Liquefied Natural Gas

and
Floating LNG
A technology review
Gabriel Castaneda, P.E.
(713) 873 1708
Gabriel @gabcheminc.com

LNG

Construction Costs

Gorgon $52 Billion dollars

LNG

King & Spalding 2014

Gabriel Castaneda, P.E.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Approved and proposed projects in North America

Specifications
Turbines in LNG
Emissions
Process Safety 49 CFR 193, 33 CFR 127 and NFPA 59A
Refrigeration and Liquefaction Technologies
FLNG Design Considerations
FLNG Technologies selected for projects
FLNG Projects in the pipeline, or in the boat?

LNG

Gabriel Castaneda, P.E.

Approved LNG Plants

FERC

LNG

Gabriel Castaneda, P.E.

Proposed LNG Plants in North America

FERC, Feb 5 2015

LNG

Gabriel Castaneda, P.E.

LNG Specifications

component

limit

CO2

50 ppm

H2S
total sulfur
mercury

3.5 ppm
20-25 mg/m3
.01 mg/Nm3
<0.1% mol
<1 ppm (mole)
1 ppmv
1% mol
<6-8% mol
<3% mol
<2% mol
1050 BTU/SCF
1140 BTU/SCF

C5+
benzene
water
nitrogen
ethane
propane
butane
heating value

LNG

comments

freezing
LNG Spec
LNG Spec
aluminum exchangers

melting point
pentane
hexane
heptane

-202
-139
-131

issues in liquefaction section

freezing in liquefaction section
Ethylene

LNG temp
-161oC
-258oF

Europe and USA

East Asia

Gabriel Castaneda, P.E.

Turbines in LNG

LNG

Gabriel Castaneda, P.E.

Turbines in LNG Table of Contents

Trends in LNG Train Size, MTPY

LNG Refrigerant Compressor Drives
Gas Turbines Driver Benefits
Aeroderivative vs Industrial Turbines
Inlet Turbine Cooling

LNG

Gabriel Castaneda, P.E.

Trends in LNG Train Size, MTPY

5 MTPY, 86MW turbine, GE Frame 7EA

8 MTPY, 123 MW turbine, GE Frame 9E
Buonocristiano et al, GE

LNG

Gabriel Castaneda, P.E.

LNG Refrigerant Compressor Drives

Driver Efficiency
Aeroderivative
40/60%
GT 30-50%

Marybeth Nored, Apache Corporation

LNG

Gabriel Castaneda, P.E.

Gas Turbines Driver Benefits

Smaller plot space

Shorter delivery time
Lower transportation costs
Lower installation costs
Lower foundation costs
No need for boiler feed water treatment
No need for cooling water
Cyrus Meher et al, Bechtel

LNG

Gabriel Castaneda, P.E.

Aeroderivative vs Industrial Turbine

Industrial Frame 9E, 123 MW

Aeroderivative LMS 100, 100 MW

General Electric

LNG

Gabriel Castaneda, P.E.

Aeroderivative vs Old Industrial Turbines

speed
starting time
loading time
maintenance time
bearings
technology
modularity
efficiency
temperature
emissions

Old Heavy Industrial

slower
10-15min
6-10% per minute, some in 13 min
more
hydrodynamic
conventional
none
less
lower
higher

Aeroderivative
faster
5 min
10 min
less
antifriction
aerospace
highly modular
10-15% more
higher
lower

compression ratio
reliability
load range
operational expenses
price
air inlet system requirements
fuel requirements
footprint
weight

25 ppm
lower, 10
lower
narrow
higher
20-30% lower
low inlet Mach number
wider range of fuels
bigger
more

some below 15 ppm NOX

higher, 18
higher
wider
lower
higher
high inlet Mach number
narrower range of fuels
less than 50%
less than 40%

water injection in combustion chamber lowers NOX

LNG

Firing temperature from

1149oC to 1400oC
Efficiencies from 30/50% to
40/60%

New turbines have

integrated a lot of the
aeroderivative benefits
but they need to be
requested

Lawrence Kaempffer, P.Eng.

Amin Almasi
Gabriel Castaneda, P.E.

Turbine Inlet Cooling, TIC Benefits

Increased LNG production

Assuming that the plant is designed such that the gas

turbine driver becomes a production bottleneck during
hot weather.

More stable liquefaction process, minimizes

production swings
Possible optimization of compressor
selections for the liquefaction process.
Chilled water-glycol loop
0.7%/oC heavy duty, 1%/oC for aeroderivative

Technology is commonly used in Power Plants

11 LNG COP Optimized Cascade Process plants

LNG

Heat
Exchanger

Chilling
Unit

John Forsyth, P.Eng.

Mehaboob Basha et al
Cyrus Meher- Homji
Shell, GE
Gabriel Castaneda, P.E.

Emissions in LNG Table of Contents

LNG

Causes and mitigation measures

Relative CO2 emissions of gas turbines
NOX emissions
BOG compressors

Gabriel Castaneda, P.E.

CO2 Emission Causes Mitigation Measures

Causes
Use of turbines to power up
plant

Flaring and venting

Mitigation Measures

Use aeroderivative/ new efficient turbines

Install waste heat recovery units, 9%

reduction
Use a more efficient liquefaction technology
Use of boil-off gas compressors during ship
loading operations
Use a compressor to capture gas to be flared
and route it to be used as fuel gas
Install high efficiency burners in furnaces

Furnaces

Gas to be flared comes from fired heaters, incinerators, venting, startup and
shutdown conditions, depressurization of plant

Australia Pacific LNG Project

LNG

Gabriel Castaneda, P.E.

Relative CO2 Emissions From Different Gas Turbines

Cyrus Meher- Omji et al

Bechtel

LNG

Gabriel Castaneda, P.E.

NOX Emissions

Equivalence Ratio= (fuel/oxidant)actual

(fuel/oxidant)stoichiometric

LNG

Cyrus Meher-Homji et al
Bechtel
Gabriel Castaneda, P.E.

BOG Compressors

BOG
compressors

LNG

Flare

Gabriel Castaneda, P.E.

LNG Process Safety Table of Contents

49 CFR-193, 33 CFR 127 and NFPA 59A

standards
LNG vapor characteristics
Liquid Spill Hazard
Thermal Radiation Hazard
Overpressure Hazard
Overpressure vs. Gas Type

LNG

Gabriel Castaneda, P.E.

LNG Process Safety

33 CFR 127

49-CFR-193
NFPA 59A
(2001)

Waterfront Facilities Handling

Liquefied Natural Gas and
Liquefied Hazardous Gas
LNG Facilities: Federal Safety
Standards
Standard for the Production,
Storage and Handling of LNG

49-CFR-193 is based on NFPA 59A, 2001

LNG

Gabriel Castaneda, P.E.

49-CFR-193
Protection of persons and property near an LNG facility from :
- Thermal radiation
- Dispersion and delayed ignition
- Explosions
arising from an LNG spill
Reduction of the potential for a catastrophic spill of LNG
Sets design spill requirements for each specific major area:

LNG

- LNG storage tanks

- Vaporization areas

- Process areas

- Transfer Areas

Gabriel Castaneda, P.E.

LNG vapor characteristics

Methane is denser than air by a factor of 1.5, propane

by about 2, LNG spills will behave as a dense gas.

Vapor Fences
Precast lightweight concrete
8-12ft, 20ft high
Yield below 1psig threshold

Jordan Cove Point LNG

LNG

Gabriel Castaneda, P.E.

Liquid Spill Hazard

Flammable
vapor
dispersion

FLACS vapor dispersion and deflagration

PHAST screening calculation on flow rate,
rainout and unobstructed vapor dispersion

10 min spill
Vapor cloud at LFL

LNG

GexCon
DNV
Gabriel Castaneda, P.E.

Thermal Radiation Hazard

LNGFIRE3
Predicts thermal radiation
from onshore LNG pool
fires

Pool fires
49 CFR 193

Jordan Cove Point LNG

LNG

Gabriel Castaneda, P.E.

Overpressure Hazard
DOT requirement is 1psi at facility boundaries
0.5 psi overpressure in FLACS for safety factor
Ignition of vapor clouds in congested
areas
Effect
Eardrum rupture
Threshold
50% (20 or more years old)
Lung Damage
Threshold
Severe
Lethal
Threshold
50 percent
100 percent

Overpressure, psi
5
15-20
12 (8-15)
25 (20-37)
40 (30-50)
62 (50-75)
92 (75-115)

Effects of Nuclear Weapons,

Atomic Energy commission, 1977

LNG

Gabriel Castaneda, P.E.

Maximum Overpressure vs Gas Type

PSI
440
360
290
220
145
70

Structural Response analysis Abaqus Simulia

/ USFOS

Flammability limits for the

different components are taken
into consideration in the
simulations

DNV-RP-C204 Design against accidental loads

Skikda, Algeria, 2004

LNG

Kiminori Takahashi et al
JGC Corporation
Gabriel Castaneda, P.E.

LNG Safety CFD Explosion Modeling

Autoreagas, FLACS, CFX are standard in Offshore Industry

TNT model is an empirical model and is not used in Offshore
CFD models should require:

Fuel type (reactivity of fuel)

Stoichiometry of fuel
Ignition source type and location
Confinement and venting (location and size)
Initial turbulence level in the cloud
Blockage ratios
Size, shape and location of obstacles
Number of obstacles (for a given blockage ratio)
Cloud size

Explosion effects will depend on maximum pressure, duration of the shock wave
and interaction with structures
Hocquet, Technip

LNG

Gabriel Castaneda, P.E.

Explosion Blast Simulators

CFD

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zjRlKTzS5_c
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wWv2MdP-IG0
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QxaKxVAR1g0
FEA
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jESt5Ipjhu8
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uFSiG7PY23M
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=T6PyX8rUyL4
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WGqC0JPFi_Y
Other
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fmKKFkREu8Q

LNG

Abaqus Simulia
Regas
Gabriel Castaneda, P.E.

Refrigeration and Liquefaction Technologies

LNG

Gabriel Castaneda, P.E.

Refrigeration and Liquefaction Technologies Table of Contents

LNG

Single Refrigerant
Mixed Refrigerant
Refrigerants and Shaftwork
Selection of Mixed Refrigerant Composition
Liquefaction Processes
Natural Gas Cooling Curves
Liquefaction Technologies General Comparison
Liquefaction Technologies Relative Specific Work
Liquefaction Technologies - FLNG
DMR Process - FLNG

Gabriel Castaneda, P.E.

Refrigerant Selection

Single or Mixed
Refrigerant?

LNG

Gabriel Castaneda, P.E.

Single Refrigerant

Frank Del Nogal

LNG

Gabriel Castaneda, P.E.

Mixed Refrigerant

LNG

Gabriel Castaneda, P.E.

Refrigerants and Shaftwork

Natural gas MR: 8% N2 45% C1,45%C2, 2% C3

Lee

LNG

Gabriel Castaneda, P.E.

Selection of Mixed Refrigerant Composition

C1 to C3 and Nitrogen

Natural gas MR: 8% N2 45% C1,45%C2, 2% C3

Lee

LNG

Gabriel Castaneda, P.E.

LNG Refrigeration Technology

Marybeth Nored Apache Corporation

LNG

Gabriel Castaneda, P.E.

Liquefaction Processes

DMR

C3MR

POC

LNG

MFC
Gabriel Castaneda, P.E.

Natural Gas Cooling Curves

Mixed and
Single Refrigerant Mixed Refrigerant Double
Mixed Refrigerant Single Refrigerant

Il Moon et al

LNG

Gabriel Castaneda, P.E.

Liquefaction Technologies General Comparison

Process
SMR
Cascade DMR
C3-MR AP-X
N2 Expansion
Core Heat Exchanger
PFHE
PFHE
SWHE
SWHE SWHE
PFHE
Equipment Count
L
H
L
H
H
L
Hydrocarbon Refrigeration Storage
L
H
L
H
H
N/A
CAPEX
L
M
M
H
H
L
Capacity, mtpa
2-2.5
4
11
8
11
2
Licensor
BV (Prico), APCI COP Shell, APCI Shell, APCI APCI KA, Linde, Costain, etc
PHFE plate fin heat exchanger
SWHE spiral wound heat exchanger, coil wound heat exchanger
L Low
M-Medium
H-High
N/A Not applicable

AP-X used the recently introduced Frame 9 turbine of GE in Qatar

5 MTPA corresponds to a GE Frame 7
Global Markets Research, Floating LNG, Deutsche Bank, 2009

LNG

Gabriel Castaneda, P.E.

Liquefaction Technologies Relative Specific Work

PROCESS

Cascade
SMR
C3-MR
DMR
MFC
single N2 Expander
C3 precooled single N2 expander
double N2 Expander
NICHE LNG

Finn et al
(relative to
Cascade)
1.0
1.3
1.2

Foerg
Dam et al
(relative to
(relative to MFC)
MFC)
1.4
1.1
1

1.2
1.1
1.0

Vink et al Barclay et al
Pwaga
(relative to ( relative to (relative to
C3-MR)
C3-MR)
DMR)
1.2
1.2
1
1.0

1.1
1
1

1
2
1.7
1.7

3.1
3.3
1.4

1.5
1.4

Walter Chukwunonso et al
Pwaga

LNG

Gabriel Castaneda, P.E.

DMR Process
APCI mentions that it is safer on FLNG applications as it has less propane
DMR process has less equipment and allows a wider range of operating
conditions than C3MR
DMR process has more exploitable power than C3MR
DMR has more specific capacity than C3MR process

Cost Comparison

Refrigerant Flow Rate

APCI, Shell, Pwaga

LNG

Gabriel Castaneda, P.E.

LNG selection based on capacity

Capacity,
MTPA
< 0.2

2-3
>3

Liquefaction Technology

Expander processes
Nitrogen expander
Feed Gas (Niche Process)
Single Mixed Refrigerant,
PRICO
DMR

Based on efficiency, complexity, capital investment, equipment count, safety

MTPA million tons per year

LNG

Maneenapang
Bunnag et al,
PTT
Gabriel Castaneda, P.E.

Refrigeration and Liquefaction Technologies

LNG

Gabriel Castaneda, P.E.

FLNG Table of Contents

Process Design Considerations

Process Flexibility
Motion
- Sloshing
- Distillation
- Separators
Weight and Space Limits
Safety

- Heat Exchange
- Flow Motion
- Structural Issues

Commercial FLNG projects

LNG

Gabriel Castaneda, P.E.

FLNG Process Flexibility

Processes need to be flexible as the ship will

change location.
Changes in gas composition affect the entire
process:
CO2/H2S removal
HRU (demethanizer)
Compressors
Mixed Refrigerant Compositions

LNG

Gabriel Castaneda, P.E.

Sloshing

Sloshing leads to high impact pressures on

thermal insulation, which translates in
maintenance downtimes
Tanks need to withstand sloshing effects, currently
GTT has a membrane based design that is
favored by the industry because it is efficient and
is cost effective.

GTT
GDF Suez LNG
Exxonmobil

LNG

Gabriel Castaneda, P.E.

Distillation - Tilting Towers

Reduction in performance from 10 to 60%

Random and structured packing are less sensitive to motion than trays.
Mellapack can be three times less affected by motion than pall rings.
L/Ds of 2 or less and frequent redistributors. Redistributors may have a
higher residence time.
50 ppmv CO2 to HRU tower, <0.1% mol C5+ to liquefaction section

Gamma Tomography

Weiss et al, Total, IFP

Tim Cullinane et al, Exxon

LNG

Gabriel Castaneda, P.E.

Distillation - Amine System

Solvent Circulation Rate

Membrane Stage Effect

UOP

LNG

Gabriel Castaneda, P.E.

FLNG - Separators

Hamworthy
FMC
Natco

LNG

Gabriel Castaneda, P.E.

FLNG - Flow Motion

Layout, check valves and process control

should enforce the flow direction within the
process
Layout of equipment should follow a
homogeneous weight distribution to
decrease oscillations/
improve stability

LNG

Gabriel Castaneda, P.E.

Motion Consider Round FPSO

Eliminates typical wave inducing fatigue loads

Minimal hull deflections (sag/hog) simplifying topside design
Hull does not need to rotate even in harshest environmental conditions
Eliminates turret and swivel
Tolerant for weather spreading (waves/wind/current from different
directions)

Fredrik
Major
Sevan
Marine

LNG

Gabriel Castaneda, P.E.

FLNG - Structural Issues - Fatigue

Mechanical fatigue on distillation columns and

cold box
Load assessments
Full mechanical /naval considerations

LNG

Gabriel Castaneda, P.E.

Weight and Space Limits - Core-in-Kettle Heat Exchangers

10 times more heat transfer surface per unit volume

Temperature approach of 2oF/1oF (instead of 15oF)
Lower capital costs
75% less weight
Less plant space, about 50% of size of shell and tube
Lower compressor power
No mechanical joints, less prone to leaks

Chart Industries

LNG

Gabriel Castaneda, P.E.

FLNG Safety Table of Contents

American Bureau of Shipping (ABS)

Society of International Gas Tanker and Terminal
Operations (SIGTTO)
Topsides Arrangements
Main Process Hazards
Mitigation of Explosion Hazards
Cryogenic Spills Handling

LNG

Gabriel Castaneda, P.E.

FLNG Topsides Arrangement

LNG is stored at -161oC
Propane at -42oC
Butane at -12oC

Ji-Hyun Hwang, SBM Offshore

LNG

Gabriel Castaneda, P.E.

FLNG Safety Main Process Hazards

- Leak Hazards
Asphyxiation Risk
Explosion Risk
Cryogenic Spill Risk
Embrittlement of steel structures (module
structure, hull)
- BLEVE Hazard ( C2+ vessels)
- Management of Rapid Phase Transition
Kevlar

LNG

Gabriel Castaneda, P.E.

FLNG Safety Explosion/Asphyxiation Risk

Promote ventilation
Grated vs Plated Process Decks
Limitation of module congestion level
Optimization of module arrangement and
ventilation

Minimizing LPG inventories

LNG

ENI, Gavelli
Gabriel Castaneda, P.E.

FLNG Safety Cryogenic Spills Risk

Effects
Embrittlement of steel structures (module structure, hull)

Solutions
Minimize leak points (flanges, pumps, valves)
HSE hydrocarbon release database (HCRD)
Collect spill locally
Direct overboard
Use polyurethane, wood or concrete insulation to avoid contact with
metal structures
Use insulation and spray guards to protect personnel
Collect smaller spills locally in drip trays of suitable material (Stainless
Steel)
DNV Veritas

LNG

Gabriel Castaneda, P.E.

FLNG Projects in the pipeline boat

KPMG, September 2014

LNG

Gabriel Castaneda, P.E.

FLNG Projects - Under Construction

Project

Exmar

Exmar 2

PFLNG 1

PFLNG 2

Prelude

capacity, MTPA

0.5

0.6

1.2

1.5

3.6 LNG+0.4 LPG

+ 1.3 condensate

technology
cost, million USD
EPC
Field
Country
distance from
shore (miles)
mechanical
drivers

PRICO SMR PRICO SMR

300
Wison
Offshore

414
Wison
Offshore
La
La Cresciente
Cresciente

N2 Expansion N2 Expansion
(AP-NTM)
(AP-NTM)
2,000
Technip Daewoo

JGC - Samsung

12,000+
Technip Samsung

Kanowit

Rotan

Prelude

Colombia

Colombia

Malaysia

Malaysia

Australia

shoreside

shoreside

100

70

130

gas turbine

gas turbine

AGT

AGT

steam turbine

Japan imported 37% of global LNG in 2013

LNG

2,000-3,000

DMR

185 FPSOs in service

40 FPSO on order
Gabriel Castaneda, P.E.

FLNG Technologies
Project /
Equipment
Capacity
Owner
Engineering /
Shipyard

Prelude

Kanowit

Santos Basin

Scarborough

Bonaparte

(3.6 MTPA +
liquids)
Shell/ Inpex /
Kogas /CPC
Technip /
Samsung

(1.2 MTPA)

(2.7 MTPA +
liquids)

(6/7 MTPA)

(2.4 MTPA)

Petronas

Petrobras /BG

Exxonmobil/
BHP

GDF SUEZ /
Santos

Technip / DSME

Technip / JGC /
Modec
SBM/ Chiyoda /
SAIPEM

Technip / KBR

Liquefaction
DMR
process
Mechanical
redesigned
Drivers
steam turbines
Containment
Mark III
System
membranes
LNG
side by side
Offloading

N2 Expansion
(AP-N)

DMR

Mix Refrig

DMR

gas turbines

gas turbines

gas turbines

gas turbines

No 96
membranes

SPM

membranes

side by side

tandem

tandem

side by side

GDF SUEZ LNG

LNG

Gabriel Castaneda, P.E.

FLNG Projects - Probable

Clarksons

LNG

Gabriel Castaneda, P.E.

FLNG Projects - Possible

Clarksons

LNG

Gabriel Castaneda, P.E.

Gracias

Thanks!
Gabriel Castaneda, P.E.
(713) 873 1708
Gabriel @gabcheminc.com

LNG