1442239958

Afghanistan
Migration Profile
KAZAKHSTAN
UZBEKISTAN
KYRGYZSTAN
TURKMENISTAN
TAJIKISTAN
AFGHANISTAN
ISLAMIC REPUBLIC
OF IRAN
PAKISTAN
The opinions expressed in the report are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views
of the International Organization for Migration (IOM). The designations employed and the presentation
of material throughout the report do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the
part of IOM concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area, or of its authorities, or
concerning its frontiers or boundaries.
IOM is committed to the principle that humane and orderly migration benefits migrants and society.
As an intergovernmental organization, IOM acts with its partners in the international community to:
assist in meeting the operational challenges of migration; advance understanding of migration issues;
encourage social and economic development through migration; and uphold the human dignity and
well-being of migrants.
Publisher:

International Organization for Migration Afghanistan

Street No.4, House No. 27
Ansari Square, Shahr-e-Naw, Kabul
Afghanistan
E-mail: [email protected]
_____________________________________________________
2014 International Organization for Migration (IOM)
_____________________________________________________
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or
transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise
without the prior written permission of the publisher.
Afghanistan
Migration Profile
Prepared for the International Organization for Migration (IOM) by
Katrin Marchand
Melissa Siegel
Katie Kuschminder
Nassim Majidi
Michaella Vanore
Carla Buil
TECHNICAL WORKING GROUP

MEMBERS
Central Statistics Organization (CSO)
Da Afghanistan Bank (DAB)
International Labour Organization (ILO)
International Organization for Migration (IOM)
Ministry of Borders and Tribal Affairs (MoBTA)
Ministry of Foreign Affairs (MFA)
Ministry of the Interior (MoI)
Ministry of Labor, Social Affairs, Martyrs and Disabled (MoLSAMD)
- Director General of Manpower and Labour Affairs Regulations
Ministry of Refugees and Repatriation (MoRR)
United Nations Development Programme (UNDP)
United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR)
United Nations Childrens Fund (UNICEF)
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We would like to thank all our Technical Working Group members for all of
their assistance, the IOM Development Fund for the funding of this Afghanistan
Migration Profile project as well as IOM Afghanistan for their helpful support. A
special thanks goes to Samuel Hall for their excellent field work. The revisions
and feedback by Mio Sato (IOM Afghanistan) as well as Alessia Castelfranco and
Denis Kierans (IOM Geneva) were very much appreciated. We would also like
to thank Isabel Mehlmann and Elaine McGregor for their research assistance as
well as Howard Hudson and Vivianne van der Vorst for their part in editing the
Migration Profile.
Afghanistan Migration Profile
CONTENTS
List of Tables....................................................................................9
List of Figures................................................................................14
Acronyms......................................................................................15
Foreword.......................................................................................17
Country Map and Key Statistics.....................................................19
Executive Summary.......................................................................21
Part A: Afghanistan - A Country in Context.....................................29
A.1. Migration History.....................................................................29
A.2. Social, Economic and Environmental Trends...........................35
Part B: Migration Trends and Characteristics..................................53
B.1. Immigration.............................................................................53
B.2. Emigration...............................................................................57
B.3. Irregular Migration................................................................107
B.4. Return Migration...................................................................116
B.5. Internal Migration..................................................................128
Part C: Impacts of Migration........................................................ 139
C.1. Migration and Demographic Development...........................139
C.2. Migration and Economic Development.................................143
C.3. Migration, Employment and the Labour Market...................160
C.4. Migration and Social Development.......................................176
C.5. Migration and Health.............................................................189
C.6. Migration and the Environment............................................192
Part D: Migration Governance..................................................... 199
D.1. Mainstreaming Migration into Development Plans..............199
D.2. Laws and Regulations (National, Regional and
International Levels)...............................................................204
D.3. Institutional Framework........................................................218
D.4. International Cooperation.....................................................227
Part E: Key Findings, Policy Implications and Recommendations.. 231

E.1. Migration Trends....................................................................231
E.2. The Impacts of Migration.......................................................241
E.3. Migration Policies..................................................................245
E.4. Recommendations Concerning Improvements to
Migration Statistics and the Overall Evidence Base...............246
E.5. How to Regularly Update the Afghanistan Migration Profile.249
References................................................................................... 251
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: Afghan resident population by sex (in thousands), 1950-2050... 35
Table 2: Population growth rate (in %) and population change

(in thousands), 1950-2050........................................................... 36
Table 3: Afghan population by age group (in %), 1950-2050..................... 36
Table 4: Elderly population (age 65+) by residence and sex,

NRVA 2007/08.............................................................................. 37
Table 5: Poverty measures, NRVA 2007/08............................................... 40
Table 6: Mean per capita monthly real consumption expenditure

and share in consumption by population quintile and

poverty status, NRVA 2007/08..................................................... 42
Table 7: Mortality data from the Afghanistan Mortality Survey, 2010...... 44
Table 8: Labour force in Afghanistan by age group (in thousands),

NRVA 2007/08.............................................................................. 45
Table 9: Permanent departures from Australia to

Afghanistan, 2002-2011............................................................... 54
Table 10: Emigration from the Netherlands to Afghanistan, 2000-2009..... 54
Table 11: Number of permits issued to foreign nationals working

in Kabul, 24 March 2007-20 January 2008................................... 55
Table 12: Stock of Afghan migrants abroad, various years.......................... 58
Table 13: Arrivals of Afghans in Pakistan, 1979-2005.................................. 61
Table 14: Length of stay of Afghans in Germany, 2011................................ 66
Table 15: Afghan households by migration status during past

five years and current residence, NRVA 2007/08......................... 72
Table 16: Place of origin of in-migrants and place of destination of

out-migrants, NRVA...................................................................... 72
Table 17: Age structure of Afghan refugees in the Islamic

Republic of Iran (in %).................................................................. 75
Table 18: Afghans in the United States by age group, 2011........................ 76
Table 19: Age distribution of 1st, 2nd and 3rd generation Afghans

in Canada, 2006........................................................................... 76
Table 20: Afghans in the Netherlands by age group, 1996-2012................. 78
Table 21: Afghans naturalized in the United States, 1994-2012.................. 80
Table 22: Place of origin of labour in-migrants and place of destination

of labour out-migrants, NRVA 2007/08........................................ 85
Table 23: Labour migrants by age group and sex (in %), NRVA 2007/08..... 85
Table 24: Comparison of legal versus irregular entry and exit at

the Torkham border, September 2008......................................... 91
Table 25: Head count yearly comparison: outgoing and incoming

movements (excluding voluntary refugee returnees),

2007-2011.................................................................................... 94
Table 26: Inflows of Afghan asylum-seekers in selected OECD countries,

2003-2011.................................................................................... 97
Table 27: Estimated stock of Afghan refugees and asylum applicants

registered by UNHCR in Pakistan, 1993-2012.............................. 98
Table 28: Afghan refugees in the Islamic Republic of Iran, 1993-2012........ 99
Table 29: Afghan refugees and asylum applications in

the Russian Federation, 1996-2011........................................... 101
Table 30: Afghan refugee population in Tajikistan, 1994-2008................. 102
Table 31: Afghan asylum-seekers and refugees in Canada, 1995-2012..... 103
Table 32: Arrival of Afghan refugees in the United States, 1999-2012...... 104
Table 33: Afghan asylum applications in Germany, 1995-2012................. 104
Table 34: Number of Asylum applications by Afghans in the

Netherlands, 2007-2012............................................................ 105
Table 35: Early marriage and polygamy in Afghanistan, 2010-2011.......... 112
Table 36: Afghan citizens found to be illegally present in the EU-27,

Norway and Switzerland, 2008-2012......................................... 113
Table 37: Estimated refugee returns, 2002-2012...................................... 118
Table 38: Assisted return by province of asylum in Pakistan, 2002-2008.. 119
Table 39: Afghan returned refugees from the Islamic Republic of Iran

by province and gender, 2002-2009........................................... 120
Table 40: Returned males and females with UNHCR (in %), 2002-2009... 122
Table 41: Assisted return with UNHCR by country of asylum, 2002-2008.122
Table 42: Net migration, 1950-2050.......................................................... 139
Table 43: Urban and rural population, 1950-2050 ................................... 141
Table 44: Urbanization among migrant, return migrant and

non-migrant households, IS Academy....................................... 143
Table 45: Primary use of remittances, IS Academy.................................... 145
Table 46: Primary purpose and actual use of remittances and

the influence of the sending person, IS Academy...................... 146
Table 47: Overview of remittance sending costs....................................... 147
Table 48: Remittance channel used and satisfaction with it, IS Academy.150
Table 49: Remittances: Goods, IS Academy............................................... 151
Table 50: Migration, remittances and investments, IS Academy............... 154
Table 51: Return migrants perspectives on their ability to

contribute to the community, IS Academy................................. 155
Table 52: Opinions of migrant, return migrant and non-migrant

households on the contribution of (return) migrants to

the country, IS Academy............................................................ 156
10
Table 53: Opinions of remittance-receiving and non-receiving

households on the contribution of (return) migrants to

the country, IS Academy............................................................ 157
Table 54: Borrowing and saving of migrant, return migrant and

Table 55: Borrowing and saving of remittance-receiving and

non-receiving households, IS Academy..................................... 159
Table 56: Assets of migrant, return migrant and non-migrant

households, IS Academy............................................................ 163
Table 57: Assets of remittance-receiving and non-receiving

Table 58: Income and income sources of migrant, return migrant

and non-migrant households, IS Academy................................ 166
Table 59: Income and income sources of remittance-receiving and

Table 60: Access to facilities of Afghans in the

Islamic Republic of Iran (in %).................................................... 167
Table 61: Assets owned by Afghans in the Islamic Republic of Iran (in %).168
Table 62: Reason for migration of current migrants, IS Academy............. 169
Table 63: Factors influencing the country choice of

return migrants, IS Academy...................................................... 169
Table 64: Physician emigration from Afghanistan, 1991-2004.................. 172
Table 65: Number of physician outflows by country of destination,

1991-2004.................................................................................. 173
Table 66: Literacy and employment of migrant, return and

Table 67: Age and years of education of migrants, IS Academy................ 174
Table 68: Migrants level of education and relationship to

household head, IS Academy..................................................... 174
Table 69: Return migrants migration experiences, IS Academy............... 175
Table 70: Migration with and without documents, IS Academy................ 175
Table 71: Return migrants perspectives on skills improvement,

IS Academy................................................................................. 175
Table 72: Return migrants return experiences, IS Academy..................... 176
Table 73: Subjective wealth of migrant, return migrant and

Table 74: Subjective wealth of remittance-receiving and

Table 75: Return migrants perspective on living conditions,

IS Academy................................................................................. 178
11
Table 76: Usage of and access to facilities of migrant, return migrant

and non-migrant households, IS Academy................................ 179
Table 77: Usage of and access to facilities of remittance-receiving

and non-receiving households, IS Academy.............................. 181
Table 78: Child outcomes of migrant, return migrant and

Table 79: Child outcomes of remittance-receiving and

Table 80: Return migrants perspectives on their return, IS Academy...... 185
Table 81: Opinions on return migrants of migrant, return migrant and

Table 82: Opinions on return migrants of remittance-receiving and

Table 83: Opinions on the receipt of remittances of migrant,

return migrant and non-migrant households, IS Academy........ 188
Table 84: Opinions on the receipt of remittances of remittance
receiving and non-receiving households , IS Academy.............. 188
Table 85: Perception of return migrants on the impact of migration

on mental health, IS Academy................................................... 192
Table 86: Shocks of migrant, return migrant and non-migrant

Table 87: Shocks of remittance-receiving and non-receiving

Table 88: Number of natural disaster-induced IDPs per month

by region, 2011.......................................................................... 194
Table 89: Natural disaster-induced displaced families by location

and type of disaster, 2010-2011................................................. 196
Table 90: Expected outcomes of Pillar 7 of the Afghanistan

National Development Strategy................................................. 200
Table 91: Action plan matrix for the refugee, returnee and

internally displaced persons sector............................................ 201
Table 92: Types of visas for Afghanistan.................................................... 207
Table 93: Tripartite and bilateral agreements on migration between

Afghanistan and other states..................................................... 215
Table 94: Human Trafficking - Action Plan Matrix...................................... 235
12
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1: Net migration rate per 1,000 populations, 1950-2035................ 31
Figure 2: Poverty headcount rate by residence, NRVA 2007/08................. 39
Figure 3: Poverty headcount rate by season, NRVA 2007/08..................... 41
Figure 4: Gini Index by residence and region and for selected

countries, NRVA 2007/08............................................................. 42
Figure 5: Afghan nationals in Germany, 1967-2011.................................... 65
Figure 6: Immigration and emigration of Afghan nationals

to/from Germany, 1991-2011...................................................... 66
Figure 7: Afghan population in the Netherlands, 1996-2013..................... 67
Figure 8: Location of Afghans living in the United Kingdom, 2007............. 69
Figure 9: Gender of out-migrants by type of move, NRVA 2007/08........... 73
Figure 10: Afghan population in Germany by age group, 2012.................... 77
Figure 11: Afghan born nationals in the United Kingdom by

age group, 2011........................................................................... 78
Figure 12: Number of naturalizations by Afghans in Germany, 1981-2011.. 81
Figure 13: Acquisition of citizenship by Afghans in the

Netherlands, 1996-2011.............................................................. 82
Figure 14: Acquisition of citizenship by Afghans in the

United Kingdom, 1990-2012........................................................ 83
Figure 15: Employment rate of Afghans in the Netherlands (%),

1999-2005.................................................................................... 87
Figure 16: The scope of cross-border movement at Torkham, 2007-2008... 92
Figure 17: Torkham cross-border flows, Fall 2008........................................ 93
Figure 18: Spin Boldak cross-border flows, Fall 2008.................................... 93
Figure 19: Afghan asylum claims lodged in industrialised countries,

2000-2012.................................................................................... 96
Figure 20: Afghan asylum-seekers in the Islamic Republic of Iran,

2004-2012.................................................................................. 100
Figure 21: Annual number of asylum applications to the

United Kingdom from Afghanistan, 1985-2012......................... 106
Figure 22: Asylum applicants considered to be unaccompanied minors

from Afghanistan in main destination countries, 2008-2012..... 116
Figure 23: Assisted returnees from Pakistan by region of destination in

Afghanistan, 2011...................................................................... 120
Figure 24: Assisted returnees from the Islamic Republic of Iran by

region of destination in Afghanistan, 2011................................ 121
Figure 25: Conflict-induced displacement of Afghans, 1979-2009............. 130
Figure 26: Main cause of displacement...................................................... 131
Figure 27: Top 10 provinces of residence of IDPs, May 2012...................... 132
13
Figure 28: Top 10 provinces of origin of internally displaced

persons, May 2012..................................................................... 132
Figure 29: IDP population by region, 2010-2012........................................ 133
Figure 30: Population affected by natural disaster by type

of incident, 2011........................................................................ 194
Figure 31: Natural disaster-induced IDPs by type of incident, 2010-2011.. 195
Figure 32: Top 10 provinces of origin of IDP families, 2010-2011............... 197
Figure 33: Top 10 provinces of displacement of IDP families, 2010-2011.. 197
Figure 34: Total number of natural disaster-induced IDPs at

regional level, 2012.................................................................... 198
Figure 35: Structure of the Afghanistan National Development Strategy... 200
14
ACRONYMS
ACBAR
Agency Coordinating Body for Afghan Relief
AIHRC
Afghanistan Independent Human Rights Commission
AMICS
Afghanistan Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey
ANCB
Afghan NGOs Coordination Bureau
ANDMA
Afghanistan National Disaster Management Authority
ANDS
Afghanistan National Development Strategy
APRP
Afghanistan Peace and Reintegration Programme
AREU
Afghanistan Research and Evaluation Unit
AVRR
Assisted Voluntary Return and Reintegration
CIA
Central Intelligence Agency
CPI
Consumer Price Index
CSO
Central Statistics Organization
CSOs
Civil Society Organizations
DAB
Da Afghanistan Bank
DRC
Danish Refugee Council
EU
European Union
GCC
Gulf Cooperation Council
GDP
Gross Domestic Product
GIRoA
Government of the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan
HAP
Humanitarian Assistance Programme
HDI
Human Development Index
IDP
Internally Displaced Person
ILO
International Labour Organization
IMCC
Inter-Ministerial Coordination Committee
IMF
International Monetary Fund
IOM
International Organization for Migration
KPK
Khyber Pakhtunkhwa
LAS
Land Allocation Scheme
MoEc
Ministry of Economy
15
16
MoFA
Ministry of Foreign Affairs
MoI
Ministry of Interior
MoLSAMD
Ministry of Labor, Social Affairs, Martyrs and Disabled
MoRR
Ministry of Refugees and Repatriation
MoU
Memorandum of Understanding
MRRD
Ministry of Rural Rehabilitation and Development
NATO
North Atlantic Treaty Organization
ND
Natural Disaster
NGO
Non Governmental Organization
NPP
National Priority Programme
NRC
Norwegian Refugee Council
NRVA
National Risk and Vulnerability Assessment
NSDP
National Skills Development Programme
NWFP
North-West Frontier Province
OECD
Organization for Economic Co-operation
and Development
RQA
Return of Qualified Afghans
UAM
Unaccompanied Minor
UNAMA
United Nations Assistance Mission in Afghanistan
UNDP
United Nations Development Programme
UNHCR
United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees
UNICEF
United Nations Childrens Fund
VoT
Victim of Trafficking
VRRP
Voluntary Return and Reintegration Programme
FOREWORD
I am pleased to present the first Migration Profile for Afghanistan which
provides detailed information on the migration patterns in Afghanistan with a
focus on circular migration and remittances. It provides background information,
historical details, root causes and the potential future of the Afghan migration
dynamics. Due to security challenges and limited institutional capacities in data
collection, a lack of reliable migration data poses challenges to policymakers in
Afghanistan to develop appropriate migration policies and relevant migration
programmes.
Today refugee movements no longer characterize the primary source of
Afghan migration. Migration in search of livelihoods is currently the primary
reason for migration and this occurs through rural-urban migration in Afghanistan
or circular migration patterns as Afghans cross into Pakistan and/or the Islamic
Republic of Iran. Afghans utilize their social networks to find low-skilled work
in the cities or neighbouring countries. Afghans are also starting to migrate
more to Asian countries such as Indonesia, Malaysia and Singapore in search of
employment opportunities.
The Afghanistan Migration Profile Project has been generously funded by
the IOM Development Fund. It is a tool to bring together available information,
to assess the data gaps, to foster capacities for future data collection and enable
more evidence-based policy recommendations. I hope that the Migration
Profile will be used as a practical document addressing all facets of migration in
Afghanistan.
Without active participation and contribution by the Government of
the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan entities such as Ministry of Refugees and
Repatriation (MoRR), Ministry of Foreign Affairs (MoFA), Central Statistic
Organization and UN agencies, this study would have not been possible. I would
also like to thank all colleagues involved in this study especially colleagues from
Maastricht Graduate School of Governance for their tireless work as they made
this study possible.
I hope this Migration Profile will provide partners with a clearer
understanding of Afghan migration dynamics. IOMs intension is to update it
regularly so that it continues to provide a solid basis for developing migration
policies and programmes in and for Afghanistan.

Richard Danziger
Chief of Mission, IOM Afghanistan
17
COUNTRY MAP AND KEY STATISTICS
UZBEKISTAN
68
70
Qurghonteppa
Kerki
Karokh Owbeh
34
lm
He
Shindand
Tirin Kot
Kajaki
OF
Delara
sh
Kha
Sharan
gh
Ar
ZABUL
Qalat nak
ar
T
Lashkar Gah
Zaranj
HILMAND
NIMROZ
Chehar
Borjak
Hilmand
h
ra
Lu
32
n ar
Ku
PAKISTAN
Tank
Kandahar
Zhob
Spin Buldak
66
Town, village
68
50
100
50
150
100
70
200
Airports
International boundary
Dotted line represents approximately the Line of Control

in Jammu and Kashmir agreed upon by India and Pakistan.
The final status of Jammu and Kashmir has not yet been
agreed upon by the parties.
Map No. 3958 Rev. 7 UNITED NATIONS

June 2011
Provincial capital
The boundaries and names shown and the designations

used on this map do not imply official endorsement or
acceptance by the United Nations.
Chaman
Deh Shu
Bannu
National capital
KANDAHAR
64
Ro
Quetta
34
Islamabad
rP
ass
PAKTIKA
Gowd-e
Zereh
62
Mardan
Peshawar
Rawalpindi
Khost (Matun)
Kadesh
Zabol
Zahedan
Source:
GHAZNI
and
Kashmir
Jalalabad
Peywar Pass
Jammu
Asad Abad
Mehtarlam
Gardez
PAKTYA KHOST
Ghazni
INDIA
IRAN
30
Now Zad
Farah
NANGARHAR
Qarah Bagh
URUZGAN
FARAH
ru
Ha
ar
ah
d
an
Khas Uruzgan
Anar Darreh
Kabul
KABUL
LOGAR
Pul-e-Alam
AFGHANISTAN
NURISTAN
runs KUNAR
N o
be
Khy
REPUBLIC
Nili
32
Maydan
Shahr
WARDAK
DAY
KUNDI
GHOR
H
HER
IRA
ATT
36
Gilgit
rirud
Bamyan
Chaghcharan Yar
Bazarak
KAPISA
an
da
b
Ha
Dowlat
Herat
Hirat
Chaharikar
PARWAN
BAMYAN
Qala-I-Panjeh
r
mi
Pa
BAGHLAN n
i
H PANJSHER
Mahmud-eRaqi
rghab
Farkhar
Dowshi
SARI PUL
Mo
Qala-e-Naw
Baghlan
BADGHIS
wd
-e
ISLAMIC
Qeysar
Khanabad TAKHAR
Kholm
Aybak
SAMANGAN
Tokzar
Jorm
Eshkashem
Indus
shg
y
Gu
FARYAB
Gushgy
KUNDUZ Taluqan
Taloqan
Kunduz
MA
rgab
Tedzhen
Maymana
Towraghondi
Taybad
BALKH
Shulgarah
Sari Pul
Fayz
Fayzabad
Abad
Rostaq
Shiberghan Mazar-e-Sharif
Murgho 74
b
T A JI K I ST A N
BADAKHSHAN Khorugh
Dusti
Jeyretan
JAWZJAN
Dowlatabad
iz
rm
LAGH
Te
Mu
Kiroya
Keleft
Andkhvoy
TURKMENISTAN
72
a-ye
(Kurgan-Tyube)
Mary
36
D ar
y
66
Da
rya
CH INA
mu
64
AFGHANISTAN
Provincial boundary
Main road
250 km
30
Secondary road
Railroad
150 mi
72
74
Department of Field Support

Cartographic Section
United Nations Cartographic Section, 2011.
19
AFGHANISTAN Key statistics

Geography
Total area, sq kma
652,230
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
Human and social development

Life expectancy at birth, annual averagesb
58.60
59.10
59.60
60.10
60.50
Gross enrolment ratio (primary and

secondary combined), per centc
73.43
73.64
78.04
77.33
81.68
376.98
450.66
561.20
614.0
687.6
0.430
0.453
0.458
0.466
625.52
89.71
228.38
679.81
230.62
181.46
332.39
354.58
394.90
91.76
104.01
325.22
87.28
213.67
75.65
91.23
94.01-
4,875.07
6,235.26
6,426.38
6,884.70
6,725.03
3.70
-0.70
-0.60
1.60
GDP per capita, USDd

Human Development Index, HDIb
Remittances and other financial flows
Remittance inflows, millions USDe
Remittance outflows, millions USD
Remittance net flows, millions USDe

Foreign direct investment (net inflows),
millions USDd
Official development assistance (net inflows),
millions USDd
Remittances inflows, percentage of GDPe
2000
2005
2010
2050
Population
Total, thousandsf
20,595
24,861
28,398
56,551
Female, thousandsf
10,116
12,187
13,983
27,895
Male, thousands
10,479
12,674
14,415
28,656
20.60
21.90
23.20
1.20
-5.60
-2.60
-0.1
75.92
86.45
90.88
Urban, percentage of total populationg

International migration
Net migration rate, per 1,000 populationf
International migrant stock, thousands
CIA, 2013.
UNDP, 2013b.
c
UIS, 2013.
d
World Bank, 2013.
e
Nabizada, personal communication, 2012 (Note that the data are reported on the basis of the
following fiscal years: 2007/08, 2008/09, 2010/11, 2011/12).
f
UN DESA, 2013.
g
UN DESA, 2012.
a
20
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
The present Afghanistan Migration Profile is a tool to be used to enhance
policy coherence, evidence-based policymaking and the mainstreaming of
migration into development planning. It was prepared in consultation with a
broad range of government and non-government stakeholders.
The Migration Profile contains a lot of information, which is structured
in five main parts: Part A: Afghanistan - A Country in Context, Part B: Migration
Trends and Migrant Characteristics, Part C: Impacts of Migration, Part D: Migration
Governance and Part E: Key Findings, Policy Implications and Recommendations.
The Migration Profile provides:
Background information on the context of Afghanistan in terms of
social, economic and environmental trends (Part A).
A comprehensive overview of currently available data on migration
trends and migrant characteristics (Part B).
An assessment of the impacts of migration by looking specifically
at the linkages between migration and human, social and economic
development in the Afghan context. Attention is given to the
relationship between migration and the labour market, environment
and health (Part C).
A review of the policy, legal and institutional framework within which
migration takes place as well as the institutions and organizations that
play a key role in migration governance in Afghanistan (Part D).
Conclusions and recommendations based on the findings of the
Migration Profile (Part E).
The report is further supplemented by two annexes, which will be
made available online. The first one addresses return and circular migration in
Afghanistan. The second provides a detailed overview of the Afghan remittances
market, impacts and policies.
The presented information and analysis is based on all nationally and
internationally available statistical and administrative data, the IS Academy
Survey data and evidence from secondary sources as well as legal, regulatory
and policy documents.
Mobility has been an essential aspect of Afghan history, including migration
for both seasonal and permanent employment and, at times, to seek refuge.
21
These transient populations have been shown to contribute economically and

socially to both host and origin countries. Records show that Afghans have been
migrating primarily to neighbouring countries Pakistan and the Islamic Republic
of Iran for centuries, though more recently have also been travelling further
afield, including to North America, the European Union and Australia.
The first large wave of modern outmigration from Afghanistan, caused by
the Soviet invasion in 1979, saw refugees welcomed in the Islamic Republic of
Iran and Pakistan and Afghans continued to flee from conflict across the borders
in the following years. The number of refugees spiked in 1990 with more than 6
million.
The net migration rate of Afghanistan has fluctuated significantly in recent
decades. During the Soviet occupation from 1979 until 1989, a large number of
Afghans left the country, with a negative net migration rate of -56.7/1000 persons
between 1980 and 1985. Between 1990 and 1995 this reversed to a positive net
migration rate of 44.4/1000 persons. And as the strength of Taliban rule grew,
during 1995 and 2000, this rate again sank below parity to -6.5/1000 persons.
The fall of the Taliban at the end of 2001 and the implementation of UNHCRs
voluntary repatriation scheme in 2002 led to high numbers of Afghan refugees
returning to their home country. Between 2002 and 2012, 5.7 million Afghans
returned home and 4.6 million of them received assistance from UNHCR.
Forced migration of Afghans occurs largely due to natural disasters
and conflict, but also occurs through the trafficking of persons, either within
Afghanistan or to the Islamic Republic of Iran and Pakistan. A long history of
poppy production in Afghanistan, and associated experience in smuggling
narcotics across the border, has contributed to the existence of cross-border
networks also used for human trafficking operations. Moreover, human rights
violations like domestic violence, forced marriages, child marriages and child
abuse commonly occur in Afghanistan. This creates an environment where
human trafficking is tolerated and may even be fostered.
Similarly, Afghanistan faces significant issues of poverty. In 2007/08, 36
per cent of the population lived under the poverty line of AFN 1,255 (about
USD25) per person per month (World Bank, 2010a) and, in 2009, the average per
capita monthly expenditure of Afghanistans 9 million inhabitants was less than
USD 66 cents a day. More than 50 per cent of the Kuchi population are affected
by poverty making this group the most poverty stricken group in the country. The
Afghan Central Bank reported that inflation had accelerated to a peak of 43.2
per cent in May 2008. The unemployment rate in Afghanistan was 7.1 per cent
22
in 2007/08; however this relatively low rate disguises high underemployment.

In 2010, Afghanistans Human Development Index was 0.349, which gives the
country a rank of 155 out of 169 countries with comparable data, and sets it
below the regional average.
Afghanistan does not report data on remittances to the International
Monetary Fund, though the World Bank estimates that 15 per cent of rural
households in Afghanistan receive remittances from abroad, covering around
20 per cent of the familys daily expenditure. A 2007 report released by the
International Fund for Agricultural Development estimated remittances to
Afghanistan in 2006 at USD 2.5 billion, accounting for 29.6 per cent of the total
GDP in Afghanistan at that time. Over 31 per cent of all Afghan households are
estimated to receive remittances from the Islamic Republic of Iran or Pakistan
alone, mainly from family members or friends. Across all expenditure quintiles,
remittances amounted to around USD 34 per capita.
The annual value of remittances sent from the United States and Canada
is also significant - possibly as high as USD 75 million. In 2008, EUR 79,664 in
remittances was sent to Afghanistan from the Netherlands, and in 2004 EUR 22
million from Germany. These figures are all estimates, however, due to a lack
of concrete data largely due to the extensive use of the more trusted, though
less regulated, hawala system, and the common practice of physically taking
cash across borders. In 2006, the first electronic money institution was launched
in Afghanistan: the M-Paisa service, supported by Roshan Telecommunications,
offering new possibilities for remittance sending to and from the country.
Pillar 7 of the Afghanistan National Development Strategy, formally
approved by President Hamid Karzai on 21 April 2008, focuses on Refugees,
Returnees and Internally Displaced Persons (IDPs). The aim of this pillar is
to facilitate the planned and voluntary return of refugees and IDPs and the
reintegration of returnees and IDPs into society. In accordance with this, a
voluntary refugee repatriation programme is governed by an agreement
between the Governments of Afghanistan, Pakistan, the Islamic Republic of Iran
and UNHCR, ensuring the integrity and voluntariness of the migrant repatriation
process. These agreements also exist between Afghanistan and other countries,
including the Netherlands, the United Kingdom, France and Australia. In April
2012, MoRR, UNHCR and UNDP started developing a Voluntary Return and
Reintegration Programme (VRRP) which was to be nationally managed and
implemented with the aim of increasing access to effective and timely basic
services and livelihood opportunities for returnees, IDPs and their receiving
communities, and to foster sustainable socioeconomic integration, peaceful co-
23
existence and local economic development. Initially targeting 48 prioritized high

return areas, the aim is to demonstrate that a holistic integrated communitybased approach could be duplicated in other areas of need. The programme
deliverables, which were developed in the framework of the Solutions
Strategy for Afghan Refugees, will be integrated within the National Priority
Programmes. The Afghanistan Peace and Reintegration Programme (APRP) is an
Afghan government-led internationally supported effort to reintegrate former
combatants. The complementarities and synergies between the VRRP and APRP
indicate a way of making effective use of resources and capacities of the latter.
Not all Afghans returning to Afghanistan do so voluntarily, however,
as forced returns or deportations from the Islamic Republic of Iran, Europe
or Australia occur on an ongoing basis. Some European countries are now
also trying to address the issue of return of unaccompanied minors including
potential forced return activities. The largest numbers of forced returns are
recorded from the Islamic Republic of Iran to Afghanistan. In total in 2011,
211,023 deportations were recorded from the neighbouring country, which
averages at 578 deportations per day.
24
RECOMMENDATIONS
Labour Migration:
A labour migration policy for Afghanistan1 should be developed in
order to a) protect and promote the rights of Afghan migrant workers
overseas, b) enhance the development benefits of migration and
c) effectively administer labour migration and promote overseas
employment opportunities and d) establish secure and fair labour
recruitment processes and bilateral cooperation.
To further enhance labour mobility and protection of migrant
workers, the GIRoA should aim to establish bilateral agreements
with neighbouring countries and GCC countries, develop sublegislation for the Regulation for Sending Afghan Workers Abroad
and develop legislation on recruitment practices of migrant workers
in Afghanistan. This should also contain the provision of information
or training sessions to potential migrants.
Return Migration:
In order to structurally facilitate return migration and improve
planning and management of sustainable reintegration of return
migrants in Afghanistan, the GIRoA should develop a return
migration policy and related strategies.
Strengthening of municipalities capacity to respond to population
influxes through enhanced urban planning and infrastructural
development.
Enhance research that aims to understand the effects of temporary
return of highly skilled Afghans on development in Afghanistan.
Consequently, such successful programmes should be continued to
increase the transfer of skills and innovations in relevant sectors.
Diaspora:
More research is required to understand the socioeconomic situation
of the Afghan diaspora in countries that host the largest Afghan
communities (including EU countries, the Russian Federation, India).
Efforts should be made by the GIRoA to create and maintain links
between migrants and their country of origin in order to encourage
them to contribute human and financial capital to the development
of their home communities.
1 A draft of a new Labour Migration Policy does exist, but it has not been endorsed by the cabinet yet.
MoLSAMD is Ministry responsible for this policy.
25
In order to engage the diaspora in a more efficient way the GIRoA

should focus on a specific policy to strengthen the ties with the
diaspora. In addition, the GIRoA should improve the passport
and visa system to ensure that Afghan nationals have access to
identification.
Remittances:
In order to obtain a better understanding of remittance flows and
of the senders and receivers that generate them better information
on these flows has to be gathered both at the micro and the macro
level.
To better support money service providers and formal financial
institutions so that they can extend the reach of their services into
largely unbanked areas, a greater understanding of the actors
that facilitate transfers should be gained.
The GIRoA should develop a remittance policy, specifically targeting
large corridors.
The future of money transfer in Afghanistan may lie in the
telecommunication system due to its significant existing level of
use, and, therefore, proper regulation and facilitation to strengthen
this way of money transfer is needed.
The GIRoA should also leverage remittance flows for development by
making cheaper, safer and more productive methods of remittance
transfers available for both senders and recipients.
Migration and remittances should not be viewed as a substitute for
official development aid, since they represent private financial flows
that do not reach all households within the country and therefore
other financial sources are still needed in Afghanistan.
Border Management:
Implementation of a well-enforced electronic border counting
and identification system, which will allow better monitoring and
management of cross-border movements along Afghanistans
borders.
A database should be constructed based on that information and
used for evidence-based policymaking.
Human Trafficking:
Additional training should be provided for those working with these
groups so that there is clarity on the different types of movements
and their consequences for the individuals involved.
26
In order to prevent human trafficking, corresponding laws and

regulations must be enforced and it should be ensured that victims
of trafficking are not punished for unlawful acts committed as a
direct result of being trafficked.
Conduct of field research with a particular focus on gender-based
violence and criminal networks involving illicit activities such as
human trafficking and smuggling.
Internally Displaced Persons:
Legal instruments are required and need to be enforced to prevent
and respond to internal displacement and ensure that the human
rights of IDPs are fully respected.
Data:
There should be efforts leading to capacity-building of government
officials in terms of skills in statistics and information communication
technology which will help them increase the efficiency of the
responsible data and information units.
Increase collaboration within the area of data collection between
various UN agencies, NGOs and research institutions to further
harmonize migration data collection and databases.
In order to further enhance evidence-based policymaking, the
Afghan government could consider expanding the migration and
remittances section within the NRVA survey.
The GIRoA should facilitate the establishment of a migration
database, which includes insights into the reasons why people
move or do not move in specific areas and thereby provide the basis
for more effective migration policies. The database should bring
together key stakeholders that would use and fund such data.
Enhance and improve systematic data collection through the
establishment of a bi-annual (every two years) holistic migration
survey in Afghanistan.
A working group should be established where ministries,
international organizations and others involved in migration related
issues can collaborate on a regular basis to share information and
make better use of data in the formulation of policies.
27
PART A: AFGHANISTAN A COUNTRY IN CONTEXT

A.1. MIGRATION HISTORY
MIGRATION BEFORE 1979
Mobility has been an essential part of Afghan history. Records show that
Afghans have been migrating to the Islamic Republic of Iran and Pakistan for
centuries. In the 1850s, thousands of Hazara households migrated to the Islamic
Republic of Iran to flee natural disasters and other crises. Between 1880 and
1903, another 15,000 Afghan families are known to have settled in the area of
Torbat-e Jam, in the east of Mashhad, Islamic Republic of Iran (Abbasi-Shavazi
et al., 2005).
Afghanistan has been a low-income country throughout the past century.
Especially in the 1960s and 1970s, industrialization remained negligible and the
Afghan population faced insufficient employment opportunities. As a result,
the oil boom in 1973 attracted many Afghan labour migrants to Pakistan, the
Islamic Republic of Iran and other Middle Eastern countries (Kronenfeld, 2008).
When increasing numbers of Pashtun workers from Pakistan migrated to the
oil-rich Gulf States, this provided opportunities for Afghans to take up the jobs
becoming available in Pakistan (International Crisis Group, 2009). In addition,
relatively high wages in the Islamic Republic of Iran and rising government taxes in
Afghanistan at that time were decisive factors for Afghans seeking work abroad.
As a consequence of this several hundred thousand Afghan migrant labourers
were present in the Islamic Republic of Iran before the Soviet occupation of
Afghanistan (Stigter, 2006). During the oil boom, Afghans migrated to the Islamic
Republic of Iran and Pakistan legally and were welcomed by both governments
who benefited from the cheap labour force. In the Islamic Republic of Iran,
Afghans worked in construction, in brick factories and on farms and received
much lower wages than Iranians (Ashrafi and Moghissi, 2002).
29
FIRST MIGRATION WAVE: SOVIET INVASION (1979)

The first large wave of outmigration from Afghanistan was caused by the
Soviet invasion in 1979. In the 10 years that followed, the resistant mujahedeen
fought against the Soviet forces causing large-scale emigration flows throughout
the decade (Stigter, 2006). Pakistan and the Islamic Republic of Iran were the
main destination countries of these Afghan refugees due to their geographic
proximity as well as similarities in language, culture and religion (Ashrafi and
Moghissi, 2002). The majority of refugees originated from rural areas and tried
to escape bombing and combat (Monsutti, 2006). Between 1979 and 1989,
about 2.6 million Afghans crossed the border to the Islamic Republic of Iran.
At that time, the Iranian government welcomed their Afghan neighbours and
handed out blue cards which provided Afghan refugees in the Islamic Republic
of Iran access to education, healthcare and food. It also granted them permission
to engage in low-wage labour. Afghans in the Islamic Republic of Iran at that
time were called mohajerin, which means involuntary religious migrant. It was
seen as the duty of Iranian citizens to provide help to their religious brothers
and sisters. Of the 2.6 million Afghans that came to the Islamic Republic of Iran
during the Soviet occupation, only 5 to 10 per cent lived in refugee camps, while
most settled in rural and urban areas in the eastern part of the country (AbbasiShavazi et al., 2005).
The Soviet occupation in 1979 also triggered a mass movement of Afghans
across the border to Pakistan. Over 1.5 million Afghans are known to have crossed
this border between 1979 and 1980 (Government of Pakistan and UNHCR,
2005). The large numbers can mainly be explained by the strong cross-border
ties among Pashtun tribes in the south and east of Afghanistan that fled to their
tribal kin across the border in Pakistan. Most Afghans in these areas were Sunni,
as was a large share of the Pakistani population across the border. Shia Hazaras
also crossed the border to Pakistani cities with large Shia populations via routes
that had been used by labour migrants for decades (International Crisis Group,
2009). Between 1981 and 1985, the war in Afghanistan intensified and caused
many to flee the country to Pakistan. Figure 1 shows that during the Soviet
occupation between 1980 and 1985 the net migration rate of Afghanistans
population was -56.7/1000 persons.
In contrast to the Islamic Republic of Iran, most Afghans in Pakistan
lived in refugee camps along the Pakistan-Afghanistan border. During this time
radical Islamist parties used these camps as their bases for action against the
Soviet troops. These camps were also the reason the Government of Pakistan
received relatively high humanitarian aid by the international community. The
30
United States of America, especially, wanted the Soviet position weakened and
to establish an Islamic government in Kabul that could be controlled (Turton
and Marsden, 2002). In 1989 the Soviets withdrew from Afghanistan, which was
followed by intensified mujahedeen activity and another wave of migration from
Afghanistan to Pakistan (Government of Pakistan and UNHCR, 2005). As a result,
in 1990 more than 6 million Afghans were displaced as they fled bombing and
combat, especially in rural areas. Afghans were the biggest group of displaced
persons worldwide at that time, representing almost half of the total population
of concern to the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR)
(Monsutti, 2006).
Figure 1: Net migration rate per 1,000 populations, 1950-2035
45
44.4
35
25
Net Migration Rate
15
5
1.2
-0.3
-0.5
-5.6
-0.1
-5
-6.5
-15
-18.2
-25
-29.3
-35
-45
-55
-56.7
-65
Source:
UN DESA, 2013.
SECOND MIGRATION WAVE: TALIBAN REGIME

The victory of the mujahedeen in 1992 caused the second migration
wave out of Afghanistan. At this time, especially the urban and educated middle
class fled Afghanistan towards the Islamic Republic of Iran and Pakistan (Stigter,
2006). In contrast to the first migration, Afghans were no longer welcomed by
the Governments of Pakistan and the Islamic Republic of Iran. Afghanistan also
failed to receive as much attention from the international community, causing a
significant decrease in financial support for Afghan refugees in Pakistan. In 1990,
the first voluntary repatriation programme in Pakistan was established (Turton
and Marsden, 2002).
31
The Islamic Republic of Iran started its first repatriation programme in

1992 under a tripartite2 agreement between Afghanistan, the Islamic Republic
of Iran and UNHCR. From 1993 onwards, the Government of the Islamic Republic
of Iran provided newly arrived and undocumented Afghans with a temporary
registration card. They were then labelled as panahandegan which carried a
negative connotation and granted them a much lower status than had been
the case for refugees of the first migration wave in 1979 (Abbasi-Shavazi et al.,
2005). Between 1992 and 1995, over 1.3 million Afghans returned from the
Islamic Republic of Iran to Afghanistan voluntarily, with net migration as high as
44.4/1000 persons between 1990 and 1995 (Figure 1).
However, with the rise of the oppressive Taliban regime from 1994
onwards, major movements of Afghans to the Islamic Republic of Iran and
Pakistan began once again and continued until 2000 (Abbasi-Shavazi et al., 2005).
Between 1991 and 2000, over 300,000 Afghan refugees fled to Pakistan. These
events help to explain the negative net migration of -6.5/1000 persons in Figure
1. At the same time, UNHCR changed its policy in Pakistan and discontinued the
provision of food aid to Afghan refugees, driving many refugees into the cities to
look for work (Government of Pakistan and UNHCR, 2005). In 1995, the Islamic
Republic of Iran closed its border with Afghanistan, which was now ruled by the
Taliban. The Islamic Republic of Iran issued laissez-passer3 documents to Afghans,
which only permitted them to travel out of the country. The Iranian government
also stopped providing education and healthcare supplies to Afghan refugees
and 190,000 undocumented Afghans were deported between 1998 and 1999
(Abbasi-Shavazi et al., 2005).
THIRD MIGRATION WAVE: END OF THE TALIBAN REGIME

(2001)
The third and most recent large-scale migration wave was caused by the
war and associated bombing campaigns between the Taliban and United Statesled coalition forces in 2001. The terrorist attacks of 11 September 2001 caused
increased attention from the international community towards Afghanistan
(Turton and Marsden, 2002). The Governments of Pakistan and the Islamic
Republic of Iran increasingly attempted to decrease the number of Afghans
living in their respective countries despite the conditions in their homeland. The
Islamic Republic of Iran increased the cost of living for Afghans and implemented
An agreement is tripartite if three parties are involved. The name tripartite provides no indication of what
the parties involved have agreed on.
3
Laissez-passer comes from the French and means: let pass.
2
32
policies that prohibited Iranian employers from hiring Afghan workers. Pakistan,
on the other hand, closed many refugee camps that housed thousands of
Afghans in border areas. Deportations from the Islamic Republic of Iran and
Pakistan continue to take place, though in the Islamic Republic of Iran to a far
greater extent than in Pakistan (Stigter, 2006).
In 2002 (March/April), UNHCR started its assisted voluntary return
programme for Afghan refugees living in the Islamic Republic of Iran and Pakistan
(Lumpp et al., 2004). By the end of 2002, more than 1.5 million had returned
from Pakistan and more than 250,000 from the Islamic Republic of Iran (UNHCR,
2012f). Of these, the numbers of returnees to urban areas (Kabul, Jalalabad and
Kunduz) was much higher than anticipated (Lumpp et al., 2004). The official
number of returnees, however, has limited explanatory power, as it refers only to
those who received assistance from UNHCR. The provision of UNHCR assistance
to returnees, especially the cash grant to cover transport costs, also resulted in
an unknown number of recyclers signing up for repatriation and then returning
to the country of asylum after having collected the assistance package. This
was particularly prevalent among returnees from Pakistan, many of whom had
relatively short distances to travel back to Afghanistan. Furthermore, the eastern
and central provinces of Nangarhar and Kabul were the destination of 60 per
cent of those documented to have returned by the end of August, though many
returnees to these two provinces may actually have been seasonal migrants who
had no intention of staying in Afghanistan beyond the summer. Consequently,
the real figure of returnees may also be much lower than officially recorded by
UNHCR (Turton and Marsden, 2002).
Between 2002 and 2005, Afghanistan observed an unexpectedly large
wave of repatriation. With the assistance of UNHCR, 2.7 million refugees returned
from Pakistan and more than 800,000 from the Islamic Republic of Iran. During
the same period (2002-2005), the number of spontaneous returns4 (known to
UNHCR) amounted to almost 300,000 from Pakistan and about 570,000 from the
Islamic Republic of Iran. This level of repatriation shows a degree of confidence
in the renascent state, but also reflects expectations created by donor pledges
to rebuild the country and the deterioration of living conditions in the places of
refuge (Monsutti, 2006).
Spontaneous return is defined in the IOM glossary on migration as: The voluntary, independent return of
an individual or group, including refugees, internally displaced persons (IDPs), or asylum-seekers, to their
country of origin, usually without the support of States or other international or national assistance (IOM,
2011a: 92).
33
Changes in the Afghan government after 2001 and worsening economic

conditions in the Islamic Republic of Iran and Pakistan, further contributed to
a change in attitude towards refugees from Afghanistan. The high numbers
of Afghan returnees represented a reduction in the burden of hosting and
supporting a large refugee population for various stakeholders (namely Pakistan,
the Islamic Republic of Iran, UNHCR and the donor community). Given the context
in which these large return movements took place, however, it is questionable
how sustainable this return migration of Afghan refugees shall be. Moreover,
channels of pre-established transnational networks exist between Afghanistan,
Pakistan and the Islamic Republic of Iran and are likely to continue to exist in the
future (Monsutti, 2006). In addition, security issues and the lack of economic
opportunities (employment) and social services (health and education) continue
to impose considerable barriers on Afghan returnees and their sustainable
reintegration. This is demonstrated by the rate of return migration since 2005, as
following years of exceptionally high activity, this rate has slowly but continuously
declined (Figure 1). At the same time, the volume of migration linked to seasonal
labour and trade continues to grow (Islamic Republic of Afghanistan, 2008b).
Today, some 1.6 million registered Afghans remain in Pakistan and about
840,000 in the Islamic Republic of Iran (UNHCR 2013b, 2013c). The profile of
these Afghans is rather different from those refugees who have returned since
the fall of the Taliban regime. The great majority of these individuals remaining
in Pakistan and the Islamic Republic of Iran have been in exile for more than
20 years. Furthermore, almost half of the registered Afghan population in the
Islamic Republic of Iran and Pakistan was born in exile. After two decades in
these countries, the decision to return constitutes a major undertaking. Most
returnees depend on their relatives and other social networks for their social
and economic reintegration. However, many poorer families do not have these
resources and thus depend on the assistance provided by local and international
organizations, particularly with regard to water and shelter in their country of
origin (UNHCR, 2008c).
34
A.2. SOCIAL, ECONOMIC AND

ENVIRONMENTAL TRENDS
POPULATION TRENDS
The United Nations Population Division Statistics Department publishes
data on projected population growth in the coming decades. The Afghan
population is expected to grow significantly until 2050 (Table 1). Whereas the
current population is estimated to be around 30 million, the Afghan population
is likely to grow to more than 55 million in 2050. It is also expected that men will
further outweigh women in the population in the future (UN DESA, 2013; CIA,
2013). Table 1 also shows that the size of the Afghan population only decreased
from 1980 to 1990, when millions of Afghans fled to other countries.
Table 1: Afghan resident population by sex (in thousands), 1950-2050
Sex
1950
1960
1970
1980
1990
2000
Male
3,798
4,460
5,589
6,702
6,021
10,479
Female
3,653
4,315
5,426
6,478
5,710
10,116
11,731
20,595
Total
Sex
7,451
2010
8,774
2020
11,016
2030
13,180
2040
2050
Male
14,415
18,068
22,058
25,780
28,656
Female
13,983
17,599
21,441
25,053
27,895
28,398
35,667
43,500
50,834
56,551
Total
Source:
UN DESA, 2013.
Table 2 shows changes in the population growth rate of Afghanistan

by time period. This allows consideration of how key political events may
have affected population growth. The growth rate was -2.7 during the Soviet
offensives but stabilised at the end of the 1980s and even increased to a peak of
8.1 per cent between 1990 and 1995. Population growth decreased again during
the Taliban era between 1995 and 2000. From 2000 onwards population growth
has remained fairly constant and estimates show that the Afghan population will
further grow in the future, though to a slower extent than currently.
35
Table 2: Population growth rate (in %) and population change (in thousands), 1950-2050
Population
growth rate
Period
Population
change per
year
Population
growth rate
Period
Population
change per
year
1950-1955
1.5
112 2000-2005
3.8
853
1955-1960
1.8
153 2005-2010
2.7
707
1960-1965
2.1
198 2010-2015
2.4
722
1965-1970
2.4
250 2015-2020
2.2
732
1970-1975
2.6
307 2020-2025
2.1
781
1975-1980
1.0
126 2025-2030
1.9
786
1980-1985
- 2.7
- 330 2030-2035
1.7
764
1985-1990
0.4
40 2035-2040
1.4
703
1990-1995
8.1
1,171 2040-2045
1.2
615
1995-2000
3.2
602 2045-2050
1.0
528
Source:
UN DESA, 2013.
The Afghan population is very young, with over 45 per cent of the
population currently falling in the age range of 0-14 years (Table 3). This puts
pressures on the labour market and unemployment rate. The population aged
15 to 59 is increasing in number and constituted close to half of the Afghan
population in 2010. The oldest age group, including people aged 60 and above,
will increase in coming years; this is, however, not related to migration patterns
but rather to improved living conditions and developments in the healthcare,
education and economic sector. Estimations show that the elderly population
will remain small making up 8.5 per cent of the total population in 2050.
Table 3: Afghan population by age group (in %), 1950-2050
Age group
1950
1960
1970
1980
1990
2000
0 - 14
42.4
43.8
45.3
46.8
48.7
49.5
15 - 59
52.8
52.1
50.4
47.5
48.3
47.2
4.4
4.1
3.9
5.7
3.1
3.4
60 +
Age group
2010
2020
2030
2040
2050
0 - 14
48.6
40.3
33.3
28.9
24.1
15 - 59
47.7
55.4
61.6
64.6
67.4
3.7
4.3
5.1
6.5
8.5
60 +
Source:
UN DESA, 2013.
Table 4 presents data from the National Risk and Vulnerability Assessment
(NRVA) 2007/08, which show that the number of individuals aged 65 and above
in Afghanistan is relatively low irrespective of gender. This group represented
approximately 3 per cent of the Afghan population in 2007/08. The largest
36
proportion of elderly people compared to the general population can be found

in urban areas, where elderly men represent 4 per cent of the population. In all
other categories (rural, Kuchi and national) males aged 65 and over make up
3 per cent of the total population. The data in Table 4 also show that women
aged 65 and above represent 2 per cent of the total population in all categories.
Besides the fact that men outnumber women in the overall population, the
higher number of elderly men in urban areas might be explained by a higher
migration rate among males to urban areas (Icon-Institute, 2009).
Table 4: Elderly population (age 65+) by residence and sex, NRVA 2007/08
Urban
Male
Thousands
% of total
pop.
Source:
Rural
Female
Male
Kuchi
Female
Male
National
Female
Male
Total
Female
102
57
313
175
26
17
441
248
689
Icon-Institute, 2009.
LIVING CONDITIONS AND POVERTY

Human Development Index
In 2013, Afghanistans HDI5 was 0.468, which gives the country a rank
of 169 out of 187 countries. The HDI of South Asia as a region was 0.588 in
2012, thus placing Afghanistan below the regional average. The HDI trends
tell an important story both at national and regional levels and highlight the
gaps in well-being and life opportunities of Afghan citizens. However, although
Afghanistans development remains very low in comparison to other countries,
its HDI trend has steadily increased since 2000 when it was 0.341 (UNDP, 2013a).
Literacy rate and school enrolment ratio

Data from UNICEFs Afghanistan Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey (AMICS)
in 2010/11 showed that the adult literacy rate for Afghan individuals aged 15
and above was 29.0 per cent (CSO and UNICEF, 2012). In the NRVA 2007/08,
the literacy rate of the population aged 15 years and over was, for both sexes
combined, 26.2 per cent whereas the literacy rate for males was much higher
The Human Development Index (HDI) is a statistical instrument used to measure the social and economic
development of a country. The HDI consists of three basic dimensions of human development, namely:
health, education and living standards. The HDI sets a maximum and a minimum for each dimension (value
between 0 and 1) and then shows where each country stands in relation to these values.
37
than for females: 39.3 per cent and 12 per cent respectively. With regard to
specific age categories, the literacy for those aged 15 to 24 was 52.9 per cent
for males and 23.9 per cent for females (Icon-Institute, 2009). The literacy rate
of 22.2 per cent for women aged 15 to 24 years found in the AMICS of 2010 and
2011 was similar to the data from the NRVA. Furthermore, the latest AMICS data
demonstrate that the literacy rate of women in rural areas is significantly lower
than of those in urban areas (15.1% versus 51.6%) and that the literacy rate of
women from the poorest households is 10 times lower than that for women in
the richest quintile (5.1% versus 50.3%) (CSO and UNICEF, 2012).
The NRVA indicates that the literacy rate of the Afghan population aged
15 years and older was 26.2 per cent in 2007/08, indicating that 73.8 per cent of
the Afghan population do not have basic reading and writing skills. This figure,
however, does not demonstrate the differences between males and females or
urban and rural populations. In comparison with other countries, together with
Niger and Mali, Afghanistan ranks at the bottom of the scale in terms of literacy
of the population (Icon-Institute, 2009).
Data collected by the NRVA 2007/08 revealed that the net enrolment ratio
in primary education was 60 per cent for boys and a little over 40 per cent for
girls (Icon-Institute, 2009). AMICS data from 2010/11 showed higher enrolment
ratios of 62.9 and 46.4 per cent for boys and girls respectively and an average
primary school attendance of 55.2 per cent. The school enrolment ratio varies
considerably between those from the poorest (40%) and the richest households
(79%) (CSO and UNICEF, 2012).
The primary school completion rate is almost 31 per cent, with that of
boys being twice as high as that of girls (40% versus 20.8%). Large differences
were observed in the completion rates by residence, region, wealth and mothers
education (CSO and UNICEF, 2012). The net secondary enrolment rate for boys
was 21.5 per cent and for girls 10.3 per cent. For both sexes combined it was
16.2 per cent in 2007/08 (Icon-Institute, 2009). This enrolment rate seems to
have increased considerably in recent years as the 2010/11 data from the AMICS
report an overall secondary school net attendance ratio of 32.4 per cent. The
attendance rate of boys has remained twice as large as that of girls (42.8% versus
21.1%) (CSO and UNICEF, 2012).
The educational level of the household members that work in brick kilns is
low. Of the household heads interviewed, 83 per cent had never been to school
and were illiterate. Moreover, due to strong dependence on child labour, the
large majority of children (85%) also did not attend school (ILO, 2011).
38
Proportion of population below the national poverty line

The national average poverty line of Afghanistan is AFN 1,255
(USD 27.09) per person per month, representing the typical cost of attaining
2,100 calories per person per day and meeting some basic non-food needs. The
NRVA 2007/08 observed a high level of poverty in all provinces of Afghanistan.
However, differences in poverty incidence with regard to residence and regions
exist. As can be seen in Figure 2, poverty in the rural population is close to
the national average (36%), whereas the incidence in the urban population is
relatively low (29%). The highest poverty incidence was observed among the
Kuchi population with over 50 per cent. Regionally, the lowest rate was observed
in the Southwest (23%) and the highest in the East and West-Central (45%) (IconInstitute, 2009).
Figure 2: Poverty headcount rate by residence, NRVA 2007/08
60
54
50
44
40
45
45
40
36
30
36
35
37
30
29
23
20
10
Source: Icon-Institute, 2009.
With respect to the depth of poverty, the data reveal that there is on
average an 8 per cent gap between the poverty line and consumption levels
(treating the non-poor as having a gap of zero). This figure is much higher than
the poverty depths of neighbouring countries such as Pakistan (4.4%), the Islamic
Republic of Iran (0.5%) or Tajikistan (5.1%). Alternatively, when focusing on the
population of poor people, the ratio of the poverty gap to the headcount index
reveals that the average consumption level for poor people is 22 per cent below
39
the poverty line. The sum of all differences between the cost-of-basic-needs
poverty line and the consumption level of poor people provides a measure of
the total consumption shortfall. In terms of 2007 prices (quarter 1) this gap is
about AFN 28.4 billion. (ca. USD 570 million) (Icon-Institute, 2009).
Poverty gap ratio

The NRVA 2007/08 reveals that the poverty gap ratio (or poverty gap
index) across Afghan residential groups reveals the same pattern as that of
the headcount rate for Afghan urban and rural areas: the rural figure is almost
identical to the national rate (7.9%) with the urban rate being lower (6.2%). Yet,
in the same proportion to the headcount rate, the urban poor are on average
just as poor as the rural poor. In contrast, the poverty gap ratio for the Kuchi
population is relatively high at 14.0 per cent, which indicates that the Kuchi not
only suffer from a higher prevalence of poverty, but that the Kuchi poor are on
average also poorer compared to other groups (Table 5) (Icon-Institute, 2009).
Table 5: Poverty measures, NRVA 2007/08
Poverty measure
Urban
Rural
Kuchi
National
Poverty head count rate
29.1
36.4
54.3
36.0
Poverty gap ratio (index)
6.2
7.9
14.0
7.9
Squared poverty gap index
2.0
2.6
5.2
2.6
The analysis of poverty over the course of the year reflects variations
associated with seasonality as well as the food price crisis in the first half of 2008
(Icon-Institute, 2009). Figure 3 illustrates how the poverty rate in Afghanistan
climbed steadily through a 12 month cycle, beginning in fall (during harvest time)
when poverty is lowest and then gradually increasing through winter and spring
to summer, when poverty is highest (World Bank, 2010a). It should, however, be
noted that food prices increased dramatically during the first half of 2008. The
wheat flour price in Afghanistan, for example, rose by a national average of 58
per cent between January 2007 and January 2008. The observed trends are thus
a combination of the two factors and more research would assist in isolating the
effects of seasonality and food price crisis respectively (Icon-Institute, 2009).
40
Figure 3: Poverty headcount rate by season, NRVA 2007/08

50
46
44
45
40
35
30
25
36
32
23
20
15
10
5
0
Fall 2007
Winter 2007/08
Season
Spring 2008
Summer 2008
Annual Average
Inequality and Vulnerability to Poverty

Overall inequality in Afghanistan, represented by the national Gini
coefficient6 of 29, is low and also lower than in neighbouring countries in South
and West Asia (Figure 4). There are, however, differences across regions in the
sense that in the Southern and Western regions inequality is below average. It
can be noted that the the poverty incidence is high in regions, where inequality
is lowest. This is the case in the Southwest and West-Central regions (IconInstitute, 2009).
The Gini coefficient measures the extent to which the distribution of consumption among individuals or
households within a country deviates from a perfectly equal distribution. A value of 0 represents absolute
equality with everybody consuming the same amount; whereas a value of 100 represents absolute
inequality, where all consumption is concentrated in one person.
41
Figure 4: Gini Index by residence and region and for selected countries, NRVA 2007/08
40
37
35
30
29
28
25
38
34
20
25
25
20
26
27
28
29
31
23
15
10
5
0
The distribution of per capita real consumption expenditure shows that

the richest quintile has a share in total consumption expenditure of 39 per cent,
more than four times higher than that of the poorest quintile (Table 6). The
share of the poorest quintile in national consumption is 9 per cent. However,
the shares of the two quintiles below the richest do not much deviate from the
20 per cent that would be implied by equality. This indicates that the inequality
importantly originated in a relative wealthy top quintile and that the other
successive quintiles only moderately differ from one to another. In fact the per
capita expenditure of the middle quintile is close to the poverty line, suggesting
that a significant proportion of the non-poor can be considered vulnerable to
falling under the poverty line (Icon-Institute, 2009).
Table 6: Mean per capita monthly real consumption expenditure and share in

consumption by population quintile and poverty status, NRVA 2007/08
Poverty variable
Population
share (%)
Per capita
expenditure
Consumption
share (%)
Cumulative
share (%)
Population quintile
Poorest
20
758
Second poorest
20
1,100
13
22
Middle
20
1,416
17
39
Second richest
20
1,858
22
61
Richest
20
3,231
39
100
42
Poverty status
Poor
36
950
20
20
Non-poor
64
2,079
80
100
Health
After decades of conflict, political instability and a series of natural
disasters, the health system in Afghanistan is among the poorest in the world.
Many households struggle to secure basic needs like food and shelter. Access to
health care facilities is limited and large parts of the population face concerning
basic household sanitation. The average usage of improved drinking-water
sources has increased from about 20 per cent in 2000 to 60 per cent in 2011.
Over the same period, the share of the population using improved sanitation
facilities has increased only slightly from 20 to 25 per cent. Consequently, the
health status of the Afghan population remains relatively poor. The average life
expectancy at birth is only 60 years, which is well below the global average (70)
and the regional average (68) (WHO, 2013a).
Data from the Afghanistan Mortality Survey in 2010 (APHI/MoPH et al.,
2011) indicate that the mortality rate for children under the age of five was 102
to 105 deaths per 1,000 births (Table 7). Data from the Afghanistan Multiple
Indicator Cluster Survey (AMICS) 2010/11 also report the child mortality to be
approximately 102 per 1,000 live births. Large regional difference were found
with the highest under-five mortality rate in the West (127), South East (124),
North (122) and Central Highlands (122) and the lowest in the East (65) and
South (71). Furthermore, the rate is higher in rural than in urban areas (105
versus 85). The influence of household wealth and the mothers educational
level on the under-five mortality rate is apparent. The rates for the poorest
and richest households are 105 and 84 respectively and that of children with
mothers with no education versus those with secondary education or higher
is 103 and 73 respectively. The findings of the survey are stated to be underestimating the actual situation in Afghanistan (CSO and UNICEF, 2012). The World
Health Organization reports a similar under-five mortality rate of 101 deaths per
1,000 live births. The most common causes of death in children under five are
pneumonia (25%) and diarrhoea (16%). Only 36 per cent of births are attended
by skilled health personnel countrywide (WHO, 2013a).
The mortality rate for women between the ages of 15 and 49 was 86 deaths
per 1,000 and for men the rate was 90. When considering the age group 15 to 59
years, the mortality rate for women was 151 and for men 161. Life expectancy
43
was estimated to be between 61.5 and 64.2 years for women and between 61.7
and 64.6 for men. In terms of the causes of death, these differed considerably
between men and women. When considering the general population, the
most common causes were non-communicable diseases (35% of deaths) and
communicable disease and infections (30%). Among women infections were
the leading cause of death (33%) and haemorrhage the main cause of maternal
death. In contrast, among men over the age of 15 almost 50 per cent of deaths
were the result of injuries (21% for all ages) (APHI/MoPH et al., 2011).
Table 7: Mortality data from the Afghanistan Mortality Survey, 2010
Indicator
Afghanistan Mortality Survey
Life expectancy (in years)

Women
61.5 - 64.2
Men
61.7 - 63.6
Maternal health
Antenatal care from a skilled provider (in %)
68*
Medically assisted deliveries (in %)
42*
Maternal mortality
Maternal mortality compared to live births (per
1,000 live births)
Pregnancy-related mortality
3 - 5 women die during

pregnancy, childbirth or two
months after delivery
1 in 50 women
Child mortality
Under-five mortality rate (per 1,000 births)
Source:
Note:
102 - 105
APHI/MoPH et al., 2011.

* tripled between the Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey in 2003 and the AMS 2010.
THE LABOUR MARKET

Labour force volume
According to the ILO, the labour force in Afghanistan increased 19 per
cent from approximately 7.5 million in 2002 to approximately 9 million in 2006
(UNDP, 2009). It further increased to estimated 11.6 million in 2012 (ILO, 2012).
The NRVA survey showed a labour force of 12 million in 2007/08 (Icon-Institute,
2009). Overall, Afghanistan has a surplus of labour and a lack of available
and secure employment. The creation of employment opportunities will be
increasingly important as the labour force currently grows by over 400,000 per
year (ILO, 2012).
44
Due to the very large percentage of children, less than half of the Afghan
population is in the official working age of 16 years and over. Within this workingage population of over 12 million people (12.057 million), 6.148 million were
male and 5.909 million female in 2007/08 (Icon-Institute, 2009). Table 8 shows
the national labour force by sex and age distribution.
Table 8: Labour force in Afghanistan by age group (in thousands), NRVA 2007/08
Age
Male
Female
Total
16-17
536
492
1,028
18-24
1,482
1,388
2,869
25-39
1,965
2,146
4,112
40-64
1,726
1,641
3,367
439
242
680
6,148
5,909
12,057
65+
Total
Source:
It should be noted that within the working-age population of over 12

million people, approximately 4 million people were inactive and 8 million
actively engaged in the labour market, either by working or looking for work.
Of those actively engaged in the labour market, 5.3 million were male and 2.8
million female. The labour force participation rate is a key indicator in the analysis
of the human resources available for the production of goods and services and
for the projections of labour supply. Comparison of labour force participation
for both sexes combined shows high rates in rural areas (71%) and among the
Kuchi population (78%). This is typical for less developed economies where wage
earning opportunities are few and most people are engaged in labour-intensive
agricultural activities. In urban areas, the overall labour force participation is
significantly lower (49%), indicating opportunities other than employment,
such as school attendance and perhaps less necessity to work due to lower
levels of poverty. The overall labour force participation rate of 67 per cent in
Afghanistan conceals large differences in relation to sex and age. Although in
general labour force participation is lower for females than for males, in the
Afghan economy the gender gap is large. Less than half (47%) of working-age
females are currently active in the labour market, compared to 86 per cent of
males. The gap is relatively small in the rural and Kuchi populations (respectively
24% and 28%) due to female engagement in agricultural and pastoral activities.
However, in urban areas the difference is as large as 60 per cent because of a
very low female labour force participation of 21 per cent (Icon-Institute, 2009).
45
Share of women in wage employment

in the non-agricultural sector
The share of women in wage employment in the non-agricultural sector
was 8 per cent during the NRVA survey implementation in 2007/08. This
indicator is a measure of gender equality and womens empowerment, as well
as the degree to which labour markets are open to women in the industry and
service sectors. This affects not only equal employment opportunities for women
but also economic efficiency through flexibility of the labour market and the
economys ability to adapt and change. A higher share in paid employment could
secure better incomes, economic security and overall well-being for women. In
Afghanistan, women remain disadvantaged in securing paid jobs. Their overall
share in wage employment is even significantly below the average for Southern
Asia (17%), the region with the lowest rate globally (Icon-Institute, 2009).
Wages
Based on the gross domestic product (GDP) and population figures in
the UNDP Human Development Report 2007, the annual average wage for an
Afghan worker was around USD 375 in 2007 (UK Parliament, 2007).
Poppy cultivation is a lucrative business for Afghans working in the
agricultural sector. The average farm-gate price for dry opium at harvest was
USD 169 per kilogram in 2010 - a 164 per cent increase from 2009, when the
price was USD 64 per kilogram. Despite the drop in production, the gross income
per hectare of opium cultivated increased by 36 per cent to USD 4,900. Although
a study revealed that many farmers would like to stop poppy cultivation, the
average annual income of opium-growing households in 2009 was 17 per cent
higher than for households that had stopped opium cultivation (UNODC and
Ministry of Counter Narcotics, 2010).
Other workers face much lower salaries. Prosecutors, for example, are
known to earn USD 60 per month and judges USD 100. This low salary among
judicial authorities is a major contributing factor to corruption and undermines
public trust in the legal system (UNDP, 2009). Afghans with higher education and
the skills in greatest demand such as university professors and physicians earn
salaries of about USD 100 a month (Younossi, 2006). Although these figures vary
with time and place of employment (rural versus urban), they demonstrate that
working in Afghanistan is not very attractive for university graduates and even
less for Afghans in exile. As a consequence, many Afghans search for work in
other countries where salaries are often higher and working conditions better.
46
THE AFGHAN ECONOMY

Gross domestic product
Estimates of the gross domestic product (GDP) for Afghanistan are by no
means definitive. The CIA, for example, report that GDP per capita (purchasing
power parity in 2012 USD) was USD 1,000 in 2010 and 2011 and increased to
USD 1,100 in 2012 (CIA, 2013). UNDP, on the other hand, report GDP per capita
(current prices) at USD 361 in 2008, USD 411 in 2009, USD 512 in 2010 and USD
586 in 2011 (UN Data, 2013).
In terms of GDP (in current USD), the World Bank estimates that
GDP was USD 12.49 billion in 2009, USD 15.94 billion in 2010 and USD
18.03 billion in 2011 (World Bank, 2012b). Estimates of the CIA World
Factbook are measured differently (using purchasing power parity in 2012
USD) and find Afghan GDP to be USD 29.09 billion in 2010, rising to USD
31.12 billion in 2011 and USD 34.29 billion in 2012 (CIA, 2013). Data from
the Central Statistics Organization of Afghanistan report a constant GDP
at market price of AFN 312,436 million (6,471 million USD)7 in 2007-2008,
AFN 319,726 million (USD 6,622 million) in 2008-2009 and AFN 374,367 million
(USD 7,754 million) in 2009 and 2010 (CSO, 2012a). In reality it could be that the
true GDP is different from these estimates due to the challenges of measuring
informal economies.
Difficulties in obtaining clear information relating to Afghanistans GDP
can make it tricky to monitor the development of the country. Nonetheless,
Afghanistans economy has grown since 2001, with agricultural and the service
industry being key areas of growth. The country experienced a GDP growth
of 22.5 per cent in 2009-2010. In the same year, however, the composition
of GDP changed since official exports collapsed and were replaced by higher
donor inflows. Results for the same year revealed a 10 per cent containment
of operational expenditure and a 16 per cent surge in revenue. In contrast to
these improvements, the budget for development represented just 28 per cent
of the previous years budget. Furthermore, several Afghan banks (including
Afghanistans largest private financial institution) nearly collapsed because of
mismanagement and questionable lending practices. As a consequence, more
controls and monitoring of the banking sector are needed in the coming years
(World Bank, 2010a).
Using a conversion rate of AFN 1 = USD 0.0207125.
47
Inflation
After more than two decades of conflict, the Afghan economy was in disarray
in 2001. Four versions of the same currency (Afghani) were simultaneously in
circulation and the national currency was experiencing hyperinflation exceeding
495 to 600 per cent. For years, the Central Banks sole function was to print
money to finance ever-burgeoning budget deficits. Those who suffered most
are the poor who lack the skills to cope with the negative effects of inflation.
Furthermore, price stability is a precondition for achieving high and sustainable
rates of economic growth, which boosts incomes across all segments of society
(DAB, 2009).
Inflation is measured by the Consumer Price Index (CPI).8 Estimates by the
International Monetary Fund (IMF) on the annual percentage change in consumer
prices for Afghanistan were 12.5 per cent in 2007, increasing to 23.4 per cent in
2008. The CPI decreased drastically to -10.0 per cent in 2009, then reached 7.1
per cent in 2010 and 10.4 per cent in 2011. In 2012, it decreased again to 4.4
per cent (IMF, 2013). The Central Statistics Organization of Afghanistan reports
that in the 2005-2006 time period the CPI annual inflation rate was 9.0 per cent.
Between 2006 and 2007, it was 4.5 per cent and then it reached a high of 22.5
per cent in 2007-2008, before strongly decreasing again to 4.9 per cent in the
2008-2009 period and -4.5 per cent between 2009 and 2010 (CSO, 2012b). It
then increased again to 13.7 per cent in 2010-2011 and changed to 8.4 per cent
in 2011-12 (CSO, 2013). In contrast, the Afghan Central Bank reported inflation
to be between 4 and 8 per cent in 2007, reaching a peak of 43.2 per cent in May
2008. The Central Bank also states that inflation in Afghanistan mainly arises due
to factors external to the country, like higher global commodity prices, the opium
trade, donor assistance flows and to some extent remittances. Furthermore,
the implementation of monetary policy in the country is challenged by sizeable
inflows of foreign capital (especially donor funds) in the context of shallow
financial markets (DAB, 2009).
The currency exchange between Afghanis and US dollars remained fairly
constant at between AFN 50 and AFN 52 to the US dollar between January 2006
and January 2009 (DAB, 2009) and remains at the same level until today (DAB,
2013). It is, however, increasingly evident that the Afghan economy remains
vulnerable to general shocks (for example natural disasters) and external
commodity price shocks (DAB, 2009).
The CPI reflects the annual percentage change in the cost to the average consumer of acquiring a basket of
goods and services that may be fixed or changed at specified intervals, such as yearly (IMF, 2011).
48
Informal economy
The International Development Research Centre (IDRC) states, that the
informal economy is seen as comprised of all forms of informal employment that is, employment without formal contracts (i.e. covered by labour legislation),
worker benefits or social protection - both inside and outside informal
enterprises. (Chen et al., 2004: 21-22) However, the fact that workers in the
informal economy usually work without contracts and often have no right to
employee benefits or social protection makes their work status irregular. The
majority of Afghan workers are forced to work under conditions that violate
the most basic standards of dignity, safety and health. There are Afghans who
earn a high salary in the informal economy as entrepreneurs, but these are
rare exceptions. In most cases the informal economy is characterized by low
productivity, erratic and unpredictable salaries and is highly dependent on
seasonable variations. Informal workers are generally under-employed rather
than unemployed, working significantly fewer days per year than desired
because of a lack of work opportunities (Wright, 2010).
The fact that they work without regulation or protection also means that
these individuals are subject to harassment and extortion. In 2010, the informal
economy constituted 80 to 90 per cent of Afghanistans total economic activity
(Wright, 2010). In the Afghanistan National Development Strategy (ANDS), the
Afghan government recognized that the poorest workers are concentrated
primarily in the informal sectors, which pay very low salaries and leave them
without job protection (Islamic Republic of Afghanistan, 2008a). A report by the
Human Rights Research and Advocacy Consortium (HRRAC) in 2010 showed that
over 59 per cent of workers interviewed said that their work was irregular and
79 per cent said they would prefer more hours per day in paid work. A total of
73 per cent of informal workers said their work was seasonal and 40 per cent of
construction and agricultural workers in the sample were without work for seven
to eight months in the past year. Another 36 per cent were without work for five
to six months in the past year. Over 88 per cent of informal worker households
reported that they had been forced to buy food on credit during the past year
(Wright, 2010). High rates of underemployment may be one factor that has
contributed towards emigration from Afghanistan to neighbouring countries.
49
NATURAL DISASTERS AND SHOCKS IN AFGHANISTAN

Afghanistan is a land-locked country with a high incidence of natural
hazards such as earthquakes, floods, landslides and droughts (ANDMA, 2008).
Depending on their impact such shocks potentially force people to leave their
usual place of residence and lead to their displacement, either temporary or
permanently.
Earthquakes
Afghanistan is located in a zone of high seismic activity and hence the
frequency of earthquakes is relatively high. Both northern Afghanistan and
Pakistan are frequently hit by earthquakes, especially in the Hindu Kush area
where the Eurasian and Indian tectonic plates collide. Due to very low population
density in the Hindu Kush region, hundreds of small earthquakes go unrecorded.
However, sources indicate that at least twice a year, Afghanistan is hit by
earthquakes of the magnitude 5 to 6 on the Richter scale. These earthquakes
often force thousands of people to leave their homes and move elsewhere in
the region. This was, for example, the case in 1996 in the west of the country
when an earthquake caused damage to houses and mosques and forced over
500 families to leave their homes. Two years later, an earthquake in the region
of Rustaq damaged over 50,000 homes and killed 5,000 individuals. In 1999, an
earthquake affected almost 20,000 families, many of which had to leave their
homes and seek shelter elsewhere. Two earthquakes of a significant magnitude
were observed in the Hindu Kush region in 2002, leaving over 25 people dead and
over 10,000 people homeless. In April 2004, a powerful earthquake measuring
6.6 on the Richter was recorded along Afghanistans north-east border with
Pakistan. The populations of Jurm District and Yangaan district in Badakhshan
were affected. The earthquake was also felt in the city of Kabul and other areas
in Afghanistan and Pakistan (Poppelwell, 2007). During 2006 and 2009 several
earthquakes of magnitudes 5-6 occurred in the Hindu Kush region (CNN, 2008).
In April 2009, two earthquakes of magnitudes 5.5 and 5.1 rocked Nangarhar
province, 90 kilometres east of Kabul. At least 19 people were killed and 20
wounded (Aljazeera, 2009). In April 2010, an earthquake with a magnitude of
5.3 hit Samangan province, about halfway between Kabul and the northern city
of Mazar-i-Sharif. The earthquake killed at least seven people and injured 30 (Fox
News, 2010). In June 2012, landslides triggerd by two earthquakes killed more
than 80 people in Baghlan province (BBC, 2012).
50
Overall accurate information on the number of displacements caused by

earthquakes is difficult to obtain as records and communication in Afghanistans
remote areas are sparse and casualty reports take time to reach authorities.
Floods and Landslides

Afghanistan has a long history of flooding that has caused displacement
and damage to infrastructure. For example, flooding in the Hindu Kush area in
1992 caused deaths and led to displacement and the loss of household assets
for many. A year later, mudslides in Kabul destroyed houses and left 1,000
people homeless. In 1995 and 1997, floods leading to landslides occurred in
the mountains of Badakhshan in the northern region of Afghanistan. In the
spring of 2002, the Western, Northern, North-Eastern and Central Highlands
regions of Afghanistan experienced high levels of rain in a short period of time
resulting in flash floods and mudslides affecting more than 2,000 households.
The heavy rainfall caused crop damage, loss of housing and harm to livestock.
As a consequence, many affected households moved to urban areas or sent a
family member to seek employment. In March 2007, severe flooding occurred
in various parts of the country, including Oruzgan, Badghis, Helmand, Nimruz,
Daykundi and Herat provinces. An avalanche hit the province of Ghor, where
40 families were reported to be affected (Poppelwell, 2007). In 2010, major
devastation by floods occurred in north-west Pakistan and Afghanistan. At
least one million people were affected by these floods and up to 27,000 were
stranded. This also caused many Afghans living in Pakistan to return to their
home country since they had lost all of their property and livestock in Pakistan
(Emergency Appeal, 2010). In 2011, IRIN reported that flash floods and heavy
snowfall killed many people in Afghanistan and destroyed thousands of houses
particularly in Parwan, Herat, Wardak and Daykundi (IRIN, 2011b). Between
May and June 2012, Afghanistan witnessed severe flooding as a result of the
harsh winter with a substantial accumulation of snow in the Northern region. An
incident in the Sari Pul province in May had the biggest impact, when melting
snow and heavy rainfall led to rising water levels in the Sari-Pul River, which
subsequently flooded the city of Sari Pul. 19 people were killed and an estimated
10,000 displaced (Reliefweb, 2012).
Drought
In the past decades, Afghanistan has experienced severe droughts. Some
affected the whole country and others were restricted to certain areas. During
the 1970s, the area of Ghor was affected by a drought that lasted for three years.
However, due to government interventions, the affected population was not
51
displaced and was able to recover from the shock. About 30 years later, parts of
Afghanistan notably Herat, Farah, Balkh, Samangan and Faryab experienced
four years of severe drought. The drought severely affected 2 to 3 million people
and a further 8 to 12 million were affected to a lesser extent. Due to the absence
of governmental help and a lack of support from the international community,
entire villages had to move to camps in the areas of Herat, Mazar-i-Sharif and
Kandahar. In 2000 and 2001, when the drought was most severe, over half a
million people had been displaced from their homes and were known to be
living in camps around Herat. Another severe drought in 2006 mainly affected
people in the Northern, Western and Central regions of Afghanistan. Many
farmers from the North-Western province Badghis tried to reach the Kunduz
region where they hoped to get water from the Amu Darya River. By the end of
2006, most rain-fed crops (estimated to constitute 85 per cent of the cultivated
land) had failed. Additionally, many water sources had dried up and livestock
mortality had increased. According to some sources, the drought affected
over 2 million Afghans in 2007 (Poppelwell, 2007). One year later, the United
States Department of Agriculture reported that this year had suffered the worst
drought conditions in the past decade (USDA, 2008). This, combined with high
food prices, meant millions were without enough food (AlertNet, 2010). In 2011,
a severe drought in 14 provinces in northern and eastern Afghanistan led to
severe food shortages and affected more than 12 million people (UPI, 2011).
Heavy snowfalls in January 2012 ended this drought (Reuters, 2012).
While it is not yet clear how climate change will affect Afghanistan directly,
sources indicate that it could potentially disrupt agricultural development by
exacerbating drought (that is: a decline in surface or subsurface water resources,
such as rivers, lakes, reservoirs and ground water) and increase the frequency
and severity of heat waves (Rogers, 2010). Due to uncoordinated management
and excessive extraction of water for agriculture purposes, the water level of the
Helmand River has already drastically declined (UNDP, 2007).
52
PART B: MIGRATION TRENDS

AND CHARACTERISTICS
B.1. IMMIGRATION
B.1.1. FOREIGN AND FOREIGN-BORN POPULATION
AND IMMIGRATION
Stock of foreign migrants in Afghanistan
Migration to Afghanistan of people without Afghan heritage is limited. In
1990, the total stock of immigrants living in Afghanistan was 57,686 people. The
number rose to 75,917 in 2000 and to 90,883 in 2010. Immigrants are defined on
the basis of birth outside of Afghanistan and the cited numbers include people
born in the Soviet Union who were designated as immigrants after the Unions
collapse in 1990. Between 1990 and 2010, the share of female migrants was
constant at 43.6 per cent of all immigrants (UN DESA, 2011).
Limited information is available on the country of origin of the foreignborn population in Afghanistan. Foreigners are required to register with their
countries embassies in Kabul and their employers or supporting organizations
are required to request work permits from the Government of Afghanistans
Ministry of Labor, Social Affairs, Martyrs and Disabled (MoLSAMD). Precise
information on the number of these registrations is not available.
Annual emigrant flows towards Afghanistan

(as reported by sending countries)9
Data on emigration flows towards Afghanistan as reported by sending
countries are scarce. This is largely due to the fact that national migration
statistics often include only the top destination countries of out-migrants.
Additionally, some countries only report emigration flows toward a region rather
than country. As a result, the total volume of annual emigrant flows destined for
Afghanistan is unclear. While aggregate flows are impossible to gauge, individual
country reports provide some sense of the scope of emigration to Afghanistan.
Information on voluntary return migration assisted by UNHCR and forced return migration of Afghan
nationals to Afghanistan can be found in section B.4.
53
Australia
The Australian Department of Immigration and Citizenship publishes
data on out-migrants and their intended destinations. As can be seen in Table
9, the overall number of departures towards Afghanistan is relatively low, with
the highest number of Australian-born individuals (36) moving to Afghanistan
in 2009 and 2010. In the same period, a total of 19 overseas-born individuals
migrated to Afghanistan (Commonwealth of Australia, 2011).
Table 9: Permanent departures from Australia to Afghanistan, 2002-2011
Country of
birth
2002 2003
2003 2004
2004 2005
2005 2006
Australian born
12
Overseas born
11
20
Total
Source:
2006 2007
2007 2008
2008 2009
2009 2010
2010 2011
18
36
27
12
16
19
20
16
21
17
34
55
47
Commonwealth of Australia, 2011.
The Netherlands
In the 1990s, the number of migrants leaving the Netherlands and
travelling to Afghanistan was relatively small, with a total of 31 people migrating
from the Netherlands to Afghanistan between 1995 and 2000. This number
increased after the fall of the Taliban in 2001, reaching a peak in 2005 when
135 emigrants moved from the Netherlands to Afghanistan (CBS, 2013b). Since
the 2002-2003 period, the number of emigrants leaving for Afghanistan could
be explained by the installation of the new government in 2002 as well as a
tripartite Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) on voluntary repatriation of
Afghans concluded among Afghanistan, UNHCR and the Netherlands in 2003
(Kuschminder and Dora, 2009).
Table 10: Emigration from the Netherlands to Afghanistan, 2000-2009
Year
Emigrants
Year
Emigrants
2000
9 2005
135
2001
7 2006
123
2002
33 2007
112
2003
61 2008
117
78 2009
113
2004
Source:
54
CBS, 2013b.
B.1.2. IMMIGRATION FOR EMPLOYMENT

Efforts to rebuild the Afghan economy with a limited pool of domestic
skilled labour have led to the active recruitment of migrant workers. The attraction
of investment from foreign companies in specific sectors is one component of
the Afghanistan National Development Strategy (ANDS). Such foreign companies
often resort to recruitment of foreign nationals to satisfy their labour needs that
cannot be met by local Afghan workers. This is particularly the case in sectors
like mining and telecommunications, where much manpower with specific
knowledge is required. In the construction sector foreign firms often obtain
larger contracts and many bring in their own employees from abroad to fulfil
them. The high number of permits granted to Pakistanis may be indicative of a
growing trend of workers migrating to fill positions in the construction sector.
The financial services and banking sector has also undergone formalization and
expansions. The increased demand for workers in that field is mostly met by
recruiting formally educated individuals from abroad (IOM, 2008a). Data from
the Afghan Ministry of Foreign Affairs (personal communication, 2012) show that
17,833 work permits were issued to foreign nationals in 2011. Approximately
100,000 foreigners employed in Afghanistan are estimated to have an irregular
status (Afghan Ministry of Labor, Social Affairs, Martyrs and Disabled, personal
communication, 2012).
Table 11: Number of permits issued to foreign nationals working in Kabul,
24 March 2007-20 January 2008
Country of nationality
Pakistan
Number of
permits
1,031
Turkey
843
India
662
China
439
Nepal
303
Tajikistan
112
Islamic Republic of Iran

Kazakhstan
Others
6
3,866
Total
Source:
56
7,318
IOM, 2008a.
Immigration to Afghanistan for employment purposes also includes foreign

military and development staff. The majority of foreign troops in Afghanistan
are under the command of the NATO-led International Security Assistance Force
55
(ISAF), which as of February 2013 included 100,330 individuals (NATO, 2013). In

addition to ISAF forces, approximately 30,000 troops, mainly from the United
States, are actively stationed at the border with Pakistan as part of Operation
Enduring Freedom (OEF) (Livingston and OHanlon, 2013). The United Nations
employed approximately 1,000 foreign staff (in addition to around 4,500 Afghan
staff) in 2009, of which between 600 and 700 were present in Afghanistan at
any given time (Rubin, 2009). The large sums of official development aid money
available in Afghanistan have further attracted many national and international
non-governmental organizations (NGOs) to operate in the country, many of
which employ foreign expert staff. International organizations also employ
foreign consultants as advisors to the Afghan government (IOM, 2008a). This may
further increase the number of foreign-born individuals working in Afghanistan.
B.1.3. IMMIGRATION FOR STUDY PURPOSES

Data on immigration for study purposes are not available and it can
be assumed that, due to the security situation in Afghanistan, this kind of
immigration remains limited. It is, however, likely that some of the returning
refugees from Pakistan and the Islamic Republic of Iran do study at universities
and other educational institutions upon return. There is reason to believe that
this trend might increase in the near future due to changes in the attitude of Iran
towards Afghan immigrants.
A recent change in Iranian legislation bans Afghans and other foreigners
from enrolling in universities to study specific subjects. This affects thousands
of young Afghan refugees, many of whom were born in the Islamic Republic
of Iran. It does not make a difference whether the migrants are documented
or undocumented. Among the courses of study for which access is restricted
are defence, IT and energy-related subjects. This includes engineering, nuclear
physics, computer network security and others. In addition, Afghans can only
study in certain, non-prohibited regions of the Islamic Republic of Iran now. Even
if they were already enrolled at an Iranian university before this decree was
passed, they are still required to transfer to a university outside of the prohibited
areas (UN Dispatch, 2012).
It is not yet clear how strict the implementation of this decree will be,
but it has the potential to cause the displacement of hundreds of thousands
of Afghans in the Islamic Republic of Iran. This limitation in access to higher
education might lead to movements out of the Islamic Republic of Iran.
56
Young Afghans may decide to return to Afghanistan in order to study at one of

the public or private universities in Afghanistan or try to move further afield to
study (UN Dispatch, 2012).
B.1.4. INVOLUNTARY IMMIGRATION

The Ministry of Refugees and Repatriation and UNHCR reported that 53
asylum-seekers and 3,009 refugees resided in Afghanistan in 2011 (MoRR, 2011;
UNHCR, 2012b). The number of refugees registered by UNHCR in Afghanistan
increased significantly to 16,187 in January 2013, while the number of asylumseekers remained relatively stable at 51 (UNHCR, 2013a). The country of origin
of these refugees and asylum-seekers is not known, but it is likely that they
originate from neighbouring countries.
B.2. EMIGRATION
B.2.1. CITIZENS RESIDING ABROAD AND EMIGRATION
Over the past 30 years, the main destination countries of Afghan migrants
have been Pakistan and the Islamic Republic of Iran due to the geographic,
religious, social and cultural proximity. Permanent as well as circular migration
between these countries and Afghanistan is common, while migration of Afghans
to countries further afield is relatively rare. According to the Afghan Ministry of
Foreign Affairs, about 7,000 Afghan citizens have been registered by recruitment
companies as working abroad (personal communication, 2012).
57
Stock of Afghan migrants abroad

Table 12 provides an overview of stock number of Afghan migrants living
in different countries in various years. The following paragraphs discuss the
migration of Afghans to a selection of these countries in more detail.
Table 12: Stock of Afghan migrants abroad, various years
Country
Total
Year
Source
Australia
28,370
Australian Government Department of

2011
Immigration and Citizenship, 2012
Austria
10,861
2012 Statistik Austria, 2013
Azerbaijan
Belgium
7,500
10,008
Bolivia
Bulgaria
313
Canada
48,090
Chile
Cyprus
Czech Republic
Denmark
Germany
2010 World Bank, 2010b

2012 Eurostat, 2013c
2006 Statistics Canada, 2006
26

10,993
Ecuador
France
362
Dominican Republic
Finland
2008 IOM, 2008c
76
2,862
3,430
100,000
2011 Statistisches Bundesamt, 2012b
Greece
567
Hungary
781
Iceland
India
8,414
840,200
2011 UNHCR, 2013b
451
3,791
Ireland
Italy
Japan
710
Latvia
43
Lithuania
27
Luxembourg
51
2010 OECD, 2013
Liechtenstein
Mauritania
Mexico
58
13
Netherlands
32,820
2013 CBS, 2013a
New Zealand
2,145
2006 OECD, 2013
Nicaragua
34
Norway
11,046
Pakistan
1,649,630
Peru

2013 UNHCR, 2013c
Philippines
973
Poland
156
Portugal
Romania
Russian Federation
Saudi Arabia
Slovak Republic
Slovenia
Spain
Sweden
Switzerland
4,939
17,227
2010 OECD, 2013

126
441
17,489
4,201
Tajikistan
56,816
Turkey
10,796
United Kingdom
60,000
2012 Office for National Statistics, 2013
United States
65,560
2011 US Census Bureau, 2013
Venezuela, RB
Note:

Migrants are defined by country of birth except for a) Azerbaijan (Afghan nationals), b) Islamic Republic of Iran and
Pakistan numbers reported by UNHCR) and c) the estimates by the World Bank, which use data on nationality of
migrants where the country of birth is not available.
Pakistan
Most Afghan nationals living abroad reside in Pakistan. In January 2013,
over 1.6 million Afghans were registered in Pakistan (UNHCR, 2013c), but the
actual number of Afghans living in Pakistan is expected to be much higher.
Underestimation of the number of Afghans living in Pakistan is likely due to
the registration procedure during the registration exercise carried out by the
Government of Pakistan with financial and technical support of UNHCR.10 This
registration exercise was mandatory for the entire target population of those
Afghans arriving to and being born in Pakistan after 1979, subject to the Census
of 2005 and not holding Pakistani identity documents. An additional reason
may be that undocumented Afghan migrants refrain from reporting to official
It was a condition to register as a family unit at centres that were especially difficult for the elderly, children
and the disabled to access (International Crisis Group, 2009).
10
59
organizations such as UNHCR for fear of being officially recorded in the country
and deported by Pakistan authorities (International Crisis Group, 2009).
A 2005 census of Afghans living in all provinces of Pakistan provides
the clearest quantitative and qualitative demographic data for this group. The
census registered 3,049,368 Afghans living in 548,105 households in Pakistan.
This number includes all Afghans who arrived in Pakistan after 1 December
1979. Individuals who held a Pakistan Validity Card or had obtained a Pakistan
Identity Card were not included in the census, however. The census found
that the greatest proportion of Afghans lived in Pakistans North-West Frontier
Province (NWFP) (61.6%; 1,878,170), Balochistan (25.2%; 769,268), Punjab
(6.8%; 207,758), Sindh (4.5%; 135,734), Islamabad (1.5%; 45,259) and Azad
Jammu and Kashmir (0.4%; 13,079) (Government of Pakistan and UNHCR, 2005).
Of the Afghans registered in the 2005 Census, 1.29 million (42.3%) resided
in camps at the time of the survey. The remaining 1.75 million (57.7%) had settled
in urban and rural areas among Pakistanis (Government of Pakistan and UNHCR,
2005). Recent closures of refugee camps along the Afghanistan-Pakistan border
are likely to have affected such residence patterns. It is likely that many refugees
have either repatriated or resettled to other areas of Pakistan (IRIN, 2008).
The largest number of Afghan refugees arrived in Pakistan during the
Soviet occupation, which caused major migration movements across the border
in 1979 and 1980. Table 13 shows that over 1.5 million Afghans sought shelter
and security in Pakistan during these years. After the Soviet invasion, another
wave of Afghan migration occurred in 1985, when the war intensified and the
Afghan countryside was becoming depopulated. A third influx occurred in 1990,
when the Soviet withdrawal from Afghanistan resulted in increased efforts by
the mujahedeen to oust the government left behind. The number of minority
ethnic groups included in large migration movements rose over time, especially
in the late 1990s when the Pashtun-dominated Taliban persecuted other ethnic
groups such as the Hazaras (Government of Pakistan and UNHCR, 2005).
60
Table 13: Arrivals of Afghans in Pakistan, 1979-2005

Year of arrival
Individuals
% of total
Year of arrival
Individuals
% of total
1979
491,151
16.1 1993
34,124
1.1
1980
1,060,212
34.8 1994
16,301
0.5
1981
164,345
5.4
1995
61,398
2.0
1982
175,202
5.8
1996
23,089
0.8
1983
157,208
5.2
1997
31,355
1.0
2.8
1998
30,345
1.0
10.2 1999
26,935
0.9
1984
84,053
1985
310,040
1986
52,573
1.7
2000
21,812
0.7
1987
57,065
1.9
2001
14,266
0.5
1988
35,588
1.2
2002
10,965
0.4
1989
35,425
1.2
2003
9,128
0.3
1990
78,039
2.6
2004
9,834
0.3
1991
19,769
0.7
2005
4,998
0.2
34,048
1.1
Total in 2005
3,049,268
100.0
1992
Source:
Government of Pakistan and UNHCR, 2005.
Large migration movements between Afghanistan and Pakistan still occur,

but the composition of the migration flows has fundamentally changed. In
contrast to refugee flows caused by the Soviet invasion and the Taliban regime,
when entire families crossed the border to Pakistan, the current migration flows
consist primarily of single men who cross the border (mainly temporarily) for
economic or social reasons (for more on border migration see section B.2.2).

More than 800,000 Afghans were registered in the Islamic Republic of Iran
in January 2013 (UNHCR, 2013b), but the Iranian government estimates that a
further 1.5 to 2 million Afghans reside in the country irregularly. Between 340,000
and 480,000 are expected to live in Tehran province alone. These Afghans are
primarily single men originating from areas in Afghanistan where unemployment
is high. While most Afghan migrants come to the Islamic Republic of Iran for a
short stay of one or two years, many migrate between the two countries over
longer periods of time11 (Koepke, 2011).
In contrast to Afghan refugees who entered Pakistan, most refugees
who fled to the Islamic Republic of Iran in the early 1980s were free to choose
where they lived. Most refugees thus chose to live in the outskirts of major
More information on short- and long-term migration is provided later in this section.
11
61
urban centres rather than refugee camps, which partially explains the difficulty
to register and obtain accurate statistics about Afghan refugees in the Islamic
Republic of Iran (Ashrafi and Moghissi, 2002). According to the 2006 Iranian
census, approximately 1.2 million Afghan nationals lived in the Islamic Republic
of Iran. The majority (72%) resided in urban areas and less than 3 per cent lived
in refugee camps. One third of migrants resided in Tehran (32.7%) and significant
numbers lived in Khorasan Razavi (13.3%), Isfahan (11.7%) as well as Sistan and
Balochistan (9.3%); the remainder lived in other provinces spread across the
country (Abbasi-Shavazi and Sadeghi, 2011). Research from Alzahra University
(Ahmadinejad, 2011) similarly found that 38 per cent of Afghan refugees resided
in Tehran, 17 per cent in Khorasan Razavi, 9 per cent in Kerman, 14 per cent in
Isfahan and 8 per cent in Fars. In 2011, the majority of the Afghan population still
lived in primarily Afghan-dominated neighbourhoods in urban areas (Koepke,
2011). The vast majority of Afghans who entered the Islamic Republic of Iran
after 1992, however, are undocumented because authorities stopped providing
refugee cards to Afghans (Alzahra University, 2011).
The largest migration wave of Afghans to the Islamic Republic of Iran
occurred during the Soviet occupation. An influx of 2.9 million Afghans entered
the Islamic Republic of Iran between 1980 and 1989. Based on estimates by the
Government of the Islamic Republic of Iran, the movements of Afghans into
the country increased consistently and reached a peak of 3 million in 1991. The
number of new entrants has slowly declined since then (Abbasi-Shavazi and
Glazebrook, 2006). A study by Wickramasekara et al.12 (2006) found that the
duration of residence of Afghan-born migrants in the Islamic Republic of Iran
was 15 years, with over 70 per cent of the study population having been resident
in the country for more than 10 years. This may not be representative of the
Afghan population that currently resides in the Islamic Republic of Iran, but it
does indicate that many of the households included in the study consist of longterm migrants who have no intention of returning back home in the short or
medium term (Wickramasekara et al., 2006).
Gulf Cooperation Council Countries

The exact scope of Afghan migration to the Gulf Cooperation Council
(GCC) countries is uncertain. Sources indicate that at least 53,000 Afghan
workers using Pakistani passports were hired in the United Arab Emirates (UAE)
in 2010. The Afghan Government (informally) indicates that more than 100,000
Afghan labour migrants are likely to be working in the GCC countries. Most of
The study by Wickramasekara et al. (2006) covered 1,505 Afghan households (approximately 8,430
individuals).
12
62
these workers hold a Pakistani passport, many of which are thought to be fake
(Overfeld and Zumot, 2010). It is likely that the majority of Afghan workers in the
GCC states are young, single men who travel back and forth for work between
their home country and the GCC states, but no data are presently available on
the length of stay of Afghans in the GCC countries.
United States of America

In 2011, the American Community Survey registered 89,040 people of
Afghan ancestry and 65,560 people born in Afghanistan living in the United
States (US Census Bureau, 2013). Other sources in the United States estimate
the number of resident Afghans to be as high as 300,000 people (The Embassy
of Afghanistan in Washington, D.C., 2006b). Of the 65,560 immigrants born in
Afghanistan that were registered in the American Community Survey in 2011,
the majority (42.9%) entered the United States before 1990, while 23.5 per
cent arrived between 1990 and 1999. An additional 33.6 per cent arrived in
the United States in 2000 or later. The numbers indicate that most Afghans
fled to the United States as a consequence of the Soviet invasion of 1979 (US
Census Bureau, 2013). The study by Oeppen (2009)13 of Afghans living in the
San Francisco Bay Area in California indicated that only 50 per cent of the study
sample that had arrived in the United States between 1985 and 1995 had fled
directly from Afghanistan. Many interviewees had fled through Pakistan before
continuing their journey to Europe or North America (Oeppen, 2009). Available
data indicate that Afghans in the United States mainly reside in the San Francisco
Bay area in California (40,000), northern Virginia (20,000), southern California
(10,000) and in smaller communities in New York, Georgia, Oregon and Texas
(The Embassy of Afghanistan in Washington, D.C., 2006b). Such settlement
patterns reflect several trends. Participants in the study by Oeppen (2009) stated
that the first Afghan refugees arriving in the United States were placed in cities
across the country as part of resettlement work undertaken by American charity
organizations. Other Afghan refugees went to areas where they or relatives had
been before as part of study exchange programmes between Afghanistan and
the United States. New York and other areas in Virginia were important locations
for Afghans who had been politically engaged in their home country and who
wanted to continue to support their political stance in Afghanistan (Oeppen,
2009).
The study by Oeppen (2009) explores the Afghan refugee adaptation to life in the Afghan diaspora and
how it relates to engagement with the country of origin. The study sample includes 49 Afghans living in the
San Francisco Bay Area, California. Of these interviewees 21 were female and 28 male. The sample is not
representative of Afghans living in the United States, as these Afghans belong to the Afghan elite, which
means they are financially stable, highly educated and possess a relative high level of linguistic and cultural
resources.
13
63
Canada
The Canada 2001 Census recorded 25,230 Afghans residing in the country;
the 2006 census counted 48,090 people of Afghan origin.14 The 2006 number
includes single and multiple ethnic-origin responses; counting only individuals
who listed a single ethnicity, the number decreases to 41,590 people (Statistics
Canada, 2006). The former Minister of Foreign Affairs Bill Graham estimated
that the Afghan diaspora in Canada could be as large as 80,000 people in 2003
(Afghanistan News Center, 2003). Most Afghans in Canada reside in the SouthWestern region of Ontario and the Greater Toronto Area. In the 2001 Census,
13,645 Afghans were reported to be living in Toronto alone. Other significant
communities resided in Montreal (2,905), Vancouver (2,545), Calgary (1,275),
Ottawa-Hull (1,130) as well as Hamilton, Kitchener, Edmonton and Guelph
(approx. 400-500 people) (Statistics Canada, 2001). The majority of Afghans
came to Canada between 1996 and 2006. Before 1991, 4,165 Afghans resided
in Canada and the number increased to 16,315 between 1991 and 2000. The
highest numbers of Afghan migrants entering Canada were registered between
1996 and 2000 (10,960 individuals) and from 2001 to 2006 (17,845 individuals)
(Statistics Canada, 2006).
Germany
The largest Afghan communities in Europe can be found in Germany, the
Netherlands and the United Kingdom. According to the German Microcensus
of 2011, approximately 145,000 Afghan migrants have settled in Germany. This
figure includes all people of Afghan origin, including those who have gained
German citizenship (Statistisches Bundesamt, 2012b). Individuals who have
acquired German citizenship are no longer registered with the Foreign Central
Registry (Auslnderzentralregister), putting the official number of Afghan
nationals residing in Germany at 56,563 in 2011 (Statistisches Bundesamt
Deutschland, 2012a).
In 2011, the majority of Afghans in Germany were living in urban areas,
specifically in the states of Hamburg (12,312), Hessen (11,179), Bavaria (8,591)
and North Rhine-Westphalia (8,477) (Statistisches Bundesamt, 2012a). Figure 5
illustrates that only few Afghans resided in Germany before 1979; most were
students or businessmen. A rapid increase in migration from Afghanistan to
Germany occurred after the Soviet invasion in 1979. This first wave of Afghan
migrants consisted mainly of members of the educated elite and included
Data from the Canada 2011 Census are not available yet.
14
64
students and teachers fleeing the repressive communist regime. By 2000, a total
of 72,199 Afghan nationals were known to be living in Germany (Bauralina et al.,
2006).
Figure 5: Afghan nationals in Germany, 1967-2011
80,000
70,000
Afghan Nationals
60,000
50,000
40,000
30,000
20,000
10,000
0
Source:
Statistisches Bundesamt Deutschland, 2013a.
Figure 6 shows the migration movements of Afghans to and from Germany

between 1991 and 2011. Various immigration peaks can be seen. Firstly,
immigration of Afghan nationals increased to 8,679 in 1995. After remaining
relatively high until 2001, numbers decreased steadily until 2007. Since then
they have been increasing rapidly up to 9,321 in 2011. Emigration of Afghans is
much less common and peaked in 1998 with 2,639.
65
Figure 6: Immigration and emigration of Afghan nationals to/from Germany, 1991-2011

10,000
9,000
Afghan Nationals
8,000
7,000
6,000
5,000
4,000
3,000
2,000
1,000
0
Immigration
Source:
Emigration
BMI and BAMF, 2012.
Table 14 shows that most Afghans in Germany can be considered

permanent migrants. In 2011, the median stay was 9.5 years, with 24.6 per cent
of the total Afghan population having stayed in Germany between 10 and 15
years (Statistisches Bundesamt, 2012a).
Table 14: Length of stay of Afghans in Germany, 2011
Length of stay in years
% of Afghans
in Germany
under 1
14.7
1-4
22.1
4-6
3.3
6-8
4.2
8-10
6.0
10-15
24.6
15-20
15.3
20-25
7.0
25-30
1.8
30 or more
1.1
Afghans in Germany
Source: Statistisches Bundesamt, 2012a.
66
56 600
The Netherlands
In 2013, the Dutch Centraal Bureau voor de Statistiek reported 42,348
Afghans as resident in the Netherlands. This number includes 32,820 firstgeneration Afghans and 9,528 second-generation Afghans (CBS, 2013a). Prior
to the early to mid 1990s, migration from Afghanistan to the Netherlands was
almost non-existent and information available prior to this time concentrates
exclusively on asylum applications. Figure 7 shows that larger inflows of migrants
to the Netherlands began in the mid 1990s and immigration peaked at the end
of the 1990s and the beginning of the 2000s. As a consequence the Afghan
population in the Netherlands increased steadily until 2004. The slower pace
of growth of the Afghan population after this time is likely due to the fall of
the Taliban in 2001 and subsequent high rates of return migration back to
Afghanistan. More recently the Afghan population in the Netherlands started
to grow more significantly again, most likely due to the ongoing conflict in the
country and the uncertain and volatile economic and political future.
Figure 7: Afghan population in the Netherlands, 1996-2013
45,000
40,000
Number of Afghans
35,000
30,000
25,000
20,000
15,000
10,000
5,000
0
Source:
CBS, 2013a.
Over time the Afghan diaspora has moved to different locations within the
Netherlands: while in the 1980s most Afghans lived in the Northern provinces,
where they resided in asylum accommodation, the geographic dispersion had
changed significantly by 2000. The cities of Amsterdam, Rotterdam, The Hague,
Arnhem and Eindhoven were home to the largest shares of Afghan migrants in
2010 (Siegel et al., 2010).
67
United Kingdom
There have been several waves of Afghan migrants to the United Kingdom,
the first of which began in the 1980s in response to the Soviet invasion. The
second wave began in the 1990s after the collapse of the communist regime
and the beginning of the civil war. The third wave occurred at the end of the
1990s and the beginning of 2000, when the Taliban regime was strong before its
collapse in 2001 (IOM, 2007).
In contrast to Germany and the Netherlands, the exact number of Afghans
living in the United Kingdom is difficult to ascertain. The 2001 United Kingdom
Census estimated that 14,481 Afghans lived in the country. Due to a large increase
in asylum applications and refugees entering the country after 2001, however,
the actual number of Afghans living in the United Kingdom is likely to be much
higher. A further caution is that dependent children who were born in refugee
camps in Pakistan or in other countries often do not report Afghanistan as their
country of birth or origin. In contrast to the 2001 census, a mapping exercise
conducted by the International Organization for Migration in 2006 estimated the
Afghan population at 20,000 persons in London alone (IOM, 2007). The Office
for National Statistics reported that in 2012 there were 60,000 people born in
Afghanistan and 29,000 Afghan nationals living in the United Kingdom (Office
for National Statistics, 2013). These numbers may, however, be underestimating
the size of the Afghan diaspora considering that between 2006 and 2007, 46,000
births of children to Afghan parents were recorded in the United Kingdom (Jones,
2010).
The IOM mapping exercise showed that London is home to the largest
portion (between 70% and 80%) of Afghan migrants and only small numbers
live outside of the capital. As can be seen in Figure 8, small communities live,
for example, in Birmingham, Bradford, Coventry, Manchester, Glasgow and
Southampton (IOM, 2007).
68
Figure 8: Location of Afghans living in the United Kingdom, 2007

1.7%
2.2%
2.2%
1.1%
1.1%
0.9%
0.7%
4.0%
London
Southampton
5.8%
Birmingham
Glasgow
Sheffield
Coventry
Bradford
Manchester
Wolverhampton
80.3%
Source:
Cardiff
IOM, 2007.
Information on the length of stay of Afghans in the United Kingdom is

difficult to obtain. The Office for National Statistics estimates that the majority
of Afghans living in the United Kingdom entered the country after 2001, which
implies that most Afghans have had a relatively short residence in the United
Kingdom (Jones, 2010).
Other countries
Many other European countries also accommodate Afghan diaspora
communities. The international migration database of the Organisation for
Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) shows that the stock of
the Afghan-born population in 2011 was relatively high in Sweden (17,489
people), Denmark (11,134 people) and Norway (11,068 people). Within the
OECD database the foreign-born population includes persons born abroad who
retained the nationality of their country of origin as well as individuals born in
the country of residence to foreign national parents, thus second and thirdgeneration individuals may be included (OECD, 2013).
69
The Afghan communities in Greece and Turkey are difficult to asses, as

both countries are primarily transit countries for migrants to enter other parts
of Europe. While the number of Afghans resident in these countries is unknown,
it is thought that sizable populations of mostly irregular migrants live there;
whether these populations consist of short-term (transit) or long-term migrants
is unclear (IOM, 2008b). In 2010, the World Bank estimated the number of
Afghans residing in Turkey to be as high as 10,796 (World Bank, 2010b).
Beyond Europe, large Afghan communities live in Australia. There were
28,370 Afghan-born people recorded as living in the country in June 2011
(Australian Government Department of Immigration and Citizenship, 2012), a
significant increase from the 16,751 that were reported in the 2006 Australian
Census data (Commonwealth of Australia, 2007).
Short- and long-term migration

Short- term migration
Only limited information is available on short-term migration to and from
Afghanistan as defined by the International Organization for Migration (IOM).
The National Risk and Vulnerability Assessment (NRVA)15 survey of 2007/08
provides information on seasonal migration. The NRVA 2007/08 defines a
seasonal migrant as someone who during the past 12 months spent at least
one month away from the household for seasonal work.16 While this definition
focuses on migrants who crossed a state border for work, it also includes internal
migrants who moved within Afghanistan.
The NRVA 2007/08 revealed that 14 per cent of all households had at least
one member engaged in seasonal work sometime in the 12 months preceding
the survey, either within the country or abroad. With regard to specific
residence categories (Kuchi, urban and rural), 22 per cent of Kuchi households
were involved in seasonal work, whereas only 5 per cent of urban households
reported to have a seasonal worker in the family. This relatively high number of
The National Risk and Vulnerability Assessment (NRVA) is the only comprehensive nation-wide multipurpose household survey in Afghanistan. The NRVA enables a large amount of cross-section analysis
and forms the basis of many policy developments in the country. The NRVA 2007/08 is the third of four
successive rounds of surveys, following the NRVA in 2003 and 2005. The fourth round was conducted in
2011/12. The NRVA 07/08 was produced by the Afghan government with European Union funding and in
collaboration with aid agencies. The survey collected data on 20,576 households in Afghanistan across 395
districts and 34 provinces in the time span of August 2007 August 2008.
16
In the IOM Glossary on Migration seasonal workers are defined as: A migrant worker whose work by its
character is dependent on seasonal conditions and is performed only during part of the year. The NRVA
definition specificies that in order to qualify as a seasonal migrant, the migration period most be a minimum
of one month long.
15
70
Kuchi involved in seasonal work is not surprising, as this group is characterized

by a nomadic lifestyle. Among rural households, 16 per cent had a member
involved in seasonal work. The Western region and also some provinces in the
north-west, east and north-east had above-average involvement in seasonal
migration with Ghor (66%) and Faryab (82%) reporting particularly high numbers
(Icon-Institute, 2009).
The survey revealed that seasonal work was more often undertaken
by those who had attended primary school, while individuals with at least a
secondary education tended to be less involved. An exception was observed
among urban residents, where highly educated individuals reported to be more
frequently involved in seasonal work (Icon-Institute, 2009).
Urban seasonal workers were observed to migrate primarily abroad or to
another urban area within the same province. In contrast, rural seasonal workers
reported more diverse destinations with about half staying in a rural area within
the same province or migrating to an urban area in another province. The Kuchi
population mainly migrated to rural areas, both in and beyond the province of
residence. The average duration of migration was slightly over four months; for
urban seasonal workers, the migration period was longer at between five and six
months (Icon-Institute, 2009).
Long- term migration

The NRVA 2007/08 also collected data on long-term in-migrants and
out-migrants. An in-migrant was defined as someone who had lived outside
their current area of residence for at least three consecutive months at some
point in the past five years. This term includes individuals who migrated from
elsewhere within Afghanistan or from abroad as well as individuals who had
returned to an area of habitual residence following residence in another locale.
In contrast, an out-migrant was defined as any individual aged 15 years or older
who was considered a household member one year ago but who has since
moved and is no longer considered a member of the household. This definition
of out-migration is likely to underestimate the true scope of out-migration, as
entire households that had migrated and were thus unavailable for an interview
would be excluded from the sample (Icon-Institute, 2009).
Of Afghanistans 3.4 million households, a sizeable proportion (13%) had
household members who had lived abroad or in another location in Afghanistan
at some point during the five years preceding the survey and were therefore
categorized as in-migrants. This figure hides significant variation among the
71
different groups analysed. Table 15 shows that 28 per cent of Kuchi households
reported having long-term out-migrants, whereas only 9.7 per cent of urban
and nearly 13 per cent of rural households reported the same. The survey also
revealed that households in the Western region bordering the Islamic Republic
of Iran were more likely to contain a migrant member (Icon-Institute, 2009).
Table 15: Afghan households by migration status during past five years
and current residence, NRVA 2007/08
Place of
Residence
Without any migrant

Thousands
Rural
With migrant(s)
Percentage
Thousands
All households
Percentage
Thousands
Percentage
2,235
87.2
328
12.8
2,563
100.0
616
90.3
66
9.7
682
100.0
Kuchi
139
72.0
54
28.0
193
100.0
Total
2,990
87.0
448
13.0
3,438
100.0
Urban
Origin and destination of migrants

Table 16 shows that the Islamic Republic of Iran is the most common
destination country for Afghan out-migrants. The close geographic proximity
and similarities in culture and language are likely the main factors that draw
Afghans to the Islamic Republic of Iran. Pakistan, in contrast, is a more important
country of origin of in-migrants than country of destination for out-migrants.
This may reflect the relatively stricter stance the Government of Pakistan has
recently taken to Afghan citizens residing in the country. Countries in the Arabian
Peninsula have also become more important destinations for out-migrants in
recent years (Icon-Institute, 2009).
Table 16: Place of origin of in-migrants and place of destination of out-migrants, NRVA
Place of origin/ destination
In-migrants
Thousands
Out-migrants
Percentage
Thousands
Percentage
Same province, urban
77
10.6
19
6.0
Same province, rural
79
10.8
28
8.9
Other province, urban
119
16.3
22
7.0
Other province, rural
118
16.2
1.9
Pakistan
102
14.0
17
5.4
228
31.2
175
55.6
Arabian Peninsula
0.3
32
10.2
Other country
0.7
15
4.8
730
100.0
315
100.0
Total
Source:
72
The NRVA 2005 provides additional information on the country of

destination and length of stay of Afghan migrants. As the NRVA 2005 used
different migration categories and methodological procedures than the NRVA
2007/08, data collected by the two surveys cannot be compared. The results of
the NRVA 2005 indicate that 75 per cent of Afghans who migrated to Pakistan
did so seasonally and 47 per cent of those who migrated to the Islamic Republic
of Iran did so seasonally. The majority of Afghans who migrated to Europe did
so permanently, with an estimated 11,198 households containing a permanent
Afghan migrant in Europe (MRRD and CSO, 2007).
Demographic characteristics of out-migrants

Among the international out-migrants included in the NRVA 2007/08,
almost all were male (Figure 9), but female migrants constituted a larger share
(55%) of rural-to-rural migrants, likely due to migration for marriage. Among
the Kuchi population, men and women migrate equally. Out-migrants are
considerably younger than the general population: almost half of all male outmigrants and two out of five female out-migrants were under the age of 25
(Icon-Institute, 2009).
Figure 9: Gender of out-migrants by type of move, NRVA 2007/08
Rural to rural
45
Kuchi
55
50
50
Urban to rural
72
Rural to urban
28
81
Urban to urban
19
86
Total
88
International
12
95
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
Male
Source:
14
50%
60%
70%
80%
90%
100%
Female
73
Characteristics of Afghans abroad

Pakistan
Over 3 million Afghans resided in Pakistan in 2005. Of these migrants 51
per cent were male and 49 per cent female. The 2005 census of Afghan migrants
living in Pakistan found that there were 548,105 Afghan families living in Pakistan.
The average family size was 5.6 people. Of the total population of 3 million,
592,740 individuals (or 19.4 per cent of the Afghan population in Pakistan) were
under five years of age (Government of Pakistan and UNHCR, 2005).
The majority of Afghans in Pakistan (2,485,120 people, 81.5%) were
ethnic Pashtuns. The remainder were Tajik (7.3%), Uzbek (2.3%), Hazara (1.3%),
Turkmen (2.0%), Baloch (1.7%) or others (3.9%). At the time that the census
was conducted, the majority of resident Afghans (82.6%) indicated having
no intention to return to Afghanistan. Primary reasons for not returning to
Afghanistan included the lack of shelter and livelihood opportunites in origin
communities. Insecurity was also mentioned to a lesser extent (Government of
Pakistan and UNHCR, 2005).

According to the Iranian Amayesh census17, 1,021,323 Afghans lived in the
Islamic Republic of Iran in 2005. Within this population 54.7 per cent were male
and 45.3 per cent female. The majority (84.3%) were documented, meaning that
they either possessed an Amayesh card or were registered as refugees; the high
level of documentation reflects the studys focus on documented Afghans and
is therefore unlikely to be representative of real documentation trends (AbbasiShavazi et al., 2008).
Data collected by the Bureau for Aliens and Foreign Immigrants Affairs
(BAFIA) in the Islamic Republic of Iran indicate that the majority of Afghans living
in the country were Shia Hazaras (40.5%), Sunni Tajiks (22.1%), Sunni Pashtuns
(8.8%), Sunni Balochs (3.1%) and Sunni Uzbeks (2.5%) (Koepke, 2011). A 2006
study by UNHCR and the International Labour Organization (ILO) confirms this
ethnic composition (Wickramasekara et al., 2006). Data from the research by
Ahmadinejad (2011) noted that 66.9 per cent of respondents were Hazaras, 17.4
per cent Pashtuns, 6.2 per cent Tajiks and 10.4 per cent Balochs.
Amayesh is a census aiming to identify Afghans in the Islamic Republic of Iran, which is periodically taken by
the Ministry of Interior.
17
74
A study by UNHCR and ILO found that the average household size of Afghan
families in the Islamic Republic of Iran was 5.6 persons, which is higher than the
general average of 4.1 persons in Iranian families (Wickramasekara et al., 2006).
The study by Ahmadinejad (2011), found a similar average household size of 5.4
persons. This relatively high average household size may indicate a high fertility
rate among Afghans in the Islamic Republic of Iran (Abbasi-Shavazi and Sadeghi,
2011), which would explain the relatively young Afghan population in the Islamic
Republic of Iran. The median age of Afghans in the Islamic Republic of Iran is
17.6 years for the female population and 17.4 years for the male population.
Wickramasekara et al. (2006) use population pyramids to compare the age
distribution of the Afghan and Iranian population in 2005 and then compare this
to the Afghan population in the Islamic Republic of Iran. This arguably illustrates
how the Afghan population has adapted to the living conditions in the Islamic
Republic of Iran, converging toward a similar age distribution as followed by the
Iranian population.
The UNHCR and ILO study revealed that 40 per cent of the surveyed
households contained members age 14 or younger; 58 per cent contained
members exclusively in the 15-64 age range. This indicates that more than half
(53%) of the sampled Afghan population was born in the Islamic Republic of Iran
and can thus be considered second generation (Wickramasekara et al., 2006).
The study conducted by Ahmadinejad (2011) found a higher average age of
22.5 years among undocumented refugees and 23.9 years among documented
refugees.
Table 17: Age structure of Afghan refugees in the Islamic Republic of Iran (in %)
Age group
Afghan survey
ILO and UNHCR (2005)
Amayesh census
(2005)
Population census
(1995)
0-4
11.3
3.7
10.3
5-17
37.0
42.2
37.0
18-59
47.9
51.0
50.4
60+
Sample size
Source:
3.8
3.1
2.3
8,430
743,856
60,055,000
Wickramasekara et al., 2006.

Of the estimated 89,040 ethnic Afghans living in the United States in 2006,
49.1 per cent were male and 50.9 per cent were female. In contrast to Afghans
living in the Islamic Republic of Iran and Pakistan, the median age of Afghans in
the United States is much higher at 30.5 years. Table 18 shows this population
75
by age group. Of the entire Afghan population in the United States, 57,847 were
foreign born and 31,193 were native born (US Census Bureau, 2013). The ethnic
composition and religious affiliations of the Afghan population in the United
States is diverse. The majority of Afghans are of Pashtun or Tajik ethnicity, but
minority communities of Uzbeks, Hazaras, Afghan Jews and Afghan Hindus also
exist (The Embassy of Afghanistan in Washington, D.C., 2006b).
Table 18: Afghans in the United States by age group, 2011
Age group
Number
Under 5 years
5,431
5 to 17 years
18,342
18 to 34 years
26,267
35 to 64 years
31,877
65 years and over
7,123
Total
Source:
89,040
US Census Bureau, 2013.
Canada
Of the 48,090 Afghans counted in the 2006 Census, 24,255 were male
and 23,835 female. Some of these individuals, however, belong to the second or
even to the third generation. Table 19 shows the age distribution of the ethnic
Afghan population over the age of 15 in Canada broken down by first, second
and third generation. The majority of Afghans living in Canada are relatively
young, between 15 and 34 years of age (Statistics Canada, 2006).
Table 19: Age distribution of 1st, 2nd and 3rd generation Afghans in Canada, 2006
Age group
1st
generation
Total
2nd
generation
3rd generation
or more
15-24
10,540
9,650
725
75
25-34
7,865
7,690
160
20
35-44
6,660
6,505
90
65
45-54
4,790
4,730
25
50
55-64
2,195
2,175
20
65-74
880
870
75 and over
395
380
15
10
Source: Statistics Canada, 2006.
The 2006 Census found that age of arrival for Afghans also favoured the
young: 3,575 younger than 5; 9,600 between 5 and 14; 8,900 between 15 and
24; 11,960 between 25 and 44; and only 4,180 older than 45 (Statistics Canada,
2006).
76
Germany
According to the Federal Statistical Office of Germany, a total of 145,000
first and second generation Afghans lived in Germany in 2011. Around 100,000
of these moved to Germany, while around 45,000 people of Afghan origin do not
have a migration experience of their own (Statistisches Bundesamt Deutschland,
2012b). In terms of gender distribution, males consistently outnumbered females
between 2004 and 2011 (Statistisches Bundesamt, 2012a). The age distribution
of Afghan citizens in Germany is displayed in Figure 10. The average age of the
Afghan population in Germany is 31.0 years.
Figure 10: Afghan population in Germany by age group, 2012
14,000
11,573
Afghan Nationals
12,000
10,000
8,505
7,433
8,000
6,239
6,000
4,000
3,704
4,124
5,724
3,412
2,535
1,978
2,000
1,040
0
below 5-10 10-15 15-20 20-25 25-35 35-45 45-55 55-65 65-75 75 and
5
older
Age Groups
Source: Statistisches Bundesamt, 2012a.
The Netherlands
The Centraal Bureau voor de Statistiek reports that of the 42,348 Afghans
living in the Netherlands in 2013, 22,586 are male and 19,780 female (CBS,
2013a). The Afghan population in the Netherlands is relatively young: in 2003,
the majority (90%) of Afghans in the Netherlands was under the age of 44 and
more than half (55%) was under 25 years of age. Sources indicate that around
30 per cent of all children with Afghan background were born in the Netherlands
(Siegel et al., 2010). Table 20 shows the age distribution among Afghans in the
Netherlands between 1996 and 2012.
77
Table 20: Afghans in the Netherlands by age group, 1996-2012

Year
Total
0-20
1996
4,916
1998
11,551
2000
21,468
2002
31,167
2004
36,043
2006
2008
20 to 65
65 and older
2,543
70
5,476
5,911
164
10,166
10,963
339
14,379
16,285
503
16,187
19,173
683
37,246
16,237
20,213
796
37,370
15,481
20,996
893
2010
38,664
14,937
22,696
1,031
2012
41,473
15,211
24,999
1,263
Source:
2,303
CBS, 2013a.
United Kingdom
The Afghan population in the United Kingdom was estimated to be 35,000
males and 20,000 females in 2009. Many young Afghan men are known to reside
in London (Oeppen, 2009). The age distribution of Afghans living in the United
Kingdom is shown in Figure 11. It can be seen that the majority of Afghans are
of working age.
Figure 11: Afghan born nationals in the United Kingdom by age group, 2011
20,000
17,419
18,000
15,684
Afghan Nationals
16,000
14,652
14,000
12,000
10,000
9,568
8,000
6,000
3,177
4,000
1,654
2,000
0
0-15
16-24
25-34
35-49
Age Groups
Source:
78
Office for National Statistics, 2014.
50-64
65 and older
Afghan permanent residents and citizens nationalized abroad

Pakistan
The Pakistan State Minister for Interior stated in 2008 that citizenship had
been granted to some Afghans in accordance with the provisions of the Pakistan
Citizenship Act 1951 and Naturalization Act 1926. Only very few Afghanistanborn migrants in Pakistan have obtained Pakistani citizenship: 110 Afghans were
granted citizenship in 2008, in 2009 the number had decreased to 7, while 9
people received citizenship in 2010 (Taj, 2010).
Until 2007, when the first registrations took place and Afghan refugees
in Pakistan were provided with Proof of Registration cards, Afghans had lived
in Pakistan without any legal documentation for 28 years (Human Rights
Commission of Pakistan, 2009). The lack of formal status brought with it a
number of legal problems for Afghans residing in Pakistan; under the Foreigners
Registration Act, unregistered migrants could be stopped, searched and arrested
without much legal recourse. In 2010, the Government of Pakistan extended
the validity of registration cards for 1.7 million Afghans, allowing them to stay in
Pakistan three more years (UNHCR, 2012c). The possession of valid registration
cards has not provided full protection against arbitrary detention by the police,
however (Human Rights Commission of Pakistan, 2009). Citizenship acquisition
law is unclear on the circumstances that must be fulfilled for Pakistani nationality
to be granted. According to Pakistani citizenship laws and international practice,
Afghans should be eligible to become Pakistani citizens after seven years of stay
in Pakistan; some sources also claim that any child born on Pakistani soil should
be entitled to citizenship based on jus soli provisions (Khattak et al., 2006).

Very few Afghans have obtained Iranian citizenship in the past decades.
The Iranian parliament grants Iranian men the right to apply for citizenship for
their foreign-born wives and children based on Paragraph 6 of Article 976 of
the Islamic Republic of Irans Civil Code stipulates that a foreign woman may
acquire Iranian citizenship upon marriage to an Iranian man. The parliament has,
however, only authorized the issuing of permanent residence permits to Afghan
spouses of Iranian women under specific conditions, while they do not qualify
for citizenship (Ashrafi and Moghissi, 2002). According to Article 2 of the Islamic
Republic of Irans Civil Code, anyone born to an Iranian father, regardless of place
of birth, is considered an Iranian citizen under jus sanguinis provisions. The Civil
Code does not outline any such provisions according to the mothers citizenship
79
and the fathers citizenship thus serves as a decisive factor in determining

descent and bloodline (Shahrzad, 2002).
In contrast to Pakistan, the Islamic Republic of Iran is a signatory of the
1951 United Nations Refugee Convention, but very few Afghans have actually
been granted refugee status and given the right to settle in the Islamic Republic
of Iran. Even those who arrived as refugees in the early 1980s were only
granted temporary stay permits. A study by UNHCR and ILO reported that of
the study sample of 4,295 Afghans residing in the Islamic Republic of Iran, 93
per cent claimed to have obtained some permit to stay in the country. Of the
total sample, only 276 persons admitted to being without valid resident permits
(Wickramasekara et al., 2006).

Every child who is born within the United States, regardless of their parents
nationality, is entitled to US citizenship under jus soli provisions. Information on
Afghan migrants who naturalized or gained citizenship in the United States is
available from 1994 to 2012. The number of Afghans who have naturalized in the
United States has remained relatively stable over the years, with an exception
in 1996, when a total of 4,141 Afghans obtained United States citizenship (Table
21). The 2011 American Community Survey revealed that of the 89,040 Afghans
counted at that time, 42,269 persons had become naturalized United States
citizens. Of these individuals, 46.5 per cent were male and 53.5 per cent female
(US Census Bureau, 2013).
Table 21: Afghans naturalized in the United States, 1994-2012
Year
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
Naturalizations
1,995
2,031
4,141
1,839
1,736
2,752
2,832
1,938
1,424
1,235
Year
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
Naturalizations
1,323
1,464
2,018
2,013
2,650
2,588
2,230
1,998
1,758
Source:
Homeland Security, 2004, 2010, 2013.
Interviewees in the study by Oeppen (2009) mentioned that family

reunification was the main reason for applying for citizenship. Legal permanent
residents of the United States can only sponsor the immigration of their spouse
or unmarried children, while citizens are allowed to sponsor married children,
siblings and parents. This also explains why family reunification has been the
major source of Afghan immigration to the United States since the Soviet
withdrawal from Afghanistan (Oeppen, 2009).
80
Canada
Of the 48,090 Afghans counted in the 2006 Census, 31,065 were Canadian
citizens; of these, 27,030 held Canadian citizenship exclusively, while 4,035
individuals had dual citizenship (Statistics Canada, 2006).
Germany
Data from 2011 show that of the 56,563 Afghan nationals living in Germany,
15,171 had permanent residence status and 25,438 held a temporary residence
permit. Only 2.4 per cent had the Duldungsstatus (which is a statutory
temporary suspension of deportation) (Statistisches Bundesamt, 2012a).
About 40 per cent of all Afghan migrants in Germany have German
citizenship; the majority of those individuals entered the country before 1979
(Vadean, 2007). Between 1981 and 2011, 18,186 Afghans were naturalized as
shown in Figure 12 (Statistisches Bundesamt Deutschland, 2013b). In comparison
to other migrant groups in Germany, the naturalization rate of Afghan-origin
individuals is relatively high.
Figure 12: Number of naturalizations by Afghans in Germany, 1981-2011
6,000
Number of Naturalizations
5,000
4,000
3,000
2,000
1,000
0
Source:
Statistisches Bundesamt Deutschland, 2013b.
81
The Netherlands
Among all Afghan-born individuals residing in the Netherlands,
naturalization trends reflect overall immigration trends. Figure 13 shows that
the number of citizenship acquisitions was relatively low in 1996 (360) and 1997
(217) but increased drastically to over 1,800 in 1999. The low numbers in 1996
and 1997 may be due to the small number of Afghans residing in the country
for the number of years required for naturalization (CBS, 2013a). After 1999 the
number of acquisitions fell constantly (with the exception of 2002) and reached
371 in 2011.
Figure 13: Acquisition of citizenship by Afghans in the Netherlands, 1996-2011
2,000
1,800
1,600
1,400
1,200
1,000
800
600
400
200
0
Source:
CBS, 2013a.
Between 1996 and 2003, approximately 60 per cent of all Afghans who
were naturalized did so independently, while 40 per cent did so as part of a
family naturalization process (mede-naturalisatie) by which minors under the
age of 16 acquire citizenship simultaneously with their parents (Siegel et al.,
2010). In 2000, 3,870 individuals were dual Dutch-Afghan nationals; that number
increased to 8,412 by 2005 and reached 11,797 by 2012 (CBS, 2013a).
United Kingdom
The sharp increase of Afghan nationals seeking asylum in the United
Kingdom has been met with increasing rates of naturalization (Change Institute,
2009). Foreign residents of the United Kingdom married to British citizens are
82
entitled to naturalization after three years of uninterrupted residence; five years

of residence are required before individuals not married to British citizens can
apply for citizenship (UK Border Agency, 2013).
Figure 14 shows that the first peak of citizenship acquisition occurred
in 2005 and a second, much more significant one, in 2007. These trends
correspond with high inflows of asylum-seekers from Afghanistan in 2001. In
2008, 5,540 Afghans were granted British citizenship, which represents a 48 per
cent decrease from 2007, when 10,555 Afghans were granted citizenship (Home
Office, 2008, 2009). In 2009, Afghans ranked 11th among all nationalities to be
granted British citizenship, with 5,010 individuals gaining citizenship in that year
(Home Office, 2010). The number has remained between about 4,000 and 5,000
annually since then (Home Office, 2013).
Figure 14: Acquisition of citizenship by Afghans in the United Kingdom, 1990-2012
12,000
10,000
8,000
6,000
4,000
2,000
Source:
Home Office, 2013.
India
The Indian Express newspaper reported in 2006 that a Sikh woman was
the first Afghan refugee who had ever gained Indian citizenship (Handique,
2006). At the time more than 9,700 Afghan refugees resided in New Delhi alone,
83
the majority of which had been living in India for over 10 years (Bose, 2005).
In 2010, the Times of India reported that 1,083 Afghan nationals were granted
Indian citizenship between January 2007 and December 2009 (The Times of
India, 2010). Over 3,000 Afghan refugees had expressed an interest in acquiring
Indian citizenship, but long waiting times, complicated application procedures
and strict eligibility criteria make the process difficult (Handique, 2006). To gain
Indian citizenship a foreign citizen must be married to an Indian citizen for a
minimum of seven years; unmarried foreign nationals must have lived in the
country for at least 12 years. Documentation in the form of a residence permit
issued by the Indian government must be provided to prove residence duration,
which is difficult to achieve for many Afghan refugees who entered the country
without proper documentation. A recent increase in application fees from 2,100
rupees (USD 49) to 15,000 rupees (USD 347) further hampers the process of
citizenship acquisition. As soon as an application for naturalization has been
filed, the applicant must remain in India until the end of the process. In many
families where men migrate out of India seasonally, mostly women apply for
citizenship, a strategy that ensures that families have the option for circular
migration. Access to Indian citizenship can also promote economic integration,
as Afghan refugees do not have the right to work in India and thus often have to
look for work in the informal sector where conditions are worse (Bose, 2005).
B.2.2. EMIGRATION FOR EMPLOYMENT

Widespread poverty and a lack of income-generating opportunities drive
many Afghans to look for employment abroad. The NRVA 2007/08 revealed that
over 53 per cent (239,000) of Afghan households that had a member absent
sometime in the past five years also included labour migrants. The Western
region of Afghanistan has experienced above average rates of returning labour
migrants. Labour migration is an almost exclusively male phenomenon, with 94
per cent of labour in-migrants being men, compared to 77 per cent of all inmigrants. Almost three out of four labour in-migrants did not attend school, with
the exception of those migrants from urban areas, who often had primary or
secondary education (Icon-Institute, 2009).
Table 22 shows that the Islamic Republic of Iran was by far the most
important origin of Afghan labour in-migrants. It was also the destination of
almost two in every three labour out-migrants. Labour migration is a strategy
employed by many and it is all the more feasible for households in the region
neighbouring the Islamic Republic of Iran. Mean duration of residence abroad
84
was 16 months, with most returning labour migrants (61%) staying abroad
between 6 and 23 months (Icon-Institute, 2009).
Table 22: Place of origin of labour in-migrants and place of destination
of labour out-migrants, NRVA 2007/08
Place of origin/ destination
In-migrants
Thousands
Out-migrants
Percentage
Thousands
Percentage
205
46.3
169
66.5
Other province
161
36.4
19
7.5
Same province
37
8.3
14
5.6
Pakistan
34
7.7
11
4.3
1.1
41
16.1
442
100.0
254
100.0
Other country
Total
Source:
Demographic characteristics of labour migrants

Table 23 shows that more labour out-migrants (49%) were concentrated
in the 15-24 year age group than were labour in-migrants (29%). The small group
of female labour migrants stands out: they tend to be significantly older than the
total group of female in-migrants (which is dominated by marriage migration),
with more than 30 per cent of female labour out-migrants aged 40 years or older.
They differ in this regard not only from female out-migrants in general (12 per
cent aged 40 or older) but also from male out-migrants, only 9 per cent of whom
are over 40 (Icon-Institute, 2009).
Table 23: Labour migrants by age group and sex (in %), NRVA 2007/08
Age group
% Male
In-migrants
% Female
Out-migrants
In-migrants
Out-migrants
15-24
29
49
28
35
25-39
50
42
42
33
40+
21
31
32
Source:
85
Employment and unemployment rate of Afghans abroad

Canada
The 2006 Census enumerated 33,235 Afghan individuals of working age,
of which 16,725 were male and 16,510 female. Of this number 18,895 were in
the labour market and 16,465 were employed (10,385 males and 6,080 females).
The employment rate was estimated at 62.1 per cent for males, 36.8 per cent for
females and 49.5 per cent for both sexes combined. The unemployment rate was
12.9 per cent of Afghans in Canada (10.6 per cent for males and 16.5 per cent for
females). Of those Afghans who were employed, most worked in the following
sectors: sales and service (7,660), trades and transport (2,555), business-finance
and administration (1,930) and management occupations (1,405) (Statistics
Canada, 2006).
Germany
The socioeconomic characteristics and residence status of Afghan
migrants in Germany are reflective of overall Afghan migration trends. Afghans
who arrived before or around 1979 belonged to the educated elite and were thus
better integrated in Germany than subsequent migrant cohorts. Many of the
1979-era arrivals have permanent resident status or German citizenship, while
this is the case for less of those Afghans who entered Germany more recently.
Afghans who acquired their education and training abroad often have difficulties
getting their diplomas and qualifications recognized in Germany. Vadean (2007)
found that 78.4 per cent of all interviewees had not received training or work
experience in their profession after entering Germany. As a consequence, the
majority of Afghans work in the low-skilled sector and experience declining
social mobility compared to their study or professional status before they arrived
in Germany (Vadean, 2007). Data from the Microcensus of 2011 indicate that,
as of 2011, 54,000 Afghans and Germans with former Afghan nationality were
employed. The largest group (28,000) worked as white collar workers, 16,000 as
labourers and 9,000 were self-employed (Statistisches Bundesamt, 2012b). This
suggests a slightly more positive picture of the employment status of Afghans in
Germany compared to Vadean (2007). Only a small group of Afghans in Germany
were unemployed (8,000 persons) (Statistisches Bundesamt, 2012b).
The Netherlands
Figure 15 illustrates the employment rate in the Netherlands of the
Afghan working-age population (ages 15-60) by year of arrival (1999-2005).
86
The employment rate for Afghans in the Netherlands increased each year,
with an exception seen in 2004 when employment decreased for the more
established cohorts and in 2005, in which the 1998 cohort saw a decline in
employment. Siegel et al. (2010) report that Afghans between the ages of 30
and 50 have the weakest position in the Dutch labour market. This is largely due
to limited transferability of skills and qualifications between Afghanistan and the
Netherlands. Moreover, Afghans aged 30 to 50 face more difficulties in training
or re-educating themselves. While practical knowledge required for technical
fields is the most easily transferable, there are a number of problems for Afghans
in the Netherlands in securing a job in this field due to lack of coordination in
certifications and limited previous work experience in the Netherlands (Siegel et
al., 2010).
Figure 15: Employment rate of Afghans in the Netherlands (%), 1999-2005
Employment Rate (%), 1999-2005

40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005
Year
Arrival
Sep. '98Sep.' 99
Arrival
Sep. '01Sep.'02
Source:
Arrival
Sep. '99Sep.' 00
Arrival
Sep. '02Sep.'03
Arrival
Sep. '00Sep.'01
Arrival
Sep. '03Sep.'04
Siegel et al., 2010.
United Kingdom
Oeppen (2009) found that 24 per cent of the economically active Afghan
population in London was unemployed, compared to just 6 per cent of the total
economically active population in London. A study by the Change Institute (2009)
87
that interviewed 205 Afghans in the United Kingdom also found that a majority
of respondents faced socioeconomic problems. A lack of English-language skills
was reported as a major obstacle for not gaining access to the labour market
and many Afghans reported being engaged in low-paid employment that often
involved long working hours and shift work. Low-skilled jobs such as taxi drivers
or work in catering and restaurants were the most common. Some respondents
did not have access to employment at their proper skill level due to limited
recognition of foreign educational qualifications. Many interviewees stated that
they had experienced a loss of social, economic and professional status since
their arrival in the United Kingdom. This was especially the case for men who
reported working in low-skilled jobs. Information on the prevalence of this
kind of downward mobility is lacking, but anecdotal evidence suggests that
the phenomenon of low skilled labour among Afghan migrants in the United
Kingdom is widespread (Change Institute, 2009).
Competition with national labour force

Islamic Republic of Iran and Pakistan
Since their influx into the Islamic Republic of Iran, Afghan refugees have
been permitted to work in those sectors of the Iranian labour market that have
positions not easily filled by Iranian workers. Many Afghans therefore work in
the informal sector under hazardous conditions (Koepke, 2011). Afghans in the
Islamic Republic of Iran are a very competitive labour force willing to tolerate
low wages and reputed to be hard workers (Majidi, 2008; Overfeld and Zumot,
2010). The Afghanistan Research and Evaluation Unit (AREU) and the Collective
for Social Science Research (2006) state that the Iranian employers hire Afghan
workers for their high sense of responsibility and dedication, their readiness
for difficult and hazardous jobs as well as their acceptance of lower wages
compared to Iranians. Undefined regulations for employing Afghans coupled with
difficulties in employing national workers further incentivize Iranian employers
to hire Afghans. Majidi (2008) conducted interviews with Iranian employers in
the cities of Isfahan, Shiraz and Yazd and confirms that Afghan workers are often
preferred over Iranian workers because of their ability to work hard, their sense
of responsibility, their effective use of on-the-job training and their willingness
to work overtime and underwage without any contractual obligations for the
employer. A study on the profile of Afghan households in the Islamic Republic of
Iran identified hard work, flexibility, reliability and cost advantages (wages and
product prices) as the main reasons for preferring Afghan over Iranian workers
88
According to the Iranian Deputy Minister of Interior, approximately 2

million documented and undocumented Afghans were employed in the labour
market in the Islamic Republic of Iran in 2010 (Koepke, 2011). However, according
to a study by ILO and UNHCR, Afghans of working age in the Islamic Republic
of Iran accounted for only 1.8 per cent of the total active labour force in 2006
In the 2005 Pakistan Census undertaken by UNHCR and the Government
of Pakistan, 53 per cent (292,045) of Afghan respondents reported to be living
on daily wages. The number may be much higher when considering that 19.2
per cent (105,249) reported being self-employed, which may include individuals
who work in casual daily labour. Only 8.1 per cent (44,510) of the respondents
reported being employed (Government of Pakistan and UNHCR, 2005).
In both Pakistan and the Islamic Republic of Iran, Afghans are held
responsible, at least partly, for the rapid and often anarchic urbanization of
provincial capitals. They have further been blamed for economic downturn by
accepting lower wages and competing with the local poor for jobs (International
Crisis Group, 2009).
Gulf Cooperation Council States

It is estimated that at least 53,000 Afghan workers using (sometimes fake)
Pakistani passports have been hired in the United Arab Emirates. According to
the Government of the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan (GIRoA), as many as
100,000 Afghan labour migrants may currently be working in Gulf Cooperation
Council states (GCC) countries. A large number of Pakistanis who compete with
the Afghan migrants for similar positions live and work in the GCC; it is estimated
that approximately 100,000 Afghans compete with over 1.5 million Pakistanis in
the same region. While approximately 4 million jobs have recently been created
in the region, mainly in the construction sector, increasing unemployment among
the GCC population further increased pressure on Afghan and Pakistan migrants
alike, who compete with other low-skilled workers from other source countries
in Asia as well. The authorities of Saudi Arabia, the United Arab Emirates and
Kuwait have discussed the issue of job competition and proposed a policy that
prioritizes each countrys nationals over foreigners to secure employment.
Such a policy mainly affects high-skilled positions in the GCC area (Overfeld and
Zumot, 2010).
As in the case of the Islamic Republic of Iran, the willingness of Afghan labour
migrants to work for lower wages than their Pakistani or GCC counterparts and to
89
accept much lower living standards remains a strong incentive for employers to
hire them. Afghan migrant labourers in the GCC might be perceived as a growing
competition to Pakistan labourers and a potential risk to Pakistans economy.
If managed properly (such as through country-based quota systems), however,
increased Afghan labour migration to the GCC states could ultimately contribute
to economic stability in the border regions of Afghanistan and Pakistan (Overfeld
and Zumot, 2010).
Border migration
In 2008, UNHCR commissioned research to examine cross-border flows
between Pakistan and Afghanistan. Data on migrants crossing the AfghanistanPakistan border were collected at two crossing points: Torkham (East) and Spin
Boldak/Chaman (South). The research was based on a random selection of crossborder migrants both leaving and entering Afghanistan during late summer and
fall, when seasonal migration peaks. A total of 2,023 interviews were conducted
at both cross-border points. Additionally, a counting exercise lasting seven days
was carried out in September 2008 (Majidi, 2009).
The responsibility for controlling the exit and entry of all individuals across
the border, regardless of nationality, lies with the Afghan border police and
passport office. Data on population movements are collected on a regular basis
and are reported to the Ministry of Interior in Kabul. Table 24 shows the numbers
of population movements for the week of 11-17 September, 2008 reported by
the Ministry of Interior as well as those counted by the research team and UNHCR
staff. The comparison shows a wide gap between the reported numbers, which is
due to the fact that the official mechanisms in place only register people moving
with a passport or valid visa. This represents only a minority of all movements,
however, which highlights the high incidence of irregular flows through the
border point in Torkham. While official records stated that 150 people crossed
the border at Torkham on 11 September 2008, the counting exercise found
12,934 border crossings on the same day. High differences between official
records and those collected by the research team were also observed on other
days of data collection. Based on these discrepancies, it can be suggested that
the border police and passport office at the Afghanistan-Pakistan border are
not able to adequately control or document the nature and size of actual crossborder movements (Majidi, 2009).
90
Table 24: Comparison of legal versus irregular entry and exit at

the Torkham border, September 2008
Date
Entry
Official Nr.
Exit
Actual Nr.
Official Nr.
Actual Nr.
11/09/2008 (AM only)
150
12,934
138
23,934
12/09/2008 (AM only)
75
12,507
64
18,993
13/09/2008 (AM only)
194
16,080
54
21,889
14/09/2008 (PM only)
91
5,454
78
8,392
15/09/2008 (PM only)
77
10,588
112
12,384
16/09/2008 (PM only)
141
10,220
70
11,953
Source:
Majidi, 2009.
The areas that lie on the Pakistani side of the border include the NWFP,
Federally Administered Tribal Areas and Balochistan. The border areas on the
Afghan side from North to South - are Badakhshan, Nuristan, Kunar, Nangarhar,
Paktia, Khost, Paktika, Zabol and Kandahar. Nangarhar and Kandahar are two
out of the five most populated Afghan provinces with 1,182,000 and 886,000
residents respectively. The two major official border crossing points of Torkham
and Spin Boldak are located in these two provinces. However, hundreds of
unofficial crossing points also exist. Since the border runs through Pashtun and
Baloch tribal territory, with members of these groups living on both sides of
the border, most people consider the border as fluid or non-existent. Many
respondents of the study stated that they did not actually know where the
border was located (Majidi, 2009).
Data from the UNHCR border counting team are presented in Figure
16. The figure shows the evaluation (over 18 months in 2007 and 2008) of the
outgoing and incoming flows of individuals at the Torkham border. Seasonal
weather conditions have a significant impact on cross-border migration to
Pakistan. A higher number of individuals crossed the border to Pakistan during
the months approaching the winter; while hot summer months tend to bring
Afghans back home, tough winter days draw them back to Pakistan. Overall,
higher numbers of cross-border movements were observed at the time of the
New Year18 in Afghanistan and continuing throughout the months of summer
(Majidi, 2009).
The study conducted by Majidi (2009) also revealed that a far greater
number of people cross the border at Torkham, in both directions, than at
Spin Boldak. In September 2008, over 382,518 individuals crossed the border
Nowruz marks the first day of spring and is the name of the New Year in Iranian calendars. It is usually
celebrated on March 21 or the previous/following day.
18
91
at Torkham in the monitoring week, compared to 181,292 at Spin Boldak. In

November 2008, the average weekly flow was slightly higher, with 401,209
individuals crossing the border at Torkham and 224,480 at Spin Boldak. The
difference might be, at least in part, due to a lower population density near
Torkham, higher insecurity in the Southern region, the lower presence of Afghan
refugees in the southern end of the border and the lower volume of trade
moving through Spin Boldak than through Torkham (Majidi, 2009).
Figure 16: The scope of cross-border movement at Torkham, 2007-2008
60,000
Cross-border movements
50,000
40,000
30,000
20,000
10,000
0
Outgoing Individuals
Source:
Incoming Indivduals
Majidi, 2009.
The 2009 border crossing study revealed that at both border crossing
points, the majority of migrants were single adult males (Figure 17 and Figure 18).
Families made up only a small proportion of the total population flows (Majidi,
2009). The data from the 2011 annual border monitoring report of the UNHCR
also show that the majority were single males (80-85%) who indicated that they
were temporarily moving to Pakistan to look for work in order to provide for
their families (UNHCR, 2012a). In the IS Academy data19 most migrants crossing
the Afghanistan-Pakistan border (75.3%) were also males who travelled alone
with the purpose of finding work in low-skilled profession in Pakistan. The 2009
border crossing study found that 81.2 per cent over the 2,000 interviewees
The IS Academy: Migration and Development Project was conducted by Maastricht University and co-funded
by the Dutch Ministry of Foreign Affairs and the International Organization for Migration in Afghanistan. The
study was conducted in partnership with the Afghanistan Central Statistics Organization and implemented
by Samuel Hall Consulting. It is one of the main statistical sources for this Migration Profile.
19
92
travelled without any type of documentation such as a passport, valid visa or

ID document, which further confirms that official regulation of cross-border
movement is limited (Majidi, 2009).
Figure 17: Torkham cross-border flows, Fall 2008
31,727
23,617
30,554
26,761
26,264
23,419
20,964
16,396
5,504
3,426 3,887
2,692
Family
Singles
Total
Family
Singles
Total
Incoming Individuals
Sep 08
Nov 08
Source: Majidi, 2009.
Figure 18: Spin Boldak cross-border flows, Fall 2008
19,104
14,300
15,600
14,846
12,439
12,210
8,723
1,864 2,581
Family
957
Singles
Total
1,908
Family
Singles
Total
Incoming Individuals
Sep 08
Source:
10,318
Nov 08
Majidi, 2009.
93
Cross-border traffic declined in 2011 compared to 2010 (Table 25). This

is likely due to the worsening security situation in Pakistan due to increased
military intervention of the Pakistani army in the KPK region as well as increasing
political tension between Pakistan and Afghanistan (UNHCR, 2012a).
Table 25: Head count yearly comparison: outgoing and incoming
movements (excluding voluntary refugee returnees), 2007-2011
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
Outgoing
198,765
401,455
283,100
337,452
265,739
Incoming
167,841
364,733
274,387
322,589
270,343
Source:
UNHCR, 2012a.
B.2.3. EMIGRATION FOR STUDY PURPOSES

About 25 public universities are operating in Afghanistan with over 100,000
students enrolled. Acceptance in universities is highly competitive and based
on an entrance exam. As a result, many private universities and institutes have
been established in the major cities. To meet the increasing demand for highly
educated and technically competent young people who can contribute to the
countrys reconstruction, opportunities for education abroad have increased.
The Government of the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan has been supporting
exchange programmes with universities abroad and promotes collaborative
partnerships between secondary schools, for example with California in the
United States (The Global Connections and Exchange (GCE) programme in
Afghanistan) (US Department of State, 2013a).
In addition to exchange programmes, many countries provide scholarships
for Afghan students who want to pursue higher education outside their home
country. In 2009, Pakistan announced that it would offer 1,000 scholarships
to Afghan students to study in Pakistan. The scholarships are offered in
almost all disciplines, with a particular focus on engineering, medicine and
agriculture, as desired by the Afghan delegation. Other important areas include
pharmaceutical studies, computer science, social sciences, business education
and language studies. Pakistan and Afghanistan also agreed to collaborate
on faculty development and student exchange, joint research programmes,
distance education and institutional linkage programmes (University World
News, 2009). Other scholarship programmes are also offered in Pakistan such
as the Albert Einstein German Academic Refugee Initiative (DAFI), which has
been operational for over 20 years. By 2006, more than 900 Afghan refugees in
Pakistan had benefited from this programme since its inception in 1992 (UNHCR,
94
2006a). In 2010, Afghans were the top receiving nationality with more than 400
DAFI students (UNHCR, 2010a). Many other countries also offer scholarships
to Afghan students to strengthen and enhance the development efforts of
the Afghan government. The Australian Development Scholarships (ADS)
programme for Afghanistan, for example, supports Australias development
assistance programme to Afghanistan by targeting human resource gaps within
the Afghan government in selected priority ministries. These scholarships further
foster strong relationships between the two countries. At least 20 scholarships
are offered each year for masters-level degrees and postgraduate diplomas
to employees of Afghan Ministries supported by the AusAID Development
Assistance Facility for Afghanistan (DAFA) (Australian Government, 2011).
Many Afghan student associations (such as ASA4UK and ASA) have
been created in destination countries (such as the United States, Canada,
Germany, the Netherlands and Turkey) that are home to larger Afghan student
populations. Afghan student associations aim to provide a social and academic
platform for Afghan students and offer assistance for education, employment
opportunities and integration (Afghan Students, 2013). Many new networks are
evolving in other countries such as India, where Afghan students often make use
of community platforms such as Facebook to establish contact with others.
It is difficult to estimate the total number of Afghan students enrolled in
tertiary education abroad. The World Education Digest of 2011 by the United
Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) reports a
number of 3,810 Afghans that were studying abroad in 2009. The main destination
countries were the Islamic Republic of Iran (676), Turkey (509), the United States
(400), Germany (278) and the Russian Federation (228) (UIS, 2011).
The Canadian census, which collects data on Afghan students in secondary
and tertiary education, provides further insights into the mobility of Afghans for
educational pruposes. The data from the 2006 Census found that 11,355 Afghans
residing in Canada held a postsecondary certificate, diploma or degree. Of that
number, 4,360 received the qualification inside Canada (mostly Ontario) while
over 7,000 people had received a degree outside the country, many in Pakistan
(1,075), India (275), and the United States (175). The main fields of study in which
tertiary qualifications were gained were architecture, engineering and related
technologies (2,395), business, management and public administration (1,655),
health, parks, recreation and fitness (1,535) and social and behavioural sciences
and law (1,495). Other high-ranking fields included education, humanities and
mathematics as well as computer and information sciences (Statistics Canada,
2006).
95
B.2.4. INVOLUNTARY EMIGRATION

In 2011, over 39,000 Afghans sought asylum worldwide (UNHCR, 2012g).
Most of these applications were filed in industrialized OECD countries (mainly
European countries, including Turkey, and Australia). In the same year, Germany
and Sweden were the main destination countries of Afghan asylum-seekers with
7,767 and 4,122 claims registered respectively (OECD, 2013). In relative terms,
Indonesia experienced a high increase in asylum applications from Afghanistan
in 2009: some 80 per cent of asylum applicants in Indonesia originated from
Afghanistan then (UNHCR, 2010c). In 2011, still more than 50 per cent of the
4,052 asylum claims in Indonesia were lodged by Afghans (2,118). The global
total recognition rate of Afghan asylum applications in 2011 was 53 per cent
(UNHCR, 2012g). Figure 19 shows Afghan asylum claims lodged in industrialised
countries from 2000 to 2012.
Figure 19: Afghan asylum claims lodged in industrialised countries, 2000-2012
55,000
52,784
45,000
Number of Asylum Claims
36,247 36,634
35,000
25,000
31,914
27,151 26,619
25,453
18,453
15,000
14,231
8,850
7,746
8,657
9,992
5,000
-5,000
Source:
Note:

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012
UNHCR, 2003a, 2004a, 2005b, 2006b, 2007a, 2008b, 2009a, 2010b, 2011a, 2012d, 2013d.
Between 2000 and 2005 the reported numbers include asylum claims in 36 countries; from 2006 onwards 44 industrialized
countries are included.
Table 26 gives an overview of the inflow of Afghan asylum-seekers in

selected OECD countries between 2003 and 2011. Further information on some
of the main receiving countries is presented below.
96
Table 26: Inflows of Afghan asylum-seekers in selected OECD countries, 2003-2011

Country
2003
Australia
Austria
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
54
116
32
21
20
52
940
1,265
1,720
2,357
757
923
699
761
1,382
2,237
1,582
3,609
Belgium
329
287
253
365
696
879
1,659
1,124
2,774
Canada
151
152
264
268
308
488
445
399
373
Chile
12
Czech
Republic
50
15
20
36
10
26
Denmark
664
285
173
122
138
418
1,049
1,476
903
Estonia
Finland
51
166
237
97
96
249
445
265
292
France
353
164
135
82
184
263
688
772
653
1,473
918
711
531
338
657
3,375
5,905
7,767
Greece
561
382
458
1 087
1,556
2,287
1,510
524
637
Hungary
469
38
22
13
35
116
1,194
702
649
Ireland
24
106
142
88
78
79
68
92
127
Italy
70
84
76
177
663
1,732
711
873
1,289
Japan
12
Korea
15
60
Luxembourg
13
15
22
Germany
Mexico
Netherlands
New Zealand
Norway
492
688
902
932
143
395
1,281
1,364
1,885
11
2,050
1,059
466
224
234
1,363
3,871
979
979
Poland
251
57
11
14
25
35
Portugal
Slovak
Republic
627
393
109
41
67
72
51
76
75
Slovenia
12
10
11
31
69
12
14
10
15
50
42
41
30
Sweden
811
903
435
594
609
784
1,694
2,393
4,122
Switzerland
218
207
238
233
307
405
751
632
1,006
77
341
364
261
705
2,642
1,009
1,248
2,486
2,590
1,605
1,775
2,660
2,815
3,725
3,540
1,845
1,528
52
72
45
66
91
79
101
156
222
Spain
Turkey
United
Kingdom
United
States
Source:
OECD, 2013.
97
Pakistan
As Pakistan is not a signatory to the 1951 United Nations Refugee
Convention or its subsequent protocols, Afghans crossing the border to
Pakistan after 1979 were not considered asylum-seekers or refugees but rather
involuntary religious migrants. Given this designation it was seen as the duty
of Pakistan, sharing long historical and cultural ties with Afghanistan, to provide
shelter and security to Afghans fleeing war and persecution in their home
country (Human Rights Commission of Pakistan, 2009).
In 1993, UNHCR started registering the Afghan refugee population residing
in Pakistan, but due to complicated registration procedures and fraud, the actual
number of refugees residing in Pakistan per annum is likely to be much higher
than shown in Table 27.
Table 27: Estimated stock of Afghan refugees and asylum applicants registered
by UNHCR in Pakistan, 1993-2012
Year
Refugee population
end of year
Asylum applicants
during the year
1993
1,467,876
1994
1,053,000
1995
1,200,000
1996
1,200,000
1997
1,200,000
1998
1,200,000
1999
1,200,000
2000
2,000,000
2001
2,197,821
2002
1,226,569
2003
1,123,647
4,992
2004
1,290,408
2,380
2005
1,084,208
1,450
2006
1,043,984
1,904
2007
886,666
1,929
2008
1,780,150
1,144
2009
1,739,935
1,178
2010
1,899,842
885
2011
1,701,945
948
1,637,740
2012
Source:
98
UNHCR 2003b, 2007b, 2008d, 2009c, 2010c, 2011c, 2012g, 2013f.

Although the Islamic Republic of Iran is a signatory to the 1951 United
Nations Refugee Convention, Afghans emigrating to the country after 1979 were,
as in the case of Pakistan, considered involuntary religious migrants rather than
asylum-seekers or refugees. The Iranian government mainly refers to Afghans
crossing the border as labour migrants. UNHCR started registering Afghan
refugees in the Islamic Republic of Iran from 1993 onwards. At this time, over 1.8
million Afghan refugees resided in the country (UNHCR, 2003b). Most of these
refugees had come immediately after the Soviet invasion, but the actual number
of Afghans in the country is likely to be much higher than UNHCR records show
in Table 28. Registering Afghan refugees is generally difficult, as most Afghans
who fled in 1979 did not settle in refugee camps, but rather settled in mainly
urban areas across the country. The decrease in the number of Afghan refugees
between 2002 and 2003 is likely due to UNHCRs voluntary repatriation scheme
as well as the relatively strict policies and deportation efforts of Afghan refugees.
Table 28: Afghan refugees in the Islamic Republic of Iran, 1993-2012
Year
Refugee population
end of year
1993
1,850,000
1994
1,623,331
1995
1,429,038
1996
1,414,659
1997
1,411,759
1998
1,400,722
1999
1,325,724
2000
1,482,000
2001
1,482,000
2002
1,104,909
2003
834,699
2004
952,802
2005
920,248
2006
914,260
2007
906,071
2008
935,595
2009
1,022,494
2010
1,027,577
2011
840,451
2012
824,087
Source:
UNHCR, 2003b, 2013f.
99
Afghan asylum-seekers have been registered by UNHCR in the Islamic

Republic of Iran from 2004 onwards (Figure 20). While there were only 24
asylum-seekers in 2004, the number increased steadily to 1,718 in 2009. Since
then the number has declined significantly and there were only 13 in 2012.
Figure 20: Afghan asylum-seekers in the Islamic Republic of Iran, 2004-2012
2,000
1,718
1,800
1,575
1,600
1,639
Asylum-seekers
1,400
1,200
967
1,000
800
526
600
421
400
200
24
56
13
0
2004
Source:
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
UNHCR, 2013f.
Russian Federation
Afghan nationals are the largest group of asylum-seekers in the Russian
Federation. The Russian Federation is often used as a transit country for Afghan
migrants to reach Western Europe (Kenneth, 2001). Table 29 shows that the
number of Afghans that has been granted refugee status in the Russian Federation
is relatively low. The figures fluctuate erratically, as can be seen between 2006
and 2007 when the number of Afghan asylum-seekers increased sharply from
240 to 2,100. One year later, the number of Afghan asylum-seekers dropped to
800. Due to lack of information it cannot be determined whether this is due to
different recording methods or actual changes in the inflows
The Russian Federation became a signatory of the 1951 United Nations
Refugee Convention and its 1967 Protocol in 1992. The implementation of this
commitment, however, shows severe shortcomings. Asylum-seekers often face
long waiting times for applications to be processed, high administrative fees and
a lack of official documents that would protect them against forced repatriation.
Afghans who entered the Russian Federation through neighbouring countries
100
such as Uzbekistan and Tajikistan are often blocked from refugee determination
procedures under the safe third country rule, meaning that they could have
sought refuge in the first country they entered from Afghanistan (UNHCR,
2007d).
Table 29: Afghan refugees and asylum applications in the Russian Federation, 1996-2011
Year
1996
Refugees
Asylum applications
Year
Asylum applications
Source:
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
121
234
376
513
521
491
1,493
1,541
4,592
1,184
3,447
1,458
1,088
1,300
618
500
2004
Refugees
1997
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
1,488
1,294
1,200
1,300
2,400
2,100
2,000
1,700
638
674
827
2,211
2,047
1,577
884
540
UNHCR 2006c, 2007b, 2007c, 2008d, 2008e, 2009c, 2009d, 2010c, 2010e, 2011c, 2011d, 2012g, 2012h.
Of the Afghan refugees residing in the Russian Federation, only a small

number have returned to Afghanistan since the fall of the Taliban. Some Afghans
who supported the Soviet-backed regime would be in danger if they were to
return, while many other Afghans have lost contact with relatives and now lack
the necessary social support network to re-emigrate. Those who were born or
educated in the Soviet Union may find it additionally difficult to adapt to less
familiar Afghan culture and traditions. As a consequence many asylum-seekers
who are unable to return to Afghanistan are simultaneously denied refugee
status in the Russian Federation. Many Afghan asylum-seekers therefore see
resettlement as their only hope. Between 2000 and 2006, more than 2,000
Afghans were resettled from the Russian Federation, mainly to Canada and the
United States (UNHCR, 2007d).
Tajikistan
It was estimated that up to 20,000 Afghans lived in Tajikistan in 2006.
Tajikistan passed its first refugee law in accordance with the 1951 United
Nations Refugee Convention and the 1967 Protocol in 1994. During this time,
however, only 695 Afghan asylum-seekers were in the country (UNHCR, 2004b).
As armed conflict in Afghanistan increased at the beginning of 2000, over
100,000 Afghans were displaced in the Kunduz Province, many of which tried to
flee to the mountainous area of Tajikistan near the Afghan border. Over 10,000
Afghans tried to seek refuge in Tajikistan at this time, but Russian military forces
that patrolled the area denied them entrance due to regional instability. As a
consequence over ten thousand Afghans were stranded on two sand bars in the
Pyandzh River between military forces on the Tajik border and the Taliban on the
Afghan border (Erlich, 2006).
101
In 2002, Tajikistan passed a new refugee law that no longer complied with
the 1951 United Nations Refugee Convention. The new law prohibits the free
movements of refugees within Tajikistan. Whereas it was mainly ethnic Tajiks
and Uzbeks from the north of Afghanistan who sought refuge in Tajikistan in the
past, the deteriorating security situation in Afghanistan has forced more Afghans
from provinces such as Helmand, Kandahar and Kabul to flee to Tajikistan. There
were 1,816 registered refugees in the country in 2004 (Table 30). According to
UNHCR, 1,500 refugees were planned to be permanently resettled to Canada
(1,250 refugees) and the United States (250) by early 2006, where a signficant
decrease in the refugee numbers is observed (Erlich, 2006). In 2008, over 1,300
Afghans sought asylum in Tajikistan. This number had almost doubled in the first
five months of 2009. Reasons for the new influx were, among others, renewed
attacks and armed conflict over the border in Pakistan (Demytrie, 2009). The
number of Afghan refugees in Tajikistan increased further until 2011.
Table 30: Afghan refugee population in Tajikistan, 1994-2008
Year
1995
Refugees
Year
Refugees
Source:
Note:
620
2004
1,816
1996
1,161
2005
1997
2,164
2006
1,006
917
1998
3,622
2007
1,126
1999
4,531
2008
1,790
2000
2001
15,354*
15,336*
2009
2010
2,673
3,126
2002
3,427
2011
3,270
2003
3,304
2012
2,196
UNHCR, 2004b, 2006c, 2013f.

*Includes those Afghans trapped in the Pyandzh River.
Canada
The Afghan refugee population in Canada steadily increased between
1995 and 2004, with over 15,000 Afghan refugees residing in Canada by the
end of 2004 (Table 31). The largest number of new applications by Afghan
asylum-seekers occurred during the Taliban regime in 1999, when 511 Afghan
asylum-seekers entered the country. The number decreased to 151 in 2003
before increasing to 488 in 2008. The decrease in asylum applications after 2001
can be explained with high return migration rates of Afghans after the fall of
the Taliban. Subsequent increases are likely due to the deteriorating security
situation in Afghanistan. In recent years the inflow of Afghan asylum-seekers has
decreased again to 373 in 2011 (OECD, 2013).
102
Table 31: Afghan asylum-seekers and refugees in Canada, 1995-2012

Year
Inflow of asylumseekers
Stock of refugees
1995
4,575
1996
378
5,056
1997
335
6,046
1998
380
6,754
1999
511
7,922
2000
488
9,115
2001
463
11,371
2002
204
12,957
2003
151
14,616
2004
152
15,242
2005
264
15,535
2006
268
14,419
2007
308
3,470
2008
488
3,147
2009
445
3,015
2010
399
2,727
2011
373
2,659
2012
2,609
Source:
UNHCR, 2004b, 2006c, 2013f; OECD, 2013.
United States
Between 1999 and 2012, the highest number of Afghan refugees arrived in
the United States in 2001, when 2,930 new applications were filed (Table 32). The
number decreased to 481 new refugee arrivals in 2012 (Homeland Security 2004,
2013). To estimate the stock of Afghan refugees in the country before 1999, it is
pertinent to look at data on Afghan refugees and asylum-seekers granted lawful
permanent residency status in the United States. The fact that between 1981
and 1990 almost 23,000 refugees were granted permanent residency indicates
that a large portion of Afghan refugees arrived in the United States shortly after
the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan in 1979 (Homeland Security, 2004).
103
Table 32: Arrival of Afghan refugees in the United States, 1999-2012

Year
Refugee arrivals
1999
365
2000
1,709
2001
2,930
2002
1,683
2003
1,453
2004
959
2005
902
2006
651
2007
441
2008
576
2009
349
2010
515
2011
428
2012
Source:
481
Homeland Security, 2004, 2013.
Germany
In 1995, when the total number of asylum applications filed in Germany
was 127,937, 5.9 per cent were filed by Afghan nationals. In 2000, the proportion
of applications filed by Afghans increased to 6.8 per cent and then decreased to
2.5 per cent in 2005 (BAMF, 2011). The highest proportion was 14.3 per cent
in 2010, while Afghans constituted 11.6 per cent of new applicants in 2012,
ranking second behind Serbia. In 2012, the absolute number of Afghans seeking
asylum in Germany was 7,498. Table 33 shows that during the Taliban regime,
the number of asylum applications filed in Germany was relatively high; the
numbers decreased rapidly after international forces invaded the country. Due
to the worsening security situation in Afghanistan, asylum applications once
again increased since 2009 (BAMF, 2013).
Table 33: Afghan asylum applications in Germany, 1995-2012
Year
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
Asylum
applications
7,515
5,663
4,735
3,768
4,458
5,380
5,837
2,772
1,473
Year
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
3,357
5,905
7,767
7,498
Asylum
applications
Source:
104
918
711
BMI and BAMF, 2009; BAMF, 2013.
531
338
657
The Netherlands
According to the Centraal Bureau voor de Statistiek (CBS), the number
of applications for asylum lodged by Afghan nationals was steadily low until
1985, when the number of applications jumped to 140. The following year over
450 Afghan nationals filed asylum applications in the Netherlands (Siegel et
al., 2010). Throughout the 1990s, the number of Afghan asylum applications
in the Netherlands continued to increase. The greatest number of applications
were filed in 1998 (7,120), 1999 (4,400) and 2000 (5,030). Much lower numbers
of asylum claims were recorded during periods of high return migration to
Afghanistan, such as in 2003 and 2007 when 490 and 520 applications were filed
respectively (van der Leun and Illies, 2008). Prior to 2007, first and subsequent
requests for asylum were not distinguished and therefore these figures may
reflect repeated asylum requests. Table 34 shows that the number of total
asylum requests doubled from 705 in 2008 to 1,400 in 2009. The number further
increased to 2,395 in 2011 and then decreased to 1,620 in 2012 (CBS, 2013a).
Table 34: Number of Asylum applications by Afghans in the Netherlands, 2007-2012
Year
Asylum applications
2007
520
2008
705
2009
1,400
2010
1,585
2011
2,395
2012
Source:
1,620
CBS, 2013a.
United Kingdom
Figure 21 shows that the highest number of asylum applications by Afghans
was recorded in 2001, when almost 9,000 applications were filed. The peak in
2001 relates to the invasion of Afghanistan by international forces. Between
2001 and 2004, the number of asylum claims by Afghan nationals fell by 80
per cent (Change Institute, 2009). In 2005, the number of asylum applications
filed by Afghans was 1,578 and increased to 2,398 in the following year (Home
Office, 2013). As a result, Afghans were among the top ten nationalities applying
for asylum in the United Kingdom, accounting for 10 per cent of the total in
2006 (Change Institute, 2009). The number of Afghans claiming asylum further
increased to 3,503 in 2008 and has since decreased to 1,008 in 2012 (Home
Office, 2013).
105
Figure 21: Annual number of asylum applications to the United Kingdom

from Afghanistan, 1985-2012
10,000
9,000
Number of Asylum Applications
8,000
7,000
6,000
5,000
4,000
3,000
2,000
1,000
0
Source:
Note:
Eurostat, 2013a; Home Office, 2013.

Data is not available for the years 1991 to 1993.
Australia
In 2001, Australia recorded 2,100 Afghan asylum-seekers entering the
country. Due to the fall of the Taliban and high return migration, the number
dropped to 53 in 2002. In the following years, the number of Afghan asylumseekers in Australia remained relatively low. In 2009, however, the number began
to rise again, reaching over 940. In 2011, Chris Bowen, Minister for Immigration
and Citizenship in Australia at the time, stated that over 4,300 Afghans had
arrived in Australia by boat and claimed asylum since 2008. Over half of
them were in detention and 732 had received a negative assessment (Pearce,
2011). Most Afghans who travel to Australia arrive by boat and the majority
are young, non-Pashtun men who have fled increasing insecurity caused by
Taliban insurgency activities. The migration route for Afghans to reach Australia
is difficult and dangerous. Many Afghans are first trucked from Afghanistan to
Karachi and then flown to Indonesia, where they are then transported by boat to
Australian islands and reefs close to the Indonesian archipelago (Maley, 2000).
106
B.3. IRREGULAR MIGRATION

There are many different types of irregularity in migration; this section
will cover trafficking in persons as well as irregular Afghan migrants in Europe
and the residence of Afghan unaccompanied minors in other countries. The IS
Academy Survey data collected for this Migration Profile in 2011 show that only
14 per cent of current migrants travelled with legal documents, while 5 per cent
of return migrants migrated with legal documents. This implies that the majority
of Afghan migrants travelled without proper documents and likely resided in
other countries with an irregular status.
B.3.1. TRAFFICKING IN PERSONS

The issue of human trafficking in the context of Afghanistan is complex.
The country shares borders with six other countries and most parts of these
borders are difficult to control. A lack of proper border management and weak
law enforcement further hinders the control of illegal border crossings. The
long history of poppy production in Afghanistan and associated experience
of smuggling of narcotics across the border have likewise contributed to the
existence of cross-border migration networks, which are also used for human
trafficking. The population in Afghanistan is widely aware of the problem of
trafficking in persons, but concepts like trafficking, smuggling and kidnapping
are often mixed up (IOM, 2008d).
The majority of victims of trafficking (VoT), mostly children, are trafficked
within Afghanistans borders. Transnational trafficking also occurs, however, and
the Islamic Republic of Iran and Pakistan are the primary countries of destination.
The main purposes for which Afghan children are trafficked are prostitution and
forced labour in factories, brick kilns and domestic service. Female children are
mainly trafficked to neighbouring countries and, to a lesser extent, India, for the
purposes of forced marriages, prostitution or domestic service. Afghan men are
trafficked to the Islamic Republic of Iran, Pakistan, the Gulf States, Greece and
Turkey for forced labour and debt bondage in agriculture and construction.
Many foreign women are also trafficked into Afghanistan for the same
purposes; such trafficking victims mainly come from the Philippines, Pakistan,
the Islamic Republic of Iran, Tajikistan and China. It is thought that international
security contractors are likely to be involved in trafficking for the purpose of
forced prostitution and it is not uncommon that brothels and prostitution
107
rings run by foreign citizens are associated with larger criminal networks. An
increasing number of individuals also migrate willingly to Afghanistan under
false pretences of employment and high salaries. These migrants then often end
up in forced labour once they arrive in the country of destination, as was the
case for male migrants from Sri Lanka, Nepal, India, the Islamic Republic of Iran,
Pakistan and Tajikistan that were found to have been enticed to Afghanistan with
false promises of employment (US Department of State, 2013b).
Data on the scope of human trafficking in Afghanistan are not available,
but the International Organization for Migration (IOM) conducted a field study on
the issue in 2008 to provide an in-depth analysis of the trafficking phenomenon
in, from and to Afghanistan. (IOM, 2008d: 5)20 Victims of trafficking (VoT) are
a hard to reach group in migration research and this is reflected in the small
sample size of this study. A survey of 20 VoTs revealed that most were young
adults (45%) in the age group between 18 and 24, a smaller portion (35%) were
minors under the age of 18 and four respondents were aged 25 years or above.
The majority of victims were male (85%). All VoTs were Afghan nationals who
originated from Herat (10), Faryab (7), Kabul (2) or Nangarhar (1) provinces.
Consequently most of the respondents were ethnic Tajiks and Uzbeks. In terms
of educational background, only two (10%) of the respondents had completed
primary school education up to sixth grade, whereas the rest were totally or
nearly illiterate (IOM, 2008d).
People fall victim to trafficking through various means such as coercion,
deceit and abuse of power. In the IOM study, 80 per cent of the respondents
answered that they followed the traffickers based on false promises, while
the remaining 20 per cent said that they were taken by force. Younger victims
were more vulnerable to forcible transfer. Forced labour was found to be the
most significant destination of trafficked victims (80%), followed by sexual
exploitation (20%). Most victims were promised higher wages, ranging between
USD 250 and 500 for construction work or other low-skilled labour (IOM, 2008d).
The study by IOM (2008d) took place in 2007 and research data were collected mainly from expert
interviews and a field study in Kabul and nine border provinces: Khost, Nangarhar, Heart, Balkh, Faryab,
Kunduz, Badakhshan, Kandahar and Farah. The study interviewed 220 community informants, 20 victims
of trafficking, 43 victims of kidnapping and 19 smuggled migrants. The non-personal data of 115 victims of
trafficking (VoT) referred to and assisted by IOM between 2006 and 2007 have also been included in the
analysis.
20
108
IOM-assisted Victims of Trafficking

The study also found that 115 VoTs were assisted by IOM between
2006 and 2007. On the basis of this sample, different trafficking trends can be
observed. Among the 115 VoTs assisted by IOM, 93 individuals were 25 years of
age or older, six were between 18 and 24 years and 16 victims were below 18.
The majority of these victims (94%) were female and most were non-Afghan
nationals, mostly Chinese (79%), Iranian (6%) and Pakistani (3%). The remaining
12 per cent were Afghan nationals from 10 different provinces: Kabul, Kapisa,
Kunduz, Ghazni, Kunar, Nangarhar, Laghman, Panjshir, Wardak and Peshawar in
Pakistan (IOM, 2008d).
All Chinese victims were female and reported that they were taken to
Afghanistan under false pretences. A further 11 victims of other nationalities
reported being taken under false promises and 13 reported being taken by force.
The high percentage of Chinese victims coerced under false pretences is reflected
in the high number of these victims (88 out of 91) who came to Afghanistan
by air, which cannot be easily achieved without the victims cooperation. The
remaining three victims declared that they had crossed the land border at
Torkham from Pakistan. All other non-Chinese victims were trafficked by land.
Nearly all Chinese victims (90 out of 91) were trafficked for the purpose of sexual
exploitation, while among the Afghan, Iranian and Pakistani victims, 15 persons
(62%) were trafficked for sexual exploitation and nine (38%) were trafficked for
forced labour (IOM, 2008d).
Given the complex environment in which human trafficking occurs, the
low number of respondents in the IOM study is not surprising. It is taboo to
openly discuss the trafficking of women and children for prostitution and victims
are often difficult to identify and access for this reason. Moreover, females
trafficked for the purpose of forced prostitution are currently criminalized and
face imprisonment in Afghanistan if found guilty of prostitution. In order to
avoid stigmatization by the community, Afghan families often do not report if a
member has been trafficked for sexual servitude, regardless of whether the act
is voluntary or forced (IOM, 2008d).
Immigration routes and means of transport

of migrants and victims of trafficking
The IOM study (2008d) on human trafficking in Afghanistan found that
most respondents (75%) were trafficked to the Islamic Republic of Iran and
Pakistan using unofficial land border crossing points and without any valid travel
109
documents. When crossing the border, approximately three quarters of the

sample walked, while the remainder used vehicles. Most of those victims who
were trafficked to the Islamic Republic of Iran mentioned that Baloch tribes on
both sides of the Afghanistan-Iran border were involved in the process.
A study of cross-border movements between Afghanistan and Pakistan
conducted by Majidi (2009) for UNHCR, observed that on any given day hundreds
of smugglers were waiting with their cars or motorbikes at the Spin Boldak
crossing point. The main task of these smugglers was to provide transportation
for travellers from the town of Spin Boldak to the main border point. When
considering the lack of control at the border and the short distances most
migrants had to travel, however, many migrants did not make use of smugglers
but rather crossed the border on their own (Majidi, 2009).
When destination countries are further abroad migrants often depend
on smugglers to coordinate their journey and arrange their transport. In March
2011, Indonesian police arrested 43 Afghans who were trying to reach Australia
illegally. The group of Afghan migrants had flown from Afghanistan to Jakarta and
travelled by bus to Madura Island to continue from there by boat (Jakarta Globe,
2011). It is not uncommon on these complicated and dangerous routes that
Afghan migrants do not arrive in the country that they intended to; smugglers
often determine which country migrants are smuggled to. The few migrants that
do make it to the final destinations of their choice can face discrimination and
bureaucratic immigration procedures upon arrival. In some cases, such migrants
are refused the right to enter or come ashore, as was the case for hundreds
of Afghans who were shipped from Malaysia to Australia, refused refuge and
later re-routed to an island (Nauru, Manus) in the Pacific Ocean (Parliament of
Australia, 2012).
In January 2011, Italian police reported that they had arrested 26
suspected members of a gang that smuggled hundreds of Afghans into Europe.
Investigators reported that up to 200 Afghans (including 40 minors) were brought
to Europe every month by the gang. The immigrants came mainly from the
Afghanistan-Pakistan border and were brought to Italy through staging points
in Iraq, the Islamic Republic of Iran and Greece. From Greece migrants were
brought to Italy by ship. Final destination countries in Europe included Belgium,
Germany and Sweden. Smuggled Afghans reported that they paid between EUR
3,000 and 3,500 (USD 3,900 to 4,600) to be smuggled from Afghanistan to Italy
(EUbusiness, 2011).
110
Other forms of trafficking in persons

Child soldiers
The recruitment of children by pro-government military forces is another
form of human trafficking in Afghanistan. Children are often used as foot soldiers
and face sexual exploitation, which has been confirmed by the Afghanistan
Independent Human Rights Commission (AIHRC). The violation of human rights
by pro-government militias is especially worrisome, as these militias do not fall
under the formal and legal disciplinary structures in which the army and the
police operate (IRIN, 2011a), and are therefore even more difficult to identify
and prosecute. Children have also been recruited by the Taliban and other
insurgent groups to act as suicide bombers (Bell, 2007). The extent of trafficking
for this purpose is, however, not known.
Forced marriage and child marriage

Another form of child trafficking in Afghanistan is related to forced
marriages, which are strictly prohibited under international human rights
law. Forced marriages are also prohibited under Afghan law, but in practice
it is difficult to distinguish between forced and arranged marriages. Research
indicates that over 80 per cent of marriages in Afghanistan are arranged and for
the majority it may be unclear if one or both of the partners are forced to accept
the marriage contract against their will - thus making the line between arranged
and forced marriage unclear. The issue of forced marriages is interlinked with
child marriages. Officials in Kabul and other provincial capitals state that early
marriages are prevalent in rural parts of Afghanistan, where poverty is high
and marriage provides an outlet to adjust household size. The lack of data is
an obstacle to understanding the scope of the problem (Amnesty International,
2005), but the United Nations Entity for Gender Equality and the Empowerment
of Women (UN Women) and AIHRC estimate that over 57 per cent of Afghan
marriages are child marriages in which the bride is married before reaching
the age of 16 (Human Rights Watch, 2009). The Afghanistan Multiple Indicator
Cluster Survey (AMICS) conducted in 2010 and 2011 by the Central Statistics
Organization (CSO) with support from UNICEF found that 15.2 per cent of the
women between the age of 15 and 49 were married before they turned 15.
The highest rate of such marriages (29.8%) occurred in the Western region (for
example the provinces Ghor, Badghis, Herat and Farah) and the lowest percentage
(12.4%) in the Central region (such as the provinces Kabul, Kapisa, Parwan,
Wardak, Logar and Panjsher). The influence of residence and education on early
marriage is substantial. Early marriage before the age of 15 is more common
111
among women residing in rural areas (15.5%) than in urban areas (13.8%) and
17 per cent of the young women married before 15 had no education while 5.3
per cent had received at least secondary education. Around 46 per cent of all
women between the ages of 15 and 49 reported being married at the age of
18 and almost one fifth of all young women between 15 and 19 reported being
married. Around 7 per cent of all women are in a polygamous marriage.
The age differences between women and their spouses tend to be large,
with an age difference of 10 years or more reported by 11 per cent of women
in the 15 to 19-year age group and 14 per cent in the 20 to 24-year age group.
This large spousal age difference is more common among women residing in
urban areas and living in the wealthiest households (CSO and UNICEF, 2012).
The young age of marriage and large age differences between women and their
marriage partners may make it additionally difficult for women to advocate for
themselves and withdraw from such arranged marriages, which could suggest
that forced marriages are relatively more likely to occur in such situations.
Table 35: Early marriage and polygamy in Afghanistan, 2010-2011
Percentage
Marriage before age 15
15.2
Marriage before age 18
46.3
Young women age 15-19 currently married
19.8
Polygamy
7.1
Spousal age difference of 10 or more years

Women age 15-19
11.0
Women age 20-24
14.0
Source:
CSO and UNICEF, 2012.
In addition to arranged and forced marriages, a third practice known as

baad is still practised in Afghanistan and may contribute to human trafficking.
Within this practise, families give away their daughters as a means of settling
disputes. The practice allows communities or families to settle crimes, such as
murder or thievery and to restore peace, order and unity among conflicting
parties through marriage. The United Nations Assistance Mission in Afghanistan
(UNAMA) found that the exchange of girls to settle disputes took place in
communities throughout the country, especially in conflicted areas where state
legitimacy and the rule of law were weak (namely in Tagab and Alasay district
in Kapisa and Uzbin in Surobi district of Kabul province) (UNAMA and OHCHR,
2010).
112
B.3.2. IRREGULAR AFGHAN MIGRANTS

IN EUROPE
The past 30 years of conflict have caused Afghans to emigrate to countries
beyond neighbouring Pakistan and the Islamic Republic of Iran, including
to countries in Europe. The main migrant routes from Afghanistan to Europe
go through Turkey or the Russian Federation. Between 2008 and 2012, 2,300
Afghan nationals were refused entry to the European Union along the border,
the majority of whom were rejected along Italys border (Eurostat, 2013e). In
2011, 45,480 illegal Afghans were counted in different European countries. This
number decreased to 33,805 in 2012 (Table 36). The main destination countries
of irregular Afghan immigrants in Europe now include Greece, Germany, Austria,
France and Sweden (Eurostat, 2013d).
Table 36: Afghan citizens found to be illegally present in the EU-27, Norway
and Switzerland, 2008-2012
Country
Austria
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
1,045
1,865
1,545
3,445
3,715
Belgium
440
805
350
360
485
Bulgaria
65
95
85
135
140
Cyprus
35
60
45
20
60
Czech Republic
10
20
10
45
15
Denmark
25
45
10
100
220
Estonia
15
Finland
310
560
265
225
215
France
21,125
20,765
7,230
4,845
2,980
880
2,665
3,700
5,640
5,880
17,995
12,390
22,090
24,800
15,025
25
50
85
Germany
Greece
Hungary
Iceland
Ireland
70
90
45
65
45
Italy
1,310
745
680
540
365
Latvia
20
10
Liechtenstein
Lithuania
20
15
Luxembourg
Malta
155
350
310
385
Norway
30
85
100
Poland
10
25
35
35
Netherlands
113
Portugal
Romania
30
55
45
50
Slovakia
135
115
195
75
85
Slovenia
40
110
250
45
100
40
25
25
Sweden
1,570
2,265
2,425
2,605
Switzerland
20
195
6,095
7,320
2,360
1,920
1,395
49,780
49,755
41,410
45,480
33,805
Spain
United Kingdom
Total
Source:
Eurostat, 2013d.
B.3.3. UNACCOMPANIED MINORS

Separated and unaccompanied children are one of the most vulnerable
groups among all refugees and asylum-seekers, as the absence of a parent may
expose such children to greater risk of exploitation and abuse. Three recent
studies21 on Afghan unaccompanied minors (UAMs) provide more insight into
the phenomenon. These studies have found that children are often involved in
the decision to migrate to Western countries from Afghanistan. The two main
factors that influence this decision are the security situation in the country including the fear of being kidnapped, recruited or killed by criminal groups and economic circumstances such as poverty, limited educational opportunities,
high unemployment rates and low wages. When they leave Afghanistan, many
children do not know their country of destination and the destination often
changes during the migration process due to additional information about a
potential destination or due to a smugglers decision to move a child to another
location. There are several common routes that children take to enter European
countries from Afghanistan. The southern route starts in the Islamic Republic of
Iran or Pakistan and then moves through Turkey and Greece further into Europe.
The northern route moves through Uzbekistan or Kazakhstan to the Russian
Federation and then to Hungary or Scandinavia (UNHCR, 2010d, 2010f; UNICEF,
2010).
One study was conducted by UNICEF (2010) on Afghan UAMs in the United Kingdom and Norway and on
families in Afghanistan who had sent children to Europe. A second, much larger study, by UNHCR (2010d)
provided an overview of Afghan UAMs in six European countries. The third study, also by UNHCR (2010f),
focused on Afghan children in Sweden.
21
114
As do many migrants, families often use smugglers to ensure that their

child makes it to Europe. Agreements with smugglers are often concluded on
the basis of a handshake. Smugglers will try to smuggle the children into a
European country up to three times and even if the child is caught and deported
in the destination country, the smuggler will still receive the payment. If the
child never makes it to the destination country or is deported before arrival,
however, the family does not pay for the failed attempts. During the Taliban
regime smugglers did not operate in Afghanistan and families instead relied on
brokers in neighbouring countries. Since the fall of the Taliban brokers can be
found in any city in Afghanistan (UNICEF, 2010).
Families often pay high sums to have their children smuggled into Europe:
UNICEF (2010) reports the cost to be between USD 7,000 and 20,000 and UNHCR
(2010d) mentions prices up to USD 15,000. Such high fees often drive families
into debt and some families sell assets or take out loans just to afford the down
payment (UNHCR, 2010d, 2010f; UNICEF, 2010). The children are then expected
to pay back the money and support the family once they have settled in Europe
(UNICEF, 2010).
The number of Afghan unaccompanied minors present in European
countries increased significantly from 2008 to 2009. While in 2008 there
were 3,840 asylum applications lodged by UAMs in the EU-27, Norway and
Switzerland, the number jumped to 6,355 in 2009. The number dropped again
to 4,425 in 2010 only to increase to 5,725 in 2011. In 2012, there were 5,475
registered Afghan UAMs in the EU-27, Norway and Switzerland. Sweden, the
United Kingdom, Norway, Germany and Austria received the greater number
(75.9%) of applications from unaccompanied minors from Afghanistan (Figure
22) (Eurostat, 2013b).
Among the 5,355 unaccompanied minors from Afghanistan
registered in the EU-27 in 2012, 55.9 per cent were aged 16 or 17, a
further 29.3 per cent of applicants were aged 14 or 15 and 8.7 per cent
were children 13 years old or younger. The age of the remaining 6.1 per
cent is unknown (Eurostat, 2013b). Unaccompanied minors represented
23 per cent of all asylum applications of Afghans in the EU in 2009, and even
more in Sweden (46%), the United Kingdom (44%), Denmark (36%) and the
Netherlands (25%). The rate at which asylum applications result in successful
granting of refugee status is generally higher for Afghan unaccompanied minors
than for adults (ICMPD, 2011). The recognition rate is especially high in Finland
(100%), Norway (99%) and Sweden (90%) and markedly lower in countries such
as Germany (77%), the United Kingdom (73%) and Switzerland (53%) (UNHCR,
2010c).
115
Figure 22: Asylum applicants considered to be unaccompanied minors from

Afghanistan in main destination countries, 2008-2012
6,000
Number of Afghan UAM
5,000
4,000
3,000
2,000
1,000
0
Austria
Germany
2008
2009
Norway*
2010
2011
Sweden
United
Kingdom
2012
Source: Eurostat, 2012b.

Note: *Data for Norway are not available for 2011.
B.4. RETURN MIGRATION22

Return migration can take very different forms depending on the reason
for the initial migration, the duration of time abroad, the experiences in the
country of migration, the reason for return (including voluntary or forced return)
and the conditions upon return. Since 2002, return migration to Afghanistan has
been significant with a volume over 6 million people, the majority of which are
repatriating refugees from Pakistan and the Islamic Republic of Iran. Over the
past 10 years, however, these flows have changed from repatriating refugees
to current forms of return and circular migration for labour purposes. This
complexity makes it difficult to comprehensively analyse return migration to
Afghanistan. Nevertheless, this section will provide a brief overview of current
knowledge on return migration to Afghanistan.23
See Annex A for more detailed information on the different forms of return and circular migration and the
impacts of migration on different types of return migrants.
23
Table 2 in Annex A on Return and Circular Migration provides definitions for different forms of circular, crossborder and return migration.
22
116
B.4.1. RETURN OF TEMPORARY, CROSS-BORDER

AND CIRCULAR MIGRANTS
While discussions about Afghan migration often centre on forced migration
flows, it is important to also consider return migration to Afghanistan within
its current context. The migration landscape in Afghanistan today is composed
of Afghans who are regularly moving across the borders between Afghanistan
and the Islamic Republic of Iran and Afghanistan and Pakistan. In the study on
cross-border movements between Pakistan and Afghanistan, the main findings
showed that the majority of Afghans travelling to and from Pakistan in 2009
were temporary migrants, far exceeding refugee movements in either direction.
The study was based on interviews with 1,007 migrants crossing to Pakistan and
1,016 migrants crossing to Afghanistan, as well as a border-crosser counting
exercise. The vast majority of surveyed migrants were males travelling alone
(75.3%) and 64.7 per cent of those surveyed were economic migrants (Majidi,
2009).
The most comprehensive source of national data on temporary migrants
come from the National Risk and Vulnerability Assessment (NRVA) 2007/08
survey. The NRVA found that 1.2 per cent of households surveyed had an
international seasonal migrant. Again the majority were male migrants seeking
temporary work opportunities abroad, primarily in the Islamic Republic of
Iran (Icon-Institute, 2009). It is therefore important that discussions on return
migration to Afghanistan do not solely focus on refugee issues. Further details
regarding the characteristics of temporary labour migrants can be found in
Annex A.
B.4.2. REPATRIATING REFUGEES

Afghan refugees can be found in 82 different countries, however, 95 per
cent of displaced Afghans reside in Pakistan and the Islamic Republic of Iran
(UNHCR, 2013e). Since 2002, more than 6 million24 Afghans are known to have
returned to their home country (4.6 million with the assistance of UNHCR). Table
37 gives an overview of the number of assisted and spontaneous (unassisted)
repatriated refugees between 2002 and 2012.
Statistics regarding return flows vary by source. In particular, flows that are unassisted by UNHCR are
difficult to measure accurately.
24
117
Table 37: Estimated refugee returns, 2002-2012

Year
Pakistan
Assisted
Spontaneous
Total
Assisted
Spontaneous
Total
2002
1,565,066
194,127
1,759,193
259,792
117,364
377,156
2003
332,183
45,125
377,308
142,280
124,615
266,895
2004
383,321
41,103
424,424
377,151
74,976
452,127
2005
449,391
11,597
460,988
63,559
225,815
289,374
2006
133,338
9,681
143,019
5,264
238,384
243,648
2007
357,635
7,541
365,176
7,054
155,721
162,775
2008
274,200
7,897
282,097
3,656
74,773
78,429
2009
48,320
48,320
6,028
6,028
2010
104,331
104,331
8,487
8,487
2011
48,998
48,998
18,851
18,851
2012
79,435
79,435
15,035
15,035
Total
3,776,218
317,071
4,093,289
907,157
1,011,648
1,918,805
Year
Other countries
Assisted
Spontaneous
Total
Total
Assisted
Spontaneous
Total
2002
9,679
9,679
1,834,537
311,491
2,146,028
2003
1,176
1,176
475,639
169,740
645,379
2004
650
650
761,122
116,079
877,201
2005
1,140
1,140
514,090
237,412
751,502
2006
1,202
1,202
139,804
248,065
387,869
2007
721
721
365,410
163,262
528,672
2008
628
628
278,484
82,670
361,154
2009
204
204
54,552
54,552
2010
150
150
112,968
112,968
2011
113
113
67,962
67,962
2012
86
86
94,556
94,556
15,749
15,749
4,699,124
1,328,719
6,027,843
Total
Source:
UNHCR, 2009b, 2012a, 2013g.
Between 2002 and 2008, UNHCR estimates that 317,071 individuals

returned spontaneously to Afghanistan from Pakistan and more than 1 million
from the Islamic Republic of Iran. However, these numbers are based on border
monitoring and can therefore only be viewed as estimates. Data are missing for
spontaneous returns between 2009 and 2012 and therefore it is expected that
these numbers underestimate true flows significantly. Between 2002 and 2012,
a total of 4,699,124 individuals were assisted by UNHCR in their return. This
brings the total estimated number of voluntarily repatriating refugee returns
from Pakistan and the Islamic Republic of Iran to more than 6 million individuals.
118
Given that Pakistan and the Islamic Republic of Iran have been the primary
destinations for Afghan refugees, it is useful to consider return migration from
these countries more closely.
Table 38: Assisted return by province of asylum in Pakistan, 2002-2008
Province
Families
Males
Individuals
(in %)
Females
NWFP
355,607
1,039,218
1,018,020
58.9
Punjab
106,559
310,116
292,214
17.2
Balochistan
92,608
273,162
262,462
15.3
Sind
55,027
152,151
139,156
8.3
1,247
3,649
3,428
0.2
232
823
735
0.1
611,280
1,779,119
1,717,015
100.0
Jammu and Kashmir

Unknown
Total
Source: UNHCR, 2009b.

Note:
Departure date: 3 March 2002 - 31 October 2008.
Table 38 shows that the majority of Afghan returnees from Pakistan

between 2002 and 2008 had settled in the North-West Frontier Province (NWFP)
(59%), Punjab (17%) and Balochistan (15%). In the first four months of 2013,
the large majority of Afghan returnees from Afghanistan had resided in Khuber
Pakhtunkwa (60.6%), which used to be the NWFP, and to a lesser extent in
Balochistan (24.6%). This is not surprising, considering the close proximity of
these provinces to Afghanistan and the high number of refugee camps (over
150) that had been built at the Afghanistan-Pakistan border in the North-West
Frontier Province at the end of 2001. Return to Afghanistan from Pakistan
decreased considerably (53%) from 2010 (104,331 returnees) to 2011 (48,998
returnees) and increased again in 2012 to 79,435. Between January and April
2013, the largest group of returnees went to the Central region in Afghanistan
(30.0%), 25.2 per cent returned to the Eastern region and almost 14 per cent to
the North-Eastern region. In the same period in 2012, the top three regions of
destination were the same with most returnees setteling in the Eastern region
(31.9%), followed by the Central (27.3%) and North-Eastern (10.7%) regions
(UNHCR, 2013g). Figure 23 shows that this same trend held true for returns in
2011.
119
Figure 23: Assisted returnees from Pakistan by region of destination in Afghanistan, 2011
16,000
16,081
13,281
Number of Returnees
14,000
12,000
10,000
8,000
6,968
6,000
6,069
4,000
3,066
2,743
2,000
699
91
East
Source:
Central
North-East
South
North
South-East
West
Central
Highlands
UNHCR, 2012a.
Over 50 per cent of Afghan returnees settled in the provinces of Tehran,

Sistan and Balochistan and Isfahan during their exile in the Islamic Republic of
Iran in 2002-2009. Other provinces that received relatively high numbers of
refugees include Fars, Kerman, Khorasan, Qom and Hormozgan (Table 39). In
2011, 18,851 Afghans voluntarily returned from the Islamic Republic of Iran,
which is a 55 per cent increase compared to the 8,487 returnees in 2010. In 2012,
the number of returns was 15,035 (UNHCR, 2013g). This trend may be explained
by the economic difficulties in the Islamic Republic of Iran and the removal of
subsidies for basic goods and services for Afghans by the Iranian government.
Table 39: Afghan returned refugees from the Islamic Republic of Iran by
province and gender, 2002-2009
Province
Individuals
Families
Males
Females
Tehran
311,526
49,066
190,973
120,553
Sistan and Balochistan
145,533
26,774
75,877
69,656
Isfahan
87,108
12,971
55,888
31,220
Khorasan
61,838
12,166
35,639
26,199
Fars
61,599
8,943
40,464
21,135
Kerman
48,035
8,048
28,186
19,849
Qom
31,334
5,909
17,780
13,554
Yazd
26,182
3,805
16,552
9,630
Hormozgan
21,989
3,775
11,714
10,275
120
Markazi
13,493
2,290
8,067
5,426
Golestan
11,265
2,031
5,892
5,373
Khuzestan
8,440
1,339
5,082
3,358
Semnan
7,566
1,354
4,336
3,230
Qazvin
7,263
1,253
4,184
3,079
Bushehr
5,796
759
3,937
1,859
Mazandaran
5,296
927
2,988
2,308
Unknown
2,308
402
1,176
1,132
Gilan
1,032
180
630
402
Kohgiluyeh and BoyerAhmad
894
164
524
370
Azerbaijan-e-S
166
33
93
73
Lorestan
98
19
57
41
Hamadan
75
17
43
32
858,836
142,225
510,082
348,754
Total
Source:
Note:
UNHCR, 2009b.
Departure Date: 9 April 2002 - 31 January 2009.
In contrast to the destinations of returnees from Pakistan, the destinations

of returnees from the Islamic Republic of Iran tend to be the Central region
(45.9%), primarily Kabul, Kapisa and Parwan. The main destinations in the
Western region (30.9% of returnees) were Herat and Farah and in the NorthEastern region (18.8%) Balkh, Balghan and Kunduz (Figure 24) (UNHCR, 2012a).
Figure 24: Assisted returnees from the Islamic Republic of Iran by region of destination in

Afghanistan, 2011
9,000
8,658
8,000
Number of Returnees
7,000
5,830
6,000
5,000
4,000
3,000
2,265
2,000
1,285
1,000
0
Source:
Central
West
North
North-East
421
279
113
Central
Highlands
East
South
0
South-East
UNHCR, 2012a.
121
Of the Afghans that returned with UNHCRs voluntary repatriation

programme between 2002 and 2009, 52.4 per cent were males and 47.2 per cent
females. The following table (Table 40) shows the gender and age distribution of
this group of returnees. The majority is below the age of 17 and there are more
males than females across all age groups (UNHCR, 2009b).
Table 40: Returned males and females with UNHCR (in %), 2002-2009
Age-group
Male
Female
Total
0-4
9.1
8.9
18.1
5-11
13.5
12.5
26.0
12-17
7.1
6.2
13.3
18-59
21.0
18.5
39.5
1.8
1.3
3.1
52.6
47.43
100.0
60+
Total
Source:
Note:
UNHCR, 2009b.
Return between March 2002 and January 2009.
The survey conducted in Afghanistan as part of the IS Academy Project

among returnee households displays a similar picture. Of the group of repatriated
refugees, 53.4 per cent were male and 46.6 per cent female. The average age of
this group was 22 years and 50.6 per cent of respondents indicated that they
had obtained no formal education. For a more detailed profile of the survey
respondents, their migration and return decisions and experiences see Annex A.
The following table (Table 41) gives an overview of UNHCR assisted Afghan
returnees by country of asylum. Empty fields indicate that either no data were
collected on returnees or the data were not accessible for a particular year. The
value 0 indicates that no Afghan migrants returned home (UNHCR, 2009b).
Table 41: Assisted return with UNHCR by country of asylum, 2002-2008
Country of
asylum
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
Total
1,565, 066
332,183
383,321
449,391
133,338
357,635
274,200
3,495,134
259,792
142,280
377,151
63,559
5,264
7,054
3,656
858,756
9,064
324
65
18
51
27
15
9,564
88
19
354
523
387
347
1,718
India
129
223
77
58
68
25
587
Turkmenistan
283
45
169
510
197
172
46
32
452
Pakistan
Islamic
Republic of
Iran
Tajikistan
Great Britain
Germany
122
Russian
Federation
165
139
24
12
49
31
420
Netherlands
206
162
25
14
414
93
142
69
21
325
11
69
39
56
175
Uzbekistan
Greece
Norway
28
47
28
12
115
Kyrgyzstan
68
16
13
114
Azerbaijan
19
44
22
89
Kazakhstan
25
19
22
11
77
Denmark
65
75
Ukraine
41
70
Austria
12
25
22
69
Belarus
13
24
15
12
64
Unknown
23
30
53
20
15
52
Indonesia
13
24
47
Belgium
11
15
38
Sweden
11
19
36
Switzerland
19
Brazil
13
14
Australia
13
Swaziland
12
Georgia
11
Turkey
10
11
Finland
Bulgaria
Mexico
Syrian Arab
Republic
Malaysia
Italy
Hungary
United States
of America
Cambodia
Iraq
Ireland
Poland
1,834,537
475,639
761,122
514,090
139,804
365,410
278,484
4,369,086
France
Total
Source:
UNHCR, 2009b.
123
UNHCR reports that of those Afghans who returned to Afghanistan

between 2002 and 2009, Pashtuns accounted for up to 58 per cent, Tajiks 24 per
cent, Hazaras 8 per cent, Uzbeks 4 per cent, Turkmens 2 per cent and others for
3 per cent (UNHCR, 2009b). In contrast to UNHCR figures, a case study in Karachi
by the Collective for Social Science Research in 2005 stated that the majority of
Afghans who have returned were Tajiks, Uzbeks and Hazaras, hence ethnically
non-Pashtuns. A possible reason for this difference is that while in total numbers
Pashtuns may constitute the largest ethnic group to repatriate, this is not
true in terms of proportions. That is, the proportion of Pashtun Afghans that
have repatriated is much less than the proportion of non-Pashtuns and they
are therefore less visible. In addition, UNHCR reports that the largest flow of
Pashtuns into Afghanistan is from the NWFP, suggesting that not many of those
Pashtuns settled in Karachi may have repatriated (Collective for Social Science
Research, 2005).
Voluntary return of unsuccessful asylum-seekers to Afghanistan from
European countries often occurs through Assisted Voluntary Return and
Reintegration (AVRR) programmes. Currently such programmes, that are run
by IOM, are supported by Austria, Norway and Denmark. Additionally, postarrival assistance projects are supported by the United Kingdom, Noway,
Australia, Sweden, France, Belgium and the Netherlands. The first step in
reintegration assistance is a post-arrival counseling session, which consists of a
thorough discussion about the returnees opportunities and options. Supported
options include employment referrals, on-the-job-training, self-employment,
educational training and vocational training. The decision is to be made by the
returnee her-/himself with the informed advice by IOM staff members.
B.4.3. FORCED RETURNEES

Forced returnees are individuals that do not agree to return and are
deported from the country of asylum. Forced removals have occurred from
Pakistan and the Islamic Republic of Iran, as well as from European countries
and Australia.
According to UNHCR, the Islamic Republic of Iran has engaged in the largest
number of forced removals, totalling 1,898,524 individuals between March 2002
and June 2011 (UNHCR, 2011b). From January to March 2013, an average of
552 Afghan individuals were deported each day from the Islamic Republic of
Iran compared to 684 individuals per day during the same reporting period in
2012. This means that a total of 49,708 Afghans have been returned from the
124
Islamic Republic of Iran in the first three months of 2013. In 2012, the total
number of deportations was 258,146. The vast majority (98%) of those deported
were undocumented single men who had migrated to the Islamic Republic of
Iran in search of work. The numbers of deportations from Pakistan are much
smaller. Between January and April 2013, 1,079 individuals were deported
compared to 496 deportees in the same period in 2012 (UNHCR, 2013g). Still,
these numbers are estimates and instances of multiple deportations have been
discovered. In addition, some of these forced returnees include both registered
and unregistered refugee families in the Islamic Republic of Iran, who, due
to changes in policy and attitude, were at times intimidated into returning to
Afghanistan, threatened with eviction and deportation (Majidi, 2008).
In European states, forced removals generally occur when a failed asylumseeker or irregular migrant is offered the opportunity for Assisted Voluntary
Return and Reintegration (AVRR), but refuses to take it. Alternatively, if the
individual is convicted of a misdemeanour in the country of destination or is
scheduled for deportation they will not be offered the option of AVRR.
B.4.4. OTHER FORMS OF RETURN MIGRATION

The IS Academy Survey collected data on the situation of return migrants
in Afghanistan. For the purpose of this survey, a return migrant is defined as
someone who lived outside Afghanistan for a minimum of one year and indicated
their reason for migration as one of the following: economic opportunities, family
reunification, family formation, moving with family, education, health or other.
In total, 231 return migrant households in the sample fit into this category, which
includes a total of 1,572 individual return migrants. A more detailed profile of
this sub-sample is provided in Annex A.
There were slightly more male (52.7%) than female (47.3%) return
migrants. The average age of the return migrants was 21 years and the majority
were single (62.5%). The current activities of the return migrants varied and
included: Self-employment (14.3%), paid work (9.8%), receiving education (8.2%)
and homemaking (40.0%). The majority of return migrants were from the Tajik
ethnic group (60.5%). The main destination countries were the Islamic Republic
of Iran (67.6%) and Pakistan (31.2%). The most important causes for returning
were personal reason (42.3%) such as a desire to be in their home country, to be
closer to family and friends and wanting to be in their own cultural environment.
This was followed by a large percentage returning due to the change in the
political and safety situation in Afghanistan (31.7%).
125
(Temporary) return programmes for qualified Afghans

International organizations such as the International Organization for
Migration (IOM) and UNDP actively encourage and support Afghans abroad to
return to their home country for the purpose of capacity-building and to fill skills
gaps in the Afghan government and public services, invest in the private sector
and assist with the post-conflict reconstruction of Afghanistan (Oeppen, 2009). To
date, a total of 1,365 Afghan experts living abroad have returned to Afghanistan
from 31 countries with assistance from IOM.25 Many other organizations likewise
aim to send skilled migrants home in this light.26 For example, Internationalization
of Entrepreneurship (IntEnt) in the Netherlands or the Centre for International
Migration and Development (CIM) in Germany created return programmes for
highly skilled Afghans who wish to return home after having worked or studied
in the Netherlands or Germany. These organizations offer individualized advisory
services to plan the experts return home and furthermore support the migrants
own business ideas or forward suitable job vacancies and local contacts in the
country of destination. Depending on the skills, additional payments to top
up the local salary in the home country are made and financial assistance to
cover travel and transport expenses is arranged by CIM (CIM, 2013). The IntEnt
Foundation, in contrast, focuses explicitly on migrant entrepreneurs who wish
to set up a business in their country of origin. In 2010, two start-up missions
were held, during which nine Afghans carried out market research in their home
country. All participants aimed to open their own business in Kabul. Among the
participants was an architect who wanted to open his own architecture bureau
and a physician who aimed to build his own healthcare centre. Each Afghan had
starting capital; however, the bulk of finance was received either from financial
institutions or family and friends. With regard to age and gender, all participants
were male and relatively young with five participants between 23 and 29 and
one participant in his mid-40s (IntEnt, 2011).
B.4.5. REINTEGRATION OF RETURNEES IN AFGHANISTAN

Since 2001, at least 6 million Afghans around 20 per cent of Afghanistans
overall population have returned from Pakistan and the Islamic Republic of
Iran. In reality, the total number of individuals is likely to be much larger due
to the undercounting of non-refugee returnees such as undocumented and
registered labour migrants. This calls into question the refugee-lens used to view
Table 20 in Annex A provides an overview of temporary return programmes by IOM.
It should be noted that IOM, IntEnt or CIM do not offer return programmes exclusively for Afghans, but also
support other migrant populations from, for example, Morocco, Ghana and Ethiopia
25
26
126
reintegration in Afghanistan. Nevertheless, many returnees have sought refuge

abroad during Afghanistans historically turbulent past and, as such, have spent
a significant amount of time abroad before returning to Afghanistan. For secondgeneration Afghan refugees, who return home, the term does not literally
mean return as a majority of these second-generation Afghans have had little or
no familiarity with living in Afghanistan (Saito and Hunte, 2007). The experiences
of refugees and labour migrants abroad as well as the reasons for leaving in the
first place, may have important implications for the reintegration process back
in Afghanistan.
Studies of reintegration into Afghanistan reveal mixed results. A study
undertaken by Altai Consulting in 2006 interviewed 600 households that had
returned from Pakistan and the Islamic Republic of Iran, across three provinces:
250 in Kabul, 175 in Herat and 175 in Nangarhar. Over 65 per cent of the
interviews were conducted in urban areas and the rest in rural areas. Within the
sample, the most common occupations cited were construction, manufacturing
and craft-related or technical jobs such as metalwork, weaving, tailoring, shoe
making or chauffeuring. The majority of respondents (48%) felt that their
situation, whether social, professional or personal, had deteriorated, when
compared to their situation prior to leaving Afghanistan. Another 22 per cent felt
their situation had not changed and 30 per cent felt that it had improved. The
research revealed that, although many Afghans returned to their home country
with higher skill levels, they struggled economically in Afghanistan. Data from
this study also indicate that the country of destination matters for the successful
reintegration of returnees. For example, returnees from Western countries
(particularly European countries and Canada) reported better reintegration
outcomes compared to returnees from neighbouring states such as the Islamic
Republic of Iran and Pakistan (Altai Consulting, 2006).
What is unclear from repatriation trends is the proportion of returnees
who eventually settle in Afghanistan for the long term and those who decide to
migrate again. A study for the Afghanistan Research and Evaluation Unit (AREU)
showed that half of the interviewed returnee respondents in Afghanistan
had hopes or expectations of leaving the country again in either the short or
long term, citing a wide range of reasons informed by a variety of emotional
responses to the reintegration process (Saito, 2008). Another study by AREU
observed that those returnees who are less educated and in the low-income
category struggle with material survival and physical insecurity. However, the
more educated respondents, particularly women, tend to face greater social and
emotional hurdles during the reintegration process, as they strive for long-term
resettlement in Afghanistan (Saito and Hunte, 2007). The desires of returnees
127
regarding the kind of programmes to help improve their situation were clear;
over 75 per cent indicated that they wished to receive some training in finance
to create their own business, 34 per cent indicated they wished to receive
vocational training and 32 per cent would appreciate employment services.
Other services such as training in English, computer courses or management
courses were likewise mentioned (Altai Consulting, 2006).
The IS Academy Survey shows that, from a sample of 1,096 individuals,
almost 90 per cent of returnees feel that they are part of a community in
Afghanistan. The data suggest that the majority of returnees feel well integrated
in Afghanistan and are happy to have returned to their cultural environment
despite the challenges. Furthermore, 90 per cent of the returnee households
interviewed felt strongly connected to their community. Additionally, nearly
53 per cent reported their households situation improved compared to their
situation before their exile.
Economic indicators also show that returnee and non-migrant households
are at par, though overall in a weak position given a lack of stable employment,
lack of savings and lack of land tenure security. At times, however, returnee
populations fare better, either because their exile has taught them new and more
marketable skills or because they have a greater awareness of credit systems. All
in all, returnee and non-migrant households report similar levels of vulnerability
to external shocks, whether it be job loss, illness, death or increases in input and
food prices. Many of the issues confronting returnee households are therefore
the same issues that confront non-returnee and non-migrant households; these
are the structural issues of a country where development has not reached the
mass of urban and rural poor. It also highlights the importance of evidencebased policies: without a rigorous study of the situations of returnee and nonreturnee households, it is impossible to speak of reintegration levels and to
develop national strategies.
B.5. INTERNAL MIGRATION

B.5.1. RURAL-URBAN MIGRATION
A study with the goal of better understanding rural-urban labour migration
in Afghanistan was carried out by the Afghanistan Research and Evaluation Unit
(AREU) in 2005 and examined 997 individuals in three cities of Afghanistan
128
(Kabul, Herat and Jalalabad). The study found that lack of employment in rural
areas was one of the main reasons for rural-urban migration. In combination
with perceived better employment opportunities in the cities, 42 per cent of
respondents indicated lack of employment as a reason to leave their home
villages. An additional 38 per cent of respondents indicated that the employment
situation in rural areas alone was the main decisive factor. The study also
revealed rapidly rising migration flows toward urban areas, with 72 per cent of
the respondents arriving in the destination area during the previous year (Opel,
2005).
The findings of the National Risk and Vulnerability Assessment (NRVA)
2007/08 confirm that employment is one of the major factors stimulating
migration, but rural-urban migration was observed only among 3 per cent of
the population; urban-rural migration was much more frequent, with 14 per
cent of the population reporting this type of movement. Most migrants in the
NRVA stated that they moved intra-provincially due to security issues. For shortdistance urban migrants, marriage was an important reason to migrate, while
for those moving to urban areas, education played a major role (Icon-Institute,
2009).
The NRVA 2005 revealed that for households with an internal migrant, that
migrants average length of stay in the city was 2.8 years. The longest duration of
stay was in Herat City (3.43 years) and the shortest in Jalalabad City (1.39 years).
For Kabul the average stay was 2.2 years (MRRD and CSO, 2007).
B.5.2. INTERNALLY DISPLACED PERSONS

The level of internal displacement in Afghanistan over the past three
decades has been consistently high and is fast becoming one of the key
humanitarian priorities facing the country. After the fall of the Taliban in 2001,
over 1.2 million Afghans were internally displaced due to an increase in armed
conflict. As a result of an improving security situation, a high number of these
IDPs were able to return shortly after 2002. About 85 per cent of IDPs displaced
in the post-2001 period left the camps within three years. In 2006 and 2008,
the number of IDPs started to rise again, however, following a declining rate
of return and new displacements in the south (IDMC and NRC, 2011). In 2008,
UNHCR identified 235,833 IDPs in Afghanistan, of which more than 70 per cent
were displaced as a result of conflict prior to and after the fall of the Taliban in
2001 or as a result of droughts of the 1990s. These IDPs were largely living in
camp-like settlements in the south (119,958), the west (29,690) and the south-
129
east (12,341) of Afghanistan (UNHCR, 2008a). Conflict-induced displacement has

been increasing again since 2010. According to UNHCR, there are currently close
to 400,000 conflict-induced IDPs in Afghanistan (UNHCR, 2012e). Estimates by
the Ministry of Refugees and Repatriation (MoRR) place the number of internally
displaced persons (IDPs) at more than 480,000 (MoRR, 2011). This number
includes individuals displaced due to both conflict and natural disasters.27
As Figure 25 shows, more than three-quarters of the Afghan population
has had to leave their homes at least once between 1979 and 2009. Of those
displaced, 32 per cent were displaced internally, 31 per cent externally and 13
per cent both externally and internally (Oxfam, 2009).
Figure 25: Conflict-induced displacement of Afghans, 1979-2009
13%
24%
Never displaced
Internally displaced
Externally displaced
31%
32%
Source:
Both internally and

externally displaced
OXFAM, 2009.
Figure 26 shows the main reason for displacement indicated by those

IDPs registered by UNHCR. For decades armed conflict has been the main cause
of displacement in Afghanistan, but the general deterioration of the security
situation is as important as a driver for people to leave their place of residence.
Some individuals also flee preventively, to escape anticipated improvised
explosive devices, attacks or night raids. Others flee to escape present armed
actors whose practices of intimidation and harassment include extortion, forced
recruitment and the feeding of and caring for wounded combatants (Rothing,
2011). The reasons for displacement of any given individual or household are
More information on environmentally induced displacement is provided in section C.6.
27
130
likely to be very complex, however, as conflict and human rights violations may
often lead to increased poverty and decreased food security, contributing to a
households decision to migrate (IDMC and NRC, 2011).
Figure 26: Main cause of displacement
1%
2% 2%
3%
Armed conflict, hostilities
1%
General deterioration of
security
3%
Intimidation, threats
6%
37%
7%
Military Operations
Targeted persecution
Impact of cross border shelling
Land dispute, land occupation
Inter-tribal dispute
37%
Extortion
Illegal Taxation
Source:
UNHCR, 2012e.
Returning IDPs and refugees often face land or property seizure or

occupation by local warlords, their relatives or others individuals. As a
consequence, between 20 and 30 per cent of refugee returnees have been
forced into secondary internal displacement over the past five years. Other
reasons for secondary or protracted displacement, such as human rights abuses
perpetrated by the Taliban, have also occurred, particularly in the SouthEastern, Southern and Central regions. The Taliban has also targeted members
of minority Shia groups, leading to their displacement. Most of the documented
mass displacements occurred in the context of offensives by international forces
in their struggle against growing insurgencies, however (Rothing, 2011).
Most IDPs in May 2012 were residing in Nangarhar, Herat, Helmand and
Kandahar (see Figure 27) and primarily originated from Badghis, Kandahar,
Helmand and Kunar (see Figure 28).
131
Figure 27: Top 10 provinces of residence of IDPs, May 2012

70,000
63,603 62,951
60,000
53,597
Number of IDPs
50,000
45,483
40,000
30,000
18,897 17,916 17,376 16,400
20,000
12,882
10,000
0
Source:
UNHCR, 2012e.
Figure 28: Top 10 provinces of origin of internally displaced persons, May 2012
60,000
53,568
Number of IDPs
50,000
48,886 46,977
40,000
30,000
27,918
20,000
10,000
0
Source:
132
UNHCR, 2012e.
25,883
23,136 21,886
17,999
15,487 15,317
Internal displacement per region

Figure 29 below shows the IDP population by region at the end of May
for the years 2010 to 2012. It shows that the regions that are affected by
displacement have changed during this time period (UNHCR, 2012e).
Figure 29: IDP population by region, 2010-2012
200,000
180,000
Number of IDPs
160,000
140,000
120,000
100,000
80,000
60,000
40,000
20,000
0
South
East
West
2010
Source:
North
2011
Central
South-East
Central
Highlands
2012
UNHCR, 2012e.
The Northern and North-Eastern regions have been most burdened

throughout the decades of conflicts, particularly during the Russian invasion
in which these regions represented the front lines. Although approximately 21
per cent of all refugees registered in the Islamic Republic of Iran and Pakistan
between 2002 and 2010 have returned to Afghanistan, for many it has been
impossible to return to their (demolished) origin communities. Most of these
returnees are thus living in a situation of internal displacement. Other factors
seriously challenge the livelihoods of the current population in the Northern
regions, which may not only hinder the return of refugees but also contribute
to further displacement. Seasonal floods, landslides and heavy snow storms
are common in the north of Afghanistan and the region also suffers from a
lack of infrastructure, economic opportunities and development. The security
situation has worsened recently as a result of expanding conflict between antigovernment elements (AGEs) and pro-government forces (PGFs). In addition
to the direct threat of violence, the conflict has also destroyed livelihoods, as
crops and livestock are either abandoned by families fleeing the violence or
are confiscated or destroyed by the conflicting parties (Afghanistan Protection
Cluster, 2011b). In May 2012, almost 45,000 IDPs were reported in the Northern
133
region (UNHCR, 2012e). Internally displaced persons urgently require shelter

upon their displacement. Many families that move to rural areas seek refuge
with family, but as time passes without the possibility for sustainable return,
the living conditions of IDPs and their host families deteriorate. Those displaced
to urban areas predominantly rent houses, often cramped together with other
families and often without a regular income. IDPs also suffer from a lack of access
to food, water and education (Afghanistan Protection Cluster, 2011b).
The Eastern and South-Eastern regions are also strongly affected by
conflict. More than 100,000 IDPs from these regions were registered by UNHCR
in May 2012 (UNHCR, 2012e). The current military hostilities between the PGFs
and AGEs mainly take place in these regions, which is of strategic importance to
the Afghan National Security Forces and the International Military Forces. The
border area between Afghanistan and Pakistan is very insecure and the Pakistani
army regularly conducts military operations against active insurgencies in the
Federally Administered Tribal Areas (FATA). As a result, the numbers of civilian
casualties and new internal displacements have increased. Data collection on
conflict-induced displacement in the South-Eastern region is hampered by severe
underreporting, but it is clear that the main cause of internal displacement in
this region is conflict. Due to the deteriorating security situation, sustainable
solutions for IDPs remain a challenge. The need for shelter is high among IDPs
and although the majority find refuge with host communities, the ability of
these communities to meet the needs of IDPs for an extended period is limited.
As in the Northern and North-Eastern Regions, there is a lack of access to food,
water, education and health facilities in these regions (Afghanistan Protection
Cluster, 2011a).
In the Southern region more than 128,000 persons were reported to
be displaced due to conflict in May 2012 (UNHCR, 2012e). Information on
displacement to other areas in the region is limited. The presence of landmines
and the destruction of livelihoods, including homes, livestock and crops, suggests
that it will be difficult for displaced families to consider return even after the
conflict has ended. The living circumstances of IDPs will likely deteriorate further
due to the harsh climate in the region and the lack of (humanitarian) facilities in
areas of displacement (Afghanistan Protection Cluster, 2011c).
Internally displaced persons in informal settlements

A study of the World Bank and UNHCR (2011b) examined IDPs residing in
informal settlements in urban centres and their vulnerabilities. More than 90 per
cent of the IDPs that participated in this study came from a rural area. As a result
134
of the conflicts, people in rural areas have suffered from large-scale destruction,
including of their assets. Moreover, the physical and social infrastructure,
consisting of, for example, irrigation structures, roads and markets, is still not at
the level it was before the conflict. This implies that for current rural inhabitants
there is a strong incentive to move to the more secure cities offering better
economic opportunities. Furthermore, the capacity of the rural areas to absorb
return migrants is limited, which also motivates them to move to urban centres
upon return. Natural disasters, in particular the multi-year droughts that took
place in the last decade, also contribute to forced or economic migration to
urban areas. The reasons for displacement that were identified in the study
confirm that the main push factors were conflict, food insecurity and unand underemployment (in order of importance with the first being the most
important) and that economic incentives were the main pull factor towards
urban areas. In a profiling report of the informal settlements in Kabul, economic
issues are also the driving force for people to settle in Kabul upon return to
Afghanistan. The main issues are landlessness, lack of job opportunities and a
lack of support infrastructure, such as social services, in the origin community
(World Bank and UNHCR, 2011b).
This urbanization trend has led to the growth of informal settlements
where inhabitants are faced with unsafe circumstances. In early 2010, 29
informal settlements were identified in Kabul city and its surroundings, which
house more than 13,500 individual inhabitants (UNHCR SOK et al., 2010). This
displacement seems to be permanent, as 70 per cent of the families had resided
in these settlements for over two years, mostly in dangerous circumstances
(World Bank and UNHCR, 2011a). Over 90 per cent expressed the intention to
settle permanently in the urban area and approximately 80 per cent reported
that they were unwilling to return to their (rural) origin communities due to
inadequate livelihood opportunities there (World Bank and UNHCR, 2011b).
Moreover, as time passes the motivation of families to return to their origin
community decreases (UNHCR SOK et al., 2010).
The most pressing problems IDPs face concern employment, housing
and food security. They struggle with social and economic integration in the
cities due to their lower skill levels, even when compared with the urban poor.
Their literacy rates and educational levels are considerably lower (especially
among women) and their work experience tends to be limited to agriculture
and the rearing of livestock. Consequently, over 50 per cent of male IDPs are
employed in the construction sector, while 13 per cent of the urban poor work
in this sector, the rest appearing to work in different sectors. Furthermore, 68
per cent of IDPs in the labour force work in casual daily labour, while most male
135
poor household heads (49%) in the cities are self-employed. Therefore, IDP
households are dependent on more than one source of income and this makes
newly displaced households particularly vulnerable, especially in the first two
years of displacement. With regard to problems faced by IDP households, the
most common are un- and underemployment, access to adequate housing and
access to food (World Bank and UNHCR, 2011a, 2011b).
The housing conditions in which IDPs live are hazardous. As rent continues
to increase in Kabul, many (return) migrants live in tents or other types of
temporary shelter (UNHCR SOK et al., 2010). Approximately 60 per cent reside
in some form of temporary shelter, shack or tent and their tenure is insecure,
which puts them at risk of eviction. Furthermore, over 70 per cent are deprived
of access to electricity (among the urban poor this is 18%) and the water and
sanitation facilities are inadequate. The food insecurity of IDPs is also much
worse than that of the urban poor with 14 per cent of IDPs reporting that they
had problems fulfilling their food needs several times a month compared with
3 per cent of urban poor households (World Bank and UNHCR, 2011a, 2011b).
The World Bank and UNHCR (2011b) study on IDPs in urban informal
settlements in Afghanistan showed that employment, housing and food security
rank highest on the list of problems for IDPs. Employment remains a priority
irrespective of settlement time, while concerns related to access to proper
housing become more pressing the longer the duration of stay and food insecurity
tends to decline. IDPs in informal settlements live in much more precarious
housing conditions than the urban poor, namely in hazardous dwelling types
(tents, temporary shelters or shacks), and 85 per cent do not have a land deed or
any sort of security of tenure. The study also reveals the extreme vulnerability to
food insecurity for IDPs in informal settlements. By comparing the data from the
IDP survey to national data on the urban poor from the NRVA 2007/08 sample,
the World Bank and UNHCR study showed that food insecurity among IDPs in
informal settlement is much worse than that of urban poor households: only 7
per cent of IDPs reported to have never faced problems in meeting household
food needs compared to 37 per cent of the urban poor. The study identifies
the first two years of settlement as the most difficult for displaced households
to provide for their livelihood. Due to the disruption of their social safety nets
and lack of skill sets adapted to urban settings, IDPs employment opportunities
are initially confined to very poor quality daily labour with negative impacts on
household budgets and wellbeing (World Bank and UNHCR, 2011b).
The basic human rights, especially of women and children, are not met
in the informal settlements. In most settlements there is no primary school
136
available and children often have to work, thereby the childrens rights to
primary education are not respected. Furthermore, cases of sexual and gender
based violence, which includes domestic violence and forced prostitution, have
been reported (UNHCR SOK et al., 2010).
These findings indicate the immense need for development of sustainable
solutions for this population. In this light the Government of the Islamic Republic
of Afghanistan issued Decree 104 in 2005 on land allocation, which can provide
a solution to some vulnerable settlement dwellers by presenting them with an
option to return to their origin communities (for more information refer to section
D.2). In 2006, the first families were relocated to land allocation sites mainly in
Kabul and Parwan and since then more settlement dwellers have been relocated
and provided shelter and assistance. However, the relocation has not been an
enduring solution for all relocated families and some returned to live in informal
settlements because of a lack of job opportunities or transportation services in
the land allocation sites. It remains difficult to find a sustainable solution to this
complex issue of informal settlements. These settlements continue to expend
rapidly as the (capital) city keeps attracting returnees and IDPs (UNHCR SOK et
al., 2010).
137
PART C: IMPACTS OF MIGRATION

C.1. MIGRATION AND DEMOGRAPHIC
DEVELOPMENT
Net migration
The net migration rate indicates the contribution of migration to the
overall level of population change (CIA, 2013).28 Looking at the net migration
rate of Afghanistan per 1000 population during the Soviet occupation from
1979 to 1989 (Table 42), a large number of Afghan people left the country,
contributing to a negative net migration rate of -56.7/1000 persons between
1980 and 1985. After the withdrawal of Soviet troops many Afghans returned,
resulting in a net positive migration rate at 44.4/1000 persons between 1990
and 1995. However, when the Taliban was strongest, during 1995 and 2000,
more people left Afghanistan than returned, precipitating a negative net
migration rate of -6.5/1000 persons. With the fall of the Taliban at the end of
2001 and the implementation of UNHCRs voluntary repatriation scheme, high
numbers of Afghans have returned to their home country, generating a positive
net migration for the time period 2000-2005. Since then the net migration rate
has further decreased to -5.6/1000 persons in 2005-2010 and -2.6/1000 persons
for the 2010-2015 period. In 2020, it is expected that although more people will
emigrate than immigrate the net migration rate will stabilize with a negative net
migration of -0.1/1000 persons in the time period 2020-2050. However, these
numbers are projections and should therefore be interpreted with caution.
Table 42: Net migration, 1950-2050
Period
Net migration
(in thousands)
Net migration rate

(per 1,000 population)
1950-1955
-4
- 0.5
1955-1960
-4
- 0.5
1960-1965
-4
- 0.4
1965-1970
-4
- 0.4
The annual net migration rate is the difference between the number of persons entering and leaving
Afghanistan in a specific year per 1,000 persons. An excess of persons entering Afghanistan is referred to as
net immigration (5 migrants/1000 populations); an excess of persons leaving the country as net emigration
(-8 migrants/1000 populations) (CIA, 2013).
28
139
1970-1975
-4
- 0.3
1975-1980
- 235
- 18.2
1980-1985
- 701
- 56.7
1985-1990
- 341
- 29.3
1990-1995
651
44.4
1995-2000
- 124
- 6.5
2000-2005
27
1.2
2005-2010
- 148
- 5.6
2010-2015
- 80
- 2.6
2015-2020
- 54
- 1.6
2020-2025
-4
- 0.1
2025-2030
-4
- 0.1
2030-2035
-4
- 0.1
2035-2040
-4
- 0.1
2040-2045
-4
- 0.1
2045-2050
-4
- 0.1
Source:
UN DESA, 2013.
Urbanization
It has been observed that the Afghan urban population has grown rapidly
in the past decade. Table 43 shows that the urban population made up 5.8 per
cent of the total population in 1950. This increased to 23.2 per cent in 2010 and is
expected to further increase to 43.4 per cent by 2050. Urbanization is a common
trend globally. Kabul and other urban centres are likely to continue expanding
in the foreseeable future with security and living conditions deteriorating in
rural areas. The associated phenomenon of informal settlements is a result of
urban growth driven by a combination of natural growth, newcomers entering
the housing market and migration patterns, whether rural-urban migration,
secondary migration or direct migration of returnees and internally displaced
persons (Majidi, 2011b).
140
Table 43: Urban and rural population, 1950-2050

Area
1950
Rural (in thousands)

Urban (in thousands)
Urban (in %)
1970
1980
1990
2000
7,679
8,898
10,645
11,962
10,666
18,152
473
773
1,320
2,224
2,366
4,704
18.2
20.6
5.8
1960
8.0
11.0
15.7
Area
2010
2020
2030
2040
2050
Rural (in thousands)
24,112
30,929
36,631
40,759
43,148
Urban (in thousands)
7,300
11,213
16,635
24,025
33,102
23.2
26.6
31.2
37.1
43.4
Urban in %)
Source:
UN DESA, 2012.
Urbanization has been largely prompted by refugees and internally

displaced persons relocating to cities. Although the NRVA 2007/08 found a
low frequency of rural to urban migration, figures of UNHCR and other studies
have shown that the majority of Afghan returnees (between 2002 and 2009)
settled in urban areas, mainly Kabul, upon their return. It can be concluded,
therefore, that the high urbanization rate in Afghanistan is, at least in part, due
to migration movements. At a time when approximately 70 per cent of Kabul is
composed of informal settlements, with an urban growth rate of 5.4 per cent
annually and an expected doubling of the population over the next seven years
(Turkstra and Popal, personal communication, 2010), it is becoming increasingly
difficult to track, estimate and assess the presence and profiles of returnee
and IDP populations settling in urban areas. There are three broad categories
of displaced person moving into cities, who can be grouped under the broader
term of urban displacement: (1) returnees who came to settle directly to cities
upon their return, (2) returnees who went to their areas of origin and were then
forced to move again to the cities, in a pattern of secondary displacement, and
(3) persons displaced internally by conflict, natural disaster and poverty (Majidi,
2011b).
Many returnees have claimed to originate from the capital in order to
settle there directly upon their return. Levron et al. (2006) recorded that 90
per cent of repatriating refugees claimed that their place of origin was Kabul
between 2002 and 2003. In many cases this is true given the large inflow of
people into Kabul during the Taliban years, but it also reflects the preferences of
refugees who have lived in protracted difficult situations abroad and therefore
wish to relocate to urban centres in Afghanistan (Murnaghan and Kostohryz,
personal communication, 2009). This is the case for returnees from the Islamic
Republic of Iran and Pakistan who were involved in the service or construction
sectors rather than in the agricultural sectors, and would therefore struggle to
revert back to rural modes of subsistence upon return (Majidi, 2011b).
141
It is, therefore, not known whether Afghan returnees moving to Afghan

cities originate from these areas, but it can be assumed that returnees have
taken advantage of the perceived benefits and livelihood opportunities offered
by urban life. In 2005, around 70 per cent of urban citizens lived in only six cities:
Kabul, Kandahar, Herat, Mazar-i-Sharif, Jalalabad and Kunduz. Consequently, the
Afghan government is facing strong pressure in terms of urban governance and
urban management (Beall and Esser, 2005). Of all cities in Afghanistan, Kabul
remains the largest with an estimated population of around 3 million in 2005.
The growth rate of Kabul was estimated as high as 17 per cent in recent years.
Currently the city continues to grow annually by about 5 per cent. In 2009, the
total number of people residing in Kabul was estimated at 3.57 million (Kantor,
2008).
Displaced populations in urban settings are living alongside the urban
poor and reside in each of the major Afghan cities. Their arrival and stay, whether
in the form of protracted or recent and temporary displacement patterns, has
increased pressure on local infrastructure and city services, further exacerbating
the vulnerabilities of residents and of the mass of urban poor. This is particularly
the case with regard to access to shelter and land, water and sanitation, food
and livelihood opportunities (Majidi, 2011b).
The IS Academy data in Table 44 show that the largest number of
households with migrants live in rural areas (41.6%), with the remaining
households residing in urban (38.9%) or peri-urban (19.5%) areas. Just over 50
per cent of households with a return migrant or with no migrants reside in urban
areas. With regard to the provinces, the largest group of households with a
migrant are in Balkh, whereas the number of return migrant households is much
lower (about 15%). Approximately a quarter of return migrant households live in
Nangarhar, compared to 17.3 per cent of migrant households and 14.0 per cent
of non-migrant households. About a quarter of non-migrant households and just
under 20 per cent of return migrant households reside in Kandahar, while only
4.3 per cent of migrant households lives in that province.
142
Table 44: Urbanization among migrant, return migrant and non-migrant

households, IS Academy
Migrant
#
Return
Non-migrant
Total
#
Location Type
Urban
72
38.9
514
50.8
417
51.5
1,003
50.0
Peri-urban
36
19.5
267
26.4
197
24.4
500
24.9
Rural
77
41.6
230
22.8
195
24.1
502
25.1
Kabul
39
21.1
219
21.7
144
17.8
402
20.1
Nangarhar
32
17.3
257
25.4
113
14.0
402
20.1
Herat
48
25.9
195
19.3
158
19.5
401
20.0
Balkh
58
31.4
152
15.0
190
23.5
400
19.9
4.3
188
18.6
204
25.2
400
19.9
Province
Kandahar
Source:
IS Academy Survey, 2011.
C.2. MIGRATION AND ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

Informal Economy
In a study of bonded labour at brick kilns in the Surkhroad district of
Nangarhar province and Deb Sabz district of Kabul province, it was found that
98 per cent of the households that work in brick kilns were return migrants from
Pakistan. The remaining 2 per cent of households consisted of internally displaced
persons (IDPs). The return migrants had often worked in brick kilns during their
time in Pakistan. As in Pakistan, the brick kilns rely strongly on debt bondage. The
debts of these households mainly came about in order to pay for basic needs,
primarily food and medical expenses. Migration has shaped the nature of work
in brick kilns, in the sense that the experience of the return migrants as brick
makers in Pakistan encourages them to accept the heavy work required in brick
kilns. Local people in the two districts where the study was conducted refuse
to work in the brick kilns. The average brick maker performs strenuous work
for 70 to 80 hours a week and receives a small wage and a one-room shelter
in return. Families that work here are entrenched in a debt cycle in which child
labour is also common, as it substantially contributes to the household income.
As women are not allowed to work and the average size of the household is 8.8,
the household normally depends on child labour (ILO, 2011).
143
REMITTANCES TO AFGHANISTAN29
The World Bank indicates that Afghanistan does not report data on
remittances to the International Monetary Fund (IMF) in the form of balance
of payments (BOP) statistics (World Bank, 2011a). Although not reported,
remittances to Afghanistan exist and play a key role in the survival of Afghan
families and the Afghan economy (Kapur, 2004). The World Bank estimates that
15 per cent of rural households in Afghanistan receive remittances from abroad,
covering around 20 per cent of the familys daily expenditure (World Bank, 2005).
A 2007 report released by the International Fund for Agricultural Development
estimated remittances to Afghanistan in 2006 at USD 2.5 billion, accounting
for 29.6 per cent of the total GDP in Afghanistan at that time (Orozco, 2007).
The IS Academy data suggest that 7.6 per cent of Afghan households receive
remittances. Remittances are also sent to Afghans in the near diaspora. For
example, a study by the Collective for Social Science Research (2006) suggests
that 40 per cent of Afghans living in the area of Hayatabad in Peshawar, Pakistan
are reliant on remittances from abroad.
Based on the data collected for the National Risk and Vulnerability
Assessment (NRVA) in 2005, a study by Ahmed and Gassmann (2010) analysed
the levels of vulnerability of Afghan households. The study revealed that the
more vulnerable households in terms of income generating activities were those
that relied on agricultural wage labour (25 per cent of all Afghan households)
and livestock activities (18 per cent of all households). In contrast, only 10
per cent of households that relied on remittances as an income-generating
activity experienced vulnerability. This is unsurprising as remittances tend to
be countercyclical and relatively consistent while agriculture and livestock are
very vulnerable to shocks such as environmental events like flood or drought.
The study also revealed that Afghan households that derive their income from
formal employment, opium production, sale activities or small businesses had
the lowest incidence of vulnerability (Ahmed and Gassmann, 2010).
The purpose of remittances

Receivers
In Afghanistan most remittances are spent on basic needs such as food,
clothes and medicines by recipients. A study of Afghan deportees from the
Islamic Republic of Iran undertaken for UNHCR (Majidi, 2008) showed that the
majority of single adult males migrated there alone with the goal of earning
A more detailed overview of remittances in the Afghan context is provided in Annex B.
29
144
higher salaries and sending remittances back to their families. These remittances
most often constitute the sole source of income for these families in Afghanistan.
A study by Stigter (2004), however, revealed that a relatively high number of
male migrants saved their money for the purpose of mahr (dowry), which is the
amount of money to be paid by the groom to the brides family at the time of
marriage. Nonetheless, Stigter (2004) concludes that the vast majority of savings
or remittances are used to cover the basic needs of family members remaining
in Afghanistan. This was also confirmed in the study by Siegel et al. (2010) in
which Afghan respondents living in the Netherlands reported that the main
purpose of the money sent was to contribute to daily living costs. These findings
are supported by Hanifi (2006), who also finds that the majority (86%) of cash
remittances are used to meet basic daily needs.
Table 45: Primary use of remittances, IS Academy
Primary use of remittances received
Daily needs
Frequency
Percentage
114
78.1
Debt payments
13
8.9
Ceremonies
12
8.2
Healthcare
2.1
Business/ investment
0.7
Housing/ land
0.7
Other
1.4
Source:
IS Academy Survey, 2011
IS Academy Survey data confirm these findings. Close to 80 per cent of

the remittances received were used to satisfy daily needs. A further 9 per cent
to settle debt payments and 8 per cent for events such as a wedding or a funeral.
Senders
Data from the IS Academy Survey indicate that the main purpose for the
migrant to send remittances is to satisfy daily needs (Table 46). Other reasons
for sending remittances include paying for ceremonies, repayment of a loan
or covering health care expenditures. It can, however, also be seen that the
majority of remittance senders (42.5%) did not have any influence on the actual
use of the remittances. More than one fifth, on the other hand, had complete
control over the remittance use by the receivers.
145
Table 46: Primary purpose and actual use of remittances and

the influence of the sending person, IS Academy
Frequency
Percentage
Primary purpose of remittances sent

Daily needs
36
61.0
Ceremonies
11
18.6
Debt payments
13.6
Healthcare
3.4
Education
1.7
Other
1.7
No say at all
62
42.5
Very little say
37
25.3
Some say
17
11.6
Total say
30
20.6
Influence of the sending person(s) on how the money is spent
Source:
IS Academy Survey, 2011
Among Afghans living in the United Kingdom, remittance patterns seem

to vary between young men who are abroad on their own and those who are
abroad as part of a family group. Young men on their own were significantly
more likely to hold financial responsibilities for relatives in Afghanistan and, for
the majority, the primary migration intention was to support their families back
home. With respect to Afghans living in the Bay Area, California, interviewees
mentioned a sense of guilt as the main reason for sending remittances, as many
respondents reported feeling as if they were abandoning their home country
and living safely in California whilst those in Afghanistan appeared to be suffering
(Oeppen, 2009).
The positive impacts of remittances seem to be clear. Remittances are a
valuable source of foreign exchange for Afghanistan and potentially an important
addition to the gross domestic product at the macro-economic level. Moreover,
remittances can alleviate the immediate effects of poverty in Afghan households
who depend on these money transfers as a key livelihood strategy (Majidi, 2008).
They are also an investment strategy for Afghans, paying for education and to
build businesses (IOM, 2008a). However, remittances also have a negative side.
The Afghan Central Bank stated that remittances, at least in part, contributed
to inflation in the country (DAB, 2009). In addition, remittances seem mostly
important for the survival of the family but less important for reconstruction or
development of the country.
146
Formal means of transfer and costs of remitting

Formal remittance transfer options in Afghanistan are largely characterised
by minimal (but growing) regional penetration, relatively high barriers to access,
very low usage rates and limited levels of user trust. This is partly due to the
greater functionality of, and familiarity with, the hawala system, which remains
the preferred method of money transfer; particularly as an alternative to
formal banking institutions. Formal transfer schemes such as banking systems
normally provide the least risky but most expensive way of sending remittances.
The funds-transfer sector is dominated by dedicated money-transfer firms, of
which Western Union (which commands an estimated 15 per cent of the global
remittances business) is the market leader, with over 300,000 agents in more
than 200 countries (World Bank, 2013a). Western Union had 40 agents in Kabul
and 60 others spread across Afghanistan in 2009. In contrast, MoneyGram
had only 13 agents of which 8 were in Kabul and 5 across the major cities in
Afghanistan. Changes in both the American market and the establishment of
financial services in Afghanistan have made Western Union more attractive
and competitive. With the reduction of transfer fees, the network today has a
wider reach in Afghanistan and recipients are now paid in dollars more quickly.
Moreover, companies such as Western Union charge a flat-fee for transferring
money; while this may act as a disincentive to those sending small amounts of
money, the flat fee can be a valuable service feature to those transferring larger
sums. For instance, a flat fee of USD 10 on a USD 200 transfer represents a fee
that is only 5 per cent of the total transfer sum, which would make Western
Union equivalent to, or only slightly more expensive than, hawala, depending
on the agent (Oeppen, 2009). Table 47 gives an example of the average transfer
costs from a particular country to Afghanistan with Western Union and other
formal remittance service providers.
Table 47: Overview of remittance sending costs
Sending country
Netherlands
Receiving country
Afghanistan
Service provider
Amount
Cost
ABN Amro, SNS Bank,

Rabobank, ING Bank,
Money Gram
EUR 100.00
EUR 15.00
EUR 55.00
EUR 100.00
EUR 17.00
Western Union
Australia
Afghanistan
Western Union
Canada
Afghanistan
Western Union
EUR 200.00
EUR 20.50
AUD 100.00
AUD 10.00
AUD 200.00
AUD 25.00
CAD 100.00
CAD 12.00
CAD 200.00
CAD 20.00
147
Germany
United Kingdom
United States
Source:
Afghanistan
Western Union
Afghanistan
Western Union
Afghanistan
Western Union
EUR 100.00
EUR 14.50
EUR 200.00
EUR 19.00
GBP 100.00
GBP 2.90
GBP 200.00
GBP 5.90
USD 100.00
USD 12.00
USD 200.00
USD 15.00
Siegel et al., 2010; Western Union, 2013a-f.
Remittances sent via mobile devices

Electronic money institutions (EMI) are formal remittance service
providers that enable funds transfer using mobile networks. This allows users
to make peer-to-peer and consumer-to-business transfers (in addition to
other services such as airtime purchases) (IFC, 2009). In 2008, M-Paisa was
the first EMI to start operating in Afghanistan. The service is supported by
Roshan Telecommunications. As of May 2013, there are three, soon to be
four, competitors in the mobile money market: AfTel, AWCC, Etisalat and MTN
(Rynecki, 2013).
Particularly for people without access to a bank account, this service is
convenient and allows, among other things, money transfers and bill payments.
Due to the fact that M-Paisa is associated with the largest telecommunication
company in Afghanistan (Roshan), whose networks are also present in the rural
areas of the country, this extends possibilities to receive money formally into
rural areas (Roshan, 2013). This new way of transferring remittances using mobile
phone technology is becoming a cheaper method of money transfer (IFAD,
2006). The number of mobile phone users in the country is steadily increasing.
Whereas in 2002 only 0.1 mobile cellular subscriptions per 100 inhabitants were
recorded, the number increased to 54.3 per 100 inhabitants by 2011 (UN Data,
2013).
The hawala system

Mistrust towards the banking system is very high in Afghanistan, which
may be related to the low level of literacy and historically weak oversight of the
financial sector. In 2011, only 17 commercial banks existed, mostly in the Kabul
area (DAB, 2011). As a result bank usage rates are very low, particularly in rural
areas. The International Finance Corporation (IFC) estimates that only around
3 per cent of the Afghan population can be considered banked (IFC, 2009).
Informal value transfer systems, such as the hawala system, have long provided
Afghans access to key financial services that formal financial institutions have
148
largely withheld across low security areas of the country. Given the geographic
penetration of hawala networks and the range of financial services that individual
agents provide, most Afghans use the hawala system to facilitate money
transfer to, from and within the country. When Afghan migrants and refugees
in the Islamic Republic of Iran, Pakistan or other neighbouring countries wish to
send money to recipients in Afghanistan, they usually entrust their money to a
businessman (usually someone from a close circle or own tribe) who specializes
in remittances and is known locally as a hawaladar (Schaeffer, 2008).
Maimbo (2003) highlights the fact that the hawala system has severe
weaknesses, including its anonymity and lack of record keeping, which could
make the system vulnerable to money laundering and terrorist financing
(Maimbo, 2003; IOM, 2008a). Maimbo argues that special regulations and
supervision techniques are needed that do not sacrifice the hawalas most
valuable attributes such as cost-effectiveness, convenience and regional
reach. Moreover, he suggests that the Afghan Central Bank should consider its
relationship with the hawala dealers, including how they could be brought into
closer compliance with international regularity and supervisory standards. These
concerns have resulted in the development of a specific regulatory regime that
attempts to formalize informal remittance service providers. This formalization
has led to the registration and subsequent monitoring of hawala businesses.
Despite regulatory challenges that the hawala system can pose, findings of the
IS Academy Survey show that families and households are overall satisfied with
the hawala system, which they consider an effective, timely and reliable way of
money transfer.
IS Academy Survey data on remittances

The IS Academy Survey data indicate that most remittances are sent
through informal channels (for an explanation see the section on the hawala
system above). Among those who received remittances from household
members, 62.5 per cent reported receiving remittances via hawala, as did 35.7
per cent of those households that received remittances from non-household
members. Remittances received from non-household members were often
sent through a friend or relative (42.9%), but this channel was seldom used
by households that received remittances from household members (16.3%).
In terms of formal remittance channels, the bank is the most commonly cited
channel, with about 15 per cent of households that receive remittances from
household members and 21 per cent of households that receive remittances
from non-household members reporting use of this channel. Money transfer
operators were rarely reported as being used and no respondents reported use
149
of other channels such as postal transfer or stored value cards. Satisfaction with
the remittances transfer method appears to be high, particularly among those
who receive remittances from non-household members (see Table 48).
Table 48: Remittance channel used and satisfaction with it, IS Academy
Household member
#
Non-household
member
#
Remittance channel
Shop keeper/ call house/
hawala (informal)
100
Friend/ relative brought it

Bank
62.5
35.71
26
16.3
42.86
25
15.63
21.43
Brought it him-/ herself
2.5
0.00
Money transfer operator
3.1
0.00
Very unsatisfied
5.6
14.3
Unsatisfied
3.1
7.1
Satisfaction with transfer method
Neutral
1.9
0.0
Satisfied
72
44.7
28.6
Very satisfied
72
44.7
50.0
Source:
It appears uncommon for households to receive goods from migrants

abroad, with only 18 households mentioning receiving goods from absent
household members and only one household receiving goods from nonhousehold members. This total of 19 households constitutes 0.9 per cent of all
the households in the IS Academy Survey data. Moreover, the goods had mainly
been received once or irregularly in the last 12 months. The kind of goods
received tended to be clothing or shoes and, to a lesser extent, mobile phones
(see Table 49).
150
Table 49: Remittances: Goods, IS Academy

Household members
#
Non household
members
#
How often were goods received in the last 12 months

Irregularly
44.4
0.0
Once
22.2
100.0
Twice
0.0
0.0
Every 3 months
5.6
0.0
Once per month or more
27.8
0.0
Clothing/ shoes
33.3
100.0
Mobile phone
22.2
0.0
Books/ CDs/ DVDs
11.1
0.0
Food
5.6
0.0
Medication
5.6
0.0
Other
22.2
0.0
Kind of goods received
Value of goods received in last

12 months (in USD)
Source:
179.2
20.7
Remittances from Abroad

In 1995, it was estimated that over 600 million Afghanis (about
USD 140,000 at the time on the black market) were sent every day from Quetta
(Pakistan) to the district of Jaghori (Afghanistan) (Schaeffer, 2008). A study by
AREU confirms this result, adding that single, young Afghan men in the Islamic
Republic of Iran send 70 to 80 per cent of their income as remittances (Stigter
and Monustti, 2005), amounting to about USD 500 to 1,300 per person per year
(Abbasi-Shavazi and Glazebrook, 2006; Stigter and Monsutti, 2005).
A study by the World Bank (2005) estimated that over 31 per cent of the
remittance-receiving households in Afghanistan received remittances from the
Islamic Republic of Iran or Pakistan, mainly from family members or friends.
Households within the lower quintiles were more likely to receive remittances
from the Islamic Republic of Iran and Pakistan, while higher-expenditure
households were more likely to receive money from further afield. Across all
expenditure quintiles, remittances amounted to around USD 34 per capita, with
151
recipients receiving more in each successively higher quintile (the lowest quintile
received USD 19 and the highest USD 47). In the lowest expenditure quintile,
only 10 per cent of all households received remittances, but remittances were a
significant income stream among those that did, representing 30 per cent of total
household expenditure. Around 15 per cent of Afghanistans rural population is
estimated to receive remittances (World Bank, 2005).
United States and Canada

The Afghanistan Investment Support Agency (AISA) estimated that an
Afghan person in the United States of America or Canada on average remits
USD 1,500 annually to Afghanistan. AISA stated that the total amount of
remittances sent annually from the United States and Canada to Afghanistan
might be as high as USD 75 million, most of which is transferred via the hawala
system (cited in Hanifi, 2006). The study by Hanifi (2006)30 observed that a single
hawaladar in Virginia can have a customer base of 2,000 to 3,000 people. In
a typical non-holiday month, the hawaladar dealt with about 450 customers.
The hawaladar handled about USD 110,000 - 120,000 per month, of which
USD 60,000 - 70,000 went to Afghanistan and USD 50,000 - 55,000 to Pakistan.
Transfers to Pakistan and Afghanistan reached approximately USD 1.3 million and
USD 1.4 million annually respectively. The study indicated that Afghans living in
Virginia send on average USD 250 per month to Afghanistan and Pakistan, with
amounts increasing in the month of Ramadan. The majority of clients in the
United States were repeat customers with variable periodicities and volumes
of transfer activities. During the course of the study, the hawaladars clientele
included only Afghans; however non-Afghans, in particular European and
American employees of aid and development agencies and non-government
organizations working in Afghanistan, often also used the hawala system (Hanifi,
2006). This was also confirmed during the study by Maimbo (2003), who found
that shortly after the fall of the Taliban, NGOs alone channelled at least USD
200 million in emergency relief and development funding through the hawala
system (Maimbo, 2003).
The flow of remittances is multi-directional, however. Hanifi (2006) found
that high amounts of remittances also flow out of Afghanistan. Likewise, the
hawaladar in the study reported that he also moved money out of Afghanistan
at a rate of approximately USD 100,000 per month. The hawaladar estimated
The study by Hanifi (2006) explores the impact of social and material remittances on Afghanistans
development. In the study, data on remittance flows were primarily provided by an Afghan money transfer
agent or hawaladar in Virginia, United States who allowed the investigator liberal access to his clientele and
business records from November 2004-2005.
30
152
that about USD 1 billion leaves Afghanistan per month, with part of the money
coming from the opium economy (Hanifi, 2006).
The Netherlands
With respect to the Netherlands, total workers remittances leaving the
country were EUR 798 million in 2006. Of that amount, remittances to Afghanistan
accounted for just EUR 79,409. The amount remained relatively stable over the
next two years, with remittances to Afghanistan hovering just over EUR 79,500
in both 2007 and 2008. In the study by Siegel et al. (2010) of Afghan migrants in
the Netherlands, respondents mentioned that the amount of money sent varied
with seasons and other periodic events such as Ramadan or drought periods.
The study also showed that the value of remittances sent varied between EUR
100 and EUR 300 per person per transfer. Most respondents sent remittances
between one and four times per year (Siegel et al., 2010).
Germany
According to Vadean (2007), over EUR 22 million in workers remittances
were sent from Germany to Afghanistan in 2004. This estimated figure is based
on cash carried personally by foreign workers on trips to their home countries
and on the number of employed and unemployed foreign nationals who are
subject to the social insurance contribution system. Consequently, estimates of
remittance outflows may not reflect the actual volume of remittances sent. This
is because cash carried personally only requires declaration to customs if the
amount exceeds EUR 15,000. Some migrants are also not covered under the social
security system and therefore not accounted for in the statistics. Additionally, all
Afghans who gained German citizenship in the past decades (about 40 per cent
of the residents of Afghan origin) are not included in the estimations. Almost all
Afghan households that were interviewed during the research sent remittances
to their families in Afghanistan. Interviewees stated that mainly poor families
were receiving remittances, in most cases for daily needs. Only in some cases
were remittances sent for purposes of medical treatment or marriage. In general,
Afghans in Germany sent relatively small amounts of remittances, on average
EUR 200 per month (Vadean, 2007).
153
MIGRATION AND INVESTMENT

According to data from the IS Academy Survey, the number of migrants who
invested in Afghanistan whilst abroad appears to be limited. The most common
investment was in housing, as reported by around 12 per cent of respondents. A
similar percentage of migrants sent remittances to their household while abroad
and less than 1 per cent sent money to non-household members. The majority
of these remittances were intended to satisfy daily needs, as shown in Table 50.
Table 50: Migration, remittances and investments, IS Academy
Frequency
Percentage
While abroad migrant made an investment in

House in Afghanistan
135
12.3
Still own the house
120
88.9
Land in Afghanistan
55
5.0
Still own the land
83.3
14
1.3
7.7
12
1.1
16.7
0.6
Still own the business
85.7
Land in country of migration
0.0
House in country of migration

Still own the house
Business in country of migration
Still own the business
Business in Afghanistan
Still own the land

Sent remittances to household
Average amount (in AFN)
0.0
127
11.56
159,800
(min: 1,000, max: 2,500,000)
Primary reason sent money

Daily needs
51
83.6
Debt payments
8.2
Durable goods
1.6
Investment/ business
1.6
Savings
1.6
Other
3.3
0.8
382
34.7
Sent remittances to non-household

Brought money upon return
Average amount (in AFN)
154
80,056
(min: 1,000, max: 300,000)
Primary use of this money

Daily needs (foods/ drink)
44
26.4
Housing/ land
31
18.6
Debt Payment
15
9.0
5.4
Education
Investment/ business
Other
Source:
2.4
66
39.5
Almost 35 per cent of return migrants brought money with them upon
their return to Afghanistan, which was used to a lesser extent to meet daily
needs and more for other purposes such as housing or land. In addition, 63 per
cent of return migrants (strongly) agree with the statement that their migration
experience increased their ability to contribute to their community (Table 51).
Table 51: Return migrants perspectives on their ability to
contribute to the community, IS Academy
Frequency
Percentage
Migration increased my ability to contribute to my community

Strongly disagree
18
1.64
Disagree
226
20.55
Neutral
163
14.82
Agree
523
47.55
170
15.45
Strongly agree
Source:
MIGRATION AND DEVELOPMENT OF AFGHANISTAN

According to the IS Academy Survey data, attitudes in Afghanistan
regarding the contribution of migrants to their country appear to be positive
(Table 52 and Table 53). About half of the households believe that current
migrants still contribute to Afghanistan. Almost half of the migrant households
and remittance-receiving households disagree with the statement that migrants
have abandoned their country, while among return migrant and non-migrant
households the percentage of those who agree is slightly higher. The opinion on
whether remittances have a positive impact on the development of Afghanistan
is also mixed, as migrant and remittance-receiving households tend to agree
with this statement, while the reverse is true for the other household types. A
similar distribution of opinions can be discerned concerning the contribution of
return migrants to Afghanistan.
155
Table 52: Opinions of migrant, return migrant and non-migrant households on the
contribution of (return) migrants to the country, IS Academy
Migrant
#
Return
Non-migrant
Total
#
When people leave the country they still contribute to it.

Strongly disagree
2.2
28
2.8
39
4.8
71
Disagree
44
23.8
Neutral
24
13.0
Agree
90
Strongly agree
23
3.5
327
32.3
245
30.3
616
30.7
142
14.1
145
17.9
311
15.5
48.7
441
43.6
326
40.3
857
42.7
12.4
73
7.2
54
6.7
150
7.5
When people leave the country they abandon it.

5
2.7
29
2.9
30
3.7
64
3.2
Disagree
Strongly disagree
79
42.7
332
32.8
270
33.4
681
34.0
Neutral
36
19.5
188
18.6
156
19.3
380
18.9
Agree
49
26.5
362
35.8
271
33.5
682
34.0
Strongly agree
16
8.6
100
9.9
82
10.1
198
9.9
When people receive money from abroad it helps develop the country.
Strongly disagree
11
5.9
74
7.3
61
7.6
146
7.3
Disagree
49
26.9
376
37.3
299
37.1
724
36.2
Neutral
19
10.3
139
13.8
108
13.4
266
13.3
Agree
75
40.5
325
32.2
260
32.4
660
33.0
Strongly agree
31
16.8
94
9.3
78
9.7
203
10.2
5.7
105
5.2
When people who have lived abroad come back they help the country.
Strongly disagree
2.2
55
5.4
46
Disagree
53
Neutral
22
28.7
385
38.1
310
38.4
748
37.3
11.9
114
11.3
89
11.0
225
11.2
Agree
67
36.2
335
33.1
259
32.1
661
33.0
Strongly agree
39
21.1
122
12.1
103
12.8
264
13.2
Source:
156
Table 53: Opinions of remittance-receiving and non-receiving households on the

contribution of (return) migrants to the country, IS Academy
Remittancereceiver
#
Nonremittancereceiver
#
Total
When people leave the country they still contribute to it.

Strongly disagree
2.0
68
3.7
71
3.5
Disagree
32
21.0
584
31.5
616
30.7
Neutral
18
11.8
293
15.8
311
15.5
Agree
84
55.3
773
41.7
857
42.7
Strongly agree
15
9.9
135
7.3
150
7.5
When people leave the country they abandon it.

Strongly disagree
3.3
59
3.2
64
3.2
Disagree
71
46.7
610
32.9
681
34.0
Neutral
28
18.4
352
19.0
380
18.9
Agree
38
25.0
644
34.8
682
34.0
Strongly agree
10
6.6
188
10.1
198
9.9
When people receive money from abroad it helps develop the country.
Strongly disagree
4.6
139
7.5
146
7.3
Disagree
42
27.8
682
36.9
724
36.2
Neutral
17
11.3
249
13.5
266
13.3
Agree
59
39.1
601
32.5
660
33.0
Strongly agree
26
17.2
177
9.6
203
10.2
When people who have lived abroad come back they help the country.
Strongly disagree
2.0
102
5.5
105
5.2
Disagree
48
31.6
700
37.8
748
37.3
Neutral
18
11.8
207
11.2
225
11.2
Agree
52
34.2
609
32.9
661
33.0
Strongly agree
31
20.4
233
12.6
264
13.2
Source:
MIGRATION, BORROWING AND SAVING

Migration seems to increase the likelihood that a household member
has a bank account, but there are no significant differences in the savings
behaviour of different household types. The total amount saved is less among
migrant households than among non-migrant households. In contrast, among
157
return migrants the amount saved in the last 12 months is the highest of the
three household types. Remittance-receiving households also seem to save less
money than non-remittance-receivers.
The most common way for households to generate income is a loan from
family or friends in Afghanistan. Among migrant households and remittancereceiving households, this number is lower than among other household types
and may be because they are likely to be able to rely upon loans or gifts from
family or friends abroad (Table 54).
Table 54: Borrowing and saving of migrant, return migrant and
non-migrant households, IS Academy
Migrant
#
Return
Non-migrant
Total
#
Household member(s) has/

have bank account
24
13.5
58
5.7
32
3.9
114
5.7
Household saves
25
13.5
143
14.1
102
12.6
270
13.5
Average amount saved in past

12 months (in AFN)
29,773.3
171,390.6
109,714.5
137,127.0
Household money generating acitivity if needed

Loan from family/ friends in
Afghanistan
124
67.0
781
77.4
621
76.8
1,526
76.2
Own cash/ savings
12
6.5
90
8.9
62
7.7
164
8.2
Sale of household assets
10
5.4
59
5.9
41
5.1
110
5.5
Sale of animals
1.6
25
2.5
37
4.6
65
3.2
Sale of other farm/ business

assets
2.7
20
2.0
15
1.8
40
2.0
Loan from family/ friends

abroad
4.9
11
1.1
0.2
22
1.1
Gift from family/ friends in

Afghanistan
0.5
0.5
10
1.2
16
0.8
14
7.6
0.1
0.0
15
0.7
Gift from family/ friends

abroad
Savings association
0.5
0.1
0.7
0.4
Sale of crops
0.0
0.3
0.5
0.3
Other
3.2
13
1.3
11
1.4
30
1.5
113
61.1
643
63.6
446
55.1
1,202
59.9
If USD 100 are needed for

emergency, household could
obtain it within a week
Source:
158
Migration also appears to increase a households ability to cope with

emergencies, as a larger percentage of the migrant (61.1%) and return
migrant (63.6%) households can obtain USD 100 within one week in case of
an emergency than non-migrant households (55.1%). Also among remittancereceiving households (65.1%) this number is higher than among non-receiving
households (59.5%) (Table 55).
Table 55: Borrowing and saving of remittance-receiving and
non-receiving households, IS Academy
Remittancereceiver
#
#
Total
#
Household member(s) has/

have bank account
28
18.4
86
4.6
114
5.7
Household saves
24
15.8
246
13.3
270
13.5
Total amount saved in past 12

months
65,623.5
145,568.4
137,127.0
Household money generating acitivity if needed

Loan from family/ friends in
Afghanistan
94
62.2
1,432
77.3
1,526
76.2
Own cash/ savings
14
9.3
150
8.1
164
8.2
Sale of household assets
4.0
104
5.6
110
5.5
Sale of animals
0.7
64
3.5
65
3.2
Sale of other farm/ business

assets
2.6
36
1.9
40
2.0
Loan from family/ friends

abroad
11
7.3
11
0.6
22
1.1
Gift from family/ friends in

Afghanistan
0.7
15
0.8
16
0.8
15
9.9
0.0
15
0.7
Savings association
0.7
0.4
0.4
Sale of crops
0.0
0.4
0.3
Other
2.6
26
1.4
30
1.5
99
65.1
1,103
59.5
1,202
59.9
Gift from family/ friends

abroad
If 100 USD are needed for

emergency, household could
obtain it within a week
Source:
159
C.3. MIGRATION, EMPLOYMENT AND THE

LABOUR MARKET
The level of income/ salary of Afghans abroad

The average daily wage is USD 4 in Pakistan and USD 9 in the Islamic
Republic of Iran. However, it should be noted that general cost of living is lower
in Pakistan than in the Islamic Republic of Iran (Stigter, 2004). Nonetheless,
possible employment opportunities and much higher salaries in the Islamic
Republic of Iran and Pakistan are contributing to high migration flows between
Afghanistan and its neighbouring countries (as seen in section B.2.2 on border
migration). A study commissioned by UNHCR in 2008 states that wages recorded
during the migration period of Afghan migrants in the Islamic Republic of Iran
are on average four times higher than wages earned by the same individuals
upon their return to Afghanistan. In this study, Majidi (2008) compared wage
levels, unemployment rates, duration of time spent finding employment and the
availability of work between the two countries to highlight the attractiveness of
the Iranian economy and the limitations of the Afghan economy, hence leading
to an inevitable and one-sided labour migration flow and to economic difficulties
encountered upon deportation back to Afghanistan. Migrant workers spent an
average of six days before securing their first employment in the Islamic Republic
of Iran, in part due to the long history of migration between the two countries
and the presence of a solid network of friends, relatives and employers in the
Islamic Republic of Iran. In contrast, upon their forced return to Afghanistan,
reintegration efforts on the Afghan labour market were less successful for the
same individuals and 36.9 per cent spent more than one month trying to find
employment.
A study of Afghans living in the Islamic Republic of Iran carried out by the
International Labour Organization (ILO) showed that the average weekly income
of Afghan male employees was 33,400 toman31 (USD 31.54) compared to 10,600
toman for females (USD 10.01) in 2005-2006. Afghans usually received lower
wages than their Iranian counterparts. The average wage of Iranian workers
(per month) was USD 195 compared to USD 172 for Afghan workers, indicating
The rial (code: IRR) is the currency of the Islamic Republic of Iran. It is subdivided into 100 dinar but, because
of the very low current value of the rial, no fraction of the rial is used in accounting. Therefore, Iranians
commonly express amounts of money and prices of goods in toman (1 toman = 10 rials).
31
160
a difference of about 13 per cent. The highest wages for both workers were
in the industrial sector. In services, the wages ranged from USD 148 (Afghan)
to USD 162 (Iranian). The total wages (including extra payments) ranged from
USD 182 (for Afghans) to USD 224 (Iranians). In both cases, Iranians enjoyed
a 10 to 23 per cent wage differential. Although it has been noted that the
education level of Iranian employees (especially women) was much higher than
that of Afghan employees, this only explains one aspect of the wage differentials
between native and Afghan workers (Wickramasekara et al., 2006).
The Census of Afghans living in Pakistan in 2005 showed that a majority
of Afghan households residing in Pakistan (53%) reported to be living on daily
wages, meaning that most households had no regular income but had to
search for work every day anew (Government of Pakistan and UNHCR, 2005).
A study by the Afghanistan Research and Evaluation Unit (AREU) in 2001 and
2002 researched the livelihood strategies of Afghans in Karachi (Pakistan). The
study found that the average household monthly income of Afghan households
in urban Sindh was nearly three fifths higher (11,116 rupees) than for Pakistan
as a whole (7,167 rupees). The urban Sindh household income was even 80
per cent higher than that of the rural North-West Frontier Province (6,334
rupees) (Collective for Social Science Research, 2005). Another study by AREU
researched livelihood strategies of Afghans in Peshawar (Pakistan), showing
that families had a monthly income ranging from USD 50 to USD 400. These
income differences were reflective of the qualitative complexity and income
ranges found in the Peshawar economy in general (Collective for Social Science
Research, 2006). They are likely to also appear among other Afghan communities
living in Pakistan.
Canada, the United States of America and the Netherlands

In 2005, the average employment income for the population of Afghan
ethnicity in Canada (15 years and over) was CAD 18,269 per year. On average,
Afghan men received a higher salary per year than women, with annual
average wages of CAD 20,755 and CAD 14,746 respectively. The annual average
employment income for all Canadians was CAD 40,991 for men and CAD 26,587
for women (Statistics Canada, 2006).
The annual per capita income of Afghan workers (both sexes combined)
in the United States in 2011 was USD 18,971 whereas it was USD 26,708 for the
total population in the country (US Census Bureau, 2013).
161
With respect to the Netherlands, Afghans have the lowest household

income among all migrant groups in the country. In 2003, around two thirds
of all Afghan households received less than EUR 900 per month and very few
earned more than EUR 1,300 (Siegel et al., 2010).
MIGRATION, ASSETS AND INCOME

Table 56 and Table 57 report the assets of different types of households
indidcated by the IS Academy Survey. The data show that 20.7 per cent of
households own land, with a slightly higher percentage among migrant and
return migrant households. The average amount of land owned is lowest among
migrant households and largest among non-migrant households. Also, the level of
subsistence food production provided by the land is largest among non-migrant
households. However, data comparing households who receive remittances to
those who do not shows a different picture with the main difference being the
average amount of land owned. This is considerably larger among remittancereceivers.
With regards to housing, the number of rooms in the houses of migrant
households appears to be larger. Home ownership is considerable with 72.7
per cent of households owning a house, although this percentage is slightly
lower among return migrant households (69.8%). When comparing remittancereceivers and non-receivers the percentage of home ownership is larger among
the former (81.6% versus 71.9%).
The livestock of a household seems to consist primarily of poultry, goats
and sheep. The average number of sheep is considerably larger among nonmigrant households (12.6) than among migrant (7.3) and return migrant (6.6)
households. The difference in the average number of sheep is also considerable
between remittance-receiving (3.08) and non-receiving households (10.12).
The most common household good is a telephone or mobile phone, which
is slightly more common among migrant and return migrant households (83.8%
and 86.4%, respectfully) than non-migrant households (80.2%). The difference
among remittance-receiving (82.2%) and non-receiving households (83.8%) is
even smaller. A stove or oven is another common asset that is owned more by
migrant and return migrant households than by non-migrant households. A
similar observation applies to remittance-receiving households, of whom 55.9
per cent own a stove or oven compared to 45.2 per cent of non-remittancereceiving households. Three other common large household assets are a
162
television, owned by almost 50 per cent of households, a radio (around 45%)

and a sewing machine (44.6%). One interesting difference is that more nonmigrant households and return migrant households own a computer or laptop
(6.4% and 7.7%) than migrant households (3.8%), although this is not a common
asset for any of the households. The same applies to large pieces of furniture,
a refrigerator/freezer, radio, sewing machine and a washing machine/dryer,
which are all slightly less common among migrant households. When comparing
remittance-receiving and non-receiving households, a similar observation is
found with respect to a sewing machine (46.7% of remittance-receivers versus
44.4% of non-remittance-receivers) and a computer or laptop (7.2% versus
6.8%), although the differences here are only marginal. Thus a mixed picture
appears in which some items are owned more by migrant and/or remittancereceiving households (for example a stove/oven), whereas the reverse applies
for other items (for example a sewing machine).
When considering agricultural assets, a plough or hoe is owned by 4.8
per cent of the households with slightly higher percentages among migrant
households (6.0%) than among return (4.6%) and non-migrant households
(4.8%). Also among remittance-receiving households this item is marginally
more common (5.9% versus 4.7%). In terms of transportation assets, the two
most common are a bicycle (29.0%) and a wagon or cart (23.2%). The percentage
of migrant and remittance-receiving households owning a wagon/ cart, bicycle,
motorbike and car/ van/ truck/ pick-up are all slightly lower than for the other
types of households.
Table 56: Assets of migrant, return migrant and non-migrant households, IS Academy
Migrant
#
Return
Non-migrant
Total
22.7
211
20.9
162
20.0
415
20.7
Land
Household owns land
42
Average amount of land owned

(in jeribs)
3.0
4.5
5.7
4.8
Food consumption provided by own land

Nothing
10
23.8
48
22.7
25
15.4
83
20.0
Some
29
69.0
128
60.7
101
62.3
258
62.2
Quite a lot
4.8
28
13.3
32
19.8
62
14.9
Almost all
2.4
3.3
2.5
12
2.9
Housing
Average number of rooms
(without bathroom and kitchen)
Home ownership
3.1
138
77.5
2.8
709
69.8
2.9
610
75.2
2.9
1,457
72.7
163
Average number of livestock owned by households

Sheep
7.3
6.5
12.6
9.6
Goats
5.8
4.3
7.6
6.0
Poultry
5.3
5.4
4.4
5.0
Cows
1.2
1.4
1.7
1.5
Camels
1.5
1.0
1.5
1.3
1.
1.3
1.4
1.3
Donkeys
1.4
1.1
1.3
1.2
Horses
0.0
1.0
1.5
1.2
Donkeys
1.4
1.1
1.3
1.2
Oxen
Goods owned by households

Telephone/ mobile phone
155
83.8
873
86.3
649
80.2
1,677
83.6
Television
93
50.7
494
48.9
384
47.5
971
48.4
Radio
81
43.8
459
45.4
388
48.0
928
46.3
Stove/ oven
103
55.7
474
46.9
345
42.6
922
46.0
Sewing machine
77
41.6
455
45.0
362
44.7
894
44.6
Bicycle
41
22.2
313
31.0
227
28.1
581
29.0
Wagon/ cart (wooden)
39
21.1
236
23.3
191
23.6
466
23.2
Refrigerator/ freezer
22
11.9
161
15.9
107
13.2
290
14.5
Motorbike
18
9.7
132
13.1
133
16.4
283
14.1
Washing machine/ dryer
14
7.6
130
12.9
93
11.5
237
11.8
Jewellery
19
10.3
128
12.7
74
9.1
221
11.0
3.8
78
7.7
52
6.4
137
6.8
1.1
70
6.9
56
6.9
128
6.4
11
5.9
46
4.5
39
4.8
96
4.8
Computer/ laptop
Car/ van/ truck/ pick-up
Plough/ hoe
Large pieces of furniture
2.2
43
4.2
37
4.6
84
4.2
Dishwasher
0.0
10
1.0
11
1.4
21
1.0
Tractor
0.5
0.7
1.0
16
0.8
Total monthly expenditure

Source: IS Academy Survey, 2011.
164
11,186.6
12,662.1
11,381.5
12,009.2
Table 57: Assets of remittance-receiving and non-receiving households, IS Academy

Remittancereceivers
#
Nonremittancereceivers
Total
25.7
376
20.3
415
20.7
Land
Household owns land
39
Average amount of land owned

(in jeribs)
6.6
4.6
4.8
Food consumption provided by own land

Nothing
10
25.6
73
19.4
83
20.0
Some
26
66.7
232
61.7
258
62.2
Quite a lot
7.7
59
15.7
62
14.9
Almost all
0.0
12
3.2
2.9
Housing
Average number of rooms
(without bathroom and kitchen)
Home ownership
3.1
124
81.6
2.8
1,333
71.9
2.9
1,457
72.7
Average number of livestock owned by households

Sheep
3.1
10.1
9.6
Goats
3.7
6.2
6.0
Poultry
5.4
4.9
5.0
Cows
1.2
1.5
1.5
Camels
1.5
1.2
1.3
Oxen
1.1
1.4
1.3
Donkeys
1.4
1.2
1.2
Horses
0.0
1.2
1.2
Goods owned by households

Telephone/ mobile phone
125
82.2
1,552
83.8
1,677
83.6
Television
75
49.3
896
48.3
971
48.4
Radio
71
46.7
857
46.2
928
46.3
Stove/ oven
85
55.9
837
45.2
922
46.0
Sewing machine
71
46.7
823
44.4
894
44.6
Bicycle
38
25.0
543
29.3
581
29.0
Wagon/ cart (wooden)
24
15.8
442
23.8
466
23.2
Refrigerator/ freezer
22
14.5
268
14.5
290
14.5
Motorbike
13
8.5
270
14.6
283
14.1
Washing machine/ dryer
17
11.2
220
11.9
237
11.8
Jewellery
17
11.2
204
11.0
221
11.0
Computer/ laptop
11
7.2
126
6.8
137
6.8
165
Car/ van/ truck/ pick-up
3.3
123
6.6
128
6.4
Plough/ hoe
5.9
87
4.7
96
4.8
Large pieces of furniture
2.0
81
4.4
84
4.2
Dishwasher
1.3
19
1.0
21
1.0
Tractor
0.7
15
0.8
16
0.8
Total monthly expenditure

Source:
12,065.0
12,004.7
12,009.2
The total monthly expenditure is fairly similar for all types of households,
at around AFN 12,000 per month. The most important income source of Afghan
households appears to be unskilled day labour (Table 58 and Table 59). In
addition, migrant households seem to also strongly depend on remittances from
outside Afghanistan, which were mentioned as the primary income source in
more than 20 per cent of migrant households. Furthermore, almost 30 per cent
of the households who receive remittances mentioned these as their primary
income source. However, the total average household income appears to be
lowest among migrant households and remittance-receiving households, which
might be due to the absence of a productive member of the household.
Table 58: Income and income sources of migrant, return migrant and
Migrant
Most important source of
income
Total
Unskilled day
labour
267 (33.0%)
Unskilled day
labour
655 (32.7%)
11.7
11.8
11.9
11.8
7,532.9
11,235.6
10,951.2
10,778.6
Total average household income

(in AFN)
166
Non-migrant
Unskilled day
labour
342 (33.7%)
Average number of months

household received most
important income source
Source:
Note:
Return
Unskilled day
labour
46 (25.8%)*

*For households with migrants, remittances from outside the country are also very important: 38 (21.3%).
Table 59: Income and income sources of remittance-receiving and

Most important source of

income
Average number of months
household received most
important income source
Total average household income
(in AFN)
Remittancereceiver
Remittances*
45 (29.6%)
Unskilled day
labour:
621 (33.5%)
Unskilled day
labour
655 (32.7%)
11.7
11.8
11.8
7,205.5
11,072.3
10,778.6
Total

Note:
*Unskilled day labour is a close second: 34 (22.37%).
Assets and access to facilities of Afghans

in the Islamic Republic of Iran
A study carried out by Alzahra University found that 81 per cent of Afghan
households in the Islamic Republic of Iran resided in a rented house and only
8 per cent owned the house in which they were living with a slightly higher
percentage among documented Afghans (8.3%) than among undocumented
Afghans (7.2%). The average family home is 78 square meters and has two
rooms. However, the average size of the accommodation differed considerably
between those in colonies and settlements (about 41 square meters) and those
in suburbs and cities (82.5 and 88.5 square meters respectively).
Table 60: Access to facilities of Afghans in the Islamic Republic of Iran (in %)
Independent access
Shared access
No access
Kitchen
83.8
11.4
4.8
Latrine
82.4
17.4
0.1
Bath
79.2
17.2
3.6
Piped water
66.1
32.3
1.6
Landline
48.9
4.8
46.4
Source:
Ahmadinejad, 2011.
Table 60 shows the level of access to various facilities among Afghan

households in the Islamic Republic of Iran. In general, the large majority of
households have independent access to pipe water, a bath, a kitchen (including
a refrigerator) and a latrine. In terms of the energy source that is used, gas is
the most common (82.1%). Approximately half of households have access to
a landline telephone and over 90 per cent of respondents reported ownership
167
of a mobile phone (Table 61). More than three quarters of respondents own
a personal computer. It is not common for Afghans in the Islamic Republic of
Iran to own a car, but almost one quarter of the sample owns a motorbike
(Ahmadinejad, 2011).
Table 61: Assets owned by Afghans in the Islamic Republic of Iran (in %)
Owned
Working tool
Not owned
Mobile phone
92.4
0.0
Refrigerator
92.1
0.0
7.9
Personal Computer
76.5
0.0
23.4
Motorbike
24.3
3.5
72.1
5.2
0.6
94.1
Car
Source:
7.6
Ahmadinejad, 2011.
UNEMPLOYMENT
The unemployment rate was identified as approximately 9.6 per cent in
the NRVA 2005, while in the NRVA 2007/08 the unemployment32 rate for males
was 6.9 per cent and for females 7.4 per cent. Overall the unemployment rate in
Afghanistan was 7.1 per cent in 2007/08. This relatively low rate disguises high
underemployment, poverty and low productivity. In developing countries, that
usually lack social protection schemes, many individuals simply cannot afford to
be unemployed. Consequently, many must resort to dangerous, unproductive,
low-paid jobs, often in the informal sector and for only a few hours. In this context,
a low unemployment rate in Afghanistan reflects a poorly performing labour
market rather than a sustainable employment situation (Icon-Institute, 2009).
In contrast to the NRVA 2007/08, other sources (such as the Ministry of Labor,
Social Affairs, Martyrs and Disabled) estimate that Afghanistans unemployment
rate is as high as 33 per cent. Human Rights Field Monitoring data suggest a
much lower unemployment rate of 24 per cent among males in both urban and
rural areas. The unemployment rate for females is estimated to be as high as 54
per cent among urban and 62 per cent among rural women (UNDP, 2009). The
differences in reported unemployment rates are likely due (at least in part) to
different sampling procedures and definitions used to define unemployment in
Afghanistan.
Note: No agreed exact definition of employment and unemployment exists in the statistical system
of Afghanistan. In accordance to ILO recommendations and the analysis used in the NRVA 2007/08, all
working-age persons who are engaged in economic activities are classified as being employed. This also
includes people who work only few (sometimes only one) hours a week (Icon-Institute, 2009).
32
168
The IS Academy data indicate that 32.5 per cent of households are
employed, meaning that they are involved in a paid job, that they are selfemployed or are active in community or military service. As this involves all the
household members, including males, females and children, this may explain
the low number of employment compared to the data presented above. Among
migrants a higher percentage is employed, namely 47 per cent.
Employment as the reason to migrate

Another indication of the poor state of the labour market in Afghanistan is
demonstrated by the IS Academy data, which show that the main motivation for
the emigration of current migrants is seeking employment opportunities abroad
(73.3%, see Table 62). However, the specific destination country selected was
mainly the result of perceived ease of access to that country (Table 63). Better
employment opportunities and working conditions were also a commonly cited
factor.
Table 62: Reason for migration of current migrants, IS Academy
Frequency
Employment opportunities
Percentage
211
73.3
20
6.9
Family formation (marriage)
13
4.5
Security/ political reasons
13
4.5
Family reunification
12
4.2
Education
10
3.5
Environmental disaster
2.8
Health
0.3
Moving with the family
Table 63: Factors influencing the country choice of return migrants, IS Academy
Frequency
Percentage
Easier to access/ gain entry
711
64.8
Better working conditions
183
16.7
0.3
Family or friends already there

Better living conditions
Other
0.2
142
12.9
169
Employment of Afghans in the Islamic Republic of Iran

Refugees in the Islamic Republic of Iran are allowed to work if they have a
Temporary Work Permit for which only Afghan men aged 18-60 years can apply.
The job areas in which permits can be granted are set by the Ministry of Labor
and Social Affairs and often involve manual labour. A study in five provinces of
the Islamic Republic of Iran observed that 77 per cent of the male participants
aged 18 and older had a job, 10.1 per cent were looking for employment, 9 per
cent were studying and 1 per cent stayed at home to care for the children. In
contrast, 78 per cent of women aged 18 and older were homemakers (Alzahra
University, 2011). The labour force participation rate was 92 per cent for men
(aged 18 and above) and 8 per cent for women. In terms of the type of jobs,
28 per cent of Afghan men worked in the construction sector, 29 per cent were
daily labourers and 3 per cent worked in animal husbandry and agricultural
fields. Afghan women mainly worked in tailor shops (48%) or as daily workers
(32%) and to a lesser extent sold pistachios (6%) (Ahmadinejad, 2011; Alzahra
University, 2011).
Skill shortages
Afghanistans demand for high-skilled labour is evident at almost
every level (Islamic Republic of Afghanistan, 2006). The country faces many
challenges in the health care and educational sector. Persistent gaps between
supply and demand of science- and technology-trained workers are likewise
present. Moreover, there is a high demand for skilled labour in relation to
the communications infrastructure. Professionals are also needed to rebuild
damaged and inadequate potable water, irrigation and flood control systems. In
many areas people experience a shortage of electricity and have to earn their
livelihood with obsolete agriculture practices. New technologies are urgently
needed to ease undue pressure on the countrys limited arable land. As a
consequence, Afghanistans development challenges are enormous and solutions
will require strong visionary and innovative leadership, well-coordinated science
and technology structures and an effective human resource strategy. There is a
consensus that improving the quality of the higher education system is central
to the economic improvement of Afghanistan. This is because higher education
will provide the high-skilled workforce that the country so urgently needs.
Higher education is therefore one of the eight pillars of the Afghan National
Development Strategy33 (ANDS) (Islamic Republic of Afghanistan, 2008a).
The Afghan National Development Strategy (ANDS) is discussed in more detail in Part D.1.
33
170
Despite the importance of developing the education system in Afghanistan,

it should also be highlighted that talented Afghans, who graduated secondary or
tertiary educational institutions, are leaving the country and few are returning
from abroad. Main push factors for highly skilled Afghans to leave the country
are insurgent attacks and threats of violence across the country. Moreover,
low salaries and widespread criminal activities discourage young people from
remaining in the country. Therefore, most students surveyed during research
at Kabul University stated that they wanted to emigrate as soon as they finish
their studies. Afghans with key skills (such as physicians, teachers or university
professors) know that they can earn far more and live more easily elsewhere
(Younossi, 2006). Since it is almost impossible for a state to forcibly retain
people (whether they are needed or not) the Afghan state and international
organizations have reached out to skilled and educated Afghans living in the
diaspora.
BRAIN DRAIN AND EDUCATION OF MIGRANTS

The emigration of skilled Afghans appeared mainly in the 1980s and 1990s
during the Soviet intervention, when it was mainly the Afghan elite (professors,
teachers and students) who migrated to Europe and North America. More recently
data on the educational attainment of migrants were collected in the National
Risk and Vulnerability Assessment 2007/08. There was no indication of brain
drain in current migration trends as there was almost no difference in the level
of education of the resident population and the migrants who left Afghanistan.
Moreover, international migrants do not seem to be more highly educated than
internal migrants (Icon-Institute, 2009). Nonetheless, it is clear that Afghanistan
is in need of highly skilled labour, particularly in the education and health
care sectors. In 2000, the World Bank cited the emigration rate of the tertiary
educated population to be 23.2 per cent and the emigration rate of physicians
to be 9.1 per cent (World Bank, 2011a). The World Health Organization stated
that there were a total of 17,257 nurses and 2,181 midwives in Afghanistan in
2009 and 6,901 physicians in 2010 (WHO, 2013b). That is roughly one physician
per 5,000 people in Afghanistan. The low salaries of physicians (ca. USD 100 per
month) make it even more difficult to attract physicians to come to or remain
in Afghanistan (Kuschminder and Dora, 2009). Table 64 gives an overview of the
annual physician emigration rate from 1991 to 2004, showing that although the
emigration rate of physicians has decreased over time (from 11.3% in 1991 to
8.4% in 2004) the total number of physicians leaving the country has steadily
increased from 302 in 1991 to over 500 in 2004 (Bhargava et al., 2010).
171
Table 64: Physician emigration from Afghanistan, 1991-2004

Number of
physicians in
Afghanistan
Number of
physicians per
1,000 people
in Afghanistan
Year
Rate of
physician
emigration (%)
Total number
of physician
emigrants
1991
11.3
302
2,368
0.13
1992
11.1
327
2,606
0.14
1993
11.0
348
2,816
0.14
1994
11.1
361
2,901
0.14
1995
12.2
393
2,814
0.13
1996
13.5
423
2,708
0.12
1997
14.0
419
2,583
0.11
1998
11.9
431
3,173
0.13
1999
10.5
444
3,799
0.15
2000
9.1
449
4,462
0.17
2001
8.1
448
5,049
0.19
2002
8.3
474
5,220
0.19
2003
8.3
486
5,391
0.19
2004
8.4
508
5,562
0.19
Source: Bhargava et al., 2010.
With respect to an increasing number of physicians leaving Afghanistan,

it is relevant to consider their destination countries. Table 65 shows that most
Afghan physicians migrate to Western countries where employment conditions
are good and salaries are high. The highest inflow of Afghan physicians was
recorded in the United States and Germany. These inflows may also be related
to an existing Afghan diaspora in these countries, which makes it easier for new
arrivals to access information and integrate into society.
172
Table 65: Number of physician outflows by country of destination, 1991-2004

Year
AUS
CAN
DEN
FRA
GER
ITA
NOR
SWE
1991
135
1992
146
1993
155
1994
158
1995
169
1996
10
1997
12
1998
13
SWI
UK
USA
10
124
11
134
11
12
141
14
12
146
16
13
158
195
19
12
160
186
21
12
163
181
24
13
173
1999
15
183
26
17
171
2000
16
172
29
21
178
2001
17
165
31
24
176
2002
18
180
34
25
179
2003
19
15
169
36
30
182
2004
20
10
23
169
36
37
184
Source:
Bhargava et al., 2010.
Data from the IS Academy Survey suggest that migration seems to have
a positive influence on the literacy and employment prospects of individuals
in a household. Table 66 shows that almost 50 per cent of the members of
households with migrants can read and write, dropping to 41 per cent in
return migrant households and 37 per cent in non-migrant households. With
regard to employment, the differences are even stronger with 47 per cent of
migrant households reporting current employment, 23.5 per cent of return
migrant household individuals working and only 12.6 per cent of non-migrant
households.
Table 66: Literacy and employment of migrant, return and
Migrant
Return
#
Non-migrant
#
Total
Literacy of individuals (aged 6+)

by household type
111
49.0
1,966
40.8
2,722
37.3
4,799
38.9
Employment of individuals by
household type
108
47.2
1,206
23.5
1,274
12.6
2,588
17.6
In the IS Academy data the extent of brain drain of current migrants seems
to be limited (Table 67 and Table 68). Migrants tend to be male members (92%)
of the household in their productive years with a mean age of just under 25. In
173
more than 65 per cent of the cases the migrant was a child of the household
head and one fifth were a sibling of the household head. In terms of education,
the majority (46.2%) reported having no formal education and an average of
four years of schooling was recorded for all migrants.
Table 67: Age and years of education of migrants, IS Academy
Mean
Age of migrant
Education (years)
Source:
Min
Max
Frequency
24.5
60
233
3.9
16
225
Table 68: Migrants level of education and relationship to household head, IS Academy
Frequency
Percentage
Highest educational attainment

No formal education
104
46.2
Any primary
52
23.11
Any secondary
64
28.4
1.3
Any tertiary
Relationship to the household head
Child
152
65.2
Brother or sister
48
20.6
Head of household
12
5.1
Grandchild
3.9
Son or daughter in law
1.7
Father or mother
1.3
Spouse
1.3
Cousin
0.4
Nephew or niece
0.4
RETURN MIGRATION AND SKILLS

In terms of the work experience and skills migrants gain abroad, Table 69
shows that 68.3 per cent of the migrants worked while residing in the country of
migration. Almost every return migrant had felt a part of the destination society.
Only a small number of return migrants had received training or education while
abroad, which seems to indicate that the number of formal skills gained whilst
abroad is limited.
174
Table 69: Return migrants migration experiences, IS Academy

Frequency
Felt a part of the destination society
Percentage
1,087
99.3
751
68.3
Received education while abroad
57
5.3
Member of an organization while abroad
46
4.2
Received training while abroad
39
3.6
Employed in the country of migration at any time
The positive contribution of emigration to the development of skills may

also be limited by the irregular status with which they entered the country.
Less than 14 per cent of current migrants reported having migrated with legal
documents and over 95 per cent of return migrants did not have documents
when they left Afghanistan. As long as the migrants continued to be irregular
immigrants in the country of destination, their access to formal jobs and
education may have been limited.
Table 70: Migration with and without documents, IS Academy
Frequency
Current migrant migrated with legal documents
Return migrants who emigrated without
documents
Percentage
37
13.9
1,049
95.4
However, among return migrants the majority indicated that the migration
experience improved their professional skills.
Table 71: Return migrants perspectives on skills improvement, IS Academy
Frequency
Percentage
Migration improved professional skills

Strongly disagree
13
1.2
Disagree
320
29.3
Neutral
65
5.9
Agree
578
52.9
Strongly agree
117
10.7
Source:
Migrants who return seem to experience difficulties in finding work as

only 23.3 per cent of return migrants were in paid employment since their
return. Furthermore, on average it took about one year to secure employment.
10.6 per cent of the return migrants owned their own business.
175
Table 72: Return migrants return experiences, IS Academy

Frequency
Percentage
In paid employment since return
256
23.3
Own their own business
116
10.5
Average number of months to find a new job

Source:
12.9
(min: 0, max: 96)
C.4. MIGRATION AND SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT

Migration and living conditions/ poverty
Migration seems to positively contribute to the living conditions of
households in Afghanistan particularly through the impact of remittances
(see Table 73 and Table 74). Among migrant, return migrant and non-migrant
households no large differences in the current economic situation of the
household are observed, but more remittance-receiving households than nonreceiving households tend to report living comfortably.
For most households the living circumstances have improved over the
last five years. However, the impact of migration on households seems negative,
because the living conditions of a larger percentage seems to have worsened
in the last five years among migrant households. A similar pattern is discerned
among remittance-receiving and non-receiving households with the main
category being an improvement of living conditions, although again a higher
percentage of remittance-receivers than non-receivers indicated a worsening of
the situation. An improvement of the living situation was also more common
among households who received remittances and they were less likely to report
a similar living situation as compared to five years ago. The perspective of return
migrants on the improvement of the households living conditions compared
to pre-migration is primarily positive with 53.4 per cent of return migrants
reporting an improvement. Return migrants also indicate that the migration has
benefited their family (see Table 75). Therefore, the evidence from the IS survey
data on the impact of migration on living conditions over time is mixed.
There is also no clear impact of migration on poverty with regard to
the difficulty households experience in meeting basic food needs. Migrant
households report that they never experienced them or that they experienced
176
them monthly more often compared to non-migrant households. However,

remittances do seem to positively contribute to a decrease in difficulties meeting
food needs.
Table 73: Subjective wealth of migrant, return migrant and
Migrant
#
Return
Non-migrant
Total
#
Current economic situation of household

Finding it very difficult
5.1
34
3.3
60
7.4
103
5.1
Finding it difficult
38
21.3
204
20.1
148
18.2
390
19.4
Coping (neutral)
97
54.6
594
58.5
452
55.7
1,143
57.0
Living comfortably
32
18.0
170
16.7
149
18.4
351
17.5
1.1
14
1.4
0.2
18
0.9
Living very comfortably
Living conditions of household compared to 5 years ago

Became much worse
1.6
27
2.6
41
5.1
71
3.5
Became worse
52
28.1
212
21.0
125
15.4
389
19.4
Stayed the same
54
29.2
364
36.0
310
38.3
728
36.3
Improved
75
40.5
390
38.6
324
40.0
789
39.3
0.5
18
1.8
1.1
28
1.4
14
1.4
39
4.8
56
2.8
Improved very much
Frequency of difficulties in meeting food needs

Daily
1.6
Weekly
4.9
61
6.0
57
7.0
127
6.3
Monthly
43
23.2
202
20.0
142
17.5
387
19.3
Once every few months
40
21.6
275
27.2
229
28.3
544
27.1
Never
90
48.6
459
45.4
342
42.3
891
44.4
Table 74: Subjective wealth of remittance-receiving and non-receiving households, IS Academy

Remittancereceiver
#
#
Total
#
Current economic situation of household

Finding it very difficult
3.3
Finding it difficult
27
Coping (neutral)
82
Living comfortably
Living very comfortably
98
5.3
103
5.1
17.8
363
53.9
1,061
19.6
390
19.4
57.3
1,143
57.0
36
23.7
1.3
315
17.0
351
17.5
16
0.9
18
0.9
177
Living conditions of household compared to 5 years ago

Become much worse
2.0
68
3.7
71
3.5
40
26.3
349
18.8
389
19.4
Stayed the same
39
25.7
689
37.2
728
36.3
Improved
69
45.4
720
38.9
789
40.0
0.7
27
1.5
28
1.4
Become worse
Very much improved
Frequency of difficulties in meeting food needs

Daily
0.0
56
3.0
56
2.8
Weekly
4.6
120
6.5
127
6.3
Monthly
29
19.1
358
19.3
387
19.3
Once every few months
35
25.0
506
27.3
544
27.1
Never
78
51.3
813
43.9
891
44.4
Table 75: Return migrants perspective on living conditions, IS Academy

Frequency
Percentage
Living conditions of the household compared to pre-migration

Became much worse
13
1.2
Became worse
167
15.2
Stayed the same
300
27.3
Improved
586
53.4
31
2.8
26
2.4
Disagree
186
16.9
Neutral
174
15.8
Agree
587
53.5
Strongly agree
125
11.4
Very much improved

Migration benefited my family
Strongly disagree
Migration and access to and usage of facilities

Migration and associated remittances seem to contribute to a households
capacity to invest in access to certain facilities (Table 76 and Table 77). Although
the differences are small, return migrant households seem to have more access
to a private tap or well as their main source of drinking water, compared to both
migrant and non-migrant households. When comparing remittance-receiving
households to those who do not receive remittances, the main difference is that
the latter group has more access to private taps, although for both groups a
private well is the main source.
178
The primary type of toilet used by a household is a private pit or latrine,

but almost 10 per cent of migrant and return migrant households have their own
flush toilet compared to less than 7 per cent among non-migrant households.
Also among remittance-receiving households, private access to to flush toilet
is more common. This seems to indicate a positive influence of migration on
household sanitation conditions.
For all types of households, the two types of fuel that are mainly used
for cooking are gas (about 41% of households) and wood (about 34%). Return
migrant households are slightly more likely to use wood and less likely to use
animal dung compared to the other two kinds of households. Also among
remittance-receiving and non-receiving households, gas and wood are the two
principal sources of cooking fuel, although remittance-receiving households are
more likely to use gas than non-remittances receiving households.
The type of lighting that households use is also fairly similar across all
types of households with the two main sources being electricity from a public
source (about 50%) and kerosene, gas or candles (about 36%). Remittances do
seem to slightly promote the use of electricity from a private source.
Other facilities that household members use are public transportation
(95%), a hospital (82%) and a health centre or clinic (81%). Among migrant
households the use of banks, money transfer operators and microfinance
institutions is more common than for the other two types of households,
although this usage remains limited. The difference in usage of these three
facilities is even more pronounced when comparing remittance-receiving with
non-receiving households, where the former use these services significantly
more often than the latter.
Table 76: Usage of and access to facilities of migrant, return migrant and
Migrant
#
Return
Non-migrant
Total
#
Primary source of drinking water for household in rainy season

Private well
49
27.5
332
32.7
253
31.2
634
31.6
Private tap
27
15.2
215
21.2
149
18.4
391
19.5
Shared well
38
21.4
171
16.6
152
18.7
361
18.0
Shared tap
27
15.2
134
13.2
103
12.7
264
13.2
River, lake, pond or stream
28
15.7
98
9.7
110
13.6
236
11.8
Bottled water
0.6
0.1
0.1
0.1
Other
4.5
64
6.3
43
5.3
115
5.7
179
Primary source of drinking water for household in dry season

Private well
45
25.3
292
28.8
216
26.7
553
27.6
Shared well
46
25.8
243
24.0
226
27.9
515
25.7
Tap shared within community
27
15.2
154
15.2
115
14.2
296
14.8
30
16.8
118
11.6
116
14.3
264
13.2
Private tap in house
21
11.8
140
13.8
95
11.7
256
12.8
Bottled water
0.6
0.3
0.2
0.3
Other
4.5
64
6.3
40
4.9
112
5.6
86.0
835
82.2
690
85.1
1,678
83.7
Type of toilet mainly used by household

Private pit or latrine
Private flush toilet
153
17
9.5
94
9.2
53
6.5
164
8.2
Shared pit or latrine
2.8
73
7.2
53
6.5
131
6.5
No toilet
1.7
0.7
1.0
18
0.9
Shared flush toilet
0.0
0.7
0.7
13
0.6
Pan or bucket
0.0
0.0
0.1
0.1
Type of fuel mainly used for cooking by household

Gas
76
41.1
404
40.0
333
41.2
813
40.6
Wood
59
31.9
379
37.5
256
31.7
694
34.6
Straw, shrubs or grass
19
10.3
107
10.6
102
12.6
228
11.4
Animal dung
20
10.8
63
6.2
83
10.3
166
8.3
2.7
38
3.8
18
2.2
61
3.0
Charcoal
Kerosene
2.2
11
1.1
1.0
23
1.1
Electricity
1.1
0.9
1.0
19
0.9
90
48.9
512
50.6
406
50.2
1,008
50.3
Kerosene, gas or candles
66
35.9
347
34.3
305
37.7
718
35.8
Electricity (private source)
20
10.9
103
10.2
66
8.2
189
9.4
Type of lighting mainly used by household

Electricity (public source)
Other
2.7
40
4.0
25
3.1
70
3.5
Electricity (combination)
1.6
0.9
0.9
19
0.9
Facilities used by household member(s)

Public transportation
174
94.0
956
94.6
774
95.7
1,904
95.0
Hospital
153
82.7
819
81.0
669
82.6
1,641
81.8
Health centre or clinic
151
81.6
797
78.8
663
81.9
1,611
80.3
28
15.1
73
7.2
38
4.7
139
7.0
Internet caf/ connection
2.2
38
3.8
24
3.0
66
3.3
Mircofinance institution
3.8
21
2.1
16
2.0
44
2.2
Bank
4.9
17
1.7
1.1
35
1.7
Post office
1.6
10
1.0
1.1
22
1.1
180
Table 77: Usage of and access to facilities of remittance-receiving and

Remittancereceiver
#
#
Total
#
Primary source of drinking water for household in rainy season

Private well
50
32.9
584
31.5
634
31.6
Private tap
19
12.5
372
20.1
391
19.5
Shared well
29
19.1
332
17.9
361
18.0
Shared tap
25
16.4
239
12.9
264
13.2
23
15.1
213
11.5
236
11.8
Bottled water
0.0
0.2
0.1
Other
3.9
109
5.9
115
5.7
Primary source of drinking water for household in dry season

Private well
43
28.3
510
27.6
553
27.6
Shared well
37
24.3
478
25.8
515
25.7
Shared tap
29
19.1
267
14.4
296
14.8
25
16.4
239
12.9
264
13.2
Private tap
12
7.9
244
13.2
256
12.8
Bottled water
0.0
0.3
0.3
Other
3.9
106
5.7
112
5.6
130
85.5
1,548
83.5
1,678
83.7
16
10.5
148
8.0
164
8.2
Shared pit or latrine
2.6
127
6.8
131
6.5
No toilet
0.7
17
0.9
18
0.9
Shared flush toilet
0.7
12
0.6
13
0.6
Pan or bucket
0.0
0.1
0.1
Type of toilet mainly used by household

Private pit or latrine
Private flush toilet
Type of fuel mainly used for cooking by household

Gas
66
43.4
747
40.3
813
40.6
Wood
47
30.9
647
34.9
694
34.6
Straw, shrubs or grass
18
11.8
210
11.3
228
11.4
Animal dung
14
9.2
152
8.2
166
8.3
Charcoal
1.3
59
3.2
61
3.0
Kerosene
2.0
20
1.1
23
1.1
Electricity
1.3
17
0.9
19
1.0
181
Type of lighting mainly used by household

Electricity (public source)
71
47.0
937
50.6
1,008
50.3
Kerosene, gas or candles
56
37.1
662
35.7
718
35.8
Electricity (private source)
19
12.6
170
9.2
189
9.4
Electricity (combination of
public and private)
1.3
17
0.9
19
0.9
Other
2.0
67
3.6
70
3.5
Facilities used by household member(s)

Public transportation
145
95.4
1,759
94.9
1,904
95.0
Hospital
128
84.2
1,513
81.6
1,641
81.8
Health centre or clinic
125
82.2
1,486
80.2
1,611
80.3
35
23.0
104
5.6
139
6.9
5.3
58
3.1
66
3.3
Bank
Internet caf/ connection
Mircofinance institution
4.6
37
2.0
44
2.2
13
8.5
22
1.2
35
1.7
1.3
20
1.1
22
1.1
Post office
Living conditions and poverty of Afghans

in the Islamic Republic of Iran
With regard to types of residence, the study by Ahmadinejad (2011) found
that the largest group (46.0%) of Afghans in the Islamic Republic of Iran was
living in urban areas. An additional 36.9 per cent resided in semi-urban and rural
areas, 9.5 per cent in colonies at a large distance from the cities and 7.6 per cent
in government-run settlements. Unregistered Afghans appear to live primarily in
suburbs, semi-urban and rural areas, possibly because the risk of being arrested
and deported is lower in the country-side. In contrast, registered Afghans mainly
reside in cities and urban areas.
Poverty is a big problem among Afghan refugees in the Islamic Republic of
Iran. Almost half of the Afghan refugees (46.2%) live below the absolute poverty
threshold. Among households headed by women, which represent about 7 per
cent of the sample, the headcount income poverty ratio is 58 per cent and among
those headed by men it is 45 per cent. Furthermore, 47 per cent of children live
in households in which the income is below the income poverty threshold. There
are large differences in the income poverty indices per province with the lowest
index in Fars (28%), the province that also has the largest number of refugees,
and the highest in Kerman (65%) (Tehran has an index of 35%, Khorasan Razavi
45% and Isfahan 56%). The income poverty rate is highest among refugees
182
residing in camps (65%) and lowest among those living in colonies (34%). This
finding may be explained by the social networks refugees can rely on in colonies
as refugees tend to have kin there. The severe poverty rate is 2.4 per cent, while
it is 5.9 per cent among female headed and 2.2 per cent among male headed
households. For children this ratio is 2.2 per cent (Alzahra University, 2011).
EDUCATION
Migration and education
The IS Academy data suggest that children in households with migrants
or return migrants attend school more regularly than children in non-migrant
households (44% versus 40%). The same applies to households who receive
remittances (45.5% versus 41.8% in non-receiving households). Child labour
appears slightly more common among migrant households (11.4%), which
might be due to the absence of a productive person in the household. Among
households who receive remittances, the percentage of children that worked
in the last week is similar to that of children in non-remittance-receiving
households. Additionally, the type of household does not seem to influence the
childrens grades and the majority of households report that their childs school
performance is average. The childs grades in remittance-receiving households
do appear to be slightly higher.
Table 78: Child outcomes of migrant, return migrant and non-migrant households, IS Academy
Migrant
Child attended school in the
last week
Return
#
Non-migrant
Total
278
44.0
1,592
43.8
1,125
39.5
2,995
42.1
31
11.3
226
14.4
156
14.4
413
14.1
Child grades
Below average (0-65%)
Average (66-79%)
170
61.8
946
60.4
666
61.7
1,782
61.0
Above average (80-100%)
74
26.9
395
25.2
258
23.9
727
24.9
Child labour in the last week
48
11.4
201
8.5
179
9.6
428
9.2
183
Table 79: Child outcomes of remittance-receiving and non-receiving households, IS Academy

Remittancereceiving
Child attended school in the

last week
236
45.5
Nonremittancereceiving
#
2,759
41.8
Total
#
2,995
%
42.1
Child grades
Below average (0-65%)
22
9.4
391
14.5
413
14.1
142
60.9
1,640
61.0
1,782
61.0
Above average (80-100%)
69
29.6
658
24.5
727
24.9
Child labour in the last week
33
9.5
395
9.2
428
9.2
Average (66-79%)
Education of Afghans in the Islamic Republic of Iran

Although documented refugees have access to schooling in the Islamic
Republic of Iran, the level of education is low among the sample of a study
carried out in 2011. Of the persons aged 6 and over 33 per cent were illiterate
and 36 per cent had obtained only primary education. When splitting the sample
between documented and undocumented refugees, the illiteracy rate was 42
per cent and 60 per cent, respectively. The level of literacy is 7.5 per cent higher
among males (Ahmadinejad, 2011).
SOCIAL INTEGRATION OF RETURN MIGRANTS AND THE

IMPACT OF MIGRANTS ON THE ORIGIN COUNTRY
Social integration of return migrants
The migration experience does not seem to lead to a decrease in the
social integration of the return migrants in their origin community in Afghanistan
(Table 80). Upon return, almost 90 per cent of migrants feel very much a part of
the community in which they live. Moreover, the return migrants position in the
household tends to have improved compared to the situation before migration,
along with their social status in general. However, the migration experience itself
appears to subjectively alienate people from their origin community.
184
Table 80: Return migrants perspectives on their return, IS Academy

Frequency
Percentage
Now that returned I feel a part of a community in Afghanistan

Not a part of a community
13
1.2
Somewhat a part of a community
100
9.1
Very much a part of a community
983
89.7
Migration alienated me from the community

Strongly disagree
34
3.1
Disagree
302
27.5
Neutral
121
11.0
Agree
539
49.0
Strongly agree
103
9.4
Position in household compared to pre-migration

Household status has decreased
99
9.1
Household status has not changed
346
31.7
Household status has improved
645
59.2
Migration improved my social status

Strongly disagree
20
1.8
Disagree
230
20.9
Neutral
143
13.0
Agree
557
50.6
Strongly agree
150
13.6
Opinions regarding return migrants seem to be generally positive (Table

81 and Table 82). IS Academy Survey data show that the majority of households
seem to strongly disagree with the statement that return migrants do not fit
into their community. Moreover, over three quarters argue that return migrants
bring new ideas, knowledge and technologies to Afghanistan. This may result
in changes in the traditional cultures and norms in Afghanistan as a result of
the experiences that return migrants bring. However, the large majority of
households strongly agree that return migrants receive preferential treatment a perception that may impact the social cohesion of a community.
185
Table 81: Opinions on return migrants of migrant, return migrant and

Migrant
#
Return
Non-migrant
%
10.6
Total
82
10.2
211
10.5
When migrants return from abroad they do not fit in

Strongly disagree
22
11.9
107
Disagree
89
48.1
411
40.7
342
42.4
842
42.1
Neutral
22
11.9
186
18.4
184
22.8
392
19.6
Agree
42
22.7
246
24.3
160
19.9
448
22.4
Strongly agree
10
5.4
61
6.0
38
4.7
109
5.4
When migrants return from abroad they bring new ideas, knowledge and technologies
1
0.5
11
1.1
20
2.5
32
1.6
Disagree
Strongly disagree
18
9.7
65
6.4
76
9.4
159
7.9
Neutral
21
11.3
138
13.6
123
15.3
282
14.1
Agree
82
44.3
500
49.5
380
47.2
962
48.1
Strongly agree
63
34.1
297
29.4
206
25.6
566
28.3
When migrants return from abroad they receive preferential treatment

Strongly disagree
2.2
17
1.7
21
2.6
42
2.1
Disagree
16
8.6
88
8.7
102
12.7
206
10.3
Neutral
15
8.1
155
15.4
135
16.8
305
15.3
Agree
88
47.6
465
46.1
333
41.5
886
44.4
Strongly agree
62
33.5
284
28.1
212
26.4
558
27.9
Table 82: Opinions on return migrants of remittance-receiving and

Remittancereceiver
#
#
Total
#
When migrants return from abroad they do not fit in

Strongly disagree
20
13.2
191
10.3
211
10.5
Disagree
72
47.4
770
41.6
842
42.1
Neutral
19
12.5
373
20.2
392
19.6
Agree
37
24.3
411
22.2
448
22.4
2.6
105
5.7
109
5.4
Strongly agree
When migrants return from abroad they bring new ideas, knowledge and
technologies
Strongly disagree
Disagree
186
0.7
31
1.7
32
1.6
14
9.2
145
7.8
159
7.9
Neutral
14
9.2
268
14.5
282
14.1
Agree
69
45.4
893
48.3
962
48.1
Strongly agree
54
35.5
512
27.7
566
28.3
When migrants return from abroad they receive preferential treatment

Strongly disagree
1.3
40
2.2
42
2.1
Disagree
13
8.5
193
10.5
206
10.3
Neutral
15
9.9
290
15.7
305
15.3
Agree
77
50.7
809
43.9
886
44.4
Strongly agree
45
29.6
513
27.8
558
27.9
Remittances and social cohesion

The influence of remittances on social cohesion in a community seems
to be mixed (Table 83 and Table 84). In particular, non-migrant and return
migrant households appear to have more negative opinions towards people who
receive money from abroad. More than one third of those households report
that persons who receive remittances become lazier and about one third agree
with the statement that it leads to resentment from others. The differences
are even more pronounced among remittance-receiving and non-receiving
households. More than half of all remittance-receiving households disagree
with the statement that remittances make people lazier and lead to resentment
from other, whereas a third of non-receiving households disagree. The higher
incidence of reported resentment may be related to answers to the statement
that people who receive remittances get rich. More than half of return and nonmigrant households agree that these people get rich, while this percentage is
46.5 per cent among migrant households. However, among remittance-receiving
and non-receiving households the general opinion is that they agree with this
statement.
187
Table 83: Opinions on the receipt of remittances of migrant, return migrant

and non-migrant households, IS Academy
Migrant
#
Return
Non-Migrant
Total
#
When people receive money from abroad they become lazier

Strongly disagree
4.9
32
3.2
46
5.7
87
Disagree
90
48.7
Neutral
21
11.3
Agree
40
Strongly agree
25
4.3
320
31.6
249
30.8
659
32.9
155
15.3
157
19.4
333
16.6
21.6
365
36.1
281
34.7
686
34.2
13.5
139
13.8
76
9.4
240
12.0
When people receive money from abroad it leads to resentment from others
4
2.2
20
2.0
15
1.8
39
2.0
Disagree
Strongly disagree
90
48.6
339
33.5
275
34.0
704
35.1
Neutral
38
20.5
232
23.0
181
22.4
451
22.5
Agree
45
24.3
333
32.9
274
33.9
652
32.5
4.3
87
8.6
64
7.9
159
7.9
Strongly agree
When people receive money from abroad they get rich

Strongly disagree
1.1
0.2
0.6
0.5
Disagree
32
17.3
143
14.2
104
12.9
279
13.9
Neutral
47
25.4
195
19.3
168
20.8
410
20.5
Agree
86
46.5
536
53.1
437
54.0
1,059
52.8
Strongly agree
18
9.7
134
13.3
95
11.7
247
12.3
Table 84: Opinions on the receipt of remittances of remittance-receiving

and non-receiving households , IS Academy
Remittancereceiver
#
#
Total
#
When people receive money from abroad they become lazier

Strongly disagree
3.9
81
4.4
87
4.3
Disagree
79
52.0
580
31.3
659
32.9
Neutral
16
10.5
317
17.1
333
16.6
Agree
31
20.4
655
35.3
686
34.2
Strongly agree
20
13.2
220
11.9
240
12.0
When people receive money from abroad it leads to resentment from others
Strongly disagree
2.0
36
1.9
39
2.0
Disagree
82
54.0
622
33.6
704
35.1
Neutral
30
19.7
421
22.7
451
22.5
188
Agree
Strongly agree
35
23.0
617
33.3
652
32.5
1.3
157
8.5
159
7.9
When people receive money from abroad they get rich

Strongly disagree
1.3
0.4
0.5
Disagree
28
18.4
251
13.5
279
13.9
Neutral
33
21.7
377
20.4
410
20.5
Agree
76
50.0
983
53.1
1,059
52.8
Strongly agree
13
8.6
234
12.6
247
12.3
C.5. MIGRATION AND HEALTH

Migration and HIV/AIDS in Afghanistan
The number of HIV infected people or those with AIDS in Afghanistan is
not known. Officially reported numbers of HIV/AIDS cases in Afghanistan have
been low in the last years and the issue of HIV/AIDS was not researched in the
household survey of the National Risk and Vulnerability Assessment 2007/08.
The most recent data from 2009 reported 636 cases of HIV of in the country
(Islamic Republic of Afghanistan, 2010). This low number, however, might not be
representative of the actual situation, considering that neighbouring countries
such as Pakistan and the Islamic Republic of Iran have reported much higher
incidences (74,000 and 14,000 respectively) (MRRD and CSO, 2007). In both
Pakistan and the Islamic Republic of Iran as well as in Afghanistan underreporting
of HIV/AIDS is very likely due to social stigma attached to the infection (World
Bank, 2008). Since many Afghan refugees and labour migrants travel back and
forth between these countries every day, more attention should be paid to this
issue.
Vulnerability to HIV/AIDS is higher among certain groups in Afghanistan,
particularly drug users, men who have sex with men and migrant households. An
estimated 8 per cent (1 million people) of the adult population in Afghanistan are
drug users, most of whom are men. The majority uses opium which is generally
consumed externally. The estimation of the number of injecting drug users is in
the range of 19,000 to 25,000 persons. The level of high-risk behaviour, such as
sharing needles and low use of condoms, within this group has been shown to
be significant and it leads to a greater risk of contracting HIV/AIDS. A study by the
189
United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime in 2009 (cited in Islamic Republic of
Afghanistan (2011)) found that 28 per cent of injecting drug users started taking
drugs while living in the Islamic Republic of Iran and 9 per cent while in exile in
Pakistan.
Another issue that should be taken into consideration is the sexual
exploitation and abuse of highly vulnerable adolescent men as well as consensual
male-to-male sex in Afghanistan:
Along with the low level of HIV and AIDS knowledge, poor public health
infrastructure, a lack of strategic information, lack of access to any appropriate
sexual health services and appropriate psychosexual counselling, along with
a culture of shame and religious intolerance that generates significant levels
of stigma, discrimination, violence and denial, as well as what appears to be a
significant and growing injecting drug use culture, Afghanistan needs to prepare
itself towards dealing with an emerging concentrated HIV epidemic amongst
[males who have sex with males] (Khan et al., 2009: 10).
Migration also influences the prevalence of HIV/AIDS in a different way.

Many households rely on male seasonal and long-term migrant work in other
countries, such as Pakistan, the Islamic Republic of Iran, India and countries in the
Arab gulf, where commercial sex is more readily available. The same applies to
rural-urban migration within Afghanistan. This poses a risk to these households
in terms of vulnerability to HIV/AIDS (Islamic Republic of Afghanistan, 2011).
The Ministry of Public Health of the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan
(2011) is taking steps to address the issue of HIV/AIDS and has drafted a National
Strategic Framework for HIV/AIDS for the period 2011-2015 that aims to provide
universal access to HIV prevention, treatment, care and support to vulnerable
and affected populations.
Some countries nowadays require that foreigners undertake a HIV test
prior to entry. This information is usually required as part of a medical exam for
long-term visitors, namely students and workers. So far, there is no information
available that indicates that visitors or long-term migrants coming to Afghanistan
are required to undertake such a test. However, other countries require HIV tests
prior to arrival or within a particular time span after arrival. For instance, in the
Islamic Republic of Iran anybody wishing to stay longer than three months must
provide an HIV test certificate.
Health situation of children who work in brick kilns

Children working in brick kilns suffer from various health problems. The
average age at which the children start working is seven or eight years. At the
190
age of 13 all the boys in a household are generally at work, whereas the number
of girls that work decreases sharply from around the age of 10, because they
stop working when they reach puberty. These children work around 10 to 15
hours a day, amounting to an average of 70 hours a week. Due to the physically
demanding work in the brick kilns, children have a high risk of musculoskeletal
problems, including pain in the lower back, neck and shoulders. The work can
also lead to poor bone development and early onset of arthritis. The dust and
emissions from the kilns can result in respiratory problems. Furthermore, half
of the households face periods of food insecurity which means the risk of
malnutrition and consequently, developmental stunting, is high (ILO, 2011).
Health situation of Afghans in the Islamic Republic of Iran

A recent study on Afghans in the Islamic Republic of Iran (Ahmadinejad,
2011) found that almost 8 per cent of the studys participants reported suffering
from a chronic disease, of which the most common were heart diseases, back
pain, diabetes and kidney disease. The fertility rate for women between the ages
of 15 and 44 was approximately 95 births per 1,000 women with considerable
differences by province. In Khorasan Razavi province the fertility rate was lowest
with 53.1 births per 1,000 women, followed by Tehran with 88.6 per 1,000 women,
Isfahan with 91.3, Kreman with 122.9 and Fars with 146.6 childbirths per 1,000
women. Another finding of the study was that 19 per cent of the childbirths had
taken place without the supervision of health experts (Ahmadinejad, 2011).
Effects of migration on health

Migration may also serve to increase household access to health care
in Afghanistan. In section C.2 on remittances, Table 49 shows that in a small
percentage of cases the goods that were sent back to Afghanistan from an absent
household member included medication. In addition, in 3.4 per cent of cases, the
main reason migrants sent money to his/her household in Afghanistan was for
health care and in 2 per cent of cases the main use of the remittances was health
care. However, return migrants did not report health care as the primary reason
for sending remittances or as the main purpose for the money they brought with
them upon return. This suggests that the influence of migration and remittances
on access to health care may be small.
Another effect of migration is the finding that more than two thirds of
return migrants argued that migration improved their mental health (Table 85).
191
Table 85: Perception of return migrants on the impact of migration on

mental health, IS Academy
Frequency
Percentage
Migration improved my mental health

Strongly disagree
24
2.2
Disagree
134
12.2
Neutral
190
17.3
Agree
610
55.5
Strongly agree
141
12.8
C.6. MIGRATION AND THE ENVIRONMENT

IS Academy data on migration and shocks
The data from the IS Academy data show that the largest number of
shocks reported in the past 10 years were environmental shocks (including
drought and too much rain or floods) and price shocks (namely increases in input
or food prices). Economic or market shocks (that is job loss, land redistribution
or confiscation of assets), were also often cited but more so among migrant
household than other household types (Table 86). Job loss is the main shock
to every type of household. The tabulated data on remittance-receiving versus
non-receiving households demonstrate similar results (Table 87).
Table 86: Shocks of migrant, return migrant and non-migrant households, IS Academy
Return
migrant
Migrant
Non-migrant
Total
Average number of shocks in the past 10 years

Environmental/ price shocks
23.6
22.4
22.9
22.5
Economic/ market shocks
14.1
12.8
10.6
11.9
Household shocks
5.7
6.0
6.2
6.0
Theft/ crime
0.5
0.9
0.7
0.8
Average number of shocks during the last conflict period

Conflict
0.4
0.4
0.2
0.4
Migration
0.2
0.5
0.1
0.3
85
45.9
473
47.3
384
48.1
942
47.5
Primary shock to the household

Job loss*
%
Note:
*This was by far the largest shock reported.
192
Table 87: Shocks of remittance-receiving and non-receiving households, IS Academy

Remittancereceiver
Total
Average number of shocks in the past 10 years

Environmental/ price shocks
21.6
22.6
22.5
Economic/ market shocks
12.7
11.8
11.9
Household shocks
5.8
6.0
6.0
Theft/ crime
0.4
0.8
0.8
Avergae number of shocks during the last conflict period

Conflict
0.5
0.3
0.4
Migration
0.2
0.3
0.3
Job loss
%
65
42.8
877
47.9
942
47.5
Serious illness of adult man

%
235
12.8
21
13.8
256
12.9
Serious illness of adult woman

%
116
6.3
17
11.2
133
6.7
Primary shock to the household
INTERNAL DISPLACEMENT DUE TO NATURAL DISASTERS

Table 88 below shows the large number of families and individuals that
became internally displaced in 2011 because of natural disasters (NDs). In total
almost 50,000 persons were internally displaced, with the majority of activity in
December. Floods were the most common type of natural disaster that affected
families (58%), followed by harsh winter (18%) and drought (10%) (Figure 30).
When looking at the type of disaster that resulted in internal displacement for
the years 2010 and 2011 the most common type of incident is drought (58%)
with floods in second place (23%) (Figure 31).
193
Table 88: Number of natural disaster-induced IDPs per month by region, 2011
Northeast
North
Central
Highland
Jan
52
Feb
71
Mar
Apr
May
West
South
Southeast
East
Central
Region
Total
52
120
194
24
26
34
185
12
231
67
12
197
276
Jun
Jul
78
78
Aug
305
35
351
Sep
282
644
36
962
Oct
Nov
787
197
36
1,020
Dec
462
3,272
3,734
Total
Families
712
4,898
1,229
72
6,924
4,984
34,286
56
8,603
35
504
48,468
Individuals
Source: IOM, 2012c.
Figure 30: Population affected by natural disaster by type of incident, 2011

1.0%
Total: 41,822 families

(292,754 individuals)
1.0%
0.7%
10.0%
0.3%
Flood
Avalanche
6.0%
Harsh winter
Landslide
Water uprising
18.0%
58.0%
Mountain slide
Heavy rainfall
Sandstorm
5.0%
Source: IOM, 2012c.
194
Drought
Figure 31: Natural disaster-induced IDPs by type of incident, 2010-2011
Total: 9,523 families

(66,661 individuals)
0.7%
23%
Flood
Avalanche
0.2%
1%
Harsh winter
Landslide
Mountain slide
58%
13%
Drought
River bank erosion
4%
Source: IOM, 2012b.
The region most affected by natural disasters seems to be the north

(Table 88) (IOM, 2012c). The Afghanistan Protection Cluster also reports that the
Northern Region and North-Eastern Region have a high propensity for natural
disasters (Table 89). However, displacement as a result of these disasters tends
to be for a short duration, totalling a couple of hours or a few days spent in safer
areas within the village or in neighbouring villages. Only in the case of disasters
that affect the area for an extended period or permanently, for example as a
result of a land or mountain slide, do displacements appear to be longer term.
(Afghanistan Protection Cluster, 2011b).
195
Table 89: Natural disaster-induced displaced families by location and

type of disaster, 2010-2011
Place of origin
22/02/2011
Balkh
Mazar (Nar Shahi)
Floods
06/04/2011
Balkh
Balkh (Marmul)
Landslide
185
09/04/2011
Balkh
Balkh (Marmul)
Landslide
120
10/04/2011
Faryab
Faryab (Sherin Tagab)
Floods
29/09/2010
Badakhshan
Badakhshan (Yaftal
Payan)
Mountain slide
22/05/2010
Badakhshan
Badakhshan (Yawan)
Land slide
76
13/06/2010
Badakhshan
Badakhshan (Argo)
Mountain slide
51
22/05/2010
Badakhshan
Badakhshan (Shari
Buzarg)
Mountain slide
80
22/03/2010
Badakhshan
Badakhshan
(Arghnchkhwa)
Snow
avalanche
35
Total
Current location
Type of
natural
disaster
Date of displacement
Families
3
Have returned
156
706
Source: Afghanistan Protection Cluster, 2011b.
When comparing the 10 provinces most affected by ND-induced

displacement (Figure 32) with the 10 provinces to which families migrate (Figure
33), the top three are the same: Mazar-i-Sharif, Herat and Ghazni of which
Mazar is by far the largest province (IOM, 2012b). This suggests that most NDinduced IDPs stay in their own province, as was also observed by the Afghanistan
Protection Cluster (2011b).
196
Figure 32: Top 10 provinces of origin of IDP families, 2010-2011

5,000
4,500
4,461
Number of Families
4,000
3,500
3,000
2,500
2,000
1,500
1,022
1,000
804
472
500
458
416
360
274
221
208
206
100
Source: IOM, 2012b.
Figure 33: Top 10 provinces of displacement of IDP families, 2010-2011

6,000
Number of Families
5,000
4,881
4,000
3,000
2,000
1,288
1,000
1,022
458
420
360
274
221
Source: IOM, 2012b.
197
The type of incident that induces internal displacement also differs per
region. The data for the first three months of 2012 indicate that in the northeast,
the harsh winter was the main cause of internal displacement, whereas in the
south and north it was floods (Figure 34) (IOM, 2012a).
Figure 34: Total number of natural disaster-induced IDPs at regional level, 2012
300
Number of IDPs
250
200
188
152
150
100
50
68
17
Northeast
78
North
River bank erosion
100
South
Flood
61
50
West
East
Landslide
Central
Harsh winter
Source: IOM, 2012a.
The IOM Humanitarian Assistance Programme (HAP) provides aid to

people affected by NDs and ND-induced IDPs by providing them with non-food
item kits and referring them to other organizations if specific aid is required.
Furthermore, the IOM promotes the capacity of the national and provincial
government to respond to humanitarian emergencies. In 2011, HAP provided
assistance to 22,787 families in Afghanistan, 18,716 of which had been affected
or displaced by NDs (IOM, 2012a).
198
PART D: MIGRATION GOVERNANCE

D.1. MAINSTREAMING MIGRATION INTO
DEVELOPMENT PLANS
AFGHANISTAN NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT
STRATEGY 2008-2013
The Afghanistan National Development Strategy (ANDS), formally
approved by President Hamid Karzai on 21 April 2008, is the document that
outlines the Government of the Islamic Republic of Afghanistans strategies
for security, governance, economic growth and poverty reduction. The ANDS
is the end product of intensive consultations between the GIRoA, NGOs, local
authorities and representatives of the international community (The Embassy
of Afghanistan in Washington, D.C., 2006a). As Figure 35 shows, the Afghan
government focuses, among other things, on refugees, returnees and internally
displaced persons under Pillar 7 of the ANDS. The aim of this pillar is to facilitate
the planned and voluntary return of refugees and IDPs and their reintegration
into society (Table 90).
199
Figure 35: Structure of the Afghanistan National Development Strategy
Source:
Islamic Republic of Afghanistan, 2008a.
Table 90: Expected outcomes of Pillar 7 of the Afghanistan National Development Strategy
No
Objective
Concerned group(s)
Save, voluntary and gradual return of refugees from Pakistan, the Islamic
Republic of Iran and elsewhere.
Refugees
Returnees
Better and sustainable reintegration programmes and interventions for

returnees and IDPs. Provision of skill development training and public work
programmes to create job opportunities.
IDPs
Returnees
Improvement of social protection and disaster/ emergency preparedness

for IDPs to ensure that timely and necessary support is provided to
minimize hardship and suffering.
IDPs
Better management of cross-border movements and economic migration.
Border management
unit
Preparation of plans to improve the response to the internal displacement

crisis.
IDPs
Greater attention to the protection of the vulnerable groups among

refugees and IDPs, including children and women.
Vulnerable groups
Facilitation of gradual return of all Afghans who wish to return voluntarily

from Pakistan, the Islamic Republic of Iran and other host countries through
policy negotiation and coordination.
Returnees
Strengthening of the governments capacity to plan, manage and assist the

reintegration of returning Afghans and IDPs.
Government
Returnees
IDPs
200
Higher capacity of the government to plan for and respond to international

displacement.
Government
IDPs
10
Better terms of stay and conditions for Afghans in neighbouring countries.

The improvement of health care for Afghan refugees in Mashhad and
Zahedan, Islamic Republic of Iran.
Legal aid and vocational training for Afghan refugees and support to the
host communities in Pakistan.
Migrants and
refugees in the
Islamic Republic of
Iran and Pakistan
11
Progress towards the implementation of bilateral agreements on temporary

labour migration.
Government
Labour migrants
12
Better access to land for refugees and IDPs.
IDPs
Refugees
Source: Islamic Republic of Afghanistan, 2008b.
Table 91 lays out the governments action plan concerning Pillar 7 of the
ANDS. The strategy allows the GIRoA to coordinate and reintegrate refugees
and IDPs into society. The planned and voluntary return of refugees and IDPs is
expected to contribute to economic growth, the reduction of poverty and the
strengthening of security and stability of the country and the region (Islamic
Republic of Afghanistan, 2008b).
Table 91: Action plan matrix for the refugee, returnee and internally displaced persons sector
Outcomes
Policy actions or
activities
Voluntary
refugees
returned
Tripartite agreements
between countries of
asylum, Afghanistan
and UNHCR, fully
reflecting the principles
of voluntary, dignified
and gradual return,
continue to guide the
conduct of the voluntary
repatriation operation
Targets
Scenario One
Presented trend lines improve
permitting 800,000 1,000,000
returns.
Time
frame
Responsible
agencies
2008
2013
MoRR
MoFA
Scenario Two
Current trends continue
permitting 600,000 800,000
returns.
Scenario Three
Current trends deteriorate
permitting 400,000 600,000
returns.
201
Governments
capacity
strengthened
Improved
terms of stay
and conditions
for Afghans in
neighbouring
countries
Bilateral
agreements
on temporary
labour
migration
progressed
Source:
202
Improved internal
coordination
mechanisms.
Policies adjusted to make

provisions for returning
refugees and IDPs in national
programmes.
Institutional
development in the
form of inter-ministerial
cooperation.
Budget allocations to sectors

and provinces take into account
population expansion as a result
of returns.
Capacity-building and
technical assistance.
National initiatives addressing

returnee needs and local host
communities developed and
enhanced in housing, area-based
and community development
programmes.
Data collection,
analysis and knowledge
generation.
Improved knowledge and

planning.
Enhanced communications and
interactions between Kabul and
provinces.
Policy advice to
provincial authorities,
coordination of
interventions and
material assistance
support.
More effective and efficient

delivery of humanitarian
assistance.
Research and analysis to

support policy advocacy.
Greater awareness of economic

and social stay factors.
Negotiations with
neighbouring countries.
More predictable and clearer

legal status and renewable
documentation.
Identification of
programme interventions
to support policy
objectives.
Improved employment
opportunities, skill development,
basic literacy and numeracy,
access to health care.
Research and analysis to

support policy and public
advocacy.
Reduced instances of
deportations.
Negotiations with
neighbouring countries.
Fewer incidents of drug and

contraband smuggling during
irregular border crossings.
Identification of
programme interventions
to support policy
objectives.
Increases numbers of Afghans

travelling with documentation.
Islamic Republic of Afghanistan, 2008b.
Strengthened public
management capacity to develop
policy and negotiate agreements.
By the
end of
the first
half of
2009
MoRR,
MRRD,
MoLSAMD,
Ministry
of Urban
Development
Affairs
By the
end of
2009
MoRR,
ANDMA,
MRRD,
provincial
authorities
By the
end of
2013
MoRR,
MoFA
By the
end of
2013
MoRR,
MoLSAMD,
MoFA,
MoI
MAINSTREAMING RETURN MIGRATION

INTO DEVELOPMENT PLANS
At a time of record lows in repatriation figures34, the priority since 2008
has been to improve absorption capacities, security and peace in areas of
refugee origin and of high refugee return as detailed in the ANDS Pillar 7 Strategy
on Refugees, Retrunees and IDPs. In this context, both NPPs and Provincial
Development Programmes (PDPs) were developed through national and subnational consultations, formulating policy based on inputs which, among others,
included prioritizing the inclusion of vulnerable social groups, such as refugees,
returnees and IDPs.
MoRRs development budget activities are centred on managing the
Land Allocation Schemes (LAS) through which land is sold at discounted rates
to eligible returned refugees in their province of origin (see section D.2). Return
migration to Afghanistan is still very much governed from a refugee perspective,
insufficiently addressing mixed migration and other forms of return migration.
As such, since 2002, policy initiatives have focused on the return and repatriation
of refugees. However, with low and decreasing repatriation figures and a context
of increasing insecurity and conflict in Afghanistan, return migration should be
viewed more broadly.
In principle, MoRR is involved in all return programmes as per the Law on
Non-Governmental Organizations. Semi-annual reports have to be submitted to
the Ministry of Economy (MoEc) and approved locally by the Departments of
Refugees and Repatriation before they are forwarded to the central MoEc. The
latter has all the information on hand but is unable to extract information as
it does not have an electronic data management system. NGOs have to share
a copy of their activity reports with relevant line ministries. If this happens, it
most often takes place at the provincial level, leaving MoRR at the central level
unable to set up a system to retrieve reports for its own planning or analysis of
return migration. Therefore, data and information on return migration for policy
purposes are lacking: even the Ministry of Finances (MoF) Donor Database,
where optimally all donor assistance should be registered, does not take into
account the budget of United Nations agencies present in Afghanistan it only
considers the contributions that have been made locally by donors in Afghanistan.
Numbers released by UNHCR in February 2012 show a decreasing trend: from 112,958 returnees in 2010,
the following year saw a decrease of 40 per cent down to 67,962 individuals. This was the second lowest
repatriation number, preceded only by the year 2009 with 54,552 refugees having returned to Afghanistan
(UNHCR, 2011b).
34
203
Since 2002, return migration has experienced differing degrees of policy

importance. In 2007, the Government of the Islamic Republic of Iran began a
wave of deportations of Afghan irregular migrants through its main crossing
points into Herat and Nimroz. At the same time, European governments began
encouraging the return of failed asylum-seekers and irregular migrants through
both voluntary and forced return programmes. The latter were done in partnership
with, and with the approval of, the Government of the Islamic Republic of
Afghanistan who authorized the returns from Europe to Afghanistan. However,
upon return, the failure to mainstream these populations into development
and reconstruction plans and the failure to plan for fully voluntary return in
consultations with migrants, often led to their remigration either internally,
regionally or internationally. Hence, increasing, rather than decreasing, their
vulnerabilities and dependence on migration as a coping strategy.
D.2. LAWS AND REGULATIONS (NATIONAL,

REGIONAL AND INTERNATIONAL LEVELS)
D.2.1. CITIZENSHIP LAW
Recently a new Afghan Citizenship Law was drafted. This is the third
citizenship law for the country. It was passed through Parliament and send to the
President for his approval. In general, in order to pass a new law in Afghanistan
five steps have to be gone through. The passing of the Citizenship Law in
Parliament was the fourth step and the signature of the President remains the
final, fifth step. However, according to the Constitution of Afghanistan, the
President has to respond, positively or negatively, to such a request within a
maximum timeframe of 30 days. If this is not followed, the law is automatically
passed. This is the case for the new Afghan Citizenship Law.
D.2.2. PASSPORT SYSTEM

Although the Afghan passport system has improved since 2001, the system
still has major weaknesses. This is because passports can mainly be obtained in
the main urban areas such as Kabul city. Moreover, waiting times and procedures
for application are lengthy and expensive. It is a common understanding that
bribery allows for the facilitation of the process and a quicker receipt of an
204
official passport. As a result, a black market has developed for the sale of formal
and fake passports. A formal passport on the black market costs approximately
USD 400 and a fake passport about half that price, while a passport obtained
through legal ways costs between USD 50 and 80. Faced with such high prices,
Afghans travelling through Pakistan prefer to do so without any formal passport,
as it is less costly and essentially a routine practice (Majidi, 2009).
In August 2011, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs began issuing machinereadable passports to Afghan diplomats and civil servants. This new passport
system was officially inaguarated for the whole Afghan population in 2013,
meaning that every citizen can now apply for the new passports (IOM, 2013b).
The new system also contributes to the collection of biometric data with a focus
on cross-checking peoples background as well as maintaining the records for
future use. The fee for a new passport is AFN 5,000 for adults and AFN 2,500 for
children and government staff holding Grade 3 or above.
D.2.3.VISA REGULATIONS
All foreign nationals planning to enter Afghanistan are required to possess
a passport with a minimum validity period of six months from the date of visa
issuance. Depending on the purpose of stay (namely leisure, studies, journalism,
business, permanent residency, investment or religious activity) all individuals
travelling to Afghanistan have to apply for a visa. This is done at the Afghan
Embassy or Consulate located in the applicants country of residence. The
authorities responsible for foreigner arrivals in Afghanistan are the Afghan
Department of Immigration and the Ministry of Foreign Affairs who ensure that
all visitors present the necessary travel documents upon arrival and only stay
the period indicated in their visas. Moreover, immigration officers assess the
foreigners real purposes of stay and the foreigners ability to be financially selfsufficient during their time in Afghanistan (Afghan Ministry of Foreign Affairs,
2013).
In order to obtain a visa to travel to Afghanistan, foreign nationals must
show an invitation, from either an individual, an organization or a company, that
is located in Afghanistan. For official work-related entries, a specific request has
to be made by the company or organization looking to hire a foreign official. In
the case of private companies, this request needs to be filed with the Afghanistan
Investment Support Agency (AISA) or the Ministry of Commerce where it is
registered, then transferred to the Ministry of Foreign Affairs which will issue
a visa number sent electronically to the specified Afghan consulate abroad.
205
The implementation of this system has not always been efficient due to some
consulates not being able to adapt quickly enough to the new system, resulting
in delays for the acceptance of visa applications and the granting of new visas.
In recent years, the entry of foreigners to Afghanistan has been curtailed by
new rules and regulations. Companies wanting to hire foreign nationals need
to provide copies of diplomas, contracts and personal information in order
to vouch for the necessity and relevance of hiring the specific person. Some
embassies (such as the Afghan embassy in Paris) no longer provide long-term
business visas, limiting travels to Afghanistan to short term only (Afghan Ministry
of Foreign Affairs, 2013).
In addition to the above mentioned responsibilities, the Afghan Ministry
of Foreign Affairs has the authority to deport or detain any foreigners that do
not comply with the rules of immigration. In this respect, immigration officers
at the airport can refuse foreign nationals entry to the country if individuals
do not have the proper visa to enter the country or if the individuals pose a
threat to Afghanistans national security. Moreover, persons who are mentally
incapacitated or have serious health problems may be quarantined and, only if
cleared, will be allowed to enter Afghanistan (Afghan Ministry of Foreign Affairs,
2013).
Waiting times and documents to be completed depend on the country
in which the Afghan visa is being issued. Regardless of the country or overseas
mission, applicants must complete at least one visa application form, hand in
two recent passport size photos, hold a passport valid for at least 6 months
and pay a visa processing fee. Additionally, a letter of introduction from the
employer or sponsor stating the purpose and duration of the trip is required. In
some cases, applicants must also undergo an interview and prove that they are
able to cover financial expenses during their stay in the country (Afghan Ministry
of Foreign Affairs, 2013). Depending on the purpose of travel and reason to stay
in Afghanistan, the following visas and permits can be obtained (Table 92).
206
Table 92: Types of visas for Afghanistan

Visa type
Description
Tourist Visa
In case foreign nationals are interested to travel to Afghanistan individually or in

groups for the purpose of visiting the country or their relatives, they must obtain
a tourist visa. This has to be obtained prior to travel to the country at an Afghan
Consulate or Embassy. A tourist visa is valid for one month (30 days).
Note: Foreigners are advised to go to their respective embassies in Kabul, the Afghan
Tourist Organization and Afghan Police Department to register upon arrival.
Transit Visa
A transit visa is issued by the Afghan Mission abroad to those foreign nationals who
pass through Afghanistan to a third country. The validity of this type of visa is 72
hours for air passengers and six days for those who travel over land.
Service Visa
This visa is issued by the Afghan Missions abroad to foreign nationals who hold
service or special passports.
Double Entry Visa
This is issued to foreigners who already have a stay visa but intend to enter
Afghanistan more than once.
Diplomatic Visa
This type of visa is for holders of diplomatic passports who intend to travel to
Afghanistan. The diplomatic visa can be obtained at an Afghan Mission abroad.
However, applicants must contact the Section of Diplomatic Passport and Diplomatic
Visa of the Afghan Ministry of Foreign Affairs directly through their mission in Kabul.
Student Visa
A student visa is issued by the Afghan Missions abroad to foreign students who
intend to study in Afghanistan. The respective university or academic institution must
contact the Cultural Relations Department of the Afghan Ministry of Foreign Affairs
directly.
Exit Visa
An exit visa is issued to foreign nationals who have entered the country with an entry
work permit visa. The validity of this type of visa is one to six days and it can be
extended in some instances.
Entry Visa for

Work Permit
An entry visa for work permit is issued for business, economic, commercial, cultural
and industrial purposes as well as for working for governmental or non-governmental
organizations. This type pf visa can be obtained from the Consulate Section of the
Afghan Ministry of Foreign Affairs. It can be extended through the Ministry of Interior.
Resident Visa
This type of visa is issued by the Ministry of Interior to foreign nationals holding an
ordinary passport, who have already entered Afghanistan with a proper visa. The
validity of this type of visa is between one month to six months and can be extended.
Source: Afghan Ministry of Foreign Affairs, 2013.
Visa fees depend upon the type of visa and the duration it takes to
process the application. Charges also vary depending on the country in which
the application is made as well as on the purpose of the visit. The fee for a single
entry visa valid for a maximum of three months is USD 160. However, fees are
generally lower in Afghanistan: with an average of USD 30 per month, a six
month visa renewal in 2012 cost USD 180. If the visa has expired, the holder
of the passport will be fined USD 2 for each day during the first month of the
delay in reapplication or exit and a total of USD 5 for each day during the second
month of the delay. This fine must be paid in order to be granted an exit visa. If
the delay is more than two months the holder must pay the fine and will also be
deported (Afghan Ministry of Foreign Affairs, 2013).
207
D.2.4. REFUGEE LAW

Following the ratification of the 1951 United Nations Convention
relating to the Status of Refugees and its 1967 Additional Protocol in 2005, the
Government of the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan made the committment
to develop a refugee law. The Ministry of Refugees and Repatriation (MoRR),
as the responsible governmental authority, is currently working with a legal
advisor on the Afghanistan National Refugee Law. This is done in coordination
with and support by UNHCR and the Danish Refugee Council. The law will
also encompass regulations concerning asylum-seekers and citizenship (Rafiq,
personal communication, 2012).
D.2.5. NATIONAL IDP POLICY

MoRR and UNHCR are tasked to co-chair the National IDP Task Force under
the cluster coordination system, with the objective of coordinating protection
and assistance responses. Responsibilities importantly include the provision of
durable solutions for IDPs, particularly in terms of local integration, resettlement
and voluntary return wherever possible.
Following extensive consultation processes, the National Policy on
Internally Displaced Persons was endorsed in November 2013 at the Council of
Ministers meeting.
D.2.6. RETURN MIGRATION35

Presidential Decree 297 on the Dignified Return of Refugees
On June 3, 2001, Hamid Karzai, then President of the Afghan Interim
Administration, signed Decree 297 on the Dignified Return of Refugees. This
decree stipulated that Afghan nationals and refugees living abroad could return
freely and without fear of harm to their homeland, without being subject to any
harassment, intimidation or persecution for reasons of race, religion, nationality
or membership to a particular social group, hence ensuring protection from the
state (Article 2).
See Annex A on Return Migration for more detailed information.
35
208
Presidential Decree 104 on Land Allocation Schemes

In April 2004, the Ministry of Rural Rehabilitation and Development started
to implement a new programme with the major goal to promote the return of
IDPs to their original home area. As part of this plan, the Land Allocation Scheme
(LAS) was launched in 2005 under Presidential Decree 104. The LAS legalizes the
distribution of uncultivated government land to landless returnees possessing
UNHCR Voluntary Repatriation Forms (VRFs) and to IDPs in their province of
origin. Selection is made by inter-ministerial commissions, who also set the
price of the land. Priority has been given to those who have already applied for
land (those that returned between 2002 and 2006) and the most vulnerable
(that is the disabled and widowed). In 2008, over 520,000 applications have
been registered, approximately 100,000 beneficiaries have been selected and
23,000 plots have been distributed. Multiple layered problems in the townships
have prevented their development and the sustainable settlement of returnee
populations. They are rarely connected to any provincial or local market and
without such market linkages, livelihoods are missing. Beyond the lack of access
to livelihoods, other obstacles, such as the lack of access to water, food, health,
education and security have plagued the LAS. The scheme has additionally been
weakened by land claims by private landowners, lack of coordination among
government ministries and a weak selection process, resulting in speculation
and favouritism. As a result, many of the LAS sites are only at about 20 per cent
capacity today. This is the case, for example, in Aliceghan and Barikab in the
province of Kabul or Dashte Shor Jalaluddin Balkhi in Balkh.
Voluntary return
In 2002, the decade of repatriation began in Afghanistan with the
return of refugees, mainly from the neighbouring Islamic Republic of Iran and
Pakistan. The Volrep, a voluntary refugee repatriation programme, is governed
by tripartite agreements between the Governments of Afghanistan, Pakistan,
the Islamic Republic of Iran and UNHCR. Its aim is to ensure the integrity and
voluntariness of the repatriation process.
In April 2012, MoRR, UNHCR and UNDP started developing the Voluntary
Return and Reintegration Programme (VRRP) which was to be nationally
managed and implemented with the aim of increasing access to effective and
timely basic services and livelihood opportunities for returnees, IDPs and their
receiving communities. Its goal is to foster sustainable socioeconomic integration,
peaceful co-existence and local economic development. Initially targeting 48
prioritized high return areas, the aim is to demonstrate that a holistic integrated
209
community-based approach could be duplicated in other areas of need. The

programme deliverables, which were being developed in the framework of the
Solutions Strategy for Afghan Refugees, will be integrated within the National
Priority Programmes (NPPs). There will be no new structures set up for the
VRRP, but it will make use of already existing programmes such as the National
Solidarity Programme (NSP), the Afghan Peace and Reintegration Programme
(APRP)36, the Afghan Rural Enterprise Programme (AREDP) and the National Skills
Development Programme (NSDP) of MoLSAMD. The complementarities and
synergies between the VRRP and these programmes indicate a way of making
effective use of resources and capacities of the latter (MoRR et al., 2012).
A variety of bilateral and tripartite agreements have also been signed with
European States to facilitate the return of failed asylum-seekers, those awaiting
a decision and those with time-limited exception leave to enter or remain,
but who wish to return to their country of origin. More information on these
agreements is presented later in this section.
Forced return
Almost all of the bilateral agreements signed with the Government of
the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan treat return broadly, encompassing both
voluntary and forced return, and are applied to all cases of failed asylum that
should, by definition, result in a return to the country of origin. Some of these
agreements were built on principles of return while others contain more specific
and precise requirements for return and reintegration in Afghanistan. The
GIRoA, through its Ministry of Refugees and Repatriation, has contested certain
deportation measures. In 2001, they disputed an agreement signed with the
Government of Australia regarding the return of migrants and failed asylumseekers. Routine forced return schemes, such as the UKs bi-monthly charter
flights, however, continue to bring back failed asylum-seekers.
Forced returns or deportations are ongoing in Afghanistan, whether from
neighbouring countries, Europe or further afield. Some European countries are
now envisaging extending these forced return activities to include unaccompanied
minors. Countries such as the United Kingdom, Norway, Sweden and the
Netherlands are all involved in a European Return Platform for Unaccompanied
Minors (ERPUM) addressing the issue of the return of unaccompanied minors
who received a final rejection to their asylum application. In this framework,
a proposal has been submitted to start deporting unaccompanied Afghans
APRP is an Afghan government-led internationally supported effort to reintegrate former combatants.
36
210
with a commitment to tracing and reunification upon return tasks that will
become increasingly complex, if not impossible, in a country facing conflict and
instability. This has never been attempted in Afghanistan before and the project
has been paused for a couple of years, with disagreements over its content with
the Afghan government (Lemberg-Pedersen et al., 2013).
Skilled return
Finally, there are policy measures that address temporary or permanent
return of highly skilled individuals. One example of such a programme is the
Return of Qualified Afghans (RQA) programme. These programmes are tripartite
programmes signed between the Government of the Islamic Republic of
Afghanistan, the host government and, in this case, the International Organization
for Migration (IOM).
Temporary return programmes have been established in Afghanistan
since 2001 to encourage the return and contribution of qualified and skilled
Afghans within the Afghan government as well as in the public and private
sectors. IOM has been at the forefront of some of these programmes, including
the TRQN (Temporary Return of Qualified Nationals Program), as well as return
programmes specifically from EU countries and neighbouring countries.
D.2.7. TRAFFICKING LAW

Afghanistan does not fully comply with the minimum standards for the
elimination of trafficking set by the Victims of Trafficking and Violence Protection
Act (TVPA). Besides the continued referral of identified trafficking victims to
care facilities, an undeveloped judicial and prosecutorial system and weak
coordination remain severe obstacles to effectively punishing trafficking offenses
(IRIN, 2011a). As a result, Afghanistan has been placed on the Tier 2 Watch List
of the US Department of States annual Trafficking in Persons Report. This means
that Afghanistan appears on a list of countries whose government does not fully
comply with the TVPAs minimum standards, but are making significant efforts to
bring its policy into compliance with those standards (US Department of State,
2013b). In addition to the lack of proper legislation, widespread corruption
practices and weak border management make it easy for criminals to traffic
humans across domestic and international borders undisturbed (IRIN, 2007).
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Prosecution
The Afghan Law on Countering Abduction and Human Trafficking (2008)
is the legal document of the Government of the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan
that states the penalties for trafficking for the purpose of sexual and labour
exploitation. In general, the document states that penalties for sex trafficking
and for labour trafficking are life imprisonment and 8 to 15 years in prison
respectively. In 2009, however, another Afghan law was passed on the Elimination
of Violence against Women (EVAW). This law supersedes other Afghan laws
and consequently can be used to decrease the penalties outlined in the Afghan
trafficking law. More specifically, the EVAW law states that the penalty for an
offender who subjects a victim to forced labour is short-term imprisonment with
a maximum sentence of six months. This reduction in penalty, compared to the
penalty of 8 to 15 years outlined in the trafficking law, is significant. Moreover, an
offender who forces females into prostitution may be punished with a maximum
of seven years in contrast to the penalty of life-imprisonment in the trafficking
law.
The US Department of State annually publishes its Trafficking in Persons
Report. The associated study researches the context in which human trafficking
in Afghanistan takes place and furthermore investigated how cases of human
trafficking are handled by Afghan authorities and the judiciary. During the
research in 2010 a total of 24 offenders in 19 alleged cases were arrested by the
Afghan Ministry of Interior. It could not, however, be confirmed that all cases
were related to human trafficking, as cases of human trafficking, smuggling and
kidnapping are often conflated. Moreover, the United States Department of
State could not determine whether all cases were handled under the Afghan
counter trafficking law or another relevant law. The Government of the Islamic
Republic of Afghanistan was unable, or unwilling, to provide further information
that could have clarified the situation. In addition, the GIRoA did not make any
efforts to prosecute government officials who were known to be involved in
trafficking offenses. The IOM, in cooperation with international stakeholders,
carried out training modules for authorities involved in trafficking prosecution
and prevention, including the Afghan police, prosecutors, judges and other
government officials. The aim of this training was to teach components that
would help in the identification of trafficking and in distinguishing trafficking
from other cases such as smuggling (US Department of State, 2010).
In their latest report, the US Department of State (2013b) pointed out
that victims of trafficking are still punished for acts they may have committed
as a direct result of being trafficked. In many cases victims were arrested and
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locked up before it became known that they were victims of forced prostitution.
In other cases women were punished because they tried to escape forced
marriages. Many victims reported that they were raped by authorities such as
the police, simply for walking on the street without their husbands or another
male member of the family. It was also observed that some victims who could
not find help or shelter voluntarily went to prison to seek protection from their
male family members. During their research, the US Department of State also
found no evidence that the police asked the victims to assist in investigations
of their traffickers. Even if the police had asked victims to identify traffickers,
however, it is unlikely that (a) the police would have taken action and (b) the
victims would have identified his/ her trafficker because of the high personal risk
involved (US Department of State, 2013b).
Prevention
The Ministry of Womens Affairs Initiative to Strengthen Policy and
Advocacy through Communications and Institution Building launched and
partially funded a public information campaign with foreign donor support. The
campaign used, among others, TV and radio shows to distribute information
on trafficking issues in all 34 provinces of the country. An evaluation of these
mechanisms confirmed that increased public awareness was evident after
information was broadcasted. In addition to awareness raising campaigns, the
Afghan National Police committed to improve its age verification procedures to
prevent child soldiers from joining its ranks. Related to this, more efforts are
needed in birth registration and in the issuing of birth certificates, as fewer than
10 per cent of children are registered at birth and most of those who lack proper
documentation are found in rural areas. At the end of 2009, the Monitoring,
Reporting and Response Steering Committee was established to formulate an
action plan for the governments work with the United Nations Task Force on
Trafficking and Children in Armed Conflict. To date the plan has not yet been
completed (US Department of State, 2010).
D.2.8. INTERNATIONAL AGREEMENTS AND TREATIES

Since 2001, Afghanistan has increasingly become an active member
of the international community and established diplomatic relations with
countries around the world (US Department of State, 2012). Furthermore, many
tripartite agreements between Afghanistan, UNHCR and EU countries were put
in place since 2002, according to which the repatriation of Afghan refugees is
213
on a voluntary basis. This kind of tripartite agreement was first initiated with
Pakistan and the Islamic Republic of Iran to govern the return of Afghan refugees
and ensure the safeguarding of asylum space in neighbouring countries. These
tripartite agreements have been renewed and renegotiated since 2002. On 17
February 2012, a joint statement on enhancing trilateral cooperation was made
following the Third Trilateral Summit in Islamabad by the heads of the states of
the Islamic Republic of Iran, Pakistan and Afghanistan, reiterating cooperation
over the safe, voluntary and early return of Afghan refugees to their homeland.
In early 2011, the Governments of Afghanistan, Pakistan and UNHCR
renewed their tripartite agreement on voluntary return of Afghan refugees.
To encourage and motivate the Afghan refugees to repatriate, the repatriation
package of USD 100 per person/returnee was increased to USD 150 per person.
The Government of Pakistan also pushed the Afghan government to allocate
sufficient funds for the rehabilitation of returnees in their Afghanistan National
Development Strategy (ANDS) to ensure that repatriation is sustainable and
does not result in further displacement (Balochistan Times, 2011). In the
same year Afghanistan, Australia and UNHCR signed their first Memorandum
of Understanding (MoU), allowing Australia to send back unsuccessful Afghan
asylum-seekers. In association with the MoU, the Australian Government agreed
to undertake a number of initiatives intended to build capacity in relevant Afghan
ministries and to assist in the repatriation of displaced Afghans. The largest
undertaking was to fund the upgrading of Afghanistans passport issuing system
to bring Afghan passports in line with international standards (Bowen, 2011).
Moreover, in 2011, the Afghan Interior Minister signed a bilateral agreement
with the Turkish Ambassador, establishing joint procedures with the Police
Officer Candidate School in Siva, Turkey and allowing for the training of Afghan
police officers in Turkey (NATO Training Mission Afghanistan, 2011). Many other
bilateral agreements between Afghanistan and neighbouring countries exist,
however most agreements tend to focus on economic cooperation and peace
agreements rather than migration issues.
Tripartite and bilateral agreements on migration

Since 2002, Afghanistan signed tripartite agreements with various
European countries and UNHCR. All agreements, lay down the scope, objective
and methodology of repatriation. Moreover, the role of UNHCR in return is clearly
defined. Tripartite agreements also exist with neighbouring countries such as
Pakistan and the Islamic Republic of Iran and are reviewed and renewed on a
regular basis. All agreements were made in compliance with the 1951 United
Nations Refugee Convention and the 1967 Protocol (Poppelwell, 2007).
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In 2008, Afghanistan and Qatar signed a bilateral agreement to regulate the

flow of Afghan labourers to Qatar and to strengthen bilateral relations between
the two countries. Kuwait and Qatar are engaged in a dialogue with Afghanistan
to improve and deepen bilateral relations (Overfeld and Zumot, 2010). With
regard to Pakistan, both countries (Afghanistan and Pakistan) are engaged in
dialogue to resolve bilateral issues such as border security, immigration and
trade (US Department of State, 2012). In 2009, the two countries signed the
Joint Declaration between the Islamic Republic of Pakistan and the Islamic
Republic of Afghanistan on Directions of Bilateral Cooperation. The declaration
states that both countries agree to encourage people to people exchanges
especially between academia, think tanks, media and civil society (Embassy of
Pakistan, 2009). Afghanistan continues the dialogue on bilateral cooperation
with the Islamic Republic of Iran, particularly in relation to counter-narcotics
efforts, migrant workers and railway building (United Nations General Assembly
Security Council, 2011).
The following table (Table 93) gives an overview of tripartite and bilateral
agreements and memorandums of understanding (MoU)37 that are related to
migration in and out of Afghanistan.
Table 93: Tripartite and bilateral agreements on migration between
Afghanistan and other states
Agreement
Parties
Implemented
1.
Agreement between the Government of the Islamic Republic of

Pakistan, The Government of the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan
and the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees
Governing the Repatriation of Afghan Citizens in Pakistan
Afghanistan
Pakistan
UNHCR
March 2002
2.
Joint Programme between the Government of the Islamic Republic

of Iran, The Islamic Republic of Afghanistan and UNHCR for
Voluntary Repatriation of Afghan Refugees and Displaced Persons
Afghanistan
Iran
UNHCR
1992
April 2002
3.
Tripartite Memorandum of Understanding between the

Government of the Netherlands, the Transitional Islamic State
of Afghanistan and the United Nations High Commissioner for
Refugees (UNHCR)
Afghanistan
Netherlands
UNHCR
March 2003
4.
Tripartite Memorandum of Understanding (the MoU) between

the Islamic Transitional State of Afghanistan, the Government of
Denmark and the United High Commissioner for Refugees
Afghanistan
Denmark
UNHCR
October 2004
5.
Tripartite Memorandum of Understanding (the MoU) between the

Government of Norway, the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan and
the United High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR)
Afghanistan
Norway
UNHCR
August 2005
A memorandum of understanding (MoU) is an agreement between two parties in the form of a legal
document. It is not fully binding in the way that a contract is. In comparison to a treaty, a MoU has many
practical advantages as it can be kept confidential and put into effect in a timelier manner. In addition, a
memorandum of understanding can be modified without lengthy negotiations.
37
215
6.
Tripartite Agreement between the Government of the French

Republic, the Government of the Islamic Transitional State of
Afghanistan and the United Nations High Commissioner for
Refugees
Afghanistan
France
UNHCR
September
2002
7.
Tripartite Memorandum of Understanding (the MoU) between

the Government of the United Kingdom and Northern Ireland
(the United Kingdom Government), the Transitional Islamic
Administration of the Transitional State of Afghanistan and the
Afghanistan
United
Kingdom
UNHCR
October 2002
8.
Tripartite Memorandum of Understanding (the MoU) between the

Government of Australia, the Government of Afghanistan and the
Afghanistan
Australia
UNHCR
January 2011
9.
Tripartite Memorandum of Understanding Between the

Government of the Kingdom of Sweden, the Government of the
Islamic Republic of Afghanistan and the United Nations High
Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR)
Afghanistan
Sweden
UNHCR
December
2007
Bilateral agreements/ dialogues

1.
Bilateral Agreements that regulates the flow of Afghan labourers

in Qatar
Afghanistan
Qatar
April 2008
2.
Joint Declaration between the Islamic Republic of Pakistan and

the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan on Directions of Bilateral
Cooperation
Afghanistan
Pakistan
2009
3.
Afghanistan and the Islamic Republic of Iran continue their

dialogue on bilateral cooperation, particularly in relation to
counter-narcotics efforts, migrant workers and railway building
Afghanistan
Iran
Source:
UNHCR 2012c; UNHCR Tripartite 2002a, 2002b, 2002c, 2003a, 2003b, 2004, 2005, 2007, 2010; Overfeld and Zumot 2010.
Recognition of migrant rights

On 2 September 2005, Afghanistan signed the 1951 Convention relating
to the Status of Refugees and its 1967 Protocol (UNHCR, 2005a). Furthermore,
under the 7th Pillar of Afghanistans National Development Strategy (ANDS)
the Afghan Government focuses on refugees, returnees and internal displaced
persons. The aim of the 7th Pillar is to facilitate the planned and voluntary return
of refugees and IDPs and the sustainable reintegration of returnees and IDPs into
society. The planned and voluntary return of refugees and IDPs is expected to
contribute to economic growth, the reduction of poverty and the strengthening
of security and stability in the country and the region more broadly (Islamic
Republic of Afghanistan, 2008b). Furthermore, the Afghan government made
clear its desire to facilitate regional cooperation and bilateral agreements
ensuring migrant rights with those countries where the number of the Afghan
diaspora is large. However, despite these efforts, few policies have actually been
implemented since 2008 and those that have been put into practice are often
hampered by security issues and corruption throughout the country.
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D.2.9. REMITTANCES38
In addition to policy introduced to address the migration process itself,
the regulation of remittances should also be addressed here. While the process
of sending or receiving remittance transfers is not directly addressed by an
explicit remittance policy, the regulatory environment in which the remittance
market is embedded can have strong implications for remittance trends. The
constraints and opportunities faced by individual remittance service providers
generally translate into specific services features (such as fees and identification
requirements) to which potential service consumers must adhere.
In the post-Taliban era, the financial sector of Afghanistan has undergone
radical reconfiguration and reform. Most of the key pieces of legislation produced
as part of this reform package contain specific regulations and provisions that
directly affect how the remittance market functions. Two key pieces of legislation
are particularly relevant for the discussion: the 2003 Law of Da Afghanistan Bank
(DAB) and the 2004 Anti-Money Laundering and Proceeds of Crime Law.
The Law of Da Afghanistan Bank granted autonomy to DAB as the central
bank of Afghanistan and specified the many functions DAB could perform. While
this law provided a comprehensive outline of the functions and responsibilities
of DAB for the creation and maintenance of a stable financial system overall,
what is particularly important for the purpose of the current discussion is the
laws specification of the supervisory activities DAB could perform for remittance
service providers. The Law of Da Afghanistan Bank essentially provides the legal
framework for remittance service provision. Through a series of regulations, the
DAB Law specifies how remittance providers should be internally organised, the
nature of services they can offer and how their businesses will be regulated by
the central bank. Key among these regulations are those that address money
service providers (a category that includes money transfer operators such as
Western Union and MoneyGram), electronic money institutions like M-Paisa
and informal value transfer system actors (like hawala) and those that address
foreign exchange dealers (which are mostly hawaladars). These regulations
have played a pivotal role in formalizing hawala businesses that have generally
functioned outside of the scope of state regulation and monitoring. The
regulations provide explicit guidance on the requirements a business must meet
to receive a money service provider (MSP) or foreign exchange dealer license,
the reporting procedures a business must follow to retain a license and the type
of documentation a business must maintain about transactions.
Annex B contains a more detailed discussion of policies affecting the Afghan remittance market.
38
217
The 2004 Anti-Money Laundering and Proceeds of Crime Law, which was
designed to protect the financial system from potential abuse for the funding of
illegal activities, affects the regulation of remittance service providers in similar
ways.
Several aspects of these laws and regulations affect not only the types
of businesses that can enter the formal remittance market but also how the
businesses functioning as formal providers offer services. While Annex B provides
a much more thorough discussion of the specific content of the various pieces
of legislation and regulations (and their implications for the overall functionality
of the remittance market), certain specific examples should be given here to
illustrate how the regulatory environment can potentially affect the diversity of
the remittance market and the types of services remittance senders and receivers
have access to. The Anti-Money Laundering and Proceeds of Crime Law and the
regulation on money service providers details the know-your-customer (KYC)
standards that businesses must apply. Depending on the value (and frequency)
of the transfer, a business can impose more or less stringent identification
standards on customers. For high value transfers customers must provide a
government-issued national identification card to send a transfer through a
registered MSP. In a country like Afghanistan, however, where many people lack
such forms of identification, such KYC requirements could discourage individuals
who lack these forms of identification from using formal transfer channels.
D.3. INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORK

D.3.1. AFGHAN MINISTRIES
The Ministry of Refugees and Repatriation (MoRR) is the main body
responsible for returnees and internally displaced persons in Afghanistan. The
ministry is supported by a Consultative Group on Refugees and IDPs, which
includes representatives from other ministries, United Nations agencies, NGOs
and donors. The main task of the Consultative Group is to support MoRR in its
goal to reintegrate Afghan returning refugees and internally displaced persons
into society.
In August 2004, the MoRR, in partnership with the International Labour
Organization (ILO) and UNHCR, set up the Employment Service Centre to
facilitate the returnee populations search for work. The centre is linked to other
218
initiatives and potential employers. Whilst the GIRoA is taking significant steps
forward in tackling the issues faced by returnees and IDPs, its ability to do so
is seriously hampered by the fact that it is still highly dependent on foreign
aid (Poppelwell, 2007). In its National Development Strategy (2008-2013), the
GIRoA lays out an action plan including key government ministries that are to
be involved in the future management and coordination of IDPs, refugees and
returnees (see section D.1) (Islamic Republic of Afghanistan, 2008a).
Accordingly, MoRR is enhancing national partnerships with other
government entities to work more closely through NPPs already in place.
These ministries include the Afghan Ministry of Foreign Affairs, the Ministry of
Rural Rehabilitation and Development (MRRD) (mainly for water projects and
community development), the Ministry of Urban Development Affairs, the
Ministry of Labor, Social Affairs, Martyrs and Disabled (to conduct skills training
and find employment for Afghan returnees), the Ministry of Womens Affairs
(regarding gender issues) and the Ministry of Justice.
MRRD has been involved in implementing return programmes for IDPs in
the south since 2003 (Poppelwell, 2007). In April 2004, the MRRD implemented
a new programme with the major goal of promoting the return of IDPs to their
original home area and, as part of this plan, the LAS scheme was launched
(see D.2 for a fuller discussion of LAS). The government is planning to increase
the provision of social services to returnees, refugees and IDPs. Currently, the
Afghan government aims to further provide housing facilities, land plots and
infrastructure to returnees to encourage voluntary return (Islamic Republic of
Afghanistan, 2008b).
Other ministries whose responsibilities directly cover migrant and
returnee populations are the Ministry of Labor, Social Affairs, Martyrs and
Disabled (MoLSAMD), the Ministry of Foreign Affairs (MoFA) and the Ministry
of Interior (MoI).
MoLSAMD programmes, such as the National Skills Development
Programme (NSDP), have returnee populations among their target groups.
With one in five Afghans being returnees, they are inevitably integrated into
the programmes, even if this was not set as an explicit goal. In addition, specific
efforts are made to provide returnee-focused assistance, namely through a
partnership with IOM. IOM and MoLSAMD, with funding from the Government
of Japan, conducted a profiling study of returnees in the border provinces such
as Herat, Nimroz, Farah, Kunduz, Bamyan and Kabul. They subsequently targeted
2,000 recent returnees taken as a representative selection of unemployed
219
returnees above 15 years of age. The aim was to work together towards
creating sustainable livelihoods for these returnees from nighbouring countries
(Reliefweb, 2008).
MoFA is responsible for Afghanistans foreign policy as well as issuing
visas to foreign nationals travelling to Afghanistan through its consular offices
worldwide. MoI is more broadly in charge of delivering passports to Afghan
officials, processing visa renewals for foreign citizens through its passport
office and ensuring that trafficking and smuggling acts are enforced and victims
protected.
Coordination among Afghan ministries

In its National Development Strategy (2008-2013) the Government of the
Islamic Republic of Afghanistan (GIRoA) stipulates that, in order to manage and
respond to population movements, interdepartmental government involvement
is required. More dedicated policy, institutions and programme arrangements are
needed that can mobilize the necessary resources and advocate for international
support. The GIRoA claims that closer coordination between Afghan ministries,
including the Ministry of Rural Rehabilitation and Development, Ministry of
Urban Development Affairs, Ministry of Education, Culture and Science and
the Ministry of Public Health and international donors is critical to effectively
manage return migration. This also requires improved communication between
authorities at a local level and between Kabul and key provinces where return
migration is prevalent. Furthermore, government ministries and programmes
are asked to establish more systematic linkages between returnee destinations
and resource allocation decisions (Islamic Republic of Afghanistan, 2008a).
In order to ensure the coordination and progress of the ANDS, the
Afghanistan Joint Coordination and Monitoring Board (JCMB) was established.
Its main purpose is to monitor the progress and attainment of benchmarks
contained within the Afghan Compact39 and to solve problems when obstacles
are encountered. The JCMB is co-chaired by the Afghan Minister of Finance and
the Special Representative of the Secretary General of the United Nations for
Afghanistan. Members include Afghan government, international community
and regional representatives. It meets at least three times a year and publishes
its progress and findings in an annual report. Overall, the JCMB is the cornerstone
and chief coordination mechanism between the international community and
the government (Kabul Process, 2012).
The Afghanistan Compact (AC) sets out detailed outcomes, benchmarks and timelines for delivery,
consistent with the high level goals set by the ANDS. The AC was approved at the London Conference in
January 2006 and endorsed by the United Nations Security Council (Norwegian Embassy, 2013).
39
220
In relation to migration issues, MoRR has been mandated as the

coordinating ministry responsible for coordinating policy, mainstreaming
migration and overseeing policy developments relating to migration, as opposed
to other technical and sector-specific ministries. The lifespan of MoRR is
supposed to be temporary, to be disbanded with the resolution of the refugee
issue. However, given the current context and developments in Afghanistan
and the region, MoRR remains a key ministry requiring additional resources to
be able to further achieve its coordinating mandate. It is currently still a work
in progress, having suffered from a lack of capacity (both human, technical
and financial) and leadership that has hindered its ability to establish itself as
a coordinating body on migration issues. Efforts are being made to address
this situation and to attribute a stronger role to MoRR within inter-ministerial
meetings and structures.
MoRR chairs the Inter-Ministerial Coordination Committee (IMCC). The
legal framework of the IMCC are the Presidential Decree 297 on Dignified
Return of Refugees and Presidential Decree 104 on Land Allocation Schemes.
Its goals are to meet two overall strategic objectives that were derived from the
Afghanistan National Development Strategy (ANDS) Sector Strategy that have
been stated as follows:
1. Enhanced policy development though greater Inter-Ministerial
mechanisms and exchanges.
2. Transition from dependence on purely refugee and humanitarian
frameworks and arrangements for managing population movements to
more diversified policies and support.
IMCC is comprised of 14 members - including its chair MoRR - and their
roles and responsibilities are well defined in its ToR which is already circulated to
stakeholders. The list of IMCC members is:


Ministry of Rural Rehabilitation and Development (MRRD)
Ministry of Education (MoE)
Ministry of Urban Development (MoUD)
Ministry of Public Health (MoPH)
Ministry of Labour, Social Affairs, Martyrs and Disabled (MoSLAMD)
Ministry of Agriculture (MAIL)
Ministry of Interior (MoI)
National Security Council (NSC)
Ministry of Finance (MoF)
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Ministry of Economy (MoEc)

Ministry of Womens Affairs (MoWA)
Afghanistan National Disaster Management Authority (ANDMA)
Afghanistan Independent Human Rights Commission (AIHRC)
D.3.2. MAIN INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS INVOLVED

IN MIGRATION MANAGEMENT
International Organization for Migration
IOM, with its over 20 year presence in Afghanistan and its nine regional
offices, manages 25 projects in the following programmatic areas: Emergency
and Post-Crisis Migration Management, Regulating Migration and Movement,
Migration and Development and Migration Policy and Research. IOM implements
several programmes targeting return and reintegration; namely the Assisted
Voluntary Return and Reintegration (AVRR) Programme, the Return of Qualified
Afghans (RQA) Programme and Cross-Border Return and Reintegration (CBRR)
Programme. Each of these programmes targets a different category of returnees:
failed asylum-seekers, migrants wanting to return, highly skilled and qualified
Afghans for short-term missions for capacity-building and technical support.
Overall, IOM targets returnees, natural disaster-induced IDPs and vulnerable
Afghans through their work.
IOM also supports Afghan government institutions that are involved in
migration management issues. One of its important tasks is to advocate for
understanding of the Afghan migration context. While often viewed through
a refugee-lens, IOM seeks to highlight that the Afghan context increasingly
involves mixed and circular migration, as opposed to refugee migration. It is
also in charge of ensuring protection and advocacy for natural disaster-induced
displacement, with UNHCR integrating conflict-induced displacement within its
mandate in Afghanistan.
In addition, the organization provides emergency relief to vulnerable
displaced families, facilitates long-term return and reintegration to and within
Afghanistan and stabilizes migrant communities for sustainable development
in the context of extended mass population displacement. IOM works in
close cooperation with the GIRoA, the Afghan National Disaster Management
Authority (ANDMA), the Ministry of Refugees and Repatriation (MoRR), The
Ministry of Labor, Social Affairs, Martyrs and Disabled (MoLSAMD), the Ministry
222
of Interior (MoI), the Ministry of Public Health (MoPH), the Ministry of Education
(MoE), the Ministry of Rural Rehabilitation and Development (MRRD) and the
many others that are involved in the implementation of the ANDS (IOM, 2013a).
United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees

Since the mid-1990s, UNHCR has been the main international organization
involved in the management and coordination of Afghan refugees. The groups
of concern to UNHCR in Afghanistan include asylum-seekers, refugees, returning
refugees and internally displaced persons (IDPs). UNHCR provides protection and
supports policies and mechanisms that promote the sustainable reintegration
of returning refugees. It also responds to the immediate humanitarian needs
of IDPs and, where possible, pursues durable solutions for them. The main
responsibilities of UNHCR include: ensuring the voluntary, safe and dignified
return of Afghans from abroad, advocating for the reintegration of Afghan
returnees and working with the government and other stakeholders to gather
information and build policy on internally displaced persons (IDPs), with a focus
on of conflict-induced displacement in the country. Operationally, UNHCR assists
returnees and IDPs with cash grants, shelter, non-food items and livelihood
interventions. Moreover, the organization devotes resources to field monitoring,
evaluation, analysis of the durability of return, refugee and migratory movements
and related protection and human rights issues. UNHCR operates through
national and local implementing partners for increased access on the ground in
a context of shrinking humanitarian space (UNHCR, 2013a).
At a governmental level, UNHCR is working with the Ministry of Refugees
and Repatriation (MoRR) in the drafting of strategic approaches and legislation to
address the needs of returned refugees and IDPs. Pending the establishment of
government procedures, UNHCR conducts direct refugee status determination
(RSD) and pursues durable solutions for those found to be in need of international
protection. UNHCR provides legal information and advice to people of concern
in Afghanistan and provides material assistance to vulnerable individuals and
households, targeting specifically persons with specific needs.
In 2012, UNHCR started working on two projects alongside the GIRoA: the
Solutions Strategy for Afghan Refugees and the National IDP Policy. UNHCR also
works closely together with other international organizations such as ILO, the
World Bank, IOM, United Nations organizations (such as UNAMA, UNDP, WHO
and UNICEF), NGOs such as the Norwegian Refugee Council (NRC) and other
international and national organizations (UNHCR, 2013a).
223
United Nations Development Programme

UNDP offers short-term volunteer consultancies through the United
Nations Volunteer (UNV) and Transfer of Knowledge Through Expatriate Nationals
(TOKTEN) programmes. UNDP has also promoted the temporary return of
diaspora members worldwide since 1987 as a means of improving government
services and building capacity in developing states. TOKTEN programmes have
operated in over 30 countries, including Afghanistan. Evidence from case studies
suggests that TOKTEN volunteers may attract less resentment than long-term
returnees, because their return is temporary, their compensation is modest and
they are not directly competing for permanent positions (OECD, 2010).
In 2012, UNDP reiterated its willingness to target the returnee community
specifically. It has entered into a new collaboration with MoRR, UNHCR, and
some other key line ministries such as MRRD, to develop a Voluntary Return
and Repatriation Programme and to feed efforts and resources into the
Solutions Strategy aimed at targeting the return and reintegration of Afghan
refugees. This marks a renewed involvement by UNDP on refugee issues and a
renewed cooperation between UNHCR and UNDP to address both humanitarian
and development needs of returned refugees and IDPs.
D.3.3. THE ROLE OF NON-GOVERNMENTAL ORGANIZATIONS

IN AFGHANISTAN
Since the beginning of the 1980s, NGOs have played an active role in
Afghanistan. They have primarily served as providers of humanitarian assistance
and as the implementers of small-scale rehabilitation and development projects.
Whilst the majority of NGOs originate from Afghanistan, the largest programmes
are implemented by international or multinational NGOs (Poppelwell, 2007). In
2004, the GIRoA ratified a new NGO Law. The new law placed NGOs within a
clear legal framework and marked a significant step forward in enhancing the
legitimacy and operating environment for NGOs in the country (United States
Institute of Peace, 2007). According to the Council on Foundations (2013) there
are approximately 2,150 NGOs in Afghanistan. It should be noted that only 9
per cent of donor funds flowing into Afghanistan have gone toward rebuilding
the NGO community. Despite this, the support that local NGOs provide to the
Afghan community and their contribution to the reconstruction process of the
country is urgently needed. With increased capacity, NGOs can provide a crucial
partner to build local capacity and deliver services, particularly in areas that are
inaccessible to international organizations. Moreover, providing assistance and
224
support to domestic NGOs and other organizations is crucial for creating a free
and stable country (United States Institute of Peace, 2007).
The NGO community is composed of international NGOs working on
returnee issues, including large, well-resourced NGOs such as the Norwegian
Refugee Council (NRC), the Danish Refugee Council (DRC) and NGOs with proven
regional experience such as the German NGO Help in the Western region. They
are funded directly by international donors and United Nations agencies and are
often fulfilling the roles both of implementation and operational partners. They
are therefore seen to be credible as field and policy actors.
In terms of performance, many Afghan NGOs in Afghanistan are not
able to boost development. This is particularly the case in Afghans rural areas,
where capacity is low and projects often have to be delayed. While there are
about a dozen large Afghan NGOs that have developed significant capacity over
time, most are in need of technical assistance, resources and support networks.
Besides the lack of resources, NGOs in Afghanistan suffer from a substantial lack
of legitimacy. This, however, is not surprising given how NGOs have operated in
the past. The new law and increased public education campaigns have helped to
rebuild the image of NGOs in past years. Still, much work remains to be done in
terms of transparency.
The deteriorating security situation in Afghanistan represents another
constraint to the sustained success of NGOs and other state institutions. Security
conditions are not only threatening the opportunities for international NGOs to
assist in developing Afghan civil society, but are also hampering the ability of local
NGOs to increase their own capacity and legitimacy. In past years the number of
attacks on NGO staff has dramatically increased. Moreover, attacks are no longer
contained to the Southern and Eastern regions, but are now occurring also in
the north and other parts of the country (United States Institute of Peace, 2007).
Non-governmental organizations coordination bodies

The main NGO coordination bodies in Afghanistan include the Afghan NGOs
Coordination Bureau (ANCB), the Agency Coordination Body for Afghan Relief
(ACBAR), the Islamic Coordination Council (ICC) and the South West Afghanistan
and Baluchistan Association for Coordination (SWABAC) (Chr. Michelsen Institute,
2006). All NGOs must register with the Ministry of Economy (MoEc), which lists
on its webpage all international NGOs and provides information about NGOs
that have been dissolved (Afghan Ministry of Economy, 2012).
225
Although ACBAR is today located in Afghanistan, the organization was

originally established in Pakistan in 1988. This is because international donors
and aid agencies were overwhelmed with the high number of refugees in
the country at that time and thus demanded a coordinated approach to the
situation. Today, ACBAR represents a communication platform for NGOs, United
Nations donors and Afghan government institutions to enable sharing of best
practice information, exchanging knowledge and discussing the efficient and
effective use of donor funds for Afghan citizens (ACBAR, 2013). Three years after
ACBAR was founded, the Afghan NGO Coordination Bureau was established
in Afghanistan. It also coordinates the activities of its members including
government representatives, United Nations agencies and other international
organizations. The ANCB aims to enhance the capacity of its members (over 200
in the education, health, agriculture and human rights sectors) by organising
workshops and seminars and by widening its network to reach other organizations
(ANCB, 2012).
Many other coordination agencies and groups exist, however, rather than
migration management they tend to focus on issues such as justice (for example
the Transitional Justice Coordination Group Afghanistan) or they provide
frameworks in which individuals, donor agencies or governments can exchange
information and share their expertise (such as the Afghan Youth Coordination
Agency AYCA).
D.3.4. THE ROLE OF CIVIL SOCIETY IN AFGHANISTAN

Besides NGOs, many other forms of organizations and community
structures exist in Afghanistan. These include religious networks, voluntary
associations, interest groups and typical Afghan community structures referred
to as shuras or jigas. These Civil Society Groups (CSOs) have become increasingly
important in the reconstruction process of Afghanistan and in many cases
serve (namely international conferences) as a balance to military and political
organizations (Chr. Michelsen Institute, 2006).
Between 2004 and 2006, the Foundation of Culture and Civil Society
(FCCS) collected data in the 34 provinces of Afghanistan to analyse and define
civil society in the country. During the study, over 1,119 CSOs were recorded
in 33 provinces of Afghanistan (excluding Kabul province). Of these, 717 were
registered with at least one registration authority and 402 were not registered.
The data indicate that there was a high level of local initiative, particularly in the
cultural education sector. A total of 567 CSOs were identified in the province of
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Kabul. Most CSOs in Kabul were registered with the Ministry of Rural Rehabilitation
and Development. The main focus of CSOs was to provide the services that were
not provided by the Afghan government, thereby playing a crucial role in the
reconstruction process of the country. While some CSOs offered activities only in
one area, most CSOs were engaged in several activities such as cultural or social
activities, capacity-building, service delivery, information or advice provision
and advocacy or representation (FCCS, 2007).
Since 2001, Afghanistan has witnessed an explosion of Civil Society
Organizations, many of them being created solely for the implementation of
one project. As a consequence, many CSOs disappeared as fast as they were
established. The study by FCCS also found that Civil Society Organizations that
were not in contact with international donors had very low budget levels. Despite
this, the lack of funding did not necessarily lead to low levels of performance.
The most effective organizations developed coping strategies to implement
their activities with very low budgets. The high pressure and requirements of
international donors for grant distribution, however, have become problematic
for those Civil Society Organizations that have limited capacity and efficiency. As
a result, very few CSOs get the opportunity to work with international donors,
increasing the risk of a monopoly held by a small number of organizations. The
research revealed that there was a very low distribution level of international
funds to local Civil Society Organizations which has implications for the future
sustainability of humanitarian projects (FCCS, 2007).
D.4. INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION

INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCES ON AFGHANISTAN
Afghanistan as a country and its development in terms of politics, economy
and security have been the topic of many discussions among representatives
from countries worldwide. Several global and regional conferences have been
held for discussion on Afghanistan since 2001, two of which took place in Kabul
(2010) and Tokyo (2012).
Kabul International Conference on Afghanistan (2010)

In July 2010, the Government of the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan
presented its National Development Strategy Prioritization and Implementation
227
Plan at the Kabul International Conference. The aim of the conference was
to encourage neighbouring states and other stakeholders to seek a more
coordinated and united approach to regional cooperation on important themes
including counter-narcotics, refugees and IDPs as well as economic cooperation.
In essence, the new plan of prioritized national programmes confirmed the
governments commitment to work towards the full implementation of the 7th
Pillar of the ANDS. More specifically, the GIRoA assured enhanced capacitybuilding of relevant Afghan ministries in order to better manage repatriation
and reintegration issues. Additionally, the government committed to improve
job opportunities for Afghan returnees and, moreover, provide for basic needs
(namely land, water, electricity, shelter, health-care and general education) of
IDPs and refugees. A commitment to facilitate tripartite arrangements (regarding
integration of Afghan refugees) with neighbouring countries was also made.
Moreover, the GIRoA acknowledged the importance of economic cooperation
and therefore continued to facilitate dialogues on labour migration between
countries in the region (especially Gulf Cooperation Council countries) to better
regulate labour flows and to increase receptiveness to Afghan labourers (Kabul
International Conference on Afghanistan, 2010).
Tokyo International Conference on Afghanistan (2012)

The Tokyo Conference was the continuation of the Bonn Conference
(2011), which highlighted the commitment of the international community
to Afghanistan. It was held on 8 July 2012 and representatives from over 55
countries and 25 international and other organizations were present. The
main objective of the conference was to discuss, decide on and support the
economic cooperation of the international community for the reconstruction
and development of Afghanistan in the Transformation Decade (2015-2024) and
its long-term economic growth and fiscal self-reliance. The GIRoA made requests
for pledges for the implementation of the National Priority Programmes (NPPs)
to potential donors (Tokyo International Conference on Afghanistan, 2012).
By focusing development efforts on NPPs, the Tokyo Conference promoted
an Afghan-led process and links into the sustainable development process
during the Transformation Decade. The key to the partnership between the
Afghan government and the international community in the economic growth
and development of Afghanistan is the principle of mutual accountability in
achieving jointly decided goals (Tokyo International Conference on Afghanistan,
2012).
228
The sustainable return and reintegration of Afghan refugees and internally

displaced persons was also discussed as being essential to security and stability
of the country. The international community expressed their commitment to
the furthering of development and reintegration potential in Afghanistan to
support the return of refugees from neighboring countries. The GIRoA and the
international community discussed the situation in Afghanistans neighbouring
countries, in particular Pakistan and the Islamic Republic of Iran, in terms of
providing temporary refuge to millions of Afghans. There is mutual committment
to continue working towards their voluntary, safe and orderly return (Tokyo
International Conference on Afghanistan, 2012).
RETURN AND REINTEGRATION

It is both timely and relevant in the light of the 2014 transition, to
assess the outcomes of the international cooperation and programmes on
return, as outlined previously. At a time of decreasing funds, limited access
for humanitarian and development actors, and strained relationships between
foreign and national governments, all stakeholders implicated in broader return
migration governance issues are forced to review and re-think their strategies,
aiming for more cost-effective and efficient programmes.
The following excerpt from the OECDs report is enlightening as it holds
significant implications for future migration governance and return migration
initiatives:
Data from the Afghan diaspora indicates that many diaspora members are prepared
to return to Afghanistan for short periods, but informal discussions with Afghan
acquaintances - both those who had government positions in Afghanistan and
those outside the country - indicate that there is a great deal of frustration about
the slow pace of change in Afghanistan, and even more, about the precarious
security situation. Dissatisfaction was generally the result of insecurity and work:
insecurity was a major concern for all of the respondents; the slow pace of work,
antiquated processes, and inability to foster changes in the working environment
were the causes of dissatisfaction for three of our respondents. Two other factors job prospects and womens roles - also contributed to dissatisfaction (OECD, 2010:
29).
These elements are indicators that return will decrease in the months
and years ahead. This is further supported by the World Banks predictions of
the economic consequences of transition. In its preliminary presentations, the
World Bank highlighted implications of the transition and troop withdrawals for
economic growth, fiscal sustainability and service delivery (World Bank, 2011b) .
229
Looking ahead, donors and stakeholders will need to focus on the most
sustainable policy options with regards to return and reintegration. Whether
it be for refugees, IDPs, migrants or failed asylum-seekers, the most practical,
pragmatic and proven option is to build efforts through existing national
programmes. Actors working in the area of return migration should understand
that return and reintegration are, first and foremost, a national responsibility.
Hence, it is the responsibility and mandate of the Government of the Islamic
Republic of Afghanistan, and of its Ministries, to address the issues arising from
migrant return and promote reintegration (Majidi, 2011a). Efforts are currently
under way on several fronts, including a proposal to develop a National Return
and Reintegration Strategy and a separate process seeks to develop a roadmap
for the implementation of the National IDP Policy.
230
PART E: KEY FINDINGS,

POLICY IMPLICATIONS AND
RECOMMENDATIONS
E.1. MIGRATION TRENDS
Migration in Afghanistan is characterized mostly by international
emigration of Afghans and internal migration; immigration of persons from
abroad is observed to a much lesser extent. Mobility has been an essential
aspect of Afghan history, including migration for both seasonal and permanent
employment and, at times, to seek refuge. Records show that Afghans have for
centuries been migrating primarily to the neighbouring countries, the Islamic
Republic of Iran and Pakistan, though more recently have also been travelling
further afield, including to North America, European countries and Australia.
The net migration rate of Afghanistan has fluctuated significantly in recent
decades and largely followed political events in the country. During the Soviet
occupation from 1979 until 1989, a large number of Afghans left the country,
with a negative net migration rate of -56.7/1000 persons between 1980 and
1985. Between 1990 and 1995 this reversed to a positive net migration rate of
44.4/1000 persons as many people returned. As the strength of Taliban rule
grew, during 1995 and 2000, this rate again sank below parity to -6.5/1000
persons. The fall of the Taliban at the end of 2001 and the implementation of
UNHCRs voluntary repatriation scheme in 2002 led to high numbers of Afghan
refugees returning to their home country. Between 2002 and 2013, more than 6
million Afghans returned home.
Immigration to Afghanistan of third country nationals without Afghan
heritage is limited. In 1990, the total stock of immigrants living in Afghanistan was
57,686 people. The number rose to 75,917 in 2000 and 90,883 in 2010. Efforts to
rebuild the Afghan economy with a limited pool of domestic skilled labour have
led to the active recruitment of foreign migrant workers. Data from the Afghan
Ministry of Foreign Affairs show that 17,833 work permits were issued to foreign
nationals in 2011. Approximately 100,000 foreigners employed in Afghanistan
are estimated to have an irregular status. In addition, immigration to Afghanistan
for employment purposes includes foreign military and development staff.
231
There are significantly large Afghan populations in the neighbouring Islamic

Republic of Iran and Pakistan, but also in countries further afield. Particularly the
United States, Canada, Germany, the Netherlands and the United Kingdom host
large Afghan communities. Emgration to these countries is often permanent and
citizenship is obtained in many cases when the required period of time has been
spent in the country.
The labour market situation of Afghanistan is a large driver of migration
as many face a lack of employment opportunities and therefore seek them
elsewhere. Wages are significantly higher in neighbouring countries and
countries further afield like the United States, Canada and the Netherlands.
The Islamic Republic of Iran and Pakistan share a long history with
Afghanistan and have been hosting large numbers of Afghan refugee flows
since the early 1980s. Whereas both countries welcomed Afghan refugees in
the beginning, today Afghan refugees are seen as a burden to their economy
and a threat to internal security in these countries. Depending on the place of
residence and community within these two countries, Afghans have integrated
in the host country and often identify themselves as Pakistani or Iranian. Afghans
are a competitive labour force, because they are willing to work for lower wages
and do jobs the natives are not willing to do. On the other hand, studies have
also shown that many Afghan refugees face harassment and exploitation in the
Islamic Republic of Iran and Pakistan. In order to better integrate Afghans in
these countries, government and public perception and attitude about Afghan
refugees needs to change. This would include, among other things, a change
of policies such as easier access to work permits for Afghan migrant workers
and the right to citizenship, especially for those Afghans who have been residing
in neighbouring countries for several decades. In addition, the objectives
mentioned under the ANDS 7th Pillar, regarding IDPs, refugees and returnees
have to be put in place to better manage and safeguard the right of Afghan IDPs,
migrant workers, returnees and refugees abroad.
In Western countries Afghans often face un- or underemployment. One
major obstacle in accessing the labour market is a lack of language skills of the
host country. Often Afghans also have problems finding employment at their
proper skill levels due to limited recognition of foreign educational qualifications.
Many Afghans reported being engaged in low-paid employment that often
involved long working hours and shift work. Consequently many of them face
a loss of social, economic and professional status in the host country.Amongst
United Kingdom-born Afghans, there is a greater level of adaption to mainstream
culture and changing views about the issues such as the role of women in society
232
than is the case for first-generation Afghans. This creates tensions between
family members, with older people fearing the loss of their Afghan identity,
and younger people looking to their parents to behave in a more westernised
manner. Although this issue has not explicitly been researched among Afghan
communities in other countries, it is likely that this phenomenon is widespread.
In the United Kingdom and the US, Afghan community organizations are rather
weak in terms of political representation (seen to a larger extent in the United
Kingdom). This is mainly due to the ethnic, language and political differences
among the Afghan population, which make it difficult to identify key leaders
that are widely accepted across the community. As a consequence, there is a
lack of representative community forums that could advocate on behalf of the
community to central government and local public bodies. A direct recognition
and representation of Afghans in local consultations and decision-making
forums is needed to improve the current situation. Furthermore, identifying and
working with organizations that could bridge the gap between local authorities
and Afghan communities could also improve the situation (Change Institute,
2009). Overall, more research on the socioeconomic situation of the Afghan
diaspora in countries that host the largest Afghan communities (including EU
countries, the Russian Federation, India) is needed (the Netherlands has taken
strides in this direction with the IS Academy on Migration and Development
research on Afghans in the Netherlands as well as other new data collection on
Afghans in the Netherlands).
As addressed at the International Conference on Afghanistan in London
in 2010, many issues concerning labour migration could be solved through
regional cooperation. In the past, labour migration between Afghanistan and
its neighbours remained unregulated. Although the GIRoA has recognised the
importance of its migrant labour force and made attempts to regulate the flow
of Afghan labour migration, more work needs to be done. Bilateral agreements
with important destination countries such as the Islamic Republic of Iran and
Pakistan should be established to legitimise migrant workers and their right to
search for work abroad and make sure they are not exploited due to the absence
of documentation. The establishment of organizations that guarantee and control
the rights of migrant workers abroad is essential (Islamic Republic of Afghanistan,
2010a). Overall, it is crucial that labour migration is properly managed and takes
place through safe and legal channels. Therefore, establishing secure and fair
recruitment processes and bilateral cooperation will help to protect the rights
of migrants and help tackle exploitation and human trafficking. Furthermore,
providing knowledge about the migration process and possible obstacles in the
destination country will also enhance integration and speed up the adjustment
of migrants to the labour market in the host country (Ratha et al., 2011).
233
Education is another factor leading to emigration of particularly young

Afghans. With a growing demand for highly educated and technically competent
young people who can contribute to the countrys reconstruction, opportunities
for education abroad have increased. The GIRoA has strongly supported
exchange programmes with universities abroad and promotes collaborative
partnerships between secondary schools. In addition to exchange programmes,
many countries provide scholarships for Afghan students who want to pursue
higher education outside their home country. It is difficult to estimate the total
number of Afghan students enrolled in tertiary education abroad. The UNESCO
World Education Digest of 2011 reports a number of 3,810 Afghans that were
studying abroad in 2009. The main destination countries include the Islamic
Republic of Iran, Turkey, the United States of America, Germany and the Russian
Federation.
Afghanistan remain one of the main source countries of asylum-seekers
worldwide. In 2011 alone, over 39,000 Afghans sought asylum worldwide. Most
of these applications were filed in industrialized OECD countries (mainly European
countries, the United States of America, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, Japan
and the Republic of Korea). In relative terms, Indonesia experienced a high
increase in asylum applications from Afghanistan in 2009: some 80 per cent of
asylum applicants in Indonesia originated from Afghanistan then. The global
total recognition rate of Afghan asylum applications in 2011 was 53 per cent.
The issue of human trafficking is complex in the context of Afghanistan
and data on its scope are not available. The majority of victims of trafficking,
mostly children, are trafficked within Afghanistans borders. Transnational
trafficking also occurs, however, and the Islamic Republic of Iran and Pakistan
are the primary countries of destination. The main purposes for which Afghan
children are trafficked are prostitution and forced labour in factories, brick kilns
and domestic service. Females are mainly trafficked to neighbouring countries
and, to a lesser extent, India, for the purposes of forced marriages, prostitution
or domestic service. Afghan men are trafficked to the Islamic Republic of Iran,
Pakistan, the Gulf States, Greece and Turkey for forced labour and debt bondage
in agriculture and construction. Many foreign women are also trafficked into
Afghanistan for the same purposes; such trafficking victims mainly come from
the Philippines, Pakistan, the Islamic Republic of Iran, Tajikistan and China.
The population in Afghanistan is widely aware of the problem of trafficking in
persons, but concepts like trafficking, smuggling and kidnapping are often mixed
up.
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In order to prevent human trafficking, law and regulations against

trafficking must be enforced. One of the most important steps is that the GIRoA
has to ensure that victims of trafficking are not punished for unlawful acts
committed as a direct result of being trafficked. Furthermore, the definition
of human trafficking must be clearly communicated to government officials to
avoid confusion between kidnapping, human trafficking and human smuggling
(US Department of State, 2013b).
A further problem in terms of human trafficking is the low number
of organizations that work on trafficking issues in Afghanistan. The Afghan
government should stipulate that more organizations get involved in its national
counter-trafficking initiative and motivate the donor community to provide
more resources to support such initiatives. In order to better understand the
phenomenon of human trafficking, regular field research should be conducted
with a particular focus on gender-based violence and criminal networks
involving illicit activities such as human trafficking and smuggling. In addition,
more attention should be paid to the psychological impact of trafficking on
victims. The IOM provides clear recommendations for Afghan ministries to raise
awareness among the Afghan population of human trafficking issues and how
to prevent future instances of trafficking (IOM, 2008d). The recommendations
are summarized and outlined in the following table (Table 94). Since 2003, IOM
Afghanistan has implemented a variety of projects aimed at increasing public
awareness of trafficking, protecting the victims and building the capacity of law
enforcement agencies in investigating and prosecuting crimes.
Table 94: Human Trafficking - Action Plan Matrix
Aim
Task
Increase
prevention
Responsible
Ministries
Conduct information campaigns on the risks of

migration/trafficking to educate potential victims
of trafficking.
Include all social groups in rural and urban areas.
Increase capacities of journalists and train local
media personnel to ensure that reports on human
trafficking are covered and communicated to the
public correctly.
Strengthen the education system and decrease
drop-out rates of students (this is as less educated
individuals are more prone to fall victims of
trafficking).
Ministry
of
Woman Affairs
(MoWA)
MoLSAMD
MoE
235
Enhance
prosecution
Increase
protection
Strengthen legislation of anti-trafficking law.

Develop a law enforcement database for effective
investigation and prosecution.
Information of cases of human trafficking must be
recorded, analysed and shared in a timely manner
through a common database among relevant
agencies.
Information sharing mechanisms between different
units of the Criminal Investigation Department
(CID) must be streamlined.
Train border police to better identify VoT.
An increase in border patrols in needed since most
VoT are trafficked through unofficial border points.
Increase awareness rising campaigns specifically
targeting women, to inform victims of trafficking
that they are entitled to seek assistance.
Create an environment where victims and
families can report cases and cooperate with law
enforcement bodies to facilitate and investigate
prosecution of trafficking cases.
MoWA
MoI
Ministry
of
Justice (MoJ)
Increase the number of shelters designed for victims MoWA

of trafficking and train shelter staff to address the MoLSAMD
specific psychological and medical needs of VoT.
MoFA
Increase the capacity of community leaders in
detecting trafficking cases.
Educate communities to eliminate discrimination
towards trafficked victims (particularly women) and
ensure sustainable integration.
In terms of transnational trafficking, promote
regional cooperation with neighbouring countries
on issues such as border management, repatriation
of victims, information sharing and extradition of
perpetrators.
Source: IOM, 2008d.
Between 2008 and 2012, 2,300 Afghan nationals were refused entry to
the European Union along the borders. The majority was rejected along Italys
border. The main migrant routes from Afghanistan to Europe go through Turkey
or the Russian Federation. In 2011, 45,480 illegal Afghans were counted in
different European countries. This number decreased to 33,805 in 2012. The
main destination countries of irregular Afghan immigrants in Europe now include
Greece, Germany, Austria, France and Sweden.
Unaccompanied minors are one of the most vulnerable groups among
all refugees and asylum-seekers. Families pay up to USD 20,000 to have their
children smuggled into Europe. When they leave Afghanistan, many children
do not know their country of destination and the destination often changes
236
during the migration process due to additional information about a potential

destination or due to a smugglers decision to move a child to another location.
In 2012, there were 5,475 registered Afghan UAMs in the EU-27, Norway and
Switzerland. Sweden, the United Kingdom, Norway, Germany and Austria are
the main destination countries for this group.
Over the past 10 years at least 6 million people have returned to
Afghanistan. These numbers largely consist of repatriated refugees. Since 2005,
however, the number of registered refugees returning through the UNHCRs
voluntary repatriation programme has significantly decreased and other forms
of return migration have increased. Presently the primary return flows to
Afghanistan are returning migrants that have crossed the border temporarily to
gain employment. The needs of these groups are vastly different, as returning
temporary migrants primarily return on their own and can re-join their families
in Afghanistan.
Despite the successful return of many migrants, many challenges remain.
Since the mid 2000s, the number of returnees has decreased significantly. This
is, in part, due to factors such as poverty, terrorism and a difficult humanitarian
situation in the country. The Government of the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan
(GIRoA) is fully committed to implementing the 7th Pillar of its national
development strategy (ANDS), concerning refugees, returnees and internally
displaced persons. Under the ANDS the GIRoA aims to increase its absorption
capacity to better plan and manage sustainable reintegration of return migrants.
Furthermore, strengthening capacity in relevant Afghan ministries dealing with
repatriation, enhancing inter-ministerial coordination and mobilizing additional
resources are also key foci under the ANDS (Islamic Republic of Afghanistan,
2008b).
Not all Afghans returning to Afghanistan do so voluntarily. Forced returns
or deportations from neighbouring counties, Europe and Australia occur on an
ongoing basis. The largest numbers of forced returns are recorded from the
Islamic Republic of Iran to Afghanistan. In total in 2012, 258,146 deportations
were recorded from the neighbouring country, which averages at 705
deportations per day.
In terms of reintegration, it can be said that return migrant households are
not necessarily in a worse position than other households as there is a potential
selection effect of those with more resources and connections returning to
Afghanistan. However, many of the issues confronting returnee households are
237
the same that confront non-returnee and non-migrant households; these are
the structural issues of a country where development has not reached the mass
of urban and rural poor.
The International Crisis Group (ICG) has laid out recommendations to the
Government of the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan to better manage and protect
return migrants and those who still remain in neighbouring countries. According
to the ICG, the GIRoA should, among other things, strengthen municipalities
capacity to respond to population influxes through enhanced urban planning
and infrastructural development. In addition, existing land allocation schemes
and land dispute resolution initiatives should be made more transparent,
thereby ensuring the neutrality of the judiciary and clarifying property rights
and documentation. As the GIRoA already laid out in the ANDS, the capacity
of the Ministry of Refugees and Repatriation (MoRR) is limited and will need
upgrading to help with long-term resettlement. To improve efficiency, a branch
specifically addressing returnees, refugees and IDPs should be established in
each appropriate ministry that then work together. Moreover, the ICG suggests
that the MoRR should turn into an inter-ministerial consultative and coordinating
body. With respect to refugees still residing in the Islamic Republic of Iran
and Pakistan, the GIRoA should improve regional cooperation and enhance
the protection of Afghans living in these countries by addressing the issue of
unmanaged cross-border movements (International Crisis Group, 2009).
Another form of return is temporary return of highly skilled nationals (also
termed reverse circular migration and brain gain). In Afghanistan highly skilled
return programmes have been initiated since 2002 to contribute to building skills
and capacity as the country rebuilt after the wars. Although evidence is limited,
there are studies that indicate that temporary returnees were successful in being
able to transfer knowledge and develop capacity in Afghanistan if programmes
are implemented appropriately. This is not to say that all temporary return
programmes are successful, however, further research is required to understand
the effects of temporary return on development in Afghanistan. Consequently,
such successful programmes should be continued to increase the transfer of
skills and innovations in relevant sectors.
Internal migration of voluntary nature in Afghanistan is caused mainly by
economic factors. People move to the urban centres to look for a job, because
of a lack of employment in rural areas and perceived better employment
opportunities in the cities. This has led to a stable urbanization trend. While in
2010 about 23 per cent of the population were living in urban areas, this will
increase to 43 per cent in 2050. There is evidence that return migration to urban
areas is a common occurrence further strengthening this urbanization trend.
238
Internal displacement in Afghanistan is on the rise, in particular due to

increasing numbers of conflict-induced displacement. Currently there are more
than 480,000 people internally displaced - the majority due to conflict (400,000)
and the rest due to natural disasters. Internally displaced persons (IDPs) migrate
to safer living conditions, whether in terms of physical or human security,
and often find themselves included in mixed migration flows with rural-urban
migrants, other displaced populations and return migrants. One of the durable
solutions to internal displacement is return to the area of origin; however, many
studies in Afghanistan have shown the often permanent nature of displacement
and the multiplicity of displacement patterns, with secondary and tertiary
displacement also on the rise.
Armed conflict is one of the main causes for internal displacement. As a
consequence, to avoid an increase in IDPs, the Brookings Institution (BI) and The
Liaison Office (TLO) suggested that military planners should integrate the issue
of displacement into their counterinsurgency strategies, guidelines and standard
operating procedures (Rothing, 2011).
Ultimate responsibility with regard to IDPs lies with the Afghan Ministry
of Refugees and Repatriation (MoRR). With support from the international
community, MoRR has formulated many policies and implemented programmes
to address protracted displacement and reintegration of IDPs. Since 2012, MoRR
has been tasked to establish a National IDP Policy. However, despite these efforts,
legal instruments are required to prevent and respond to internal displacement
and ensure that the human rights of IDPs are fully respected. Although this issue
has been addressed in the Afghan National Development Strategy, the strategy
does not provide a definition for an IDP in Afghanistan, nor does it prohibit
discrimination against them.
Only USD 3 million were allocated to assistance to refugees and IDPs in
2009/10, but in order to meet the needs of IDPs and provide basic services such
as food, water and shelter, more financial resources are needed. Additionally,
in order for (international) NGOs and other humanitarian organizations to
effectively work in the field, the security situation in the country has to improve.
Especially in the past years, humanitarian staff has been increasingly targeted
by insurgent groups making the provision of direct assistance very difficult if not
impossible (Rothing, 2011).
It should be noted that many Afghans are also displaced due to natural
disasters such as earthquakes, flooding, drought, landslides and avalanches.
Though it is not possible to completely avoid natural disasters, suffering can
239
be minimized by raising awareness among the population and by developing

suitable warning systems. Natural disasters cut across many boundaries, including
organizational, political, geographical, professional, topical and sociological. This
means that disaster information needs to be disseminated to all stakeholders
at Shura, District, Provincial and National levels, both public and private. The
International Organization for Migration is currently working on this with other
partners.
Many parts of Afghanistans border are characterised by weak control.
Drug trafficking and other illicit cross-border activities are common in these areas
(UNDOC, 2011). The border between Afghanistan and Pakistan is particularly
marked by incidents of violence (Bajoria, 2009). The main responsibility in terms
of control and management lies with the Afghan border police and passport
office that officially control the entry and exit of all individuals at the border.
However, studies have shown that the current passport and visa control system
is not responding to the nature and size of movements. Regulation has so far
failed and a new system and approaches need to be developed (Majidi, 2009).
Therefore, to better monitor and manage cross-border movements along
Afghanistans borders, the implementation of a concrete and well-enforced
border management system is needed. Such a system has to consider the
transnational networks of tribal populations that live in the border areas. An
electronic system should be implemented and the collected data should be used
to build up a database that can reveal changes and volumes of migration flows
at different points along the Afghan border. Moreover, border officials should be
monitored with regard to implementation of their responsibilities to make sure
that no form of harassment or discrimination is occurring. Discrimination against
non-Pashtuns is well known (particularly at the Afghanistan-Pakistan border).
Therefore, a well functioning border system can only function if all individuals
involved in the process are treated equally, regardless of race and ethnicity. This
element should be integrated in the capacity-building and training of officials
acting on behalf of the Governments of Afghanistan and Pakistan along the
border (Majidi, 2009).
Border control policies should also recognise that migration is primarily
an economic phenomenon (Ratha et al., 2011). Evidence from the US-Mexico
border has shown that cross-border movements will continue regardless of any
attempts to seal it (International Crisis Group, 2009). Even more, evidence from
the US-Mexico border suggests that increasing the number of border control
agents increases smugglers fees, but is unlikely to curtail the number of migrants
as intended. Instead, providing legal channels for temporary migration when
240
labour is in high demand in the destination country is more likely to enhance the
benefits of migration for all parties (Ratha et al., 2011).
Recognizing Afghanistans geographical location at the crossroads of
Central Asia, its informal migration over centuries and decades of fighting and
displacement both internally and across borders, the Afghan government has
partnered with IOM to build capacity for migration management. In 2005,
IOM launched the Australian-funded project Capacity-Building for Afghan
Passport and Visa Issuance. The Afghanistan Passport Issuing System (APIS)
and Afghanistan Visa Issuance System (AVIS) are now implemented and fulfill
international standards. The goal of the Government of the Islamic Republic of
Afghanistan, through the Ministry of Interior, Ministry of Foreign Affairs and IOM,
is to provide its citizens with Machine-Readable Travel Documents (MRTDs). It
will also help to establish a secure and reliable management system for handling
and distribution of these documents throughout the country. IOM plans to
provide training to approximately 250 staff members who will be working as
operators of the new system in the Central Passport Department.
E.2.THE IMPACTS OF MIGRATION

Migration influences the population and demographic development,
which for the 2010-2050 period in Afghanistan will be characterized by the
continuous growth of the population and the process of population ageing.
According to the estimates of the United Nations Department of Economic and
Social Affairs, the population of the country will almost double from 28 million
in 2010 to 56.5 million in 2050. The proportion of individuals 65 and older will
increase from 3.7 per cent to 8.5 per cent in the same period.
The economy of Afghanistan has improved significantly since 2001,
largely because of the volume of money from international donors that flows
into the country and the growth of the agriculture and service sectors. GDP
has constantly increased in recent years and it is expected that this trend will
continue. The currency exchange between Afghanis and US dollars remained
fairly constant since 2006. It is, however, increasingly evident that the Afghan
economy remains vulnerable to general shocks (for example natural disasters)
and external commodity price shocks. Additionally, there is much concern about
what is going to happen to the many people that have service jobs with the
international community as their employers leave the country.
241
Remittances represent an important inflow both on the macro-level as

well as for many households on the micro-level. Despite the many challenges
that confront the measurement of remittance flows, Da Afghanistan Bank has
made important attempts to measure the movement of remittance transfers
into and out of the country. According to remittance flows declared in the
balance of payment framework, net remittances amounted to USD 325 million
in the 2011 fiscal year. Remittance inflows were measured at USD 679 million,
accounting for 1.6 per cent of gross domestic product in that year. Small-scale
migration corridor studies and household surveys seem to suggest that the flow
of remittances entering Afghanistan could easily exceed this amount.
Remittances of Afghan migrant workers can be seen as a key tool for
household income generation and as a key contributing factor in national economic
development. Although Afghanistans banking sector is growing, the hawala
system is likely to remain the primary mean of money transfer, particularly given
the more flexible know-your-customer identification requirements employed by
hawala. Advantages of the hawala system are also the peoples familiarity with
and trust in it as well as the relatively low fees. Many Afghans abroad, particularly
in the Islamic Republic of Iran and Pakistan, lack proper identification papers and
are therefore unable to open bank accounts. In addition, distrust in the banking
system is high and many Afghans in rural areas have no access to any form of
formal financial institution. Nonetheless, further attempts to increase financial
infrastructure should be made. In 2008, the M-Paisa mobile money transfer
system was launched, introducing a novel and innovative remittance product
to the Afghan remittance market. In addition to facilitating peer-to-peer money
transfers, M-Paisa provides an efficient scheme for managing micropayments
and electronic banking using text messaging. This new way of transferring
remittances is proving to be a cheaper means of transferring money than using
the banking system. Given the services use of the expansive mobile network
provided by Roshan Telecommunications, the service is accessible to individuals
residing in rural areas. Considering that thousands of people subscribe to cell
phone services each month, the future of money transfer in Afghanistan may
lie in the telecommunication system and should therefore be further expanded.
Many other mobile network operators are currently developing their own lines
of mobile money transfer within Afghanistan.
Consequently, the GIRoA should further leverage remittance flows for
development by supporting policies for cheaper, safer and more productive
remittance sending. Yet, migration and remittances should not be viewed
as a substitute for official development aid as they are private money that
should not be expected to fund public projects. Also, not all poor households
242
receive remittances and official funds are needed to address the needs of
these households. The GIRoA and the international community should further
acknowledge and facilitate the development potential of migration and
remittances by increasing awareness levels of decision-makers, improving data
on migration and remittances, facilitating labour mobility and recruitment across
borders, while allowing for safe and affordable mechanisms for sending money
back home (Ratha et al., 2011).
The emigration of skilled Afghans appeared mainly in the 1980s and 1990s
during the Soviet intervention, when it was mainly the Afghan elite (professors,
teachers and students) who migrated to Europe and North America. There is
no indication of brain drain in current migration trends as there was almost no
difference in the level of education of the resident population and the migrants
who left Afghanistan and international migrants do not seem to be more highly
educated than internal migrants. Nonetheless, it is clear that Afghanistan is in
need of highly skilled labour, particularly in the education and health care sectors.
Return migrants tend to state that the migration experience had a positive
influence on their professional skills. They do, however, often face difficulties in
finding a job and especially one where they can apply the gained skills.
In terms of human development, Afghanistan ranks at the 169th position
out of 187 in the Human Development Index. This highlights the gaps in wellbeing and life opportunities of Afghan citizens. However, although Afghanistans
development remains very low in comparison to other countries, its HDI trend
has steadily increased since 2000. Large shares of the Afghan population
face severe poverty, with 36 per cent being below the national poverty line.
Migration seems to positively contribute to the living conditions of households
in Afghanistan particularly through the impact of remittances. Among migrant,
return migrant and non-migrant households no large differences in the current
economic situation of the household are observed, but more remittancereceiving households than non-receiving households tend to report living
comfortably. For most households the living circumstances have improved over
the last five years.
Efforts should be made by the GIRoA to create and maintain links between
migrants and their country of origin in order to encourage them to contribute
human and financial capital to the development of their home communities.
Migrants could also make better use of economic opportunities at home if
mobility were facilitated by both the source and host countries and communities.
The outward transfer of remittances through money transfer organizations such
as Western Union is only an option for a limited number of citizens in Afghanistan.
243
This poses a serious limitation for diaspora members in Western countries who
wish to invest in the development of Afghanistan. In addition, the GIRoA has to
improve the pass and visa system to ensure that Afghan nationals have access
to identification. However, in order to achieve this, the GIRoA has to reform its
pass and visa system and decrease waiting times and high fees for passports
and other identification. Moreover, the GIRoA should stress the importance of
identification and labour permits in consultation processes with neighbouring
countries. In the long term, the GIRoA should also establish mechanisms to
better control the outflow of Afghan students. This could be done by issuing
exit visas to those who wish to leave the country, collecting information on
demographics and reason of emigration. More information is also needed with
regard to foreign nationals entering Afghanistan. The GIRoA should expand the
scope of administrative registration of foreigners to collect data on sex, age and
reason for (short-term) residence in the country.
The migration experience does not seem to lead to a decrease in the social
integration of the return migrants in their origin community in Afghanistan. The
large majority of migrants feel very much a part of the community in which
they live. Moreover, the return migrants position in the household tends to
have improved compared to the situation before migration, along with their
social status in general. However, the migration experience itself appears to
subjectively alienate people from their origin community. Opinions regarding
return migrants seem to be generally positive. The majority of households seem
to agree with the statement that return migrants bring new ideas, knowledge
and technologies to Afghanistan. This may result in changes in the traditional
cultures and norms in Afghanistan as a result of the experiences that return
migrants bring. However, the large majority of households strongly agree that
return migrants receive preferential treatment - a perception that may impact
the social cohesion of a community.
The health system in Afghanistan is among the poorest in the world.
Many households struggle to secure basic needs like food and shelter. Access to
health care facilities is limited and large parts of the population face concerning
basic household sanitation. The data collected for this profile do show a positive
impact of migration and remittances on the access to and usage of such facilities.
Afghanistan is a land-locked country with a high incidence of natural
disasters such as earthquakes, floods, landslides and droughts. Depending on
their impact such shocks potentially force people to leave their usual place of
residence and lead to their displacement, either temporary or permanently.
About 50,000 Afghans were internally displaced due to natural disasters in 2011.
244
E.3. MIGRATION POLICIES

The Afghanistan National Development Strategy (ANDS) is the document
that outlines the Afghan governments strategies for security, governance,
economic growth and poverty reduction. Pillar 7 of the Afghanistan National
Development Strategy for 2008-2013 focuses on refugees, returnees and
internally displaced persons (IDPs) among other issues. The aim of this pillar
is to facilitate the planned and voluntary return of refugees and IDPs and their
reintegration into society. The strategy entails plans for capacity-building as well
as cooperation with third countries in the aim to support Afghans living abroad.
The planned and voluntary return of refugees and IDPs is expected to contribute
to economic growth, the reduction of poverty and the strengthening of security
and stability of the country and the region.
The national legal and regulatory framework concerning migration in
Afghanistan is at this stage not coherent. As of now, there is no national policy
specifically targeting migrants, returnees or IDPs. The GIRoA is, however, in the
process of developing a National IDP Policy as well as a Refugee Law, which
should both be launched in the foreseeable future. Currently, migration is
managed by a variety of government regulations, legal instruments, action plans
and strategies, both on the national as well as international level.
There are a number of state authorities and institutions directly or
indirectly involved in the management of migration in Afghanistan. The Ministry
of Refugees and Repatriation (MoRR) is the main body responsible for returnees
and internally displaced persons in Afghanistan. The ministry is supported by
a Consultative Group on Refugees and IDPs, which includes representatives
from other ministries, United Nations agencies, NGOs and donors. The main
task of the Consultative Group is to support MoRR in its goal to reintegrate
Afghan returning refugees and internally displaced persons into society. The
two main international organizations working on migration and refugee issues
in Afghanistan are the International Organization for Migration (IOM) and the
United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR). Additionally, there
are several NGOs and Civil Society Organizations that directly or indirectly affect
the livelihoods of returnees.
Afghanistan has many bilateral and tripartite (with UNHCR) agreements
with neighbouring states, European countries and Australia. While many of
these are focused on Afghan refugees and their safe and sustainable return, it is
becoming more apparent that there is a need for more agreements on Afghan
245
labour migration especially to the neighbouring countries and Gulf Cooperation

Council states.
The commitment of the international community to the development of
Afghanistan is evident as there have been several conferences on Afghanistan
since 2001. Migration and refugees are frequently discussed topics at these
occasions and it was at an international conference in Geneva in May 2012 that
the Solutions Strategy for Afghan Refugees was endorsed by the international
community. In July 2012, the Tokyo Conference promoted an Afghan-led,
sustainable development process during the Transformation Decade (20152024). The key to the partnership between the Government of the Islamic
Republic of Afghanistan and the international community in the economic
growth and development of Afghanistan is the principle of mutual accountability
in achieving jointly decided goals. The sustainable return and reintegration of
Afghan refugees and internally displaced persons is also an essential part of
the discussions between the GIRoA and international representatives as it is
expected to contribute to security and stability of the country and the region.
The international community expressed their commitment to the furthering of
development and reintegration potential in Afghanistan to support the return of
refugees from neighbouring countries.
E.4. RECOMMENDATIONS CONCERNING

IMPROVEMENTS TO MIGRATION STATISTICS AND
THE OVERALL EVIDENCE BASE
E.4.1. IDENTIFICATION AND EXPLANATION
OF EXISTING DATA GAPS
Statistics on migration and remittances are often of poor quality, especially
in developing countries. This is also the case for Afghanistan, where data on
migration flows are relatively scarce and estimates of remittances and other
indicators are not reliable. It is crucial for policymakers to have access to good
migration data since statistics should form the basis for evidence-based policy
development. However, data collection about Afghans remains a challenge. As
could be observed throughout this report, migration data in Afghanistan on
transit, circular or irregular migration are either not available or, where available,
are not representative of the actual situation. In addition, the study by Majidi
246
(2009) for UNHCR on border migration between Afghanistan and Pakistan has
shown that official records of cross-border movements are not representative
of the actual volume. Therefore, it is very unclear how large the migration flows
between Afghanistan and its neighbouring countries actually are.
Furthermore, Afghanistan has no common procedures or standards
on how to collect data on migrant workers, refugees or IDPs due to a lack of
capacities and coherent policies and the absence of clear definitions. Data
on migrants coming to Afghanistan are likewise scarce. It is difficult, if not
impossible, to access reports or data regarding immigrants or new airport
arrivals, reported by national state authorities. This is because the information
is either not accessible or no data have been collected so far. Personal email
contact with state embassies in Kabul has shown that data on foreign migrants in
Afghanistan are treated as confidential. Whether this is due to the deteriorating
security situation in the country is not known.
Studies on border migration and human trafficking have provided insights
into existing migration flows and determined that large migration movements
are taking place. Neither of the studies was, however, able to depict the full
scope of the phenomenon and therefore one can only guess how large actual
cross-border movements and how high the numbers of VoT truly are. In this
research, most data on migrants into and out of Afghanistan have been retrieved
either from national censuses, official databases (for example of the United
Nations or World Bank) or publications by (international) organizations such as
UNHCR, IOM, AREU and ILO. However, differences in data collection methods
and the inclusion or exclusion of certain target groups are an obstacle in the
comparison of Afghan migrant groups or migration flows.
In general, information on Afghan migrants residing outside Afghanistan
is of better quality and more accessible. This is especially the case for Western
countries. However, different data collection methods and changes in nationality
laws make it difficult to estimate the total stock of Afghans abroad. Data on
specific Afghan groups such as students are difficult to retrieve. This is because
national reports or censuses often cluster foreign migrants into one category(e.g.
foreign or Asian) rather than displaying the country of origin or nationality
individually. Furthermore, there appears to be a lack of data on different aspect
of integration and well-being of the Afghan diaspora in Western societies.
Less information is also available about Afghans residing in countries
such as the Russian Federation, Tajikistan, India and the GCC states. In 2009, the
Change Institute published a report on the Afghan community in England. The
247
report was the first of its kind in understanding the Muslim/Afghan diaspora in
England. Other countries have also started to research their Afghan populations,
such as the Netherlands but more can and should be done in this regard.
This is in line with the international communitys commitment to support the
development of Afghanistan and therefore should recognise the potential of
Afghan Diaspora contributions to this process.
The same applies to information on remittances as official estimates of
remittance flows to Afghanistan based on the balance of payments reporting
frameworks are not reported by the World Bank or the International Monetary
Fund because of concerns about the comprehensiveness and timeliness of the
provided information (IMF, 2011). In the absence of functioning state machinery
and a weak banking system, existing estimates on remittances are not likely to
be representative of the true volumes, since large portions of remittances are
sent through unofficial channels and data from those that are registered are
often too numerous to deal with.
E.4.2. RECOMMENDED ACTIONS

TO IMPROVE MIGRATION DATA
The GIRoA needs to recruit and train personnel with skills in statistics
and information communication technology to enhance data gathering, entry,
processing and analysis. Salaries of staff workers have to increase in many cases
to counter corruption that makes data collection difficult, if not impossible.
When training those who work with migrants, it is necessary to take into account
differences in language, culture and ethnicity of both migrants and staff.
Furthermore, the GIRoA should facilitate collaboration more intensively
with international migration organizations and research institutions to harmonize
migration data collection and databases. The NRVA survey does already collect
information on migration and remittances, however, a wider range of information
on migration issues would benefit evidence-based policymaking in Afghanistan.
More importantly, a database on Afghan migration information should be
created. Such a database would give more insight into the reasons why people
move or do not move in specific areas and thereby provide the basis for more
effective migration policies. The database should include detailed information
on migrants, as this enhances comparability of data collected between countries.
There is a lack of data more generally in Afghanistan and there is no systematic
way in which migration data are collected. This report clearly shows the need
for better and more systematic data collection. We suggest that the best way to
248
deal with this need would be to institute a bi-annual (every two years) holistic
migration survey in Afghanistan starting in 2015.
With regard to Western countries, migration data collection in these
areas should also be improved. This is because major differences exist in the
concepts used for identifying migrants and their descendants, which in turn
poses a major problem for data comparability. Therefore, national statistics
should consider collecting additional data on migration-related information that
go beyond citizenship and country of birth. It is beneficial to present data in
the most detailed possible breakdown to avoid incomparability between data
sets. Moreover, data should become more accessible to researchers to allow for
better use of existing information. In addition, researchers should emphasise
the collection of longitudinal data and stress the importance of oversampling
of target populations. These methods are important to better measure and
understand the migration and discrimination issues. Finally, more time should
be invested in awareness raising campaigns that stress the importance of high
quality data and thereby appeal to politicians and researchers to provide the
desired statistical information.
E.5. HOW TO REGULARLY UPDATE THE

AFGHANISTAN MIGRATION PROFILE
In order to remain an effective information tool for policymaking,
Migration Profile reports need to be updated regularly and used for policy
development. The Afghanistan Migration Profile should be updated every two
years. In this regard, institutions and ministries involved in migration issues
should collaborate on a regular basis to share information and make better
use of data in the formulation of national development policies. Subsequent
revisions of the Migration Profile should include data from a national migration
survey (internal and international migration) and should constitute a panel data
set where possible. This could be done by interviewing the same households
over time to ascertain dynamics.
Moreover, data should be collected in a user-friendly manner to update
the Migration Profile. Data on cross-border movements (also collected by
neighbouring countries) as well as data on new airport arrivals (collected by
the Movement and Control Passenger Management Unit (Movcon)) should be
incorporated into the Migration Profile.
249
In addition to the above mentioned improvements of data collection

methods, the Migration Profile should slowly expand its capacity by incorporating
more relevant migration data on a regular basis. In the long run, the Afghan
Migration Profile can be used as an important resource of high quality migration
data for policymakers and other stakeholders.
250
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Afghanistan

International Organization for Migration Afghanistan

TECHNICAL WORKING GROUP

Afghanistan Migration Profile

Afghanistan Migration Profile

Part E: Key Findings, Policy Implications and Recommendations.. 231

Afghanistan Migration Profile

Afghanistan Migration Profile

Table 25: Head count yearly comparison: outgoing and incoming

Afghanistan Migration Profile

Table 53: Opinions of remittance-receiving and non-receiving

Afghanistan Migration Profile

Table 76: Usage of and access to facilities of migrant, return migrant

Afghanistan Migration Profile

Figure 28: Top 10 provinces of origin of internally displaced

Afghanistan Migration Profile

Agency Coordinating Body for Afghan Relief

Afghanistan Independent Human Rights Commission

Afghanistan Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey

Afghan NGOs Coordination Bureau

Afghanistan National Disaster Management Authority

Afghanistan National Development Strategy

Afghanistan Peace and Reintegration Programme

Afghanistan Research and Evaluation Unit

Assisted Voluntary Return and Reintegration

Central Intelligence Agency

Consumer Price Index

Central Statistics Organization

Civil Society Organizations

Danish Refugee Council

Gulf Cooperation Council

Gross Domestic Product

Government of the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan

Humanitarian Assistance Programme

Human Development Index

Internally Displaced Person

International Labour Organization

Inter-Ministerial Coordination Committee

International Monetary Fund

International Organization for Migration

Land Allocation Scheme

Afghanistan Migration Profile

Ministry of Foreign Affairs

Ministry of Labor, Social Affairs, Martyrs and Disabled

Ministry of Refugees and Repatriation

Ministry of Rural Rehabilitation and Development

North Atlantic Treaty Organization

Non Governmental Organization

National Priority Programme

Norwegian Refugee Council

National Risk and Vulnerability Assessment

National Skills Development Programme

North-West Frontier Province

Organization for Economic Co-operation

Return of Qualified Afghans

United Nations Assistance Mission in Afghanistan

United Nations Development Programme

United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees

United Nations Childrens Fund