1.2.

The Community Power Opportunity

The mobile phone industry has seen phenomenal
growth over the past two decades. Globally, the
number of mobile phone connections is now 4.5 billion
and will reach 6.2 billion by 20135. The majority of
future growth in connections will come from
developing world markets as most developed world
markets are close to 100% penetration.

the supply of power to base stations. This default

is
1
now shifting, and the GSMA has established the Green
Power for Mobile programme (GPM) to advance the
use of renewable energy sources by the mobile
industry to power 118,000 new and existing off-grid
base stations in developing countries by 2012.

Green Cellular Networks: A Survey, Some Research

Issues and Challenges
The geographic expansion of mobile networks to
provide coverage to the global population relies on
radio towers, or base stations, that convert
electricity into radio waves. In developed areas, base
stations are easily connected to an electricity grid for a
reliable energy supply. However, in developing areas,
where grid electricity is unreliable or absent, operators
have largely relied on diesel-powered generators for

To provide coverage for the expanding subscriber base

in developing world markets, mobile operators are
deploying vast quantities of base stations. Based on
available data and forecasting, the GSMA projects that
the number of off-grid base stations in the developing
world will increase from 288,000 in 2007 to 639,000 in
2012. These base stations are always located close to
urban or rural communities as it is necessary for the
subscribers to be within range of a base stations
coverage.

Ziaul Hasan, Student Member, IEEE, Hamidreza Boostanimehr, Student Member, IEEE,
and Vijay K. Bhargava, Fellow, IEEE

Index TermsGreen communication, energy efficient networks, efficiency metrics, microcells, picocells, femtocells, cognitive radio, cooperative relaying.

I. I NTRODUCTION
During the last decade, there has been tremendous growth in
cellular networks market. The number of subscribers and the
demand for cellular traffic has escalated astronomically. With
the introduction of Android and iPhone devices, use of ebook
readers such as iPad and Kindle and the success of social
networking giants such as Facebook, the demand for cellular
data traffic has also grown significantly in recent years. Hence,
mobile operators find meeting these new demands in wireless
cellular networks inevitable, while they have to keep their costs
minimum.
Such unprecedented growth in cellular industry has pushed
the limits of energy consumption in wireless networks. There
are currently more than 4 million base stations (BSs) serving
mobile users, each consuming an average of 25MWh per year.
The number of BSs in developing regions are expected to
almost double by 2012 as shown in Fig. 1. Information and
Communication Technology (ICT) already represents around
2% of total carbon emissions (of which mobile networks
represent about 0.2%), and this is expected to increase every
year. In addition to the environmental aspects, energy costs
also represent a significant portion of network operators
overall expenditures (OPEX). While the BSs connected to
electrical grid may cost approximately 3000$ per year to

East Asia
South Asia and Pacific
Eastern
Europe
and
Central
Asia

2012

2012

2012

Total

2012

SubSaharan
Africa

AbstractEnergy efficiency in cellular networks is a growing

concern for cellular operators to not only maintain profitability,
but also to reduce the overall environment effects. This emerging
trend of achieving energy efficiency in cellular networks is
motivating the standardization authorities and network operators
to continuously explore future technologies in order to bring
improvements in the entire network infrastructure. In this article,
we present a brief survey of methods to improve the power
efficiency of cellular networks, explore some research issues and
challenges and suggest some techniques to enable an energy
efficient or green cellular network. Since base stations consume
a maximum portion of the total energy used in a cellular system,
we will first provide a comprehensive survey on techniques to
obtain energy savings in base stations. Next, we discuss how
heterogenous network deployment based on micro, pico and
femtocells can be used to achieve this goal. Since cognitive
radio and cooperative relaying are undisputed future technologies
in this regard, we propose a research vision to make these
technologies more energy efficient. Lastly, we explore some
broader perspectives in realizing a green cellular network
technology.

Latin
America
Middle
East/North
and
Carabbean
Africa

arXiv:1108.5493v3 [cs.NI] 24 Sep 2011

Figure 4: Growth in Base Stations in Developing Regions 2007-2012

On-grid Base Stations

2007

Off-grid Base Stations

2012
2007

2007

2007

2007
2012
2007
2012
2007
0

500,000

1,000,000

1,500,000

2,000,000

2,500,000

Source: GSMA Research

Fig. 1. Growth in base stations in developing regions 2007-2012 (GSMA

Research) [1]
5 Wireless Intelligence (https://www.wirelessintelligence.com)

operate, the off-grid BSs in remote areas generally run on

GSM Association 2010 09
diesel power generators and may cost ten times more.
The rising energy costs and carbon footprint of operating
cellular networks have led to an emerging trend of addressing
energy-efficiency amongst the network operators and regulatory bodies such as 3GPP and ITU [4], [5]. This trend
has stimulated the interest of researchers in an innovative
new research area called green cellular networks. In this
regard, the European Commission has recently started new
projects within its seventh Framework Programme to address
the energy efficiency of mobile communication systems, viz.
Energy Aware Radio and NeTwork TecHnologies (EARTH),
Towards Real Energy-efficient Network Design (TREND)
and Cognitive Radio and Cooperative strategies for Power
saving in multi-standard wireless devices (C2POWER) [6],
[7], [8]. Green radio is a vast research discipline that needs
to cover all the layers of the protocol stack and various system
architectures and it is important to identify the fundamental
trade-offs linked with energy efficiency and the overall performance [9]. Figures 2(a) and 2(b) show a breakdown of
power consumption in a typical cellular network and gives
us an insight into the possible research avenues for reducing
energy consumption in wireless communications. In [9], the
authors have identified four key trade-offs of energy efficiency
with network performance; deployment efficiency (balancing
deployment cost, throughput), spectrum efficiency (balancing
achievable rate), bandwidth (balancing the bandwidth utilized)
and delay (balancing average end-to-end service delay). To
address the challenge of increasing power efficiency in future

Cellular Network Power Consumption

Power Supply
5-10% (7.5%)
Signal Processing
(analogue+digital)
5-15% (10%)

Retail

Data Center

Core Transmission

Air conditioning
10-25% (17.5%)

Mobile Switching

Power amplifier
incl. feeder
50-80% (65%)

Base Station
0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

Power Usage (%)

(a) Power consumption of a typical wireless cellular network [2](ref. therein) (b) Power consumption distribution in radio base stations [3](ref. therein)
Fig. 2.

Breakdown of power consumption in a typical cellular network and corresponding base stations

wireless networks and thereby to maintain profitability, it is

crucial to consider various paradigm-shifting technologies,
such as energy efficient wireless architectures and protocols,
efficient BS redesign, smart grids, opportunistic network access or cognitive radio, cooperative relaying and heterogenous
network deployment based on smaller cells.
Among all the promising energy saving techniques, cognitive radio and cooperative relaying, although already getting
matured in many aspects, but still are in their infancy when it
comes to the deployment issues in cellular networks. Therefore, it is crucial to promote the potentials of these techniques
in cellular wireless networks. Moreover, it is necessary to
be aware that still many energy concerns in cognitive and
cooperative networks have remained as unanswered challenges, which raises the importance of further exploring these
concerns.
In this paper, we provide a brief survey on some of the
work that has already been done to achieve power efficiency in
cellular networks, discuss some research issues and challenges
and suggest some techniques to enable an energy efficient
or green cellular network. We also put a special emphasis
on cognitive and cooperative techniques, in order to bring
attention to the benefits cellular systems can gain through
employing such techniques, and also highlight the research
avenues in making these techniques green. A taxonomy graph
of our approach towards the design of green cellular networks
is given in Fig. 3. As shown in the figure, we identify four important aspects of a green networking where we would like to
focus: defining green metrics, bringing architectural changes in
base stations, network planning, and efficient system design. In
addition, some broader perspectives must also be considered.
In the following sections we elaborate on each such aspect and
discuss the related issues and challenges. We begin with a brief
discussion on energy efficiency metrics in section II. Since
BSs consume the major chunk of input energy, we discuss the
energy efficiency of BSs more at the component level in section III. Here, we study how to minimize energy consumption
of BS employing improvements in power amplifier, designing
power saving protocols, implementing cooperative BS power

management, using renewable energy resources and bringing

some simple architectural changes. Section IV addresses the
energy efficiency from a network planning perspective where
we discuss how different types of network deployments based
on smaller cells can be used to increase the energy efficiency
of a wireless system. Regarding the system design, we first
explain the use of modern communication technologies such
as cognitive radio and cooperative relays to enable green
communication in cellular systems in section V and we expand
this idea further in section VI from a different perspective,
where we discuss how the future wireless systems based on
both cognitive and cooperative concepts can be made more
energy efficient at the system level. Techniques such as low
energy spectrum sensing, energy-aware medium access control
and routing, efficient resource management, cross-layer design
and addressing uncertainty issues have been examined in this
context. Some broader perspectives have been discussed in VII
and conclusions are drawn in VIII.
II. M EASURING G REENNESS : T HE M ETRICS
Before starting any discussion on green networks, the
first question naturally comes to mind is that what actually
is green? How do we measure and define the degree of
greenness in telecommunication networks? Although carbon
footprint or CO2 emissions would naturally be considered a
measure of greenness, but the share of carbon emissions
for telecommunication networks is fairly low (less than 1%).
However, please note that other motivations to obtain green
wireless technology also include economic benefits (lower
energy costs) and better practical usage (increased battery
life in mobile devices), hence evaluation of energy savings
or measuring energy efficiency seems to be a more apt
choice for measuring greenness. Thus, the notion of green
technology in wireless systems can be made meaningful with a
comprehensive evaluation of energy savings and performance
in a practical system. This is where energy efficiency metrics
play an important role. These metrics provide information in
order to directly compare and assess the energy consumption
of various components and the overall network. In addition,

Measuring Greenness

Network Planning
Heterogenous Networks

Green Metrics
Facility-level Metrics
Equipment-level Metrics
Network-level Metrics

Macro-cells
Micro-cells
Pico-cells

Architecture
Energy Savings in Base Stations
Minimizing BS energy consumption
o Improvements in Power Amplifier
o Power Saving Protocols
Energy-Aware Cooperative BSs
o Network self-organizing techniques
o Cell zooming
Using Renewable Energy Resources
o Sustainable biofuels
o Solar energy
o Wind energy
Other ways to reduce BS power usage
o Reducing the number of BSs
o Architectural changes in BSs

System Design
Green Cellular
Networks

Enabling Technologies
Green Comm. via Cognitive Radio
Green Comm. via Cooperative Relays
o Fixed relays
o User cooperation

Energy Efficiency in Future

Generation Wireless Systems

Low Energy Spectrum Sensing

Energy-Aware MAC & Green Routing
Energy-Efficient Resource Management
Cross-Layer Design & Optimization
Uncertainty Issues

Broader Perspectives
Statistical Power Profiles
Smart Grids
Embodied Energy vs. Operating Energy

Fig. 3.

Technical roadmap for Green Cellular Networks: A taxonomy graph

they also help us to set long term research goals of reducing

energy consumption. With the increase in research activities
pertaining to green communications and hence in number
of diverse energy efficiency metrics, standards organizations
such as European Technical Standards Institute (ETSI) and
Alliance for Telecommunications Industry Solutions (ATIS)
are currently making efforts to define energy efficiency metrics
for wireless networks [10], [11].
Generally speaking, energy efficiency metrics of telecommunication systems can be classified into three main categories: facility-level, equipment-level and network-level metrics [12], [13]. Facility-level metrics relates to high-level
systems where equipment is deployed (such as datacenters,
ISP networks etc.), equipment level metrics are defined to
evaluate performance of an individual equipment, and network
level metrics assess the performance of equipments while also
considering features and properties related to capacity and
coverage of the network.
The Green Grid (TGG) association of IT professionals first
proposed facility-level efficiency metrics called PUE (Power
Usage Efficiency) and its reciprocal DCE (Data Center Efficiency) in [14] to evaluate the performance of power hogging
datacenters. PUE which is defined as the ratio of total facility
power consumption to total equipment power consumption, is
although a good metric to quickly assess the performance of
datacenters at a macro level, it fails to account for energy
efficiency of individual equipments. Therefore, in order to
quantify efficiency at the equipment level, ratio of energy
consumption to some performance measure of a communica-

tion system would be more appropriate. However, grading the

performance of a communication system is more challenging
than it actually first appears, because the performance comes in
a variety of different forms (spectral efficiency, number of calls
supported in block of time, etc.) and each such performance
measure affects this efficiency metric very differently. Some
suggested metrics including power per user (ratio of total
facility power to number of users) measured in [Watt/user],
and energy consumption rating (ECR) which is the ratio
of normalized energy consumption to effective full-duplex
throughput and is measured in [Watt/Gbps] [15]. While power
per user can be a useful metric for a network provider to
evaluate economic tradeoffs, network planning etc., metrics
such as ECR provide the manufacturers a better insight into
performance of hardware components. However, even the
busiest networks do not always operate on full load conditions,
therefore it would be useful to complement metrics such as
ECR to incorporate the dynamic network conditions such as
energy consumption under full-load, half-load and idle cases.
In this regard, other metrics such as ECRW (ECR-weighted),
ECR-VL (energy efficiency metric over a variable-load cycle),
ECR-EX (energy efficiency metric over extended-idle load
cycle), telecommunications energy efficiency ratio (TEER)
by ATIS, Telecommunication Equipment Energy Efficiency
Rating (TEEER) by Verizons Networks and Building Systems
consider total energy consumption as weighted sum of energy
consumption of the equipment at different load conditions
[15], [16], [17], [18]. As an example for TEEER, the total
power consumption Ptotal is calculated by the following for-

mula:
Ptotal = 0.35Pmax + 0.4P50 + 0.25Psleep ,

(1)

where Pmax , P50 and Psleep are power consumption at full rate,
half-rate and sleep mode, respectively, and the weights are
obtained statistically. However, these metrics such as ECR,
TEER, TEEER etc. are unable to capture all the properties of
a system and research work is still active to suggest different
types of metrics. Parker et al. recently proposed an absolute
energy efficiency metric (measured in dB) in [19], given by:


Power/Bit Rate
,
(2)
dB = 10 log10
kT ln 2
where k is the Boltzmann constant and T is the absolute
temperature of medium. The authors suggest that the inclusion of temperature aspect of the system is logical since
classical thermodynamics is based on absolute temperature
of the system under analysis. Using different examples, the
authors contend that this metric is highly versatile and can
be universally applied to any ICT system, subsystem and
component.
While the energy efficiency metrics at the component and
equipment level are fairly straightforward to define, it is more
challenging to define metrics at a system or network level [13].
Just by including the area aspect of the network, a natural
choice of a metric may at first seem to be [Watt/Gbps/km2 ],
but a careful analysis can explain that it can work counter to
a green objective [20]. Using a simple example of a typical
network scenario, it has been shown in [20] that due to the
path loss, such a metric can only be valid when applied to
networks with similar number of sites in a given area. In [11],
ETSI proposes two network level metrics for GSM systems
based on load conditions. In rural areas, which are generally
under low load conditions, the objective is to reduce power
consumption in a coverage region, hence the metric is given
by:
Total coverage area
P Irural =
,
(3)
Power consumed at the site
where P Irural bears the unit of [km2 /Watt], and denotes the
network performance indicator in rural areas. Urban areas on
the hand have higher traffic demand than rural areas, hence
capacity is considered instead of coverage area. A common
metric under such full load conditions is therefore given by:
Nbusyhour
,
(4)
Power consumed at the site
where, Nbusyhour is the number of users based on average busy
hour traffic demand by users and average BS busy hour traffic,
and P Iurban (users/Watt) is the network performance indicator
in urban areas.
P Iurban =

To summarize the discussion above, a non-exhaustive list

of energy metrics is given in Table I. Interested readers can
find a more comprehensive taxonomy of green metrics in [12].
Due to the intrinsic difference and relevance of various communication systems and performance measures, it is doubtful
that one single metric can suffice. However, in future, the
green metrics must also consider deployment costs such as
site construction and backhaul, and QoS requirements such as

transmission delay etc. along with spectral efficiency in order

to assess the true greenness of the system. Once a large
consensus is reached on a small set of standard energy metrics
in future, it will not only accelerate the research activities in
green communications, but also help pave the way towards
standardization.
III. A RCHITECTURE : E NERGY SAVINGS IN BASE S TATIONS
Due to the rapidly growing demand for mobile communication technology, the number of worldwide cellular BSs
has increased from a few hundred thousands to many millions
within a last couple of years. Such a substantial jump in the
number of BSs that power a cellular network accounts for the
sudden increase in greenhouse gases and pollution, in addition
to higher energy costs to operate them. With the advent of
data intensive cellular standards, power-consumption for each
BS can increase upto 1,400 watts and energy costs per BS
can reach to $3,200 per annum with a carbon footprint of
11 tons of CO2 [21]. The radio network itself adds up to
80% of an operators entire energy consumption. Therefore,
BS equipment manufacturers have begun to offer a number
of eco and cost friendly solutions to reduce power demands
of BSs and to support off-grid BSs with renewable energy
resources. Nokia Siemens Networks Flexi Multiradio Base
Station, Huawei Green Base Station and Flexenclosure Esite solutions are examples of such recent efforts [22], [23],
[24]. In [25], the authors present various methods dealing
with improved transmitter efficiency, system features, fresh aircooling, renewable energy sources and energy saving during
low traffic. A typical cellular network consists of three main
elements; a core network that takes care of switching, BSs
providing radio frequency interface, and the mobile terminals
in order to make voice or data connections. As the number of
BSs increases, it becomes crucial to address their energy consumption for a cellular network. In the next few subsections,
we will discuss different ways to reduce energy consumption
due to BSs.
A. Minimizing BS energy consumption
The energy consumption of a typical BS can be reduced
by improving the BS hardware design and by including
additional software and system features to balance between
energy consumption and performance. In order to improve
hardware design of a BS for energy consumption, we need to
address the energy efficiency of the power amplifier (PA). A
PA dominates the energy consumption of a BS and its energy
efficiency depends on the frequency band, modulation and
operating environment [25]. Some typical system features to
improve BS energy efficiency are to shut down BS during low
traffic or cell zooming [26], [27]. Besides hardware redesign
and new system level features, there are various site level
solutions that can be used in order to save energy. For example,
outdoor sites can be used over wider level of temperatures,
and thus less cooling would be required. Another solution is
to use more fresh air-cooling rather than power consuming
air conditioners for indoor sites. In addition, RF heads and
modular BS design can be implemented to reduce power loss
in feeder cables [25].

TABLE I
S OME ENERGY EFFICIENCY METRICS

Metric
PUE (Power Usage Efficiency)

Type
Facility-Level

Units
Ratio (1)

DCE (Data Center Efficiency)

Telecommunications Energy
Efficiency Ratio (TEER)

Facility-Level
Equipment-Level

Percentage
Gbps/Watt

Telecommunications
Equipment Energy Efficiency
Rating (TEEER)
Energy Consumption Rating
(ECR)
ECR-Weighted (ECRW)

Equipment-Level

ECR-variable-load
metric
(ECR-VL)
ECR-extended-idle
metric
(ECR-EX)
Performance Indicator in rural
areas (P Irural )
Performance Indicator in urban
areas (P Iurban )

log

Gbps
Watt

Equipment-Level

Watt/Gbps

Equipment-Level

Watt/Gbps

Equipment-Level

Watt/Gbps

Equipment-Level

Watt/Gbps

Network-Level

km2 /Watt

Network-Level

users/Watt

1) Improvements in Power Amplifier: There are three essential parts of a BS: radio, baseband and feeder. Out of
these three, radio consumes more than 80% of a BSs energy
requirement, of which power amplifier (PA) consumes almost
50% [28]. Shockingly, 80-90% of that is wasted as heat in the
PA, and which in turn requires air-conditioners, adding even
more to the energy costs. The total efficiency of a currently
deployed amplifier, which is the ratio of AC power input
to generated RF output power, is generally in anywhere in
the range from 5% to 20% (depending on the standard viz.
GSM, UMTS, CDMA and the equipments condition) [29].
Modern BSs are terribly inefficient because of their need for
PA linearity and high peak-to-average power ratios (PAPR).
The modulation schemes that are used in communication
standards such as WCDMA/HSPA and LTE are characterized
by strongly varying signal envelopes with PAPR that exceeds
10dB. To obtain high linearity of the PAs in order to maintain
the quality of radio signals, PAs have to operate well below
saturation, resulting in poor power efficiency [3]. Depending
on their technology (e.g Class-AB with digital pre-distortion)
and implementation, the component level efficiency of modern
amplifiers for CDMA and UMTS systems is in the order of
approximately 30% to 40% [29]. Since these technologies
have reached their limits, PAs based on special architectures
such as digital pre-distorted Doherty-architectures and GaN
(Aluminum Gallium nitride) based amplifiers seem to be more
promising by pushing the power efficiency levels to over 50%
[29]. Doherty PAs that consist of a carrier and a peak amplifier
is advantageous by providing easy additional linearization
using conventional methods such as feed-forward and envelope
elimination and restoration (EER)[30]. Since GaN structures
can work under higher temperature and higher voltage, they
can potentially provide a higher power output. Additional
improvements in efficiency can be obtained by shifting to

Description
Defined as ratio of total facility power consumption to
total equipment power consumption.
Defined as reciprocal of PUE.
Ratio of useful work to power consumption
log

Ptotal
Throughput


, where Ptotal is given by equation (1)

Ratio of energy consumption over effective system

capacity
Calculated the same way as ECR except energy consumption is now calculated as 0.35Ef + 0.4Eh +
0.25Ei , where each term corresponds to energy consumption in full load, half load and idle modes.
Average energy rating in a reference network described
by an array of utilization weights [16].
Average energy rating in a reference network, where
extended energy savings capabilities are enabled [16].
Ratio of total coverage area to power consumed at site
as given by eq. (3)
Ratio of number of subscribers to power consumed at
the site as given by eq. (4)

switch-mode PAs from the traditional analog RF-amplifiers.

Compared to standard analog PAs, switch-mode PAs tend to
run cooler and draw less current. While amplifying a signal,
a switch-mode amplifier turns its output transistors on and
off at an ultrasonic rate. The switching transistors produce no
current when they are switched off and produce no voltage
when switched on, therefore generate very little power as heat
resulting in a highly efficient power supply. It is expected that
overall component-efficiency of these energy efficient devices
could be around 70% [29].
One more significant setback in increasing power efficiency
with PAs is that they perform better at maximum output power
in order to maintain the required signal quality. However,
during the low traffic load conditions (e.g night time), lot
of energy is routinely wasted. Therefore, design of flexible
PA architectures that would allow a better adaptation of the
amplifier to the required output power needs to be addressed
[29]. In addition to this, we need to investigate more efficient
modulation schemes, because modulation also affects the
PA efficiency. As an example, by focusing more on higher
modulation schemes that require additional filtering in order
to prioritize data over voice, linearity of PA is more desirable
because of the non-constant envelope of the signal [28]. Using
different linearization techniques such as Cartesian feedback,
digital pre-distortion and feed-forward along with different
kind of DSP methods that reduces the requirement on the
linear area of PA have also been suggested [25].
2) Power Saving Protocols: In the current cellular network
architecture based on WCDMA/HSPA, BSs and mobile terminals are required to continuously transmit pilot signals.
Newer standards such as LTE, LTE-Advanced and WiMAX
have evolved to cater ever-growing high speed data traffic
requirements. With such high data requirements, although BSs
and mobile units (MU) employing newer hardware (such as

multiple-input and multiple-output (MIMO) antennas) increase

spectral efficiency allowing to transmit more data with the
same power, power consumption is still a significant issue
for future high speed data networks and they require energy
conservation both in the hardware circuitry and protocols.
A fairly intuitive way to save power is to switch off the
transceivers whenever there is no need to transmit or receive.
The LTE standard utilizes this concept by introducing power
saving protocols such as discontinuous reception (DRX) and
discontinuous transmission (DTX) modes for the mobile handset. DRX and DTX are methods to momentarily power down
the devices to save power while remaining connected to the
network with reduced throughput. Continuous transmission
and reception in WCDMA/HSPA consumes significant amount
of power even if the transmit powers are far below the
maximum levels, and therefore power savings due to DRX
and DTX is an attractive addition. IEEE 802.16e or Mobile
WiMAX also has similar provisions for sleep mode mechanisms for mobile stations [31]. The device negotiates with the
BS and the BS will not schedule the user for transmission or
reception when the radio is off. There are three power-saving
classes with different on/off cycles for the WiMAX standard.
Unfortunately, such power saving protocols for BSs have not
been considered in the current wireless standards. The traffic
per hour in a cell varies considerably over the time and BSs can
regularly be under low load conditions, especially during the
nighttime. In future wireless standards, energy saving potential
of BSs needs to be exploited by designing protocols to enable
sleep modes in BSs. The authors in [3] suggest making use
of downlink DTX schemes for BSs by enabling micro-sleep
modes (in the order of milliseconds) and deep-sleep modes
(extended periods of time). Switching off inactive hardware
of BSs during these sleep modes can potentially save a lot of
power, especially under low load conditions.
B. Energy-Aware Cooperative BS Power Management
Traffic load in cellular networks have significant fluctuations
in space and time due to a number of factors such as
user mobility and behaviour. During daytime, traffic load is
generally higher in office areas compared to residential areas,
while it is the other way around during the night. Therefore,
there will always be some cells under low load, while some
others may be under heavy traffic load. Hence, a static cell size
deployment is not optimal with fluctuating traffic conditions.
For next generation cellular networks based on microcells and
picocells and femtocells, such fluctuations can be very serious.
While limited cell size adjustment called cell-breathing currently happens in currently deployed CDMA networks (a cell
under heavy load or interference reduces its size through power
control and the mobile user is handed off to the neighbouring
cells), a more network-level power management is required
where multiple BSs coordinate together. Since operating a
BS consumes a considerable amount of energy, selectively
letting BSs go to sleep based on their traffic load can lead
to significant amount of energy savings. When some cells
are switched off or in sleep mode, the radio coverage can be
guaranteed by the remaining active cells by filling in the gaps

created. Such concepts of self-organizing networks (SON)

have been introduced in 3GPP standard (3GPP TS 32.521)
to add network management and intelligence features so that
the network is able to optimize, reconfigure and heal itself in
order to reduce costs and improve network performance and
flexibility [32]. The concept of SONs can be applied in order
to achieve diverse objectives. For instance, in [33] different
use cases for SONs are discussed, e.g., load balancing, cell
outage management, management of relays and repeaters, etc.
In the context of power efficiency, the performance of these
self-organizing techniques were initially explored in [27], [34].
Using the numerical results, the authors here suggested that
substantial amount of energy savings can be obtained (of the
order of 20%, and above) by selectively reducing the number
of active cells that are under low load conditions. On the other
hand, a distributed algorithm is proposed in [35] in which BSs
exchange information about their current level of power and
take turns in reducing their powers. Recently, authors of [36],
[37] introduced the notion of energy partitions which is the
associations among powered-on and powered-off BSs, and use
this notion as the basis of rearranging the energy configuration.
A similar but even more flexible concept called Cell
Zooming was presented in [26]. Cell zooming is a technique
through which BSs can adjust the cell size according to
network or traffic situation, in order to balance the traffic
load, while reducing the energy consumption. When a cell
gets congested with increased number of users, it can zoom
itself in, whereas the neighboring cells with less amount of
traffic can zoom out to cover those users that cannot be served
by the congested cell. Cells that are unable to zoom in may
even go to sleep to reduce energy consumption, while the
neighboring cells can zoom out and help serve the mobile users
cooperatively. Another such proposal to dynamically adjust
cell-size in a multi-layer cellular architecture was presented in
[38].
1) Implementation: The framework for cell zooming can
include a cell-zooming server (CS) (implemented in the gateway or distributed in the BSs) that senses the network state
information such as traffic, channel quality etc [26] and hence
makes decisions for for cell zooming. If there is a need for a
cell to zoom in or out, it will coordinate with its neighboring
cells by the assistance of a CS. Cells can zoom in or out
by a variety of techniques such as physical adjustment, BS
cooperation and relaying [26]. Physical adjustment can be
either done by adjusting the transmit powers of BSs and also
by adjusting antenna height and tilt for cells to zoom in or out.
BS cooperation here means that multiple BSs cooperatively
transmit or receive from MUs. For an MU, a cluster of BSs
cooperating form a new cell, the size of which is sum of
cell sizes of these BSs. Relaying can also be used for cell
size adjustment in a way that relay stations can help transfer
the traffic from a cell with heavy load to a cell in low load
conditions [26], [38]. The authors in [38] propose dynamic
self-organization of the cellular layers using techniques such
as timed sleep mode, user location prediction and reverse
channel sensing. In such networks, BS can also go to sleep
mode where the energy consuming equipments such as air
conditioner etc., can be switched off. The neighboring cells

can then reconfigure to guarantee the coverage.

2) Benefits and Challenges: Self-organizing cellular networks can be useful in load balancing as well as energy
conservation by deciding when to disperse load for load
balancing and when to concentrate load for energy savings.
The advantages of techniques such as cell zooming also
include improved user experience such as better throughput
and increased battery life. For e.g in [38], a two-layer cellular
architecture achieves a power savings of up to 40% over
the entire day. With techniques such as BS cooperation and
relaying, inter-cell interference and fading effects can be
mitigated and hence MUs can observe higher diversity gains
and better coverage. However, sufficient challenges lay ahead
to practically realize these networks such as radio frequency
planning, configuring switching thresholds, avoiding coverage
holes, tracing spatial and temporal traffic load fluctuations etc.
[26], [38].
C. Using Renewable Energy Resources
In several remote locations of the world such as Africa
and Northern Canada, electrical grids are not available or are
unreliable. Cellular network operators in these off-grid sites
constantly rely on diesel powered generators to run BSs which
is not only expensive, but also generates CO2 emissions. One
such generator consumes an average of 1500 litres of diesel per
month, resulting in a cost of approximately $30,000 per year to
the network operator. Moreover, this fuel has to be physically
brought to the site and sometimes it is even transported by
helicopter in remote places, which adds further to this cost. In
such places, renewable energy resources such as sustainable
biofuels, solar and wind energy seem to be more viable options
to reduce the overall network expenditure. Hence, adopting renewable energy resources could save cellular companies such
recurrent costs, since they are capital intensive and cheaper
to maintain. Also, since renewable energy is derived from
resources that are regenerative, renewable energy resources do
not generate greenhouse gases such as CO2 .
Recently, a program called Green Power for Mobile to
use renewable energy resources for BSs has been started
by 25 leading telecoms including MTN Uganda and Zain,
united under the Global Systems for Mobile communications
Association (GSMA) [39]. This program is meant to aid the
mobile industry to deploy solar, wind, or sustainable biofuels
technologies to power 118,000 new and existing off-grid BSs
in developing countries by 2012. Powering that many BSs on
renewable energy would save up to 2.5 billion litres of diesel
per annum (0.35% of global diesel consumption of 700 billion
litres per annum) and cut annual carbon emissions by up to
6.8 million tonnes.
Such BSs operating on renewable energy resources are
expensive and network operators have been reluctant to adopt
them because of fear of little commercial viability and lack
of equipment expertise. However, according to a bi-annual
recent report by GSMA, the implementation of green power
technology represents a technically feasible and financially
attractive solution with a payback period of less than three
years at many sites [40].

D. Other ways to reduce BS power consumption

Since the energy consumption of the entire cellular network
includes the summation of energy used by each BS, reducing
the number of BSs has a direct impact on energy consumption
of a cellular network. However, efficient network design and
finding an optimal balance between cell size and BS capacity
can be very challenging. Features such as 2-way and 4-way
diversity, feeder less site, extended cell, low frequency band,
6-sector site and smart antenna can be used to minimize the
number of BS sites [25].
Another way to improve power efficiency of a BS is to
bring some architectural changes to the BS. Currently, the
connection between the RF-transmitter and antenna is done
by long coaxial cables that add almost 3dB to the losses
in power transmission and therefore, low power RF-cables
should be used and RF-amplifier has to be kept closer to the
antenna [29]. This will improve the efficiency and reliability of
the BS. In [41], the authors suggest an all-digital transmitter
architecture for green BS that uses a combination of EER
and pulse width modulation (PWM)/pulse position modulation
(PPM) modulation.
IV. N ETWORK P LANNING : H ETEROGENEOUS N ETWORK
D EPLOYMENT
The exponential growth in demand for higher data rates
and other services in wireless networks requires a more dense
deployment of base stations within network cells. Whereas
conventional macro-cellular network deployments are less efficient, it may not be economically feasible to modify the current network architectures. Macrocells are generally designed
to provide large coverage and are not efficient in providing
high data rates. One obvious way to make the cellular networks
more power efficient in order to sustain high speed data-traffic
is by decreasing the propagation distance between nodes,
hence reducing the transmission power. Therefore, cellular
network deployment solutions based on smaller cells such as
micro, pico and femtocells are very promising in this context.
A typical heterogeneous network deployment is shown in Fig.
4. A micro/picocell is a cell in a mobile phone network served
by a low power cellular BS that covers a small area with dense
traffic such as a shopping mall, residential areas, a hotel, or
a train station. While a typical range of a micro/picocell is
in the order of few hundred metres, femtocells are designed
to serve much smaller areas such as private homes or indoor
areas. The range of femtocells is typically only a few metres
and they are generally wired to a private owners cable
broadband connection or a home digital subscriber line (DSL).
Smaller cells because of their size are much more power
efficient in providing broadband coverage. As an example, a
typical femtocell might only have a 100mW PA, and draw
5W total compared to a 5KW that would be needed to
support macrocell. An analysis by OFCOM (UK regulator)
and Plextek concluded that femtocell deployment could have
a 7:1 operational energy advantage ratio over the expansion
of the macrocell network to provide approximately similar
indoor coverage [42]. Simulations show that with only 20% of
customers with picocells, a joint deployment of macrocell and

Indoor - Femtocell

Mic
ro-F
emt
o

Macr
o-Fem

Macr
o-Pico

to

cro
- Mi
cro
a
M

Macro-Macro

o
mt
-Fe
o
r
c

ro
-Mic
Pico

o
-Pic
Pico

- Coverage area of Macrocell

Indoor - Femtocell

- Coverage area of Microcell

- Coverage area of Picocell

Fig. 4.

A typical heterogeneous network deployment

picocell in a network can reduce the energy consumption of

the network by up to 60% compared to a network with macrocells only [29]. Another advantage of smaller cells is that
they can use higher frequency bands suitable to provide high
data rates and also offer localization of radio transmissions.
However, deploying too many smaller cells within a macrocell
may reduce the overall efficiency of the macrocell BS, since
it will have to operate under low load conditions. Therefore,
careful investigation of various deployment strategies should
be done in order to find how to best deploy such smaller
cells. In [43], Calin et al. provided insight into possible
architectures/scenarios for joint deployments of macro and
femtocells with an analysis framework for quantifying potential macro-offloading benefits in realistic network scenarios.
Richter et al. in [44], investigate the impact of different
deployment strategies on the power consumption of mobile
communication network. Considering layouts with different
number of micro BSs in a cell, in addition to macro sites, the
authors introduce the concept of area power consumption as
a system performance metric. Simulation results suggest that
under full traffic load scenarios, the use of micro BSs has
a rather moderate effect on the area power consumption of
a cellular network and strongly depends on the offset power
consumption of both the macro and micro sites [44]. In [45],
the authors investigate the potential improvements of the same
metric achievable in network layouts with different numbers
of micro BSs together with macro sites for a given system
performance targets under full load conditions.
As large-scale femtocell deployment can result in significant
energy consumption, an energy saving procedure that allows
femtocell BS to completely turn off its transmissions and
processing when not involved in an active call was proposed

in [46]. Depending on the voice traffic model, this mechanism

can provide an average power saving of 37.5% and for a
high traffic scenario, it can achieve five times reduction in the
occurrence of mobility events, compared to a fixed pilot transmission [46]. A rather radial approach to create a link between
fully centralized (cellular) and decentralized (ad hoc) networks
in order to achieve more efficient network deployment is
a paradigm shift towards self-organizing small-cell networks
(SCNs) [47]. However, coverage and performance prediction,
interference and mobility management together with security
issues are some of the many issues that must be dealt while
designing such networks.
V. E NABLING T ECHNOLOGIES : C OGNITIVE R ADIO AND
C OOPERATIVE R ELAYING
Recently, the research on technologies such as cognitive
radio and cooperative relaying has received a significant
attention by both industry and academia. While cognitive
radio is an intelligent and adaptive wireless communication
system that enables us to utilize the radio spectrum in a
more efficient manner, cooperative relays can provide a lot of
improvement in throughput and coverage for futuristic wireless
networks. However, developments in both these technologies
also enable us to solve the problem of energy efficiency via
smart radio transmission and distributed signal processing. In
the following subsections, we will discuss how we can enable
green communication in cellular systems using cognitive radio
and cooperative relaying.
A. Green Communication via Cognitive Radio
Bandwidth efficiency has been always a crucial concern for
wireless communication engineers, and there exist a rich liter-

ature on this matter, resulting in bandwidth efficient systems,

but not always considering power efficiency. On the other
hand, it has been realized that the allocated spectrum is highly
underutilized [48], and this is where cognitive radio comes into
the picture. The main purpose of cognitive radio is to collect
information on the spectrum usage and to try to access the
unused frequency bands intelligently, in order to compensate
for this spectrum underutilization [49]. However, the question
is why using spectrum more efficiently is important and how
it can reduce power consumption? The answer lies under
Shannons capacity formula [50], where we can see the tradeoff between the bandwidth and power. The capacity increases
linearly with bandwidth, but only logarithmically with power.
This means that in order to reduce power, we should seek for
more bandwidth [51], or in other words, manage the spectrum
optimally and dynamically, and this falls into the scope of
cognitive radio. In fact, it has been shown in [52] that up
to 50% of power can be saved if the operator dynamically
manages its spectrum by activities such as dynamically moving
users into particularly active bands from other bands, or
the sharing of spectrum to allow channel bandwidths to be
increased.
However, efficient spectrum usage is not the only concern
of cognitive radio. Actually, in the original definition of
cognitive radio by J. Mitola [53], every possible parameter
measurable by a wireless node or network is taken into
account (Cognition) so that the network intelligently modifies
its functionality (Reconfigurability) to meet a certain objective.
One of these objectives can be power saving. It has been shown
in recent works that structures and techniques based on cognitive radio reduce the energy consumption, while maintaining
the required quality-of-service (QoS), under various channel
conditions [54], [55]. Nevertheless, due to the complexity of
these proposed algorithms, still vendors find it unappealing to
implement these techniques. Hence, a roadway to future would
be striving for more feasible, less complex, and less expensive
schemes within the scope of cognitive radio.
B. Cooperative Relays to deliver green communication
In infra-structured wireless networks, extending coverage of
a BS is an important issue. Considering well-known properties
of the wireless channel, including large path losses, shadowing
effects and different types of signal fading, covering very
distant users via direct transmission becomes very expensive
in terms of required power in order to establish a reliable
connection. This high-power transmission requirement further
translates into the high power consumption and also introduces
high levels of interface at nearby users and BSs.
On the other hand, in recent years, cooperative communication techniques have been proposed to create a virtual
MIMO systems, where installing large antennas on small
devices such as MUs is not possible. Hence, using cooperative
communication, well-known improvements of MIMO systems
including coverage enlarging and capacity enhancement can be
achieved [56]. Cooperative techniques also combat shadowing
by covering coverage wholes [56]. In fact, early research
has shown that relaying techniques extend the battery life

[57], which is the first step towards energy efficient networks.

In particular, multi-hop communication divides a direct path
between mobile terminals and BS into several shorter links
[58], in which wireless channel impairments such as path loss
are less destructive, hence lower transmission power can be
assigned to the BS and relays. Authors in [59] mentioned
that two-hop communication consumes less energy than direct
communication. And finally, it has been shown in [60] that
using multi-hopping in CDMA cellular networks can reduce
the average energy consumed per call.
Delivering green communication via cooperative techniques
can be achieved by two different approaches. The first approach is to install fixed relays within the network coverage
area in order to provide service to more users using less power.
And the second approach is to exploit the users to act as
relays. In this work, a relay is roughly defined as one of the
network elements which can be fixed or mobile, much more
sophisticated than a repeater, and it has capabilities such as
storing and forwarding data, and cooperating in scheduling and
routing procedures. While the second scenario eliminates the
cost of installing relay nodes, it increases the complexity of the
system, mostly because centralized or distributed algorithms
must be designed to dynamically select relays among the users,
as well as new user mobile terminals have to be designed such
that they support relaying. In the two following sub-sections,
we discuss these two scenarios.
1) Enabling Green Communication via Fixed Relays: Nonlinear signal attenuation or path loss is an interesting property
of a wireless channel. This property helps to concentrate
power on specific locations in a network, hence, leads to
spatial reuse of various resources within a wireless network.
A simple example in [61] shows that for an additive white
Gaussian noise (AWGN) channel with a path loss exponent
of 4, we can increase the number of BSs by a factor of
1.5 in an area unit, and reduce the transmitting power by
a factor of 5, while achieving a same signal-to-noise ratio
(SNR) level. In other words, a higher density of BSs leads
to less energy consumption as well as a higher special reuse
[61]. In fact, this is the key point which makes fixed relays
a good candidate for delivering green communication as well
as a general improvement of network performance. Installing
new BSs in order to have a higher BS density can be very
expensive. Therefore, we can install relays instead of new BSs,
which is economically advantageous, and does not introduce
much complexity to the network. First of all, relays need not
be as high as BSs, because they are supposed to cover a
smaller area with a lower power [56]. Secondly, relays can
be wirelessly connected to a BS, instead of being attached
to the backhaul of the network by wire using a complicated
interface [56]. And finally, in cellular systems, unlike ad-hoc
and peer-to-peer networks, complex routing algorithms are
not necessary [56]. All these reasons make installing relays
a potential solution to having more energy efficient cellular
networks.
In a very recent work [61], the authors have discussed how
it is possible to deliver a green communication structure in
cellular networks, using fixed relays. In this paper, It is shown
that relays provide a flexible way to improve the spatial reuse,

10

are less complex than BSs and therefore cheaper to deploy,

and the relays reduce the power in the system compared to
systems based on direct transmission.
2) Green Communications in Cellular Networks via User
Cooperation: User cooperation was first introduced in [62],
and has been shown that not only it increases the data rate,
but also the system is more robust, i.e., the achievable rates
are less sensitive to channel variations. However, despite all
these advantages, energy efficiency issues of user cooperation
render this paradigm unappealing in wireless mobile networks.
The reason is, increased rate of one user comes at the price
of the energy consumed by another user acting as a relay. The
limited battery life time of mobile users in a mobile network
leads to selfish users who do not have incentive to cooperate.
In fact, in a very recent work by Nokleby and Aazhang
[63], this fundamental question has been posed: whether or
not user cooperation is advantageous from the perspective of
energy efficiency. In this paper, a game-theoretic approach
is proposed to give users incentive to act as relays when
they are idle, and it is shown that user cooperation has the
potential of simultaneously improving both users bits-perenergy efficiency under different channel conditions.
User cooperation in which selfish users find cooperation
favourable to their energy concerns, has recently been considered, but has still not attracted much research. However, based
on existing literature, this new approach can be a promising
technique to increase the system performance in terms of
energy efficiency in future wireless mobile networks.
VI. D ESIGN : A DDRESSING E NERGY E FFICIENCY IN
F UTURE G ENERATION W IRELESS S YSTEMS
In previous sections, we discussed that how cognitive radio
and cooperative communication are becoming key technologies to address the power efficiency of a cellular network.
As we mentioned earlier, European Union has already started
C2POWER project with objectives to reduce power consumption of mobile terminals using cognitive and cooperative
technologies by up to 50%. In this section, we will mainly
discuss techniques to enable green communication in future
generation of wireless systems that will rely on cooperation
and cognition to meet the increasing demand for high data
rates. So far, achieving high data rate has been the primary
focus of research in cooperative and cognitive radio systems,
without much consideration of energy efficiency. However,
many of these techniques significantly increase system complexity and energy consumption. For instance, in the context
of green communication via cognitive radio, authors of [64]
mention that there are two fundamental but entangled aspects:
how to use cognitive radio for energy efficiency purposes,
and how to make the cognitive radio operate in an energy
efficient manner. Escalating energy costs and environmental
concerns have already created an urgent need for more energyefficient green wireless communication. Hence, we need to
be proactive in designing energy-efficient solutions for cooperative and cognitive networks, which will potentially drive the
future generation of wireless communication. As an example,
if cognitive and cooperative techniques are expected to give

50% of power savings, then an additional 50% improvement in

the energy efficiency of these techniques will further increase
the net savings by 25%.
In the next few subsections, we will discuss an approach to
obtain energy efficiency of cellular networks on an algorithmic
and protocol design level, instead of energy-efficient circuitry
design for communication devices.
A. Low-Energy Spectrum Sensing
The use of cognitive radio technology requires frequent
sensing of the radio spectrum and processing of the sensor
data which would require additional power. Therefore, it is
necessary to design energy-efficient sensing schemes so that
improvement in data rate due to opportunistically acquired
spectrum does not lead to significant increase in the energy
consumption. Low-complexity spectrum sensing techniques
such as energy detection require high sensing time to accurately detect a primary signal and even fail to detect the
signal at low SNR due to presence of noise-uncertainty [65].
Therefore, detectors exploiting the cyclostationarity of the
primary signals have been studied in the literature that perform
better at low SNR. However, they are highly complex and
need significant processing power. Therefore, design of lowcomplexity cyclostationary detectors needs to be investigated.
Cooperative spectrum sensing improves the sensing performance by using the spatial diversity between various sensors
[65]. However, cooperative sensing would also increase the
signaling overhead and thus, energy consumption. By taking
into consideration the power consumed for sensing, processing
and transmitting sensing data, we need to find conditions under
which cooperative sensing is more energy efficient in order to
achieve a certain sensing performance. New strategies should
be designed to select the sensors to participate in cooperative
sensing that could reduce the power consumed without severe
loss in the sensing performance. Also, optimal location of the
sensors should be determined that would make the sensing
system energy efficient in presence of a single and multiple
primary users.
Cluster-based sensing architecture has been shown to
achieve higher energy efficiency and hence cluster-based designs to reduce power consumption should be considered in
research [66]. Sequential detection techniques also needs to be
explored to improve the energy efficiency of the system [67].
Compressive sensing has recently been proposed to reduce
the complexity of wide-band sensing by sampling at a rate
significantly lower than Nyquist rate, taking advantage of the
sparse nature of the radio spectrum usage [68]. Therefore,
efficient cooperative compressive spectrum sensing schemes
is also a possible research area.
B. Energy-Aware Medium Access Control and Green Routing
Medium access control (MAC) in cooperative and cognitive
wireless systems introduces a number of new challenges unseen in traditional wireless systems. For example, coordinating
medium access in presence of multiple relays with different
channel qualities requires a much more agile and adaptive

11

MAC in cooperative systems. In cognitive radio systems, sensing accuracy, duration and time varying availability of primary
user channels are some of the factors affecting the MAC
design. The need for optimizing energy consumption further
adds another dimension that can be conflicting to the goal
of achieving better system performance, user satisfaction and
QoS. Many of the cooperative and cognitive wireless systems
will rely on multihop communication between a transmitter
and its intended receiver. In addition to MAC design, proper
routing schemes will thus be necessary to achieve desired endto-end QoS.
Although, a number of MAC and routing schemes specialized for cooperative and cognitive networks exist in the literature [69], [70], little research has been done to regarding the
energy efficiency of such systems. For instance, a significant
volume of research exists on joint routing and spectrum allocation with objectives of throughput maximization in multi-hop
cognitive and cooperative systems. In [71], decentralized and
localized algorithms for joint dynamic routing, relay assignment, and spectrum allocation in a distributed and dynamic
environment are proposed and analyzed. However, most of
the research on joint routing and spectrum allocation does not
take into account power efficiency constraints directly. Nevertheless, throughput maximization via routing-driven spectrum
allocation can be interpreted as power efficiency, since more
throughput is achieved using the same amount of power.
As an another example of MAC and routing schemes
specialized for cooperative and cognitive networks, in [72],
Alonso-Zarate et al. proposed persistent relay carrier sensing multiple access (PRCSMA) MAC protocol employing
distributed cooperative automatic retransmission request (CARQ) scheme (users who overheard the message can act
as spontaneous relays for retransmission) in IEEE 802.11
wireless networks and in [73], they recently evaluated the
energy consumption of this protocol. In particular, AlonsoZarate et al. described the conditions under which a C-ARQ
scheme with PRCSMA outperforms non-cooperative ARQ
schemes in terms of energy efficiency. On the other hand,
some energy-aware MAC and routing mechanisms [74], [75]
exist primarily for wireless sensor networks. However, sensor
networks are very different than cooperative and cognitive
networks in system dynamics and performance objectives.
Therefore for cellular networks, objective should be to investigate novel energy-efficient MAC and routing schemes design
for cooperative and cognitive wireless networks. In addition,
we need to focus on optimizing energy consumption while
delivering desired system performance, user satisfaction and
QoS.
Hybrid-ARQ (HARQ) are another set of ARQ type protocols that use Forward-Error-Correction (FEC) coding and
can be typically employed at the MAC layer to improve
QoS and robustness for delay insensitive applications. There
are three important subclasses of HARQ protocols namely:
HARQ-IT (Type I, in which erroneous data packets are
retransmitted for memoryless detection), HARQ-CC (chase
combining, where packets in error are preserved for soft
combining), and HARQ-IR (Incremental Redundancy, where
every retransmission contains different information bits than

previous one). HARQ protocols can potentially reduce the

transmission energy required for decoding at the destination
for delay insensitive systems and the total energy consumption
for both the transmission power and the energy consumed
in the electronic circuitry of all involved terminals (source,
destination and, even relays) has been studied in [76]. Hence,
future MAC protocols for cognitive and cooperative systems
that employ HARQ has potential to reduce energy costs of
such systems.
In cooperative systems, the medium time is accessed for
both direct and relayed transmissions. Addition of relayed
transmission means more power consumption in the network.
Future research on developing a MAC protocol that will be
able to suitably quantify potential performance gain in QoS
against any additional energy consumption and coordinate
medium access among direct and relayed transmissions, will
be important. Also, while doing so, focus should be on lowcomplexity schemes so that the energy savings acquired are not
wasted in an increased need for processing power. For routing
in a multihop cooperative system, we need to employ new protocols that can intelligently use the most energy-efficient path
given the relays that are selected by the resource allocation
and MAC schemes. In order to facilitate the operation of our
targeted mechanisms, we must explore analytical models that
can quantify trade-offs between energy savings and end-to-end
QoS performance from selecting alternate routing paths. In this
regard, there has already been a paradigm shift from early
flooding-based and hierarchical protocols to geographic and
self-organizing coordinate-based routing solutions and Internet
Engineering Task Force (IETF) Routing Over Low power
and Lossy networks (ROLL) working group is in process of
standardization of Routing Protocol for Low power and lossy
networks (RPL) [77], [78].
For cognitive networks, energy efficiency in the MAC can
be increased significantly if the access mechanism is designed
to avoid collisions between primary and secondary users.
Existing random access based protocols must be modified to
achieve this objective in a distributed cognitive MAC with
as low system complexity as possible. Statistical information
of available channels can be used for QoS provisioning such
as in [79] but we should also consider energy efficiency
as a trade-off. Furthermore, we must focus on developing
analytical models to relate important parameters of these
random access methods to resulting energy consumption and
QoS performance. This will enable the system engineers to
choose optimal parameter values to minimize energy consumption while satisfying desired QoS performance. In a
multihop cognitive radio network, due to the presence of
primary user spectrum, more energy efficient routes can now
be selected which would not be available without cognitive
technology. Routing algorithms should be designed such that
they can utilize these additional routes to minimize energy
consumption.
C. Energy-Efficient Resource Management with Applications
in Heterogeneous Networks
Energy consumption in wireless networks is closely related
to their radio resource management schemes. Recently, power-

12

efficient resource management for wireless networks based on

cooperative and cognitive architectures has been discussed in
[80], [81]. However, current research that addresses energy
efficient resource management for these systems under a
variety of network objectives and constraints is not yet fully
developed.
For cooperative systems, relaying mechanisms that minimize energy consumption while satisfying certain QoS performance criterion should be investigated. We also need to
explore distributed schemes based on economic models with
energy as a cost in the overall utility function. More specifically, we need to find answers to three fundamental questions:
where to place relays, whom to relay and when to relay.
In order to answer the first question where to place relays,
we first need to obtain the optimal relay geometry, in terms
of energy consumption, within a cell with different number
of relays and then we must also optimize the number of
relays. The second question is related to the design of optimal
relay selection criterion. This relay selection criterion should
be based on both fairness and energy efficiency. The authors
in [82], [83] have proposed an energy efficient distributed
relay selection criterion with finite-state Markov channels and
adaptive modulation and coding in a single user cooperative
system. Such ideas should be explored for multi-user scenario.
To solve the last problem of when to relay, design of
resource allocation strategies for single and multiuser wireless
systems should be studied such that relaying is selectively
enabled so as to reduce overall power consumption [84], [85].
To improve energy efficiency of cognitive radio systems,
energy consumed per bit can be taken as performance metric
[86]. We also need to investigate low power consumption
based scheduling mechanisms in presence of multiple cognitive users. In [87], the authors have proposed some energyefficient and low complexity scheduling mechanisms for uplink cognitive cellular networks and have shown that roundrobin scheduling is more energy efficient than opportunistic
scheduling while providing the same average capacity and
BER. Using mathematical tools based on dynamic programming and optimal control, we need to design resource allocation schemes for cognitive radio systems such that overall
power consumption is minimized over a period of time while
providing satisfactory performance.
Lastly, we also need to investigate into the design of energyaware heterogeneous networks, where the macrocell (highpower node) and femtocell (low-power node) coexist for cochannel deployment. Femtocell must cognitively adapt to its
surrounding environment and transmit in such a way in order
not to create cross-tier interference to main cellular network
[88]. Using cooperative relaying, the network coverage of
these femtocells can be improved without causing huge interference to the macrocell system. For such heterogeneous
network architecture, employing power-efficient resource management techniques such as selective relaying, energy efficient
modulation etc. can be very attractive. Further research on
optimal cell sizes and femtocell BS locations taking into
consideration the energy spent for the system backhaul and
signaling overhead, can save a lot of power. This way we can
further reduce the energy consumption of macrocell BSs and

user handsets to achieve a given system performance.

D. Cross-Layer Design and Optimization
Cellular wireless communication systems ought to support different kinds of applications, including voice and data
applications. Each application has a different energy limit,
required bit rate, bit error rate, delay constraints, outage
probability, etc. Traditionally, these requirements have been
tried to be achieved within the scope of a layered structure,
called protocol stack. In fact, there has been a significant
amount of research tackling these problems within each layer,
assuming each layer operates independently of the other layers.
Examples of these efforts in the link layer are employing
MIMO techniques, channel coding, power control and adaptive
resource allocation techniques. In the MAC layer, different
channelization or random access schemes, along with scheduling and power control can be mentioned. Moreover, regarding
the network layer, a rich literature can be found on the
energy-constrained and delay-constrained routing. And finally,
adjusting QoS requirements adaptively is a venue to meet the
users demand in the application layer [89].
The rationale behind using the protocol stack is that it
helps the designer to break the design problem into several
simpler problems, namely layer modules. This paradigm also
makes the evaluation of the proposed algorithms easier. However, limiting each layer to be independent of others and
sub-optimality of this modularized paradigm lead to a poor
performance, especially when the resources such as energy
are scarce [89]. Therefore, cross-layer design can be a very
useful tool to minimize energy consumed across the entire
protocol stack. In cross-layer design, we try to escape from
the limitations that the traditional waterfall-like concept of
protocol stack imposes. In the new paradigm, we want to not
only consider the interdependencies between different layers,
but also take advantage of them. In particular, for energy
saving purposes, it is necessary to consider the invariably
changing operation conditions in cellular networks. Due to
the mobility of the users, and also characteristics of wireless
channel along with the nature of modern applications, propagation environment and application requirements are time
varying. Thus, more holistic control algorithms from crosslayer perspective must be designed which adapts the system
to these dynamics at run time. Going in this direction, greener
cellular communication systems can be delivered compared
to the existing ones [90]. However, if not carefully designed
cross-layer design might itself lead to increased complexity
and energy consumption. Hence, we should explore the crosslayer alternatives to schemes proposed for an individual layer
(PHY, MAC etc.) and analyze important tradeoffs in energy
consumption and system performance. Multiple relays in cooperative communication and spectrum sensing mechanism in
cognitive radio networks introduce new challenges in crosslayer design for these networks [91], [92].
One of the objectives should be to devise cross-layer
schemes that will allow joint optimization of some or all of
the following parameters: assigning the subcarriers, rates, and
power (physical layer attributes), channel access mechanisms

13

(MAC layer attribute), routing (network layer attribute), and

rate (transport layer attribute) while taking into account system
related errors (e.g. sensing errors in cognitive radios) and other
errors that contribute to cross layer issues. Further, in order
to save energy in an ad-hoc wireless network, more packets
should be transmitted when channel quality is good and at the
same time collision losses due to network congestion must be
reduced so that the packets need not to be retransmitted. In this
regard, we need to explore new mechanisms for cognitive radio
and cooperative ad-hoc networks by which channel traffic
can be measured either by single-bit or multi-bit signalling
overhead or by loss or delay in the network. Energy-efficient
cross-layer schemes that will optimize resources in various
layers while considering the channel quality as well as the
network traffic, should be investigated.
An example, where cross-layer design would be crucial,
is in the use of cooperative relaying to improve spectrum
diversity in cognitive radio networks [93]. Large gains in
efficiency and fairness of resource sharing can be obtained by
cooperation among cognitive radio nodes. Specifically, some
cognitive radio users with low traffic demand can help improve
spectrum efficiency by acting as relays for the cognitive
radio users that have high traffic demand but low available
bandwidth. For such a network, cross-layer design is important
as while performing resource allocation (relay, power etc.),
transmission demand of each cognitive radio user has to be
taken into account.

E. Addressing Uncertainty Issues

Most research in the field of cooperative and cognitive
radio systems is mainly based on the assumption of perfect
channel state information (CSI), which is often unrealistic in
practice. Presence of non-Gaussian noise, quantization effects,
fast varying environment, delay in CSI feedback systems and
hardware limitations are the main factors that cause errors
in CSI. The performance of cognitive radio sensing system
is drastically impaired, when various wireless channels e.g.,
detecting, reporting, and inter-user channels have uncertainty
[94]. For cooperative systems, the optimal relay selection
and robust resource allocation with imperfect CSI has also
remained largely unexplored. For cognitive radio systems, it
is also important to take into account the effects of imperfect
sensing [95]. Spectrum sensing is further complicated due
to uncertainty in interference from other secondary networks
[96]. Providing robustness in conjunction with energy efficient
solutions to such scenarios is, therefore, a task of significant practical interest. Also, the robustness of the efficient
scheduling schemes for MAC and cross-layer optimization
needs further investigation taking uncertainty in the channel
congestion into account. In order to maintain energy savings
under imprecise conditions, we must investigate the robustness
of our proposed energy-efficient schemes and compare the performance with the existing schemes in practical scenario with
uncertain environment. Hence, depending on the QoS targets,
robust algorithms for energy efficient resource optimization
considering uncertainty in CSI, should be explored.

VII. S OME B ROADER P ERSPECTIVES

The most important issue in developing networks which
are energy-aware is to model the consumption of the wireless interfaces [97]. Usually, the wireless interface consumes
energy with the same rate in receive, transmit or idle states.
In turn, the less the wireless interface is operating, the less
energy is consumed. Based on the preceding argument, the best
strategy to minimize the energy consumption is to shut down
the wireless interface, or to go to energy saving mode as much
as possible. In order to achieve this, algorithms needed to
determine when it is suitable to switch to energy saving mode
or turning off the transceivers. We already have discussed
strategies with the aforementioned concept in this paper.
For instance, we have mentioned Discontinuous Reception
(DRX) and Discontinuous Transmission (DTX) modes in LTE
standard, and sleep mode mechanism in IEEE 802.16e, both
for mobile terminals. We also have talked about enabling
sleep mode for BSs. However, these methods are based on
instantaneous observations. On the other hand, the traffic
pattern is dramatically different in different times of the day or
in different geographical locations. In a broader perspective,
there can be a data-base in BS and mobile terminals, in which
the traffic pattern during different times of the day is saved.
Based on this obtained statistics, dynamic algorithms can be
designed in order to switch the BS or mobile terminal to a
different power profile appropriate for that time of the day. In
a recent paper by Dufkova et al. [98], it has been shown that
if such predictions on users are available, savings from 25%
up to 50% can be achieved, depending on the time of the day.
However, their results are based on off-line optimizations and
represent an upper bound on the energy savings possible.
From another perspective, BSs distributed over a certain
geographical area are connected to a power grid. In recent
years, smart grid has emerged to coordinate the power generators, transmission systems and appliances utilizing twoway communication lines between all these different entities.
These two-way communication lines can be dedicated pointto-point wireless channels or IP-based connections [99]. On
the other hand, BSs in general, are power hungry elements.
Hence, looking at BSs as power consumers or appliances,
and absorbing them in a smart grid can exceedingly increase
the power efficiency without adversely affecting the QoS and
capacity. This can be done by adding measurement sensors
which can update the status of BSs, and then transmit them to
the other BSs and smart grid control system. Here, in addition
to cooperation with each other, BSs also cooperate with the
power system to manage the energy consumption.
Contrary to the ideas mentioned by far, Humar et al. in
[100] suggest a different way of thinking in energy efficiency
modeling. Almost all the research on making cellular communication green results in larger number of BSs with lower
level of powers, since the objective is to reduce the operating
energy. However, authors of [100] noticed that in all the cases,
the new BSs are more sophisticated equipments, and producing
these sophisticated equipments requires more energy compared
to conventional ones. This energy which is associated with all
the processes of producing an equipment is called embodied

14

energy. According to this paper, embodied energy accounts for

a significant proportion of energy consumed by the BS, and
taking this energy into account along with operating energy
in modeling cellular networks energy consumption results in
solutions which disagree with increasing the number of BSs
and lowering their power.
TABLE II
E NERGY SAVINGS OBTAINED BY SOME OF THE DISCUSSED TECHNIQUES

Description
Improvements in Power Amplifier

Network self-organizing techniques

Renewable Energy Resources
in off-grid sites
Heterogeneous
network
deployment
Dynamic spectrum management

Reported savings
- up to 50% with doherty architecture and GaN-based amplifiers
- up to 70% with switch-mode
power amplifiers
between 20-40% BS power
savings
up to 0.35% of global diesel
consumption
up to 60% savings compared to
a network with macro-cells
up to 50%

VIII. C ONCLUSION
This paper addresses the energy efficiency of cellular communication systems, which is becoming a major concern for
network operators to not only reduce the operational costs,
but also to reduce their environmental effects. We began our
discussion with green metrics or energy efficiency metrics.
Here, we presented a brief survey of current efforts for the
standardization of the metrics and the challenges that lay
ahead. Regarding architecture, since BSs represent a major
chunk of energy consumed in a cellular network, we then
presented an exhaustive survey of methods that have been
currently adopted or will be adopted in future in order to obtain
energy savings from BSs. In particular, we discussed the recent
improvements in power amplifier technology that can be used
to bring energy savings in BSs. Improvements in the power
amplifier will not only decrease the power consumption of the
hardware system, but will also make the BS less dependant on
air-conditioning. We also discussed the power saving protocols
such as sleep modes, that have been suggested for next
generation wireless standards. Such power saving protocols
at the BS side still need to be explored in future wireless
systems. Next, we discussed energy-aware cooperative BS
power management, where certain BSs can be turned off
depending on the load. A recent concept called Cell zooming
appears to be a promising solution in this regard. Another
way to significantly reduce the power consumption of BSs,
in particular, those at the off-grid sites, is by using renewable
energy resources such as solar and wind energy in place of
diesel generators. Lastly, we discussed how minimizing the
number of BSs with a better network design and bringing
minor architectural changes can be beneficial in achieving
energy efficiency.
Heterogeneous network deployment based on smaller cells
such as micro, pico and femtocells is another significant

technique that can possibly reduce the power consumption of

a cellular network. However, as some of the recent research
suggests, careful network design is required as deploying too
many smaller cells may in fact reduce the power efficiency of
the central BS. Also, when a large number of BSs with small
cell sizes are deployed, the embodied energy consumption will
dominate and lead to an increase in total energy consumption
[100]. We also discussed how emerging technologies such
as cognitive radio and cooperative relaying can be useful
for obtaining green network technology. In this regard, we
discussed research challenges to address energy efficiency
in cognitive and cooperative networks including low-energy
spectrum sensing, energy-aware MAC and routing, efficient
resource management, cross-layer optimization, and uncertainty issues. Finally, we explored some broader perspectives
such as statistical power profiles, smart grid technology and
embodied energy to achieve energy efficient cellular network.
Table II lists the energy savings reported by authors, that can
be obtained by some of the techniques discussed in the paper.
In summary, research on energy efficient or green cellular
network is quite broad and a number of research issues and
challenges lay ahead. Nevertheless, it is in favor of both the
network operators and the society to swiftly address these
challenges to minimize the environmental and financial impact
of such a fast growing and widely adopted technology. This
article attempts to briefly explore the current technology with
respect to some aspects related to green communications
and we discuss future research that may prove beneficial in
pursuing this vision.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
This research was supported by the Natural Sciences and
Engineering Research Council of Canada (NSERC) under their
strategic project award program and in part by Alexander
Graham Bell Canadian Graduate Scholarship.
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