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Performance indicators in agri-food production

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ARTICLE DECEMBER 2005
DOI: 10.1007/1-4020-4693-6_5 Source: OAI

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CHAPTER 5
PERFORMANCE INDICATORS IN AGRI-FOOD
PRODUCTION CHAINS

LUSINE ARAMYAN#*, CHRISTIEN ONDERSTEIJN#,

OLAF VAN KOOTEN##, ALFONS OUDE LANSINK#
#

Business Economics Group, Wageningen University, P.O. Box 8130, 6700 EW

Wageningen, The Netherlands
##
Horticultural Production Chains Group, Wageningen University, Marijkeweg 22,
6709 PG Wageningen, The Netherlands
*E-mail: [email protected]

Abstract. The last decade has seen an increasing interest in indicators of supply-chain performance. A
large number of various performance indicators have been used to characterize supply chains, ranging
from highly qualitative indicators like customer or employee satisfaction to quantitative indicators like
return on investments. This large number of different performance indicators, and the lack of consensus
on what determines performance of supply chains, complicates the selection of performance measures.
Furthermore, combining these indicators into one measurement system proves to be difficult. Efforts as
well as progress have been made in this area but supply-chain performance measurement received little or
no attention in the field of food and agribusiness. This paper provides a literature review on existing
performance indicators and models, and discusses their usefulness in agri-food supply chains.
Furthermore, based on this overview, a conceptual framework is developed for further research in this
area.
Keywords: measure; efficiency; responsiveness; flexibility; food quality; framework

INTRODUCTION
A supply chain is generally defined as a network of physical and decision-making
activities connected by material and information flows that cross organizational
boundaries (Van der Vorst 2000). According to Lambert and Cooper (2000) there
are four main characteristics of a supply chain: first it goes through several stages of
increasing intra- and inter-organizational, vertical coordination. Second, it includes
many independent firms, suggesting that managerial relationship is essential. Third,
a supply chain includes a bi-directional flow of products and information and the
managerial and operational activities. Fourth, chain members aim to fulfil the goals
to provide high customer value with an optimal use of resources. An agri-food chain
C.J.M. Ondersteijn, J.H.M. Wijnands, R.B.M. Huirne and O. van Kooten (eds.), Quantifying
the agri-food supply chain,47-64.
2006 Springer. Printed in the Netherlands

48

L. ARAMYAN ET AL.

is nothing more than a supply chain which produces and distributes an agricultural
or horticultural product and where product flows and information flows take place
simultaneously (Bijman 2002).What makes agri-food supply chains different from
other supply chains is (1) the nature of production, which is partly based on
biological processes, thus increasing variability and risk; (2) the nature of the
product, which has specific characteristics like perishability and bulkiness that
require a certain type of supply chain; and (3) the societal and consumer attitudes
towards issues like food safety, animal welfare and environmental pressure.
Within a chain, coordination may take various forms: vertical integration, longterm contracts or market transactions. Recent studies have shown that in agri-food
supply chains, transactions are undergoing several changes (Bijman 2002). Most
agri-food sectors are moving closer to vertical coordination. Some industries (e. g.
poultry) developed tight vertical coordination some time ago, while in others it is a
relatively new phenomenon (Hobbs and Young 2000) The major change is the shift
from a production orientation to a market orientation in the strategy of producers.
This change leads to an increase in the information exchange among agri-food chain
members. Another change relates to product innovation, which has become very
important in agri-food chains. All these changes are the result of an increasing
consumer demand for more quality and a larger variety of products. Moreover,
issues such as food safety and production conditions are major concerns for
consumers nowadays. Apart from the changes in preferences of consumers, there are
also structural changes in processing and retailing of agri-food products. Processors
and retailers have become larger and more internationalized. Agricultural policies
have undergone several changes at national and EU level as well, which have led to
a decreasing level of market protection and to shifting priorities in spending public
funds.
The development of more integrated supply chains was not followed by
simultaneous development of supply-chain performance indicators and metrics in
order to assess the effectiveness of a particular chain organization (Gunasekaran et
al. 2001). This is not only true for agri-food chains, but reflects the general
developments in this area. Measurement of supply-chain performance gives
decision-makers inside (e.g. producers, distributors, marketers) and outside (e.g.
policy-makers, investors) the supply-chain information for decision making, policy
development, etc. The goal of this study is to develop a flexible conceptual
framework for measuring the performance of agri-food supply chains that can be
used by different decision-makers. The objectives of this paper are therefore:
x to provide a literature review on existing performance indicators in supply
chains;
x to give an overview of different methods and models used to measure
performance of supply chains;
x based on the literature review, to develop a conceptual framework on selection of
performance indicators in agri-food supply chains.

PERFORMANCE INDICATORS IN PRODUCTION CHAINS

49

PERFORMANCE INDICATORS IN SUPPLY CHAINS

In 1992 Lee and Billington found that no adequate supply-chain metrics exist, and
firms, even if they are participating in coordinated supply chains, only aim at
achieving their own performance standards. (Beamon 1999) looked at performance
indicators used in supply-chain modelling and concluded that current supply chain
performance measurement systems are inadequate because they rely heavily on the
use of cost as primary measure, they are not inclusive, they are often inconsistent
with the strategic goals of the organization, and do not consider the effects of
uncertainty. A few years later, Gunasekaran et al. (2001) reviewed the literature of
performance metrics of supply chains again and concluded that there is still a lack of
a balanced approach with regards to financial as well as non-financial indicators and
the number of performance indicators to be used. Furthermore, no distinction is
made between indicators of operational, tactical and strategic level. In their work
Gunasekaran et al. (2001) develop a conceptual model for supply-chain performance
at three levels: strategic, tactical and operational. There seems to be consensus about
the fact that no supply-chain measurement system exists that is inclusive, universal
and measurable as well as consistent (Beamon 1998). There is less agreement,
however, on the matter of what such a system should look like. Hannus (1991)1
emphasizes that a supply-chain measurement system should reflect the objectives of
main interest groups (customers, owners and personnel), it should combine
operational and financial follow-up data, and link operational objectives to critical
success factors and goals. He suggests using three main categories of performance
indicators: customer satisfaction, flexibility and efficiency, and to pay attention to
three main indicators such as quality, time and costs in these main categories. In his
paper he developed an approach for business-process re-engineering. This approach
was lately described in the work of Korpela et al. (2002) as the basic theoretical
framework in supply-chain development and combined with the theory of analytic
hierarchy process (AHP). This paper was an attempt to demonstrate how the analytic
hierarchy process can be used for supporting the supply-chain development process.
Murphy et al. (1996) conducted a two-stage study, where the first stage gave an
overview of performance indicators and their dimensions used in literature from
1987 to 1993 and the second stage examined the relationship between performance
variables and the existing performance dimensions. In their work Murphy et al.
(1996) used 19 performance indicators, mostly being of financial nature such as net
income or return on investments. In 1999, Beamon (1999) suggested a system of
three dimensions: resources (i.e. efficiency of operations), output (i.e. high level of
customer service) and flexibility (i.e. ability to respond to a changing environment).
Persson and Olhager (2002) adhered to this three-dimension system. Based on
results of a simulation model they concluded that good quality and short lead-times
in integrated and synchronized supply chains lead to superior performance. The payoff in terms of total cost is more than proportional to the improvements in quality
and lead-times.

50

L. ARAMYAN ET AL.

Li and OBrien (1999) suggested a model to improve supply-chain efficiency

and effectiveness based on four criteria: profit, lead-time performance, delivery
promptness and waste elimination. Their model analyses the supply-chain
performance at two levels: the chain level and the operational level. At the chain
level, assumptions for these four criteria are set for each supply-chain stage so that
the supply-chain performance can meet the customer service objectives. At the
operations level, manufacturing and logistics procedures are optimized under the
given objectives and three different strategies. The results of the model revealed that
lead-time performance is the most influential factor for the choice of the strategy.
Berry and Naim (1996) and later on Li and OBrien (1999) emphasize that the
efficiency of supply chains can generally be improved by reducing the number of
manufacturing stages, reducing lead-times, working interactively rather than
independently between stages and speeding up the information flow. Efficiency and
effectiveness were also used in the work of Lai et al. (2002) to evaluate the supplychain performance in transport logistics. Lai et al. identified three dimensions of
supply-chain performance in transport logistics. Those dimensions are service
effectiveness for shippers, operational efficiency and service effectiveness for
consignees. Within these dimensions they identified four performance indicators
such as responsiveness, reliability, costs and assets.
Van de Vorst (2000) distinguished several performance indicators for food
supply chains on three levels: supply chain, organization and process. At supplychain level five indicators are distinguished: product availability, quality,
responsiveness, delivery reliability and total supply-chain costs. At organization
level again five indicators are distinguished: inventory level, throughput time,
responsiveness, delivery reliability and total organizational costs. Finally at process
level four indicators are distinguished: responsiveness, throughput time, process
yield and process costs. Thonemann and Bradley (2002) follow the line of Eppen
(1979) and analyse the effect of product variety on supply-chain performance,
measured in terms of expected lead-time and expected cost at the retailer level in a
single-manufacturer and multiple-retailer model. They showed that underestimating
the cost of product variety leads companies to offer product variety that is greater
than optimal. The authors also demonstrate how supply-chain performance can be
managed by reducing the set-up time, the unit-manufacturing time, the number of
retailers or the demand rate.
In 2003 Claro et al. built an integrated framework for Dutch potted-plant and
flower production that aimed at the combination of constructs on the transaction,
dyadic and business-environment level for testing their impact on relational
governance and performance. Each of these three levels consists of different
determinants. Determinants of transaction level are exchange mode, human and
physical transaction-specific assets, determinants of dyadic level are length of
business interaction and organizational trust, and finally, determinants of businessenvironmental level are network intensity and environmental instability. As an
indicator of relational governance they used joint planning and joint problem solving
and as indicator of performance they used sales growth rate and perceived
satisfaction. The results revealed that the dimensions of relational governance

Steel production
Manufacturing
Manufacturing
Manufacturing
Different industries
Manufacturing
Manufacturing
Manufacturing
Manufacturing
Food
Not specified
Manufacturing

Eppen (1979)
Hannus (1991)1
Lee and Billington (1992)
Berry and Naim (1996)
Murphy et al.(1996)
Beamon ( 1998)
Beamon ( 1999)
Li and OBrien (1999)
Talluri et al. (1999)
Van de Vorst (2000)
Gunasekaran (2001)
Thonemann and Bradley
(2002)
Korpela et al. (2002)
Lai et al. (2002)
Talluri and Baker (2002)
Persson and Olhager (2002)
Claro et al. ( 2003)
Gunasekaran (2004)
X

X
X
X
X

X
X
X
X
X
X
X

Customer
responsiveness

The work of Hannus (in Finnish) is taken from the paper by Korpela et al. (2002)

Not specified
Transport
Manufacturing
Manufacturing
Horticulture
Different industries

Sector

Author

X
X
X
X
X
X

X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X

X
X
X

Efficiency

X
X
X
X
X
X

X
X

X
X
X

Flexibility

Table 1. Literature review on supply-chain performance measures

X
X
X

X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X

Other

3
4
15
7
2
45

Number of
indicators
1
3
1
4
35
16
33
11
9
8
43
2

52

L. ARAMYAN ET AL.

positively affect sales growth and perceived satisfaction, except that joint planning is
not related to perceived satisfaction.
The literature review shows that many attempts have been made to develop a
measurement system for supply chains. None have been successfully incorporated in
practice. Table 1 summarizes the papers described above in the most commonly
used categorization: efficiency, flexibility and responsiveness. Responsiveness aims
at a high level of customer service and may include fill rate, product lateness,
customer response time, lead-time and shipping errors. Flexibility indicates the
degree to which the supply chain can respond to a changing environment. Flexibility
includes customer satisfaction and reductions in the number of backorders, lost sales
and late orders. Efficiency aims to maximize value added by the process and
minimize the cost absorbed in inventories. It includes several indicators, but the
most commonly used are costs, profit, return on investment and inventory (inventory
investments, inventory obsolescence).
As can be seen from Table 1 research on agri-food supply chains is rather limited.
Furthermore, the literature review showed several performance indicators that could
not be placed under one of the three categories and are therefore placed in a category
other. These performance indicators are, for instance, range of products and
services, variations against budget, product differentiation, stock-out probability,
etc.
MODELS AND METHODS TO ASSESS SUPPLY-CHAIN PERFORMANCE
Different methods exist that can incorporate multiple performance indicators into
one measurement system. Some of the best-known are the Supply-Chain Councils
Supply-Chain Operations Reference (SCOR) model, the Balanced Scorecard,
Multi-Criteria Analysis, Data-Envelopment Analysis, Life-Cycle Analysis, and
Activity-Based Costing. The review in this section discusses different measurement
methods and the advantages and disadvantages of these methods.
The Supply-Chain Councils SCOR model is a standard supply-chain process
reference model designed to fit all industries (Supply-Chain Council 2004).This
model provides guidance on the types of metrics decision-makers can use to develop
a balanced approach towards measuring the performance of an overall supply chain.
The SCOR model advocates a set of supply-chain performance indicators as a
combination of: 1) reliability measures (e.g., fill rate, perfect order fulfilment); 2)
cost measures (e.g., cost of goods sold); 3) responsiveness measures (e.g., order
fulfilment lead-time); and 4) asset measures (e.g., inventories). The SCOR model
directly addresses the needs of supply-chain management at the operational level.
One of the tenets of the SCOR model is that a supply chain must be measured and
described in multiple dimensions. These dimensions include reliability,
responsiveness, flexibility, cost, and efficiency of asset utilization. The SCOR
model is a cross-industry model that decomposes the processes within a supply
chain and provides a best-practice view of supply-chain processes. The advantages
of the SCOR model are that it takes into account the performance of the overall
supply chain; it proposes a balanced approach by describing performance of the

PERFORMANCE INDICATORS IN PRODUCTION CHAINS

53

supply chain in multiple dimensions. Disadvantages include the fact that SCOR is
very operations-oriented and does not attempt to describe all relevant business
processes or activities such as sales and marketing, research and technology
developments, product developments and post-delivery customer support. Secondly,
and related tot the previous disadvantage, SCOR assumes but does not explicitly
address training, quality, information technology and administration (Supply-Chain
Council 2004). Scientific research using the SCOR model is limited. Based on the
SCOR model (developed by Stephens 2000) Lai et al. (2002) used the model to
evaluate supply-chain performance. Lai et al. identified three dimensions of supplychain performance in transport logistics, which are service effectiveness for
shippers, operational efficiency, and service effectiveness for consignees. Based on
these three dimensions a 26-item supply-chain performance measurement instrument
was constructed, which was tested empirically and found to be reliable and valid for
evaluating supply-chain performance in logistics. Wang (2003) related product
characteristics to supply-chain strategy in order to analyse a product-driven supplychain selection, and adopted SCOR model level-1 performance metrics as the
decision criteria for supplier selection. Based on the SCOR model they developed
an analytic hierarchy process (AHP) with overall objective to achieve optimal
supplier efficiency. Then, authors developed an integrated multi-criteria decisionmaking methodology based on AHP and pre-emptive goal programming (PGP) so
that it takes into account both qualitative and quantitative factors in supplier
selection. They found that integrated AHP-PGP methodology can select the best set
of multiple suppliers to satisfy suppliers capacity constraint.
The Balanced Scorecard is a popular performance measurement scheme initially
developed by Kaplan and Norton (1992). This method employs performance metrics
from financial (e.g., cost of manufacturing and cost of warehousing), customer (e.g.,
on-time delivery and order fill rate), business process (e.g., manufacturing
adherence-to-plan), innovation and technology perspective (e.g. new-product
development cycle time). By combining these different perspectives, the balanced
scorecard helps a manager to understand the interrelationships and trade-offs
between alternative performance metrics and leads to improved decision making.
This method is not specifically designed for supply chains but could be adapted to
focus on supply-chain performance. The Balanced Scorecard is more tactical and
strategically oriented compared with the SCOR model, which is an operationoriented method.
The advantages of the Balanced Scorecard are that it uses four performance
dimensions, both financial and non-financial, which ensures that management is
given a balanced view on performance. Finally, a top-level strategy and middlemanagement level actions are clearly connected and appropriately focused.
Disadvantages are that this approach requires considerable thoughts and effort to
develop an appropriate scorecard, the scorecard does not include market-oriented
performance indicators, and complete implementation should be staged (Coronel
1998). The Activity-Based Costing (ABC) method is based on accounting methods
and involves breaking down activities into individual tasks or cost drivers, while
estimating the resources (i.e., time and costs) needed for each one. Costs are then
allocated based on these cost drivers, such as allocating overhead either equally or

54

L. ARAMYAN ET AL.

based on less-relevant cost drivers. This approach allows for better assessing the
productivity and costs of a supply-chain process. By means of the ABC method
companies can more accurately assess, e.g., the costs of services for a specific
customer or the costs of marketing a specific product. Hence, businesses can
understand the factors that drive each major activity, the costs of activities, and the
relationship between activities and products. ABC analysis does not replace
traditional financial accounting, but provides a better understanding of performance
by looking at the same numbers in a different way (Lapide 2000).
The advantages of ABC are that it gives more than just financial information and
it recognizes the changing cost behaviour of different activities as they grow and
mature. Disadvantages are that ABC, like the Balanced Scorecard, is not developed
for supply chains but could be adapted. Furthermore, data collection can be costly
and time-consuming. While it is difficult to determine appropriate cost drivers in
ABC for businesses, this may even prove to be a bigger challenge for supply chains.
ABC focuses primarily on costs.
Traditional accounting is focused on short-term financial results like profits and
revenues, providing little insight into the success of an enterprise towards generating
long-term value to its shareholders. To overcome this problem, the estimation of a
companys Economic Value-Added (EVA) was introduced. This method is based on
the assumption that shareholder value is increased when a company earns more than
its cost of capital. Unlike Balanced Scorecards, which offer a functional focus
toward performance, the EVA offers a project focus. EVA attempts to quantify
value created by an enterprise, basing it on operating profits in excess of capital
employed (through debt and equity financing). EVA metrics are less useful for
measuring detailed supply-chain performance. They can be used, however, as the
supply-chain metrics within an executive-level performance scorecard, and can be
included in other measurement systems such as, e.g, the Logistics Scoreboard
approach (Lapide 2000). The advantages of EVA are that it explicitly considers the
cost of capital and allows projects to be viewed separately. Disadvantages of EVA
are its difficulties with computations and allocation of EVA among divisions.
Multi-Criteria Analysis (MCA) establishes preferences between options by
reference to an explicit set of objectives that the decision-maker has identified, and
for which he or she has established measurable criteria to assess the extent to which
the objectives have been achieved. This method is designed to support decisionmakers facing complex, multi-dimensional problems (Romero and Rehman 2003).
Several techniques exist, like direct analysis of the performance matrix, multiattribute utility theory, linear additive models, procedures that use qualitative data
inputs and so on. The following steps are carried out by the decision-makers in
MCA: 1) identify the feasible alternatives or preferred outcomes; 2) identify the
criteria by which to judge these outcomes; 3) apply appropriate weights on each of
the criteria that reflect their particular preferences.
One of the biggest advantages of MCA is that it facilitates a participatory
approach to decision making. Another advantage is that the interactive nature of the
approach enables both analyst and decision-maker to learn more about the problem.
Finally, it is suitable for problems where monetary values of the effects are not
readily available. On the other hand, although MCA does not necessarily require

PERFORMANCE INDICATORS IN PRODUCTION CHAINS

55

quantitative or monetary data, the information requirements to derive the weights

can be considerable. Furthermore, despite the use of explicit weights in MCA, the
analyst may unintentionally introduce implicit weights during the evaluation process
that may lead to results that cannot be explained.
Life-Cycle Analysis (LCA) involves making detailed measurements of input use
and environmental waste during the production of a product, from the mining of the
raw materials used in its production and distribution through to its use, possible reuse or recycling, and its eventual disposal. LCA has thus far focused on the
environmental burden a product poses throughout its life. It offers possibilities for
extension to economic performance, when combined with the life-cycle costassessment method (Azapagic and Clift 1999; Hagelaar and Van der Vorst 2002;
Carlsson-Kanyama et al. 2003). Using the life-cycle cost-assessment method it is
possible to integrate economic and environmental cost information into the LCA
framework and assess the cost and environmental effects associated with the life
cycle of a product or process. The advantage of this method lies in the fact that LCA
allows the establishment of comprehensive baselines of information on a products
or processors resource requirement. Secondly, it allows identifying areas within a
products life cycle where the greatest reduction of environmental burdens can be
achieved. LCA has two main disadvantages. First, it is a data-intensive
methodology. Second, the proliferation of conflicting life-cycle analyses on the
same products (environmental indexes assigned to each type of material can be
influenced by the criteria and priority in developing the indices) are causing
customers confusion and a lack of confidence in the LCA methodology.
Hagelaar and van der Vorst (2002) used Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) to
structure environmental supply chains. Their main objectives were: 1) to develop
guidelines for managers of supply chains from an environmental perspective; 2) to
relate a supply chain to its environmental performance; and 3) to assess the
applicability of LCA as a tool for environmental supply-chain management. They
concluded that if chains use LCA as a management instrument, they may have to
adjust the chain structure to meet requirements set for the use of that instrument. In
their paper they argue that in line with a differentiation between environmental-care
chain strategies and environmental chain performances, a differentiation between
types of LCA should be made, i.e., between compliance-process and marketoriented LCAs. To execute these different types of LCAs, the chain structure should
be adjusted to meet the specific requirements of these types. They found that the
choice of the type of LCA is conditional on factors external and internal to the chain
such as competition, governmental laws, consumer preferences (external) and
budget, knowledge, technology, cooperation (internal), etc. Thus the integration of
different types of LCAs in the chain brings about a different chain structure.
Data Envelopment Analysis (DEA) measures the efficiency of a firm (chain)
relative to the efficiency of competitors. The problem with respect to efficiency in
supply chains is that beside direct outputs, which are delivered directly to the
market, a firm also produces output that is input to a firm in the next stage. These
intermediate outputs are intermediate inputs to the firm in the adjacent stage, next to
the direct inputs. Contributions of Zhu (2003) in this field are a first step towards
measuring supply-chain efficiency. The method allows inclusion of various

Life-Cycle
Analysis (LCA)

DataEnvelopment
Analysis (DEA)
Supply-Chain
Council's
SCOR Model

x
x
x
x
x
x

x
x
x
x
x

Economic ValueAdded (EVA)

Multi-Criteria
Analysis (MCA)

x
x
x

Balanced
Scorecard

Balanced view about the performance

Financial and non-financial factors
Top-level strategy and middle-management-level actions are clearly connected
and appropriately focused
Considers the cost of capital
Allows projects to be viewed separately
A participatory approach to decision-making
Enables decision-maker to learn more about the problem
Suitable for problems where monetary values of the effects are not readily
available
Allows to establish comprehensive baselines of information on a products or
processors resource requirement
Allows to identify areas where the greatest reduction of environmental burdens
can be achieved
Possibility to assess the cost and environmental effects associated with the life
cycle of a product or process
All inputs and outputs are included
Generates detailed information about the efficient firms within a sample
Does not require a parametric specification of a functional form
Takes into account the performance of the overall supply chain
Balanced approach
Performance of the supply chain in multiple dimensions

Advantages
x Gives more than just financial information
x Recognizes the changing cost behaviour of different activities

Methods
Activity-Based
Costing (ABC)

Does not attempt to describe every business

process or activity
Does not explicitly address training, quality,
information technology and administration

x
x

Deterministic approach
Data-intensive

Computation difficulties
Difficult to allocate EVA among divisions
Information requirements to derive the weights
can be considerable
Possibility to introduce implicit weights
leading to results that cannot be explained
Data-intensive methodology
Lack of confidence in the LCA methodology

x
x

x
x

x
x
x

Disadvantages
x Costly data collection
x Difficulties to collect initially required data
x Difficulties to determine appropriate and
acceptable costs drivers
x Not a quick fix
x Complete implementation should be staged

Table 2. Advantages and disadvantages of methods to assess supply-chain performance

PERFORMANCE INDICATORS IN PRODUCTION CHAINS

57

dimensions, e.g. economic and environmental performance. The problem with

measuring supply-chain efficiency using the DEA model is that it requires an
enormous amount of data, while data gathering is one of the most complex issues in
a supply-chain context. The advantages of DEA modelling are numerous. DEA
takes a systems approach, which means that it takes into account the relationship
between all inputs and outputs simultaneously. DEA generates detailed information
about the efficient supply chain within a sample and which supply chains can be
used as a benchmark. DEA does not require a parametric specification of a
functional form to construct the frontier. Thus there is no need to impose
unnecessary restrictions on the functional forms that very often become a cause of
distorted efficiency measures. DEA has the disadvantage of being a deterministic
approach, which implies that statistical noise may be confounded with inefficiency.
Talluri et al. (1999) studied the importance of a partner selection process in
designing efficient value chains. They propose a two-stage framework, where the
first stage involves identification of efficient candidates for each type of business
process (manufacturing, distribution, etc.) using DEA and the second stage
encompasses the use of an integer goal-programming model to select an effective
combination of the efficient business processes. Talluri and Baker (2002) proposed a
multi-phase mathematical programming approach for effective supply-chain design.
They developed a combination of multi-criteria efficiency models based on gametheory concepts and linear integer-programming methods. The first phase evaluates
suppliers, manufacturers and distributors in terms of their efficiencies with respect to
input used and output generated. The model developed in this phase is a
combination of a DEA model and a Pair-wise Efficiency Game (PEG). These
methods generate an efficiency score for each candidate. The second phase includes
the application of an integer-programming model, which optimally selects
candidates for supply-chain network design by integrating efficiency scores from the
first phase, demand and capacity requirements, and location constraint. The third
phase identifies the optimal routing for all individuals in the network by solving a
minimum-cost transhipment model.
It is clear from Table 2 that all described methods have their advantages and
disadvantages. Therefore, there is a need to consider carefully all arguments for and
against the selected method to measure supply-chain performance. It is also possible
to combine two different methods to measure supply-chain performance. For
instance, Balanced Scorecard can be combined with EVA, because the EVA method
is project-focused, while Balanced Scorecard is functional-focused. Nevertheless,
when using a combination of different performance measurement methods, great
care needs to be taken to avoid conflicts between different performance matrices
used to evaluate the performance of the chain in different dimensions.
AGRI-FOOD SUPPLY CHAIN
When developing a supply-chain measurement system it is imperative to consider
the supply chain to be measured since it may have specific characteristics. In general
two types of agri-food supply chains can be distinguished: 1) supply chains for fresh

58

L. ARAMYAN ET AL.

products such as fresh vegetables, flowers and fruit; 2) supply chains for processed
food products such as canned food products, dessert products, etc. This research is
focused on supply chains for fresh agricultural products, more specifically on
vegetable supply chains. These supply chains consist of growers, auctions,
wholesalers, importers and exporters, and retailers. The main processes are
producing, storing, packing, transportation and trading of these products. These
supply chains have many specifications, which set them apart from other types of
supply chains. Several authors (Van der Vorst 2000; Van der Spiegel 2004) have
summarized the following specific aspects of agri-food supply chains:
1. shelf-life constraints for raw materials and perishability of products,
intermediates and finished products, and changes in product quality level while
progressing through the supply chain (decay);
2. long production throughput time (production of new or additional products
requires a long time);
3. seasonality in production;
4. seasonal supply of products requires global sourcing;
5. conditioned transportation and storage required;
6. variable process yield in quantity and quality due to biological variations,
seasonality, factors connected with weather, pests and other biological hazards;
7. storage-buffer capacity restrictions, when materials or products can only be kept
in special containers;
8. governmental rules concerning environmental and consumer-related issues (CO2
emission, food-safety issues);
9. physical product features like sensory properties such as taste, odour,
appearance, colour, size and image;
10. additional features: e.g. convenience of ready-to-eat meal;
11. product safety: increased consumer attention concerning both product and
method of production: no risks for the consumer of foods are allowed;
12. perceived quality, also relevant for food applications: e.g., advertisement or
brands (marketing) can have a considerable influence on quality perception.
Recent socioeconomic developments have resulted in a change in performance
requirements for food supply chains as a whole and for all stages in the supply chain
(Van der Vorst 2000). This change is the outcome of the variation in buying
behaviour of consumers. Consumer preferences have become the major determinant
of quality and production methods. Food safety and human health are important
social concerns, particularly when it comes to greenhouse vegetables (Buurma
2001). Consequently, demand for fresher products and products with higher added
values increases. The use of pesticides and other chemicals negatively affects
consumers buying behaviour. Consequently, consumers have high demands on a
broad range of quality aspects like food safety, production characteristics, sensory
properties, shelf life, reliability, convenience, availability and quality/price ratio
(Van der Spiegel 2004). The risks associated with poor quality (e.g. outbreaks of
animal diseases and low food safety) are so high that retailers and consumers claim
to be increasingly prepared to pay more for higher quality (Van der Vorst et al.
2001). Nonetheless, price wars in supermarkets that are vying for consumers
loyalty and international competition are putting pressure on prices. Furthermore,

PERFORMANCE INDICATORS IN PRODUCTION CHAINS

59

regardless of all the demands for specific attributes, many consumers around the
world remain price buyers.
Agri-food supply chains are very sensitive to policy changes concerning the
environmental issues. During the past 7-10 years, in The Netherlands public
concerns arose about the production system for greenhouse vegetables (Buurma
2001). These concerns were associated with pollution, industrial processes and bulk
production. The government took responsibility and covenants were concluded to
reduce the use of pesticides and energy by 50%. Besides the consumers preference
variation, environment plays a crucial role in agri-food supply-chain performance
assessment, because agricultural products are strongly influenced by nature. The
environmental variability (e.g. weather conditions) can be reflected in the quantity
and the quality of the farm products. The perishability of fresh products such as
fruits and vegetables put strains on logistics and quality management. Given these
facts we can say that food quality and environmental issues have a great impact on
agri-food supply-chain performance. Thus, based on the specifications of agri-food
production, when developing a performance measurement system for agri-food
supply chains, the indicators that reflect the quality aspects of products and
processes are highly relevant (freshness, food safety, environmental issues, etc.) and
together with other financial and non-financial indicators, included into one
performance measurement system.
Quality is difficult to define and therefore difficult to measure. The quality
indicators of a product in literature are often divided into intrinsic and extrinsic
quality attributes (Jongen 2000; Luning et al. 2002; Tijskens 2004) or similarly into
product and process quality indicators (Northen 2000). For years, performance of
production systems has commonly been evaluated by measuring costs or by
measuring the intrinsic product quality such as product safety and sensory properties
(taste, colour, texture) (Van der Spiegel 2004). Quality is a multidimensional
construct that is based on both perceived intrinsic and extrinsic quality attributes
available in the shop (Acebron and Dopico 2000). This means that a buying decision
is based on more than only intrinsic properties of a product; extrinsic properties also
play a role.
Intrinsic quality indicators refer to physical properties such as flavour, texture,
appearance, shelf life and nutritional value. The properties are directly measurable
and objective. Quality is formed by turning physical properties of a product into
quality attributes by the perception of the consumer (Jongen 2000). The intrinsic
product properties define the state of the product, which is evaluated with respect to
quality criteria imposed by a producer or user (Sloof et al. 1996).
Extrinsic quality attributes refer to the production system and include factors
such as the amount of pesticides used, type of packaging material, use of
biotechnology (Jongen 2000). Extrinsic factors do not necessarily have a direct
influence on physical properties but influence the acceptance of the product for
consumers. The total of intrinsic and extrinsic factors determines the purchase
behaviour (Jongen 2000).
In this study we follow the division according to the division into intrinsic
(product) and extrinsic (process) quality indicators by Luning et al. (2002). In their
work, Luning et al. have divided product quality into 3 aspects: 1) food safety and

60

L. ARAMYAN ET AL.

health; 2) sensory properties and shelf life; 3) product reliability and convenience.
Process quality also consists of 3 aspects: 1) production system characteristics; 2)
environmental aspects; 3) marketing. Within product safety and health, health refers
to food composition and diet. Food safety refers to the requirement that products
must be free of hazards with an acceptable risk. The sensory perception of food is
determined by the overall sensation of taste, odour, colour, appearance, texture and
sound, which are determined by physical features and chemical composition. The
shelf life of a product can be defined as the time between harvesting or processing
and packaging of the product and the point at which it becomes unacceptable for
consumption. Product reliability refers to the compliance of actual product
composition with product description, and convenience relates to the ease of use or
consumption of the product for the consumer (Luning et al. 2002). Production
system characteristics refer to the way a food product is manufactured and includes
factors such as pesticides used, animal welfare and use of genetic engineering.
Environmental implications of agri-food products refer mainly to the use of
packaging and food waste management. Marketing efforts determine quality
attributes, affecting quality expectation. Process specifications include the type of
equipment needed and handling conditions required. Jongen (2000) and Northen
(2000) name traceability and organic production as examples of process indicators.
DEVELOPING A CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
Based on the literature review on existing performance indicators and taking into
account the theoretical frameworks underlying the different methods and models
such as SCOR model and/or Balanced Scorecard, the conceptual framework has
been developed. The framework takes into consideration specific characteristics of
agri-food supply chains. For this purpose, the agri-food supply-chain performance
indicators are grouped in four main categories: efficiency, flexibility, responsiveness
and food quality. The categories efficiency, flexibility and responsiveness are
chosen based on Table 1. These main categories contain more detailed performance
indicators. Based on the framework of food quality developed by Luning et al.
(2002), the specifications of agri-food supply chains are grouped under the category
food quality. Adding the category food quality to the three other categories
derived from the literature review results in a complete conceptual framework for
measuring the performance of agri-food supply chains (Figure 1).

Warehousing
Capital
Storage
Insurance
Damage and losses

Profit
Return on investment
Inventory

Production cost
Distribution cost
Transaction cost

Cost

Efficiency

Fill rate
Product lateness
Customer response time
Lead-time
Shipping errors

Responsiveness

Food quality

Production system
Environmental aspects
Marketing

Process quality

Sensory properties and

shelf life
Product safety and health
Product reliability and
convenience

Product quality

Figure 1. Conceptual framework of agri-food supply-chain performance indicators

Backorders
Lost sales
Late orders

Volume flexibility
Delivery flexibility
Number of

Pre-transaction
Transaction
Post-transaction

Customer satisfaction

Flexibility

Performance

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L. ARAMYAN ET AL.
FUTURE OUTLOOK

This paper reviewed the available supply-chain performance indicators and models
and methods used to asses the performance of supply chains. Based on the existing
body of research in supply-chain performance measurement systems a research
framework has been suggested for measuring the performance of agri-food supply
chains. The suggested framework is based on a literature review and needs to be
tested empirically. In future research this conceptual framework will be tested by
interviewing the experts (managers) and stakeholders across the entire agri-food
supply chain. During the interviews experts will be asked to judge the feasibility and
the measurability of suggested indicators. Experts will be given the opportunities to
suggest new indicators and to reject the proposed ones and to provide suggestions
for better (practically possible) ways to measure the suggested indicators. This
procedure should be provided with sufficient argumentation. Based on the results of
interviews the final research framework for measuring the performance of the agrifood supply chain will be developed that will meet criteria of inclusiveness,
universality, measurability and consistency.
NOTES
1

The work of Hannus (in Finnish) is taken from the paper by Korpela et al. (2002)

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