Group, type Coffee Temperature vs Time in
Global 1
On the Coffee Temperature vs Time toolbar, click Global.
Coffee Temperature vs Time

1 In the Settings window for Global, click Replace Expression in the upper-right corner
of the y-axis data section. From the menu, choose Component 1>Heat Transfer in
Solids>Temperature>ht.id1.T - Isothermal domain temperature.
28 |
2 Locate the y-Axis Data section. In the table, enter the following settings:
Expression
Unit
Description
ht.id1.T
degC
Isothermal domain
temperature - flow not
computed
Find the Line markers subsection. From the Marker list, choose Cycle.
5 In the Model Builder window, click Coffee Temperature vs Time.
Global 2
On the Coffee Temperature vs Time toolbar, click Global.
Coffee Temperature vs Time

1 In the Settings window for Global, locate the Data section.
3 Click Replace Expression in the upper-right corner of the y-axis data section. From
the menu, choose Component 2>Heat Transfer 2>Temperature>ht2.id1.T - Isothermal

domain temperature.
4 Locate the y-Axis Data section. In the table, enter the following settings:
Expression
Unit
Description
ht2.id1.T
degC
Isothermal domain
temperature - flow computed
5 Locate the Coloring and Style section. Find the Line style subsection. From the Line
list, choose None.

8 On the Coffee Temperature vs Time toolbar, click Plot.
To compare the heat transfer coefficients for the two modeling approaches
(Figure 4), do the following:
1D Plot Group 10
2 In the Settings window for 1D Plot Group, type Heat Transfer Coefficient in
29 |
4 Click to expand the Legend section. From the Position list, choose Upper left.
Line Graph 1
On the Heat Transfer Coefficient toolbar, click Line Graph.
Heat Transfer Coefficient

2 From the Selection list, choose Flask, Vertical Walls.
3 Locate the y-Axis Data section. In the Expression text field, type ht.hf1.h.
Legends
Heat transfer coefficient, no flow
9 In the Model Builder window, click Heat Transfer Coefficient.
Line Graph 2
On the Heat Transfer Coefficient toolbar, click Line Graph.
Heat Transfer Coefficient

4 Locate the Selection section. From the Selection list, choose Flask, Vertical Walls.
5 Locate the y-Axis Data section. In the Expression text field, type abs(ht2.ntflux)/
(T2-T_amb).
30 |

Legends
Calculated heat transfer coefficient, with flow
11 In the Model Builder window, click Heat Transfer Coefficient.

12 On the Heat Transfer Coefficient toolbar, click Plot.
Geometry Modeling Instructions

If you wish to create the geometry yourself, follow these steps.
NEW

MODEL WIZARD

2 Click Done.
GLOBAL DEFINITIONS
Parameters
Name
Expression
Value
Description
height
380[mm]
0.38 m
Flask height
radius
40[mm]
0.04 m
Bottleneck radius
GEOMETRY 1

4 Find the Control points subsection. In row 2, set r to 1.5*radius.
31 |

6 Find the Control points subsection. In row 2, set z to 0.68*height.
9 In row 3, set r to 1.04*radius.
10 In row 3, set z to 0.80*height.
32 |

38 In row 3, set r to 0*radius.
Rectangle 1 (r1)
3 In the Width text field, type 1.04*radius.
4 In the Height text field, type 0.16*height.
5 Locate the Position section. In the z text field, type 0.83*height.
Rectangle 2 (r2)
3 In the Width text field, type 0.74*radius.
4 In the Height text field, type 0.13*height.
5 Locate the Position section. In the r text field, type 0.3*radius.
6 In the z text field, type 0.83*height.
Difference 1 (dif1)
2 Select the object r1 only.
5 Select the object r2 only.

33 |


14 Find the Control points subsection. In row 2, set r to 0*radius.

34 |
Convert to Solid 1 (csol1)

1 On the Geometry toolbar, click Conversions and choose Convert to Solid.
2 In the Model Builder window, right-click Convert to Solid 1 (csol1) and choose Build
All Objects.
35 |
36 |
View Factor Computation

The computation of view factors is central when performing heat transfer simulations
using the radiosity method to account for surface-to-surface radiation. This
benchmark demonstrates how to compute geometrical view factors for two concentric
spheres that emit and receive radiation from each other. It compares simulation results
to exact analytical values.
Introduction
The surface-to-surface radiation method in the Heat Transfer module relies on the
radiosity method. When surface-to-surface radiation is activated, operators are
available to compute the view factors between diffuse surfaces that irradiate each other.
For some standard configurations one can determine the view factors analytically, but
in engineering applications this is rarely possible. A benchmark example that compares
exact analytical values with simulation results shows the accuracy of the numerical
1 |
VIEW FACTOR COMPUTATION
method. Here, two concentric spheres are used, for which the analytical view factors
are known.
Figure 1: Model geometry.
Model Definition
The model consists of two concentric radiating spheres (Figure 1) acting as perfect
emitters (surface emissivities both equal to 1). The radiation direction of each sphere
is such that they irradiate each other.
ANALYTICAL VIEW FACTORS
A detailed introduction on view factors is given in (Ref. 1). An arbitrary view factor
F1 2 is defined as the proportion of radiation leaving surface S1 and intercepting
surface S2, that is
Radiation leaving S 1 and intercepting S 2
F 1 2 = ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Total radiation leaving S 1
If the radiosity is the same on each surface, it only depends on the geometrical
configuration and thus can be calculated from geometrical properties. For two
2 |
concentric spheres, labeled ext for the outer sphere and int for the inner sphere, the
view factors are:
R int
F ext ext = 1 ------------
R ext
R int 2
F ext int = ------------
R ext
F int int = 0
F int ext = 1
Refer to Table 1 for numerical values of these quantities.
VIEW FACTOR COMPUTATION IN COMSOL MULTIPHYSICS
The view factor computation is performed at each evaluation point on the boundaries.
A boundary has an up and a down side and both can be exposed to radiation. In this
model the outer sphere radiates inwards, which is the downward direction and the
inner sphere radiates outwards which is the upward direction. Two operators are
available for evaluation of the mutual surface irradiation. These are:
radopu(expression_upside,expression_downside)
radopd(expression_upside,expression_downside)
Both are available on all boundaries where surface-to-surface features are active. The
radopu(,) and radopd(,) operators perform the computation on the upside and
downside of the boundary where they are evaluated. The expression_upside and
expression_downside arguments are the radiosity expression on the upside and
downside of the boundaries that irradiate the boundary where the operators are
evaluated.
To compute the geometrical view factor, e.g. Fext int, in COMSOL Multiphysics,
the following integration needs to be defined:
Sint radopu(0, ext) ds
F ext int = ------------------------------------------------------------A ext

where Sint and Sext denote interior and exterior surfaces, Aint and Aext are
corresponding surface areas.
3 |
The integration at the numerator is defined over the inner sphere, which radiates only
on the upside of its surface. Hence, radopd(,) evaluates to zero and the integrand
reduces to radopu(0,expression_upside). Moreover since the outer sphere
radiates only on the downside of its surface the expression_downside argument
should be ext.

The view factors computed with COMSOL Multiphysics are listed in Table 1 together
with analytical values and absolute errors.
TABLE 1: VIEW FACTOR COMPUTATION
VIEW FACTOR
ANALYTICAL VALUE
COMPUTED VALUE
ERROR
Fint int
Fint ext
3.2510-5
Fext ext
0.91
0.91
2.9310-6
Fext int
0.09
0.09
5.3510-10
In this table, analytical and computed values are slightly different but rounded to
hundredths. The very small errors are listed in the last column and reflect accurate
results of the view factors provided by the simulation.
Reference
1. Michael F. Modest, Radiative Heat Transfer, 3rd ed., Academic Press, 2013

view_factor
NEW
4 |
MODEL WIZARD
You are only interested in the view factors, hence Surface-to-Surface Radiation is the
only needed interface.
2 In the Select physics tree, select Heat Transfer>Radiation>Surface-to-Surface Radiation
(rad).
3 Click Add.
4 Click Study.
6 Click Done.
GLOBAL DEFINITIONS
Define the radii of the spheres and the analytical values for the view factors as
parameters.
Parameters
Name
Expression
Value
Description
r_int
0.3[m]
0.3 m
Radius, interior sphere
r_ext
1[m]
1m
Radius, exterior sphere
F_ext_ext
1-(r_int/
r_ext)^2
0.91
Analytical view factor

from exterior sphere to
exterior sphere
F_ext_int
(r_int/
r_ext)^2
0.09

from exterior sphere to
interior sphere
F_int_int

from interior sphere to
interior sphere
F_int_ext

from interior sphere to
exterior sphere
GEOMETRY 1
No domain information are required, define the geometry as surface objects.
5 |
Sphere 1 (sph1)
1 On the Geometry toolbar, click Sphere.
2 In the Settings window for Sphere, locate the Object Type section.
4 Locate the Size section. In the Radius text field, type r_int.
Create a selection of this sphere to easily access its entities throughout the modeling
process.
6 In the New Cumulative Selection dialog box, type Inner sphere in the Name text
field.
7 Click OK.
Sphere 2 (sph2)
1 On the Geometry toolbar, click Sphere.
2 In the Settings window for Sphere, locate the Object Type section.
4 Locate the Size section. In the Radius text field, type r_ext.
6 In the New Cumulative Selection dialog box, type Outer sphere in the Name text
field.
7 Click OK.
Create a new view which hides one of the front boundaries so that you can look
inside the outer sphere.
DEFINITIONS
In the Model Builder window, under Component 1 (comp1) right-click Definitions and
choose View.
Hide Geometry Objects 1

On the View 2 toolbar, click Hide Geometry Objects.
View 2
1 In the Settings window for Hide Geometry Objects, locate the Selection section.
6 |
3 On the object sph2, select Boundary 2 only.

GEOMETRY 1
Add a material to the boundaries to define their emissivities.

MATERIALS
Material 1 (mat1)

2 In the Settings window for Material, type Blackbody in the Label text field.
3 Click to expand the Material properties section. Locate the Material Properties
section. In the Material properties tree, select Basic Properties>Surface Emissivity.

4 Click Add to Material.
Property
Surface emissivity
Name
Value
Unit
Property group
epsilo
n_rad
Basic
SURFACE-TO-SURFACE RADIATION (RAD)
Diffuse Surface 1
3 From the Selection list, choose Inner sphere.
4 Locate the Radiation Settings section. From the Radiation direction list, choose
Positive normal direction.
Diffuse Surface 2
3 From the Selection list, choose Outer sphere.
4 Locate the Radiation Settings section. From the Radiation direction list, choose
Negative normal direction.
Define new variables and integration operators to evaluate the view factors directly
after running the study. First, define variables that are used to identify the surfaces.
7 |
DEFINITIONS
Variables 1
1 In the Model Builder window, under Component 1 (comp1) right-click Definitions and
choose Variables.
2 In the Settings window for Variables, type Identifiers, Inner Sphere in the
Label text field.
choose Boundary.
Name
Expression
ext
Unit
Description
Exterior surface
indicator
int
Interior surface
indicator
Variables 2
2 In the Settings window for Variables, type Identifiers, Outer Sphere in the
Label text field.
choose Boundary.
Name
Expression
Unit
Description
ext
Exterior surface
indicator
int
Interior surface
indicator
Now, define integration coupling operators for both spheres.
2 In the Settings window for Integration, type Integration, Inner Sphere in the
Label text field.
8 |
3 In the Operator name text field, type intop_int.

Boundary.
2 In the Settings window for Integration, type Integration, Outer Sphere in the
Label text field.
3 In the Operator name text field, type intop_ext.
Boundary.
Adjust the mesh size for both spheres manually to get approximately the same
number of elements on each sphere. This is an efficient mesh for view factor
computation.
MESH 1
Free Triangular 1

Size 1
box.
6 In the associated text field, type r_int/5.
Size 2
9 |

box.
6 In the associated text field, type r_ext/5.
The view factors are computed automatically, before the actual study runs. To
evaluate the geometrical view factors, it is sufficient to obtain the initial values.
STUDY 1

Study 1
On the Study toolbar, click Get Initial Value.
10 |
RESULTS
Global Evaluation 1
Derived Values
1 In the Settings window for Global Evaluation, type Interior to Interior View
Factor in the Label text field.

intop_int(comp1.rad.radopu(int,0))/intop_int(1).

4 In the associated text field, type F_int_int.
Global Evaluation 2
Derived Values
1 In the Settings window for Global Evaluation, type Interior to Exterior View

intop_ext(comp1.rad.radopd(int,0))/intop_int(1).

4 In the associated text field, type F_int_ext.
Global Evaluation 3
Derived Values
1 In the Settings window for Global Evaluation, type Exterior to Exterior View

intop_ext(comp1.rad.radopd(0,ext))/intop_ext(1).

4 In the associated text field, type F_ext_ext.
Global Evaluation 4
11 |
Derived Values
1 In the Settings window for Global Evaluation, type Exterior to Interior View

intop_int(comp1.rad.radopu(0,ext))/intop_ext(1).

4 In the associated text field, type F_ext_int.
5 In the Model Builder window, under Results>Derived Values select all nodes,
right-click and choose Duplicate.

Now update all duplicated nodes to adjust their labels and expressions to evaluate
the absolute errors between analytical and computed view factors.
6 In the Model Builder window, under Results>Derived Values click Interior to Interior
View Factor 1.
7 In the Settings window for Global Evaluation, type Absolute Error, Interior
to Interior View Factor in the Label text field.

abs(intop_int(comp1.rad.radopu(int,0))/intop_int(1)-F_int_int).
9 In the Description text field, type F_int_int Error.

10 In the Model Builder window, under Results>Derived Values click Interior to Exterior
View Factor 1.
11 In the Settings window for Global Evaluation, type Absolute Error, Interior
to Exterior View Factor in the Label text field.

abs(intop_ext(comp1.rad.radopd(int,0))/intop_int(1)-F_int_ext).
13 In the Description text field, type F_int_ext Error.

14 In the Model Builder window, under Results>Derived Values click Exterior to Exterior
View Factor 1.
15 In the Settings window for Global Evaluation, type Absolute Error, Exterior
to Exterior View Factor in the Label text field.

abs(intop_ext(comp1.rad.radopd(0,ext))/intop_ext(1)-F_ext_ext).
17 In the Description text field, type F_ext_ext Error.

18 In the Model Builder window, under Results>Derived Values click Exterior to Interior
View Factor 1.
12 |
19 In the Settings window for Global Evaluation, type Absolute Error, Exterior
to Interior View Factor in the Label text field.

abs(intop_int(comp1.rad.radopu(0,ext))/intop_ext(1)-F_ext_int).
21 In the Description text field, type F_ext_int Error.

22 On the Results toolbar, click Evaluate All.
The results are displayed in the Table window.
13 |
14 |
Glazing Influence on Thermal

Performances of a Window
Introduction
During the design of a building, environmental issues have gained considerable
influence in the entire project. One of the first concerns is to improve thermal
performances. In this process, simulation software provide key tools for modeling
thermal losses and performances in the building
The international standard ISO 10077-2:2012 (Ref. 1) deals with thermal
performances of windows, doors, and shutters. It provides computed values of the
thermal characteristics of frame profiles in order to validate a simulation software.
COMSOL Multiphysics successfully passes the entire benchmark. This document
describes two test cases of ISO 10077-2:2012 related to the glazing influence on
thermal performances of a window. Other test cases from this standard are available in
the following applications:
Thermal Performances of Windows
Thermal Performances of Roller Shutters
Figure 1: Geometry of the window and cross-section view.
Model Definition
On each test case, a window section separates a hot internal side from a cold external
side. The window frame is the same but in the first application, an insulation panel
replaces the traditional glazing. This traditional glazing is tackled in the second
1 |
GLAZING INFLUENCE ON THERMAL PERFORMANCES OF A WINDOW
application. After solving a model, two quantities are calculated and compared to the
normative values:
The thermal conductance between internal and external sides
The thermal transmittance of the frame is calculated
AIR CAVITIES
A window frame contains many cavities. The purpose is to ensure thermal insulation.
According to the standard, cavities are modeled in different ways depending on their
shapes.
The heat flow rate in cavities is represented by an equivalent thermal conductivity keq,
which includes the heat flow by conduction, convection, and radiation. It also depends
on the geometry of the cavity and on the adjacent materials. The definition of keq is
detailed in the next paragraphs.
Cavities are divided into three types:
unventilated cavities, completely closed or connected either to the exterior or to
the interior by a slit with a width not exceeding 2 mm;
slightly ventilated cavities, connected either to the exterior or to the interior by a
slit greater than 2 mm but not exceeding 10 mm;
well-ventilated cavities, corresponding to a configuration not covered by one of
the two preceding types, it is assumed that the whole surface is exposed to the
environment so that boundary conditions are applied to (see the Boundary
conditions section below for more information).
Unventilated Rectangular Cavity

For an unventilated rectangular cavity, the equivalent thermal conductivity is defined
by:
d
k eq = ---R
where d is the cavity dimension in the heat flow rate direction, and R is the cavity
thermal resistance given by:
1
R = -----------------ha + hr
Here, ha is the convective heat transfer coefficient, and hr is the radiative heat transfer
coefficient. These coefficients are defined by:
2 |
C1
------if b 5 mm
d
ha =
C1
13
max -------, C 2 ( T ( 1K ) ) otherwise
d
h r = 4T m EF
where:
C1 = 0.025 W/(mK)
C2 = 0.73 W/(m2K)
T is the maximum surface temperature difference in the cavity
= 5.6710-8 W/(m2K4) is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant
Tm is the average temperature on the boundaries of the cavity
E is the intersurface emittance, defined by:
1
E = --------------------------11
----- + ---1
1 2
1 and 2 are the surface emissivities (both are equal to 0.90 in this model)
F is the view factor of the rectangular section, defined by:
1
d
d 2
F = --- 1 --- + 1 + ---
b
2
b
d is the cavity dimension in the heat flow rate direction
b is the cavity dimension perpendicular to the heat flow rate direction
Slightly Ventilated Rectangular Cavities

For a slightly ventilated cavity, the equivalent thermal conductivity is twice that of an
unventilated cavity of the same size.
BOUNDARY CONDITIONS
The heat flux conditions for internal and external sides are given by the Newtons law
of cooling:
n ( k T ) = h ( T ext T )
3 |
where Text is the exterior temperature (Text = Ti = 20 C for the internal side and
Text = Te = 0 C for the external side). The standard defines thermal surface resistance,
Rs, which is related to the heat transfer coefficient, h, by:
1
h = -----Rs
Internal and external thermal surface resistances are not equal. Moreover, on
boundaries linked to the internal side, an increased thermal resistance is used for the
edges. Figure 2 explains how to determine boundaries where it should be applied.
d < 30 mm
d > 30 mm
b=d
b = 30 mm
Figure 2: Protected boundaries.
If d is greater than 30 mm, b is set to 30 mm. Otherwise, b = d is chosen.
Furthermore, two boundaries are considered as adiabatic: the boundary in contact
with the wall and the end of the insulation panel or glazing.
DESCRIPTION OF THE TWO APPLICATIONS
Figure 3 and Figure 4 depict the geometry of each application but only a part of the
insulation panel or glazing is represented. Unventilated cavities are red-numbered
while slightly ventilated cavities are green-numbered. Boundaries with an increased
thermal resistance are represented with bold black lines. Adiabatic boundaries in
contact with the wall are represented with a striped rectangle.
Application 1: Wood Frame with an Insulation Panel

The first application studies the heat conduction in the wood frame section with an
insulation panel. The frame section is made of two wood blocks with a low thermal
conductivity of 0.13 W/(mK). In order to make the contact between these two blocks
and to waterproof the window, two ethylene propylene diene monomer (EPDM)
4 |
gaskets are used. Two other EPDM blocks are arranged on both sides of the insulation
panel. The insulation panel has a very low thermal conductivity of 0.035 W/(mK).
Two cavities are completely closed and are considered as unventilated. The third one
is considered as slightly ventilated.
Interior
Soft wood
Insulation panel
EPDM
Exterior
Figure 3: Geometry of the wood frame with an insulation panel.
Application 2: Wood Frame with a Traditional Glazing

The glazing is made of two glass panels with a thermal conductivity of 1.00 W/(mK).
On the frame side of the glazing, a structure made of aluminum, polysulfide, and silica
gel is used to block the glass blocks. Their thermal conductivities are 160 W/(mK),
0.40 W/(mK), and 0.13 W/(mK), respectively. The space between the glass panels
is filled with a gas whose thermal conductivity is 0.034 W/(mK) (so this space is not
considered as a traditional air cavity).
5 |
Interior
Soft wood
Polysulfide
Aluminum
Glass
Filling gas
Silica gel
EPDM
Exterior
Polyamide
Figure 4: Geometry of the wood frame with a glazing.

TE M P E R A T U RE P RO F I L E S
Figure 5 and Figure 6 show the temperature profiles for each application.
6 |
Figure 5: Temperature profile with the insulation panel.
Figure 6: Temperature distribution with glazing.
7 |
QUANTITIES OF INTEREST
The quantities of interest are the following:

The thermal conductance of the entire section L2D given by:
L 2D = -----------------Te Ti
where is the heat flow rate through the window (in W/m), Te = 0 C is the
external temperature and Ti = 20 C is the internal temperature.
The thermal transmittance of the frame Uf defined by:
L 2D U p b p
U f = ------------------------------bf
where bp is the visible width of the panel expressed in meters, bf is the projected
width of the frame section expressed in meters and Up is the thermal transmittance
of the central area of the panel expressed in W/(m2K).
The linear thermal transmittance of the frame defined by:
= L
2D
Uf bf Ug bg
where bg is the visible width of the glazing expressed in meters, Ug is the thermal
transmittance of the central area of the glazing expressed in W/(m2K).
Here, describes the additional heat flow caused by the interaction of the frame and
the glass edge, including the effect of the spacer. The thermal transmittance Ug is
provided, equal to 1.3 W/(m2K).
Table 1 and Table 2 compare the numerical results of COMSOL Multiphysics with the
expected values provided by ISO 10077-2:2012.
TABLE 1: COMPARISON BETWEEN EXPECTED AND COMPUTED VALUES OF QUANTITIES IN APPLICATION 1
QUANTITY
L2D (W/(mK))
U (W/(m2K))
f
EXPECTED VALUE
COMPUTED VALUE
RELATIVE ERROR
0.346
0.345
0.29%
1.36
1.38
1.47%
TABLE 2: COMPARISON BETWEEN EXPECTED AND COMPUTED VALUES OF QUANTITIES IN APPLICATION 2
QUANTITY
EXPECTED VALUE
COMPUTED VALUE
RELATIVE ERROR
L2D (W/(mK))
0.481
0.483
0.42%
0.084
0.085
1.19%
(W/(m K))
8 |
The maximum permissible differences to pass this test case are 3% for the thermal
conductance and 5% for the (linear) thermal transmittance. The measured values are
completely coherent and meet the validation criteria.
Reference
1. European Committee for Standardization, ISO 10077-2:2012, Thermal
performance of windows, doors and shutters Calculation of thermal transmittance
Part 2: Numerical method for frames, 2012.

Buildings_and_Constructions/window_and_glazing_thermal_performances
ROOT
Start by opening the following prepared file. It already contains global definitions,
geometries, local variables, selections, operators and material properties.
window_and_glazing_thermal_performances_preset.mph.
Window with Insulation Panel

WINDOW WITH INSULATION PANEL (COMP1)
In the Model Builder window, expand the Window with Insulation Panel (comp1) node.
DEFINITIONS
Variables 1
Define the thermal conductance of the section for the post-processing part as follows.
1 In the Model Builder window, expand the Window with Insulation Panel
(comp1)>Definitions node, then click Variables 1.
9 |

Name
Expression
Unit
Description
L2D
int_internal(ht.ntf
lux/(Te-Ti))
W/(mK)
Thermal conductance of
the frame
Note that the heat flow rate through the internal and through the external
boundaries are equal (in absolute value) because other boundaries are considered
adiabatic.
4 In the Model Builder window, collapse the Definitions node.
DEFINITIONS
In the Model Builder window, collapse the Window with Insulation Panel
(comp1)>Definitions node.

2 Select Domains 4, 6, and 7 only.
Heat Flux 1
3 From the Selection list, choose Exterior Side.
5 In the h text field, type 1/Rse.
6 In the Text text field, type Te.
Heat Flux 2
3 From the Selection list, choose Interior Side (Flat Area).
5 In the h text field, type 1/Rsi_n.
6 In the Text text field, type Ti.
10 |
Heat Flux 3
3 From the Selection list, choose Interior Side (Corner Area).
5 In the h text field, type 1/Rsi_p.
Open Boundary 1
4 In the T0 text field, type Te.
5 In the Model Builder window, collapse the Heat Transfer in Solids (ht) node.
In the Model Builder window, collapse the Window with Insulation Panel (comp1)>Heat
Transfer in Solids (ht) node.
STUDY 1
The heat flow rate through the interior (or exterior) side of the section needs to be
determined to calculate the thermal conductance of the section. In order to have
enough precision in this value, the default relative tolerance of the solver has already
been modified to 10-6. To access this value, expand the Solver 1 node and click on the
Stationary Solver 1 node. In the Stationary Solver settings window, locate the General
section.
RESULTS
Data Sets
Derived Values
A Global Evaluation node is added in order to calculate the thermal conductance of the
section.
11 |
Global Evaluation 1
Derived Values
1 In the Settings window for Global Evaluation, type Thermal Conductance of the
Section (L2D) 1 in the Label text field.
2 Locate the Expression section. In the Expression text field, type L2D.
4 In the associated text field, type Thermal Conductance of the Section (L2D).
Another Global Evaluation node is added in order to calculate the thermal transmittance
of the frame.
Global Evaluation 2
Derived Values
1 In the Settings window for Global Evaluation, type Thermal Transmittance of
the Frame (Uf) 1 in the Label text field.
2 Locate the Expression section. In the Expression text field, type (L2D-Up*bp)/bf.
4 In the associated text field, type Thermal Transmittance of the Frame (Uf).
5 On the Results toolbar, click Clear and Evaluate All.
TABLE
The results should be close to the expected values in Table 1.

2 In the Model Builder window, right-click Derived Values and choose Plot.
RESULTS
Temperature (ht)
1 In the Model Builder window, expand the Results>Temperature (ht) node, then click
Surface 1.
12 |
The current plot group shows the temperature distribution; compare with Figure 5.
WINDOW WITH INSULATION PANEL (COMP1)
1 In the Model Builder window, collapse the Window with Insulation Panel (comp1)
node.
Window with Glazing

DEFINITIONS
In the Model Builder window, expand the Window with Glazing (comp2) node.
Variables 2
1 In the Model Builder window, expand the Definitions node, then click Variables 2.
Name
Expression
Unit
Description
L2D
int_internal(ht2.nt
flux/(Te-Ti))
W/(mK)
Thermal conductance of
the frame
4 In the Model Builder window, collapse the Definitions node.

DEFINITIONS
In the Model Builder window, collapse the Window with Glazing (comp2)>Definitions
node.
On the Physics toolbar, click Heat Transfer in Solids (ht) and choose Heat Transfer in
Solids 2 (ht2).
In the Model Builder window, under Window with Glazing (comp2) click Heat Transfer in
Solids 2 (ht2).

Heat Flux 1
13 |
3 From the Selection list, choose Exterior Side.
5 In the h text field, type 1/Rse.
6 In the Text text field, type Te.
Heat Flux 2
3 From the Selection list, choose Interior Side (Flat Area).
5 In the h text field, type 1/Rsi_n.
Heat Flux 3
3 From the Selection list, choose Interior Side (Corner Area).
5 In the h text field, type 1/Rsi_p.
Open Boundary 1
4 In the T0 text field, type Te.
5 In the Model Builder window, collapse the Heat Transfer in Solids 2 (ht2) node.
In the Model Builder window, collapse the Window with Glazing (comp2)>Heat Transfer
in Solids 2 (ht2) node.
STUDY 2
14 |
RESULTS
Data Sets
1 In the Settings window for Solution, locate the Solution section.
2 From the Component list, choose Window with Glazing (comp2).
Derived Values
A Global Evaluation node is added in order to calculate the thermal conductance of the
section.
Global Evaluation 3
Derived Values
1 In the Settings window for Global Evaluation, type Thermal Conductance of the
Section (L2D) 2 in the Label text field.
3 Locate the Expression section. In the Expression text field, type L2D.
5 In the associated text field, type Thermal Conductance of the Section (L2D).
Another Global Evaluation node is added in order to calculate the linear thermal
transmittance of the frame.
Global Evaluation 4
Derived Values
1 In the Settings window for Global Evaluation, type Linear Thermal
Transmittance of the Frame (psi) 2 in the Label text field.
3 Locate the Expression section. In the Expression text field, type L2D-Uf*bf-Ug*bg.
5 In the associated text field, type Linear Thermal Transmittance of the Frame
(psi).
6 On the Results toolbar, click Clear and Evaluate All.
15 |
TABLE
The results should be close to the expected values in Table 2.

RESULTS
2D Plot Group 3
2 In the Settings window for 2D Plot Group, type Temperature (ht2) in the Label
text field.
Temperature (ht2)
1 Right-click Temperature (ht2) and choose Surface.
6 On the Temperature (ht2) toolbar, click Plot.
The current plot group shows the temperature distribution; compare with Figure 6.
16 |

Heat Transfer Module: Application Library Manual

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How does the model simulate heat transfer in the brake disc?

How does the model simulate heat transfer in the brake disc?

What factors influence the temperature distribution in the brake disc?

What factors influence the temperature distribution in the brake disc?

Heat Transfer Module

Application Library Manual

Heat Transfer Module Application Library Manual

Solved with COMSOL Multiphysics 5.2

Heat Generation in a Disc Brake

HEAT GENERATION IN A DISC BRAKE

Solved with COMSOL Multiphysics 5.2

Figure 1: Model geometry, including disc and pad.

Heat capacity at constant pressure

HEAT GENERATION IN A DISC BRAKE

Solved with COMSOL Multiphysics 5.2

Figure 2: Velocity profile of the disc.

HEAT GENERATION IN A DISC BRAKE

Solved with COMSOL Multiphysics 5.2

Figure 3: Acceleration profile of the disc.

HEAT GENERATION IN A DISC BRAKE

Solved with COMSOL Multiphysics 5.2

Results and Discussion

HEAT GENERATION IN A DISC BRAKE

Solved with COMSOL Multiphysics 5.2

HEAT GENERATION IN A DISC BRAKE

Solved with COMSOL Multiphysics 5.2

(z = 0.013 m) as a function of time.

HEAT GENERATION IN A DISC BRAKE

Solved with COMSOL Multiphysics 5.2

Application Library path: Heat_Transfer_Module/

1 In the New window, click Model Wizard.

1 In the Model Wizard window, click 3D.

HEAT GENERATION IN A DISC BRAKE

Solved with COMSOL Multiphysics 5.2

Work Plane 1 (wp1)

Bzier Polygon 1 (b1)

HEAT GENERATION IN A DISC BRAKE

Solved with COMSOL Multiphysics 5.2

12 Find the Control points subsection. In row 2, set xw to 0.03.

HEAT GENERATION IN A DISC BRAKE

Solved with COMSOL Multiphysics 5.2

3 In the table, enter the following settings:

4 Right-click Extrude 1 (ext1) and choose Build Selected.

The model geometry is now complete.

To select the contact surface boundary, it is convenient to temporarily switch to

HEAT GENERATION IN A DISC BRAKE

Solved with COMSOL Multiphysics 5.2

HEAT GENERATION IN A DISC BRAKE

Solved with COMSOL Multiphysics 5.2

8 Locate the Units section. In the Arguments text field, type s.

HEAT GENERATION IN A DISC BRAKE

Solved with COMSOL Multiphysics 5.2

8 Click the Plot button.

choose Blank Material.

Heat capacity at constant pressure

HEAT GENERATION IN A DISC BRAKE

Solved with COMSOL Multiphysics 5.2

Heat capacity at constant pressure

Heat Transfer in Solids 1