What is a noun phrase?

A noun phrase includes a noun and all of its modi ers. These modifiers include determiners and adjectives
Noun Phrase + Verb

Pronoun + Verb

Tom eats
The little

boy eats

He reads

The Noun Tom and boy is replaced by the Pronoun he

PRONOUN TAKES the place of a noun in a sentence when the noun repeated more than once.
e.g.
Incorrect

Call

David. I must speak to David.

Correct

Call

David. I must speak to him.

The noun represented by a pronoun is called its antecedent. The word ante means "before," and cede means "come." So
the literal meaning of antecedent is "comes before." Usually, the antecedent comes before the pronoun in a sentence.
Pronouns ahve masculine and feminine gender, singular and plural forms and have nominative, possessive and objectives
cases

Position
As its name tells us, a preposition is normally placed before a noun phrase or some other element. The preposition + noun
phrase together form a PREPOSITIONAL PHRASE.

Position of prepositions in different kinds of sentence:

e.g
Who is she working
Shes working

for?

for a friend

In the first example shows the preposition at the end of the sentence, and the second example shows the preposition in its
usual position, at the front of its noun phrase.

Prepositional Adverb
Many word forms which are prespositions are also adverbs. These adverbs are called Prepositonal Adverbs. Most of them are
adverbs of place.

Some Common Prepositional Adverbs:

about

by

round

above

down

since

across

in

through

after

inside

throughout

around

near

under

before

on

up

behind

opposite

within

below

outside

without

between

past

over

beyond
Prepositions are usually in front of a noun phrase, whereas prepositional adverbs usually stand alone, wihtout a following
noun phrase.
Preposition

She stayed

in the house

Adverb

She stayed

in

Preposition

The guests were standing

around the room

Preposition

The guests were standing

around

Prepositional adverbs are always stressed. Prepositions are frequently unstressed.

Prepositional Verb
We use the term prepositional verb for an IDIOM made up of verb + preposition.
add to

care for

look for

agree with

consent to

pay for

aim at / for

deal with

pray for

allow for

decide on

refer to

apply for

hope for

rely on

approve of

insist on

run for

ask for

listen to

stand for

attend to

live on

take after

believe in

long for

take to

belong to

look after

wish for

call for / on

look at

The verb and preposition express a single idea.

e.g
He

takes after his grandfather (resembles)

We have

asked for help (request)

I have to

look after the house (take care of)

The verb and preposition are often together at the end of a sentence
e.g
I do not know who this book

belongs to

We scarcely have enough to

Have the new chairs been

live on

paid for?

Kinds of Prepositions
Simple Prepositions

Compound Prepositions

Phrasal Prepositions

SIMPLE PREPOSITIONS
Definition :
Simple Prepositions are "short" or "little" words that express relationships including those of space, time, and degree.
e.g
Simple Prepositions
at

by

for

from

in

into

of

off

on

out

over

till

to

up

upon

with

under

down

Definitions of some important simple prepositions

zzFor (only, particular)

For indicates : a receipient of beneficiary

e.g
We have a present
I have news

for you

for you

She sang a song

for me

For indicates : a special purpose

e.g
You need a coat

for winter

He has a bicycle

for transportation

We need room
This pills are

for ten people for our party

for headache

For indicates : the intended result of an action

e.g

The boys were screaming

What are you looking

for help

for?

We need room for ten people

for our party

From
For indicates :s a source, point of departure, separation, motion or movement

e.g
I hear

from him every week

Keep away
I come
Three

from the crowd

from London

from nine equals six

Please start

from the beginning

I had an excellent flight

from Delhi to London

In
In indicates : location inside, place, time, within, membership of group

e.g
The pens are

in the box / cupboard

He sat down

in the chair and read his novel

Is your brother

in? (at home)

There is a boy

in the river

Please fill

in this form

We went in the car, but they went

in a helicopter

He cant come to the phone because hes in bed

She was born

in the 1800s

Into
In indicates : motion, entrance, forced contact, divition, conversion

e.g
He went

into the room

I got to go

into hospital

They went

into business together in 1979

She cut the pie

into eight wedges

He always gets

into trouble at school

I have translated the language English

into French

Of (link of meaning)
Of indicates : belonging or connection

e.g

of the book

The pages

A book of mine
A guest

of a lion
of the car

The owner

of the hill

The top

A member
A litre

of Parliament

of oil

belonging
belonging
belonging
part to whole
member to its group
expression of amount

of student

crowd, group, bunch

of his advice

crowd, group, bunch

A group
Much

belonging

of myfather

The heart

belonging

A bowel

of fruit

container or units

A bottle

of milk

container or units

The roar

of the lion

realtionship between

The difficulty

of learning English

link of the verb be

The art

of painting

refer to the same person or thing

The job

of being president

refer to the same person or thing

The game

of foodball

I am afraid

of snakes

You must be tired

A guest

of watching T.V.

of myfather

linking two nouns

linking adjectives or verbs
linking adjectives or verbs
belonging

Off
Off indicates : place or movement, separate, conneted, behaviour

e.g
The car ran

off the road

movement

They shoveled the snow

She cut

off the driveway

movement

off her beautiful long hair

separation

off Main Street

connected

Our street is

off school today

The children are

She went

off her diet again

behavior
behavior

On
On indicates : place, movement, means of travel or time, higher than something and touching it, on the top of

e.g
Please sign your name

on the dotted line

place

Lets have a barbecue

on the balcony

place

on the sidewalk

place

She rides her bicycle

That is the only place

on earth where she feels safe

The child pasted the picture on the page

The porch is

on the side of the house

The cat is sitting

The cat jumped
I go to work

on the floor

on the table / window

on the bus

movement

time

on?

happening
happening

on the radio

Would you mind putting a tape

through the medium of

on?

Are you going to watch anything

Watch

place

travel

Whats on at the movies?

I heard it

place

place

On Saturday we stayed at home

How is going

place

on T.V.?

on Star Movies

through the medium of

through the medium of
through the medium of

Out (Adverb of place or motion)

Out indicates : removal, distribution, movement from inside, absence, a distance from, no longer in supply, position

e.g
He pulled

out a sharp knife

The fist player to go

out loses the game

movement from inside

removal

Please take the trash

out

removal

The teacher told me to hand these papers

He was freezing when he got
She took the cake
The boss is

out

distribution

out of the water

movement from inside

out of the oven

movement from inside

out of the office

My neighbors are

absence

out of the country this month

The restaurant is about three miles

absence

out of town

They had to walk to the gas station because they ran

a distance from

out of gas

no longer in supply

Over
Over indicates : motion, above, higher than, more than, to the other side, covering, during

e.g
The dog jumped
He ran

over the fence

movement above

over the bridge

movement above

There is a picture of my father

We can see the tree
We often walk

above

over the tree

above

over the fields

I hurt my knee when I fell

I stayed with my aunt

to the other side, acrose

over

The child is always running

movement

over the floor with muddy feet

over the weekend

We are driving at a speed of

I have gained

over my bed

during

over a hundred Kmph.

over five pounds this month

I can do simple math, but that problem is way

She is over there, by the doctor

covering

more than
more than

over my head

more than
the other side

Till
Till indicates : a particular time

e.g
I waited

till 10 oclock

The boys studied

To

till midnight

at the end of time

at the end of time

To indicates : destination, movement and direction, time, receiver, idioms

e.g

coming to the party in this evening

Are you

How are you

destination of a verb

getting to the Ariport tomorrow

destination of a verb

They ride to school on the bus

Count from one

destination of a verb

to hundred

movement

The traffic lights changed from red

The train is

to green

destination

to New York

destination of a noun

The normal working week is from Monday

Mr.David gave a present
He delivers the mail

to Friday

time

to her girl friend Sarah

receiver

to the office

receiver or transfer

Some verb + to (Preposition)

e.g
come to

get to

go to

bring to

walk to

move to

sink to

run to

return to

Up
Up indicates : movement to a higher place, motion towards the sky, next

e.g
He always walks

up the steps to the sixth floor

Come up here
Coming

adverbs of motion

up next

He will be

motion towards

getting up late today

The balloon is
She lives two

up

She is going to
They swam

miles up the road

travel up Route 55

up the river for exercise

With
With indicates : in the company of, instrument, having

e.g

motion towards
motion towards the sky

blocks up the street

Their farm is three

movement

location further along

location further along
movement along a way
against a current of water

We are going out for dinner. Are you come

with me

She danced

She left her children

with the babysitter

She sang

with pictures for my presentation

having or adding

having
having

with a stick

I opened it

in the same place as

having

with great skill

He hit me

I write

with sugar

with gray hari

I have an article

together
together

She always drinks her coffee

The man

with us?

instrument

with this key

instrument

with pen

instrument

Under
Under indicates : motion, place, control

e.g
Children

under the trees

The children hid

under the table

He has three children

under age ten

She stores all her jewells

You are

under the bed

under attest

She is under the care of a doctor

I paid

under TEN Dollars for this camera

This game is only for under 19

in a lower position
covered by something else
less than
covered by something else
control
control
less than
less than

Down
Down indicates : movement

e.g
The road runs down into a valley

movement from a higher place

The old man went down the road on foot

covered by something else

The intruder broke the door down

destruction

COMPOUND PREPOSITIONS
Definition :

which are generally formed by prefixing a Preposition to a Noun, an Adjective or an Adverb.

e.g
Compound Prepositions
above

about

across

along

among

against

after

around

between

beyond

before

behind

beside

besides

through

towards

since

inside

outside

within

without

Around (on all sides)

Around indicates : movement in a circular direction in place, following a boundary, in all areas of, on another side of.

e.g
The bank is around the corner

on another side of

She must be around twenty

following a boundary

The earth revolvs around the sun

movement in a circular direction

There are several trees around my college

in all areas of

Between (in or within two)

Between indicates : separation of two things, a choice of, together.

e.g
There is no issue between us

together

She must be around twenty

following a boundary

The earth revolvs around the sun

movement in a circular direction

There are several trees around my college

in all areas of

Through (movement)
Through indicates : length of time, passage within , vision beyond something, parts beginning, between, and including,

finish something that requires effort.

e.g
The train sped
I cannt see

through the tunnel

through window

The strike continued

We came

through the summer

through the front door

motion or movement
vision beyond something
length of time
motion or movement

Please read from chapter one

through chapter four

between

Towards (in the direction of)

Towards indicates : near a period of time, moving .

e.g
The train rushed
Water moves

towards the tunnel

towards the pool

He threw a stone

towards the sky

I always feel hungry

towards dinnertime

We start getting ready for school

in the direction of
in the direction of
in the direction of
near a period of time

towards the end of the

summer

near a period of time

Since (time up to now)

Towards indicates : length of time.

e.g

Since you have finished your homework, you can help me make
dinne

length of time

He has been ill

since friday night

length of time

I didnt see her

since I was 5 years old

time up to now

I have been leaving here

since 1980

Long since I meet you

time up to now
length of time

Inside (within)
Inside indicates : indoors, within.

e.g
Is there anybody

inside?

indoor

The dentist looked

inside his mouth

within

She put the money

inside the envelope

within

The children

went inside because it had started to rain

indoor

Outside (not within)

Outside indicates : out.

e.g
Its raining

heavily outside

It will soon be dark

You can

outside

play outside after lunch

not within
not within
not within

Within (inside the limits)

Within indicates : length of time, less than a distance, not outside a place, possible, not exceeding the limits of something.

e.g
He will return
I live

within a week

length of time

within three miles of the city centre

At last, the beach is

within sight

less than a distance

possible

Without (not having)

Without indicates : absence of somebody, not using, not performing an action, negative of with.

e.g
The president attended the meeting
We had to cook
She can't read

without gas

saying good-bye

without permission

Please meet your doctor

not having, absence

not using

without her glasses

He left without
No entry

without his wife

not using
not performing an action
not having

without fail

absence

PHRASE PREPOSITIONS
Definition :
The noun phrase which follows the preposition can be called a prepositional complement and the preposition together
with its complement is known as a prepositional phrase.
A groups of words used with the force of a single preposition.
e.g
Phrase Prepositions
according to

in course of

by means of

with the help of

in accordance with

with reference to

because of

in order to

instead of

in respect of

in place of

with regard to

in addition to

for the sake of

In spite of

at the top of

in favour of

at the end of

by dint of

in consequence of

on account of

in front of

by the side of

in the event of

on account of

in case of

in want of

along with

in need of

owing to

in the habit of

in search of

in the direction of

by virtue of

with a view to

by way of

with an eye to

conformably to

along with

in memory of

in line with

on the part of

in the middle

at the risk of

at the back of

A phrase Preposition consists of a preposition followed by a prepositional complement. The complement is usually a noun

phrase.

1. Preposition + a noun phrase

As usual, her bright smile greeted me

at the break fast table

2. Preposition + a noun-clause
She came

from what she called a small farm of two hundred acres

3. Preposition + an -ing clause

Ricky tried to shake off his fears

by looking at the sky

4. Preposition + an adverb
You can see the station from here

Functions of Phrase Prepositions :

Phrase Prepositions as

adverbial

We may need you to do some work

in the evening

To my surprise the doctor phoned the next morning

Phrase Prepositions as modifier in a
She felt she had no chance
The noise

noun phrase

of promotion

from the sitting-room was deafening

Phrase Prepositions as verb

complement

You mustnt worry too much

about this

Phrase Prepositions as complement of an adjective

Im terribly

bad at dates

Would you be
e.g
Inspite of

interested in writting an article?

Inspite of his poor health, he worked hard

Inspite of all his wealth he is not happy
Inspite of all my advice he has done this act
Inspite of his being a mere boy, he offered to fight the gaint
He appeared for the examination

inspite of his sickness

e.g
According to

According to Aristole man is a social animal

He acted

according to his fathers advice

e.g
On account of

On account of his being late, he will be punished

He was forced to resign his job
School was closed

on account of his poor health

on account of heavy rain

e.g
The hospital building was constructed

in line with the latest trends in society

I received a lot of co-operation in life

in favour of my mother

He saved the girl

at the risk of his life

He applied for leave

because of fever

We were paid a large sum of money

We must live with noble ideas
Even

owing of our services to the company

in memory of great people

in course of crisis Sachin remained unfazed

Some Important Phrases for on

on purpose

on holiday

on television

on the radio

on the phone

on fire

on time (not late)

on duty

on leave

on the corner

on the balcony

on the sofa

on the beach

on the left side

on his arm

Some Important Phrases for at

at (the age of) 20

at 50 killometers an hour

on business

at 100 degrees

at night or during the night

at the end of

at the moment

at the weekend

at the busstop

at the door

at the traffic lights

at the top of the page

at the bottom fo the page

at home

at work

at school

at college

at university

at the station

at the airport

at Davids house

at the doctors

at the butchers

at a conert

at a football match

at the kitchen sink

at the beach

good at English

angry at something

bad at grammar

Some Important Phrases for about

talk about

speak about

think about

hear about

know about

a book about

a question about

a programme about

Some Important Phrases for of

get rid of
accused of

afraid of

approve of

sure of

aware of

boast of

careful of

careless of

cured of

die of

full of

glad of

proud of

take care of

Some Important Differences in Prepositions

Made of and Made from

When one substance is changed into another, so that a new substance is produced, we use from , but when the original
material is not actually changed, but is formed into some object, then we use of .
Her dress was made of silk

Flour is made from wheat

superior to

inferior to

junior to

senior to

sit on a chair (without arms)

sit in a chair (with arms)

write in ink

write in pencil

write with a pencil

write with a pen

write in English and French

Translate English into French

a work by

a painting by

useful to a person

useful for a purpose

agree with a person

agree to a proposal

angry with a person

angry at something

on the ground floor

on the first floor

come in my car (own)

come by car (taxi)

Some Important Phrases for with

pleased with

happy with

agree with

angry with

satisfied with

contented with

Some Important Phrases for by

by bus

by auto

by car

by lorry

by train

by ship

by plane

by sea

by air

ARTICLES
Definition :
A, an, and the are special adjectives. These are called Articles.
When articles combine with nouns, they form noun phrases: There are two articles in English

Types

Words

Examples

The Indefinite article

A or An

A king, an elephant

The Definite Article

The

Call the man

Use of a / an / the
1. A / An means one . So we can use a / an only with singular countable nouns.
2. An is not used wth plural nouns or proper nouns.
3. A / An cannot be used with uncountable nouns.
For example, We cannot say : a milk, a water, a tea, a sugar, a rice.
The can be used with all nouns (singular or plural).

THE INDEFINITE ARTICLE

Definition:
The words

a and an are called indefinite articles. We can use them with singular nouns to talk about any single person

or thing.
Deciding which indefinite article to place in front of a word depends upon the initial sound of the word, not the first letter of
the word.

When to use a; when to use an

The Indefinite Article (A)
Definition :
A is used before words beginning with a consonant sound.
e.g.
a usual

a student

a doctor

a hotel

The Indefinite Article (An)

Definition :
The article an should be placed before words that begin with a vowel sound.
The initial sound should be a, e, i, o, or u.
e.g.
an hour

an elephant

an actor

an ice-cream

RULES for A and An

1 . A must be used before words which begin with a vowel symbol pronounced with the same sound as the y or a w-

likesound.
e.g.
a Europe

a uniform

a union

a unique

a unitarian

a united

a university

a usual

a useful thing

a year

a one-eyed giant

a one-dollar note

2 . Sometimes, an is found before words beginning with the letter h.

Silent h : an is used before these words :

e.g.
an hour

an honour

an heir

an heirloom

an hourly

an honorarium

an honesty

an honorary

But this paractice is going out. If h is pronouncec, a is used:

e.g.
a hotel

a house

a horse

a human being

3 . We use AN before abbreviations that begin with vowel sound.

e.g.
an M.A.,

an M.Sc.,

an M.B.B.S.,

an M.L.A.

an N.C.C Officer

an M.Com.,

an M.C.A

an M.B.A.,

4 . a or an must be used before a singular noun standing for things that can be counted.

e.g.
England is

a country

London is

a city

A dog is an animal

Rice is a cereal
5 . a or an must be used before the names of professions.

e.g.
His father is

a doctor

She is an engineer
6 . Words like hero, genius, fool, thief and liar take the indefinite article.

e.g.
Beware fo that fellow; he is
My friend is

a liar

a genius

7 . The following word has indefinite article. Such + a/an + noun (or) Such + a/an + adjective + noun

e.g.

Such a thing

Such a person

Such an honour

Such an interesting story

8 . The following word has indefinite article. so + adjective + a/an + noun

e.g.
So interesting a person

So nice an opportunity

9 . Few and Little are negative meaning. A few and a little are positive and mean 'some'

e.g.
He has little knowledge of this subject

I have a little money on me

He has few friends

I have a few books on this subject

10 . In its original numerical sense of one ; as,

e.g.
Not

a word was said

A bird in the hand is worth two in the bush

Twelve inches make

I have

a foot

a book

11 . A , an = one thing or person.

e.g.
Sara works in a bank

Can I ask a question?

I have not got a car

Theres a woman at the bus stop

12 . We use a/an when we say what a thing or a person is.

e.g.
The sun is

a star

Football is

a game

A mouse is

an animal. Its a small animal

He is a very jolly person

13 . We use a/an for jobs, etc.

e.g.
I am a dentist

He is a teacher

She is a student

Are you an engineer?

Note : The indefinite articles are not used before plural nouns, proper nouns, abstract nouns, uncountable and material
nouns.
e.g.
A dog is a faithful animal

Dogs are faithful animals

THE DEFINITE ARTICLE

Definition:
The Definite Article the generally specifies and identifies. It answers the question: Which one? It specifies a person,
place, or thing alrady mentioned.
The definite article the means this, that. It answers the question which one?. It can be used with both singular and plural
nouns. A noun is first inroduced with the indefinite article and the definite article is used to refer to it again .

Rules for THE

1 . The superlative degree :

e.g.
The best

The tallest

The least

2 . The names of

e.g.
River

The Ganges

Seas

The Arabian Sea

Oceans

The Pacific Ocean

Bays

The Bay of Bengal

Trains

The Blumountain Express

Banks

The State Bank of India

Ships

The Queen Elizabeth is a famous British liner

3 . The words King and Queen

e.g.
The King of France

The Queen of England

But the is not used before the words King and Queen if they are followed by the name of the king or queen.
King George V (the Fifth)
4 . Do not put the before the names of games

e.g.

Queen Elizabeth II (the Second)

I play cricket

She loves tennis

Similarly: football, rugby, hockey, polo, baseball, chess, etc.

5 . Put the before the names of musical instruments.

e.g.
She plays the guitar

He plays the violin

6 . Do not put the before the names of single mountains or hills.

e.g.
Mt. Everest

Nanga Parbat

But the must be put before the names of mountain ranges or ranges of hills.
The Himalayas

The Alps

7 . Use the with ordinals : as

e.g.
The first

The tenth

He was the first man to arrive

The tenth chapter of the book is very interesting

8 . Do not put the before the names of meals if they refer to the meals generally, as a part of the daily routine.

e.g.
I have breakfast at eight every morning
We have lunch in the afternoon.
But the must be used when the meal is a particular one, thought of as a social function.
The dinner will be held at the Park Plaza
9 . We say all day, all night; but :

e.g.
All the morning

All the afternoon

All the evening

All the week

10 . Use the before the names of municipal or government departments and before the names of shops, business houses,

industrial concerns; banks, etc. except when they begin with a personal noun.
e.g.
The Ministry of Education

The Public Library

The Grand Hotel

The State Bank of India

11 . Do not use the before the names of railway stations when they are also place names.

12. Do not use the before the name of language.

Language

Inhabitants

English

The English

French

The French

e.g.

We are learning English

The English have been a sea-faring people for many countries

The French live in France and speak French.
13 . the may be used before a name which ends in Road, but it may also be omitten

e.g.
He lives in Gandhiji Road
I bought this pen at a shop in the Salamon Road
14. Purpose for which the building exists visit or inspection.

e.g.
go to school

go to the school

go to college

go to the college

go to hospital

go to the hopsital

go to prison

go to the prison

When the is omitten, the reference is to the purpose for which the building exists.
e.g.
Students go to school to study
Christians go to church to pray
With the the reference is merely to the building. It is the visit or inspection that is referred to, not the actual purpose.
e.g.
He went to the school to meet the Headmaster
He went to the chruch to look at the buildings.
15 . Do not put the before the names of substances if they are used in a general sense.

e.g.
Gold is a precious metal
We drink water
Apples are good for health
But the must be used if the reference is to a particular kind of specimen of the substance:
e.g.
The gold mined here is of poor quality
The water in that well is very dry
16 . Do not put the before plural nouns when they are using in a general or a univercel sense.

e.g.
The aeroplanes of the Jet Airways are well-maintained
The apples from Kashmir are costly

17 . Do not use the before the names of countries unless the name suggests that the country is made up of smaller units or

constituent parts.
e.g.
Japan

France

Italy

The United State of America

The U.K.,

The U.S.S.R.,

18 . the is used before a singular noun to express what we call the generic singular, i.e. the one thing mentioned is taken

to represent all of the kind.

e.g.
The tiger and the cat belong to the same family of animals.
An exception to the above rule is the noun man when it is used to denote the human race as a whole.
19 . the is used before common nouns which are names of things unique or their kind: (Before a noun of a thing which

exists only one)

e.g.
The sun

The moon

The earth

20 . the is used before an adjective when the noun is understood.

e.g.
The rich must help the poor
21 . is also used as an adverb with comparatives.

e.g.
The more you study, the more you learn
The earlier you come, the better of you

The two uses of the articles

Generic use
When the articles, a, an and the are used to refer to the whole class with interchangeable option, they are called to be in
thegeneric use.
e.g.
A cow is a useful animal
The cow is a useful animal
In the above two, we talk about the whole class of cow with the use of a in the first sentence and the in the second
sentence.

Anaphoric use of the

When we introduce a singular noun for the first time, we use a or an and later we use the to refer to the same noun. This
kind of use is called anaphoric use of the.
e.g.
I saw
But

a policeman. He was very tall and shout.

the policeman did not possess any kindness

In the above sentences, we introduce the policeman with a and later we use the. This is anaphoric use of the

Adjectival Articles

Definition :
The articles a, an, and the are also limiting adjectives. When an article comes before a noun or a phrase, it clarifies
whether the "something" to follow is definite (the) or indefinite (a, an). When an article is used, another adjective can
also be used between the article and the noun itself.
e.g.
They go down the road

She was born a working girl

For a series of coordinate nouns, an article must be added before each noun.
e.g.
The doctor and the dentist ran toward the exit first.
If the list of nouns has a single thread of an idea, theres no need to repeat the article.
e.g.
The cat and mouse appeared to be in a dance to the death.

When an a or an is required and one doesn't work for both examples, just use them both as appropriate.
e.g.
He recommended that I see a dentist and an orthodontist.
When the named things have one plural noun governing them, the definite article should not be repeated for each modifier.
e.g.
He ran for president during the second and third semesters

GERUND
Definition:
Gerunds are present participles that are used as nouns and end with an

-ing . Gerunds can function as the subject of a

verb, the object of a verb, a predicate nominative or complement, or the object of a preposition.
The -ing form is a general term for words called either 'gerund' or 'present participle' in traditional approaches to grammar.

List of Gerunds
e.g.
answering

arriving

asking

reading

carrying

cleaning

closing

enjoying

finishing

disscussing

helping

consulting

inviting

listening

watching

looking

fitting

joining

working

raining

receiving

remaining

walking

washing

visiting

smoking

starting

staying

studying

waiting

talking

taking

running

selling

sending

singing

sleeping

spending

eating

fishing

fixing

doing

coming

asking for

writing

wearing

trying to

travelling

Gerund with Examples

e.g.

Getting up
Having a bath
Having breakfast/lunch/dinner
Getting dressed
Going home/to work/to the office
Driving home/to work/to the office
Reading letters/the newspaper
Working in the office
Talking with friends
Buying the paper/cigarettes
Watching TV
Writing to a friend
Calling up a friend
Playing cards/soccer
Walking to the park
Running across the park
Visiting a museum
Washing the car
Cooking a meal
As the subject of the sentence
e.g.

Singing is her favourite pastime

Singing is formed from the verb sing by adding -ing. We also see that it is here used as the subject of a verb, and hence does

the work of a Noun. It is therefore a Verb-Noun and is called a Gerund.

As the object of the sentence

e.g.

playing cricket

I like

We have improved our speaking

As the complement of the sentence

e.g.
My only physical work is walking
His hobby is reading and painting

As the object of a preposition

e.g.
She is fond of reading books
He was prevented from meeting his friend

USES OF THE GERUND

A Gerund may be used as :1. Subject of a verb
e.g.

Giving is better than receiving

Hunting is a favourite sport in this country
Advising others is easy
2. Object of a transitive verb
e.g.
I love
Stop

writing letters

talking

He enjoys

watching T.V.

3. Object of a transitive verbObject of a preposition

e.g.
He is found of
I am tried of

eating

waiting

Hendry has no intention of

4. Complement of a verb

leaving the country now

e.g.
Seeing is believing
What I most detest is drinking

Some verbs must always be followed by the gerund

e.g.
admit

appreciate

avoid

consider

deny

enjoy

finish

mind

miss

postpone

practise

quit

recall

report

resent

resume

e.g.
He admitted

having stolen the car

Why have they delayed

opening the school?

The goalkeeper just missed

Journalists reported
He suggested

being invited

knowing anything about it

Lets postpone

making a decision until we have more information

Does she resent my

She enjoys

being cat

playing tennis

He practised

reversing the car into the garage

Peter couldnt resist

We cant help
He has quit

being tired

taking children to the zoo

They appreciated
She denied

stopping the ball

making jokes about his baldness

thinking hes still alive

smoking

The two sides have resumed

He was considering
Do you mind my
I recall her

fighting

buying a car until the prices went up

closing the window?

giving me the key

You should not talk

marrying unless you are absolutely sure about it

Some Verbs + Prepositions are followed by the gerund

e.g.
approve of

insist on

think about

give up

succeed in

put off

rely on

count on

think of

postpone

practise

quit

recall

worry about

keep on

e.g.
I approve of your

trying to earn more money

David has given up

smoking

John relied on your

supporting him

Sarah is not worried about

passing the examination

The manager insisted on his

He succeeded in

passing the examination

You cannt count on his

Dont keep on

coming to the office on time

helping you

talking

Shes thinking about

changing her job

He keeps putting off

going to the dentist

Theyre thinking of

moving to America

Some Verb + Preposition expressions must also be followed by the gerund

e.g.
Object to

look forward to

confess to

e.g.
I strongly object to your

talking like this

Were really looking forward to seeing you again

She finally confessed to

having stolen the money

Some adjectives + Preposition are also followed by the gerund

e.g.
accustomed to

capable of

interested in

intent to

successful in

afraid of

tired of

fond of

e.g.

We are accustomed to

getting up early in the morning

Hes intent on

getting promoted

I was afraid of

hurting his feelings

The company is interested in

Im sure he is capable of
He was successful in
She is fond of

selling its products overseas

running a mile in four minutes

running the business

cooking

You soon get tired of

eating the same thing every day

Passive gerund
Definition :
The gerund form can have both active voice and passive voice like infinitives.
e.g.
I like taching English (present active voice)
I like English being taught (Present passive voice)

CONJUNCTION DEFINITION AND EXAMPLES

Definition :
A conjunction is a word which joins together two. words, clauses or sentences
A term which refers generally to words that have a conjoining or linking role in grammar

A list of words commonly used are called Conjunction

e.g.
and

or

but

while

however

when

till

thus

still

since

although

unless

though

as

if

yet

hence

moreover

for

therefore

neither... nor

either... or

not only... but also

whether... or

in order that

on condition that

even if

so that

all

provided that

in as much as

as well as

as soon as

as if

otherwise

both

Conjunctions are divided into two classes

refers to two rather different classes of words: coordinating conjunctions and subordinatingconjunctions . These are
sometimes called coordinators and subordinators respectively.
e.g.
Co-ordinating

Subordinating

and, or, but and sometimes nor, also

if, when, because and so on

CORRELATIVE CONJUNCTIONS
Definition :
Some conjunctions are used in pairs. Conjunctions which are thus used in pairs are called Correlative Conjunctions
or Merely Correlative.
Conjunctions which are used in pairs are called Correlative Conjunctions. A term used of a construction in which two parts of
a sentence are linked together by two words one word belonging to one part and the other word belonging to the other.

Some Important Correlative Conjunctions

e.g.
both and

not ... but

neither... nor

either ... or

not only... but also

whether... or

though ... yet

Although some of these conjunctions can stand on their own, when used in a correlative sense, both words must be present:
e.g.
Not only ... but also
Mr.Rao
He

not only smokes but also drinks

not only acts but also writes his own plays

Dad

not only washed the car, but he also polished it

Maria

not only skis but also snowboards

He

not only robbed the poor child but also murdered her

Either ... or

Either you want to go or you dont

You must

either pay the bill at once or return the goods

It is either a parrot

or a crow

Either you or he has to go to the market

You can do your homework

either now or after dinner

Whether ... or
Only God knows
I will see him

whether he is alive or dead

whether you like it or not

It all depends on

whether it rains or not

She couldnt decide

Do you know

whether to stay in bed or get up and take a shower

whether Luke or Robin are coming to dinner?

Both ... and

She speaks

both English and French

Both popcorn and peanuts are popular snacks at sporting events

Both the manager and the clerk were happy
Sam ran faster than

both Jems and David

Both His sister and brother are married

Though ... yet

Though he is suffering a lot, yet he does not complain

Neither ... nor
It is neither useful

nor ornamental

Neither her sister nor her mother was there

He is neither a knave

nor a fool

Neither Jack nor Jill enjoyed the outing

Neuer having

neither masculine nor feminine gender

Note that many words can be used as prepositions, adverbs, or conjunctions. The definition of these words actually depends
on how they are used within the sentence.

COMPOUND CONJUNCTIONS
Definition :
The phrases which are used as conjunctions are called Compound Conjunctions.

Some Important Compound Conjunctions

e.g.
in order that

as if

even if

as soon as

so that

on the condition that

as well as

provided that

in as much as

with the aim that

in order that

to the extent that

e.g.
In order that
She left early

in order that his children would not be alone at home

In order that we may be respectful of the presenters, please turn off your cell phones
e.g.
As if
Robert walks
He behaved

as if he were lame

as if nothing had happened

e.g.
Even if
I shall not go with him
I will get there,

even if he asks me to do so

even if I have to walk all the way

e.g.
As soon as
We went inside

as soon as it started to rain

As soon as youve finished your homework, let me see it

e.g.
So that
She is reading the book
He worked hard

so that he may learn his lesson

so that everything would be ready in time

e.g.
On the condition that
I can show you my garden
He will forgive you

on the condition that you will not touch any flower

on condition that you do not repeat the offence

e.g.
On the condition that
I can show you my garden
He will forgive you

on the condition that you will not touch any flower

on condition that you do not repeat the offence

CO-ORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS
Definition :
A coordinate conjunction joins words or word groups of the same kind and same importance.
Coordinating conjunctions link words or word groupings that have equal grammatical status within the sentence two nouns,
two verbs, two clauses, etc. The six chief coordinating conjunctions are :
e.g.
and

(either) or

but

for

also

(neither) nor

These six are subclassified according to function. The conjunctions and, (either)/or and (neither)/nor can link more than two
clauses, whereas but, yet, and for cannot.

Use and to link words that are similar

e.g.
AND
We buy fruit and vegetables at the grocery store
A cat and its kittens
Its cold, wet and windy today
e.g.

Use or to talk about choices

e.g.
OR
Is this a sheep or a goat?
A male or a female?
Would you like pasta or rice?

Use but to link words that are different and do not normally go together.
e.g.

BUT
Birds fly but cattle dont
The weather was sunny but cold
The animal is large but timid
Use a comma before coordinating conjunctions that are followed by an independent clause

e.g.
He is 18 years old, and his brother, David, is 16
Im taller than he is, so people think Im older

SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS
Definition :
Subordinating, or subordinate, conjunctions join clauses that are not equal in grammatical weight, with the
subordinating conjunction linking the smaller, subordinate clause to the larger, main clause structure..
Subordinate clauses begin with connectives, or "joining words," called subordinating conjunctions. A subordinating
conjunction always precedes its subordinate clause. The chief Subordinating conjunctions are :
e.g.
Subordinating Conjunctions
after

how

so that

although

if

than

as

in case

that

as if

in order that

though

as long as

inasmuch as

till

as much as

just in case

unless

as soon as

lest

until/til

as though

like

when

because

now that

whenever

before

once

where

by the time

only if

whereas

even if

provided (that)

wherever

even though

rather than

whether

every time

since

while

Subordinating conjunctions indicate the following relationships:

Subordinating Conjunctions of Time

Definition:

after, as, as long as, as soon as, before, until, since, when, while are used to say when
something happens. They are called conjunctions of time .
The conjunctions

e.g.

As we approached, the deer was startled

After he had done his duty, he felt happy
Take the toy out of the box

before you throw the box away

As soon as youve finished your homework, let me see i

Ill call you

when I get home

Father watches TV

while he does his exercises

People stand back

as the train goes through the station

Subordinating Conjunctions of Place

Definition:

where and whereve r are used to talk about places. They are called Subordinating
conjunctions of place .
The conjunctions

e.g.
She found a great spot
Put it

where she could read quietly

where we can all see it

The dog follows Rosy wherever she goes

Subordinating Conjunctions of Reason

Definition:

although, because, for, once, in as much as, since, as , though, why, and in case tell
why someone does something. They are called Subordinating conjunctions of reason .
The conjunctions

e.g.
She wanted an answer because she had to leave
Although he wanted to say yes, he couldnt
As youre my best friend, Ill lend you my new bike

Subordinating Conjunctions of Purpose

Definition:

so, so that, such that and in order to tell what the purpose of something is. They are
called Subordinating conjunctions of purpose.
The conjunctions

e.g.

She raised her hand

so that he could see her

We eat that we may live

She goes jogging every morning

in order to keep fit

Subordinating Conjunctions of Condition

Definition:

except, if, once, though, unless, without are called Subordinating conjunctions of

The conjunctions
condition.
e.g.
You don't want it

unless someone else has it

Unless you work hard, you cannot get good result

If he buys the book, he will read it
Subordinating Conjunctions of Comparison
Definition:
as, as far as, as much as, as well as, else, otherwise, rather, than (Than only when it follows comparative adverbs or
adjectives or the words else, rather, other, or otherwise.) are called Subordinating

conjunctions of comparison.

e.g.
London is larger

than any other city in England

As far as my lapdog is concerned, yes

Are cats more independent

than dogs?

THE PARTICIPLE
Definition:
The participle has two forms : present participle, and past participle. Present participle is one of the three forms of
non-finite vierbs. It is formed by adding

ing with a verb. Past participle is one of the non finite verb forms.

Its uses
(a) When one subject does 2 actions
The first action -> participle
The second action -> verb
e.g.
He

ran fast (1st action). He sweated (2nd action)

Running fast (participle), he sweated (verb)

(b) In the case of 2 subjects
e.g.

It was a rainy day (1st action). We stayed indoors

It,

being a rainy day, we stayed indoors

Its types
(a) ing :
e.g.
Father

wore his shoes (1st verb). He went for a walk (2nd verb)

Wearing his shoes (participle), Father went for a walk (verb)

(b) being :
being replaces to be forms (i.e.) am, is , are, was, were.
e.g.
He

was smart. He solved the problem

Being smart (participle), he solved the problem (verb)

(b) Having :
having been / verb
having been -> had been
having +verb -> had + verb
e.g. 1
The student

had been tried. They sat down

Having been tired, the students sat down

e.g. 2
She

had lost her money. She cried

Having lost her money, she cried

1. Present Participle as a Verb
Definition:
The present participle does not give a clear idea about the time of action. It may refer to past, future, or present
depending on the auxiliary verb used before it.

Present Participle is used as a main verb in the continuous sentence.

e.g.
I was writing the examination.

Past continuous tense, and the participle is writing

I am writing the examinaiton

Present continuous and the participle is writing

2. Present Participle as an Adjective

e.g.
This is our dining table
Here, the participle, dinning qualifies the noun table and thus acts as an adjective.
e.g.
I lost my walking stick

I bought a new washing machine

I worked in a spinning mill
I know how the grinding machine works
We have seen that participles qualify nouns or pronouns. They may be used.

a) Attributively
e.g.

His tattered coat needs mending

A rolling stone gathers no moss

b) Predicatively
e.g.
He kept me waiting

As only a participle
e.g.
On reading the newspaper, he learnt about his loss in his business
Coming to the point, the manager ended the meeting

As a gerundial noun
e.g.
Walking is good for health
Reading is good for knowledge
Working is good for progress

As a verbal noun
e.g.
The building I bought is very costly
The meeting gave me a nice experience
Picasas painting is world famous

Note : We generally do not use ing with the following words.

Use of Past Participle

Definition:
This is formed by adding -d or -ed to the end of regular verbs. It is used with the helping verb, such as has, have, or
had.

1. As a main verb in the perfect tense

e.g.

I have done the project work. (present perfect)

She had left the house before we came. (past perfect)
They will have done the project work by the next month. (future perfect)

2. As a main verb in the pasive voice

e.g.
Trespassers will be punished. (passive voice in future tense)
He was given a prize. (past tense passive voice)
Using mobile phone in the campus is prohibited. (present passive voice)

As a participle in a phrase
e.g.
Driven by hunger, he made the mistake
Given a chance, I perfomed well on the stage

As an adjective or adjective complement

e.g.
I saw the broken houses in the slum area
He is from a good educated family
I found him dead
The cleaned car looks new

Perfect participle
Definition:
The perfect participle is formed by having + past participle
e.g.

Having finished the work, the workers left the work-place

Having met my friend, I shared all my feelings

INTERJECTION
Definition :
An Interjection is a word put into a sentence to show some sudden feeling or emotion. Interjections do not refer to
anything, but simply express the speakers emotion or wish. In grammatical terms, they occur in isolation as an
exclamation, or are loosely added on to a sentence

Interjection has two types such as Mild Interjection and Strong Interjection.

Mild Interjection (Punctuated with Comma)

e.g.
well

ofcourse

such

Strong Interjection (Punctuated with Exclamation point)

e.g.
Hurrah!

Bravo!

Hush!

Hello!

Ugh!

Ah!

Ha! ha!

Oh!

Well done!

Alas!

Fie!

Hi!

Ha!

Yes!

Ouch!

Help!

Happy Birthday!

Good morning!

Wow!

Hush!

Hark!

Use an exclamation point at the end of a sentence that shows a strong feeling such as surprise or fear. An exclamation point
is used instead of a period. Notice that an exclamation point (!) is often used after interjections
e.g.
What! The house caught fire
Wow! Did you see that?
Hurrah! We have won the match
Alas! The soldier is dead
Oh! What a pretty dress it is
Ah! Here comes the actor at last
Hello! How do you do?
What! has he invited you!
Hush! Dont make a noise
How wise he is!
Oh! what a nice game he played
Hurrah! we have won
Hello! what are you doing there?
Ah! I have hurt my toe

Hush! The baby may wake up

Hark! I hear a drum

BRITISH AND AMERICAN ENGLISH THROUGH PICTURES

There are differences in spelling for some words between Americans and British.
British

American

Autum

Fall

British

American

Aeroplane

Airplane

British

American

Angry

Mad

British

American

Aerial

Antena

British

American

Buscuit

Cookie

British

American

Book stall

News stand

British

American

Bar of chocolate

Candy bar

British

American

Cinema house

Movie theatre

British

American

Currency note

Bill

British

American

Car park

Parking lot

British

American

Consultant

Specialist

British

American

Exercise book

Composition book

British

American

Film

Movie

British

American

Flat

Apartment

British

American

Full stop

Period

British

American

Hand bag

Purse

British

American

Ill

Sick

British

American

Jam

Jelly

British

American

Lorry

Truck

British

American

Level crossing

Grade crossing

British

American

Lager

Beer

British

American

Main road

Highway

British

American

Police Constable

Patrol man

British

American

Post

Mail

British

American

Puncture

Flat

British

American

Post code

Pin code

British

American

Primary school

Elementary school

British

American

Queue

Line

British

American

Rubber

Eraser

British

American

Railway

Rail road

British

American

Ring up

Call

British

American

Shop

Store

British

American

Street beggar

Pan holder

British

American

Sweets

Candy

British

American

Skipping rope

Jump rope

British

American

Sellotape

Scotch tape

British

American

Sports man

Athlete

British

American

Taxi

Cab

British

American

Time table

Schedule

British

American

Trousers

Pants

British

American

Traffic light

Stop light

British

American

Torch

Flash light

British

American

Water tap

Faucet

British

American

Visiting Card

Calling Card

British

American

Mad

Crazy

British

American

Petrol

Gasoline

British

American

Luggage

Baggage

British

American

Chips

Crisps

British

American

Sun rise

Sun up

British

American

Sun set

Sun down

(SIMILAR PRONUNCIATION) BRITISH ENGLISH AND AMERICAN ENGLISH LIST

Definition :
The pronunciation and vocabulary do not vary in British English and American English.
But there are a few spelling differences in them. Look at the table and note the difference:
e.g

OUR - OR Type Words

BRITISH ENGLISH

AMERICAN ENGLISH

Armour

Armor

Behaviour

Behavior

Colour

Color

Demeanour

Demeanor

Dolour

dolor

Dishonour

Dishonor

Endeavour

Endeavor

Favour

Favor

Glamour

Glamor

Harbour

Harbor

Honour

Honor

Humour

Humor

Labour

Labor

Odour

Odor

Parlour

Parlor

Rigour

Rigor

Rumour

Rumor

Saviour

Savior

Valour

Valor

Vapour

Vapor

Vigour

Vigor

RE - ER Type Words
BRITISH ENGLISH

AMERICAN ENGLISH

Centre

Center

Fibre

Fiber

Kilometre

Kilometer

Litre

Liter

Meagre

Meager

Metre

Meter

Sceptre

Scepter

Theatre

Theater

SE - ZE Type Words
BRITISH ENGLISH

AMERICAN ENGLISH

Analyse

Analyze

Civilise

Civilize

Cosy

Cozy

Fuse

Fuze

Italicise

Italicize

Organise

Organize

Paralyse

Paralyze

Realise

Realize

Recognise

Recognize

CE - SE Type Words
BRITISH ENGLISH

AMERICAN ENGLISH

Ascent

Assent

Defence

Defense

Licence

License

Offence

Offense

Practise

Practice

Vice

Vise

GUE - OG Type Words

BRITISH ENGLISH

AMERICAN ENGLISH

Catalogue

Catalog

Dialogue

Dialog

Travelogue

Travelog

PH - F Type Words
BRITISH ENGLISH

AMERICAN ENGLISH

Sulphate

Sulfate

Sulphite

Sulfite

Sulphur

sulfur

L - doubles
BRITISH ENGLISH

AMERICAN ENGLISH

Enrol

Enroll

Enthral

Enthrall

Distil

Distill

Fulfil

Fulfill

Instralment

Installment

Instil

Instill

Skilful

Skillful

L - Missing
BRITISH ENGLISH

AMERICAN ENGLISH

Cancelled

Canceled

Councillor

Councilor

Dialling

Dialing

Leveller

Leveler

Marvellous

Marvelous

Medallist

Medalist

Signalled

Signaled

Travelled

Traveled

A - Missing
BRITISH ENGLISH

AMERICAN ENGLISH

Anaesthetic

Anesthetic

Archaeology

Archeology

Mediaeval

Medieval

E - Missing
BRITISH ENGLISH

AMERICAN ENGLISH

Judgement

Judgment

Acknowledgement

Acknowledgment

S - Missing
BRITISH ENGLISH

AMERICAN ENGLISH

Afterwards

Afterward

Maths

Math

O - Missing
BRITISH ENGLISH

AMERICAN ENGLISH

Amoeba

Ameba

Cestrogen

Cestrgen

Diarrhoea

Diarrhea

Homoeopathy

Homeopathy

Moustache

Mustache

Oestrogen

Estrogen

Irregular Type Words

BRITISH ENGLISH

AMERICAN ENGLISH

Aerial

Antennas

Aerogramme

Aerogram

Aeroplane

Airplane

Although

Altho

Aluminium

Aluminum

Amicable

Amiable

Anemia

Anaemia

Annexe

Annex

Artificial

Artful

Axe

ax

Biscuit

Cookie

Bookshop

Bookstore

Break light

Stop light

Calling card

Visiting card

Car

Automobile

Cash card

ATM card

Cell phone

Mobile phone

Chemist

Druggist

Cheque

Check

Chips

Crisp

Cinema

Movie

Cooker

Stove

Corridor

Hallway

Cot

Crib

Compliment

Complement

Comprehand

Comprehend

Counsel

Council

Cup board

Closet

Curtain

Drapes

Descent

Dissent

Despatch

Dispatch

Disc

Disk

Diary

Data book

Digit

Figure

Dis towel

Tea towel

Draught

Draft

Dreamt

Dreamed

Dust bin

Trashcan / Grabage bin

Engine driver

Engineer

Estate car

Station wagan

Exercise book

Note book

Extra time

Over time

Film

movie

Financial year

Fiscal year

Fire engine

Fire truck

Flat mate

Room mate

Flex

Cord

Football

Soccer

Freight car

Wagon

Gracious

Graceful

Historical

Historic

Jewellery

Jewelry

Laughs

Loghs

Marvellous

Marvelous

Meagre

Meager

Programme

Program

Sociable

Social

Rephrasing of Sentences
I. Despite and Inspite
Despite and Inspite are used to express the concept of contrast. They can be used interchangeably. they mean the
same as although, though or even though . But althoughthough and even though are subordinate
conjunctions.
despite
inspite of

+ noun phrase

e.g
Despite his physical handicap he is a successful business man.
although
though
eventhough

+ subject + verb + (complement)

e.g
Although he is physically handicapped, he is a successful business man.

II. Hope and Wish

These two verbs, while they are similar in meaning, are not all the same grammatically. The verb hope is used to
indicate something that possibly happened or will possibly happen. The verb wish is used to indicate something that
definitely did not happen or definitely will not happen.
e.g
We hope that they will visit.
We hope that they visited yesterday.
We wish that they could come.
Wish is also used to express unreal condition.

Present wish
I wish I were a singer.
If I were a bird I would fly.
If I were you I would not attend this meeting.
Past unreal condition
If you had been here last night, you would have seen the film.
Past wish
She wishes that she could have been here earlier.
We wish that you had been at Paris last night.
In these sentences the word that is optional.
Future wish
We wish that you could come to the party tonight.
She wishes that she were coming with us.
I wish I had enough time to finish the proof correction.

III Some Adverbs

hardly, barely, scarcely, seldom, rarely, never.
These words which are similar in meaning, negative or restrictive ideas.
I have hardly any money.
Hardly had he finished his work when somebody knocked at the door.
We hardly go to movies.

Barely is often used with adjectives such as enough and sufficient.

These people have barely enough to eat.

After the loss in business he has barely enough to support himself.

Kuwait lies barely 48 km from the Iranian coast.
If any of these adverbs occur at the beginning of a sentence, the subject must follow the verb as in a question:
Rarely and seldom are broad negatives
Rarely do we come across such good people.
Seldom have I seen such beautiful flowers.

IV. Conditional sentences (hypothetical and impossible)

In these conditional sentences past perfect will be followed by perfect conditional.

1. If you had bought a car a year ago (Past Perfect)

it would have cost you much less than now. (Perfect Conditional)

2. Had you bought a car a year ago (Past Perfect inverted)

it would have cost you much less than now. (Perfect Conditional)

V. Had better
The meaning of had better (Id better) is similar to should.

1. Id better do something.
I should do something (or) it is advisable for me to do something.
If I do not do this, something bad might happen.

2. I have to meet Supria now, I had better go now.

3. You had better take an umbrella, it may rain.
QUESTIONS TAGS

Definition - Question Tag

Exercises
News Letter
Enter Your Email

Submit

LINK TO GRAMMARINENGLISH.COM

Learning Competency
Defining relative clause

When a clause defines the noun it qualifies it is known as a defining relative clause.

My Vote for Questions Tags

Good

Average

Home

Definitions

Last Updated : 07 Sep 2013.

QUESTION TAGS IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR

Definition :
Sometimes people finish what they are saying with a short question. Why do they do this? Because they
want to know if the person they are speaking to agrees with them.
A Question Tag is the shortest form of a qustion using the verb plus pronoun.

RULES FOR QUESTION TAGS

A positive statement uses a negative tag.

A negative statement uses a positive tag.

e.g

NEGATIVE TAG

It is raining, isnt it?

The main part of the sentence is positive, but the question tag is
negative.

POSITIVE TAG

It is not raining, is it?

The main part of the sentence is negative, but the question tag is
positive.

1.STATEMENT WITH AUXILIARIES:

e.g
1

David is older than you, isnt he?

Sally cant dance, can she?

It is dark, isnt it?

Tigers are dangerous, arent they?

He and I can go by bus, cant we?

Sarah and Reeta will come, wont they?

If the main part of the sentence has I am in it, use arent I in the question tag.
If the main part of the sentence has I am not in it, use am I in the question tag.
e.g
1

I am your best teacher, arent I?

I am not your best teacher, am I?

I am taller than you, arent I?

I am not taller than you, am I?

2. STATEMENT WITHOUT AUXILIARIES:

e.g
1

She sings beautifully, doesnt she?

The sun shines hot in summer, doesnt it?

Rivers flow towards the sea, dont they?

Kabil broke the world record, didnt he?

The flowers have drooped, havent they?

Indians have great respect for traditions,dont they?

3. a. STATEMENTS USING AUXILIARIES:

e.g: As has/have/had
1

The bell has rung, hasnt it?

b. STATEMENTS USING THE MAIN VERB:

e.g: As has/have/had - use do/does/did forms
1

A lion has sharp claws, doent it?

4. STATEMENTS HAVING NEGATIVE WORDS USE POSITIVE TAG:

e.g: Using no, none, never, not, neither-nor
1

Rosy is not going to come today, is she?

My father never smokes, does he?

The cuckoo has no care for its eggs, does it?

Neither John nor David has any bad habits, do they?

e.g: Using little, few, scarcely, hardly, rarely

1

David shows little care in his studies, does he?

Few planets can be seen, can they?

Antony scarcely listens in class, does he?

They rarely lose their points, do they?

5. STATEMENTS HAVING a little/a few ARE POSITIVE:

e.g: Therefore they use negative tag
1

A little sugar is added to sauces, isnt it?

I have a few chocolates to share, havent I?

6. Only USES BOTH POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE TAGS:

e.g:
1

Only children are allowed to play in the

park,are/arent they?

She did only one mistake, did/didnt she?

Lets get together for a party, shall we?

Get me a ticket, will you?

Pass on the message soon, wont you?

Listion to me, cant you?

7. Lets USES shall we:

e.g:
1

Lets go home, shall we?

8. SIMPLE REQUESTS USE will you?:

e.g:
1

Pass me the pen, will you?

9. URGENT REQUESTS wont you?:

e.g:
1

Send the e-mail, immediately, wont you?

10. IMPATIENT REMARKS cant you?:

e.g:
1

Keep quiet, cant you?

11. STATEMENTS USING each, every, someone, somebody, anyone, anybody, none, nobody:
e.g: - take a plural pronoun - they
1

Everybody cheered, didnt they?

Somebody can do it, cant they?

DEFINITION OF SYLLABIFICATION
Syllabification Definition:
Syllabification has SIX types, they are :
1.Monosyllabic 2.Disyllabic (or) Bisyllabic 3.Trisyllabic 4.Terasyllabic 5.Pentasyllabic 6.Polysyllabic (or) Multisyllabic
But the basic syllabifications are Mono-syllabic, Di-syllabic and Poly-syllabic.

Some times we must break a word at the end of a line. Avoid doing so whenever possible; expecially avoid breaking
two successive lines. When breaking a word is unavoidable, mark the division with a hypen (made with one stroke on
the typewriter[-]).
It is splitting of words according to the syllables or units of sounds or vowel sounds.
e.g
leader

lead-er

countrymen

count-ry-men

rejoice

re-joice

universal

u-ni-ver-sal

survival

sur-vi-val

What is Monosyllabic Word:

Words having only one syllable.
e.g
act

cat

book

slew

base

vile

oft

cause

crown

mourn

worse

fear

head

riot

sword

tongue

plot

steel

wish

one

school

break

rhythm

make

act

see

all

at

ball

bat

bet

sweep

life

What is Disyllabic (or) Bisyllabic Word :

Words having only two syllables.
e.g
cen-sure

sen-se

va-liant

in-terred

grie-vous

cae-sar

cap-tives

ran-soms

be-side

dec-tate

wo-men

cri-tic

in-stead

de-lay

a-gain

edu-cate

pro-gramme

van-quish

se-nate

de-bate

dor-mant

out-break

mo-ral

dir-rect

co-ward

en-ding

care-ful

de-vil

dia-mond

co-ward

sus-pect

deep-est

pur-pose

What is Trisyllabic Word :

Words having only three syllables.
e.g
beau-ti-ful

to-mor-row

po-pu-lar

in-ten-tion

lu-per-vcal

lu-per-cal

mu-ti-ny

le-ga-cy

tes-ta-ment

be-lo-ved

me-mo-ry

un-kind-ly

tes-ta-ment

be-lo-ved

tri-um-virs

for-tu-nate

vic-to-ries

o-ra-tion

coun-try-men

be-ne-fit

as-sem-bly

con-si-der

e-le-ment

tra-di-tion

im-pli-cit

per-mi-ssion

ex-peri-ment

e-ffec-tive

in-jus-tice

com-pa-nion

ar-ma-ment

What is Polysyllabic Word :

Words having four or more syllables.
e.g
in-tel-li-gent

in-i-ti-at-ve

per-so-ni-fi-ca-tion

fun-da-men-tal-ly

in-fe-ri-o-ri-ty

syl-la-bi-fi-ca-tion

PARTS OF SPEECH
Look at the following sentences and find the words with different grammatical functions.

e.g.
There is a drop in the prices of pulses
Do not drop the waste here
See how the word drop is used as a noun in the first sentence and as a verb in the second sentence. the same word is
used with different grammatical functions. A number of words have different grammatical functions in different
contexts with different meaning.

INTERCHANGE OF PARTS OF SPEECH

The following prefixes or suffixes at the beginning or end or the word determine whether they are Verbs, Nouns,
Adjectives or Adverbs .

e.g.
Verb

Noun

Adjective

en-

-ment

-able

im-

-ness

-ible

-es

-tion

-ive

-ed

-sion

-ful

-ire/ize

-ance

-al

-fy

-cy

-ant

-en

-ity

-ic

-ate

-th

-ave

-ish

-ce

-ent

-dom

-ant

-ship

-ar

-hood

-ing

-er/or

-y

Adverb

-ly

Some Important words can be changed into all the four forms.

e.g.
Verb

Noun

Adjective

Adverb

devote

devotee, devotion

devoted, devotional

devotedly, devotionally

contruct

construction

constructive

constructively

harmonised

harmony

harmonious

harmoniously

sensed

sense

sensitive, sensible

sensitively, sensibly

possess

possessions

possessive

possessively

reflect

reflection, reflectiveness

reflective

reflectively

astonished

astonishment

astonishing

astonishingly

integrate

integration

integral

integrally

fancied

fancy

fanciful

fancifully

impose

imposition

imposing

imposingly

bonded

bond

bonded, bonding

bonding

stylized

style

stylish

stylishly

expertise

expertness, expert

expert

expertly

symbolise

symbol

symbolic, symbolical

symbolically

proportioned

proportion

proportionate

proportionately

marvelled

marvel

marvellous

marvellously

architectured

architecture

architectural

architecturally

manage

management

manageable

manageably

restrict

restriction

restrictive, restricted

restrictively

directed

direction

direct

directly

excite

excitement

excited

excitedly

form

formation

formative

formatively

speeded, sped

speed

speedy

speedily

exceed

excess

excessive

excessively

confuse

confusion

confusing

confusingly

attract

attraction

attractive

attractively

endanger

danger

dangerous

dangerously

notice

notice

noticeable

noticeably

vary

variation, variety

various

variedly

stressed

stress

stressful

stressfully

economies

economy

economic, economical

economically

relate

relation, relativity

relative

relatively

systematize

system

systematic, systemic

systematically

initiate

initiation

initiative

initiatively

presist

presistence

presistent

presistently

brutalise

brutality

brutal

brutally

include

inclusion

inclusive

inclusively

dirtied

dirt

dirty

dirtily

trimphed

triumph

triumphant

triumphantly

reduce

reduction

reducible, reductive

reducibly, reductively

diminish

diminution

diminishable

diminutively

faced

face

facial

facially

functioned

function, functioning

functioning

functionally

tensed

tension

tensed

tensely

unsustained

unsustainance

unsustainable

unsustainably

tasted

taste, tastefulness

tasty, tasteful

tastefully

remedied

remedy

remedial

remedially

acquiesce

acquiescence

acquiescent

acquiescently

sophisticate

sophistication

sophisticate

sophistically

revere

reverence

reverential

reverentially

obey

obedience

obedient

obediently

regarded

regard

regardful

regardfully

forced

force

forcible

forcibly

depend

dependence

dependent

dependently

secure

security

secured

securely

devote

devotion

devotional

devotionally

suffice

sufficience

sufficient

sufficiently

authorise

authority

authoritative

authoritatively

define

definition

definite

definitely

compare

comparison

comparative

comparatively

enrich

riches

rich, richer

richly

inform

information

infromative

informatively

amazed

amazement

amazing

amazingly

pitied

pity

piteous

piteously

delighted

delight

delightful

delightfully

popularize

popularity

popular

popularly

wondered

wonder

wonderful

worderfully

expect

expectation

expectant

expectantly

needed

need, needy

needful

needfully

amuse

amusement

amusing

amusingly

lavished

lavishness

lavish

lavishly

believe

belief, believer

believable

believably

particularize

particular, particularity

particular

particularly

sensed

sense

sensible

sensibly

respond

response

responsive

responsively

commune

community

communal

communally

act

action, act

active

actively

brief

brevity

brief

briefly

relate

relevance

relevant

relavantly

completed

completion

complete

completely

practise

practice

practical

practically

mean

meaning

meaningful

meaningfully

express

expression

expressive

expressively

commercialize

commerce

commercial

commercially

conclude

conclusion

conclusive

conclusively

necessitate

necessity

necessary

necessarily

spirited

spirit

spiritual

spiritually

focused

focus

focal

focally

create

creation, creator

creative

creatively

visualise

vision, visionary

visual

visually

tortured

torture

torturous

torturously

warmed

warmth

warm

warmly

energies

energy

energetic

energetically

famed

fame

famous

famously

specify

specification

specific, specifiable

specifically

sympathise

sympathy

sympathetic

sympathetically

compose

composer

composed

composedly

figured

figure

figurative

figuratively

observe

observance

observable

observably

relate

relationship

relative

relatively

fascinate

fascination

fascinating

fascinatingly

engage

angagement

engaging

engagingly

entertain

entertainment

entertaining

entertainingly

clear

clarity

clear

clearly

loved

love

lovable

lovingly

think

thought

thoughtful

thoughtfully

decide

decision

decisive

decisively

appreciate

appreciation

appreciative

appreciatively

feared

fear

fearful

fearfully

NOUNS ADJECTIVES ADVERBS LIST

e.g.

Noun

Adjective

Adverb

magnanimity

magnanimous

magnanimously

munificence

munificent

munificently

history, historian

historical

historically

intricacy

intricate

intricately

enormity

enormous

enormously

opulence

opulent

opulently

awe

awesome

awesomely

elaboration

elaborate

elaborately

distinct

distinctive

distinctively

geometry

geometric

geometrically

technology

technological

technologically

valour

valorous

valorously

tradition

traditional

traditionally

stupendousness

stupendous

stupendously

glory

glorious

gloriously

evidence

evident

evidently

youth

young, youthful

youthfully

artificiality

artificial

artificially

locals, locality, location

local

locally

punctuality

punctual

punctually

season

seasonal

seasonally

industry

industrious

industriously

simultaneity, simultaneousness

simultaneous

simultaneously

exception

exceptional

exceptionally

statistics

statistical

statistically

diligence

diligent

diligently

possibility

possible

possibly

invisibility

invisible

invisibily

sadism, sadist

sadistical

sadistically

bitter

bitter

bitterly

frenzy

frenzied

frenziedly

violence

violent

violently

ecology

ecological

ecologically

environment

environmental

environmentally

torrent

torrential

torrentially

politics

political

politically

loyalty

loyal

loyally

sentiments

sentimental

sentimentally

earnestness

earnest

earnestly

indispensability

indispensable

indispensably

invidiousness

invidious

invidiously

constant

constant

constantly

gratitude

grateful

gratefully

sincerity

sincere

sincerely

interest

interesting

interestingly

religion

religious

religiously

luxury

luxurious

luxuriously

sensibility

sensuous

sensuously

sensitivity

sensitive

sensitively

history

historic, historical

historically

certainty

certain

certainly

moment

momentary

momentarily

irreverence

irreverent

irreverently

absurdity

absurd

absurdly

habit

habitual

habitually

day

daily

daily

essentialities

essential

essentially

fortune

fortunate

fortunately

music, musician

musical

musically

permanence

permanent

permanently

culture

cultured, cultural

culturally

fact

factual

factually

seriousness

serious

seriously

society

social

socially

classics

classical

classically

purpose

purposeful

purposely

PHRASAL VERB
Definition :
A phrasal verb is made up of a verb and an adverbial or a prepositional particle . It is used idiomatically to convey a
special meaning completely different from the meaning expressed by the verb or the particle. The same verb followed
by different particles conveys different meanings.
Phrasal verbs are consist of two or three parts - an ordinary verb and another word or words like in, for or off. They are

very common in English.

LIST OF PHRASAL VERBS

e.g.
account for

fixed up

get out of

back out

keep in

make up

deal with

ran after

looked after

care about

watching for

work out

got on with

left off

made up

feel out

my mind

join up

keep up with

looked up

hold on

get out

ask after

asked for

help up

keep down

hold off

died away

drew back

took out

set in

worked up

threw away

A GROUP OF PHRASAL VERBS AND THEIR MEANINGS

PHRASAL VERB

MEANING

BACK
back up

support

back out

withdraw

PHRASAL VERB

MEANING

BEAR
bear down

defeat, overcome, crush

bear out

carry

bear up

have courage

bear with

endure, tolerate

PHRASAL VERB

MEANING

BLOW
blow out

extinguish

blow up

explode

PHRASAL VERB

MEANING

BREAK
break up

disperse, shatter

break down

fall, stop working / collapse

break in / into

enter by force

break out

appear and force out escape, spread suddenly

break thro

penetrate

break off

end

PHRASAL VERB

MEANING

BRING

bring forth

produce

bring about

happen

bring down

fall

bring out

publish

bring up

educate, rear

PHRASAL VERB

MEANING

CALL
call for

demand, wanted

call in

request to help, summon

call off

cancel

call out

shout

call on

to pay a short visit to a person

call at

to pay a short visit to a place

PHRASAL VERB

MEANING

CARRY
carry off

win, snatch

carry on

continue

carry out

execute

PHRASAL VERB

MEANING

COME
come round

recover

come over

affected

come about

happen, occur

come cross

to meet by chance, discover

come off

take place

come on

hurry

come up

move to a higher level or position

PHRASAL VERB

MEANING

DROP
drop in

visit

drop out

discountinue

PHRASAL VERB

MEANING

FALL
fall for

admire

fall off

decrease

fall out

quarrel

fall through

fail to be successfully completed, collapse

fall upon

attack

PHRASAL VERB

MEANING

GET
get away

escape

get on

make progress, climb

get over

overcome, recover

get round

persuade

get through

pass

get up

rise

PHRASAL VERB

MEANING

GIVE
give in

surrender, collapse

give out

announce

give up

discountinue

give way

yield

give away

present, distribute

PHRASAL VERB

MEANING

GO
go about

preform, do

go after

chase, follow

go down

to be recorded, believe will be remembered

go into

examine, investigate

go on

continue, hurry

go through

endure

PHRASAL VERB

MEANING

HOLD
hold on

catch

hold out

give, offer

hold back

withhold

hold up

delay

PHRASAL VERB

MEANING

KEEP
keep back

with hold

keep down

control, repress

keep going on

continue

keep on

continue

keep to

adhere to

keep it up

continue, maintain

PHRASAL VERB

MEANING

LAY
lay by

save

lay down (arm)

surrender

lay down (life)

sacrifice

PHRASAL VERB

MEANING

LOOK
look back

contemplate, reflect

look after

take care of

look down

despise, hate

look for

to try to find / search

look into

examine

look over into

examine, investigate

look on

consider, regard

look out

watchful, beware

look to

depend on

look up (book)

scarch for, refer

look upto

respect

PHRASAL VERB

MEANING

MAKE
make after

follow

make for

setout

make away

steal

make out

understand

make up

compensate / invent

make fast

secure

make off

run away

PHRASAL VERB

MEANING

PASS
pass away

die

pass for

considered as

pass off

falsely present, ignore

pass through

undergo

pass out

faint

PHRASAL VERB

MEANING

PUT
put across

narrate

put by

save

put down

crush / write

put forth

announce

put off

postpone, delay

put on

wear

put out

extinguish

put through

implement

put up

stay / provide

put up with

endure, tolerate

PHRASAL VERB

MEANING

RUN
run across

meet

run after

chase, seek

run down

decline, collide, deteriorate

run out

exhaust, expire, completely used up

run over

overflow

run on

hurry

PHRASAL VERB

MEANING

SEE
see about

deal

see off

witness ones departure

see through

detect / penetrate

see to

attend

PHRASAL VERB

MEANING

SET
set against

oppose

set about / on

start

set in

begin

set out / off

start

set up

establish

set to

with determination, fight, active

set aside

disregard

PHRASAL VERB

MEANING

STAND
stand up

rise

stand by

support, wait

stand up

oppose, noticeable

PHRASAL VERB

MEANING

TAKE
take down

write

take out

extract

take after

resemble

take in

deceive

take on

fight with, assume

take up

occupy, raise at

take off

leave, remove

PHRASAL VERB

MEANING

THROW
throw away

waste

throw up

resign

PHRASAL VERB

MEANING

TURN
turn against

dislike

turn away

refuse admission

turn down

reject, refuse

turn on

cause ot flow by unscrewing water, gas etc., gas

turn off

stop

turn out

produce

turn up

arrive, appear

turn in

sleep

turn upon

attack

ERROR SPOTTING IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR

When use of Articles :
e.g. 1
It takes me a hour to reach the temple.

ans: an hour

- words beginning with h such as:

- hour, honour, honest, heir historical (adjective) are considered silent, so the vowel following it takes an for the article.
- hence an hour, an heir, an honour etc.
e.g. 2
An European visited in India.

ans: A European

- when u or eu takes a u or you pronunciation (y is a consonant) so the article a should be used.

- hence a European, a university, a union, a unit, etc.
e.g. 3
Game came to an end soon.

ans: The game

- we are talking about a particular game.

e.g. 4
Rich should help poor.

ans: The rich ... the poor

- rich / poor represent the people representations use the

Errors in using Prepositions:

e.g. 1
Divide this apple amoung Robert and David.
- amoung (to be used for more than two)
e.g. 2

ans: between

Divide this apple between the girls.

ans: amoung

- between (to be used for only two)

e.g. 3
I go to school on bus / on bike

ans: by (for vehicles)

- use on foot to mean we walk to school.

e.g. 3
She aims to do well in the exams.

ans: use aim at

- She aims at doing well in the exams.

e.g. 4
The patient is now free of danger.

ans: free from

- use free from danger/risk/disease.

e.g. 5
She called at her friend.

ans: called on

- use called at a place ... his friends house.

- use called on a person -> means to visit.

Agreement of the subject and the verb:

e.g. 1
Rosy and Sarah is friends.

ans: are friends

- use plural verbs for and.

e.g. 2
She or he have done well.

ans: has done

- when or joins two subjects, the verb agrees with the second subject.
She or he is...

David or his friends are...

My friends or I am...

e.g. 3
The chief minister as well as his followers are at the meeting.

ans: - is

The boys with their teacher are out in the field.

ans: - are

The moon along with the stars shine at night.

ans: - shines

- when using with / along with / together with / as well as the verb should agree with the first subject.
e.g. 4
Either my neighbour or her children is coming for dinner.

ans: are

Neither they nor I were mistaken.

ans: was

- when using either-or / neither-nor the verb agrees with the second subject.
e.g. 5
Each of them are England citizens.

ans: is

Everyone of the barrels are full.

ans: is

Not one of the boys are doing well.

ans: is

One of the boys are missing.

ans: is

- sentences using each of / everyone of / one of / not one of use the singular form of the verb.
e.g. 6
None of them have arrived yet.

ans: has

None is genuine.

ans: are

- None of -> uses singular verb. (has)

- None -> uses plural verb. (are)

Errors in use of Pronouns:

e.g.
One must not reveal his secrets to all.

ans: ones secrets to all

- one as a subject should use ones.

- reason -> one does not indicate the gender-where male / female.

Errors in use of Conjunctions:

e.g. 1
As we were late so we apologised.

ans: As we were late we apologised.

- use either as or so
- do not use both as ... so. Each sentence should use only one conjunction.
e.g. 2
ans: The woman is so poor that he cannot save
The woman is so poor and she cannot save anyting.

anything.

- use so with that...not.

e.g. 3
She has been waiting for you since 3 hours.

ans: waiting for you since 3 p.m..

- use since to denote the starting time of action.

- for for calculating time.
waiting for you for 3 hours.

Errors in use of Plurals:

e.g. 1
Much water are wasted.

ans: Much water is wasted.

- use is - singular verb.

- reason -> much is used for uncountable nouns.
e.g. 2
Many students has turned up for the seminar.
- use have -> plural verb.
- many is used for countable noun.

What is Reported Speech

Definition :

ans: Many students have turned up....

In order to report a dialogue, one should be well-versed in changing sentences from Direct Speech to Indirect Speech. Of
course, we need not reproduce the actual words of the speaker exactly. We are more concerned with the sense of the
utterance than in the literal repetition of the words. The following guidelines will help you to refresh what you have studied
about the transformation of sentences from Direct to Indirect Speech.
Statements: When the utterance of the speaker is a statement we use the
The

reporting verbs - say, tell.

conjunction used is - that . In order to preserve the original tone of the speaker say or tell can be replaced

with:- suggest, agree, mutter, admit, insist, whisper, boast, state, remark, claim, object, protest, etc.

What are the differences between the direct speech and the indirect speech?
There are several differences between a sentence with direct speech and a sentence with indirect speech.

We no need to use quotation marks with indirect speech.

We have to change the tense of the verb.

We have to change the pronouns and determiners.

e.g
Dialogue
He said,

Reported form

I can speak four language.

He boasted that he could speak four languages.

Some more examples.

Dialogue

Reported form

Lets go out for a walk,

She suggested going out for a walk.

That mobile is mine,

He claimed that that mobile was him.

Yes, I took the mobile,

He admitted that he had taken the mobile.

You cant arrest me,

He protested that they could not arrest him.

You shouldnt take my laptop

He objected that I shouldnt take his atlas.

We can replace tell with the following verbs suited to the context: complained, stammered, sneered, snapped, explained,
declared, announced, groaned, promised, gasped, conceded, etc.

Some Important Rules to Report the Dialogue:

e.g:
Direct Speech

Indirect Speech

The boy said to his friend, I am waiting for you here

The boy told his friend that he was waiting for him there

now.

then.

Changes to be noted:

Kinds

Dialogue

Reporting

Reporting Verb

said to

told

he

you

him

Pronouns

Tense

am waiting

was waiting

Place Concept

here

there

Time Concept

now

then

CHANGES IN:
A. Pronouns:
Direct Speech

Indirect Speech (Reported Speech)

I, you

he, she, it

my, mine, your, yours

his, her, hers, its

we

they

our, ours

their, theirs

us

them

B. Tense:
Direct Speech (speakers words)

Indirect Speech (Reporter or Listener)

Present tense

Past tense

am, is, are

was, were

make, makes

made

am / is / are eating

was / were eating

will / can / may eat

would / could / might eat

has, have

had

has / have eaten

had eaten

Direct Speech (speakers words)

Indirect Speech (Reporter or Listener)

Present tense

Past perfect tense

was / were

had been

ate

had eaten

was / were eating

had been eating

C. Expressions of time and place indicating nearness are changed into one of distance:
Direct Speech

Indirect Speech (Reported Speech)

now

then

today

that day

tonight

that night

yesterday

the previous day / the day before

tomorrow

the next / following day

the day before yesterday

two days before

the day after tomorrow

in two days

last week

the previous week or the week before

last month

the previous month or the month before

last year

the previous year or the year before

next week / month / year

the following week / month / year

a week / month

a week / month

last night

the previous night

here

there

this / it

that

these

those

thus

so

ago

before

I. STATEMENTS:
Kind of Sentences

Reporting Verbs

Conjunctions

Statement

said, told, suggested, admitted, remarked

that

a. Ordinary statements:
Example:
Direct Speech

Rosy said, I have a habit of reding before I go to bed.

Indirect Speech

Rosy said that she had a habit of reading before she went to bed.

Direct Speech

David said, Here is the pen I borrowed yesterday, John.

Indirect Speech

David said to John that there was the pen he had borrowed the previous day.

In reported speech people often leave out the conjunction that .

Reported Speech
Sarah said that she felt ill.
Malika said that she couldnt find her pendrive
Peter said that David was hitting him.

b. When the reporting verb is in the present or future tense there is no change in the tense of the reported
clause:
Example:
Direct Speech

Sarah says, I like kids.

Indirect Speech

Sarah says that she likes kids.

c. When the reporting verb is in the past tense the verb of the reported clause is changed into the
corresponding past tense:
Example:
Direct Speech

Mohan said, I have written a novel.

Indirect Speech

Mohan said that he had written a novel.

d. Present Progressive used as a future form becomes would be + present participle, not Past Progressive:
Example:
Direct Speech

She said, I am seeing the dentist next week.

Indirect Speech

She said that she would be seeing the dentist the following week.

e. Simple Past / past Progressive in adverb clauses of time do not usually change into the
corresponding past tense:
Example:
Direct Speech

She said, When I lived / was living in a village I faced a lot of hardships.
She said that when shelived / was living in a village she faced a lot of hardships.

Indirect Speech

(Dont use had lived / had been living)

f. Unreal past tense (subjunctive mood) after wish / it is time remains unchange:
Example:
Direct Speech

She said, I wish I were an angel.

Indirect Speech

She said that she wished she were an angel. (Dont use had been)

g. Would rather / would sooner / had better remains unchanged:

Example:
Direct Speech

He said, I would rather starve than beg.

Indirect Speech

He said that he would rather starve than beg.

h. Verbs used in clauses expressing improbable or impossible condition remain unchanged:

Example:
Direct Speech

He said, If won the election I would become a minister.

Indirect Speech

He said that if he won the election he would become a minister.

i. When the direct speech expresses universal truth (fundamental truths of science) saying / provers /
habitual action, the tense does not change:
Example:
Direct Speech

He said, Habit is a second nature.

Indirect Speech

He said that habit is a second nature.

j. A noun / pronoun in the vocative case is made the object of a reporting verb or left out:
Likewise a comment clause (parenthesis) is left out
Example:
you see, as you know, to tell you frankly etc.

k. Words of expressions used juct to introduce a sentence are left out:

Well, very well, now, so etc.
Likewise a comment clause (parenthesis) is left out
Example:
The teacher asked the children to lision to him. (now left out)

l. A statement employing all the techniques:

Well, very well, now, so etc.
Likewise a comment clause (parenthesis) is left out
Example:
My neighbour said, My guests arrived last evening. They are staying with us today.
Direct Speech

They will be leaving early tomorrow morning.

My neighbour told me that her guests had arrived the previous evening and they were

Indirect Speech

staying with them that day but they would be leaving early the following morning.

Sentence with the same concept should be joined with and but when there is a contract use but.

II. QUESTIONS:
a. The reporting verbs for questions are:
Kind of Sentences

Reporting Verbs

Questions (1) W/H type

asked, enquired, wanted to know

Questions (2) Verbal

asked, enquired, wanted

b. Auxiliary questions should begin with:

if / whether
e.g:
Direct Speech

My friend said, Are they coming with us?

Conjunctions

if / whether

Indirect Speech

My friend asked me whether they were coming with us.

Direct Speech

I said, Were they angry with you?

Indirect Speech

I asked him whether they had been angry with him.

Direct Speech

Sarah said to her mother, Can the milkman bring milk in this heavy rain?

Indirect Speech

Sarah asked her mother if the milkman could bring milk in that heavy rain.

c. Do / Does / Did Questions:

When using;

do, does (present tense) - the main verb converts

into the past (does / do go -> went)
did (past tense) - the main verb converts
into past perfect. (did go -> had gone)
e.g:
Direct Speech

Does David study late at night? said Sonia.

Indirect Speech

Sonia asked me whether David studied late at night.

Direct Speech

Jems said,Do college students use cellphones?

Indirect Speech

Jems asked me whether college students used cellphones.

d. The question form will change into a statement form:

Is he here?

Whether he was there

e. W/h Questions:
These questions begin with a question word (Who, What, When, Why, Where, How, How long ...). While changing such a
question into reported form we do not use any conjunction. We simply invert the word order (Verb + Subject is changed into
Subject + Verb). Do not use if/whether in W/h Questions .
e.g:
Verb + Subject

She said to me, What do you want?

Subject + Verb

She asked me what I wanted.

Direct Speech

My neighbour said, when did the men catch the stray dogs

Indirect Speech

My neighbour asked me when the men had caught the stray dogs.

Direct Speech

My friend said, Which colour will you choose?

Indirect Speech

My fiend aksed me which colour I would choose?

Direct Speech

Father said to mother, Why was Angelina crying when she returned from school?

Indirect Speech

father asked mother why Angelina had been crying when she had returned from school.

f. Verbal Questions:

These are questions begining with a verb. (Are you ready? Is it true?)
Here we use the conjunction if or whether . The word order is changed as mentioned earlier.
e.g:
Verb + Subject

She said to me, Is Tom at home?

Subject + Verb

Sh asked me if Tom was at home.

III. COMMANDS / ORDER / IMPERATIVE SENTENCES

To report a command we can use a number of verbs

Reporting Verb:
Kind of Sentences

Reporting Verbs

Conjunctions

told, asked, requested, warned, advised,

Commands & Requests

instructed, ordered

to - not to

We use the conjunction to. When the command is a negative one beginning with Dont we change it to not to.
e.g:
Direct Speech

The Captain said, Get ready to board the ship.

Indirect Speech

The Captain

Direct Speech

Teacher said to Jems, Get out

Indirect Speech

Teacher

Direct Speech

The Judge said to the culprit, Tell me the truth.

Indirect Speech

The Judge

Direct Speech

Headmaster said to the students, Dont copy in the examination.

Indirect Speech

Headmaster

commanded his sailors to get ready to board the ship.

told Jems to get out.

ordered the culprit to tell the truth.

asked the students not to copy in the examination.

Requests:
Please - requested + whom + to + v
Direct Speech

The teacher said, Please improve your knowledge.

Indirect Speech

The teacher

Direct Speech

Robert said to me, Please post

Indirect Speech

Robert

requested me to post those letters.

Direct Speech

Mother

said, Please keep your room neat.

Indirect Speech

Mother

requested me to keep my room neat.

requested the student to improve his knowledge.

Exclamations
Exclamations can be reported with adverbs of manner.

these letters.

Kind of Sentences

Reporting Verbs

Conjunctions

exclaimed with joy /

Exclamations

exclaimed with sorrow

that

a) Reporting Verb: exclaimed with (emotion)

b) The exclamation should be changed into a statement.
c) Use suitable emotions to the exclamation.

Direct Speech

Rosy said to David, How wonderfully you sang!

Indirect Speech

Rosy exclaimed with happiness that David had sung wonderfully.

Direct Speech

The foreigner said, What a man Obama is!.

Indirect Speech

The foreigner

Direct Speech

John said, That I should see you here!

Indirect Speech

John was

exclaimed in wonder that Obama was a great man.

surprised to see me there.

Alas!- exclaimed with sadness / regret / disappoinment.

Direct Speech

The reporter said, Alas! Many lives have been lost due to tsunami

Indirect Speech

The reporter

exclaimed sadly that many lives had been lost due to tsunami.

May you!- blesses / wished.

Direct Speech

The grandmother said, May you meet with success wherever you go
The grandmother blessed her grandson that he should meet with success wherever

Indirect Speech

hegoes.

Dont / never - warned or forbade. (when using forbid do not use negatives)
Direct Speech

Father said, Shakshi, dont play in dirty water!

Indirect Speech

Father forbade his daughter Sakshi to play in dirty water.

O God! - called upon God with regret / sadness / disappointment.

Direct Speech

The beggar said, O God! I have been cheated.

Indirect Speech

The beggar called upon God with regret that he had been cheated.