UNIT 10 WOMENS MOVEMENTS

Structure
10.1
10.2

Introduction
The Colonial Context: The Vision of a New Society and the Reform Movement
10.2.1
10.2.2

10.3
10.4
10.5
10.6
10.7
10.8

The Issue of Priority: Social or Political?

Womens Issues During the Gandhian Era

The Post-Independence Period: State, Reform and Women

The Left and Womens Movements
Equality or Difference
New Social Movements
Summary
Exercises

10.1 INTRODUCTION
Like other social groups women also have been involved in collective actions equipped
with their agenda, leadership, ideologies and organisations in order to have their proper
and dignified place in all aspects of life. This unit deals with social movements of
women. Women as individuals and as a group are among the most discriminated sections
of world population. As a marker of this discrimination, societies across the world have
shown preference for boy child. The preference for boy child has taken societies to the
extent of killing girl child in the womb itself. All practices of discriminations in societies
have been legitimised through either invoking socio-cultural needs or the need to maintain
a lineage or for material production. The patrileneality, where descent is through fathers
lineage and patrilocality where the wife and children lives in fathers home or village
have added to the preference for the boy child. All these arrangements have the
consequence of women being relegated to what Simon De Bouvoir so poignantly termed
as the Second Sex.
As the second sex in material terms means that women is quite often denied political,
economic and even cultural rights. She quite often does not have right to inherit property
along with her male siblings. She does not have either equal access to education and
health care equal to a male counterpart. She is also perennially in the danger of being
the target of male violence within the family or outside. Historically religion, polity and
society have been so organised as to make her position vulnerable to any discriminatory
trends in the society. There have been protests and revolts by people including women
to question such discriminating arrangements within the society. They, however, remained
at the level of individual protest while the structure and power of patriarchy being so
strong as to crush them or appropriate them easily into the existing arrangements. It is
during the last two hundred years or so that the modern times have provided the space,
ideas and principles of organisation to people to question as well as alter the arrangements
by either aligning the womens protests with the parallel movements to change the
society or by incorporating the basic digits of modernity into the womens movements.
Nationalist movement in the colonial countries, socialist and communist movement and
feminist movement across the world and the larger trend of democracy have been some
84

of the powerful streams that presented themselves as catalyst of change in this regard.
In the increasingly globalising world womens issues and concerns are becoming
increasingly part of the larger movements.
The relationship between women and social movements is quite intricate. First, one is
not very clear as to where and how do women figure in the broad contour of different
social movements. It has been found that women were merely part of the mobilised
section of some movement whose overall objectives are detrimental to womens interests
and concerns. For example, the fundamentalist movements across the globe have tended
to circumscribe womens role as merely that of a mother or provider of children to the
community as defined by the group. The glorification of a mythical German women by
the Nazi ideology has its counterpart in many other groups. In fact, any move to give
the rights of ownership of property, marriage etc., have remained in the domain of the
personal and any change in that domain invites the wrath of the section of the
fundamentalist groups. Any demand to take womens issues and rights away from
community to the larger public domain has been opposed by the fundamentalist groups.
Second, related to the nature of social movement is: whether it allows the space for the
articulation of issues and concerns regarding women. Indian national movement was
one such movement whose democratic and secular character had given the space for
many democratic movements to spring up and voice their concern. Womens movement
in India is one such example where the contours of the movement coalesce with the
mass phase of the Indian national movement. The notion of equality, idea of justice and
democracy, central to the core of the movement of national liberation, were also the
premises of the womens movement.
Historically, changing conditions of women and their status constituted the core of the
social reform movement that began to take shape in the early decades of the nineteenth
century. By the early decades of the twentieth century this core is enlarged by bringing
two issues, i.e., equality of women in modern political, social and cultural realm, and
womens role in the developmental process, into its ambit. Though the rapid changes
in the society, economy and culture have led to rethinking on many issues, the social
movements in the country more or less have directed their concerns about women along
this core.

10.2 THE COLONIAL CONTEXT: THE VISION OF A NEW

SOCIETY AND THE REFORM MOVEMENT
In India, like in many other colonised countries, it was colonialism in the 18th and 19th
centuries that brought the new economic and political processes into operation. The
coming of the British, the Christian Missionaries and their criticism of the Indian society
presented a big challenge to the local intellectuals and social leaders. The former attacked
the indigenous society and its treatment of women and the lower caste. It presented new
organising principle, equality, or Christianity in some cases. It also brought blueprint
for a new organising principle for the society. While colonialism as a system exploited
the colonies and stunted its natural and potential growth, it brought, at the same time,
the new ideas of democracy, idea of equality and justice.

85

The nineteenth century Hindu, Parsee, Muslim reformers took the challenge and first
tried to reform their own societies in the face of such a massive criticism. Ram Mohan
Roy, for example, while he attacked the missionaries for presenting distorted picture,
was also preparing agitation against Sati and the customs of caste inequalities. In the
later part of the century, reformers took the questioning of womens condition very
prominently and all the major reform efforts aimed at ameliorating their conditions.
Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar made great efforts in getting widow remarriage society
established. Similarly womens education too was thought to be one of the most important
steps in this direction. Veereshlingam Pontulu, Jyotiaba Phule, Badruddin Tybaji,
Dadabhai Naoroji all contributed greatly in this direction.
In the later part of the nineteenth century, when there was in some sense a reassertion
of the racial and imperialist ideas, there were a movement among the Indians which
tried and asserted its own historical superiority. In this line that they looked into the past
to suggest that woman was in some sense better placed in those days than they were
now. In this sense the problem of integrating womens question into the social movement
become more intricate if the situation became bad what should one do was the
question that led to the major indicator of the movements thrust. It was to the credit
of the intelligentsia who fought the issue of social reform that the issue of women
remained in the forefront. One of the most intensely fought issues was the between the
social reformers and the those who separated the social issues from the political fight.

10.2.1 The Issue of Priority: Social or Political?

What was the exact nature of womens issues and how should they be addressed?
Should they be treated purely as question about social inequality or attitude or as part
and parcel of larger political questions of equality, freedom and justice? These have
been serious questions before the reformers as well as the political leaders since the
nineteenth century. It should, however, be noted that except Phule most of the social
reformers were concerned with social reforms among the high castes. The problems like
widow remarriage and sati were not prevalent among the lower strata of society. And
low castes in general irrespective of gender were deprived of education. To the early
reformers this division did not present itself very sharply as people like Raja Rammohun
Ray articulated womens cause as integral part of his overall vision for what we now
referred to as a modern India. Those who began to mobilise opinion regarding the
economy and issues related to the operation of the colonial system in the second half
of the nineteenth century and early part of the twentieth century were also concerned
with the reforms in society and equality of men and a more just society for the women
in a possible modern India. For them the issues of economy and politics were not
dissociated. M.G. Ranade, Veereshlingam Pontulu, Gopal Krishna Gokhale, Phirojshah
Mehta, Dadabhai Naoroji , Badruddin Tyabji, Jyotiba Phule and many more actively
campaigned for womens education and more public space. The symbol of this unity of
perception was the fact that the annual conference of the Indian social conference used
to meet at the Annual Congress session pandal itself. The question whether the social
issue or the political issue is more important emerged by this time. The Congress
realised that the differences of perceptions on social issues among different communities
were given priority over the political issues, it would breach the unity of people while
was essential in the national movement.

86

In ensuing debate between the social and political question, the idea of priority and the
location of the principle of equality was very important. Those who opposed the social
conference working anywhere close to the Indian National Congress, in fact, did not
oppose the principle of equality. But the separation of the social question from the
political turned out to be some way detrimental to the womens questions. The debate
on the issue of Age of consent Bill which created an uproar in the 1890s saw that the
progressive voices were opposed quite powerfully by sections which were not in favour
of a legislation which was primarily a legislation in raising the marriageable age for
women. The attempt to separate the two also impeded any serious theoretical debate on
the ways and means to incorporate the womens issue in the movement for social
equality.

10.2.2 Womens Issues During the Gandhian Era

In the 1920s the Gandhian movements brought back a sense of unity on the womens
question. Along with the question of untouchability, and Hindu Muslim question, womens
condition also became a primary issue to be solved immediately. This has serious
implications for the womens movement in general and the mobilisation of womens
issues for the larger political context. The national movement now created the largest
possible space for the women to come out and participate on an issue which was
ostensibly political, i.e., political freedom. But at the same time the masses, including
large number of women, were galvanised to raise their own groups issues in the process
of the movement. In 1927 All India Womens Association was formed as the national
body giving voice to some of the issues. This was the time when we have voices from
women as well as from other sections for giving women the voting rights as well as
representation in any possible government formation. Interestingly, this was also the
time that suffrage movement in Europe gained its momentum. Many of the women who
were in forefront of the Gandhian movement later became involved in institutions all
over the country. These institutions would play a major role in taking up serious social
issues, and mobilising and leading movements in later years. In fact, the methods that
Gandhi used in his struggle against the colonial state as well as in his movement against
the untouchability and on the question of communal conflict became hallmark of some
of the movements by women quite often inspired by these women and institutions. In
the seventies when women fought in Uttaranchal against the liquor vendors or against
the falling of trees, their movement was characterised by the Gandhian ways of protestnon violent and arousing the moral conscience in the opponent.
The success of Russian Revolution in 1970s encouraged a large number of women to
join the communist movement in India, who were involved in the national movement
and womens movements at the same time. In fact, the communist movement helped
the later day progressive movement to take up issues related to women as well as
womens position as the central political and social question. These communist women
continued their legacy of womens movement in the post-independence period.

10.3 THE POST-INDEPENDENCE PERIOD: STATE, REFORM

AND WOMEN
The post-independent Indian state launched the array of reforms which had been demanded
even before the independence. There were, for example, demands that all customary and
87

religious and traditional laws which regulated the larger Hindu society and which to a
great extent therefore determined the legal status of the Hindu women in religious terms
should be codified and brought into the public domain. In 1948 there were attempts to
bring to the Constituent Assembly what is known as the Hindu code Bill. However, the
stiff opposition led to the dropping of the idea. After a couple of other attempts, finally
it was in 1955-56 that the Code Bill was passed in sections known as the Hindu
Marriage Act, Hindu Succession Act, etc. In spite of the strong support from the Congress
party under the leadership of Jawaharlal Nehru the opposition was very strong. The
government could not enter into the issue of the personal laws of the other communities,
i.e., Muslim, Christian or Parsees. Crucial aspects of their lives continued to be determined
by the personal laws of their religious communities in which man was the supreme
arbiter in most of the cases. This was an anomalous situation as women found to their
chagrin that the community structures were more authoritarian and Indian state in that
sense would be more of an agency of liberation from such structures
The post-independent Indian state geared itself to the consensus that modern developed
state and the political democracy would be safeguarded by the economic democracy.
Women got franchise the democratic right and the development would see that she
got the economic rights to practise that democracy.Thus a full blown theory of equality,
rights and justice was in place.
It was the violence against women in the form of bride burning and rape that galvanised
the womens movement led by the feminist groups especially since the 1970s. The
campaign against dowry and rape are called the first campaigns of the contemporary
Indian feminists movement. The violence against women at the ground level, rape by
the landlords, caste oppression etc., made the movement gradually try and incorporate
them into the concerns for women. The theoretical and organisational structures of the
parties and the movement though highlighted some of the issues, did not develop any
new perspective on them. This had set in motion a rapid disenchantment with the state
apparatus. There began to be strong voices against the nature of the development and
there were demand for more women-centric development in many parts of the country.
In fact, several cases, for example, the Chipko movement in the Himalayas, became an
eye opener where along with the saving of the trees there were demands for development
planning which is sensitive to the local needs and resources.
These criticisms have been yoked into theoretical mode by the criticism of development
process that India has been undergoing. The international feminists criticism of the
state sponsored development process which marked its decisive beginning in the seventies
also influenced these works during the decade of the UN womens decade. A section
of these intellectual critics though not directly coming from the feminists, began to
uphold community, tradition and the local bonds as the counterpoint to the project of
modernity which they argued was against women. Some fragments of Indian intellectual
too joined in those critique. In the nineties these critique merged with sections of the
feminists movement which was also waging a battle against the globalisation processes.
The post-independent Indian state is grounded on the idea of equity with justice and this
has been the consensus developed during the freedom movement. The development was
supposed to bring the equity closer and the democratic functioning of the system would
see to it that the fruits of development would reach to the different segments of population.
Regarding the issue of women, the consensus was on womens development. On the
88

equity front the legal system was found to be unequal and the one of the first major
restructuring tried by the Constituent Assembly in 1948 itself was to try and effect a
standardised Hindu code which would try to do away with a large number of
discriminatory personal and customary rules applied to women in different Hindu
communities. The ultimate conceived goal, as the Womens representative would argue,
was to usher a common uniform civil code. This was thought to be very significant
because the state continued to treat women through the personal or community laws
where male was the dominant and authoritarian figure. It was argued that unless the
rules, conventions and laws are brought out of the personal or community into the
public domain women would not be able to enjoy the equality as promised by the
constitution.
The Shah Bano affair brought an entire range of issues related to women to the fore.
It brought the Indian states attitude towards the issue of women in the context of her
religious community. It also showed the weakness of the womens movement to mobilise
its strength to fight for a common civil code. Thirdly, it brought the weakness of the
progressive sections in the society to come forward and demand uniform civil code for
all the communities so that the womens rights come out of the domain of religion into
the secular legal domain. The Indian governments act in some sense weakened the
liberals within the Muslim community and the voice of the educated women who found
at this point of time the strength of the orthodoxy vis a vis the state.
The Governments act also emboldened the fundamentalist groups in other communities
who could now on show that Indian state appeases the minority community sentiments
and not concerned about development really. From Now it is the fundamentalist and
communal groups among the Hindus which started demanding uniform civil code to
provoke the minority. Thus in sum, one of the most important issues concerning womens
equality became part of the real politics of the Indian democracy. By the eighties the
political movements by communal parties which had a large middle and lower class
support gradually affected the original discourse on women and her legal and political
entitlements.

10.4 THE LEFT AND WOMENS MOVEMENTS

The communist parties, since 1950s, not only provided women leadership but also kept
the womens question in the centre of political discussion. However, with the split in
the communist movements in 1964 and emergence of many new voices within the left
movement which questioned old assumptions of the Marxist parties, new ideas and
organisational principles to articulate demands of communities and groups began to
emerge. The Shahada movement, in Dhulia district of Maharastra was one such movement.
The exploitation of the local Bhil tribal landless labourers by the nontribal local
landowners was the key issue in this. To add to the woes of the tribals came the
successive drought and famine in Maharastra. Different exploitative practices of the
landowners and the moneylenders pushed the tribals to take extreme steps of protest.
Though the movement had its origin in the late sixties through the traditional folk ways,
singing bhajans etc., the seventies saw a complete metamorphosis when the newly
inspired left leadership joined the movement and Bhil women were mobilised gradually
and in large number. However, in the course of the movement it was realised that the
issues that were central to women in these area was not exactly what the organisation
89

had initially thought out as such. For example, after the agitation began in Shahada
movement that it was realised that most of the women were landless wage earners and
the demand for higher wages would address the womens issue more directly. The
movement gradually shifted to cover issues such as higher wages and anti-alcoholism
because it was found that the husbands habit of having liquor eats into the domestic
economy and women had to struggle more to keep the household going. Alcoholism
also led to regular wife beating. Issues such as these which earlier were not part of the
concerns of the movement came to be realised as intimate reality of the womens life
and were taken up. This encouraged women too to come out in larger number to join
the groups by women formed and went from village to village destroying liquor pots.
In the 1970 again, the Maharastra agitation soon spread to Gujarat where the women in
major cities like Bombay, Poona and Ahmedabad came out in streets protesting against
the government for such a situation. It happened in the background of economic worsening
conditions of the people following Bangladesh War. In Bombay, for example, Socialist
Mrinal Gore and Communist Ahilya Rangnekar led the movement. The Maharastra and
Gujarat agitation gradually added to the larger oppositional politics that was being
galvanised around this time. In fact, in Gujarat and Maharastra, the lower classes were
conspicuous by their absence. Hence, the issues and concerns of the women from the
lower classes or the tribals had not become part of the movement. It was soon through
different sets of movements that this section began to voice its concerns. In Maharastra,
for example the tribal women in the Shahada movement brought the issues of landless
wage earning women and the perils of alcoholism while on the other hand in Bodh Gaya
the issue of land was involved. One realised that after a gap of a decade or so the
political and social questions were rapidly becoming closely involved
The arrival of the new classes into the picture meant that the political landscape would
have become more complex and sharper questions to resolve. Gandhian ideas of femininity
and role of female were now questioned and so were the symbols used by him. It is in
such a situation that the mobilisation of the women too began to take place. This was
also the time that when the western feminists began to raise the questions whether the
issues that they have been fighting for really applied to he third world women as there
are doubly suppressive, patriarchy and poverty. The same situation prevailed in India
when the issues that were raised by the women movement either under the rubric of
equality or right really applied to the women of different social strata. It is vividly
portrayed in the experience of the Shahada movement when in the course of the movement
the organisers came across the differential issues and changes the demand and mobilisation
patterns land rights issues which even the recent feminist writers have shown to be the
most important issues where most of the population is without land. The issue of who
would give land to them brings us back to the issue of the state and also the democracy
that obtains in India
The year 1975 was declared as the world womens year by the United Nations. The
Womens decade, 1975-85, witnessed women related activism by feminist groups as
well as political parties. These were primarily urbanbased activist groups. It was however
the state which was promoter of many progressive steps for ameliorating womens
condition and saw a large number of activities. Maharastra was hotbed of the left
inspired womens activism. The Maoist inspired women organised the Purogami Stree
Sangathana (Progressive Womens Association), and Stri Mukti Sangathan in Bombay.
90

Conferences of women were organised in Poona by the Lal Nishan Party and the
Shramik Sangathan, both Maoist Organisations, which were attended by a large number
of women from across party lines and from across the state.
It was also during this time that dalit movement and the feminism got linked. A Mahila
Samata Sainik Dal too was formed by some dalit groups in Maharastra. The Maoist
groups and the dalit organisations gradually provide a new edge to the argument that
religion and caste system provide additional legitimacy to the oppression of women and
hence have to be attacked for any possible womens liberation.
The new phase also came with a new consciousness. How should women be organised
and represented? While movements like Shahada showed that women could be organised
in the process of the movement in which issues, close to womens lives, would emerge.
A self conscious feminist stream also came to assert by now. While most of the feminists
were drawn from the urban middle classes and were seen to be unable to represent the
whole of the women of the society, there were serious thinking that there need to be
organisation outside the movements. These groups, referred to as autonomous groups,
could think about womens issues and the movement without falling pray to the
organisational hierarchy and blinded by the assumptions that have plagued the left
parties of the country. Many womens groups that originated during and after seventies
decided to keep themselves women only group without any party affiliation or traditional
organisational structure and quite often structured around one or few serious issues
relating to the day to day life and struggle of the women in Indian society. By 2000 we
have thousands of such groups working in different parts of the country and in fact the
Indian womens movement by 2000 is characterised more by these groups across the
country than by the organisationally structured movement as such.

10.5 EQUALITY OR DIFFERENCE

While the entire edifice of the social movement in India, which wanted to change the
status of women, has been raised on the principle of equality, by the eighties there were
realisation that even equality was not enough to protect women from being victims of
violence perpetrated on her solely because she happened to be a woman. This was in
spite of the fact that in many cases she was equal or superior to the male perpetrator
in status, education or other indicators. Women were the target of rape simply because
she was women biologically different from Man. It soon became a major theoretical
as well as organisational point of debate as to where should the movements place their
focus, i.e, on equality or difference. The case of the rape of a tribal girl Mathura in 1987
by the police and despite a campaign and fought by many prominent legal personalities,
the judiciary was unmoved and declared Mathura a women of easy virtue. This created
uproar and made the womens group realise the insensitivity that the state apparatus
has on womens issues. Similarly, the dowry deaths primarily among the affluent
middle class households too was a shattering blow to some of the earlier held assumptions,
i.e., the development process by raising the status of the women would help her practice
her democratic rights fully. The same development was now seen to be capable of
making life unsafe for her. By the time the census of 2001 was published, the increasing
decline in the sex ratio in the most developed states of India pointed to the same
phenomenon.

91

It was also realised that while it has been pursuing the developmental agenda ostensibly
for the betterment of women, the state at times was amenable to the forces of patriarchy.
This had further implications. Thus, the feminists and women activists have come to
accept that movement for democratisation has to be strengthened so as to strengthen the
force behind the demand for better and safer daily lives of women. The need for a strong
womens movement got further underlined in the age of globalisation where new forces
of violence were unleashed on women.
Issues of not only womens right in a democratic system but also the question of overall
equality in a situation when the state is withdrawing is not merely a crucial political
issues that the womens movement has to solve.

10.6 NEW SOCIAL MOVEMENTS

By the late eighties the overall scenario in India and the world created situation where
the womens movement could not remain outside the domain of the issues that have led
to the world wide movement regarding ecology, environment and issues of sustainability
in the face of the a new globalising economy. Very soon we have movements in
different parts of the country, which have voiced the concerns of the day-to-day life and
survival in the face of the new forces of economy and politics. While the national
politics seems to retreat into the caste and community and costly and corrupt electoral
practices, a large number of movements from different parts of the country saw the
coming of people from the local communities and villages. One of the chief characteristics
of these movements has been the prominent role including that of the leadership being
played by women. Survival and dignity seems to have become the twin issues, which
these movements have infused to the already existing issues of equality and justice.
Participation of a large number of women in the movement for the rights of labour and
the tribals in Chhattisgarh by the Chhattisgarh Mukti Morcha, in the Narmada Bachao
Andolan and the agitation against the authorities in Bhanwari Devi case where the
authorities were trying the shield the oppressors, and recently in the agitation for rights
to information has shown that the social movements have been trying to fuse the issues
of politics and society at a larger canvass and convert them into struggles for a more
democratic and just society. Interestingly enough, a careful perusal of the voices from
these movements would show that women in these movements have often questioned
the validity of the representative nature of our democracy. While they have tried to
forge alliances with similar movements across the country and even the world, they
have, at the same time, demanded from the state to change its electoral system to have
more participation from the women. All these were taking place quite close to the time
when a large number of new forces were getting unleashed on the ground without
adequately preparing the population for it. The women, without the adequate even
elementary education and primary health care facilities, had to face these forces. There
were also indications that the state, which till now declared that it would take care of
the vulnerable sections, has began to waver and withdraw.
It is these circumstances that one found women in the forefront of many of the new
movements. The results of these new mobilisations is that the woman found herself face
to face with extremely powerful combination of patriarchal structures entrenched within
the state apparatus. In Meghalaya and Kashmir, for example, it is the state legislatures
which tried to debar women from any inheritance, if she marries outside the religiously
92

or otherwise defined community boundaries. This was an attempted check on womens

right to take decisions on her own on crucial issues such as on choosing her own
partner. In a world, caste, community and state boundaries have been brought to suppress
the mobility of the women.
The Womens movement in the meantime also tried to fight against the structures of
community and tradition as they have been found quite often to be impediments in the
way to equality and freedom. This was evident in the case of two powerful movements
in the 1980s, one against the issue of dowry and another in the famous case of Roop
Kunwar in which the latter was being burnt as Sati. In cases of the dowry deaths
tradition has been forwarded where as in the latter case a young Rajput lady was made
to die along with her husband. The opposition by feminist and other groups of the Sati
and its later glorification was countered by the powerful combination of the caste and
community politics which defended not only the act of sati but also those who forced
Roop Kunwar to the funeral pyre. However, in the process there were awareness of the
new forces both which supported the womens cause of equality and those opposed
came face to face and was an educating for the Womens movement.

10.7 SUMMARY
To sum up, like several other social groups Indian women also have been involved in
social movements before and after independence. Placed in the discriminatory position
in all aspects of society undergoing multiple sufferings the women, and their problems
became a matter of concern of the social reformers in the pre-independence. In the postindependence period a large number of grass-root organisations and civil society
organisations, organisations of different ideological persuasions took up the womens
issues. Though womens issues have occupied significant place in the agenda of policy
makers, they are still neglected on the whole.

10.8 EXERCISES
1)

Write a note on the issues of women in the pre-independence period.

2)

Explain with some examples the mobilisation of women by the leftist forces.

3)

Explain the role of state regarding womens issues.

93

UNIT 11 REGIONAL MOVEMENTS

Structure
11.1
11.2
11.3
11.4
11.5
11.6
11.7
11.8
11.9

Introduction
Regional Movement: Meaning and Significance
Methodological Insights on Regional Movements
Regional Movements, Regionalism and State Formation: Some Causative
Explanation
Salient Patterns of Movements for Statehood
Types of Regionalism
States Response to Regional Movements
Summary
Exercises

11.1 INTRODUCTION
As India consists of a large number of regions with diverse social and cultural
compositions and different levels development of economy and infrastructure it has
been facing regional movements since it became independent. The Reorganisation of
the states in India in 1956 did not solve problems related to regional disparities. Even
after the formation of a particular state, a region or more within a state start regional
movements for autonomy, independence or even secession from the union of India. This
units seeks to familiarise the union of India. This units seeks to familiarise the students
with the regional movements and issues related to them.

11.2 REGIONAL MOVEMENT: MEANING AND SIGNIFICANCE

Regional movement is an identity movement seeking special privileges, protection, and
concessions from the state. It is a movement for regional self-governance. In other
words, it means a movement for state formation a movement seeking pluralisation
and federalisation of existing polity and political process. There are two potential and
significant causes of the emergence of regional movement one is the interregional
or intercommunity conflict, and other is the conflict between region and the state.
Interregional conflict is usually shaped around insider-outsider complex a complex
that nurtures nativism and son-of-the-soil ideology. This, in other words, means a natural
claim of the insider for better and preferential treatment by the state, particularly in
terms of resource distribution and reservation of jobs for the locals. Anti-migrant
movement in Assam, and tribal-nontribal conflict over domicile issue in Jharkhand are
some of the important examples of son-of-soil ideology. Interregional conflict also
occurs over regional pride rooted in culture, language and traditions. Regional pride
is extended further in the event of boarder dispute and sharing of river water. In such
a situation extent and meaning of region and regional movement expand to take the
form of state regionalism. This is very much evident from recent conflict between
Karnataka and Tamilnadu over sharing of Cauvery water, or boarder dispute between
Maharashtra and Karnataka, or the most recent conflict between Biharis and Assamese
over the competitive examination for central services, or the Mumbaikar call of the
94

Shiv Sena restricting and preventing non-Marathis from occupying important positions
in the business, economy and polity of Maharashtra. It is probably the reason that some
scholars consider regional movement as consequence of developmental tension between
society and polity.
On the other hand, region-state conflict usually takes place in the institutional structure
of state system, wherein a region questions the distributive policy of the state as
discriminatory, exploitative and unfavourable to the overall well-being of the concerned
regional community. It is from this perceived sense of deprivation, neglect and internal
colonialism that the people of a particular region organise themselves into a movement
seeking in most of the cases separation from the existing state, or in select instances
settling with some autonomy arrangements within the same state. Here, it may be
contextually mentioned that in the federal-plural process of nation and statebuilding,
it is the high degree of democratisation and competitive political mobilisation, which
generally transform a territorially concentrated sociocultural group into a self-conscious
political community, questioning the hegemony of dominant group (other regional
community) in state apparatuses and policies, particularly those affecting its identity
structure and developmental needs. Viewed in this perspective, regional movement
appears to be non-centralist and self-determining and defining ideology of protest against
hegemony of state power and dominant regional group.
We can now possibly define regional movement as a movement for autonomy of identity
and autonomy of development. Its objectives may be accommodative, protectionist,
welfarist, autonomist, separatist and secessionist. Secessionism, however, seems to be
merely a tactical strategy to pressurise the government. Once their genuine grievances
are redressed they settle down within the constitutionally propounded democratic structure
of Indian nationalism. There are numerous examples to support this submission, ranging
from Tamil separatism to Akali movement (read religious nationalism of Sikhs),
Gorkhaland movement, Bodoland movement, etc. A close scrutiny of their demands
would suggest that they seek a redefinition of state-society relationship in such a manner
that accommodates their identity demands and takes due care of their socio-economic
requirement. And to serve this purpose, they usually aspire for a constitutionally
documented institutional space of their own where their choices are self-determined.
Thus, it is the protectionist self around which politics of regional movement revolves.

11.3 METHODOLOGICAL INSIGHTS ON REGIONAL

MOVEMENTS
Regional movements, especially in a diverse society like India, have contexualised
formations. Therefore, it requires a componential analysis of the complex interplay of
region, people and the state. When we say regional movement, it immediately refers to
the existence of a regional community with political overtone. In more than one sense
regional community is different from other social communities. In fact, region may
consist of many social communities, which through a highly complex process of nation
formation constitute themselves into a distinct regional community. Regional community
is generally formed on the basis of identity of affinity and interests. It is a community
more in terms of horizontal comradeship than the uniformity or homogeneity scaling
vertically (AK Singh, Sub Regions and State formation in India). It is complementariness
of interest and identity that help people to constitute and to imagine as a separate
95

regional community. But, is how a regional community formed? What are those subjective
and objective factors, which constitute a group into distinct regional political community?
Componential analysis also helps us in analysing the success, failure and sustenance of
a regional movement. It further helps us in examining the nature and potential impact
of regional movement on the process of federal nationbuilding. It is commonly held
that more subjectively the identity is grounded, more intense is the regional movement.
It is in this context that the theories of nationalism or nation and nationality formation
assume critical significance in understanding the phenomena of regional identity formation
and its transformation into a movement. Here, it is also worthwhile to consider the
similarity and difference between nationalism and regionalism. Regionalism and
nationalism are symbiotically linked. Both undergo similar process of construction and
formation. They tend to serve their respective social constituencies as an ideology. They
share similar analytical concern as to how identity is formed, and when an identity
becomes politically salient. Only difference between them is while the nationalism is
generally centralising; regionalism, on the contrary, is inherently decentralising. It is
possibly the reason that regional movement also emerges as a reaction to nationalism.
In the literatures on nationalism, we find two principally important, but dichotomous
accounts of nation-formation: perennialist-primordialist; and, modernist. Primordialist
considers identity as pre-given entity of distinct races, ethnicity, language, culture,
religion etc. These individual attributes of identity are called the objective markers of
identity. Any one or combination of them constitutes a distinct national or sub-national
community, which when politicised become a distinct nation. Thus for them, nation is
a politicised ethno-cultural community, extended in history and deeply rooted in sociocultural traditions. Since such a community is historically embedded, it is territorially
persistent as well. In other words, a community in order to be effective must also have
a cultural homeland. Thus region in this context refers to a socially structured territorial
space whose ecology and economy have deep impact on the making of a distinct and
visible common identity of the people living in that region. Two regions cannot be
culturally similar. Their geo-specifics do vary from each other even though they share
in common many zonal characteristics. It is this fusion of identity and territory that
makes regional community a self-determining community. It is this fusion which also
rationalises their claims to autonomy. Interestingly in India, a regional community may
and may not have pre-given bond of ethnie and culture. As the studies on the construction
of Uttarakhandi and Jharkhandi identities have shown, it is the distinctiveness of regional
economy and ecology that created first an interest community, which over the years
of cohabitation succeeded in creating a common cultural bond. Social making of India
further suggests that every form of identity and its objective markers have carved out
distinct territory for itself. This we referred to as identity zone(s). In India, culture,
language, religion, ethnicity, social traditions have assumed regional characteristics. It
is probably the reason that we find performative variation in the observance of religious
practices and caste idioms from region to region. Another interesting fact about the
regions in India is that most of them had some form of administrative identity in the
past when people and territory structurally - institutionally enmeshed with each other to
give region a particular cultural trait and easily recognisable patterned behavior of the
people. Historical-cultural region has had evolved communicative signs and symbols
which in some cases led to the growth of an independent language or dialect. What
emerges from this account of region-formation is the fact that regional community may
be constituted on the basis of pre-give identity, or it may be constructed afterwards
96

which in the process of modernisation and development gets consolidated further as

community of common material interests and destiny.
But how a regional community translates itself into a sub-national movement? To find
an explainable answer, we have to take into consideration the methodological submission
of the modernisation or mobilisation theory of nation formation. There are two crucial
submissions of this theory: (i) conversion of community into a movement is a process
of mobilisation by elite, intellengstia and leaders; and (ii) in order to provide further
dynamics and cohesion to community consciousness, identity is reinvented and relocated
in the contextual present. This may require contextual reconstruction and reinterpretation
of identity-contents of a regional community. But who does this? It is the elite who
selects symbols (usually from distinctive ethnic and cultural past), and standardises
them for larger group cohesion. The elite in the competitive setting of liberal
constitutionalism politically mobilises the given identity. In other words, it is the state,
which provides a setting in which identity crystallises and movement emerges. The state
itself becomes a critical site of identity contestations and a breeding ground for subnational or regional movement to emerge. Writing perceptively about India, Myron
Weiner observes: The process of identity formation is a complex one with several key
elements. One element is the institutional structure, which shapes the framework within
which group identities are maintained and intensified. The federal system, the structure
of political parties, the educational system, and media serve to reinforce some identities
while undermining others. A second element can be described as reactive mechanisms.
Group identities are often formed or reinforced when challenged by others. The challenge
may come as a consequence of assimilative pressures, migration, economic competition,
or political threats. A third element can be described as policy feedbacks. Government
policies in the form of entitlements and reservations induce groups to organise for
political action, which in turn intensifies group identities. A fourth element is the
underlying cultural conception of the states relationship to group identities. Here the
issue is whether society is seen as subordinate to the stateor whether society is viewed
as autonomous.
Regional identity is also formed, what Marxist scholar Hobsbawm writes about nation,
at the point of intersection of politics, technology and social transformation. Modern
means of communication and technological advancement create, intentionally or
unintentionally, a collective self of the people, who organise themselves into a movement
for getting fair, if not preferential, deal in the dispersal of national power and resources.
Technology creates, to use Benedict Anderson hypothesis, an imagined community community which has the affinity of boundary, beyond which other imagined community
exists. Had not the print capitalism arrived, the imagined community of nation would
not have been formed. In other words, identity is facilitated by modernisation and
development. Amidst the above contested account of identity formation, David Miller
probably provides the best possible working definition of community (read regional
community) as (1) constituted by shared belief and mutual commitment, (2) extended
in history, (3) active in character, (4) connected to a particular territory, and (5) marked
off from other communities by its distinct public culture. Thus in any academic
exercise on regional movement, it is the dynamics of self and others that need to be
examined and analysed. Self-others dichotomy needs to be further situated in the politics
of modernisation and development. If modernisation structurally differentiates pre-given
identity and seeks to supplement it with new structure of secular identity, it also, on the
97

other, provides identity the necessary technological gadgets to recreate and reinvent
itself. If post- modernity theory is to be believed, then identity never lapses, it only finds
new medium and new language in the modernisation process. Identity universalises
itself through medium of mass communication. People re-search and re-draw its ethnic
past and situate it contemporarily.
From the above discussion, we may now select some crucial variables, which may help
us in analysing regional identity and regional movements in India. One of them is
federalism. Its working in India has shown some inherent contradiction. As we know,
federalism is essentially decentralising. It is a political programme of institutionalising
autonomy of society and polity. It is expected to accommodate regionalism within the
framework of a federal nationalism. But on the contrary, its working took a centralising
turn where regionalism was not only misplaced but at one point of time was also
characterised as antithetical to Indian nationalism, its unity and integrity. Thus federalism
instead of patterning regionalism served centrally the Union. As a consequence, most
of the regional movements have critically questioned the constitutional scheme of
distribution of federal powers between the region and centre. Dravida movement in
Tamil Nadu, Akali movement in Punjab, N T Rama Raos political propagation of
Telegu pride and other similar movements critically questioned the legitimacy of
central powers and downsizing of their sub-nationalism or regionalism. As mentioned
above, regional movement is organised in reaction to certain state policies, which a
regional community finds disadvantageous to its interests. Thus one has to also take into
consideration the policy framework of the state both central and regional. Societal
and regional equations of governmental policies have catalytic impact on the formation
and initiation of a regional movement. Initially, the promotion of Hindi nationalism at
the cost of other languages (regional and local dialects) created a fertile base for linguistic
sub-nationalism to emerge.
Another important variable is the party system and party structure. The key question to
be examined is the coalitional and accommodative capacity of the party system. The
hypothesis that can be put forth here is that less coalitional a national party and party
system, more intense is the possibility of regional parties to be formed and movement
to be organised. In this context of crucial importance is the leadership pattern and
representational structure particularly of the national and state level parties. Many a
times, leaders with considerable public understanding organise a party of his own with
defined enclaves of regional support and core social constituency. Such a party usually
survives on the ideology of regionalism or sub-nationalism. This holds true with most
of the smaller parties of Jharkhand, Uttarakhand and Northeastern states. Interestingly
in India regional parties have come into being through a process of division and split
in the national and state level parties. However, there are parties like Assom Gana
Parishad, which came into being through the process of regional movement itself. Regional
parties unleash regionalisation process in the national political order with a view to have
participatory control over such decisions, which affect their identity and development.
In any case, regional parties have two important roles (i) identity retention, protection
and articulation, and (ii) mobilising people into a movement in the event of conflict
between nation and region, and between regions. However, a caveat here may be added,
party and party system is an important factor, but not a necessary prerequisite for
regional movement to emerge. Regional movement may be autonomous and independent
of parties and party system. Transient small group of intellectuals and elite may shape
98

movement. We should also not forget the fact that social and regional movements do
follow the rules of spontaneity and subalterneity. Regional movement is generally selfprocessed and shaped in the structural dynamics of self and others. Thus for any
substantive formation of knowledge on regional movements, one has to essentially
understand the complex dynamics of self and others through a measured analysis
of inter-regional relations (or conflict), state policies, instruments and institutions of
political mobilisation, impact of technology on identity formation, role of mass media,
and the structural analysis of national and regional conflict which generate group conflict.

11.4 REGIONAL MOVEMENTS, REGIONALISM AND STATE

FORMATION: SOME CAUSATIVE EXPLANATION
India has been territorially reorganised into 28 states and 7 union territories. Out of this,
we have today as many as 31 demands for statehood and subautonomy arrangements.
They are: Maru Pradesh in Rajasthan; Bundelkhand, Poorvanchal, Bhojpur and Harit
Pradesh or Jatland in the Uttar Pradesh; Vindhya Pradesh, Baghelkhand, Rewanchal,
Madhya Bharat, Mahakosal, Malwa in Madhya Pradesh; Mithila in Bihar; Saurashtra in
Gujarat; Konkan, Vidarbha and Marathwada in Maharashtra; Telengana in Andhra
Pradesh; Coorg, Kodagu and Sagari Prant in Karnataka; Kosal Rajya in Orissa;
Gorkhaland and Kamtapuri in West Bengal; autonomy demands of Jammu and Ladakh
regions in Jammu and Kashmir; Bodoland, Karbi-Anglong, and Poorbanchal in Assam;
Kukiland in Nagaland; Garoland in Meghalaya; and Hmar state in Mizoram. Movements
for these states are in different stages of mobilisation. Some of them are strong and
persistent, others are dormant but occasionally reiterative. What we need to examine
here is why there exist so many demands for separate states? Do the present states lack
requisite homogeneity of population and administration?
From close analysis of the official practice of state formation it appears that these
demands exist because of the non-congruence between cultural boundary and
administrative boundary. In many cases, the present states appear to be invented ones,
which has unsuccessfully attempted to create common linguistic, administrative and
political identity among the people living within the different regions of the state. Even
if the invented state has succeeded in creating new pan-state identity, people have not
relegated their pre-given ethnic-regional ties to the backyards in order to live with this
new identity. In fact, people of India live with many identities, but this never means
the replacement of one identity with other, or the assimilation of many into one. Coliving with many identities is possible only through inter-connectivity between them.
But when this inter-connectivity is either missing, or attempt is made to supplement the
pre-given ethnic regional identity with invented official (state) identity the problem of
legitimacy begins. This is one among many dimensions of regional movements in India.
Interestingly in the nine states of Arunachal Pradesh, Sikkim, Tripura, Himachal Pradesh.
Haryana, Punjab, Goa, Tamil Nadu and Kerala, we do not find any dislocation between
cultural boundary and administrative boundary of the state. Therefore, there does not
exist any significant movement for statehood.
In the six major and large states of Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan,
Maharashtra and Andhra Pradesh, there alone exist 16 major demands for statehood.
Further, in three officially designated Hindi-states of Bihar, Uttar Prdesh and Madhya
Pradesh there are as many as eleven demands or movements for separate statehood. The
99

very existence of these demands itself questions the legitimacy of these states being
Hindi-States, and their artificial constructedness, In other words, region and state are
non-congruent. To explain further, in the ethnically homogeneous states like Punjab,
Tamil Nadu etc. it is the culturally constructed We that permeates different geographical
divisions of the state. In this type of states, ethnie is coterminous with territory;
therefore, we are having least (or for all practical purposes no) movement for separate
statehood. While the ethnic states cultivate on the basis of pre-given identity, the
ecologically distinctive states like Himachal Pradesh, Uttaranachal, Jharkhand and other
hill states are having ecologically shaped, constructed and locally ingrained identity. It
is the relative congruence of interests, destiny and folk-affinity that makes an
ecologically distinctive state/region a cohesive political and administrative entity within
the Indian federation.
On the other hand, in the composite plural states such as West Bengal, Bihar, Uttar
Pradesh, Rajasthan, Gujarat, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka, the similar
congruence of affinity and interests lacks between the state and people of different
regions. Coalescing together many distinct and mutually varying sub-regional identities
within one dominant language like Hindi, Bengali, Rajasthani, Gujarati, Marathi, Telegu
and Kannada have formed these states. It was believed that these languages would, in
due course of time, succeed in creating a broad regional-state identity across the people
and sub-regions of these states. But, these languages have not been able to create a sense
of imagined communities among two people living within two different sub-regions
of a state. Bihar for example lacks requisite homogeneity of population, culture, language,
geography, politics and economics. This delegitimises the relevance of state for serving
the identific and development requirements of the people of Mithila region. This holds
true with most of the above listed composite plural states.
What has been stressed above is the fact that though the principle of dominant language
may help to create an imaginary state, it fails to create an imagined community.
Therefore, today we have demands and movements for the separate states of Mithila,
Bhojpur, Braj, Bundelkhand, etc. Given their historicity of identity, administration and
exclusivity of development, these sub-regions are potential claimants of separate states.
Similarly, Bengali bhadralok identity has not been able to hold together the ethnic
Nepalese in the Darjeeling hills, and Rajbonshis in north Bengal demanding a separate
state in five districts of Cooch Bihar, Jalpaiguri, parts of Darjeeling and north and south
Denajpur. Another classic example of language not creating an imagined community is
the demand for a separate Telengana state in Andhra Pradesh. The people of Telengana
cherish their history and tradition of cultural synthesis as their identity, instead of
Telegu language.
The sub-regional identity assumes distinct political identity when factor of internal
colonialism generates and promotes inter-regional disparities and discrimination. This
phenomenon has two dimensions: one, many of the sub-regions, despite being rich in
natural resources have remained economically underdeveloped either because of the
sheer neglect of their development by the state in which they currently are, or, illconceived top-down approach of development; second, survival of one region at the cost
of other region through resources and earnings transfers. This is what rationalises the
demands for separate states of Vidarbha, Marathwada and Konkan (in Maharashtra),
Telengana (in Andhra Pradesh), Saurashtra (in Gujarat) and Kodagu (in Karnataka),
100

There is another dimension of it. If demand for Harit Pradesh in western Uttar Pradesh
is any pointer, then it can safely be argued that an economically welloff region may
seek separate statehood in order to retain its status as developed or developing economy.

11.5 SALIENT PATTERNS OF MOVEMENTS FOR STATEHOOD

From above discussion, following salient patterns of regional movements seeking separate
state may be discerned:
i)

In India, territory and community are symbiotically linked. A region is known by

the community, which lives in it, and community is designated and characterised
by the geo-specifics of the given region. The demand for separate statehood arises
from the synthesis between the two community and geography. A territorial
community seeks separate state in order to be the sole arbiter of its cultural setting,
political making and economic wellbeing of the people and territory, which it
claims as homeland. For them the state formation means creating an institutionalpolitical space through which autonomous self of the society is not only expressed,
but preserved, protected and promoted.

ii)

People having distinct socio-cultural identity, concentrated in few contiguous districts

within the existing state-systems seek a separate state in order to preserve, protect
and promote their identity. It is argued that a separate state would provide them a
political identity and a constitutionally documented institutional space for interest
articulation and protection within the Indian nation. It is being contested that this
would enhance their capacity to bargain with the central authority (union government)
as well as with other states in the overall distribution of political power and economic
resources. This, in other words, means capacity endowment, which otherwise is not
possible within the existing state in which they currently are. The cases of
Uttarakhand and Jharkhand movements are important pointers in this regard. There
is (was) a perceived threat to their identity due to the existence of internal
colonialism, expansionism and hegemony of certain other regional or cultural
groups. This also holds specifically true with most of the sub-regional movements
in the northeastern parts of India. They further argue that a separate state would
ensure them of a self-assuring mode of economic development through better
application and exploitation of local resources, talents and skills.

iii) Some of the above mentioned regional movements seek constitutional recognition,
protection and legitimisation of their respective socio-cultural varieties by the state.
It is at this level that the demand for functional elevation of mother tongue to the
level of education and administration is made. This also includes inclusion of some
languages in the eighth schedule of the Constitution of India. Linguistic purism is
another facet of socio-cultural regionalism. This in other words means preservation
of cultural identity. Identity factor is extended to delimit states encroachment upon
the cultural space of a particular regional community. Cultural homogenisation by
the state on the pretext of having a uniform national cultural identity is opposed.
Therefore, most of the regional movements emphasise autonomy especially in the
socio-cultural realm. And for exercising autonomy of identity, a separate state is
legitimately demanded. A separate state, in this context, is perceived as congenial
political space through which self of identity is preserved, protected and promoted.
101

This further means delimiting the areas of influence and interference by the state
(central and regional states) in the exclusive self of the society. This requires
periodic restructuring of state-society relationships, especially in terms of the cultural
rights of the people and their subsequent obligation to a broader territorial state.
Arguably, states role is perceived in promotional terms, and not those of interference.
And such a state-society relationship is sought to be provided a statutory basis in
order to avoid encroachment by any other structures of governance.
iv) Located within the realms of identity and development, regionalism for sub-regional
groups serves as an ideology through which they seek to define their own
administrative and political identity; and, their relationships with broader territorial
state, regional state, and inter-community relationships. Regionalism provides them
a bargaining space in the overall process of nationalism and federalism. It acts as
countervailing force to centralisation, and allows polity and society to federal. It
stresses for a decentralist framework of national unity, nation and statebuilding,
and governance. Being an autonomist ideology, its two fold objectives are (i)
maintenance of (sub) regional identity; and, (ii) self-devised and sustained mode of
economic growth. These two objectives are best achieved, as regionalists claim,
when they are granted the separate statehood or other structural-institutional
mechanism of self-rule. In India, as Akhtar Majeed observes, despite occasional
and remote indications of potential secessionism, regional movements do not usually
go beyond claiming resource sharing within the broader national context.
Regionalism, in this sense, can politically be understood as a search for an
intermediate control system between the centre and periphery for the competitive
advantage in the national arena.

11.6 TYPES OF REGIONALISM

Iqbal Narain has identified three major types of regionalism (or regional movements) in
India (i) SupraState regionalism; (ii) Inter-State regionalism; (iii) Intra-State regionalism.
Suprastate regionalism is built around the issues of common interest in which group
of states form a common political alliance, directed against either the similar alliance
of other states or the Union. Supra state regionalism is issue specific and is, as Narain
writes, confined to certain matter on which the group would like to take a common and
joint stand. It is not at all a case of a total and permanent merger of state identities in
the group identity; in fact, rivalries, tensions and even conflicts continue to take place
at times even simultaneously with group postures south vs. north in India on such issues
as language or the location of steel plants illustrate the point. Compared to this, interstate regionalism, as he further observes, is coterminous with state boundaries and
involves juxtaposing of one or more state identities against another on specific issues,
which threaten their interest. River water in general andboarder dispute in particular
can be cited as example. On the other hand, a regional community against the state
in which they are situated spearheads intrastate regionalism. Intrastate regionalism is
aimed at assuring oneself of self-identity and self-development. This self gradually
becomes weak when we move onto other two forms of regionalism. In the case of intra
state regionalism, it is identity around which groups political and economic interests
are defined. But in other two cases, it is conflict of interests either between two states
or between the centre and the state which temporarily give the people a sense of
togetherness, and a common political outlook. But, the essence of regionalism always
102

remains the same in all the category of regionalism. As a political idiom regionalism
seeks federalisation-pluralisation of national identity and resources. In other words, it is
an ideology of territorialising the process of federal nationbuilding. It is probably the
reason that regionalism has been described as in-built tendency of nationalism and
federalism. It is a complex amalgam of geographical, historico-cultural, economic,
politico-administrative and psychic factors. What factors will assume ascendancy in
the making of a regional movement is difficult to say. However, regional movement in
any case will always seek a redefinition of the relationship between a regional and
national on a more substantive basis.

11.7 STATES RESPONSE TO REGIONAL MOVEMENTS

States response to regional movements has been varying. We do not find any consistent
policy in this regard. However, certain patterns and principles can be discerned in this
regard. They are: (i) secessionist demand could not be conceded, rather, secessionism
would be suppressed by all necessary means; (ii) central government would not concede
those regional demands based exclusively upon religious differences; and (iii) the demands
for the creation of separate linguistic would not be conceded unless such a demand is
socially wide and economically viable. To illustrate, there could not be any singular
construct or formation of the units of Indian federation. Units should be composite
ones. Such a composite unit could be formed only by mutual balancing of four principles
which the States Reorganisation Commission (SRC) underlined as: (i) preservation and
strengthening of the unity and security of India; (ii) linguistic and cultural homogeneity;
(iii) financial, economic and administrative considerations; and (iv) successful working
of the national plan. Other factors like `peoples wishes, historicity of the region,
and geographical contiguity could have only limited, but qualificatory application
while (re) drawing the boundary of the units of the Indian Union. Thus, wishes of the
people can be acceptable as one of the yardsticks of territorial readjustment only when
it is objectively ascertainable, and is subjected to the overall considerations of other
important factors like human and material resources of the areas claiming statehood,
the wishes of substantial minorities, the essential requirements of the Indian Constitution
and the larger national interests. Similarly, historicity of a region can be invoked only
to the extent of determining the connectedness of the people with claimed territory, but
it could not be stretched to an extent as to convert them into a separate nation. Though
geographical contiguity is of high value in determining and devising the boundary of a
state, it [however] does not necessarily imply or involve the need for a geographical
frontier.. Thus, while drawing the lines between two units, the primary concern as
the SRC underlined should be of ensuring compactness of the units.
Within the above totalistic approach to reorganisation, the Commission strongly
recommended for the creation of large states. This, however, as Commission writes,
does not mean that units should be so unwieldy as to be without any intrinsic life of
their own or to defeat the very purpose for which larger units are suggested, i.e.,
administrative efficiency and coordination of economic development and welfare activity.
Thus, in the opinion of the Commission, the size principle must be balanced with
viability principle. This, in other words, means that the region seeking separate statehood
must have adequate financial resources to maintain itself and to develop its economy.
Though, Commission upheld the principle of internal homogeneity purely from the
viewpoints of smooth functioning of administration, it, nonetheless, rejected the
103

monolingual and uni-cultural construction of state. It is precisely the reason that it

rejected the homeland concept and one language one state formula for the
reorganisation of the units of Indian federation. However, within the general principle
of sizeable composite state, a cultural group can have its own state when they do
qualify the following two fold criteria: (a) the people claiming a distinctive culture
must constitute a recognisable group; that is to say, it should include a number of
persons sufficient by themselves to claim, conserve and develop stable traditions or the
characteristics of their culture; and (b) such cultural individuality should be capable of
being expressed in terms of a defined and sizeable geographical entity. However, such
a cultural basis of states reorganisation should not impede the inter-mingling of two
cultures and overall growth of composite national culture. What appears from above is,
that every recognisable and dominant basis of states reorganisation must be subjected
to the test of maintenance of national unity and integrity, and national security.
On the basis of SRCs recommendation, the Government of India passed in November
1956, the State Reorganisation Act. The Act endorsed the bulk of the recommendations
of SRC, except the merger of Hyderabad state into Andhra Pradesh, and Vidarbha was
made part of the Bombay state. Thus, the number of states was reduced from 16 to 14
in this Act. However, the number of centrally administered territories was enhanced
from 3 to 6. The major inclusion was the Himachal Pradesh and Tripura. Since then,
the numbers of states have been increased to 28 and union territories to 7. States formed
since 1956 include: Gujarat (1960), Nagaland (1963), Haryana (1966), Punjab (1966)
Himachal Pradesh (1971), Manipur (1972), Meghalaya (1972), Tripura (1972), Sikkim
(1975), Arunachal Pradesh (1987), Mizoram (1987) and Goa (1987). Jharkhand (2000),
Uttaranchal (2000) and Chattisgarh (2000).
With the formation of three new states of Uttranchal, Jharkhand and Chhattisgarh,
reorganisations have been effected for the first time in the Hindi-heartland of Bihar,
Uttar Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh. As stated above, the reorganisation was first effected
in 1956 in the south. It moved down to north-west in 1966 and north-east in 1971 and
1987. In all these reorganisations, the basis of reorganisation also differs. The first
reorganisation was done predominantly on the basis of language. In north-west in 1966,
linguistic principle was combined with religious identity. Initially, this seemed to be a
perilous combination having stronger tendency of drifting towards separatism. However,
democracy has its own way to prevent separatism and promote integration. In the third
major reorganisation affecting mostly the north-eastern region, tribal affiliations and
distinctive ethnic features became the major basis of reorganisation. The formation of
three new states, in all probabilities, may have domino affect on the Hindi- heartland
and other composite-plural and large sized states. Reorganisation in these states may not
be purely ethnic or cultural, but it may be on the basis of economic specificity and
ecological-cultural distinctiveness. Cultural specificity may in some case, as in the
movement for Mithilanchal state, owe to language or dialect, but in no case it would
owe exclusively to religion or ethnicity. In fact, most of the sub-regions of compositeplural states have developed and articulated a composite-cultural identity.
With initial reluctance, the Government of India is now applying the provisions of the
Fifth and Sixth Schedules of the Indian Constitution with intended objective of containing
ethnic separatism and tribal alienation in different regions, particularly in the northeast.
Institutionally, the government seems to be receptive to the creation of autonomous
104

regional council or district councils for the people of ethnic enclaves, which otherwise
may not qualify for separate state. Regional council is an experiment in the community
governance, wherein the concerned regional community has powers to regulate its identity
and developmental. Similarly, the state language policy is now being fine-tuned to
accommodate the claims of various dialect or language groups. The government has
embarked on two fold policies one, to include the major languages in Eighth Schedule,
and two, granting official recognition to culturally significant languages of the state as
language of education and official transaction. All these policies have significant impact
on integrating diverse regional community within the mould and measures of Indian
nationalism. We find a positive change in the official attitude towards regionalism and
regional movement. Government can concede ethnic claims of self-governance within
the permissible autonomy framework of Indian Constitution. Now regionalism is very
much integral to the process of nationalism and federalism. In fact the constitution of
India itself recognises the notion of an autonomous region. It is with the extension of
cultural autonomy, and initiation of democratic process with officially earmarked
economic package of development that India has been able to contain ethnic separatism,
and making regionalism ultimately the part and parcel of national life.

11.8 SUMMARY
To sum up, regional movements are indicative of the identity movements of people in
a particular region or state, which seek special privileges, protection and concessions
from the state. There are both imaginary and real reasons for the rise and growth of
these movements. Ever since India became independent, regional movements have taken
in different parts of the country on one or the other basis territorial, ethnicity or
economic backwardness of the agitating areas. The response of the state to regional
movements has not been uniform. Depending on the situation the state has been
indifferent, accommodative or coercive to such movements. Since regional movements
are related to the socio-cultural and political processes, these are an ongoing phenomenon
in a democratic country like India.

11.9 EXERCISES
1) Explain the meaning and significance of regional movements.
2) Discuss the methodology to study regional movements.
3) Explain the reasons for the rise and growth of regional movements in India.
4) Write a note on the response of the state to the regional movements.

105

UNIT 12 RELIGIOUS AND COMMUNAL MOVEMENTS

Structure
12.1
12.2
12.3
12.4
12.5

Introduction
What is Communal?
Communal and Religious Movements in Retrospect
Religious Demography
Hindu Communal and Religious Movements
12.5.1
12.5.2
12.5.3

12.6

Islamic Religious and Communal Movements

12.6.1
12.6.2

12.7
12.8
12.9
12.10

Hinduisation and Pedagogic Inculcations

Rise of the VHP and the Issue of Conversion
Babri Masjid-Ram Janm Bhumi Issue
Religio-lingual Issues
Communal and Terrorist Activities and Use of Islam

Christian Religious and Social Movements

Sikh Religion and Communal Movements
Summary
Exercises

12.1 INTRODUCTION
Religious and communal movements have been the glaring feature of Indian sub-continent
in general and India in particular. Whether it is an issue of social reforms, issue of
national awakening, formation of a state or coming to power, the religion has played a
decisive role in shaping the destiny of this country and its people. Social movements
of varied nature have played an important role in different spheres of life, primarily
relating to religion. In South Asia in general and India in Particular, the religious
fundamentalist movements have been pivotal in bringing about the socio-political change.
Their influence could be inferred from the fact that even they have been successful in
drawing the boundaries of nation state and are constant in such efforts by leading
secessionist moments. In addition to this, many of them are quite radical since they even
demand a structural change in the system itself from a secular state to a state based on
a particular religion. Consequently, such movements indulge in promoting enmity,
hostility and violence amongst people of different religions, which raises the question
about their legitimacy in the public domain. But in reality, the extent of penetration
within the society and linkages with state politics these movements can not be simply
dismissed, particularly in the present day India. This unit deals with social movements
in India with a focus on movements related to communal frenzies which have marred
the community life of the people of India on religious lines.

12.2 WHAT IS COMMUNAL?

In both political parlance and academic discussion, the communal is used in a derogatory
sense representing narrow sectarian interests. In pre-independence India, political leaders
described the Indian Muslim League a communal organisation. However, for many
Marxist and European scholars it represented Muslim nationalism. And in 1946
106

overwhelming majority of Indian Muslims voted for the Muslim Home Land in the
belief that the creation of Pakistan would fulfil Muslim nationalist aspirations in the
sub-continent.
Here it is worth pointing out that Communal identities can be formed on territorial,
cultural, ethnic, or religious bases or on a combination of these all too, depending upon
the emotional intensity that the people attach to a particular aspect of a nation. Both
Hindus and Muslims have been mobilised on communal lines. India is not only their
motherland, it is also their sacred land. What they claim that it is the land of their saints
and sages; it is where their sacred rivers flow and where their history was created and
they have full claim over their territory. In order to achieve geographical unity, places
of pilgrimage located in the four corners of the country are often cited and refuge is
sought in creating common cultural and religious bonds among the Hindus despite their
regional and linguistic differences.
Hindu nationalists emphasise this common cultural and religious bond creating an
emotional attachment to this land and its people. The anti-Sikh riots following Indira
Gandhis assassination, the Bhagalpur massacres in 1989, the demolition of the Babri
Masjid on December 6, 1992, attacks on missionaries in late nineties and the havoc
caused due to the communal riots after the incidence of Godra in 2002 are some of the
manifestations of majoritarian communal movements organised on religious lines.

12.3 COMMUNAL AND RELIGIOUS MOVEMENTS IN

RETROSPECT
The seeds of communalism on religious lines were sown in the early British period. The
divide and rule policy followed by the British Government was largely responsible for
the communal hatred amongst the different communities in India. In the census they
categorised people according to religion and viewed and treated them as different from
each other. They tried to decipher the Indian communities on the knowledge of basic
religious texts and they found intrinsic differences in them instead of the way they
coexisted in the present. The British remained fearful of the potential threat from the
Muslims, who were the former rulers of the subcontinent, ruling India for over 300
years under the Mughal Empire. In order to win them over to their side, the British
helped establish the M.A.O. College at Aligarh and supported the All-India Muslim
Conference, both of which became the forerunner institutions from which leaders of the
Muslim League and the ideology of Pakistan emerged. The social reformer and educator,
Sir Syed Ahmed Khan, who founded M.A.O. College, taught the Muslims that education
and cooperation with the British was vital for their survival in the society. Tied to all
the movements of Muslim revival was the opposition to assimilation and submergence
in Hindu society. Sir Syed Ahmed Khan was also the first to conceive of a separate
Muslim homeland. The idea of the separateness of Muslims in India was built into the
electoral process of India following the introduction of separate electorate which
culminated in ideological schism between the Muslims and the Hindus in time to come.
While there were strong feelings of nationalism in India against the British, by the late
19th century there were also communal conflicts and movements in the country that
were based on religious communities rather than class or region.

107

Along with Muslim communalism, Hindu communal sentiments were also fanned on
the issues of cow slaughter, conversion by Christians and Muslims. Shuddhi Movement
was launched to reconvert the Hindus, who embraced Islam or Christianity, by the
Hindu revivalists like Arya Samaj and other Hindu orthodox organisations. The dissention
between the two communities also arose on account of language and its script, as
Hindus wanted to change the official script from the Persian to the Hindu Devanagri
script, effectively making Hindi rather than Urdu the main candidate for the national
language.
In response to the formation of Muslim League, Hindu Right Wing political movements
also started getting organised on political lines in full swing in the form of Hindu
Mahasabha and Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS) in the beginning quarter of
twentieth century, claiming for a unified Hindu-Rashtra.
The political ideology, formed on the religious sentiments, could not keep together the
communities living in this sub-continent, despite strong secular nationalist sentiments
reflected during the freedom struggle. The independence of India accompanied its partition
on communal lines, though India altogether discarded the formation of state on religious
or communal sentiments and declared itself a secular state. However, as the religious
values and sentiments were integral to Indian society at large, they kept on echoing the
hearts of masses in one or the other issues raised on religious lines.
Despite, having accepted the partition on communal lines the majority-minority syndromes
remained intact. Numbers of Muslims inhabiting India are the same as in Pakistan
making it one of the largest Muslim countries of the world. To further understand the
gravity of the situation on account of its religious multiplicity where communal
movements are still able to disturb the social harmony, it would be desirable to have an
insight into the demographic composition as pointed out by the census of 2001.

12.4 RELIGIOUS DEMOGRAPHY

The country has a total area of approximately 1.3 million square miles and a population
of slightly more than one billion. According to the latest government estimates, Hindus
constitute 82 per cent of the population, Muslims 12 per cent, Christians 2.3 per cent,
Sikhs 2.0 percent, and others, including Buddhists, Jains, Parsis (Zoroastrians), Jews
and Bahais, less than 2 per cent. It is difficult to define Hinduism as Hindus worship
many Gods and Goddesses, and rituals also vary from region to region and caste to
caste. Slightly more than 90 per cent of Muslims are Sunni; the rest are Shia. Buddhists
include followers of the Mahayana and Hinayana schools and there are both Catholic
and Protestant Christians. Tribal groups (members of indigenous groups historically
outside the caste system), which in government statistics generally are included among
Hindus, often practice traditional indigenous religions. Hindus and Muslims are spread
throughout the country, although large Muslim populations are found in the states of
Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Maharashtra, West Bengal, Andhra Pradesh, and Kerala, and
Muslims are a majority in Jammu and Kashmir. Christian concentrations are found in
the North-Eastern states, as well as in the southern states of Kerala, Tamil Nadu, and
Goa. Three small North-Eastern states have large Christian majoritiesNagaland,
Mizoram, and Meghalaya. Sikhs are a majority in the state of Punjab. In the last half
century or so, many lower caste Hindus, Dalits (called as Scheduled Castes) and other
108

non-Hindu tribal groups have converted to other faiths because they viewed conversion
as a means to escape widespread discrimination and achieve higher social status.
According to the Catholic Bishops Conference of India, there are approximately 1,100
registered foreign missionaries in the country representing a variety of Christian
denominations which are often engaged in conversion and other social services.
With such a vast and diverse religious configuration and having the history of rich
religious origins, it is but natural that people of this land are bound to get influenced
in their public or private activities by religious sentiments. In order to assert their
religious identity in social and political life, all the communities have tried to woo the
masses by raising emotive issues more often resulting in destructive tendencies, affecting
the nation building process and causing embitterment in the social harmony.

12.5 HINDU COMMUNAL AND RELIGIOUS MOVEMENTS

As discussed earlier, Hindu revivalists movements during the 19th century prepared the
ground for right wing politics along which religious issues took the shape of Hindu
communalism. The issues of conversion, ban on cow slaughter, implementation of
Hindi, Hinduisation of education and asserting the claim of Hindu homeland remained
vibrant even after independence. Adding further to the communal frenzy, the issues like,
Uniform Civil Code, removal of Article 370 (related to Kashmir), demolition of Babri
Masjid (a historical mosque) and construction of Ram Temple on the same place and
subsequent attacks on Christian missionaries on account of their policy of proselytisation,
remained the bone of contention on which Hindu right wing social movements thrived
and tried to enchant the masses.
The issues based on identities of religion, caste and ethnicity have overshadowed the
social and political processes after independence. The diversity on ascriptive
denominations, on which the religious communal movements were based, attempted
social transformation whereby a homogeneous polity could be established or at least,
the dominance of the majority community be asserted and other religious groups are
reduced to just the status of foreigners.
The Hindu Mahasabha, which was the major political force before independence and
which spoke for the cause of Hindus, diminished because of Mahatma Gandhis
assassination and umbrella like domination of Indian National Congress. After
independence the other Hindu outfits were also put to the test of time and got little
recognition in independent India because of the ugly face of communal violence which
killed millions and displaced around 15 Million people across the border. The brutal
assassination of Mahatma was the single event at the time of Independence which made
people indifferent towards religious sentiments in the public life.
However, the RSS continued to penetrate the masses through its social service projects
and resuscitated the Hindu national spirit through a large network of tens and thousands
of shakhas, engaged in its multifarious Seva projects undertaken by its various suborganisations in the field of student, labour, farming, education and in especially Vanavasi
areas.

109

12.5.1 Hinduisation of Pedagogic Inculcations

The socio-economic and cultural reforms, which the RSS undertook after independence,
were extensive and got a wide ranging recognition amongst the Indian masses. The
RSS, in order to achieve its objectives, stroked at the roots of mass inertia. It sought to
alter the social formation through pedagogic programmes, voluntary social work during
natural calamities and repeated assertion for the Hindu-Rashtra for Hindus.
In line with other social reformist movements like the Arya Samaj or the Ramakrishna
Mission, the RSS started its agenda of penetration through wide ranging educational
institutions which inculcated pedagogic programmes on traditional Hindu lines. To this
effect, the RSS started the first Saraswati Shishu Mandir in 1952 in Gorakhpur (Uttar
Pradesh).
As the number of schools grew in different states, an all-India co-ordinating body called
Vidya Bharati was set up with its headquarters in Delhi. The Vidya Bharati educational
mission was founded with the objective of training children to see themselves as protectors
of a Hindu nation.
The RSS practices may be seen as a reaction to the widespread Christian missionary
educational practices. In their efforts to revive past culture, Sanskrit terms are used to
address teachers (Acharya), the practice of touching their feet as a mark of respect and
the naming of classrooms after Hindu sages (Vashisht kaksh, Vishwamitra kaksh),
also marks out the school as a space where Hindu Dharma and Hindu Sanskars are
asserted with pride, where tradition is saved and transmitted as against the enculturation
or influence of Christianity through convent missionaries.
Not only this, to further propagate its identity of Hindu culture, the Vidya Bharati
schools celebrate their own roster of special days, such as the birthdays of Shivaji and
Jijabai, Vivekananda, Deendayal Upadhyay and Savarkar. Significantly, Gandhi Jayanti
is not celebrated. Shikshak diwas or Teachers day (celebrated by the rest of India on
September 5th on the birth anniversary of the former president and educationist Sarvapalli
Radhakrishnan) is celebrated on the supposed birth anniversary of the Sage Vyasa,
while Krishna Janmashtami stands for childrens day, normally celebrated in India on
Nehrus birthday, November 14th. Myth and history, the birth and death anniversaries
of actual historical figures and those of mythical characters are, thus, glorified in the
childs consciousness through the aura of annual holidays, celebrations, morning prayers
as well as through the content of history and cultural knowledge of text-books. The
functioning of the school is primarily to keep a religious identity alive in the minds of
children at the outset.
The RSS/BJP has attempted to affect a radical departure in the existing educational
ethos through the use of both state power by packing state educational institutions with
its own ideologues and the instruments of civil society, where it created its own
network of schools in order to feed the well-developed cadre structure of its organisations.
Inevitably, the RSSs educational and political agenda included both: absorbing subaltern groups into the Hindu fold to fight against minorities and using violence against
these same groups in order to perpetuate Hindu dominance in the existing social order.
In order to justify and make their inculcations logical, the Sangh Parivar took recourse
to re-write historical developments which shaped the destiny of India.
110

12.5.2 Rise of the VHP and the Issue of Conversion

The process of religious conversion has evoked grave concerns amongst the members
of the Sangh Parivar down the century which were intensified and made to appear much
more legitimate by giving the loss a patriotic and national colour. This phenomenon
has been a key to the functioning of Hindu majoritarianism particularly after 1947. The
Sangh Parivars justifications of recent outrages against Christians are in consonance
with the instances of such an equation.
It is widely assumed that Hinduism zis unique among religious traditions in being nonproselytising. Conversion to other faiths, therefore, is a loss that cannot be recovered.
This logic at once echoes at the hearts of most of the individuals. The common sense,
which is applied here, is that one can become a Hindu by birth alone since caste
(whether in the Varna or the Jati sense) is crucial to Hinduism and caste status is
hereditary.
From the late 19th century onwards as the expansion directed towards marginal groups
and tribals became more organised, reclamation, Shuddhi (purification),
reconversion(Parivartan, turning backthe term preferred by the VHP today) became
more rampant. All these terms have been coined to bring people back to their natural
state, presuming that all the targeted groups are Hindu in a more or less Sanskritised
manner.
If we analyse the functioning of the Jana Sangh in early days, along with the promotion
of highly Sanskritised Hindi and cow-protection, the fight against Christian missionaries
was made an important plank of its activities. The Jan Sangh organised an Anti-Foreign
Missionary Week in Madhya Pradesh in November 1954.
Till the recent anti-Christian campaign, the VHP, which has been associated primarily
with Ramjanmabhumi and the onslaught on Muslims at the time of its foundation in
1964 and in the subsequent decade, its main focus had been directed primarily against
Christian proselytisation in tribal areas (the North-East, Madhya Pradesh, and South
Bihar). The Achaar Samhita (code of conduct) drawn up by the VHP in 1968 included
Parivartan (turning back, i.e. reconversion) among the basic Samskaras of the Hinduism.
Here it is worth pointing out that this kind of Parivartan was different from its historically
referred movement of Shuddhi, which was more reformative and social in context, but
this kind of efforts were more communal in their approach and had essentially conservative
motives. The Meenakshipuram (Tirunelveli) mass conversions of thousands of Dalits to
Islam in February, 1981 inaugurated an era in which Muslims were targeted for more
than a decade. In the recent times Christians have been on their agenda especially after
the formation of the BJP-led coalition in centre.
In addition to Pokhran blasts and swiftly accelerated liberalisation, the BJP-dominated
coalition at centre may be remembered for the concerted campaign against Christians.
The widespread revulsion evoked by the sheer horror of the Staines killings on 23
January 1999 seemed to have produced a brief lull but then the attacks started again and
came to be more and more widely distributed. By August 2000 they had spread to a
very big part of the country: Uttar Pradesh, Haryana, Punjab, Madhya Pradesh, Andhra,
Karnataka, Tamilnadu and Goa. A recent Christian estimate places the number of recorded
attacks since 1998 at 184, while there have been 35 incidents in the first six months of
2000 alone.
111

12.5.3 Babri Masjid-Ramjanm Bhoomi Issue

The resurgent spirit of Hindu communal assertion finally found a historic expression in
the Ayodhya movement which Shri Girilal Jain described as the most significant event
after Independence. The RSS holds the view that Ayodhya, Mathura and Kashi is not
a political but a national question.
This issue further aggravated the situation. The events between 1986-92 have an
interesting account to present. Though the controversy of Ramjanm Bhoomi has more
than a century old history, yet it remained within the four walls of Ayodhya. Even on
28 December 1949 when riots broke out due to the sudden installation of Ram Lallas
idol over-night, the incidence could not gain much heat as the doors of the Mosque were
swiftly closed for both the communities and place was kept under guard in status quo
till 1985 when Rajeev Gandhi ordered the opening the Gate of controvertial Babri
Masjid for Pooja by the Hindus. Adding to this, the Doordarshan serialRamayana
further acted as a catalyst to this controversy. The Sangh Parivar used the actors of the
serial for gaining support in the elections of 1989. The campaign was launched from the
district of Faizabad in which the town of Ayodhya was located, symbolising the strong
urge for a Hindu assertion.
Even Rajeev Gandhi wanted to capitalise on this issue, though in a subtle manner. He
tacitly allowed the foundation stone for the proposed Ram Temple to be laid adjacent
to the Mosque. Rajeev Gandhi did not hesitate to refer to this incident being similar to
Mahatma Gandhis dream for Ram Rajya. However, those involved directly with the
movement were the real beneficiaries. The VHP was confident that the Babri Mosque
controversy would split every party vertically. These gestures of the VHP came true to
a greater extent as the BJPs electoral gains were considerable. In the 1984 parliamentary
elections it had won barely two seats with 7.5 per cent votes but in 1989 it won 85 seats
with 11.5 per cent of votes. Gains of the BJP were significant and unprecedented in its
history since the days of the BJS. This success was attributed to its ability to project its
separate identity from other parties. From this point onwards, the BJP became more
vocal about its Hindu identity. The Ayodhya movement led to the demolition of Babri
Mosque on 6 December 1992.
Despite its repeated threats after 1992, the VHP and other Hindu outfits have largely
refrained from taking direct confrontation with the State. Now they have moderated
their agenda, i.e. settling the issue through court, though there have been oscillations of
their anger in repeated threats to the state time and again.
In March 2003, the VHP announced it would launch a nationwide campaign to reclaim
30,000 Hindu temples that had been converted into mosques. Some Muslims fear that
under this campaign, Hindus will try to claim the Gyan Vapi mosque in Varanasi, the
Idgah mosque in Mathura, and the Ram temple grounds at the former Babri Mosque in
Ayodhya.
The VHP continued its trident of trishul distribution programme during the reporting
period despite the prohibition under the Penal Code against the distribution of sharp
weapons to the public. Trishuls (three-pronged tridents) are Hindu religious symbols,
but they have also been used as weapons, including in the 2002 Gujarat riots.

112

12.6 ISLAMIC RELIGIOUS AND COMMUNAL MOVEMENTS

Islam is one of the largest minority faiths in India and is perceived by Sangh Parivar
as actively engaging a pan-Islamic ideology in order to recover the past glory, and
constantly is the cause of the Hindu sense of insecurity.
Along with Hindu religious and social movements in the 19th century, the rising tide
of Muslim politics was quite visible in the first quarter of 20th century particularly after
the formation of All India Muslim League in 1906. The Muslim communalism, like
other right wing organisations started acquiring colour on religio-political lines and
inhibited the integration and assimilation of Muslim community in Indian society. Aligarh
Muslim University fuelled the fire by giving communal colour to issues like Urdu
language and separate electorates for Muslims and steadily accelerated the movement
for communal politics in the name of religious brotherhood. Events like Khilafat
Movement, Mopla riot in Kerala, propaganda of two-nation theory, demand for Pakistan
and finally the partition of the country were the outcome of such politics fanned on
religious lines.
Even after the formation of secular India, the demands for maintaining exclusive identity
remained consistent. The concept of religious brotherhood was put to use for this purpose.
The cry for Islam is in danger caught the imaginary concept of Muslim brotherhood
or the religious solidarity of the Muslims, which formed the main ingredient of Muslim
politics in India. Some of the Muslim scholars have rightly pointed out this divisive
communal design of the feudal section in the community. It would seem that, in the
sub-continent, Muhammads concept of Umma Muslima (Muslim Community as a
homogeneous unit) is only successful in politics and as a defensive posture.
The slogan of religious brotherhood remained the main weapon for the political fight
of Muslims even in post-partition India. The social elite of Muslim society also exploited
the spiritual concept of Islamic brotherhood only to expand the autonomous space for
Muslim politics in the country. Elitist character of Muslim politics failed to comprehend
and work on the economic and social problems of Indian Muslims. Repeated slogans
for a separate religious identity were basically for a separate political identity of the
Muslims, which is contrary to the spirit of joint electorate system enforced in India after
partition.
Such efforts to homogenise a religious group in the plurality of Indian society widened
the centuries old communal mistrust between the two major religious communities of
this country. The Muslim leaders, while taking advantage of the secular constitution,
persisted with its divisive concept of religious solidarity, which implied communal
unity in the name of minority privileges. The attempt for social integration was resisted
upon under the garb of old cry of Islam in danger. Consequently, self-assertion of
Muslim brotherhood on communal lines pushed the Muslim community into mental and
psychological ghettos.
A. Q. Ansari, a prominent Congress leader, established a Muslim Front inside the
Congress, demanding that Congress party should give election tickets to Muslims on the
basis of their population. Keeping the Muslim masses ignorant of the realities of modern
age, their leaders continue to arouse the sentiments of internal religious unity for
113

maintaining a distinct communal identity. What exactly was the concept of Muslim
brotherhood meant in a larger space of democracy, always remained an unanswered
question. Against whom they want communal solidarity is a big question mark for even
the Muslim thinkers.

12.6.1 Religio-lingual Issues

Along with the demand for separate electorate, the Urdu Language has also acquired
religious colour. Muslims, irrespective of their region and Mother tongue, have constantly
raised the issue of Urdu as a part of their religio-cultural heritage.
It is a general perception of the Muslims in India that Urdu can and will survive in India
as a functional language only through its inclusion in the educational curriculum as a
Modern Indian Language, which is the mother-tongue of more than 60 million Indians.
However, due to the negligent attitude of the so called secularists and Hindu right wing
ideologues, Urdu is losing its glory. Here, they generally forget that even rich language
like Sanskrit could not survive despite having achieved State protection.
No one denies the glare of Urdu as one of the fabulous languages of India but here,
people belonging to Islamic faith should not claim for its monopoly over this lingua
franca which is even spoken by those who do not subscribe to this faith. The kind of
communal colour which associates with this language, Urdu has become largely confined
to Muslim minority educational institutions and religious seminaries called Madrasas.
Though it has survived, yet the learners now belong to the lower strata of the Muslim
community which is not only economically backward but socially fragmented too,
which consequently renders it as one of the educationally backward and deprived
communities in the country. Thus, the religious aspect has come to define the horizons
of Urdu due to the denial of state support or rather the denial of the constitutional rights
of the Urdu-speaking community. It is this situation which has misdirected the postindependence discourse on Urdu. To some extent, the preservation of Urdu is linked to
the economic survival of the backward sections of the Muslim community since the
Muslim elite of North India has altogether abandoned the language. No doubt Urdu is
the repository of the religious heritage of Muslim Indians yet, as a spoken language, it
is still lingua franca of common man of India.

12.6.2 Communal and Terrorist Activities and Use of Islam

Apart from these issues which have largely dominated the mind set of Muslim population
of India to a larger extent, the Islamisation of communal violence, separatism and
terrorism have too come up as the special feature of religious communalism of Muslims
in India, especially in the state of Jammu and Kashmir.
The Government officially banned the Students Islamic Movement of India (SIMI) in
September 2001 under the Unlawful Activities Prevention Act for fomenting communal
tension and actions prejudicial to Indias security. The Government alleged that the
SIMI had links with terrorist groups such as the Lashkar-e-Tayyeba and the Hizbul
Mujahideen. The police in three different states arrested eight of its members, including
former president of the SIMI Bhopal district unit, Khalid Naeem.
On May 3, 2001, likewise government banned the Muslim group Deendar Anjuman for
fomenting communal tension and actions prejudicial to Indias security. State
114

prosecutors alleged that some members of the tiny Muslim group called Deendar
Channabasaveshwara Siddique (DCS) and its parent organisation, Deendar Anjuman,
were responsible for the Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh church bombings in 2000.
Given the terrorist insurgency throughout the globe, the Islamic groups are the easy
target of state in most of the non-Islamic countries.

12.7 CHRISTIAN RELIGIOUS AND COMMUNAL MOVEMENTS

Today Christianity is generally perceived to be associated with a legacy of Western rule
which forced its religion upon Indians during the colonial period. However, the fact
should be noted that Indian Christians are as old as Christianity itself. St. Thomas, the
direct disciple of Jesus Christ, came to India and preached Christianity here soon after
the death of Christ, i.e. in 52 A.D. After that many missionaries from different parts of
the world preached Christian faith in India. The English missionaries came to India very
late. In general, it is believed that A missionary is a person for others, one who stands
for Justice, spreads the message of equality and love, and cares for the down trodden.
But some authors describe Christianity in India as an offshoot of British rule and relate
it with the religion of the oppressive and immoral whites and the missionaries being
their representatives. However, Christianity, with its charitable, educational and medical
institutions, has been able to woo the masses to a greater extent. The issues of discord
between Christians and Hindus or Christians and Muslims have been the issues related
to conversion.
Christians have been target of attacks by Hinditva forces especially the RSS, VHP and
Bajrang Dal. The Hindutua forces argue that the Christians have to Indianise themselves.
In March 2001, K.S. Sudarshan, the head of the RSS stated that Muslims and Christians
should sever their links with the Mecca and the Pope and instead become Swadeshi.
He also stated that Christians should reinterpret their scriptures in a manner more in
keeping with Hindu cultural norms. Catholics strongly reacted to these kind of statements,
the Archbishop of Delhi pointed out that the Indian Christian church is 2,000 years old
(traditionally dating from the Apostle Thomas), and that although the spiritual head was
the Pope, the day-to-day administration of the church was entirely in Indian hands.
Along with the issues of discord, there have been some attempts to resolve the differences
between the Hindutva forces and Christians. On September 1, 2003, the Times of India
reported about the talk which took place between the RSS and the Catholic Bishops
Conference of India. The two met in Nagpur on August 22, 2003, and further talks were
scheduled. But the attempts to lessen tensions between Christians and the RSS took a
turn for the worse when RSS chief K.S. Sudarshan called on Muslims and Christians
to reinterpret their scriptures and change their leadership. The Catholic bishops conference
expressed shock and surprise at the statement made by Sudarshan in Nagpur, according
to the October 31, 2003 online edition of The Hindu. The Church was also offended by
Sudarshans observation that the leadership of the Christian and Muslim communities
has remained in the hands of conflict-mongers. In the opinion of the bishops conference
Secretary-general, Archbishop Oswald Gracias, these observations only strengthen the
hands of forces opposed to dialogue.

115

12.8 SIKH RELIGION AND COMMUNAL MOVEMENTS

Founded on the traditions of Bhakti movement of the 15th and 16th centuries, the Sikh
religion became a powerful source of the mobilisation of the Sikh Community in the
20th century. The Shiromani Akali Dal and Shiromani Gurudwara Parbandhak Committee
(SGPC) were two principal organisations which mobilised Sikhs on the religious lines
during the first of the 20th century. The Shiromani Akali Dal launched socio-religious
movement in the 1920s to liberate the Gurudwaras from the control of Mahants and
landed aristocracy. As a result, the British government gave the SGPC a statutory status.
Even after, the independence the Akali Dal continued to mix religion with politics. In
order to maintain separate Sikh Identity and to make the community powerful in the
political arena, Master Tara Singh, the most prominent leader of the Akali Dal up to
1962, viewed it exclusively in terms of political interest of the community. He described
the then existing situation as a serious threat to the existence of Sikh community. In a
statement he maintained, Now the circumstances have so altered that we have been
saved from Muslim domination. But we have been absolutely trapped under Hindu
domination We can not survive under Hindu domination.
In 1967, the Congress was defeated in the elections and the Akali Dal formed the
government in coalition with the BJS and the Communist parties. But during 19671971, the Akali Dal ministry fell thrice and there was constant instability due to the
intra-factionalism in the Akali Dal.
Intense factional feuds in the Dal manifested in the increasing pressure for reversion to
politics of religion and culture during this period, but the ruling leadership, however,
managed to maintain ascendancy of secular material consensus and considerations of
power in the secular political domain of the state. Even in that process it had to reconciliate
with Tara Singh faction. The Batala Resolution of 1968, and the Anandpur Sahib
Resolution of 1973, which meant in substance the adoption of Master Tara Singhs
groups Sikh Homeland thesis as the goal of Akali Dal, proves this point. From 197780, the Akali Dal enjoyed effective power in the secular political domain of the state
along with control over the SGPC.
In the 1970s the Akali Dal challenged the dominance of Congress in Punjab politics.
In order to meet this challenge the Congress used the services of Sikh religious leaders,
including Sant Jarnail Singh Bhinderanwale in 1980 assembly elections. Realising their
political significance the Sikh religious leaders asserted their autonomy and demanded
their share in arena of political power. This gave rise to the competitive politics among
political parties Congress, Akali and religions and militant leaders to use religion on the
one hand, and movement for Khalistan, a Sikh homeland, on the other. The changing
religious, cultural and economic situation and involvement of the people settled in other
countries provided fillip to this movement. The large scale violence which included
terrorism operation, Blue Star, assassination of political leaders and activists, anti-sikh
riots in Delhi in 1984 were some of the repercussions of use of Sikh religion in politics.
This set a new trend in Indian politics.

116

12.9 SUMMARY
To sum up, the discussion in this unit clearly points out that India which has been a land
of religions, is bound to be influenced by religious practices, believes and rituals.
Religions being integral to culture in general else where in the world and India in
particular have been instrumental in moulding the socio-political processes to a
considerable extent. The socio-religious movements have proved to be instruments of
national consciousness in the 19th and early 20th century. However, with the passage
of time due to one or the other reason they have acquired communal and political
colour. The religious rivalries within and between the communities have roots that are
centuries old, and these tensions at times are exacerbated by poverty, class, and ethnic
differences, which have erupted into periodic violence throughout the countrys 57-year
history. The Government has made some effort, not always successfully, to prevent
these incidents and to restore communal harmony when they do occur. However, tensions
between Muslims and Hindus, and between Hindus and Christians, continue to pose a
challenge to the concepts of secularism, tolerance, and diversity on which the Indian
state was founded.
Despite the incidents of violence and discord, relations between various religious groups
generally are amicable among the substantial majority of people. The general perception
about the plurality of Indian society is that it brings religious leaders together to defuse
religious tensions. The annual Sarva Dharma Sammelan (All Religious Convention)
and the frequently held Mushairas (Hindi-Urdu poetry sessions) are some events that
help improve inter community relations. Prominent secularists of all religions make
public efforts to show respect for other religions by celebrating their holidays and
attending social events such as weddings and other functions. Institutions, like bureaucracy
and army consciously forge loyalties that transcend religious beliefs. After episodes of
violence against Christians, Muslim groups have protested against the mistreatment of
Christians by Hindu extremists and in 2001 prominent Catholics spoke out against the
killings of six Sikhs in Kashmir. Christian clergy and spokespersons for Christian
organisations issued public statements condemning the violence in Gujarat, and the
Archbishop of Gandhinagar, the capital of Gujarat, participated in a peace march in
April 2003. These small incidences of communal harmony clearly pronounce that India
is too diverse and pluralistic for any extremist ideology to entrench itself for long. But
it is usage of religious by leaders which disturbs the communal harmony among people
following different faiths.

12.10

EXERCISES

1)

What do you understand by the phenomenon of communalism? How far religions

have contributed to its growth in India?

2)

Do you think religious and communal movements have contributed to social growth
in any way?

3)

Majority communalism is more dangerous than minority communalism. Comment.

4)

Religious movements often have become a spring board for grabbing political
power. In the light of this statement elaborate your views.

117

UNIT 13 AGRARIAN MOVEMENTS

Structure
13.1
13.2

Introduction
What are the Agrarian Movements and Agrarian Classes?
13.2.1
13.2.2

13.3
13.4
13.5

Approaches to Study Agrarian Movements

Agrarian Movements in the Pre-Independence Period
Agrarian Movements in the Post-Independence Period
13.5.1
13.5.2
13.5.3

13.6
13.7

Meaning
Differentiation within the Agrarian Classes

Rural Poor: Agricultural Labourers and Small/Poor/Marginal Peasants

Farmers/Middle Peasants/Kulaks/Rich Peasants/Rural Rich
Globalisation and Farmers Movements

Summary
Exercises

13.1 INTRODUCTION
Different agrarian classes have resorted to collective action through out the preImpendence and post-Independence periods. The volume of participation of the classes,
response of the state and success of the agrarian movements have depended on the
nature of leadership, issues, patterns of mobilisation and the attitude of the authorities.
These days the agrarian movements are referred to as among the social movements.
This unit discusses the agrarian movements, the reasons and context of their rise or fall,
nature of issues taken up by them, nature of leadership and patterns of mobilisation. The
basic focus of the unit is on those agrarian movements which took place in the postIndependence period. However, in order to give the students a background to these
movements, section 13.4 also discusses the essential features of such movements in the
pre-Independence period.

13.2 WHAT ARE THE AGRARIAN MOVEMENTS AND AGRARIAN

CLASSES?
13.2.1 Meaning
Agrarian movements include the movements of agrarian classes which are related to
agriculture in terms of working on the land or in terms of both working on land and its
ownership. In other words, these are the movements of the agricultural labourers, poor
and small peasant/tenants and farmers/kulaks/rich peasants/rural rich. The issues taken
up in the agrarian movements are generally economic. But in several cases the economic
and social issues overlap. Such cases include where the agrarian class is both an economic
and social group; for example in the case of dalits and women the economic and social
(self-respect, dignity and gender based discrimination) are also involved. Since you
have studied about the movements of dalits, backward classes and women (focusing on
the social issues) in units 7, 8 and 10 respectively, this unit primarily focuses on the
mobilisation of agrarian classes on the economic issues. However, whenever necessary
even non-economic issues are discussed.
118

13.2.2 Differentiation within the Agrarian Classes

Agrarian society is not a homogeneous unit. It is divided on economic and social basis.
The mobilisation of an agrarian group depends on the specific issues related to it. The
collaboration between different groups or conflict among them also depends on the
convergence of the group interests. Therefore, in order to understand the movements of
different agrarian classes it is necessary to discuss the criteria to designate a particular
class. There two broad frameworks which are used by the scholars to differentiate or
identify different agrarian classes , i.e., non-Marxian and the Marxian. The advocates
of the former take into consideration the multiple factors like caste, geographical zones
and size of land holdings to identify the agrarian classes. The classes which belong to
the low castes are usually identified as those belonging to the agricultural labourer/poor
and small peasants and those belonging to the high castes and middle castes are identified
as belonging to the upper classes rich peasants and land lords. The followers of the
latter the Marxian approach consider the non-Marxian approach as unscientific and
give an alternative framework. They argue that a scientific way to differentiate peasantry
is to see the proportion of family labour-power in relation to the outside labour-power
in working on the land along with the ownership of land. This criterion is based on the
writings of Mao and Lenin. Utsa Patnaik has synthesised the criterion of Mao and
Lenin in her book Peasant Class Differentiation: A Study in Method with Reference to
Haryana (Oxford, 1987). Patnaiks model has been used by some other scholars as well.
According to this framework those who do not own land but work on others land or
own smaller size of the land holdings and work more on others land than on their own
land belong to the classes of agricultural labourers and small and poor peasants; those
who own land and agricultural resources, employ agricultural labourers, poor and small
peasants or those who own land and do not themselves work on land (except for
supervision) but depend on the outside labour are categorised as the rural rich (middle
peasants, rich peasants and landlords). Utsa Patnaiks model, however, is more applicable
to the areas which have witnessed capitalism than those which still have predominance
of feudal mode of production.
In this unit we have grouped the agrarian groups into the following classes:
i)

The Rural Poor: Agricultural labourers and small/poor/marginal peasants

Agricultural labourers do not own land but work on others land for wages either
as agricultural labourers or tenants. Small/poor/marginal peasants have land but it
not enough to meet the basic needs. They have to work on others land also; and

ii)

Farmers/middle peasants/kulaks/rich peasant/rural rich These classes own

land and other required paraphernalia in agriculture. They work on their land or do
not work themselves except doing the supervisory work along with employing
agricultural labourers.

As you will study in the sub-section 13.5.2 the last three decades of the twentieth
century saw the movements of a group of agrarian classes, which shared a lot of
common characteristics. Notwithstanding, the reservation on the usage of these terms,
this category has been addressed as kulaks, middle peasants or the farmers.

119

13.3 APPROACHES TO STUDY AGRARIAN MOVEMENTS

Traditionally there have been two approaches to study the agrarian movements the
Marxian and non-Marxian. The former analyse these movements in the light of the
social relations of production or the economic relations how the poorer agrarian
classes get mobilised against their exploitation by the exploiting classes. The latter give
more emphasis to the cultural and non-economic factors. In the early 1980s there was
an addition to the Marxian approach. Influenced by the Gramscis writings this approach
came to be known as the subaltern approach. Subaltern school has had the most profound
impact on the study of the agrarian movements. It has been popularised by Ranajit Guha
in the series of subaltern studies. This approach is critical of the classical Marxism,
which gives primacy to the economic factors over other factors. The subaltern school
argues that the peasants have their own consciousness, leadership and other cultural
factors which play much more important role than the class. The sublatern school is
also critised by classical Marxists as separating consciousness and culture from the
economic structure and thus not giving the true picture of the reality. Rajender Singh
analyses the secondary literature on the agrarian movements as parts of the social
movements in the post-Marxian perspective in his book Social Movements, Old and
New: Post-Modernist Critique.

13.4 AGRARIAN MOVEMENTS IN THE PRE-INDEPENDNECE

PERIOD
Ghanshyam Shah while reviewing the literature on social movements in India in the
book Social Movements in India: A Review of Literature points out that Political Science
has been averse to the peoples participation in politics and movements. In the similar
vein a section of literature has categorised the peasants as passive and docile subjects,
uninterested in participating in the movements. Barrington Moore Jr. is representative
of this perspective. A large number of scholars disputed this view, prominent among
them included Kathleen Gough, A. R. Desai, D. N. Dhanagre and Ranajit Guha. In fact,
Kathleen Gough identified 77 revolts during the 19th and 20th centuries.
Almost all regions of the country witnessed agrarian movements during the preIndependence period. Popularly known as the peasant movements, these movements
involved all exploited classes tenants, agricultural labourers, artisans, etc. Ranajit
Guha, actually includes those landlords as exploited classes who were indebted to the
moneylenders. Among the most prominent of these movements were Oudh peasant
movements in UP, Kheda movement in Guajarat, Mopilla movement in Malabar (Kerala),
Champaran peasant movement in Bihar, Wahabi, Fairabi and Tebhaga movements of
Bengal and Telengana movement in Madras presidencies ( areas forming present Andhra
Pradesh).
When you compare the characteristics of these movements with those of the postIndependence period which are discussed in section 13.5 of this unit, you will notice
that there are differences in the issues, nature of leadership, ideologies and pattern of
mobilisation in the agrarian movements of these two phases pre and post-Independence.
The pre-Independence period movements can be termed as the anti-colonial movements
as well, since these movements were against the classes which were supporters of the
120

British empire the landlords, moneylenders and other exploiting classes. The issues
raised in these movements were related to the nature of agrarian relations. These relations
were built on the exploitation of the agrarian classes tenants/peasants/agricultural
labourers, artisans, etc. In order to meet the requirement of the colonial forces and to
satisfy their feudal needs, the landlords exploited them in several ways. These included
unreasonable increase in the rent, forced gifts (nazarans), begar (forced labour) physical
torture, insecurity of tenure (eviction). These problems were compounded by natural
calamities like famines and flood, commercialisation of crops, indebtedness. The failure
to meet the economic and non-economic requirements of the landlords the poor agrarian
classes were not only evicted from the land they cultivated they were also tortured
physically.
As mentioned earlier the agrarian classes were not silent sufferers. They reacted to the
exploitative system in different ways. These ways included both the ways which
James Scott calls everyday forms of resistance and in the forms of organised peasant
movements. The leadership of the peasant movements of the pre-Independence period
articulated the problems of the peasants and mobilised them into action against the
landlords, moneylenders and the British administration. The general point which emerges
from a large number of studies is that the leadership of these movements came from the
non-peasant classes. Kapil Kumar in his book Peasants in Revolt: Tenants, Landless,
Congress and the Raj in Oudh indicates that though the leadership Oudh peasant
movement did not belong to peasants as such, it ran parallel to the leadership of the
leadership of the national movement. In the course of time with the merger of this
movement with the national movement the leadership of the peasant movement was
taken over by the leadership of the national movement. Similar observation is made by
scholars some about the Chamapran peasant movement. Religion, caste, nationalism
and Marxism provided ideological basis of the peasant during this phase. Religion and
caste became the rallying points of the peasants in Oudh, Mopillaha and Wahabi and
Fairidie uprisings. The usage of religion generated a debate among the scholars; one
group of them categoring such mobilisation as communal while other linking region
with the economic problems of the peasants. The attack on the Indian exploited classes
landlords and moneylenders and participation of the peasantry in the armed insurgency
in Telengana under the banner of the Communist Party of India are examples of how
ideologies of nationalism and Marxism contributed to the mobilisation of the peasants
in their movements. The movements took different forms demonstration, destroying
the properties of the landlords and money lenders, boycott of the landlords by the
barbers and washer men. On several occasions the movements resulted in violent clashes
between the agents of landlords and police.
The peasant movements of the pre-Independence period had impact on the programmes
of the Indian National Congress. The Congress Socialist group within the Congress
which included later generation of socialists, communists and future Prime Minister of
India advocated the need for the drastic land reforms. The Congress appointed a committee
to look into the distress of agrarian classes and to suggest measures to ameliorate their
conditions. This had its impact on the agrarian policies of country when it became
independent. As the land reforms became the state subject, depending on the willingness
and political will of the leadership, land reforms became the subject to reckon with in
different states of India.

121

13.5 AGRARIAN MOVEMENTS IN POST-INDEPENDENCE

PERIOD
Certain developments in Indian political economy of the post-Independence era can
provide landmarks about the genesis and decline of the agrarian movements. These are
the policy measures introduced by the state during the 1950s, both at the national and
provincial levels to bring about the agrarian transformation through land reforms,
community development programmes and agricultural Extension schemes; the green
revolution in select areas of the country during the 1960s, and opening of agricultural
sector to the world market through the latest phase of globalisation from the 1990s.
These developments have resulted in emergence of new set of issues, rise of new
agrarian classes and decline of erstwhile classes, new types of organisations and patterns
of political mobilisation. This section of the unit discusses movements of different
agrarian classes. These classes are agricultural labourers, poor and small peasants and
the farmers/middle peasants/kulaks/rich peasants/rural rich.

13.5.1 Rural Poor: Agricultural Labourers and Small/Poor/Marginal

Peasants
The rural poor is a conglomerate of the poorer classes landless agricultural labourers,
tenants, poor, small or marginal farmers who own uneconomic landholdings and
supplement their income by working as wage labourers either in agriculture or informal
non-agrarian sectors. Most them belong to low castes lower backwards and dalits.
Unlike the kulaks/middle/rich peasants they face dual problems social discrimination
and economic exploitation. Therefore, while the mobilisation of the better off agrarian
classes has mainly been around the economic issue, that of the rural poor has focused
both on the social and economic issues. They are sometimes mobilised exclusively on
the social and cultural issues, they are also mobilised mainly on the economic issues.
Assertion of dalit identity, mainly under the influence of Ambedkarism through different
social and cultural organisations of dalits, finding expression in different ways including
conversion to another religions are examples of mobilisation on the social and cultural
issue. You have read about it in unit 7 which deals with dalit movement in India. This
section confines itself to the mobilisation of the rural poor on the economic issues. But
as economic problems are intertwined with their social status, their social and economic
issues can not be mechanically separated.
The agricultural labourers and poor/small peasants have been mobilised into collective
actions through out the post-Independence era in different states of India by different
kinds of organisations. The latter included the socialist and communist parties, Gandhians,
voluntary groups/NGOs, independent individuals and naxalites. This sub-section discusses
some examples of movements of agrarian classes which form the rural poor.
The first two decades following Impendence saw the movements of the rural poor in
Uttar Pradesh by the socialists and communists on the one hand and by the naxalites
and the Communist Party of India on the other hand. The issues on which they were
mobilised in the western Uttar Pradesh included redistribution of the Gaon Samaj land,
abolition of begar, giving better wages, lifting of the sanction imposed by the rich
classes on the poorer classes for cutting grass needed as fodder from the fields of the
former, and protection of the women of the poorer classes from the exploitation of the
122

men belonging to the richer classes. The forms of protest included hunger strike and
demonstrations. The 1960s also saw the mobilisation of dalits by Republican Party of
India, which unlike the BSP of the later period took up the cultural issues along with
the economic problems. Besides, there are innumerable examples of the protest of the
agricultural labourers and poor/small peasants in the form of informal group organisations
or every day forms of resistance (Jagpal Singh, Capitalism and Dependence: Chap.IV
Dependence, Resistence and Sanctions). In Basti district of eastern Uttar Pradesh, the
CPI had organised the Land Grab movement during the 1960s in order to give surplus
land to the poorer classes. However, the traditional left and the socialists were unable
to mobilise dalits in several parts of the country like some area of Bihar, Andhra
Pradesh, Jharkahnd, Chhattisgarh and Orissa. This was because of their neglect of dalit
question; though the socialists showed concern for the caste, their focus were the backward
castes, not the dalits. This lacuna of the conventional left was corrected by the naxalites
in Andhra Pradesh, Bihar and Orissa. Their ability to combine the economic issues with
the castes disabilities enabled them to mobilise the low caste agricultural labourers and
poor peasants. Their resolve to get the land reforms implemented and abolish caste
discrimination made them popular among these sections. They are not averse to use
violence to eliminate class enemies, which include police personals, landlords and
some politicians. Till recently all naxalite organisations did not participate in the elections;
now some of them do take part in elections. Among the most important naxal outfits
are Janashakti and Peoples War Group (PWG) in Andhra Pradesh and Bihar Pradesh
Kisan Sabha (BPKS) and Marxist Coordination Committee (MCC) in Bihar.
Recent decades have seen the movement of poor peasants who have been affected by
the negative impact of development introduced by the state, especially funded by the
World Bank. Taking recourse to Gandhian means of protest these movements emerged
have as alternative mode of movements. Concerned individuals, civil society
organisations, voluntary organisations and NGOs are playing significant roles in such
movements. Narmada Bachao Andolan led by Medha Patkar is one of the most important
examples of such movements.

13.5.2 Farmers/Middle Peasants/Kulaks/Rich Peasants/Rural Rich

The two decades of the last century the sixties and seventies, witnessed the movements
of a section, which is known by different names farmers, middle peasants, kulaks,
rich peasants or rural rich. These movements had their own organisations and leadership.
These movements were: those of two separate organisations of the same name the
Bharatiya Kisan Unions (BKUs) led by Bhupender Singh Mann in Punjab and by
Mahender Singh Tikait in Uttar Pradesh; of Shetkari Sangathan led by Sharad Joshi in
Maharashtra; of Karnataka Rajya Raitha Sangha led by Prof. Nanjundaswami; of Khedyut
Samaj in Guajarat; of Vivasayigal Sangam led by Narayanaswami Naidu in Tamil Nadu.
Characteristics
These movements shared certain characteristics: they emerged in prosperous regions of
the country, which have benefited from the green revolution; they were the movements
of rural rich, which included rich peasants, landlords and self-cultivating middle peasants
in which the middle peasants had the preponderance; these groups had benefited from
the land reforms including the abolition of landlordism; socially the middle or intermediate
castes (Jats, Gujars, Yadavs, Muslim high castes in UP; Marathas in Maharashtra;
123

Vokaliggas and Lingayats in Karnataka; Patels in Guajrat) formed the largest composition
of them); unlike the peasant movements of the pre-Independence period their issues and
demands are related to the market economy like remunerative prices of the agricultural
produce, subsidised inputs, reduction in the electricity bills, increase in the time of
availability of electricity; their apolitical or non-political character; claim to represent
the rural (bharat) interests against urban (India) on the plea the bharat is exploited by
India; they overlook the division in the rural society and project themselves to be
representative of entire rural society; they were being led by a new kind of leadership;
they raise new types of issue, etc.
Of these three movements Shetkari Sangathan in Maharashtra, Karnataka Raitha
Sangha in Karnataka and BKU movement of UP deserve special discussion for different
reasons. It was the Bharat vs. India thesis of Sharad Joshi which highlighted the ruralurban divide more prominently. Besides, as you will notice later in this unit, Sharad
Joshi is only leader who has supported the liberalisation policy of the state, and who
also worked as the advisor to the Government of India during the V. P. Singhs regime.
The Karnataka Rajaya Raiytha Sangha movement in Karnataka occupies special place
due to the socialist background of its leader - Prof. Nanjundaswami. The most striking
has been the nature of leadership of the BKU in UP and the role of the traditional
institution of khap (caste council) in mobilising the farmers.
Genesis of Farmers Movements
Since farmers movements are the post- green revolution movements and largely occurred
in the green revolution belt, they found the terms of trade against the agricultural sector.
The rising cost of input in agriculture could not be met with the returns of the produce.
Besides, inability of the system to provide electricity along with the increasing
indebtedness to the public institution mainly to meet the input and infrastructural
requirement gave birth to the new set of problems of the farmers. Though placed in
superior position to the large proportion of the rural poor, this section found itself
neglected by the state. Populist promises by the politicians and the hold of this section
on the rural vote bank contributed to the feeling of being cheated by the political class.
Their expectation from the system further rose with the increasing share of legislators
in the centre and state since the era of the Janata Party government in the 1970s. This
happened when people in general lost faith in politics, which to them meant formal
political institutions mainly leaders, political parties and elections.
Under these circumstances the farmers responded positively to alternative mode
mobilisation, which was marked by the mobilisation on the apolitical or nonpolitical
plank, projected the rural sectors as a homogeneous unit, which was exploited by
the urban vested interests. The leadership which not was professional type found it
easy to provide leadership to these movements. The example of the BKU movement in
UP can be an appropriate example in this context. It was the last of these movements;
while other farmers movements took place in the 1970s and the early 1980s, the BKU
movement of UP took place mainly in 1988-1989. It was a time when there
was complete vacuum of leadership of the farmers caused by the death of Charan
Singh on May 29, 1987 and earlier disintegration of the farmers movement in UP
following the death of R M Lohia in 1967. This gap was filled up by political party of
Charan Singh with frequent changes in its nomenclature. Earlier while in the Congress,
Charan Singh was opposed to the agitational politics, though he successfully devised an
124

strategy to create his political constituency among the backward classes and the middle/
rich peasants. But collective mobilisation into political agitation by his party was not as
regular or organised as was by the socialists and the communists. The massive political
mobilisation by non-party political organisation was by the BKU of Tikait. For the first
time the traditional institution of khap (caste council) was active in mobilisation of the
farmers. This traditional leadership of khap (caste council), which was headed by the
leader of a khap of Jats, Mahender Singh Tikait also included the leaders of khaps of
several castes.
Farmers Movements before the BKU
Prior to the BKU mobilisation in the 1980s, the farmers of UP were mobilised mainly
by the leftist forces which included both the socialists and the communists. But their
mobilisation mainly took place in the 1950s and the 1960s. Apart from the socialists and
communists, Charan Singh also attempted to mobilise the farmers of UP during this
period. But he did not mobilise them into a collective action. He, in fact, was opposed
to the agatitions. His mobilisation of farmers was in the form of carving out an electoral
base for himself among the middle and backward caste peasants like Jats, Yadavs,
Kurmies, Kories, Lodhs, etc of UP. He did so while he was still a member of the
Congress. He adopted two-pronged policy for this purpose: first, he articulated the
interests of the peasant proprietors; second, he identified himself with the backward
caste peasantry. Largely both these groupsbackward castes and the peasant proprietors
overlapped. This created resentment within the Congress about Charan Singhs attempt
to carve base for himself even while he was its member. At an opportune time, following
the defeat of Congress in 1967 election in nine states, Charan Singh came out of
Congress to form his own party the Bharatiya Krnati Dal (BKD). After the decline
of the mobilsation by the socialist and the communist, as mentioned earlier unlike when
he was in the Congress even Charan Singhs party mobilised farmers into agititional
politics. But it was not as regular and organised as the mobilisation by the socialists and
the communists. Having consolidated his base among the middle caste peasants Charan
Singh changed his focus to state and nation politics which catapulted him to the post
of Prime Minister in 1980.
The principal issue of the mobilisation was related to cane price, though other issues
also mattered. Therefore, the peasant movement in UP was basically sugar cane growers
movements (Jagpal Singh, pp. 87-92). A comparison of these issues with the issues
taken up by the farmers movements of the later period shows that were almost same.
However, there was a the difference; the socialists and communists took them up before
the impact of the green revolution was actually felt, while the BKU took them up after
the impact of the green revolution had been realised. Opening up sugar mills in different
parts of Uttar Pradesh in the 1930s not only encouraged the commercialisation of
cropping pattern, it also gave rise to the new issues like the sugar cane growers problems.
The peasant mobilisation on these issues took place during the pre-Independence period
also, but it was during the 1950s-1960s that the socialists and the communists mobilised
them regularly.
Problems of the sugarcane growers, some of which exist even today, were the following:
the sugar cane growers would supply the sugar cane to the sugar mills, payment for
which was supposed to made later on; the sugar mills did not mention the price of the
sugar cane on the receipt of the sugar cane from the farmers; rampant corruption at the
125

centres, the distant places connecting with mills, where sugar cane would be supplied.
The problem was compounded by the fact that the price of the sugar cane was not
provided to the farmers on time. It was also not paid in full; it was paid in installments.
Therefore, the major demands during the peasant movements of the 1950s-1960s included
regular, timely and full (not in installments) payment of the price of the sugar cane to
the cane growers.
Through out the 1950s and 1960s the sugar cane growers were mobilised by the socialists
and communists during the months of December and March - the peak season for sugar
cane harvesting under the banners of organisations like Hind Kisan Panchayat and
Kisan Sabha. They resorted to organising rallies, dharnas at the mill gates, conferences
of the peasants, etc. Apart from the local leaders, the national and state level leaders like
Acharaya J. B. Kripali, A. K. Gopalan, E. M. S. Naboodaripad, Z. A. Ahmed, Gainda
Singh and Dada Dharamdhikari visited UP in order to mobilise sugar cane growers.
Sometimes this resulted in scuffle between the cane growers and agents of the mill
owners, and arrest of the leaders of the movement and foisting of charges on them.
Towards the end of the 1960s, the leaders of these movement either joined Congress,
Charan Singhs party or became inactive and a phase in the peasant movement came to
an end. As you noticed in this unit earlier the peasant mobilisation was done in the
coming decades by Charan Singhs party and by the BKU headed by Tiakait.

13.5.3 Globalisation and Farmers Movements

Unlike the earlier movements those of the farmers in the era of globalisation have
reacted to the issues related to globalisation. The attempt of the western countries,
especially to interfere in the agrarian economy of the country, especially through the
Dunkel Draft and GATT evoked different reactions from the farmers movement. While
Sharad Joshi, the Shetkari Sangathan leader from Maharashtra supported the globalisation,
two supported leaders Prof. Nanjudaswami of Karntaka Rajya Rytha Sangha and
Mahendra Singh Tikait of BKU in UP opposed it. Sharad Joshi argued that the opening
of Indian agriculture to the world competition would benefit Indian farmers. His
perspective helped him to become an advisor to the Government of India during the
regime of V. P. Singh. The opponents of globalisation Nanjudaswami and Tikait got
support of academic activist like Vandana Shiva and a large number of the socialist and
Gandhians. They argued that that globalisation would not only expose the Indian farmers
to the unequal competition with the European farmers, an attempt to change the patent
laws about seeds would deprive them of their traditional rights over the preservation and
generation of seeds. They opposed the attempt of the government to change the patent
laws, demanded abrogation of the subsidies given by the European governments to their
farmers. They also opposed the Multinational Companies which used Indian natural
resources like water to manufacture soft drinks. In fact, intellectuals like Vandana Shiva
argue that modern technology popularised in green revolution has harmed the fertility
of land rather than helping it. The opponents of the globalisation organise rallies,
demonstration and seminars to register their protest. Following the death of Prof.
Nanjudaswami the farmers protest against globalisation has got weakened.

13.6 SUMMARY
To sum up, there have been the movements of agrarian classes in India through out the
pre and post-Independence periods. Different agrarian classes have been mobilised into
126

collective actions on their respective issues, by their respective leaderships and

organisations. In the pre-green revolution era the tradtional Marxists (CPI and CPM),
socialists and Naxalites launched agrarian movements in different parts of the country.
The issue during that period included land reforms, and wages for the poorer classes,
and prices of the produce and making available the infrastructure in the agriculture.
Unlike other political organisations, the Naxalites were able to combine the economic
exploitation with social justice. The post-green revolution saw the rise of the movements
of kulaks or rich peasants in the prosperous regions of the country, which had benefited
from the green revolution. Some scholars call them new social movements. Their
characteristics were: apolitical nature, based on the rural-urban divide, concerned with
the issues of commercial economy in agriculture, with new mode of mobilisation and
new type of leadership. However, some scholars disagree with the attribution of these
characteristics to these movements. Even the globalisation evoked contradictory responses
from the leadership of these organisations. This period has also seen the rise of alternative
mobilisation of the rural poor which saw the participation of the civil society organisations
and intellectual activists.

13.7 EXERCISES
1)

How can you differentiate within the agrarian society?

2)

Write a note on the peasant movements in the pre-Independence period.

3)

Compare the characteristics of movments of the rural poor with those of the rich
peasants.

4)

Write a note on the farmers movements of the post-Independence period.

5)

How did the farmers movements react to the globalisation? Discuss.

127

UNIT 14 WORKERS AND PEASANT MOVEMENTS

IN INDIA
Structure
14.1
14.2

Introduction
Working Class Movements in India
14.2.1

14.3

14.4
14.5

Emergence and Some Aspects of the Early and Contemporary Working Class in India

Peasant Movements in India

14.3.1

The Congress, Communists and Peasant Movements in Colonial India

14.3.2

The Movements of the Rural Poor in the Post-Colonial India

14.3.3

The Movements of the Rural Rich: Farmers Movements in Contemporary India

Summary
Exercises

14.1 INTRODUCTION
In recent years there has been an enormous increase in the studies on social movements in
India. The growth of interest is largely a result of the increasing number of movements
surfacing in the post- colonial India. The movements are commonly and broadly classified as
new movements such as environmental movements, or old movements such as the peasant
or the working class movements. So far as approaches are concerned, these studies either
follow the Marxian or the non-Marxian frameworks. The studies focus on the nature of the
grievances that throw up the movements, the support base of the movements, the strategy the
leaders of the movements adopt and the response of the authorities to the movements and
related issues. In this unit, we shall briefly analyse two of the social movements, the peasant
movements and the working class movements in the country.

14.2 WORKING CLASS MOVEMENTS IN INDIA

In this section of the Unit, we focus on the working class movement in the country. According
to the labour historians, the span of working class activities in India is divided into four distinct
phases. The first phase spans from 1850 to 1890; the second phase from 1890 to 1918; the
third phase from 1918 to 1947 and finally the post-independence period. A treatment of the
working class movement will follow a brief discussion of some of the essential aspects of the
class in colonial and post
colonial India. We shall however restrict our discussion
to the industrial working class in India since it is this class, which, to a large extent, is organised
whereas workers engaged in the unorganised sector largely remain out of the fold of organised
working class activity.

14.2.1 Emergence and Some Aspects of the Early and

Contemporary Working Class in India
1

The modern Indian working class arose in consequence to the development and growth of
factory industries in India from the second half of the nineteenth century. It is however about
the turn of the twentieth century, it took the shape of working class .An exact estimate of the
total population of the working class is difficult to arrive at but N. M. Joshi, on the basis of
the 1931 census, calculated the labouring class at 50 million out of which roughly 10 percent
were working in the organised industry. So far as the major industries were concerned, the
cotton textile industry in 1914 employed 2.6 lakh workers, the jute industry employed 2 lakh
workers in 1912 the railways employed around 6 lakh workers. The number swell further and
on the eve of World War II, in which, about 2 million were employed in manufacturing
industry, 1.5 million in railways and 1.2 million in the British owned plantations.
The number increased significantly after independence and this was largely due to the expansion
of the modern manufacturing industries in various sectors and also because of the growth of
the public sector utilities, corporations and government offices. According to the 1981 census,
the total number of workers in the modern manufacturing industries alone in India numbered
around 2.5 million. In 1993 the average daily employment in factories was 8.95 million, in the
mines it was 7.79 lakhs and in the plantations, it was 10.84 lakhs. Apart from this a large
workforce was employed in the plantations, mining, construction, utilities, transportation etc.
(GOI, Labour Bureau, 1997). In recent years owing to a number of reasons the rate in
increase in employment has gone down and this had affected the employment potential and
the condition of the working class proper.
A few interesting observations on the nature of the early and post independence working class
may be made. Firstly, so far as the early working class is concerned it was divided into
organised and unorganised sections and this distinction lies even today. Secondly, there was
an insufficient class demarcation between a working class and a peasant. Labour historians
have found that for a given period of time in a year the worker migrated to his village and
worked as a peasant. Thirdly, the working class in the early years and to some extent even
today is divided between class, caste, language, community, etc. Fourthly, today there is a
distinction between the workers employed in the private sector and the public sector and
within these sectors there are several categories like the workers in the MNCs and the
domestic companies etc. Generally the workers employed in the public sector enjoy a better
working condition than those who are employed in the private sector.
Working Class Movements in the Pre-Independence Period
As already noted, the labour historians classify the movement of the workers in the country
into four distinct phases. In this part of the section, we deal with the labour movement in the
country till independence.

The first phase :1850s till 1918

The actions of the working class in the earliest stage were sporadic and unorganised in nature
and hence were mostly ineffective. It is only from the late 19th century in Madras, and from
the second decade of the twentieth century in Bombay that serious attempts were made for
the formation of associations that could lead organised form of protests. Prior to that some
2

philanthropists in the 1880s sought to improve working conditions by urging the British authorities
in India to introduce legislations for improving its condition. S. S. Bengalee in Bombay,
Sasipada Banerjee in Bengal and Narayan Lokhandya in Maharashtra were prominent among
them.
Nationalist historians often argue that the organised working class movement in the country
was associated with the Indian national movement but this is only partially correct. Several
movements took place even before the Congress took a serious note of the interests of the
working class questions. Though the Congress was formed in 1885, it seriously thought of
organising the working class only in the early 1920s. The Working class in the country was
organising struggles against capital much before the 1920s. In the last decades of the 19th
century, Lieten informs us, there occurred strikes at Bombay, Kurla, Surat, Wardha, Ahmedabad
and in other places. According to official sources there were two strikes per year in every
factory. The strikes however were only sporadic, spontaneous, localised and short-lived and
were caused by factors such as reduction in wages, imposition of fines, dismissal or reprimand
of the worker. These actions and militancy, which they showed, helped in the development of
class solidarity and consciousness, which was missing earlier. The resistance was mediated by
outsiders or outside leaders. Agitations grew and they were not on individual issues but on
broader economic questions, thus leading to a gradual improvement later on.
The Second Phase: 1918 till Independence
It was after World War I that the working class struggle in the country entered into a different
phase. The unorganised movement of the workers took an organised form; trade unions were
formed on modern lines. In several ways the decade of the 1920s is crucial in this regard.
Firstly in the 1920s serious attempts were made by the Congress and the Communists to
mobilise the working class and hence from then onwards the national movement established
a connection with the working class. Secondly, it was in 1920 that the first attempt to form
an all India organisation was made. Lokmanya Tilak, a Congressman from Bombay was
instrumental in the formation of the All India Trade Union Congress (AITUC) with Chaman
Lal and others as office bearers of the organisation. Thirdly, in this decade, India witnessed
a large number of strikes; the strikes were prolonged and well participated by the workers.
The number of strikes and the number of workers involved in these strikes went on increasing
in the subsequent decades. We shall return to this later after a brief discussion of the Congress
and the Communist partys approach to labour.
The Indian National Congress started thinking of mobilising the working class from the 1920s.
There were at least two reasons behind that: firstly, it felt that if it failed to bring the working
class into their fold and control, India might face a peoples revolution and secondly, because
it realised that to launch an effective struggle against imperialism all the sections of the Indian
society were to be mobilised. Though some Congressmen formed the AITUC in 1920 and
resolutions were passed in 1920, 1922, 1924 and in 1930 in the all India conferences, the
clearest policy of the Congress came only in 1936 when it appointed a committee to look after
labour matters. Thus it was from the late 1930s that the Congress established deep links with
the working class in the country. The Congress, however, believed in the Gandhian strategy
of class harmony and as a result it did not lead any radical working class agitations. In fact
two different strategies were to be found in operation, one was a radical one to be seen in

industries owned by foreign capital and the other, a mild one that was in operation in the Indian
owned industries. All this was because the Congress, from the very beginning, attempted to
become a political party of all the sections of the Indian society including the capitalists.
Therefore, the Congress controlled and disciplined labour and was not seriously interested in
radical working class movements.
The Communists who arrived in the 1920s seriously became interested in working class
questions and therefore they sought to mobilise the working class through the Workers and
Peasant Parties (WPPs) in which they were active throughout the country. It was because of
the seriousness of the Communists, the WPPs were able to organise the working class
considerably. The WPPs were most successful in Bombay where it organised a strike in 1928
than in other cities of India. In the period from 1930-35, the Communists however played no
meaningful role in mobilising the workers but from the second half of the 1930s by following
a policy of United National Front, it was able to secure a foothold among the working class.
Now let us turn once again to the organised working class movement in the country that is
usually dated from the end of World War I. The twenties, in fact, was a decade when a large
number of strikes took place. According to official sources there were 396 strikes in 1921
involving 600,000 workers. In the period between 1921-1925, on an average 400,000
workers in a year were involved in strikes. Similarly the year 1928 saw protracted strikes
throughout the country. Apart from the strikes in Bombay there were strikes in the jute mills
in Calcutta and in the Eastern Railways; in the latter, the strike continued for four months. On
the whole, there was a radicalisation of working class activity by the end of the 1920s but
what is also crucial is that there also grew differences between the Moderates and the
Communists; as a result, the AITUC split and the National Trade Union Federation (NTUF)
was formed by the moderate leaders such as N.M. Joshi, V.V. Giri, B. Shivarao etc. Differences
also cropped up among the Leftists due to which the extreme Leftists under the leadership of
S.K. Deshpande and B.T. Ranadive broke away from the AITUC in 1930 and formed the
All India Red Trade Union Congress (RTUC).
After a period of high activism, working class in the 1920s, there was a marked decline in
the early 1930s between 1930-34, which were in fact the years of Great Depression. To
Chamanlal Revri it was a period of setback to the entire trade union movement and that was
due to the Meerut Conspiracy case in which many prominent Communist leaders were arrested
and secondly, due to the successive splits that took place in the Trade Union Congress earlier.
Though unions became weak, as a result of the depression and the effect, which it had on the
living condition of the working class, workers continued their economic struggles in the years
between 1931-1934. The number of industrial disputes increased from 141 in 1929 to 148
in 1930 and 166 in 1931,
involving more than one lakh workers every year. Between
1931 and 1934, there were 589 disputes out of which around 52 percent of the disputes were
in the cotton textile industry. Concerns regarding wage were the main questions that precipitated
the
disputes.
The Left led the unions that had become weaker in the early 1930s, but were able to reassert
their influence by the year 1934. India was to witness a new strike wave and the issues that
precipitated the strikes were the demand for the restoration of wage cuts, wage increases and
the stopping of new forms of offensives against labour. In the year 1935 there were 135

disputes in which there was a heavy loss. In the following year 12 more disputes took place
than that of 1935 but the number of workers involved during disputes was much higher than
that of the previous year. The important strikes that took place were the strikes in cotton
textile industry, jute industry and the strike in the railways. The number of registered trade
unions also increased in these two years. In 1935 there were 213 registered unions in the
country with a membership figure of 284,918. The number of unions increased to 241 by
1936.
The RTUC merged with the AITUC in 1935 and the NTUF affiliated itself with the AITUC
in 1938. As a result of this, there was a growth of trade unions and trade union activity
throughout the 1930s and the 1940s. The number of strikes went up by the end of the 1930s.
During the period 1937-1939 the frequency of strikes and the number of strikes increased.
In 1937 there were 379 strikes and in 1938 there were 399 strikes. In 1939, 406 disputes
took place. The involvement of workers in these strikes was also higher. Two developments
of critical importance in this period were: firstly, the strikes spread to several smaller industrial
towns in the country and secondly, the working class during these struggles were not only
defensive but were also offensive in the sense that they demanded among other things restoration
of wage cuts, recognition of their union rights and resisted new forms of oppression of labour.
It has also been found that an increasing number of women workers came to the forefront of
the workers struggle.
The movement entered into a decisive phase in the 1940s and this phase coincided with the
final phase of the National Movement, when the latter entered into its last phase beginning with
the Quit India Movement of 1942. On the industrial front, from 1939 onwards the working
condition of the workers was affected seriously. There was an increase in the working hours,
multiple shift systems were introduced, wages were significantly reduced, and workers, on the
whole, were subjected to great hardships. As a result, strikes erupted throughout the country
and probably the most important demand of the workers was the demand for a Dearness
Allowance against rising prices and cost of living. In 1942 there were 694 disputes, this
increased to 820 in 1945. The number of workers involved in these disputes also increased
to 7.47 lakhs in 1945. Between 1945-1947, after the end of the war, the working class
confronted two distinct problems. First, was the problem of large- scale retrenchments and
second, the problem of decline in earnings. As a result, the number of strikes reached a peak
in 1947; there were 1811 strikes involving 1840 thousand workers.
Movements since Independence
The transfer of power and Independence in 1947 meant a different atmosphere for the entire
working class in the country. The movement entered into a different phase. In the initial years
after independence between 1947-1960 due to the coming of several new industries whether
in the private sector or in the public sector under the Five- year plans, the working class in
the country as a whole was in a better condition; therefore organised action was not resorted
to very frequently. As a result the number of conflicts including strikes declined between 1947
and 1960. The situation however changed in the 1960s and 1970s. The inflation years of the
mid-1960s saw the real wages of the working class declining; as a result, disputes in the
industrial front increased. In 1964 there were 2,151 disputes involving 1,002 thousand workers
in which 7,725 man-days were lost. The number of man-days lost probably points out to the

severity of the movements.

One of the important features in the trade union front was the establishment of trade unions
that were to be dominated by the parties. As a result of this, most of the unions that came
up functioned as an organ (mass organisations) of their parent parties. It is because of this
control of the parties over the unions, the latter lost all autonomy and the programmes and
policies of the parties, in every important way, became the programmes and policies of the
unions. The number of national unions in the country multiplied. By the end of World War II
there were two all India organisations, the Indian Federation of Labour (IFL) and the largest
union, the All India Trade Union Congress (AITUC). By 1949 there were four unions and all
these unions were linked or affiliated to and controlled by political parties. The Communists
dominated the AITUC, IFL was affiliated to the Radical Democratic Party of M.N.Roy, the
Indian National Congress controlled the INTUC and the Socialist Party members dominated
the Hind Mazdoor Sabha (HMS). The HMS splitted further and the UTUC was formed. The
AITUC also split in 1970 and the Centre of Indian Trade Unions (CITU) was born and
affiliated to the CPI (M).
For the country as a whole, the period between the late 1960s to the imposition of the
emergency was a period of political turmoil and this significantly affected and shaped the
working class movement in the country. Indira Gandhi started centralising and concentrating
power in her hands after the elections of 1971. Taking advantage the capitalist class resorted
to new forms of offensives, lockouts being the main, due to which large number of man-days
was lost. For example, in the period 1971-75 the average annual workdays lost through
lockouts was as high as 60.23 thousand. The figure rose to 105.46 thousand in the period
1976-80. So far as the working class in the public sector undertakings were concerned, they
were hit directly by the centralised bureaucratic state apparatus. As a result of this the working
class in both the sectors responded with strikes due to which the number of disputes in the
country increased significantly. Rudolph and Rudolph (1998) found that in the period between
1965 and 1975 the number of workdays lost (from strikes or lockouts) increased by almost
500 percent. The most important strike that took place was the Railway strike of 1974, which
till date remains the most serious of all the direct working class actions in the country. The
strike was important because it was the only strike that was able to challenge the might of the
Indian state.
In the country as a whole, since the emergency, the working class had to face a number of
offensives from the employers. Lockouts in the private sector increased as a result, of which
a large percentage of workdays were lost. During the years 1980-1987, lockouts made up
from 29 to 65 percent of workdays lost in industrial disputes. The loss of workdays in the
1980s went on increasing. To one estimate during 1985, 1987 and 1988, workdays lost in
lockouts actually exceeded those lost in strikes by as much as 55, 52, and 71 percent
respectively. This growth in lockouts has adversely affected the industrial working class in the
country since it throws the working class to a condition of unemployment. Along with other
kind of problems, industrial sickness also affected the working class in the 1980s. In 1976,
241 large industrial units were sick. In 1986, the figure had risen to 714. Among the medium
scale industrial units, in 1986, 1,250 units were closed due to sickness. The number of sick
small units also increased in the 1980s. For example, in 1988, 217,436 small units were lying
sick. Thus the working class was hit hard in the 1980s by lockouts, closures and sickness.
6

The problem of Lockout continues even today and has assumed a serious proportion. In
1999, according to the Labour Bureau, there were 387 lockouts; in 2000, there were 345
and in the year 2001, there were 302 lockouts (GOI, Labour Bureau, 2002).
Since the late 1980s and 1990s, the working class is confronted with two different forms of
offensives that it has not faced earlier. The first problem that it faces is the growth of Hindutva
based political parties, namely the BJP and the Shiv Sena and the
consequent growth
of their labour organisations i.e., Bharatiya Mazdoor Sangh (BMS) and Bharatiya Kamgar
Sena (BKS) respectively that has in turn fragmented the working class among communal lines.
Secondly, with the introduction of the New Economic Policy (NEP) since 1991 and the
consequent globalisation of the Indian economy, labour in the country has been facing the
might of capital in a different form. The first problem is divisive in nature since it had divided
the working class in the country among communal lines whereas the second development has
affected the working class significantly and has thrown challenges to the organised working
class movement in the country. The second problem is much more severe at this juncture and
it is to this we now turn.
The introduction of the New Economic Policy since 1991 had severely affected the working
class in the country. There are different components of this New Economic Policy but the core
emphasis is on Liberalisation, Privatisation and Globalisation. Liberalisation has meant reduction
of government control over the private sector; as a result, the bargaining position of the
workers vis-a- vis capital has declined. The policies of privatisation under which several
important public sector units in the country is being sold to private companies had opened up
new challenges for the workers and the trade unions in the country. As a result of the overall
policies, the likely problem will be, there will be no statutory minimum wages for labour, no
obstructions to retrenchment giving the employers the complete right to hire and fire. The
developments in the Indian economy in the last one decade or more have created fundamental
problems for the working class and the unions are finding it difficult to resist the encroachment
of capital on the rights of the workers.
Before we conclude this section, it will be useful for us to note some of the weaknesses of
the movement. Firstly, within the working class in the country a large section of the workforce,
the unorganised ones even today remain outside the fold of trade unions. On the whole, the
unions in this country have neglected the problems of the unorganised sector and Rudolph and
Rudolph are correct when they conclude that almost all the unions including the Left led unions
has taken the relatively easy path of organising and pressing demands on behalf of those who
are easily organised and whose employer-governmentresponds readily. In absolute terms the
unorganised workers are poor and vulnerable to exploitation than the workers in the organised
sector.
The second major problem, which confronts the working class movement, is the multiplicity
of trade unions. We have noted earlier that after independence trade unions representing
workers in the country have multiplied. By the end of the Second World War there were only
two All India organisations, by 1949 there were four all India organisations and today there
are more than ten national level organisations affiliated to the major parties in the country.

Ideological problems are often cited as the reason for this state of affairs though in actual
practice unions are less ideological and are striving for organising the workers principally on
economic issues. Multiplicity of political parties may be accepted as a norm in a democracy
but multiplicity of Unions in a capitalist system keeps the working class fragmented and
vulnerable to all forms of pressures.
Trade unions in the country, as a whole, have not been responsive to the problems of the
working class in the country. Unions lie fragmented from the factory to the national level that
has produced bitter rivalry among unions and hence very often they have failed to respond
to the issues of the working class. Due to the reasons cited above and also because of the
fact that political parties control Unions, the latter have failed to become militant for addressing
the grievances of the workers. The growing number of closures, suspensions of work and
other forms of offensives in the country in recent years after the introduction of the New
Economic Policy indicates the weakness of the movement. Various studies have also found
that the industrial working class in the country has not allied with the peasants and other
sections of the society in collective direct action on political issues. This reflects the low level
of political consciousness of the working class.
To sum up, the movement of the organised workers in the country dates back to the period
when industrialisation started and the first working class in the country appeared. The movements
however took an organised form after the First World War with the emergence of trade
unions. Movement of the workers, since then, continues to surface even today but the organised
movements in the country face a number of problems. The most important of all the problems
include fragmentation of unions, affiliation of the unions with political parties, lack of militancy
by the established unions and a
general apathy towards organising workers employed
in the unorganised sector of the economy. All these problems have affected the working class
movement in the country adversely.

14.3 PEASANT MOVEMENTS IN INDIA

Agrarian movements in contemporary India may be broadly classified into two main categories.
The first type of movements is those of the poor, the marginal or small peasants. These
movements voice the demands related to their economic condition, for example, demand of
the agricultural labourers for higher wages and better working condition. The second type of
movements is of the more prosperous peasants, those who produce a considerable surplus
within the rural economy. These movements are often in social science literature referred to
as Farmers Movement or New Agrarianism or New Peasant Movements.
The first category of movements date back to the colonial period. Kathleen Gough in 1974
found that in India 77 peasant uprisings took place since the British period (Gough 1974). In
the initial years the sporadic movements were directed against the extraction of the Zamindars
and other forms of intermediaries. We shall see later that these movements were and are
around the grievances of the rural poor and in the pre independence years they developed in
close connection with the national movement. The second category of movement has arisen
in recent years in the Green revolution areas such as in western Uttar Pradesh, Haryana,

Punjab or south- western Maharashtra or in the far south such as Karnataka or Tamil Nadu
and it is the rich and the middle peasants, the prosperous within the rural economy that
organise and lead it. These movements have become much more prominent in recent years.
The movements target the state, the bureaucratic apparatus and demand among other things
concessions from the state like, rise in the remunerative prices for crops, decrease in the prices
of agricultural inputs, providing electricity at a cheap rate etc. By focussing on the decline in
the terms of trade over the years they also have created and highlighted a distinction between
the town and the country and some of the leaders (for example, Sharad Joshi of the
Shetkari Sangathana) emphasises that Bharat is being exploited by India.
In this section of the Unit, we concentrate on the origins and the nature of the movement of
different kinds, the demands raised, issues involved and the problems with the movements. In
the first part of this section, we look at the nature of agrarian mobilisation and the peasant
movements in the colonial period by focussing on the mobilisation and movements led by the
Congress and the others led by the Communist Party of India. We shall focus on the relation
of the peasant movement with that of the national movement and also the two most prominent
movements, Tebhaga and Telengana that were led by the Communists. In the second part we
look at the agrarian mobilisation and movements after independence. In the last part of our
discussion we look briefly at the Farmers movements that had acquired prominence in
contemporary India.

14.3.1 The Congress, Communists and Peasant Movements

in Colonial India
The peasants had been the worst sufferers of the British Raj in colonial India. Even before
the Congress decided to mobilise the peasants, the latter had already developed their
organisations and were in fact protesting against the local Zamindars who, to them, were the
main enemies. Thus there has been much peasant unrest and occasional uprisings in the pre
nationalist era. The two most important uprisings in the pre nationalist period were the movement
of the Indigo planters of 1860 and the Moplah uprising of 1921 in Malabar.
In the initial years the Congress ignored the urgency of improving the agrarian situation. It was
only in the 1920s that Gandhi sought to convert the Congress organisation into a mass
organisation and hence thought of bringing the peasants into the fold of the Congress. Two
important developments were in fact responsible for the establishment of contact between the
peasants and the Congress in the late 1920s. The first was the constant banging of the
Congress doors by the peasants on the one hand and second was the need by the Congress
to enlist peasant support for the national movement.
Despite the fact that the Congress took a late initiative in reaching the peasants in the countryside,
it became a strong force to reckon with very soon. Since the Congress wanted to become
a political party of all the classes in the Indian society, it attracted even the landed rich to enter
the organisation and once the later entered, it is the latter who in fact dominated the organisation
and decided the rural strategies of the party and hence the Congress could not pursue any
radical peasant agitation. The Congress was more interested in enlisting the support of the bulk
of the peasants for the purpose of national agitation but never went for and encouraged class

war with the upper strata in rural society. In a nutshell, it can be said that because of Gandhis
and Congress emphasis on class harmony and because of its primary emphasis on sociocultural revival of the rural community that the Congress could never launch serious agitations
in the countryside, though it was able to draw the support of a part of the rural community
during its anti imperialist agitations.
Apart from the Congress, the Communists were the other major force that mobilised the
peasants. Though the CPI was formed in 1920, (to some in 1925), its serious engagement
with the peasantry started with the formation of the All India Kisan Congress later renamed
as the Kisan Sabha and the primary purpose of the Sabha was to mobilise the peasants. It
is after this pursuing broadly a tactics of United Front in cooperation with the national
movement the CPI increased its membership in the peasant front and set the stage for the most
revolutionary struggles in the countryside, though most of the struggles, as we shall see later,
were local in their spread.
The tactics that the Communists adopted were to work at the grass root level and this tactics
paid them rich dividends. In the countryside they worked through the Kisan Sabhas. In the
beginning it was not a class based organisation, it represented even the well to do peasants,
though, in this period, the Communists ensured that the Kisan Sabha would take up at least
some of the issues of the rural poor. The rural rich were well represented in the Sabha because
of the Congress Socialists emphasis on a multi- class organisation. It was only in the years
1941-43 that the AIKS passed into the hands of the Communists and it Swami Shajanand
who tried to build the Kisan Sabha as an organisation of the rural poor and this alienated the
rich and the middle peasants. The control of the CPI over the Kisan Sabha was complete by
the year 1944-45. The membership of the Kisan Sabha kept on increasing and by 1944 it
increased to 553,427 (Dhanagare, 1980). After completely capturing it the CPI and the Kisan
Sabha could in fact make the Sabha an organisation of the poor peasants, tenants-at will,
sharecroppers and landless agricultural labourers. It is with this base that it could, in the later
years, launch and lead agrarian struggles, in the pre-independence period. The Tebhaga
movement in Bengal (1946-47) and the Telengana movement (1946-51) in the former
Hyderabad state were led by the Communists and it is these movements that we now turn
to.
The Tebhaga Movement
The Tebhaga movement is one of the two great movements, which arose in India in the midforties immediately after World War II. The movement arose in North Bengal and included
the districts of Dinajpur and Rangpur in East Bengal and Jalpaiguri and Malda in West Bengal.
The movement was for the reduction in the share of the produce from one-half to one-third,
that is the rent, which they used to pay to the jotedars who possessed superior rights on land.
It was revolutionary in character in terms of the demands raised and was consciously organised
by the Kisan Sabha. Hence it marked a departure from the pattern of movements noticed in
the country under the leadership of the Congress and influenced by the Gandhian ideology.
In Bengal where the revolt took place the permanent settlement had been introduced in 1793
and this had inaugurated a new arrangement in the pattern of landholding in the region.
Between the Zamindars and the direct peasant producers there came into being a number

10

of intermediaries such as the Jotedars. These Jotedars in turn used to sublet their land to the
bargadars or the share- croppers who cultivated the land and used to pay a part (one half)
of the produce known as adhi or bhag to the jotedars. The rights of the Bargadars in the
piece of land, which they cultivated, were only temporary and existed only for a fixed period
usually for a period of five years. The Jotedars were not the only exploiters in the rural
economy but there also existed the Mahajans or moneylenders (often the landlords themselves)
who used to provide credit to the Bargadars. Thus the exploitation of the Bargadars by the
Jotedars and the Mahajans was complete. There were a few peasant owners (middle
peasants) who owned and cultivated on their pieces of land but were always under pressure
and very often lost their land and joined the category of landless peasants and turned Bargadars
often on their own pieces of land.
Though the Bargadars constituted around one fifth and quarter of the rural population, the
movement encompassed the entire rural population. The condition of the rural landless and the
peasants became horrible with the Bengal Famine of 1943,when, according to conservative
estimates, 3.5 million peasants perished in the Great Bengal Famine. The movement began as
a movement of the middle peasants on their own behalf but later on drew on the sharecroppers
or the Bargadars. Bhowani Sen points out that the history of the Tebhaga movement can be
traced back to 1939 when small peasants revolted against the Jotedars. Officially, however,
it started in 1946 though it gathered momentum in the years since 1945.
It was only in 1946, when the Communist Party of India threw its weight behind the movement,
it took a revolutionary turn. The main struggles were fought during the time of the harvest
season when the sharecroppers refused to provide the amount of paddy to the Jotedars.
Refusing to pay to the Jotedars, the Bargadars took away the paddy to their houses or
Khamars (threshing place) and that precipitated the struggles in the countryside. The Jotedars
got the support of the police to protect their interests. It was the peasant committees, which
became a power in the villages and led the peasants. These committees carried out the
administration of the villages. The Muslim League and the Congress supported the Jotedars
and eventually were successful in suppressing the movement. The movement eventually collapsed
and was officially called off in the summer of 1947. Though the movement failed, it had
important implications for the entire history of agrarian struggles in India.
The Telengana Peasant Uprising
The Telengana peasant movement started in mid-1946 and continued till the October of 1951.
The movement engulfed the whole of the Telengana region of the Hyderabad state and the
adjoining districts of the Andhra delta. It has been regarded as the most revolutionary of all
the movements in India, in its character and political objectives. The CPI through its peasant
wing, the Kisan Sabha, launched the movement. It appears that the CPI could launch the
movement after it eschewed the strategy of United Front and adopted a strategy of initiating
insurrectionary struggles.
In the whole of Hyderabad state to which the Telengana region belonged, there were two main
types of land tenure. The first was the Khalsa or Diwani tenure, which was similar to the
raiyatwari system that is the peasant-proprietary system. Under this system the landowners
were not called actual owners but were called pattadars (registered occupants) and under

11

this system lay around 60 percent of the land of Hyderabad. The actual occupants were the
shikmidars, who had full rights of occupancy but were not registered. When the pressure on
land grew the shikmidars also leased out their land to the tenants but the later were not the
real owners, neither had they any protection against eviction. The second kind of tenure, which
existed, was under the jagirdari system. Sarf e-khas was the special land assigned to the
Nizam himself. These were the crown lands and the Nizams noblemen, who were granted
land in return of military services during emergency administered these lands. The peasants,
under the jagirdari system, were the most oppressed. In the whole of Hyderabd state, the
peasantry in the Telengana region suffered the most oppressive system of exploitation.
The movement led by the Communists began in Nalgonda district in 1946 and then spread
to the neighbouring Warangal and Bidar districts and finally engulfed the whole of the Telengana
region. The objective of the movement, from the very beginning, was a broad one and was
concerned with the whole of the peasantry against illegal and excessive extraction by the rural
feudal aristocracy. The most powerful demand was that all peasant debt should be written off.
The second stage of the movement began when in order to counter the oppression let loose
by the aristocracy the peasantry
launched the armed struggle. Thus, with this, the
movement entered into its revolutionary phase.
It entered the revolutionary phase when over 2,000 villages set up their own Peoples
Committees; these Committees took over land, maintained their own army and own
administration (Mehta, 1979). This rule of the peasants in a large part of the region and the
armed resistance continued until 1950 and was finally crushed by the Indian army. It was
ultimately called off in 1951. It was an agrarian struggle in which many peasants were killed
by the army of the landed gentry and later by the Indian army after the takeover of the
Hyderabad state by the Indian army. The demands raised were broad ones and the nature
of the struggle itself makes this movement one of the most revolutionary agrarian struggles of
India unmatched so far in the Indian history.

14.3.2 The Movements of the Rural Poor in the Post-Colonial

India
In Independent India it has been the Left, parliamentary as well as non- parliamentary who
have been the main organisers of the peasants. Mobilisation has taken place on different issues
like increase in agricultural wages, land to the tiller, etc. and the principal target has been the
rural rich on whose mercy the landless labourers and the marginal peasants depend. Since the
established Communists accepted the parliamentary form of struggle and almost eschewed
armed revolt as a form of struggle, the Independent India has not witnessed any major armed
uprising in the countryside except in Naxalbari. The CPI, in the initial years, pinned its hope
on the Congress government for bringing about radical programmes to alter the landholding
pattern in the countryside. As the Congress governments adopted land reforms in various
states, the CPI focussed its attention on the implementation part of the programme.
The CPI diluted its programme and moved further away from its radical strategy when, in its
Congress in 1958 at Amritsar, it officially adopted a programme of peaceful transition to
socialism. It split in 1964 on the primary question of strategy to be adopted but the CPI (M),
that was formed as a result of the split, in the future years accepted and adopted almost a

12

similar strategy. Therefore, it is due to this, the two mainstream Communist parties have not
taken recourse to non- parliamentary method for the purpose of addressing the agrarian
question in the Indian countryside. Direct struggles in the countryside have been eschewed by
the mainstream Left that has accepted parliamentary form of mobilisation and movements
through its mass organisations. The parties have been organising and mobilising the peasants
and the agricultural workers on different issues but its areas of strength lies in only a few
regions of the country.
Both the mainstream Communist parties, the CPI and the CPI (M) have formed peasant
organisations like the Kisan Sabhas and organisation of agricultural labourers for mobilising the
concerned sections and have achieved limited success in Kerala, West Bengal, and Tripura
and in some other states. Similarly the CPI (M-L) is active in Bihar and has formed its peasant
front, the Bihar Pradesh Kisan Sabha (BPKS) which is active in many of the districts of Bihar
including those districts which are now in the new state of Jharkhand, organising the rural poor
and also the middle peasants by taking up issues which affect them. The non-parliamentary
Left, for example the Marxist Coordination Committee (MCC) or the Peoples War Group
(PWG), has been mobilising the rural poor in states like Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Jharkhand,
Orissa and Punjab and using violence as a strategy to address the question of the rural poor.
Hence the Communists in the country had met with limited success in the countryside. In the
next part of the section, we turn to the Naxalbari peasant uprising led by a faction of the CPI
(M) that took place in the country after Independence.
The Naxalbari Peasant Uprising
The Naxalbari peasant uprising that occurred in the northern part of West Bengal is the last
of the major uprisings India has witnessed. It took place in post-colonial India and was led
by a faction of the CPI (M). The two most prominent leaders of the CPI (M) who disagreed
with the official position of the party and led the movement were Kanu Sanyal and Charu
Mazumdar. It erupted in the foothills of the eastern Himalayas in West Bengal, in a place called
Naxalbari falling within the subdivision of Siliguri in Darjeeling district. It is in Naxalbari,
Kharibari and Phansidewa, the three police station areas where the movement took a militant
turn. The region is different from that of the whole of West Bengal because within it, there
exists numerous tea plantations and a large proportion of tribal population. Tea plantations
have developed along the lines of a plantation economy whereas the tribal population in this
region include the Santhals, Rajbansis, Oraons, Mundas and a small number of Terrai Gurkhas.
It is because of the combination of these two factors that the whole region has a history of
land disputes in West Bengal. The landless peasants in this region had since long claimed that
their land were being encroached by the tea estates and also by the rich peasants. Thus it is
because of this peculiarity, the Naxalbari area had witnessed a number of peasant disputes led
mainly by an indigenous peasant leadership and not by the outside middle class leaders.
The agrarian revolt arose in the month of April 1967 after the formation of the new government
in West Bengal in which the CPI (M) was a major partner. The movement continued till June
in full swing in the whole Siliguri subdivision. Kanu Sanyal, the leader of the movement
specified ten great tasks, which included inter alia, land which was not owned and tilled by
peasant themselves was to be redistributed, peasants were to burn all legal deeds and
documents, unequal agreements between the moneylenders and the peasants were to be

13

declared null and void, hoarded rice were to be confiscated by the peasants and distributed
among the peasants, all jotedars to be tried and sentenced to death etc. He urged the
peasants to arm themselves with traditional weapons.
The high point of the movement was reached in the month of May. Forcible occupations by
the peasants took place and according to government sources there were around 60 cases
of forcible occupations, looting of rice and paddy and intimidation and assaults. The leaders
of the movement claimed that around 90 percent of the peasants in the Siliguri subdivision
supported the movement. The movement came to a halt, when, under central government
pressure, the West Bengal police entered the region and swept the area. Cases of killing of
landlords were carried on later as a part of the annihilation strategy. The movement spread
to other areas of the state and elsewhere in Bihar and Andhra Pradesh later in the form of
the Naxalite movement .Thus, the Naxalbari peasant uprising had far reaching consequences
in the Independent India.

14.3.3 The Movements of the Rural Rich: Farmers Movements in

Contemporary India
In this part of the section, we shall focus on two of the prominent movements of the rural rich,
one led by the Bharatiya Kisan Union (BKU) in western Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Haryana and
the Shetkari Sangathan (SS) which represents primarily the interests of the sugarcane, cotton,
tobacco, grape and onion growers in south-west Maharashtra though it also has its base in
Gujarat. There are other organisations and movements in the country as well like the Karnataka
Rajya Raitha Sangha movement led by Nanjundaswamy in Karnataka and Vivasayigal Sangam
movement led by Narayanswamy Naidu in Tamil Nadu, the Khedut movement in south of
Gujarat; but in recent years, the BKU movement led by Mahendra Singh Tikait and the
movement by the SS led by Sharad Joshi has drawn more national attention because of their
militancy and spread. We would begin with the BKU and then come to a discussion of the
SS and end up with a comparison of the two movements.
Before we look at the BKU, let us look at the nature of the rural economy in the west Uttar
Pradesh and in the states of Punjab and Haryana that forms the backbone of the movement.
This region is highly prosperous because of the massive capitalist investment in agriculture.
Apart from foodgrains, sugarcane is the principal crop that is produced. A section of the
peasantry having land in these states has been transformed into a class of capitalist farmers
who produce much more than what their family consumes and hence the surplus is sold in the
market. They own capital assets like tractors, thrashers, pump sets etc. and hire agricultural
labourers for the purpose of cultivation since their family labour is not sufficient.
The BKU was originally formed on August 13, 1978 in Haryana under the guidance of Charan
Singh, the undisputed peasant leader of North India. The death of Charan Singh in 1987
created a political vacuum among the peasants in North India and this was filled up by
Mahendra Singh Tikait. After the death of Charan Singh, Tikait attempted to convert the
organisation into a militant one after the Shamli agitation in April, 1987 in Muzzafarnagar
district. In this agitation the BKU raised demands against rise in power tariff and erratic supply
of electricity that was so crucial for the farmers of western Uttar Pradesh. The concessions
14

which the BKU was able to secure (a reduction in the power tariff by one sixth) increased
the prestige of the BKU and its leader, Mahendra Singh Tikait and soon after that a large
number of rich peasants from several districts joined the organisation. After the Shamli agitation,
two more agitations solidified the support base of the BKU and brought the BKU into national
prominence. The two agitations were the Dharna in Meerut and Delhi in 1988. The agitations
were long and militant in nature and received widespread support. The Meerut dharna continued
for 25 days and was impressive and peaceful. The main demands of the movements were
similar to the demands of the other agitations of the prosperous farmers in the country. The
demands centred around, electricity, remunerative prices, low import costs and the inclusion
of BKU representatives on various committess appointed by the government for fixation of
prices. Since then the BKU has successfully spearheaded the farmers movement in north
India under the leadership of Mahendra Singh Tikait.
A few important points regarding the BKU should be noted at this juncture. It began as an
organisation of all the rich farmers of western Uttar Pradesh but today it has essentially
become the organisations of the well to do Jat peasant. The membership is primarily made
up of the Jats. The Rajputs, the Gujars, the Tyagis and the Muslims (the other farmers) after
participating enthusiastically in the BKU led movements in its early years had deserted the
organisation. Thus the BKU has lost its multi-caste peasant alliance character. The second
fundamental point regarding the BKU is its apolitical character. The constitution of the BKU
states very clearly that it is an apolitical organisation. The leadership of the BKU has zealously
guarded the apolitical character of the organisation. Mahendra Singh Tikait detests politics and
argues that all parties are parties of India and not of Bharat.
Sharad Joshis Shetkari Sangathana has its origin in the late 1970s when, in October 1979,
it opened an office in Chakan, Maharashtra. It primarily represents the interests of the farmers
who cultivate cotton, onions, tobacco, grapes and sugarcane in rural Maharashtra. The SS
and Sharad Joshi rose to national prominence with the rasta roko (block roads) agitation in
1980 when tens and thousands of farmers in the state of Maharashtra blocked important
roads connecting Bombay and other cities and the most important issue, which the SS raised,
was the issue of low prices of sugarcane and cotton and demanded that the prices of these
products be raised. The movement was successful because it was able to secure some rise
in the prices of the commodities and also because it was able to bring the farmers movement
in the state to prominence.
Sharad Joshi again sought to address the plight of the Farmers with the Nipani agitation in
April 1981. The movements support, however, started declining till the mid, 1980s due to the
fact that though the leadership announced a number of agitations, it did not launch any serious
one. In the early 1980s, Sharad Joshi entered the Gujarat scene. Since then the SS is
associated with the farmers movement in Gujarat. His novel contribution in Gujarat lay in his
emphasis that the Farmers movement cannot succeed unless and until the agricultural labours
and poor peasants are associated with the movement. With this emphasis, he was able to
entice the rural poor within the Kheduts movement or farmers movement. In 1985 the SS
took a very pragmatic decision in Maharashtra of supporting opposition political parties and
started closely working with the other organisations and people who were associated with the
rural sector. This paid some dividends and it is due to this its support base broadened. The
next agitation that it organised was of January 1987 over cotton prices. Since then the farmers
15

movement in Maharashtra has matured and gained prominence; but in recent years, there has
been a considerable decline in the support base of the SS largely due to the fact that it has
failed to launch any serious agitation in the 1990s and also because of Joshis blatant support
to the liberalisation of the economy.
A few points regarding the SS movement of Sharad Joshi must be made before we attempt
to compare it with the BKU movement of Mahendra Singh Tikait in north India. The SS
movement of Maharashtra and Gujarat is the movement of the rich farmers like that of the
BKU movement in north India though it also voices the demands and interests of the rural
poor. Another crucial point regarding the SS is that the movement aims at reducing the role
of the state; the state is considered as the greatest enemy of the farmers. It is because of this
position that it has embraced liberalisation, open market and even the Dunkel draft partially.
Though the similarities between the BKU and the SS are striking, there are dissimilarities as
well. Gupta (1997) has noted six differences between the two. We shall however discuss only
three briefly. The BKU is largely concerned with the owner cultivators, primarily jats of the
region whereas the SS has tried to mobilise the rural poor though essentially it is a movement
of the rural rich. Secondly, the SS movement is a movement, which has been joined and led
by a few intellectuals, making it an ideologically organised movement in contrast to the BKU
which posseses only an informal organisational set up. Lastly, the BKU now mainly represents
the egalitarian Jat owner cultivators whereas the SS represents primarily the Marathas but it
is not an organisation of a single caste. The Dhangars, Malis and Banjaras are equally involved
in the organisation.

14.4 SUMMARY
In this unit you have studied about the working class and peasant movements in India. The
working class movement has passed through the four phases. In the contemporary phase it
is faced with the problemes of communal division and the new economic policies. An analysis
of the peasants and farmers movements in the contemporary India reveals that although both
forms of mobilisation and movements are prevalent, the first is mainly led by the mass
organisations of the Left and other political parties and the second is being led by the well to
do prosperous peasant organisations though it attracts even the marginal and poor peasants
in different regions. The movements of the rich, however, have acquired more prominence
because of its militancy and prolonged agitations in recent years whereas the first one suffers
from the lack of militancy. In fact the Left, that had led agrarian agitations till the late 1960s
has not led any serious movement since the last thirty years. This is largely due to the fact that
serious class struggle is not in the immediate agenda of the established Left parties. The nonparliamentary Left, however, is exceptional in this regard but it enjoys only a limited rural base.
The increase in militancy of the rich farmers has been mainly because of their location in the
social structure, which gives them the ability to sustain movements more than the poor or the
small peasants.

14.5 EXERCISES
1) Trace the history of the working class movements in the pre-independent era.

16

UNIT 16 ENVIRONMENTAL AND ECOLOGICAL

MOVEMENTS
Structure
16.1
16.2
16.3

Introduction
Environmental Movements in India: Issues and Concerns
The Popular Movements
16.3.1
16.3.2
16.3.3
16.3.4

16.4
16.5

Chipko Movement
Appiko Movemet
Narmada Bachao Andolan (NBA)
Urban-based Environmental Movements

Summary
Exercises

16.1 INTRODUCTION
Environmental and ecological movements are among the important examples of the
collective actions of several social groups. Protection and recognition of constitutional
and democratic rights, which are not defined by law but form an important part of the
day to day living of the subaltern masses like the control over their resources, the right
of indigenous people to preserve their culture, protection of environment and maintenance
of ecological balance are significant concerns of these movements, as they affect the
human life to a great extent.
These movements also reflect an enlarged vision of economics and politics. Economic
justice sought by these movements does not mean mere distribution of resources but
encompass a larger vision like enhancement in the quality of life through recognition
of peoples right over their natural resources, their right to live with dignity, and their
participation in the decisionmaking. The concerns of human environment received
spectacular attention of scholars following the conclusion of the United Nations
Conference on Human Environment, Stockholm in 1972. By the 1980s the green
movement became a worldwide phenomenon encompassing various countries of the
world including India. It is signified by several movements of people for the protection
of their environmental and ecological rights in India, eco-greens or green movement
in Germany and North Amercia.
In this unit, our focus will be on environmental and ecological movements. While
agrarian or working class movements have had a long historical trajectory, environmental
or ecological movements gained worldwide attention only in the second half of the
twentieth century. These movements focus not only on basic survival issues but also on
larger ecological concerns. These are different from earlier social movements and there
is need to understand them in terms of their nature and strategies.
It may be mentioned here that scholars have tried to understand and analyse these
movements in diverse ways. In general these movements are grouped under tribal and
peasant movements and as well under New Social movements. This is so because
ecological aspects are generally associated with peasant and tribals whose survival is
147

associated with the state of natural resources like forests, water etc. Some treat them as
middle class or elite movements as the problems and concerns of the local communities,
indigenous people or nontribal poor are generally articulated by the urban middle class
elite. In fact, there has been no single unified and homogenous environmental discourse
in India. There has been what Guha calls varieties of environmentalism. In this context
the present unit attempts to understand history of environmental movements in India.
Different environmental and ecological movements will also be dealt in this unit.

16.2 ENVIRONMENTAL MOVEMENTS IN INDIA: ISSUES AND

CONCERNS
The environmental movement is a broad generic term which is generally used to describe
and understand different types of local struggles and conflicts concerned with livelihood
issues and ecological security within the larger context of the development debate.
These struggles in fact critiqued and questioned the notion of development and
conservation ecology pursued by the Indian state and its officials since colonial time.
The genesis of the environmental movement in India can be traced to the Chipko
movement (1973) in Garhwal region in the new state of Uttranchal. In fact, between
1970s and 1980s there were several struggles in India around issues of rights to forest
and water which raised larger ecological concerns like rights of communities in forest
resources, sustainability of large scale environmental projects like dams, issues of
displacement and rehabilitation etc.
The Indian environmental movement is critical of the colonial model of development
pursued by the postcolonial state. The postindependent state failed to build up a
development agenda based on the needs of the people and continued to advocate the
modern capitalist agenda which led to the destruction of environment, poverty and
marginalisation of rural communities. Formation of national parks, sanctuaries, protected
areas in India, in fact represents the conventional environmentalism which the Indian
state advocated with the aim of preserving wildlife and biodiversity by pushing people
out of these areas. In response to this conventional environmentalism which considered
the Indian state to be the custodian of natural resources, the environmental movement
in India advocated the ideology of environmentalism of the poor. It not only critised
modern developmentalism but also strongly advocated the revival of traditional self
sufficient village economy. It brought communities to the centre stage of Indian
environmental discourse. The environmentalist stated that local communities were best
suited to conserve natural resources as their survival depended in the sustainable use of
such resources. They argued that in order to make the sustainable use of the resource
the customary rights or traditional rights should be given back to the people which were
taken away by the State, and traditional institutions should also be recognised. In a
nutshell, the environmental movement in India concentrates on the issue of equity in
relation to access and use of natural resources.
Unlike in the West, a significant characteristic of environmental movements in India is
that they have mainly involved the women, the poor and disadvantaged masses who
have been directly affected by or are victims of environmental degradation. Thus these
movements are primarily political expressions of the struggle of local communities and
people who are victims of environmental degradation or abuse of resources.

148

Gadgil and Guha identify four broad strands within the environmental movements in
India based on vision, ideology and strategy. The first types are those which emphasise
on the moral necessity to restrain overuse and ensure justice to the poor and marginalised.
Mainly Gandhians belong to this strand. The second strand stresses on the need to
dismantle the unjust social order through struggle. Marxists mostly follow this strand.
The Third and fourth strands advocate reconstruction, i.e. employing technologies
appropriate to the given context and time. They reflect the concerns of the scientists or
the spontaneous efforts of the communities at the village level who aim at protecting
local community forests or the right to pursue environment-friendly agricultural practices.
Before we discuss some examples of environmental and ecological movements in India
it will be relevant to reproduce the table 10.2 from Ghanshyam Shahs book Social
Movements: A Review of Literature (2004: 257-58). This table will help you to have an
overview of the issues, categories and examples of environmental movements, which
have taken place in India.
Table 1
Categories
Forest and
land-based

Marine
resources and
fisheries,
aquaculature

Industrial
pollution

Development
projects:
a) Dams and irrigation
projects

Issues
Right of access to forest
resources.
Non-commercial use of
natural resources.
Prevention of land
degradation.
Social justice/human rights.
Ban on trawling, preventing
commercialization of shrimp
and pawn culture.
Protection of marine
resources.
Implementation of coastal
zone regulations.

Some Examples
Chipko, Appico, tribal movements
all over the country (for example,
Jharkhand/Bastar Belt).

National Fishermens Forum Working

for traditional fisherfolk on Kerala,
Chilka Bachao Andolan, Orissa.

Zahiro Gas Morcha in Bhopal; Ganga

Mukti Andolan in Bihar; movement
against Harihar Polyfibre factory in
Karnataka; movement against pollution
of Sone river by Gwalior Rayon factory
led by Vidushak Karkhana Group of
Shahdol district, MP; movements
against poisoning of Cheliyar river in
Kerala by Kerala Shastra Sahitya
Parishad (KSSP).
Protection of tropical forests. Silent Valley movement by KSSP;
Ecological balance.
Narmada Bachao Andolan; movements
against Tehri by Tehri Bandh Virodhi
Destructive development.
Samiti; the Koshi Gandhak Bodhghat
Rehabilitation and
and Bedthi; Bhopalpatnam and
resettlement of the displaced.
Ichampalli in the west; the
Tunghbhadra, Malaprabha and
Ghatprabha Schemes in the south:
Koyna Project affected Committee
Stricter pollution control
measures, compensation.
Prevention of reckless
expansion of industries
without considering design,
locational factors and
livelihood issues of local
population.

149

b) Power projects

Ecological balance.
Rehabilitation and
resettlement, high costs.

Jan Andolan in Dabhol against Enron;

Koe-Karo Jan Sanghatana in Bihar.
Anti-mine project in Doon valley.

c) Mining

Depletion of natural
resources.

Anti-Bauxite mine movement (Balco

project) in Orissa.

d) Industrial plants/
Railway projects/
Airport project

Land degradation.
Ecological imbalance.
Realignment.
Rehabilitation and
resettlement of the
displaced.
Ecological balance.
Ecological balance.
Rehabilitation.
Resettlement and safety.

Protests and demands of Kakana

Railway
Realignment
Action
Committee.

e) Military bases

Citizens group against Dupont Nylon

6.6. Goa. Amravati Bachao Abhyan
against a large chemical complex.
Anti-missiles test range in Baliapal and
at Netrahat, Bihar.

Wild-life sanctuaries.
National parks

Displacement, rehabilitation
and resettlement, loss of
livelihood.

Tourism

Ekjoot in Bhimashankar region of

Maharashtra, Shramik Mukti Andolan
in Sanjay Gandhi National Park,
Bombay.

Displacement, cultural
changes, social ills.

Policy inputs, stricter

measures for protected
areas.
Clear policy on national
park and wild-life
sanctuaries, lobbying,
research, training and
documentation on wild life,
conservation, education,
community-based
environmental management.
Publications on
environmental issues.
International debates.
Sustainable development.
Eco-friendly models of
development.
Low cost, environmentalfriendly housing and
technology.

Himachal Bachao Andolan. Bailancho

Saad. Goa.
Society for Clean Cities. Bombay
Natural History Society (BNHS). Centre
for Science and Environment (CSE),
Delhi. Research, training and
documentation organizations such as
Bombay Environmental Action Group.
Save Bombay Committee. Save Pune
Citizens Committee, etc.

Advocacy groups/
individual campaigns,
citizens Action Groups

Appropriate technology/
organic farming

Ralegaon Siddhi (Anna Hazares

village). SOPECOMM. Laurie Bakers
Housing experiments.
Peoples Science Institute, Dehradun.

Source: Janki Andharia and Chandan Sengupta. 1998. The Environmental Movement: Global Issues
and the Indian Reality. The Indian Journal of Social Work, 59 (1), pp. 429-31.

16.3 THE POPULAR MOVEMENTS

This section discusses some of the forest-based movements, Anti-dam movements and
movements caused due to the environmental pollution. The forest-based movements
discussed here include Chipko and Appico movements; the anti-Dam movement includes
NBA; the anti pollutionmovement include those which took place in Delhi.
150

16.3.1 Chipko Movement

As mentioned earlier, the origin of modern environmentalism and environmental
movements in India can be ascribed to the Chipko movement in the central Himalayan
region in the early 1970s. Chipko movement, launched to protect the Himalayan forests
from destruction, has its roots in the pre-independence days. Many struggles were
organised to protest against the colonial forest policy during the early decades of 20th
century. Peoples main demand in these protests was that the benefits of the forest,
especially the right to fodder, should go to local people. These struggles have continued
in the post-independent era as the forest policies of independent India are no different
from that of colonial ones. The origin of Chipko [chipak jayenge - to hug] took place
during 1973. In the early 1973 the forest department refused to allot ash trees to the
Dashauli Gram Swarajya Sangha (DGSS), a local cooperative organisation based in
Chamoli districts, for making agricultural implements. On the other hand, the forest
department allotted ash trees to a private company, i.e., Symonds Co. This incident
provoked the DGSS to fight against this injustice through lying down in front of timber
trucks and burning resin and timber depots as was done in Quit India movement. When
these methods were found unsatisfactory, Chandi Prasad Bhat - one of the leaders,
suggested of embracing the trees and thus Chipko was born (for details see Bahuguna,
1990 and Guha, 1989). This form of protest was instrumental in driving away the
private company from felling the ash trees. With its success the movement spread to
other neighbouring areas and subsequently the movement came to be popularly known
as Chipko movement internationally. From its beginning the Chipko movement
concentrated on ecological issues such as depletion of forest cover and soil erosion.
Three important aspects were responsible for the success of Chipko movement. First,
the close links between the livelihoods of the local people and the nature of the movement.
The local people consider Chipko as a fight for basic subsistence which have been
denied to them by the institutions and policies of the State (Guha, 1989). In addition,
specificity of the area where Chipko movement took place; involvement of women in
the contribution to households subsistence and the overwhelming support to anti-alcohol
campaign have led to the overwhelming support of women which is unique to the
Chipko movement. The second aspect is with regard to the nature of agitation. Unlike
other environmental movements Chipko has strictly adhered to the Gandhian tradition
of freedom struggle, i.e., nonviolence. Third, the simplicity and sincerity of the leaders
like Sunderlal Bahuguna and their access to national leaders like Mrs. Indira Gandhi,
other politicians and officials also helped to the success of the movement to a large
extent.
The demands of the Chipko movement were as follows:
i) complete stoppage of cutting trees for commercial purposes;
ii)

the traditional rights should be recognised on the basis of minimum needs of the
people;

iii) making the arid forest green by increasing peoples participation in tree cultivation;
iv) formation of village committees to manage forests;
v)

development of the forest related home-based industries and making available the
raw materials, money and technique for it; and
151

vi) giving priority to afforestation in the light of local conditions, requirements and
varieties.
What is distinctive about Chipko movement is that it was the forerunner as well as
direct inspiration for a series of popular movements in defense of community rights to
natural resources. Sometimes these struggles revolved around forests, in other instances,
around control and use of pasture, mineral or fish resources.

16.3.2 Appiko Movement

Inspired by the Chipko movement the villagers of Western Ghats, in the Uttar Kannada
region of Karnataka started Appiko Chalewali movement during September November,
1983. Here the destruction of forest was caused due to commercial felling of trees for
timber extraction. Natural forests of the region were felled by the contractors which
resulted in soil erosion and drying up of perennial water resources. In the Saklani village
in Sirsi, the forest dwellers were prevented from collecting usufructs like twigs and
dried branches and non timber forest products for the purposes of fuelwood, fodder
.honey etc.They were denied of their customary rights to these products.
In September 1983, women and youth of the region decided to launch a movement
similar to Chipko, in South India. Women and youth from Saklani and surrounding
villages walked five miles to a nearby forest and hugged trees there. They forced the
fellers and the contractors of the state forest department to stop cutting trees. The people
demanded a ban on felling of green trees. The agitation continued for 38 days and this
forced the state government to finally concede to their demands and withdrew the order
for felling of trees. For some time government stopped felling of trees which was
resumed again after some time which resumed the movement again. The movement was
backed by the local people. Even the daily wage labourers hired by the contractors to
fell tree stopped doing their work.
In October, the movement entered into its second phase and this took place in Bengaon
forest Here the forest was of mix tropical semievergreen type and mostly on hilly
terrain. The inhabitants of the region who were primarily tribal or the indigenous people
depended on the forest for their survival and livelihood. Disappearance of bamboo due
to commercial felling deprived them of the basic source to make items like baskets,
mats, etc. The main source of their income was the sale these items. When felling of
trees did not stop people started the movement. The movement was spontaneous in
nature. The local indigenous people hugged tree to stop them from cutting and finally
the government had to give in to their demands. Similar movements also started in other
areas like Husri. It also inspired the local people to launch the movement.
In fact Appiko movement became a symbol of peoples power for their rights of natural
resources vis-a-vis the state. In November, the movement spread to Nidgod village in
Siddapur taluka preventing the state from commercial felling of trees in this deciduous
forest of the region. The Appiko movement was successful in its three fold objectives,
i.e., protection of the existing forest cover, regeneration of trees in denuded lands and
utilising forest wealth with proper consideration to conservation of natural resources.
The movement also created awareness among the villagers throughout the Western
Ghats about the ecological danger posed by the commercial and industrial interests to
their forest which was the main source of sustenance. Like the Chipko, the Appiko
152

movement revived the Gandhian way of protest and mobilisation for sustainable society
in which there is a balance between man and nature.

16.3.3 Narmada Bachao Andolan (NBA)

Narmada river project encompassing three major states of western India Gujarat, Madhya
Pradesh and Maharashtra is the most important case study in terms of maturation of
environmental movement and dynamics related to politics of development. No other
development project in India has brought into focus the intensity of magnitude of
ecodevelopment problems to such a level of informed debate, political mobilisation and
grass root activism as this project. The controversy which surrounded this project has
challenged the government at all levels and at the same time was successful in creating
and forging linkages with civil society organisation and NGOs, both at the national and
international level. In fact, it has contributed to the political discourse of alternative
development in India.
Sardar Sarovar Project which is a interstate multi-purpose project with a terminal major
dam in Gujarat is being built on river Narmada which is the fifth largest river in India
1312 km long. The Narmada Valley Project, with its two mega projects- Sardar Sarovar
Project and Narmada Sagar Project in Madhya Pradesh ,is the largest single river valley
project with the objective of making the worlds largest manmade lake.
The consequences of the project are, however, quite glaring and alarming. The reservoir
will submerge 37,000 hectares of land of which 11,000 hectares are classified as forest.
It will displace about one lakh persons of 248 villages- 19 of Gujarat, 36 of Maharashtra
and 193 of Madhya Pradesh. The state government initiated the project as Gujarat was
one of the worst waterstarved regions in India and there was drastic shortage of water
for domestic, commercial, agricultural and industrial needs. Further, the state had
witnessed one of the worst droughts between 1985-88 which further reinforced this
project. However, according to the critics, it is seen as the worlds worst manmade
ecological disaster and it is considered unviable. It may be mentioned here that originally
Narmada project was considered to be an irrigation project of a 161 feet high dam. Later
it was found that water could be technologically harnessed making it a multipurpose
dam if its level is raised to 455 feet. Consequently, the state governments started looking
for finances not only from the centre but also from the World Bank.
Plans for damming the river at Gora in Gujarat surfaced as early as 1946. In fact, Prime
Minister Jawaharlal Nehru laid the foundation for a 49.8-meter-high dam in 1961. After
studying the new maps the dam planners decided that a much larger dam would be more
profitable. The only problem was hammering out an agreement with neighboring states
Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra. In 1969, after years of negotiations attempting to
agree on a feasible water-sharing formula, the Indian government established the Narmada
Water Disputes Tribunal. Ten years later, it announced its award the Narmada Water
Disputes Tribunal Award. The award envisaged that land should be made available to
the ousters at least year before submergence.
Before the Ministry of the Environment even cleared the Narmada Valley Development
Projects in 1987, the World Bank sanctioned a loan for $450 million for the largest dam,
the Sardar Sarovar, in 1985. In actuality, construction on the Sardar Sarovar dam site
had continued sporadically since 1961, but began in earnest in 1988. Questions arose
153

concerning the promises about resettlement and rehabilitation programme set up by the
government. As a consequence, each state had a peoples organisation which addressed
these concerns. Soon, these groups came together to form the Narmada Bachao Andolan
(NBA), or, the Save the Narmada Movement under the leadership Medha Patekar , a
social activists.
It may be mentioned here that the NBA began as a fight for information about the
Narmada Valley Development Projects but developed as a fight for just rehabilitation
for the lakhs of people to be ousted by the Sardar Sarovar Dam and other large dams
along the Narmada river. Eventually, when it became clear that the magnitude of the
project precluded accurate assessment of damages and losses, and that rehabilitation
was impossible, the movement challenged the very basis of the project and questioned
its claim to development.
In 1988, the NBA demanded formally the stoppage all work on the Narmada Valley
Development Projects. In September 1989, more than 50,000 people gathered in the
valley from all over India to pledge to fight destructive development. A year later
thousands of villagers walked and boated to a small town in Madhya Pradesh to reiterate
their pledge to drown rather than agree to move from their homes. Under intense
pressure, the World Bank was forced to create an independent review committee, the
Morse Commission. It published its report the Morse Report in 1992. The report
endorsed all the main concerns raised by the Andolan (NBA). Two months later, the
Bank sent out the Pamela Cox Committee. It also known as suggested exactly what the
Morse Report advised against: a sort of patchwork remedy to try and salvage the
operation. Eventually, due to the international uproar created by the Report, the World
Bank withdrew from the Sardar Sarovar Project. In response, the Gujarati government
decided to raise $200 million and go ahead with the project.
Many issues of the project are yet unresolved. However, what is more important is that
the Movement has been successful a considerable extent. The achievements of the
movements include:

Exit of the World Bank from Sardar Sarovar in 1993

Halt of Sardar Sarovar construction 1994-99
Withdrawal of foreign investors from Maheshwar dam 1999-2001
The NBA is unique in the sense that it underlined the importance of peoples right to
in formation which the authorities finally had to concede under media and popular
pressure. It was successful not only in mobilising hundreds of thousands people from
different walks of life to put pressure on the State government for its anti-people policies
,affecting and displacing lakhs of tribals from their homes and livelihoods. It also
received immense international support. Resorting to nonviolent mode of protest and
following Gandhian vision of constructive work, NBA, as its popularly known is
distinctive landmark in the history of environmentalism in India. However, in the face
of recalcitrant attitude of the governments, the NBA continues with the involvement of
effected people and civil society organisations.

154

16.3.4 Urban-based Environmental Movements

In the recent past environmental pollution caused due the industrialisation has become
the focus of collective action by the civil society organisations, NGOs, concerned
individuals, especially lawyers, scientists, environmentalists and social activists. They
sought the intervention of the judiciary and drew the attention of the state for showing
concern to the pollution caused by the process of modernisation. However, the main
focus of the collective action against pollution has been in the urban areas. Certain
tragedies like gas leakage in Bhopal based Union Carbide MNC, Charnobyl in former
Soviet Union where thousands of people were killed created worries among the people
on the negative effect of the industrialisation. Though the 1990s have seen increased
concern about the environmental pollution, awareness about the disastrous impact of the
environmental pollution started growing in the 1960s. All the major cities of India are
facing acute air, water and other kinds on environmental pollution. Continuous
immigration of the people from rural areas into the cities, their habitat in the congested
areas which exist along with the polluting small scale industries; increasing number of
vehicles; and unplanned expansion of cities, open drainage, etc. have created levels
environmental hazards. This pollution made people susceptible to multiple diseases.
The protection of environment did not form significant part of the policies of the state.
The Nehruvian model gave more emphasis to the industrialisation without showing
much concern for the pollution it was going create. However, in 1976 an Constitutional
Amendment called upon the state to protect and improve the environment and to
safeguard the forest and wildlife of the country and made the fundamental duty of
every citizen to protect and improve the natural environment including forests, lakes,
rivers and wildlife, and to have compassion for living creatures. In the following
decades the state passed legislations to prevent air pollution and environmental protection
like The Air Act of 1981 and Environmental Protection Act of 1986. The judiciary has
become the arbiter of peoples rights which include their protection from the
environmental protection also since the emergence of the device of the Public Interest
Litigation ( PIL). In the face of indifference of the executive and legislature about the
peoples problems, the PIL has become an effective weapon through which people seek
the intervention of the state on these issues. The intervention of the judiciary forced the
state to introduce some measures for prevention of environmental pollution. Justice
Krishna Iyer, Justice Kuldeep Singh and advocate MC Mehta have made remarkable
contribution in protection of the environment.
Delhi is one of the most polluted cities in the world. Three issues related to the
environmental pollution have been focus of activities of some concerned of the civil
society components in the recent past. These are air pollution caused due to the vehicular
and industrial pollution and water pollution in Yamuna river. The number of private and
public vehicles has increased many fold in the recent past. This has polluted the
environment and made people, especially children and old vulnerable to multiple diseases.
Reacting to the court order which was result of a PIL, the government made it compulsory
to introduce the CNG vehicles and make the pollution check mandatory for all private
vehicles. The introduction of the CNG vehicles has resulted in the reduction of the
environmental pollution in the city. Similarly, the Delhi government has been force to
shift the polluting industries out of the city and launch the Yamuna river cleaning
operation. The closing down of the polluting factories and industries proved the labour
155

unrest in the city. It resulted in the police firing, which killed one labourer. In fact, this
is related to the unplanned development policy. The migration to the cities from the
villages is inevitable. Unless some measures are adopted to absorb the migrating
population, and increasing usage of the vehicles is stopped, it seems the environmental
pollution will remain.

16.4 SUMMARY
To sum up, environmental and ecological movements became prominent in India since
the 1970s, like other such movements. The concerns of these movement are not confined
to any particular groups. They are all encompassing the entire village and urban
communities, women, tribals, peasants, middle classes and nature. Even the issues raised
by them concern all sections of society in varying degrees. These issues are: protection
of peoples right to access of natural resources, prevention of land degradation, preventing
commercialisation of nature resources and environmental pollution, maintenance of
ecological balance, rehabilitation of displaced people, etc. These issues are also related
to peoples dignity, environmental rights and their decision-making rights on the issues
concerning them.
The state in collaboration with the donor agencies disturbed the ecological balance in
the society following independence. In the process this adversely affected the people.
The latter launched environmental and ecological movement with their leadership, NGOs
and other civil society organisations. These movements have raised the levels of peoples
consciousness, and achieved some success. They form a significant aspect of democracy
in India.

16.5 EXERCISES
1)

Highlight the main issues and concerns of the environmental movements in India.

2)

Discuss the main feature of the Chipko movement.

3)

Write a note on Narmada Bachao Andolan (NBA).

4)

In your opinion, how are the environmental and ecological rights related to democracy
and development in India? Explain.

156

UNIT 18

ETHNIC MOVEMENTS

Structure
18.1 Introduction
18.2 Ethnonationalism
18.3 Factors Responsible for Ethnic Movements

18.4
18.5
18.6
18.7

18.3.1

Modernisation and Ethnicity

18.3.2

Political Economy

18.3.3
18.3.4

Relative Deprivation
Ethnicity and Resource Competition

18.3.5

Elite-Competition

18.3.6

Internal Colonialism

18.3.7
18.3.8

Cultural Deprivation
External Factors

Ethnic Movements
Strategies of Ethnic Movements
Summary
Exercises

18.1 INTRODUCTION
The overwhelming majority of societies today are multiethnic and multicultural. Out of
some 190 nation states listed in official sources, 150 such states have four or more
ethnic groups within their boundaries. Most of these are increasingly confronted with
minority groups demanding recognition of their identity and accommodation of their
cultural differences. In a survey of such groups, Ted Gurr in his study in 1993 singled
out 233 minority ethnic groups who are at risk. By this he meant groups that, in the
post-World War II period, have either taken political action on behalf of their collective
discrimination or both. Hence they are actually or potentially engaged in inter-ethnic
conflict. Of these 233 groups, only 27, or about 12 percent have no record of political
organisation, protest, rebellion or other form of intercommunal conflict since 1945. Gurr
also pointed out that, out of 127 countries in the world that he examined, 75 percent had
at least one, and many had more, highly politicised minorities. As such ethnic tensions
and movements have become a major source of violent and non-violent conflicts. If
around the world, so many multiethnic states are in trouble, it is obvious that there is
a need to understand the causes behind these movements and their nature and type. Such
an understanding can also help in looking for means and mechanisms for conflict
resolutions. A large number scholars the world over are undeertaking such studies. In
this unit we will have a look at these.

18.2 ETHNONATIONALISM
In the preceding unit you have already studied the meaning of ethnicity. The term has
some thing common with nation. As Walker Cannot writes, in its pristine sense a nation
36

refers to a group of people who believe that they are ancestrally related. It is the group
that can be aroused, stimulated to action, by appeals to common ancestors and to bloodbond. In this context nationalism, as properly used, does not connote loyalty to the state;
that loyalty is properly termed patriotism. Nationalism connote loyalty to ones nation,
ones extended family. One can therefore speak of an English or Welsh nationalism but
not of a British one. Cannor, therefore, suggests that two loyalities represent two different
orders of things, loyalty to state is socio-political in nature, and is based in large part
on rational self-interest. Loyalty to nation is more intuitive than rational, and is predicated
upon a sense of consanguinity common ancestry. Ethno national movements therefore,
are movements conducted in the name of the ethnic groups which have a sense of being
a national group.
Ethnic groups, which are also considered to be minorities, in states generally are of
three types. National minorities, Immigrant ethnic groups and Refugee groups. The
National minorities consist of the original inhabitants of the State. They might have
been incorporated into a larger state from earlier being self-governing groups at particular
time of history as a result of empire building, creating new states by colonial powers
or through process of integration through understandings or treaties. National minorities
can also be groups having come into existence as a result of founding of new religions
or conversions to a religion that had come from outside and in due course developed
a sense of its separate identity. Immigrant ethnic groups are those who had left their
national community and come to another state as individuals or families in search of
jobs etc. and in due course formed associations of immigrants of same culture or
religion. Refugee groups are similar to immigrant ethnic groups with only difference
that they had come to another state by fear of conditions in their own countries.
Studies have shown that generally it is the first type of ethnic groups which are involved
in ethnonationalism. It is more so with the groups which are concentrated in some part
of the territory of the state, which they consider as their homeland. Most states in the
world are not just multiethnic but multihomelands as well. With the principal exception
of a few immigrant societies such as Argentina, Australia and the United States, the land
masses of the world are divided into ethnic homeland, territories whose names reflect
a particular people. Catalonia, Croatia, England, Finland, Iboland, Ireland, Kurdistan,
Mizoland, Mongolia, Nagaland, Pakitunistan, Poland, Scotland, Swaziland, Sweden,
Tibet, Uzbekistan etc. are examples of homelands of ethnic groups.
To the people who have lent their name to the area, the homeland is much more than
a territory. The emotional attachment is reflected in such widely used descriptions as the
native land, the fatherland, this sacred soil, the ancestral land, this hallowed place, the
motherland, land of our fathers, and not the least the homeland, In the case of a homeland.
territory becomes intermeshed with notions of ancestry and family. The emotional
attachment to the homeland derives from perceptions of it has the cultural earth and,
very often, as the geographic cradle of the ethnonational group. Therefore it is for the
homeland that ethnonational groups demand greater autonomy or full independence.
However, it is not only the concentration of ethnic groups in specific territories that
causes ethnic movements. Territorial concentration provides homeland perception and
an easy manifestation for expression of grievances in nationalist language. Reasons for
the emergence of ethnic movements however are various.
37

18.3

FACTORS RESPONSIBLE FOR ETHNIC

MOVEMENTS

As has already been mentioned above, ethnic consciousness and conflicts are pervasive
around the world. Pakistan, the Soviet Union, Yugoslavia and Chezchoslovakia have
already been disintegrated. From Australian aboriginals to the Welsh, from the Armenians
to the Tamils from the Ainu to the Yanomani, the ethnics around the world are mobilizing
and engaging themselves in political action, sometimes in violent conflict and
confrontation, to establish their identities, to defend their rights and privileges, to present
their grievances and to ensure their survival. In fact many societies which were considered
models of integration before Second World War, have subsequently witnessed a series
of ethnic upheavals. The old paradigm that predicted that factors inherent in modernization
including economic development, urbanization, growing rates of literacy and education
as well as advancements in science and technology, would inevitably lead to the demice
of the role of ethnicity, religion or culture in politics, stands changed.

18.3.1

Modernisation and Ethnicity

In the operational sense, modernisation means the attainment of relatively higher levels
of variables, such as education, per capita income, urbanisation, political participation,
industrial employment, media participation, etc. As already stated, in early modernising
theory, ethnic identity referred to traditional obstacles which were supposed to disappear
in the course of development.
However, the experience of the last decades has shown that these theories of progressive
integration of peoples were seriously flawed. While, to begin with, there was such
developments and modernisation brought in uniformity but in the course of time, it
threw up its own contradictions and divergent elements, of which national minorities
were a principal expression, both in already developed and newly developing societies.
In advanced industrial societies, particularly, modernisation appears to lead to a personality
level void, which is also termed by some as alienation and by others simply as
rootlessness. In part, alienation may arise from the work situation, the impersonalisation
of a bureaucratised, formalised and urbanised existence within the framework of an
excessive centralised state power structure. The modern welfare state, in addition to its
role as protector has taken upon itself the role of a provider for its citizenry. Consequently,
there has been increasing state penetration in the civil society as well as centralisation
of initiatives and resources on the one hand and the rising expectations of the people
from the state on the other. The state has become responsible for the regulation of
practically all aspects of socio-economic life, and the visibility of the states regulatory
hand has made it the new focus and arena of operations and distributional conflicts.
This, Antony E. Alcock points out, has two effects. First, the more the governments
have intervened in the lives of their citizens, the more distant from them have they
become, since the less has been their need to heed. The bureaucratic apparatus of the
State stands between the individual citizen and the makers of the decision that govern
his life. His ability to influence those decisions has declined as swiftly as the capability
38

and authority of the government at whose knee he presses his suit. It should not be
surprising that so many people have begun to switch their loyalty from a seemingly
unresponsive national government to institutions which are more accessible or effective,
if these exist, or to call for them if they do not. This includes a return to traditional or
small group values. Of course ethnic identity here per se does not assume antagonistic
or incompatible traits, because it is a product of weakening ties in industrialised, urbanised
areas which has led to a sense of alienation that is self-directed and not other-directed.
In post-colonial societies the early nationalist leadership in its passion for modernisation
and nation-building, glossed over the ethnic differences which had their roots in the
processes of colonial rule, colonial emancipation and national mobilisation. The colonial
period had brought about a high degree of politico-territorial integration through an
efficient, centralised way, coercive machinery of the government. However it also helped
cultural and ethnic groups organise themselves politically. The nationalist movement
also mobilised ethnic groups, both strategically and ideologically. The notion of selfdetermination, the prime mover of independence movements in the colonies, derived
from the concept of freedom as much as it did from the conception of nation as a
definable unit of a people with a common political will of forming a sovereign state
of their own. The urge and requirements of independence struggles demanded an answer
to the question independence for whom. Colonialism, at one stage, provided a solution
to the identity problem. It made available a ready basis for shared identity of various
peoples, the identity of exploited and subjugated people in search of all round selfexpression. But after independence various sectional groups sought due recognition.
Consequently, the post-colonial world order, engineered on the concept of supremacy
of the state, anchored on a superimposed nationalism, legitimised by secular or religious
ideologies and enforced by an extremely powerful bureaucracy is under great strain.
Thus modernisation, both in developed and developing societies, is inter alia a source
of aggravation of aggravating stratificational inequalities, alienation of the individual
and groups. The development of media, transportation, social enrolment and urbanisation
have not necessarily favoured a homogenisation of society. In fact these very elements
that were thought to objectively unify styles of living, have provided ethnic groups with
the means of subjectively recognising of themselves as conscious entities. Walker Connor
points out that the available evidence about the pattern of ethnic dissonance in the
world, at various levels of modernisation, indicates that material increase in social
communication and mobilisation intensifies cultural awareness and exacerbates interethnic conflict.
Modernisation theory also provides a clue to ethnic assertion in the present day world
in terms of post-material values competing with the material interests in the postIndustrial societies. In this context some observers link the revival of ethnicity in the
modern era with the advance of science and the decline of religion. With the expansion
of the realm of the secular Scientific State and the erosion of the religious coloration
of the community people are confronted with the dilemma of rationality versus community
(religiosity), with the consequent necessity of choosing one over the other or somehow
managing a satisfactory integration. Ethnic historicism, in this, has arisen as an attempt
to solve this dilemma. The goal of ethnic historicism, it is suggested, is to revive the
39

ethnic community through a rediscovery and renewal of ethnic communal identity and
a reconstruction of mores and attitudes that had existed at some time in the past.
Particular reference is made to the role of secular intellectuals undergoing an identity
crisis who serve as the vanguard of an ethnic historicist revival.
However convincing this point of ethnicity providing a name and an identity in the
lonely crowd in the modern world of rapid social change may be, the fact remains that
no social process takes place in isolation of politico-economic factors. Therefore
modernisation does not explain the phenomenon in its totality. For that we have also to
look into economic and political explanations.

18.3.2

Political Economy

Political Economy has both liberal and Marxist interpretations. However within both
these schools there are differences with regard to emphasis or preference for one or the
other aspect of economic activity. One aspect of this is the factor of regional inequalities.
Several scholars have pointed out that modernisation and industrialisation in large,
multi-ethnic societies tend to proceed unevenly and often, if not always, tried to benefit
some ethnic group or some region of a country more than others. Watson, for instance
writes:
The post-1945 world has experienced it was unevenly distributed, not just socially but
in particular geographically. More broadly, the development or modernisation process
gave rise to spatially differentiated results. Where negative results coincided with a
national minority, the potential for a political movement was very likely to be activated,
it was noted that the grievances articulated by the minority nationalism were often to
do with economic and social disadvantage or exploitation.
In the post-colonial states of the third world, the situation is more complex. The economic
development paradigm had shown its ineffectiveness by the early seventies. Stavenhagen
points out that here the governing elite had modernised rapidly, but the large masses of
the population remained in a state of poverty. In fact, post-colonial capitalist development
produced large scale poverty by breaking up pre-capitalist modes of production and
forms of social organisation, furthering the market economy and one-crop agriculture,
uprooting people from their traditional villages, creating urban squalor and a growing
landless proletariat. As the third world economies became increasingly incorporated
into, and subordinated to, trans-national capitalism, internal polarisation and inequalities
increased between social classes and region. In other words the promisory note of
certainity of satisfying everybodys desires becomes instrumental in escalating individual
wants and channelling into political processes excessive demands which it cannot expect
to satisfy. Arising out of inequalities and nonfulfilment of aspirations is also the feeling
of relative deprivation, which some observers suggest as a significant cause for ethnonationalism.

18.3.3

Relative Deprivation

Ted Robert Gurr in his classical study Why Men Rebel refers to relative deprivation
as a gap between the expectations and perceived capabilities of a person vis--vis his
40

economic situation, political power and social status in relation to other. He, thus,
emphasises the psychological aspect of agitations which conforms to Lenins view that
it is the feeling of being exploited rather than the exploitation itself that makes a person
revolutionary. According to this theory it is not just the poorer regions that develop
nationalism. The rich regions may also be nationalist if they perceive relative deprivation
within the state in economic or political and/or cultural matters. Another aspect, as D.L.
Sheth points out, is that in the process of development some minorities have done better
than the majority. Those who have done well feel that they could do much better if only
their future was not tied with others in the structure of a single state. Those who feel
deprived also seek the same solution: to have their own state so that, once free of their
depriver, they can develop better.
Rothchild, speaking in the same vein maintains that politicised ethnic assertiveness
today appears to be the keenest among those who have been the least successful and
those who have been the most successful in meeting and achieving the norms, standards,
and values of the dominants in their several multi-ethnic states. The former resent at
their failure while the latter are resentful because their economic success is not reflected
in full social and political acceptance. Accordingly ethno-politics seeks to address two
sets of contradictions: the structural inequality of regions and groups, despite theoretically
equal development, and the failure of the state to implement the normative promises
which is its raisen detre. Given the complexity of modern life and the overlapping
groups which demand attention from the existing power structure, ethnicity appears to
be a rational organisational principle readily available to the political elite as well as
those who seek to replace it.
Ethnicity, accordingly represents an effort by the deprived groups (real or perceived) to
use a cultural mode for political and economic advancement or share. However, in many
instances, inequality in terms of power between two ethnic groups need not per se
invoke conflict. The preconditions for such conflict seem to be: (a) a socially mobilised
population; (b) the existence of symbolic past connoting its distinctiveness; (c) the
selection, standardisation and transmission of such symbol pools to the community by
the leadership; and (d) a reference group in relation to whom a sense of relative deprivation
(real or imaginary) is aggregated. In any case, in most of the cases, it is the middle class
which, finding the existing system detrimental to their interests as well as to their
prospects of development, wants to break the status-quo. Realising that it cannot be
done by them alone, they emphasise the problems facing the masses and formulate such
religious, ethnic, or regional slogans as may appeal to people of all classes in that
region. Some observers, therefore, think that ethnicity is being used primarily as an
instrument in resource competition.

18.3.4

Ethnicity and Resource Competition

Resource competition explanation is based on the belief that ethnic cleavage generally
acts as a faade for deeper socio-economic cleavages. To Rothchild, for instance,
politicised ethnicity is not the expression of some form of primordial attachments, but
rather an instrument in the struggle for power, directly linked to the process of
modernisation. Kellas point out that many examples show material and economic interests
41

at stake in ethnic politics and individuals seeking an advantage, usually by playing up

their ethnicity to secure scarce resources. Glazer and Moyanihan also suggest that one
of the striking characteristics of the present ethno national situation is indeed the extent
to which we find the ethnic groups denied in terms of interest, as an interest group.
Resources can be economic or political. Economic resource competition has dominated
the work of anthropologists employing the ecological model. Sociologists, who borrow
and extend this view have focused on both economic and political resource competition.
Negel, who calls resource competition cultural materialism, points out that this theory
also stresses the importance of technology and environment in determining the form and
substance of culture. It is argued that modernisation increases levels of competition for
jobs, housing and other valued resources among ethnic groups and that ethnic conflicts
and social movements based on ethnic (rather than some other) boundaries occur when
ethnic competition increases. Studies using this approach have found that ethnic party
support is much higher in developed, and industrial regions than in underdeveloped
ones. Development leads to a rise rather than a decline in ethnic mobilisation because
it provides resources to ethnic groups in the periphery, increasing their bargaining
position and organisational capacity for action. The literature on the class basis of ethnic
movements is also supportive of this theory, for it shows that movement activists tend
to be more educated, are more well to do, and have higher occupational status than
others among their ethnic groups.

18.3.5

Elite-Competition

Paul Brass says that ethnic identity and modern nationalism arise out of specific types
of interaction between the leaderships of centralising states and elite from non-dominant
ethnic groups, especially but not exclusively on the peripheries of these states. Elite
competition, thus, according to Brass, is the basic dynamic which precipitates ethnic
conflict under specific conditions which arise from the broader political and economic
environment rather than from the cultural values of ethnic groups in question. The
theory is consistent with the assumption that ethnic identity is itself a variable, rather
a final or given disposition. The cultural forms, values, and practices of ethnic groups
become political resources for elite in competition for political power and economic
advantage. They become symbols and referents for the identification of members of the
groups, which are called up in order to create a political identity more easily. Ethnic
communities are created and transformed by particular elite in modernising and in postindustrial societies undergoing dramatic social change. In pre-industrial societies,
particularly, Brass suggests, the primary issue is not allocation of state resources, but
control of local communities, which is an issue both within ethnic groups and between
ethnic groups and external forces, including other ethnic groups and the state.
Donald Horowitz points out that by appealing to electorates in ethnic terms, by making
ethnic demands on government, and by bolstering the influence of ethnically chauvinist
elements within each group, parties that begin by merely mirroring ethnic divisions help
to deepen and extend them. He, however, also suggests that though the movement for
ethnic or cultural revival may begin at an elite level, it cannot end there. The alienated
intelligentsia may be anxious to rediscover its lost roots, but the very loss of those roots

42

disqualifies it from providing anything more than initial moral and perhaps financial
leadership for this search. For, the western-educated elite is likely to be ignorant of
customary religious practice, deficient in local historical knowledge, unread in local
literature, and perhaps not even fully competent in its own language. In the last analysis,
it is dependent on an indigenous intelligentsia to carry forward the rediscovery process.

18.3.6 Internal Colonialism

The essence of internal colonialism theory (first advanced by Latin American writers
within the broad gamut of dependency) is that the relationship between members of the
dominant or core community within a state and members of the minority or peripheral
communities are characterised by exploitation.
Writing in 1965, Casavoca maintained that internal colonialism corresponds to a structure
of social relations among culturally heterogeneous, distinct groups. A decade later,
taking the case of Ireland as his empirical universe, Michael Hechter maintained that
ethnic groups would be subjected to internal colonialism in their subjugation of the core
region. The main argument behind this contention is that the capital world economy and
imperialist state expansion have led to a differential distribution of state resources and
valued employment opportunities among ethnic groups. For Wallerstein, for instance,
the essence of the modern state is not its relative authority but its role as a distributor
of privileges and differentiation among ethnic groups. Similarly Hechter suggests that
the modern capitalist state is an upholder of a cultural division of labour that distributes
valued jobs and economic development unevenly in such a way that the core region of
the country controls the best jobs while the peripheral regions are dependent upon the
core and the ethnic groups that inhabit core regions are confined to the least skilled and
prestigious jobs. Thus, as under colonialism, resources and labour residing in geographical
peripheries were developed and entracted by a culturally alien, technologically and
organisationally superior dominating group, under internal colonialism, regionally
peripheral labour and resources are developed for the enrichment of centre groups and
interest. As a result ethnically distinct and economically disadvantaged peripheral
population mobilises itself in reaction to exploitation. Nagel points out that what we see
here is a culturally distinct group residing in a historically disadvantaged periphery, its
resources dwindling, labouring at the command of the centre. Given the convergence of
ethnicity and economic status in the stratification system, the salience of ethnic distinction
and awareness increases. The internal colonial model, thus, also challenges the
functionalist prediction of an inevitable decline in the salience of ethnicity with the
increase of cultural homogenisation of the population in step with industrialisation and
modernisation. Ethnicity becomes revitalised as a means by which the periphery may
break out of the bondage from the internal colonialism.

18.3.7 Cultural Deprivation

According to this view one of the significant inducements to ethnicity comes from the
feeling of insecurity among ethnic minorities of their fear from getting lost in the sea
of majority. This may be either because of the discrimination and oppression by the
majority, the state identifying itself with the majority, or the homogenisation process
arising out of modernisation leading to creation of synthetic state culture.
43

True, it is not easy to trace prejudices and discrimination empirically. In fact, it is

difficult even to define them. Nevertheless observers do accept that in the contemporary
world, the examples of ethnic groups discriminated against or oppressed in varying
degrees are too many. Leo Driedgere points out four types of discrimination by the
majority against minorities: differential treatment; prejudicial treatment, disadvantaging
treatment, and denial of desire. The first two types are attitudinal and the last two
behavioural discrimination.
The apprehensions of minority ethnic groups about loss of their cultural identity arise
from two sources. The first is the dominant majority, generally politically powerful also,
questioning the so-called privileges or rights of minority and attempting to impose its
own religious or cultural values as that of the whole society. It means religious or
cultural values as that of the whole society. It means making the political ideology of
the core group also the basis of nationalism in the state. This belief system naturally
results in strong pressures towards assimilation of the non-dominant groups.
The second arises from the ideology of the modern states to equate the state with the
nation. This modern centralised nation-state, even in formal democracies, thinks of
regions and local units as its subordinates and agents. Any challenge from them is
considered as anti-national and subversive of national unity. In the third world countries,
the regimes, particularly in their zeal for nation-building, pursue policies which penetrate
homogenising pressures. In some cases states refuse to recognise even the limited
traditional rights of minorities to religion, language and culture. This not only leads to
ethnic rivalry and conflict but also creates convulsions within the ethnic groups whereby
the traditional elite finds its authority increasingly challenged. Unfortunately in the
inter-and intra-ethnic rivalry or conflicts the state, rather than acting as an impartial
arbiter, assumes the role of sword arm of the predominant ethnic group. It now appears
that a considerable number of national minorities are no more ready to go meekly to
their doom. From the 1960s onwards, as Michael Watson points out, such refusal has
been strongly expressed in party and electoral assertions and at times violent assertion
of political and cultural demands, summed up in the need for self-determination (whether
requiring outright independence or a home rule type of autonomy).
The popularity of democracy provides additional impetus to such demands. For the
democratic expectation of self-government is as much opposed to internal colonialism
as it is to colonialism in the empires. Thus as democracy grows in political attractiveness
so also many ethnic groups mobilise themselves politically against the state of which
they are part, if they feel they are discriminated or dominated. It is thus suggested that
there has been a cultural resurgence among ethnic or linguistic groups who bear a loss
of identity due to increased social pressures from dominant modern society. Of late this
view has been accepted by many observers, though not as an exclusive cause. Even
Marxists have started taking note of it.

18.3.8

External Factors

According to some observers the spurt of ethnic conflict all over the world in recent
years owes its sustenance to external involvement and support. It is pointed out that the

44

use of a large number of small and medium weapons by the ethnic groups, the recurring
huge financial requirements for sustenance, and mass-media exposure to their point of
view cannot be explained except in terms of the involvement of external powers.
It is also suggested that because of failure of the often used instrument of foreign policy
the states have resorted to warfare through other means, i.e. support to ethnic groups
against the state or the state against the subnational groups. In a number of cases, since
the ethnic groups may straddle border, foreign intervention is built into the problem
from the start. Ethnic movements may also get support in moral and material forms
from expatriates belonging to the same ethnic group living in various parts of the world.
Apart from expatriates, support may also be provided by other ethnic groups for
ideological reasons, such as support to liberation movements. Whatever may be the
reasons for such a support, it is quite clear that external factor can only provide sustenance
and/or a moral boost to ethnicity. It cannot be in itself the main cause for its origin and
the existence. This arises from within the society and polity and has to be looked into
with reference to specific realities.

18.4 ETHNIC MOVEMENTS

Various explanations discussed above lay emphasis on one or the other reason for
ethnicity becoming a focus for political mobilisation. Most observers accept the fact that
no single theory or model can explain the phenomenon in all its aspects and in all types
of situations. Ethnic mobilisation may have multiple causes. Economic marginality is
certainly one of the root causes, and hence one of the theoretical explanations, of
regional and national conflicts but it is not by itself a sufficient basis for a general
theory of ethnicity or regionalism. Economic factors are, of course, fundamental to
theoretical explanations, but they are many sided and must be considered in their concrete
reality. Historical and political factors are most important, but these must also be
considered as concrete elements of specific historical development and of a specific
political system. Cultural factors can also develop in complex ways, both as a result of
political conflict and of ideological confrontation (linguistic conflicts, for example). But
even these must be considered in terms of their specific reality. Ethnic nationalism is
also a reflection of broader and deeper consensus in modern society, such as disquiet
at standardisation, an intensifying identity crisis, and growing general dissatisfaction
with government and the major parties. Hence, ideologically, ethno-nationalism offers
a combination of older themes related to the community, common inheritance and
culture along with newer ones relating to economic development and democratic control.
Also, it is important to note that motivating forces alone do not give rise to ethnic
movements. The degree to which ethnic groups have a well developed substructure of
various kinds of organisations and associations of their own which encapsulates them
and keeps them externally isolated from their potential opponents is also a necessary
determinant.
During the post-Second World War period, in general, in multi-ethnic societies, one
discerns two simultaneous and ongoing processes of nation-building: (a) the formation
of an inter-ethnic composite of a homogeneous national personality with a secular
outlook through the state apparatus, and (b) the transformation of an ethnic group in a
45

multi-ethnic society to an ethnic community of nations. While the former can be described
as the building of a state-centred nation, the latter can be described as an ethnic nation.
While the former comes somewhat closer to the usually accepted western interpretation
of the term nation state, the latter approximates the usage of the term sub-nation and the
Marxian usage of the term nation and nationality or ethno-social sub-division. If
development has not meant the inevitable demise of ethnic attachment, perhaps the
reason is that ethnicity is qualitatively different from what it was considered to be. It
appears to be more adaptive and resilient and less tradition-bound than many social
scientists have suggested. That is why ethnic conflict and movements today appear to
be a normal feature of developing as well as advanced industrial societies with varied
consequences for social and political processes.
Western Europe has recently faced renewed militancy by territorial and national minorities
in states that considered such problems as having been solved long ago. Such examples
are the Bretons and Corricans in France, the Scottish and Welsh in Great Britain, the
simmering linguistic conflict between the Flemish and the Wallcons in Belgium, the
conflict in Ulster between the Catholics and the Protestants, the Basque country in
Spain. The Quebec situation in Canada is delicate. In the U.S.A. which used to boast
of being the melting pot of nations, ethnicity has become a major focus for political
action. The large scale inflow of Hispanies, who do not take to the English language,
has started causing worry. Even the pervasive and compelling ideology of socialism
finds itself continually confronted by sub-nationalist demands for home rule. In addition
to what has happened in the U.S.S.R. and East Europe, in China, despite numerous legal
and institutional safeguards, many minority nationalities grudge the cultural and political
domination of the Han majority. In Tibet, for quite some time, the nationalist sentiment
has been openly expressed.
In the Arab world and Western Asia, religious and ethnic minorities (such as the Druese,
the Cophs, the Buluchs, and the Berbers) seek accommodation with the dominant culture;
others strive for self determination (such as Kurds, Saharouis, and Palestinians); still
others seek historical redress for ancient grievances. In Africa, recent history witnessed,
among other ethnic problems, a bloody civil war in Nigeria: massacres and persecution
of one ethnic group by another in Rwanda and Burundi; mass expulsion of Asians from
Uganda and Ghanians from Nigeria; ethnic-political struggles in Mozambique, Zimbabwe,
Zaire, Chad and Angola. There have been disastrous conflicts in the Horn of Africa. The
Latin American countries have failed to solve the internal problems cultural and
psychological which by encouraging chauvinistic nationalism have forestalled effective
nation-building. Recent events in South Asia suggest that this region with unique ethnic,
linguistic, religious diversity is rather too much prone to dangerous conflicts.
Thus in every system and regime, ethno-cultural resurgence has put to question the very
basis of nation-state and the concept of nationality. The last three decades of the twentieth
century have particularly been a period during which minority nationalist movements
have multiplied and flourished. It is estimated that more than 75 per cent of on going
major conflicts of today are due to ethnic considerations. As already mentioned, one of
the most important functions of cultural movements is to support ethnic boundary
maintenance or, more properly, boundary reconstruction. Typically, they attempt to
46

repair breaches in boundaries and prevent the loss of group members, especially elite
members. They infuse group identity with a new or revived cultural content that may
command greater allegiance or demarcate the lines between groups more clearly, reducing
the element of individual choice in identity. That cultural movements are employed to
effect, forestall, or reverse boundary changes is, of course, evidence that cultural practices
and institutions are not givens of ethnic identity but may actually follow from it.

18.5 STRATEGIES OF ETHNIC MOVEMENTS

We have seen above that Ethnic movements apart from concern for identity, are political,
economic and cultural manifestations of ethnic solidarity. In many cases ethnic groupbased activities seem to be rational responses on the part of individuals and groups to
contemporary situations encouraged in modern societies. The demands and goals of
ethnic movements differ from situation to situation. These range from simple demands
for protection of language or culture to complete autonomy or separation. Within these
the nature and language of education, the designation of holidays, the development of
cultural programmes and such other policy measures are issues of concern. As mentioned
earlier, particularly in modern systems, where public authority delves into many aspects
of life, culturally distinct groups may well aspire to control that authority in culturally
sensitive areas. These may be demands for establishment of federal systems, or more
powers to states in existing federal systems like being made by some groups in India,
or recognition of special status for state or province as is the case in Quebec, Canada.
In general ethnic demands are of four types:
a) for affirmative discrimination
b) for greater autonomy and unquestioned power
c) autonomy demand related to systematic change, and
d) secession
Similarly various ethnic movements use different techniques to attain their goals
Christopher Hewitt, having conducted a survey of a number of ethnic movements observes
that the strategies generally used are civil war, communal (ethnic) rioting and terrorism.
Civil War is marked by widespread conflict between highly organised and heavily
armed military units. There is either a struggle for control of the state, as in Zanzibar,
or the state fragments and its authority passes to ethnic factions who battle for territory,
as in Cyprus and Lebanon. This type of conflict, threatening a revolutionary transformation
of the pre-existing state, is clearly the most serious kind of ethnic conflict, leading to
very high death rates as well as widespread social disruption and property damage.
Communal rioting is of two types. The first involves clashes between civilian crowds
rather than between organised military units. The violence is spontaneous and the weapons
used are often home-made and primitive. Communal rioting, while it may involve
incursions into the other groups areas, does not typically involve attempts to gain or
control territory such as occur in civil war situations. Nor is there any serious likelihood
that the government will be overthrown by this kind of violence. In this kind of communal
rioting there is a widespread willingness to attack members of the other community
47

simply because of their ethnic identity. Communal riots of this type occur in communally
sensitive societies though their severity varied considerably.
Another type of communal riot does not involve confrontations between rival crowds,
but rather clashes between soldiers or police and civilians of one ethnic community
together with some looting and property damage. Such confrontations have been
significant in the United States, Israel, and Northern Ireland.
Terrorism is defined as violence carried out by but highly organised groups. It includes
such acts as assassinations, bombings, and small-scale gunbattles. Although such acts
are often committed in association with other kinds of violence, terrorist campaigns of
any significance are not common. The activities of the Irish Republican Army and the
Protestant Loyalist groups have been responsible for the great majority of deaths in
Northern Ireland. Intermittent racial terrorism in the United States has had little social
impact and claimed only a handful of lives. In Canada the separatist Front de Liberation
du Quebec was responsible for a handful of kidnappings and bombings. In India
terrorist activities by ethnic movements had been used in North Eastern part of the
country and Jammu and Kashmir. A significant example of use of terrorism is by LTTE
in Sri Lanka.

18.6 SUMMARY
In this unit, we have seen that most countries in the world are populated by several
distinct ethnic groups and a number of them have experienced or are experiencing
ethnic movements of one or the other type. The problems involved in managing group
conflicts in multi-ethnic societies are multifarious and exceedingly complex. The growth
of the ethnic self assertion is in many ways a consequence of these managerial problems
and related developments. In many societies ethnicity has become the main base for
interest demands also. Among the possible causes generating ethnic movements are fear
of loss of identity, economic grievances, political grievances, political mobilisation by
elite etc. The most general complaint is that one community is denied its fair share of
economic and political power. The demands and goals of the ethnic movements range
from redressal of grievances by the State to those of complete autonomy or separation.
Similarly ethnic movements can take various shapes ranging from peaceful constitutional
protests to civil war, with ethnic or communal rioting and terrorism in between.
Whether in the shape of agitations for autonomy, movements for better politico-economic
structure, or struggle for separation, the phenomena of ethnicity is an intrinsic component
of the socio political realities of most of the multi-ethnic states in the world today. It
is becoming increasingly evident that in the post Second World War period both neoliberal and socialist claims have not been able to remove the ethno-national question
from the political agenda. Therefore the issue of how to cope with the complexities of
multi-ethnic states and ethnicity remains significant.

18.7 EXERCISES
1) What do you understand by Ethnonationalism?
48

2) Evaluate the processes Modernisation and Resource allocation as causes for the
emergence of Ethnic Movements.
3) Describe and assess the economic factors including internal colonialism as responsible
for ethnic movements.
4) Analyse the nature of ethnic movements and various strategies used by them.
5) Write an essay on Ethnic Movements in the age of modernisation.

49

UNIT 2 APPROACHES TO STUDY SOCIAL

MOVEMENTS: LIBERAL, GANDHIAN AND
MARXIAN
Structure
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
2.7
2.8

Introduction
The Marxist Approach
Structure Function Approach
Gandhian Approach
Resource Mobilisation Theory
Relative Deprivation Theory
Summary
Exercises

2.1 INTRODUCTION
Facts do not speak for themselves. They have to be collected, arranged, categorised and
interpreted. One collects particular kind of facts and another observer collects different
kinds of facts of the same event. Both give different meanings and arrive at different
conclusions of the same event. There is no one way of looking social facts and processes.
The same movements can be constructed and interpreted in many different ways,
depending upon theoretical perspective from which one looks at the phenomena.
Theoretical perspective or approach guides the selection of facts, their arrangement,
classification and interpretation. One gets better understanding of the process with more
systematic and rigorous perspective than casual and unsystematic way of looking the
phenomena. There are different approaches to study social movements. But at the same
time we should remember that empirical processes are not neat to fit into any one
approach. Social and political processes are complex and have their own logic. Moreover,
no approach is in pure form. There are variations among the followers of the same
theoretical perspective. There are different perspectives among the Marxists and also
among the liberals. What is provided here is a broad framework, as guide of a particular
approach.

2.2 MARXIST APPROACH

Scholars following the Marxist approach to analyse various social movements and those
who are involved in social movements claiming to be Marxist are primarily interested
in bringing about revolutionary change in society. According to the Marxist approach
conflict is the central core of social movements. There are different kinds of conflicts
in society. Some conflicts are between individuals for personal power, style of functioning,
between the communitiessocial, ethnic, religious, regional etc. and other conflicts
are around material interest and domination of one over the others. The nature of the
non-class conflict varies from society to society and can be resolved through negotiations
and institutional mechanism. Sometimes though not always such conflict is in a garb of
class/economic conflict. That is, economic conflict of different classes belonging to
15

separate communities take the form of ethnic conflict. Class conflict is located in economic
structure of society, in-built in the production and distribution system. It is around
domination and subjugation between the classes. Those who own means of production
dominate social and political system. In all forms of class society specific form of
production predominates, which influences other forms of social relations. Ralph Miliband
observes, Class domination can never be purely economic, or purely cultural: it
must always have a strong and pervasive political content, not least because the law
is crystallized form which politics assumes in providing the necessary sanction and
legitimation of all forms of domination. In this sense, politics sanctions what is
permitted, and therefore permits the relations between the members of different and
conflicting classes, inside and outside their relation of production.
Those who own and control the means of production take away the surplus from those
who produce. They accumulate surplus for their end and expand and perpetuate their
control over the society. The former may be feudal lord in feudal system or industrial
bourgeois in capitalist system. Antagonistic interests between the propertied and labour
classes are inherent in a class-based society that generates contradictions. The former
use the coercive as well as persuasive power of the state, and also other institutions,
including religion, culture, education, mass media etc, to perpetuate their hegemony in
society and to control the exploited classes. The latter resist, protest and occasionally
revolt or launch organised and collective action against the dominance of the propertied
classes. It is their effort to bring about revolutionary political change by overthrowing
the dominant classes in power. In short, class struggle is the central driving force for
resistance. Such collective actions take the form of social movements.
Though to Marxists, structural causes of conflicting economic interests are central,
number of Marxist scholars have begun to pay attention to ethnic, religious and other
cultural factors. Some of them have begun to analyse the nature of the consciousness
of exploited classes. According to Marxist scholars, members of the same class not only
have common interests vis-a-vis other classes, but also share a common consciousness
regarding their position in society that they share common interests. This facilitates their
collective action against the ruling classes and state.
They assert that the parliamentary democracy in capitalist state protects the interests of
the haves and facilitates exploitation of the labour. Hence the conflict between the haves
and have-nots cannot be resolved through institutional mechanism. A.R. Desai argued
in the 1960s that civil and democratic rights of the underprivileged were increasingly
violated in capitalist system. The state failed to provide basic human rights of the vast
majority of the exploited classes. The have-nots in rural areas were deprived of their
livelihood natural resources of land, forest and water. People resist against anti-people
measures of the state and dominant classes. Through various organised and unorganised
struggles the poor demand for the protection of their basic rights. He asserted, The
parliamentary form of government, as a political institutional device, has proved to be
inadequate to continue or expand concrete democratic rights of the people. This form,
either operates as a shell within which the authority of capital perpetuates itself, obstructing
or reducing the opportunities for people to consciously participate in the process of
society, or is increasingly transforming itself into a dictatorship, where capital sheds
some of its democratic pretensions and rules by open, ruthless dictatorial means. Public
protests will continue till people have ended the rule of capital in those countries where
16

it still persists. They will also continue against those bureaucratic totalitarian political
regimes where the rule of capital has ended, but where due to certain peculiar historical
circumstances Stalinist bureaucratic, terrorist political regimes have emerged. The
movements and protests of people will continue till adequate political institutional forms
for the realisation and exercise of concrete democratic rights are found (1965).
For Marxists, social movements are just not a protest and expression of the grievances.
The exploited classes are not interested in reforming this or that institutions though they
do fight for incremental rights to strengthen their strength. For instance working class
fights for more wages, regulation of work, social security and also participation in
management. Through this they build up solidarity among the workers and expand their
struggles. Ultimately their attempt is to crack the dominant political system so that in
the process the struggles move in the direction of revolutionary changes in the ownership
of means of production and over through the dominant state structure. The struggles of
the oppressed are both violent and non-violent depending upon the strength and means
adopted by the state and propertied classes for the oppression. They are not averse to
violent path but it does not mean that they always follow the violent means. For them
the means is not that important as the ends. They often highlight the violence and
oppression of the state and the dominant classes against the exploited classes. In such
a situation the latter are left with no choice to counter the adversaries with the same
method.
There is a good deal of debate among Marxist scholars on theoretical and methodological
issues. Recently a group of Marxist historians, the Subaltern Studies group, has begun
to study history from below. They criticise the traditional Marxist historians for
ignoring the history of the masses, as if the subaltern classes do not make history of
their own, depending solely on the advanced classes or the elite for organisation and
guidance. It is argued that the traditional Marxist scholars have undermined cultural
factors and viewed a linear development of class consciousness (Guha 1983). On the
other hand, the Subaltern Studies historians are strongly criticised by other Marxist
scholars for ignoring structural factors and viewing consciousness as independent of
structural contradictions. They are accused of being Hegelian idealists.

2.3 STRUCTURE FUNCTION APPROACH

There is a great deal of variation amongst the non-Marxist scholars, in their approach
to the analysis of social movements. The ideological positions regarding a need for
social and/or political change, and the role of movements therein differ. It is argued by
several liberal scholars such as William Kornhauser, Robert Nisbet, Edward Shils and
others that mass movements are the product of mass societies which are extremist and
anti-democratic. These scholars are in favour of excluding the masses from day-to-day
participation in politics, which hampers the efficient functioning of the government.
Some Indian scholars who approved of the agitation for independence from foreign rule,
did not favour agitation by people in the post-independence period. They condemned
them outright as dangerous and dysfunctional for civilised society. Though some
other liberals do not favour revolutionary change in the political and economic structure,
they advocate political change which is confined to change in government and political
institutions. A few are for revolutionary change but they differ from Marxist scholars
in class analysis. They lay emphasis on political institutions and culture. In their analysis
17

of the movements, some do not inquire into social and economic causes of conflict and
collective struggles. Others differ in their emphasis on the causes responsible for the
movements. Some emphasise individual psychological traits, some focus on elite power
struggles and their manipulation; and some others emphasise the importance of cultural
rather than economic factors.
The scholars who adhere to the theory of political development consider that the rising
aspirations of the people are not adequately met by existing political institutions which
are rigid or incompetent. As the gap between the expectations of the people and
performance of the system widens, political instability and disorder leading to mass
upsurge increases (Huntington 1968). Rajni Kothari argued that direct action is inevitable
in the context of Indias present-day parliamentary democracy. The general climate
of frustration, the ineffectiveness of known channels of communication, the alienation
and atomisation of the individual, the tendency towards regimentation and the continuous
state of conflict (which may remain latent and suppressed for a time) between the rulers
and the ruledall these make the ideal of self-government more and more remote and
render parliamentary government an unstable form of political organisation (1960).
It is also argued by some that that public protests have a certain functional utility even
in a parliamentary form of government. David Bayley (1962) observes that before and
after independence, a large number of the people felt that the institutional means of
redress for grievances, frustrations and wrongsactual or fanciedwere inadequate.

2.4 GANDHIAN APPROACH

Mahatma Gandhi, the leader of Indias freedom movement has a far reaching influence
on social movements in India during his life time and in the post-independent India.
Though Gandhi did not offer systematic analysis on social system, its functioning and
causes of conflict, he was a critic of modernity as developed in the West under
industrial revolution. He was against capitalist economic system. And, he had deep
concern for the poor poorest of the poor. Conflict in society, according to him is not
because of conflicting economic and social interests among the communities/classes. It
is because of different understanding of interests and society; different moral and
ethical values on good and evil; or prejudices against each other. During his life time
he led struggles not only against the British rule but also racial discrimination in South
Africa, against untouchability and discrimination to women.
Purity of means in social struggles and resolving conflict is the central concern of
Gandhian ideology. According to Gandhi the means are as important as the ends in
resolving conflict. For that he strongly advocated ahinsa i.e. non-violence. Violence he
believed, was not only wrong, it was a mistake. It could never really end injustice,
because it inflamed the prejudice and fear that fed oppression. For Gandhi, unjust
means would never produce a just outcome. The means may be likened to a seed, the
end to a tree, he wrote in 1909, and there is just the same inviolable connection
between the means and the end as there is between the seed and the tree... We reap
exactly as we sow.
Gandhians advocate a need for resistance of those who are the victims and suffer
against injustice. The method of resistance was satyagraha i.e satya (truth) and agraha
18

(institance, holding firmly). Bondurant (1988) has called this approach the Gandhian
dialectic. Satyagraha was a dialectical process where non-violent action (antithesis)
engages existing structures of power (thesis) in a truth-seeking struggle leading to a
more just and truthful relationship (synthesis).
In this technique the victims oppose unjust law and also the act of the oppressor/ foreign
ruler/landlord/upper caste. They even break the unjust law and in consequence suffer
punishment imposed on them by the authority. Such peaceful resistance, Gandhi believed,
would open the eyes of oppressors and weaken the hostility behind repression; rather
than adversaries being bullied to capitulate, they would be obliged to see what was
right, and that would make them change their minds and actions. But satyagraha soon
took on a larger dimension, one that was less a function of its spiritual provenance than
its feasibility. Gandhi recognised that there were limits to the exemplary value of personal
sacrifice: even the most committed resisters could absorb only so much suffering, and
the pride and prejudices typical of entrenched regimes could not be dissolved quickly.
If satyagraha was to become a practical political tool, Gandhi realised, it had to bring
pressure to bear on its opponents. I do not believe in making appeals, he emphasised
on moral force of the opponents.
The potential of satyagraha to change an opponents position, Gandhi believed, came
from the dependence of rulers on the co-operation of those who had the choice to obey
or resist. While he continued to argue that satyagraha could reveal the truth to opponents
and win them over, he often spoke of it in military terms and planned actions that were
intended not so much to convert adversaries but to jeopardise their interests if they did
not yield. In this way he made satyagraha a realistic alternative for those more interested
in what could produce change than in what conscience could justify.
The method of satyagraha is often called as passive resistance. But Gandhi made
the distinction between the two. In 1920, he argued that they were not synonymous.
Passive resistance is generally practice by the weak and non-violence is not their credo.
Sometimes it has narrow self-interest which fail to reach out the opponent. But it is no
so in satyagraha, . passive resistance does not necessarily involve complete adherence
to truth under every circumstance. Therefore it is different from satyagraha in three
essentials: Satyagraha is a weapon of the strong; it admits of no violence under any
circumstance whatever; and it ever insists upon truth.
David Hardiman calls Gandhis method as dialogical resistance. For Gandhi the
adversary was not an enemy. It is a breach of satyagraha to wish ill to an opponent or
to say a harsh world to him or of him with the intention of harming him. He believed
in changing heart and reasoning of the enemy through persuasion and dialogue. But he
did not rule other methods to build pressure on the opponents. He knew that in many
cases, reason by itself would not win an argument. This was where self-inflicted suffering,
such as fasting, could be importantadditional political pressure was often needed,
entailing mass demonstrations, non-co-operation, tax refusal, hartals and like.
Wehr (1979) has termed Gandhis approach to conflict as a self-limiting one. Gandhi
was challenging a number of political and social conditions in British India, most
notably colonial rule, caste and religious discrimination, and exploitation of workers
and peasants. He had to confront these opponents but he had to do so without unleashing
the enormous potential for violent upheaval existing in the India of that time. His moral
19

and political philosophies found practical form in methods he used to inhibit runaway
responses. To prevent proliferation of issues, for example, Gandhi was careful to focus
each satyagraha campaign on a single, clear issue around which agreement might be
reached. This helped to keep the conflict within bounds. His practice of maintaining
good personal relations with his opponents during a campaign prevented the shift from
disagreement over an issue to personal antagonism. His policy of complete openness in
both interpersonal and media communication reduced the threat and suspicion that
secrecy and unpredictability introduce into a conflict.

2.5 RESOURCE MOBILISATION THEORY

Resource Mobilisation theory is an outcome of rational choice theory. It is based on
the assumption that individuals actions are motivated by goals that express their
preferences. They act within the given constrains and available choices. It is not possible
for all individuals to get all that they want; they must make choices within the available
possibilities at a given point of time. Rational choice theories argue that individuals
must make a rational choice regarding what is the best for them in a situation; and
accordingly anticipate and calculate the outcome of their actions. Rational individuals
choose the alternatives that is likely to give them the greatest satisafaction.
Some of the proponents of this theory argue that social movements for revolutionary
changes by the marginal sections is out of impulse and emotion. Therefore, they do not
sustain for long and fail.
It was called resource mobilisation theory because the theory purported to show that the
success of a movement depended on the resources available to be used. These resources
arose from inducing individuals to participate and contribute to the cost. Individuals
participate because they see the benefits to be derived from joining. Success also depends
on the movement being able to link to other networks of groups and organisations. The
resource mobilisation theorys stress was wholly on the strategy to make the movement
succeed in demanding for a change in government policies or legislation. Thus it is
sometimes said that the theory focused on political action, or the realm of politics rather
than on civil society.
Jenkins and Perrow argued that protest and movement formation only occurs when the
necessary resources are pumped into it. According to them struggles by powerless and
poor groups only take place when rich benefactors take an interest in their struggle and
pump resources into it. In the case of the farm workers, Jenkins and Perrow argue that
their struggle only got going, properly, when middle class liberals (in the 60s) decided
to champion their cause.
Resource mobilisation theory (RMT)
Reacts against the older view of social movements (e.g. Communism, Nazism) as
an irrational protest of the marginalised and as tending to extremism (and so
illegitimate and not really political)

Sees social movements (e.g. black civil rights, environmentalism) as individually

rational attempts to mobilise resources in pursuit of politics by other means hence driven by people with resources, embedded in stable networks (and so
legitimate political actors!)
20

 Tends to reproduce professional organisers perspective (e.g. Greenpeace, Amnesty):

tackling the free rider problem to build strong and effective movements (Freeman)
through organisation and selective incentives for participation
The theory emphasises entrepreneurial skill of the leaders of the movements. They
mobilise resources professional, finances, moral support and networking- from within
and outside to sustain their struggles. The leaders of the succesful movements have skill
to create organisation and mobilise people. In the process common goals are articulated
and consensus is created so that all the participants accept the goals.
Rajendra Singh summarises the major assumptions of RMT. They are:
a) social movements must be understood in terms of conflict model of collective
action;
b) there is no basic difference between institutional and non-institutional collective
actions;
c) both institutional and non-institutional collective actions contain conflicts of interests
built in the system of institutionalised power relations;
d)

social movements involve the rational pursuit of interests by competing groups;

e) goals and grievances, conflicts and contestations are inherently present in all relations
of power, and as such, they themselves cannot explain the formation of social
movements;
f) the formation of social movements, therefore, is determined by the changes in
resources, organisation and opportunities for collective action;
g) success and effectiveness of collective action is understood in terms of material
benefit or the actor being recognised as a political person; and
h) finally, as Jenkins visualises, the mobilisation of men in contemporary social
movements involves the use of large-scale, advanced communication techniques,
bureaucratised organisation and utilitarian drives and initiatives. (2001)

2.6 RELATIVE DEPRIVATION THEORY

The theory of relative deprivation developed by American scholars (Gurr 1970) has also
guided some studies on agitation and mass movements.
Relative deprivation is defined as actors perception of discrepancy between their value
expectations and their environments apparent value capabilities. Value expectations are
the goods and conditions of life to which people believe they are justifiably entitled.
The referents of value capabilities are to be found largely in the social and physical
environment; they are the conditions that determine peoples perceived chances of getting
or keeping the values they legitimately expect to attain. Gurr writes: The frustrationaggression and the related threat-aggression mechanisms provide the basic motivational
link between Relative Deprivation and the potential for collective violence. Gurr also
links three other concepts to relative deprivation, namely dissonance, anomie and conflict.
The second of these, anomie is important in its effect to value opportunities. There are
three models as to how the differentiation of value expectations and value capabilities
21

has impact on relative deprivation. Decremental deprivation model describes the situation
where the expectations are stable but capabilities declines. In aspirational model the
capabilities remain the same but the expectations increase. The last model, J-curve or
progressive deprivation model, fits to the situations when expectations and capabilities
first increase hand in hand but then capabilities stop to increase or decrease while
expectations still go on.
Those who perceive deprivation and as a result experience a feeling of frustration
become aggressive. They are jealous of those who have more. They protest or revolt
against those who have more. They do not deal with the sources of deprivation. For
Gurr, deprivation is primarily psychological; therefore, he does not deal with the
socio-economic structure which is the source of deprivation. If such sense of deprivation
is confined to an individual against another individual it leads to crime. When it becomes
collective perception deprivation of region, community or caste it takes the form of
collective action. But it is not accompanied with ideology for the social system, it
remains a protest or rebellion and hardly takes a form of social movement. They become
temporary aberrations rather than as ongoing processes of change. Relative deprivation
is a necessary but not a sufficient condition for protest movements. M.S. A. Rao argues,
a sufficient level of understanding and reflection is required on the part of the participants,
and they must be able to observe and perceive the contrast between the social and
cultural conditions of the privileged and those of the deprived, and must realise that it
is possible to do something about it (1979: 207).

2.7 SUMMARY
Approach or theoretical framework help us to understand social movements in more
meaningful way. They are useful to give meaning to the facts and also valuable guide
to those who are active in movements. Among all the most important approach is the
Marxist perspective. It is also called classical approach or old approach. The list of
approaches given above is not exhaustive. There are also approaches like behavioral,
cognitive, multilevel and on. But they are not widely used by the scholars to study
social movements. Within each approach there are different shades for analysis.

2.8 EXERCISES
1)

What is the importance of theoretical framework in understanding social movements?

2)

What is the significance of class conflict in Marxist framework to analyse social

movements?

3)

How subaltern studies approach differs from the mainstream Marxist approach?

4)

Is social movement dis-functional to the functioning of political system? Why?

5)

Purity of means is the central to Gandhian approach Explain.

6)

Explain the main features of Gandhian form of Satyagraha.

7)

Discuss Resource Mobilisation theory in social movement literature.

8)

Explain the importance of Relative Deprivation theory in the analysis of social

movements.

22

UNIT 3 CLASSIFICATION OF SOCIAL MOVEMENTS

INCLUDING NEW SOCIAL MOVEMENTS
Structure
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
3.6
3.7

Introduction
Reform, Rebellion and Revolution
New Social Movements
Issue-based Movements
Classification by Social Categories
Summary
Exercises

3.1 INTRODUCTION
Classification is a way of selecting and arranging facts/data. It is a way to give meaning
to ones observations. There is no the way of classifying any social phenomenon,
process or group of people. Social movements also do not have the only one way of
classification. No classification is sacrosanct and universal acceptable by all the scholars
and activists. Classification is related to theoretical framework and the question that one
wants to understand? Same movement can be classified in several ways depending upon
the focus of the study. For instance a collective struggle of people raising issue of
pollution can be called environment movement and also human rights movement or
middle class movement or reformist movement or new social movement. In this unit we
shall explain some of the typologies of the movements as used by different scholars and
underlying rationale for such taxonomy.

3.2 REFORM, REBELLION AND REVOLUTION

Generally those who follow Marxist framework examine social movements in terms of
their potentialities for revolutionary transformation in society. They characterise the
movements in reference to not only of the participants and leaders ideology as well as
their immediate and long term objectives but also the scholars own expectations from
social movements. In this framework the movements are classified on the basis of what
they attain or likely to attain and the objectives of the collective action against the
political system. According to this theoretical perspective social movements are of three
types: revolt or rebellion, reform, and revolution. Revolt or rebellion protests against the
political system or regime and may also make attempts to change in the authority
government and/or ruling elite/ rulers. But it does not question nor it aims at changing
the political system. In short, the movement is against the regime rather than the system.
A revolt is a challenge to political authority, aimed at overthrowing the government. A
rebellion is an attack on existing authority without any intention of seizing state power
to change the system.
The social movement which aims at bringing certain changes in the system and not
transforming the system completely is called reformist movement. Such movements
question the functioning of political institutions and build pressure on the government
23

to introduce certain changes in their structure and procedures. While doing so they do
not question the political system as a whole; nor do they relate a political institution
with the larger political structure. In other words they focus on reforming a particular
part of an institution or the system. For example, the movement that primarily aims at
changing election rules and procedures does not relate elections with the economic
structure and power relationship in society. In that sense it is reformist movement. Or,
various social reform movements try to reform certain customs like child marriage or
dowry, norms such as animal sacrifice, untouchability; or social arrangements such as
hierarchical order in status and social mobility rather than challenging the whole
social order based on pollution and purity around the principles of inequality. When
womens movements struggle to have reservation for women in the parliament it is
reformist movement aiming at changing the representation system. Reform does not
challenge the political system per se. It attempts to bring about changes in the relations
between the parts of the system in order to make it more efficient, responsive and
workable.
In a revolution, a section or sections of society launch an organised struggle to overthrow
not only the established government and regime but also the socio-economic structure
which sustains it, and replace the structure by an alternative social order. For instance
the Naxalite movement is not only challenging the particular government but aims at
over-throwing the state which is feudal/semifeudal and desires to establish communist
state. Or the dalit movement aims at transforming social order based on caste system
and desires to create egalitarian social system. In the same way when women movement
challenges patriarchy in society and attempts its abolition then it becomes revolutionary
movement.
Nature of social movements often overlaps. Many movements undergo change in the
course of time. Some apparently reformist movements may take revolutionary course;
and some which begin with revolutionary agenda become reformist also. All social
movements do not necessarily begin with clear objectives in terms of the maintenance
or the transformation of the system. They often get shaped in the process through the
leaders, participants and ideology.

3.3 NEW SOCIAL MOVEMENTS

The classification based on Marxist theoretical framework focusing on class structure of
the participants, with ultimate objectives to overthrough the present state aiming at
bringing total change in production relation is considered as old social movement.
They are also called classical movements. These movements, it is argued, primarily
focus on the state power and on class consciousness of the participants. The examples
of the peasant or working class movement against the feudal/semi-feudal economic
structure fall in this category.
As against this, some of the recent movements particularly in and after the 1960s in
Europe such as peace movement, ecological movement, womens movement etc. are
called new social movement. In India the movements around the issue of identity
dalit, adivasi, women, human rights, environment etc. are also labeled as the new
social movement. In one sense they are called new social movements because they
have raised the issues related to identity and autonomy which are non-class issues and
24

do not confront with the state. They are the new forms of social movements. However,
it is simplistic to say that in the past people did not raise and struggled for identity and
autonomy. For instance the Birsa Munda movement in Chhota Nagpur during the 1830s
was the struggle to resist the intervention of the British state in their life. It was the
movement to protect their autonomy. According to K.S. Singh (1966) the movement
aimed at the liquidation of the racial enemies, the Dikus, European missionaries and
officials and the native Christians. The Mundas would recover their lost kingdom.
There will be enough to eat, no famine, the people will live togeather in love. So it
is not correct to say in the past people did not struggle for identity and autonomy. In
fact as Andre Gunder Frank and Marta Fuentes (2002) argue that the classical working
class movements are the product of the 19th century industrial society. On the other
hand, peasant, localist community, ethnic/nationalist, religious, and even feminist/
womens movements have existed for centuries and even millennia in many parts of the
world (2002). Therefore the old and new are not related to time. They differ in their
features.
The scholars who reject the framework of the classical or Marxist framework identify
the following characteristics of the new social movements.
1) The New Social Movements (NSM) are not directing their collective action to state
power. They are concerned with individual and collective morality. Andre Gunder
Frank and Marta Fuentenes find that NSMs share the force of morality and a sense
of (in)justice in individual motivation, and the force of social mobilisation in
developing social power. Individual membership or participation and motivation in
all sorts of social movements contain a strong moral component and defensive
concern with justice in the social and world order. (2002).
2) The new social movements are not classbased. They are multi-class. In fact, they
do not subscribe to the theory that society is divided on class line and the classes
are antagonistic. The new social movements are either ethnic or nationalist and
plural. Womens movement is an example. Gail Omvedt treats the contemporary
farmers movement as new and non-class movement. It is a movement of small
and poor as well as middle and rich farmers. These movements, she argues also
have support of agriculture labourers. It also has support of shopkeepers and also
of high and low castes. She argues,
ideologies of the farmers movement thus provided a clear challenge to
Marxism that limited its analysis only to capital-labour struggles as defined
within a realm of commodity exchange; they looked to a wider arena of
capital accumulation and economic exploitation taking into account factors
other than class defined in the narrow sense, and in many ways their thrust
coincided with that of the developing environmental movements (1993).
3) The new social movements are confined to and concern with civil society. According
to the proponents of NSM civil society is getting diminished; its social space is
suffering a shrinkage and the social of the civil society is eroded by the controlling
ability of the state. The expansion of the state, in the contemporary setting, coincides
with the expansion of the market. State and market are seen as two institutions
making inroads into all aspects of the citizens life. Under the combined impact of
the forces of the state and the market, society grows helpless. Consequently, the
25

NSMs raise the issue of the self-defense of the community and society against the
increasing expansion of the state apparatuses: agencies of surveillance and social
control.(Singh 2001).
4) NSMs are not around economic issues of land, wages or property. They are primarily
concerned with self- identity and autonomy of an individual and community against
the state, market and social institutions. Therefore, dalit movement for dignity and
adivasis movement for their autonomy are treated as NSM.
5)

NSMs are not concerned for the benefit of one class or group. They are concerned
for the good of every one irrespective of class. Environmental movement in that
sense according to some scholars, is NSM as it does not raise the issue of a particular
class.

6) For some NSMs are grassroots or micro movements and do not have to capture state
power on their agenda. They are democratic in their organisational structure.
According to Jean Cohen NSMs raise issue which emerge from society rather than
form state and economy. They are concerned with democratisation in day to day
life. They focus on communication and identity. According to Rajendra Singh the
aim of NSM is to recognise the relations between state, society and the economy,
and to create a public space in which democratic discourse on autonomy and freedom
of the individual and collectivities, their identities and orientations could be discussed
and examined. In its many expressions, the NSMs generally confine themselves to
social action with a spirit of what Cohen calls self limiting radicalism (2001).

3.4 ISSUE-BASED MOVEMENTS

Some of those who follow structure-function approach classify social movements on the
basis of issues around which people are mobilised. People do get mobilised around
number of issues from local and immediate to systemic and long term. They vary from
time to time and from society to society. Some times the issuebased classification treat
different issue separately. Sometimes issues are conceptualised in theoretical framework
such as developmental, livelihood, human Right issues or political, economic, cultural
and social issues; or local, regional and national issues. Classification of the issues
depends upon scholars perspective. For instance the movement of the dam-affected
people can be called as rehabilitation movement of dam-affected people and it can also
be called as anti-development movement or human right movement.
Similarly, struggles of the forest-dwellers can be classified into : forest movement, civil
rights or livelihood movement or movement for common resources.

3.5 CLASSIFICATION BY SOCIAL CATEGORIES

Those who follow Marxist frame work often classify social movements on the basis of
classes such as peasant movement or rich peasant movement, working class movement
or middle class movement and so on. Those who follow cultural or community framework
divide movements on the basis of community such as ethnic movement, western
movements, black movement, dalit movement etc. Sometimes social categories are
divided by region such urban and rural. Movements may also be classified on economic
26

as well as ethnic categories and also by issues together. Some others classify movements
on the basis of the participants, such as peasants, tribals, students, women, dalits, etc.
In many cases the participants and issues go together.

3.6 SUMMARY
Classification is a tool for analysis. It is closely related with theoretical framework.
Hence classification of social movements vary from scholar to scholar depending upon
his/her analytical framework. Important guide for classification is: what do you want to
find out? Or what is your purpose of classification. Now a days social movements are
classified into (1) old or classical and (2) new. The former falls into Marxist framework.
It is based on the objectives and class characters of the participants. New social movements
are those which are of non-class and around the issues of identity and autonomy.
Movements are also classified by issues and/ social class of the participants.

3.7 EXERCISES
1)

No classification of social movements is sacrosanct Explain.

2)

Discuss the difference between reform and revolutionary movement.

3)

Why new social movements are called new?

4)

What are the main features of new social movements?

5)

Give some examples of issuebased movements.

6)

Give examples of classification based on social classes.

27

Unit 32 NEW SOCIAL MOVEMENTS

Contents
32.1
32.2
32.3
32.4
32.5
32.6
32.7
32.8

Introduction
New Social Movements: The Background
New Social Movement: Concepts and Features
Distinguishing Old from the New
New Social Movements and Quest for New Identity
Autonomy of New Identity
New Social Movement and Resistance against Domination
Conclusion

32.1 Introduction
Since the middle of the last century social movements have moved from noninstitutionalized margins of society to its very core. The manifestation of
new forms of organised collective actions since 1950s has added several new
dimensions to the issues of social movement. In this context this unit will
examine the social background of the emergence of new social movements.
There are several new features of these movements. We have discussed these
features at length in this unit. We have also tried to distinguish the new from
the old social movements. The validity of these distinctions is also critically
examined. The issues of new identity and autonomy of new social movements
have been high lighted by several scholars. There issues are also examined in
this unit.

32.2 New Social Movements: The Background

Since last five decades, especially after the proliferation of the Black Civil
Rights Movement in the West in 1950s and 1960s, students movements in
1960s and 1970s, Womens Movement, anti-nuclear protests, gay rights, animal
rights, minority nationalism etc. ethnic movements in 1970s and thereafter,
social movements has emerged to be an area of special attention. There have
been sincere efforts by the social scientists to redefine social movements
from a critical and cognitive perspective. In this effort the prevalent schemes
of analysis were questioned and many of the elements were identified in
these social movement and at times several marginal issues were emphasized
in a new contexts. The emergence of new forms of collective action especially
in Western Europe and North America posed serious challenges to the social
movement theorists to conceptualize this phenomena in terms of the prevailing
discourse on social movement studies
Till 1950s the workers movements, peasants and tribal movements, at times
caste, race, or linguistic and ethnic movements or other varieties of collective
mobilisations are mostly explained within the Marxian framework of class struggle
and the functionalist framework of mal functioning of the social order. It was
however realized in the backdrop of the proliferation of these movements
that these perspectives of studying social movements were deterministic.
Within these conventions, social movements were analyzed mostly in terms of
the ideological and organizational orientations. The Marxist scholars highlighted
the class ideology of the collective mobilization. It emphasized on the role
ideology that provided the legitimacy to such mobilizations. It focused on the
unequal access to and control over the means of production between the two
antagonistic classes that led to conflict in the society. In the functional analysis
on the other, the organizational aspect of social movement articulated. For
the Functionalist social movements were sources of potential disruption to an
218

organisation. Organized collective actions are viewed as dysfunctional aspect

of the society. Here only by assigning a marginal position to social movement
integrity of the functional theoretical system was ensured. On the other
hand, though the Marxist analysis is concerned with social transformation, this
has identified the classes to be the sole agents of social transformation.
Non-class movements are viewed critically, and sometimes with contempt or
hostility (Scott, A. 1990: 2).
Significantly both the Marxism and Functionalism provided single order
explanation of the social movement. However the proliferation of these social
movements in the 50s and 60s asked for a new perspective for analysis as
there were new orientations. Most of the old movements are oriented to
achieve in some form or the other materialistic goal. The new social movements
on the other, are oriented to be non-materialistic, resort to plural, multiple
and wide varieties of collective mobilisation, highlight the issues which cut
across the boundaries of state, class, societies, culture and the nation. We
shall be discussing these aspects of social movements in greats details in the
next section.

32.3 New Social Movement : Concepts and Features

It was indeed difficult to conceptualize the essence of all new forms of collective
action within the paradigm of ideology or the rationally organised interest
group. The practices of these new form of collective actions social movements
are essentially non-violent, pragmatic, non-integrated, non-hierarchical, noncoercive, cross-class, cross-ideology, cross age in their constituencies (Hegedus,
1990: 63). Larana, Johnston and Guesfield (1994) suggest that the analysis of
new social movements be advanced cross-culturally and by contrasting them
with the class based movements of the past. They suggest the following
characteristic features of the new social movement:
a)

There is no clear structural role of the participants of the new social

movement as, very often than not, they have diffuse social status as
youth, student, women, minority, professional groups etc.

b)

Ideologically these movements posited in sharp contrast to the Marxian

concept of ideology of the working class movement. It is difficult to
characterize new social movements as conservative or liberal, right or
left, capitalist or socialist. These movements exhibit plural ideas and
values.

c)

Mobilisations are linked to issues of symbolic and cultural identities than

to economic issues.

d)

Action within these movements is a complex mix of the collective and

individual confirmation of identity. Indeed the relation between the
individual and the collective is blurred in these movements.

e)

These movements involve personal and intimate aspects of human life,

e.g. eating, dressing enjoying, loving etc habits and patterns.

f)

Non-violence and civil disobedience etc. are the dominant patterns of

collective mobilisation to challenge the dominant-norms of conduct.

g)

The proliferation of these movements are caused by the credibility crisis

of the conventional channels for political participation.

h)

The new social movements are segmented diffused and decentralized

(Ibid. :6-15).

Alan Scott identified the following prominent characteristics of these

movements: a) These movements are primarily social and are more concerned
with cultural sphere and mobilisation of civil society on socio-cultural issues,
than with the political issues like seizure of power. b) These movements are

219

to be located within civil society and these are little concerned to challenge
the state directly. These movements rather defend the civil societies against
encroachment from increasingly technocratic state or from inner
colonialisation by societys technocratic sub-structure. c) These social
movements attempt to bring about change through changing values and
developing alternative life-styles. These social movements are concerned with
cultural innovations and creation of new life-styles. These also pose a challenge
to the traditional values. The focus on symbols and identities is viewed as
the source of new social movements significance. The new social movements
bring about changes by challenging values and identities of the social actors
rather than by more conventional and direct political actions. The processes
of transformation of values, personal identities and symbols can be achieved
through creation of alternative life-style and the discursive reformation of
individual and collective wills. The main characteristics of new social movements
organization are summarized by Scott as follows: i) locally based or centered
on small groups ii) organised around specific, often local and single issue iii)
cycle of movement activity and mobilisation; i.e. vacillation between periods
of high and low activity, iv) often loose systems of authority, v) shifting
membership, vi) common social critique as the ideological frame of reference
(Scott, 1990: 18).

32.4 Distinguishing Old from the New

However, it is problematic to use organizational form as a criterion to distinguish
new social movements from that of old ones. First, there is a continuum from
loose to tight organization. and, because there may be a progress within the
movements towards the more formal and hierarchical end of this continuum
over a period of time. To Scott (1990), there are important continuities between
the new and older social movements. Thus the claim the new movements
needs to be understood in a way which is qualitatively different from traditional
approaches can not be sustained on empirical grounds alone. It is rather
through the underlying social changes the distinctiveness be identified (Ibid: 35).
Irrespective of the distinction between the old and the new social movements
we may identify the crucial roles played by social movements to develop a
critic of the society. In the process of globalisation when the state is emerging
to be more and more technocratic and all-powerful the voices and views of
the individual citizen against the discontent of various forms remain mostly
unheard. Again in the countries where the state represent the dominant
section of the population, and the state machinery is involved in the corrupt
practices, the access of the marginalised people even to the minimum need
of the life remained unrealized. Social movements provide a framework to
develop a critic of the society. It brings the institutional arrangements of the
society under close scrutiny. The organising mechanisms, collective activism
and the leadership of social movement provide the required space not only to
develop a critic of the society but also for a transformative politics within the
given structure. It also provides the space for the emergence of plural social
structure with representative civil bodies to function as watchdog in a liberal
democracy. Through this critic social movement produces a new collective
identity. Eyerman and Jamison (1991) have tried to define social movements
as processes in the formation by which individuals create new kind of social
identity. To them all social life can be seen as a combination of action and
construction whose meaning is deprived from the context and the understanding
of the actors derive form it. They emphasize the creative role of consciousness
and cognition in human action, what they call the cognitive praxis, which
transforms groups of individual into social movement. Thus the cognitive praxis
gives social movement particular meaning and consciousness.

220

32.5 New Social Movements and Quest for New

Identity
In the last unit we have mentioned about the significance of the process
identity formation in a social movement, which has always played crucial roles
to provide a sense of togetherness, we feeling and a sense of belonging
to a group in all the critical stages progression of the movement. It not only
develops linkages among the members of a group but also establishes linkages
with the wider social processes. The process of collective identity formation
not only redefines old identities, but also generates new identities with new
perspective(s). In recent decades in the efforts to identify newness in emerging
social movements of the 1960s and there after, there has also been a genuine
to have a fresh look on the issue of identity in social movements.
In the structural functional analysis of the society empirical categories (e.g.
tribe, caste, race, aged, etc) has got a place of prominence while describing
collective identities of these categories. In the Marxian analysis, on the other
hand economic position has got a place of prominence in defining collectivities
as class. In this paradigm social identity has been reduced to class identity,
which undergoes a process of formation/ transformation from class in itself
to class for itself. We shall highlight this formation/transformation little later.
However, since late 1960s and onward, especially after the proliferation of the
students, Green Peace, Black Civil Rights, womens etc movements in the
United States and Western Europe efforts are made to comprehend and analyze
the emerging processes of new collective identify formation in these social
movements and the guiding principles towards these formations. It has been
widely realized that it is not merely the empirical and the economic class
position, but rather the issue of values, culture, subjectivity, morality,
empowerment etc played crucial roles towards the formation of new collective
identities in these movements. For example, after studying students movement
in Europe and America, Bertaux (1990) adds the view that subjectivity and
idealism are essential elements of social movement and must be taken
seriously. To quote him: subjectivity is central to an understanding of action
and especially in the context of social movements, where action is not just
norm abiding behaviour, but innovative and risky. Such concept as attitudes
or values denote only one fraction of the personality while subjectivity
refers to the subject in its totality. Indeed, Bertaux talks about the collective
subjectivity: it concerns with the drastic change in the fabric of social life
that takes place when a new movement is born. Regarding idealism, citing
example from the first developing western societies, he observes that people
who started social movements were moved by a strong moral feelingsby
idealism, rather than by a drive towards self interest (1990:153).
Social movements help generate a sense of collective identity and new ideas
that recognizes the reality itself. This reality is indeed context, culture,
historicity and group specific. Melucci has emphasized on collective identity
formation which is an achieved definition of a situation, constructed and
negotiated through the constitution of social networks which then connect
the members of a group or movement through collective action to provide
distinctive meaning to collective action. To him, what holds individual together
as a we can never be completely translated into the logic of means-ends
calculation or political rationality, but always carries with it margins of nonnegotiability in the reasons for an ways of acting together (Melucci 1992). To
him, social movements grow around relationship of new social identity that
are voluntarily conceived to empower members in defense of this identity
(1992, 1996). Eyerman and Jamison (1991) assert that by articulating
consciousness, social movement provides public spaces for generating new
thoughts, activating new actors, generating new ideas. Thus by producing
new knowledge, by reflecting on their own cognitive identity, by saying what
they stand for, by challenging the dominant assumptions of the social order,
social movements develop new ideas those are fundamental to the process of

221

human creativity. Thus social movements develop worldviews that restructure

cognition, that re-cognize reality itself. The cognitive praxis of social movements
is an important source of new social images and transformation of societal
identities (1991: 161-166). Hegedus (1990) asserts that social movements involve
actions for doing. The involvement in an action is a matter of conscience
and emotion, of responsibility and intention, of reflection and (com) passion,
it is basically moral, global and individual (1990: 266). Thus social movements
are framed based on a collective identity of various groups viz., women,
environmentalists, students, peasant, worker etc. who are organised on the
basis of common identity and interests. To Allan Scott (1991), in a social
movement the actors collective identity is linked to their understanding of
their social situation. To him a social movement is a collective actor constituted
by individuals who understand themselves to have common interest, and at
least some significant part of their social existence, a common identity (1991: 6)
Transformation of Identity
Social movements not only help generating new collective identity these also
provide a broad field for the transformation of social identity [e.g. transforming
Serie into groups en fusion, (Sartre 1960), class-in-itself to class-for-itself,
(Marx 1974) etc.]. Sartre calls serie the normal state of crowds; that is, series
of atomized individuals, each one seen as isolated in his or her inner world
going his or her own way and not caring about the others ways. What Sartre
is pointing out, however, is that, whenever and wherever this figure is actually
doing or even walking in the street, it has a silent companion: social control.
The public space is wholly under the control of the established power. Every
individual, whatever she or he thinks of the manifest public discourse All is
well and its latent content Noting can be changed, whether he or she
accepts the rule of this power or rejects it, does so secretly, thus behaving
as if accepting it. Therefore each one, looking at all the others who work,
comply and keep quiet, thinks they are alone in secretly rejecting this social
order. When, however, frustration mounts in each person individually, it takes
only a small event to trigger an instantaneous and massive change of state,
from serie to groupe en fusion. As soon as each person in a serialized mass
realizes that some others contest the established power, as he or she takes
one step forward to openly express support, a chain reaction spreads through
the atomized series and transforms it into a fluid group (sartres groupe en
fusion) which instantly moves from the status of subordinated passive object
to that of subject capable of action. (cf. Bertaux. 1990: 155-156). Indeed,
new social movements provide the required platform for such transformation.
In the Marxian analysis transformation in the collective identity has been
viewed as transformation of the class identities from that of class-in itself
to class-for-itself. In this analogy, however, transformation of societal identity
is viewed in terms of the transformation of class identities only.
It is important that in the context of transformation of a social movements
new identities do emerge from within the old ones. For example in the process
of sustained moblisation of the peasantry in West Bangal and Andhra Pradesh
new identities have emerged in these peasant societies in the form of gender,
ethnicity and caste identities. We shall be discussing this issue in the last
section of this unit.

32.6 Autonomy of New Identity

Can new identity as formed out of collective action be autonomous of the
ideology and organisation of the movement? Scholars have identified new
social movements ideology with freedom and life. In this context the notion
of autonomy is crucial. There are several dimensions to this issue.
222

1)

Personal autonomy: Psycho-social practices, such as consciousness arising

within the womens movement, have had at least one of their aims - the
liberation of individual women from personal and ideological barriers to
personal freedom through the reconstruction of their life histories and by
making them aware of personal oppressions, while at the same time
stressing their potential power as women.

2)

Extension of Personal and Group Autonomy: The narrowly defined political

aims of these movements are comprehended as an extension of personal
and group autonomy by challenging several restrictions on freedom. Thus
the arguments for free abortions on demand can be viewed as a way of
increasing a womens freedom to make choices concerning her own body,
of removal or gender or racial discrimination at work as extending of
range of individual or collective freedom enjoyed by group members

3)

Autonomy struggle: Autonomy struggle of the new social movements

demands that the representatives of these movements be allowed to
fight their own without interference from other movements and without
subordinating their demands to other external priorities. These aspects
of autonomy are closely linked (Scott, 1990:18-20).

However, any attempt to conceptualize new social movements exclusively in

terms of autonomy may be confusing. The distinction between personal and
political is not very clean. The issue of personal autonomy, freedom etc. are
political in nature (Scott, 90: 23). The assumption that new social movement
is autonomous of political interference and is essentially concerned with cultural
issues is also not valid. Many of the new social movements are concerned with
the political questions, for example citizens rights; representations, civil
rights movements. All these are oriented towards political and legal institutions.
Thus the issue of autonomy is to be circumscribed specifically in the context
of the social movement under study.

32.7 New Social Movements and Resistance against

Domination
Actors in subordinate positions are never wholly dependent and are often
very adept at converting whatsoever resources they possess into some degree
of control over the conditions of reproduction of the system (Giddens (1982).
Thus compliance of the subordinate within the power relations may be
explained not by lack of resistance, but by the absence of the means to
implement such resistance (Mann 1985). The structure of the domination
thus, is not free from contestation. There have been resistance and struggle
in various forms against this domination. To J.C. Scott even in the large-scale
structures of domination the subordinates have a fairly extensive social
existence outside the immediate control of the dominant. It is in such settings
that a shared critique of domination develops by way of creating a hidden
transcript that represents a critique of power as spoken behind the back of
the dominant. He suggests that rumours, gossip, folktales, songs, gestures,
jokes and the theater of the powerless function as a mechanism to indirectly
develop a critique of power (1990: viii). Let us examine the ways, new collective
identities have emerged in India as a language of resistance against domination.
New Collective Identities: Identity is a social construction. It is a continually
shifting description of ourselves (Hall 1990). Identities are emerged based on
the probability of choice, plurality of options and reasons. And to to deny
plurality, choice and reasoning in identity can be a source of repression (Sen
1999: 22). Identities are self-cognition tied to roles, through roles, to positions
in organized social relationships. That a given identity can be invoked in a
variety of situations or it can be defined as differential probability. Here we
may reflect on the multiple identities of the contemporary subject, that is the
223

weaving of the patterns of identity from the discourses of class, race, nation
gender, etc.(Stryker 1990:87374). The construction of identity also involves
the social production of boundaries reflecting the process of inclusion and
exclusion (Cerutti 2001). As collective identity is a matter of social construction,
it gets reconstructed in multiple ways in the process of transformation of
social movements. Social movements not only help generate new collective
identity , but also provide a broad field for the transformation of this identity.
Sustained grassroots mobilizations have paved the way for the articulation and
rejuvenation of gender, caste, farmer, citizen, and ethnic etc identities. In
West Bengal peasants have been part of the Kamtapuri Movement as in North
Bengal, and limited NGO activism and in Andhra Pradesh the anti-Arrack
(prohibition) movement, Maadigaa and Thudum Debba, Telangana statehood
movement civil liberties, farmers etc movements.
The Kamtapur movement for regional, cultural, ethnic autonomy of the Rajbanshi
(a Scheduled caste) has started gaining ground in north Bengal with the demand
of a separate state comprising the six districts of Cooch Behar, Jalpaiguri,
Darjeeling, North Dinajpur, South Dinajpur and Malda. To initiate this movement,
a regional party by the name of Uttarakhand Dal was formed in 1980. Now this
movement has got momentum under the leadership of the Kamtapur Peoples
Party (KPP). Through this movement the Rajbanshis are putting up resistance
against the gradual erosion of their cultural and linguistic identity, and their
economic marginalization in society. They allege that north Bengal has been
economically neglected and politically dominated by the Kolkata centered state
administration of West Bengal. This movement has taken a new turn with the
formation of an extremist group called the Kamtapuri Liberation Organisation
(KLO) which has initiated frontal attack on the Left activists in various parts
of North Bengal. A section of the Rajbanshis, who are now growing more and
more identity conscious in terms of history, language, traditional social structure,
occupation and land rights has become part of this movement. Unemployed
educated youth and school dropouts are more open in expressing their adherence
to this movement than others. A young men from Naxalbari (who preferred to
remain unidentified in the wake of police action against KLO activists), says:
We are deprived of all opportunities in our own land. The outsiders own the
tea gardens. All government services are taken away and manned by the
bhatias ( Bengali migrants from other part of the state). Marwaris and
Punjabis who look down upon us, own all the businesses. They laugh at our
language, our food habits, and our dress. We have to speak in their language
in our own land..
Though the separate Telangana statehood movement in the Telangana region
of Andhra Pradesh has a long history, it has got a momentum in recent years
with the formation of the Telangana Rastriya Samithi (TRS) and its electoral
success in the last election. Several issues have been raised pertaining to
Andhra domination over the Telangana region in the economic, cultural and
political terms. Most important among these have been that of the exploitation
of the natural resources of Telangana for the benefits of the other parts of the
state, appointment of more and more Andhra-speaking people in the government
jobs in the Telangana region, and persisting agricultural backwardness, poverty,
unemployment, illiteracy, etc., of the people of Telangana. The economic
miseries of Telangana are explained in terms of Andhra domination over
Telangana. The wholesale exploitation of the resources of Telangana for the
benefit of the Andhra region is accompanied by attacks on the way of life of
the Telangana people. The Andhra rulers are never tired of saying that the
people of Telangana are uncultured. Thus the suicidal attempt to subjugate
Telangana permanently continues (Jadhav 1997)
Again Maadigaa Reservation Porata Samithi movement of the Scheduled Castes
224

and Thudum Debba movement of the Scheduled Tribes are demanding recategorization of each of the Scheduled castes and tribes of Andhra Pradesh
into A, B, C, and D categories based on their levels of economic, educational
and political advancement for the purpose of getting benefits of reservation.
Again there have been the cotton growers and anti-suicide movements of the
farmers in the Telangana region. The anti-arrack movement led by peasant
women has had its strong impact all over Andhra Pradesh. Poor peasants have
been parts of most of these movements. For example, Rajeeramma, the female
sarpanch of Malla Reddy Palle, was associated with the anti-arrack movement.
She is also a strong advocate of the Maadigaa reservation movement, and a
participant in the cotton growers and anti-suicide movements. She is also part
of the separate Telangana state movement. She says, the life of a peasant
women in Telangana is full of struggle and we are all part of the struggle in
Telangana.
The Left political parties have tried both ideologically and strategically to
inculcate the class for itself identity of the peasantry. However, over the
years, in the process of ideological modification and strategic class alliance
with the landed gentry for electoral politics, the basis of class-based politics
has widely eroded among the peasantry (Bhattacharyya 1999). Again as the
class identity has not looked many of the micro issues. Thus in alongside the
old actors of the class, groups, political parties and the state with all its
instruments, new actors have emerged in the form of caste, gender, ethnicity
and religion (Webster 1999).
Autonomy of Identity: The process of transformation peasant movements
from radicalization to institutionalization has exhibited a trend of transition
from the so-called old to new social movements. It has been highlighted
that new social movements do not bear a clear relation to the structural role
of the participants, that their social base transcends class structures, that
they exhibit plural ideas and values, that their ideological characteristics stand
in sharp contrast to the Marxist concept of ideology as a unifying and totalizing
element for collective action, and that they involve the emergence of new
collective identities. These characteristics of the new social movements
however are not independent of their links with the past. Nor is there any
absence of continuity with the old, although that varies with each movement
Even movements with old histories have emerged in new forms with more
diffuse goals and different modes of mobilization and conversion. It is both
the newness of expression and extension as well as the magnitude and saliency
of such movements that constitutes the basis for revised frameworks of
understanding (Larana, Johnston and Guesfield 1984: 89).
The social agenda of the new social movements are based on local movements
with multiple identities located in civil society, stressing new ways of social
communication (solidarity and mutual understanding) and a new harmonic
relationship with nature (Schuurman 1993: 189). In the context of West Bengal
and Andhra Pradesh, it is observed that the old mass movements that advocated
the emancipatory projects for the proletariat through seizure of political power
have given birth to various local movements of multiple identities in the
process of transformation of these movements and sustenance of these
mobilisations. These have started exhibiting a plurality of ideas, values,
ideological orientations and collective action. The process of formation of
new collective identities frequently and explicitly transcends the pre-defined
process of class identity formation as most of the new collective identities,
namely, gender, caste, region and ethnicity, are autonomous of the given aims
and objectives of the movement of the Left parties.
It would however be problematic to describe the autonomy of the evolved
patterns of identity in terms of the new social movements alone, as the
substantive issues involved in mobilization do not purely belong to the cultural

225

domain alone. There are several political and economic issues involved in
these mobilizations rather. Through their everyday experiences of struggle
and prolonged participation in collective action the peasantry has been trained
to defend their identity and to articulate the strategy of their resistance
against domination. These everyday life experiences of resistance form the
basis of the praxis of peasantry against domination whereby they have also
got alternative choices to express their resistance against domination
In the context of new social movements, the notion of autonomy has been
used as the expression of personal autonomy, extension of personal and group
autonomy and as an expression of autonomy struggle whereby social movements
are allowed to grow without interference from the outside (Scott. 1990).
Subaltern studies have, on the other hand, visualized the autonomy of the
peasant struggle in terms of their localized manifestations. Ranajit Guha argues
that during the colonial period, subaltern constituted an autonomous domain
with wide variety of generally autonomous modes of thought and action
expressed through rebellions, riots and popular movements. To him rebellion
was not, therefore, merely some automatic reflex action to external economic
or political stimulus; it was peasant praxis, the expression through peasant
action of the collective consciousness of the peasantry (Guha 1983). According
to Sumit Sarkar, the spontaneous unrest like the looting of hats, tribal
movements, kisan movements, and so on often tended to remain autonomous,
scattered and remained mostly outside the ambit of the mainstream nationalist
movement in colonial India. He also points out that the poor man typically
outmatches his oppressor not through any kind of joint action but through an
individual battle of wits and often at a great cost to himself (Sarkar 1985: 51
62). Partha Chatterjee is of the view that the dominant groups, in their
exercise of domination do not consume or destroy the dominated classes for
there would be no relation of power and hence no domination. Without their
autonomy the subalterns would have no identity of their own (Chatterjee
1998: 166).
The new identities as have been evolved and constructed in the peasant
societies of Andhra Pradesh and West Bengal are in their own ways autonomous
of the organizational, ideological and pre-defined boundaries of collectivities
as propagated in the class discourse. However these multiple identities of
caste, gender, region, ethnicity, etc., have defined boundaries of inclusion
and exclusionand also at times use the organizational linkages and ideologies
of wider society as guiding principles for their actions. For example, the
ethnic movements in north Bengal and in the Telangana region, the Scheduled
Caste and Scheduled Tribes reservation movements, civil liberties womens
groups etc have formed their own organizations at the regional and the state
level. Likewise, is the process of formation of NGOs, which is linked with the
emerging social development discourse of development with empowerment.
The self-assertion of, say, a scheduled caste labourer, and a tribal woman are
also linked to the resurgence of the Dalit and womens movements at the
grassroots.

226

But all these identities, and linkages of these identities to the wider world,
are not sudden manifestations. Nor are they imposed from outside by the
intervention of outside agencies. Rather, peasantry has articulated their issues
through their everyday experiences, and the new identities are formed from
within in the process of responding to the emerging challenges they regularly
face. Sustained mobilizations have made the peasantry aware of the various
bases of their oppression and subordination in society, be it caste, class,
ethnicity, regionalism, gender, etc. Hence they are to articulate accordingly
the art of their resistance both individually and collectively; if needed by
reconstructing parallel, and at times alternative, identities. Here linkages with
outside agencies come at a later stage through increasing interactivity with
the larger world around. Pulla Ravindran) a scheduled caste leader from Warangal

in Andhra Pradesh, recollects his experience:

We have been oppressed and exploited in various ways. At times we are
exploited as the Maadigaa scheduled caste. Our women are exploited as women,
labourers, and as scheduled caste members. We are also exploited and
discriminated against as Telanganites As we have been aware of the various
situations of our oppression, we resist it in all possible ways. Our oppression
however does not end. If we resist from one direction, it appears from the
other.. We try to resist oppression from all possible directions now.
In spite of transformation of the peasant movements from the phase of
radicalization to institutionalization, and sustenance of the mobilizations, the
peasantry continues to be marginalized. Though their identity has been
reconstructed over the years, the elements of marginalityboth in the socioeconomic and the political senseremain attached to them. The issue of
livelihood security is of crucial significance to the peasantry. They tend to use
the available channels of political mobilization and activism to ensure the daily
livelihood. They are to compromise at times with the structure of domination
for their livelihood security. In this context, their participation in routinized
collective mobilization, even if it contributes to their domination, is a matter
of their rational calculation.
Indeed, through sustained mobilization, peasants have been able to carve out
a space for the articulation of their interests and formation of new identities
that look for liberation from the coercive bases of dependency and domination.
Through these identities they try to gain legitimacy of their praxis against
domination.

32.8 Conclusion
In this unit we have discussed the socio-political background of the emergence
of new social movements in the West. Scholars have identified several new
features of this social phenomena. We have briefly highlighted these features.
The distinguishing features between the new and the old socialmovement are
also discussed here. Formation of new collective identity and autonomy of
these identities have been subjects of critical query in the social movement
studies. There issues have also been discussed here. In the last section we
have discussed the process emergence of new collective identities with the
transformation of social movements. Here articulation of language of resistance
against domination as emerged within new social movements her also been
discussed.

32.9 Further Readings

1.

Larana, E.et al.(Eds) 1984. New Social Movements: From Ideology to

Identity. Temple University Press: Philadelphia.

2.

Scott, A.C. 1991. Ideology and New Social Movements. Unwin Hyman:
London.

227

UNIT 5 GLOBALISATION AND SOCIAL MOVEMENTS

Structure
5.1
5.2
5.3
5.4
5.5

Introduction
Meaning of Globalisation
Impact of Globalisation
Globalisation, Social Movements and Developing Countries
Globalisation and Social Movements in India
5.5.1
5.5.2
5.5.3
5.5.4
5.5.5

5.6
5.7

Farmers
Working Classes
Middle Classes
Women
Networking and Cooperation

Summary
Exercise

5.1 INTRODUCTION
This unit deals with the relationship between globalisation and social movements.
Globalisation has brought profound transformation in the lives of people everywhere
and it has immense potential to affect social, political and economic conditions globally.
The critics of globalisation look at it as a process that can increase disparities of wealth
and power. They are of the view that economic liberalisation is exacerbating the gap
between rich and poor virtually in all developing regions. Globalisation has empowered
some countries more than others. Rules and norms about investment, environmental
management and social policy are made by these countries because they have power to
control international institutions. Less powerful countries even more than in past are
becoming rule-takers. The advocates of globalisation focus on the opportunities that are
seen as its concomitant. It has ensued a process that may change class structure, reinforcing
cosmopolitanism. Globalisation is also transforming peoples definitions of selfhood
and identity. It is also averred that it has an inherent bias in favour of the middle class
and hurts the interests of the underprivileged in material sense. The phase of globalisation
has been charged with being a phase of jobless growth. The labour sector has witnessed
retrenchment, voluntary retirement schemes and casualisation of workforce. The labour
reforms that seem to be accompanying globalisation process seem to hurt the interests
of workers at least in immediate sense. As part of conditions of General Agreement on
Tariffs and Trade (GATT) signed at Maracas developing countries including India are
being pressurised to keep the subsidies to farmers up to ten per cent of their value
output. It has also introduced a patent regime. These developments have potential to
affect Indian agriculture and the interest of the farmers in a fundamental sense. The
process of globalisation also poses a major danger to environment because a mad race
has started among governments to create proper investment climate. This many times
means relaxing environment safety norms to reap economic benefits. Another important
question is how does globalisation affect the interests of women?

37

5.2 MEANING OF GLOBALISATION

An important aspect of globalisation is state-led centralised and planned economic
development being replaced with market led liberalised and globalised economic
development. There seems to be disillusionment with the state and it is seen as source
of all the evils and market is projected as panacea of all the economic evils. Dreze and
Sen are of the view that expansion of market is among the instruments that can help to
promote human capabilities, and given the need of eliminating endemic deprivation in
India it would be irresponsible to ignore the opportunity. State seems to be on the
retreat. Even in India the state-centric developmental approach has come in for sharp
criticism. The central role assigned to state and its bureaucracy in developmental projects
has precluded participation of masses and local people in solving their problems. The
movement of international capital along with expansion of information technology have
resulted in the erosion of the boundaries and sovereignty nation-sates. This void caused
by the retreating state necessitates a dialogue between globalisation and social movements.
Social movements have succeeded in conveying a message clearly that any developmental
paradigm not providing for their participation will not be acceptable to them. In India
initial doubts and apprehensions about globalisation seem to have waned. There seems
to be greater consensus in favour of globalisation today. According to Pranab Bardhan
this consensus is inexorable and irreversible. An insulated, inward directed economy
does not seem to be an option in todays time. In this situation a more plausible option
seems to be shaping globalisation. Powerful social movements with coordination and
networking among them at local, national and global levels can go a long way towards
this objective.

5.3 IMPACT OF GLOBALISATION

Until the 1980s many of the developing countries pursued inward-oriented growth
strategies, relied heavily on stateowned enterprises and had highly protected and
regulated economies. Indian economy was not an exception to this general pattern. The
1990s saw these countries launched on the path of privatisation, liberalisation and
deregulation. India was also one of these countries. A combination of factors both
international and national influenced Indias decision to follow what came to be known
as the New Economic Policy. India was faced with severe depletion of foreign exchange
reserve. There was not enough foreign exchange reserve even to pay for imports of two
months. The country was left with no option but to approach the World Bank and IMF
for loans to avert the crisis. To avail these loans the country had to agree to a package
of Stabilisation and Structural Adjustment Programme. This package gave the muchneeded boost to the process of economic liberalisation in India. This gave an opportunity
to the reformoriented bureaucracy inside the government to go ahead with their long
cherished agenda. The impending financial collapse firmed up the resolve to reform at
the governmental level. The ideological opposition to the policy of reforms appeared to
be weakest around this time. The economic policy Margaret Thatcher in England and
Ronald Regan in America represented what came to be known as rolling back the state.
In a way this sounded the dwindling popularity of Keynesian economic model of welfare
state. The decline of the socialist model in the form of disintegration of former Soviet
Union and adoption of capitalist path of development by its successor states and its once

38

satellite states of eastern Europe made the ideological props to the ideology of pervasive
state control ineffective. Chinas economic success story in the postreform period also
seems to have firmed up Indias resolve to liberalise.
Jean Dreze and Amartya Sen are of the view that government policy at this time seems
to be overwhelmingly concerned with removing counterproductive regulations. The
state has been neglecting positive activities earlier also and continues to do so even
now. Zoya Hasan is of the opinion that economic liberalisation may hurt the interest of
the disprivileged in material sense; hence there is need of imaginative strategies to
surmount the cleavages of deprivation and inequity between classes, castes, communities,
genders and regions. There has been a lack of commitment on the part of the state to
welfarist goals and insensitivity towards the condition of the marginalised. There is
need of vigorous social movements to reorient and remind the social commitment of the
state in the post-globalisation phase.

5.4 GLOBALISATION, SOCIAL MOVEMENTS AND DEVELOPING

COUNTRIES
In India social movements have played an important role both before and after
independence. Globalisation seems to be throwing newer challenges before social
movements. In the era of globalisation social movements all over the world have been
active in ameliorating the conditions of people by launching movements against both
democratic and undemocratic states. Some movements have taken advantage of the
opportunities offered by globalisation for creating international networks. At the same
time some movements have been busy fighting the negative effects of globalisation.
Charles Oman holds that the challenge before globalisation is that it should strengthen
social cohesion not weaken it. This can happen if all segments of society within countries
and internationally share the benefit and perceive to benefit, from the raising of
productivity levels to which globalisation can contribute. But the problem is that the
political economy of the world is managed by a small number of multilateral institutions
mainly the trio of the World Bank, the International Monetary Fund, and the World
Trade Organisation. The policies of these organisations are determined by the richest
industrialised countries, which are the members of the Group of seven. Together these
countries control over 60 per cent world economic output and over 75 per cent of world
trade. The report of the South Commission in 1992 held that inequalities tended to
widen, as the economy grew and became more industrialised. The gap of income,
knowledge and power was growing and large segments of the population experienced
no significant improvement in their standard of living. The economic management by
the three organisations the World Bank, the IMF and the WTO has caused massive
reorganisation in the economy and society in developing countries. Globalisation in a
sense has meant narrowing of policy options for the countries of the South. This also
seems to be undermining their sovereignty.
For the vast number of developing countries high growth economic activities propelled
by globalisation pose serous threat to their environment and these activities may also
lead to faster depletion of their resources. Globalisation has started a competition among
the governments of the developing countries to create better investment climate. Many
times this also means relaxing environmental safety guide -lines for attracting foreign
39

investment. It is obvious that environment safety norms are compromised in the name
of higher economic growth. This kind of growth has led to exploitation of Chiles native
old-growth forest, the massive expansion of shrimp aquaculture in Honduras with the
destruction of mangrove ecosystem. It also led to extraction of minerals on the scale of
Brazils Cajaras scheme. All this exploitation of renewable and non- renewable resources
has a common aim generating export earning. In parts of India environmental pollution
has reached disastrous proportion. Both the major rivers the Ganga and Yamuna have
become polluted and the major cause of pollution is disposal of untreated industrial
waste into these rivers. In places like Vapi, Ankleswar, Nandesari and Baroda in Gujarat
the victims of pollution from factories and industries complain about holes in their
clothes, death of buffaloes or elephants by drinking polluted water released in rivers,
ponds or open spaces or farmers complain about crop destruction due to the pollution.
The polluting industries refused to accept any responsibility. Latin America has become
pollution haven for corporations and production units driven out of the USA, Canada
and Western Europe because of stringent environment norms. Latin Americas
environmental crisis clearly demonstrates the logic of globalisation under the dominance
of transnational capital with benefits ultimately reaped in the rich industrialised countries.
There is greater need for social movements to direct their energy to counter trends
towards global inequality, increasing vulnerability of the environment and livelihood in
the South. At the global level the shape and nature of resistance is difficult to visualise.
On the international level it is more difficult to communicate the need of environmental
security. Most international NGOs are mainly concerned with issues of poverty and
human rights at national and sub-national levels.

5.5 GLOBALISATION AND SOCIAL MOVEMENTS IN INDIA

5.5.1

Farmers

Globalisation is likely to have serious implications for Indian agriculture. India signed
the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade [GATT] at Maracas in 1994 and became
part of the World Trade Organisation [WTO]. As part of the GATT agreement developing
countries including India are under obligation to introduce reduction in subsidies and
keep it to the 10 per cent of farmers value output. But cutting down on subsidies does
not seem to be practical because of strong resistance of the farmers lobby. India together
with other countries of the third world has accused the WTO of following discriminatory
practices because the developed countries continue to give subsidies while they continue
to pressurise the developing countries to cut subsidies. Another GATT related problem
affecting the interest of the farmers is introduction of patenting in agriculture. A farmer
is not automatically permitted to use seeds of the protected varieties which he saved for
sowing next crop. He has either to pay compensation for the use of the seeds saved by
him or to obtain permission of the breeder. As most of the plant breeders are MultiNational Corporations and their main motive is profit the only option left with the
farmers is to buy the seeds again. Farmers in Karnataka had registered their protest
against this arrangement by attacking the farm of Car gill seeds, a Multi-National Seed
Company. The farmers have been joined by the NGOs in their protest against the seed
companies. Liberalising agricultural sector seems to be more contentious. A jump in
food prices appears to be an inevitable outcome of liberalisation. This fear has a solid
basis. The international prices of food grains are higher than domestic prices. Any rise
40

in food prices would hit the poor hardly. This would make the government of the day
immensely unpopular and might seriously jeopardise the electoral fortunes of the ruling
party. Overall the response of the Rich Farmers Movement towards the New Economic
Policy and India joining the WTO has not been undifferentiated. Sharad Joshi an important
leader of farmers in the western part of the country has welcomed the new development.
He expects opportunities for farmers in the phase of liberalisation. At the same time
Mahender Singh Tikait in the north and Nanjundaswamy in the south are apprehensive
of negative fallouts of liberalisation on the agricultural sector. Economic reforms in
agricultural sector have not met any serious protest because a section of rich farmers is
finding new investment opportunities in agro-based industries like sugar, rice mills,
food processing, floriculture and horticulture. In the 1990s India has increased its exports
of both fresh and processed fruits and vegetables. As China has joined the WTO and
is deepening its engagement with globalisation the biggest risk for India may be being
left behind. It would mean losing out on opportunities offered by globalisation. Some
people argue that the farmers movements should not oppose globalisation. While it is
always good to be watchful against negative fallouts of globalisation at the same time
Indian farmers should ensure that they benefit from the opportunities offered by
globalisation.

5.5.2

Working Classes

Globalisation has thrown big challenges before the working class movement. An important
part of the globalisation agenda has been privatisation of public sector units in India,
which has meant disinvestments from, and privatisation of the public sector enterprises.
Among the main planks of the New Economic Policy are closure of sick and loss
making public enterprises. Workers have faced the prospect of retrenchment. There
have been cases of Voluntary Retirement Schemes [VRS]. Casualisation and
contractualisation of workers have been other accompaniments of globalisation. The
practice of keeping contract and casual labour in place of regular employees has become
widespread. Many people have argued that post-economic reform period has been a
period of jobless growth. As part of Stabilisation and Structural Adjustment Programme
number of vacancies have come down. There has been a marked decline in the growth
rate of total employment in the organised sector in the 1990s as compared to 1980s. As
part of the New Economic Policy the policy of downsizing has started. This means
reducing overheads for cost reduction. Industrial Disputes Act 1947 lays reasonable
restrictions on employers intending to undertake retrenchment or closure. This act
stipulates that in case of retrenchment or closure due notice will have to be given to the
union. In such situation the union and management have to devise ways and means to
protect employment of the workers. It is obvious that labour laws regarding job security
are being changed on the grounds of economic rationality. Downsising in developed
countries is less painful because of the fully developed social security system already
in place. This unfortunately is not the case in developing countries like India. However,
a National Renewal Fund was created to provide social safety net to the labour force
rendered jobless as early as in 1992. Liberalisation has also meant relaxation in
government control over the private sector as a result of which the bargaining power of
labour vis--vis capital has come down. There have been strikes by trade unions to
protect the interest of workers in State Electricity Boards, ITDC hotels, nationalised
banks etc. The introduction of the New Economic Policy has exposed the weaknesses
of the working class movement. The response to the anti-labour reform policies cannot
41

be effective because the trade unions are a divided house. Some scholars argue that
working class movement should not be opposing privatisation and their focus should be
protection of the interest of the workers. Ashutosh Varshney is of the view that it would
be easier to launch bigger privatisation programmes, if it is decoupled from large- scale
retrenchment.

5.5.3

Middle Classes

On the job front the complete story is not so dismal because globalisation has also
unfolded big opportunities for lots of people, particularly of the upper middle class. This
is especially true about people having degrees from the famous IITs and IIMs who are
in big demand both in India and the world over. The students from such premier
institutions walk away with unheard of pay packets. India churns out more than 70000
computers professional every year in addition to the graduates from the IITs. The Indian
software industry employed nearly 160000 professionals in 1998-99. Indian software
industry has earned a worldwide reputation. This feat has been achieved by leveraging
Indias highly skilled technical manpower. India has emerged as a powerful player in
the world in the IT sector. Indias advance in the IT sector has attracted many American
and European companies to locate their back office operations in Bengalore, Chennai,
Pune, and Gurgaon etc. The shifting of back office operations of foreign companies has
been influenced by many factors like abundant supply of cheap labour, cheap satellite
communication and the facility of Internet. While this development has created
tremendous job opportunities in India it has been used by foreign companies as a cost
cutting arrangement. These back office operations range from billing to payroll handling,
airline reservation to answering customer complains. In case of both these kinds of jobs
whether in the much famed IT sector or the Call Centers students coming from upper
middle class and urban background are more likely to get these jobs. The reservation
policy of the government has been in keeping with the idea of social justice. This was
found that without reservation people from the disadvantaged section were unable to get
jobs. As of now the private companies and the Multi National Corporations do not
follow any principle of reservation. Some representatives of disadvantaged sections look
at liberalisation as a ploy to deny the disadvantaged strata of society the benefit of
reservation. Many Dalit leaders like Ram Vilas Paswan and Social Justice Minister in
the UPA government led by Man Mohan Singh, Meira Kumar have appealed for
reservation even in the private sector. Some people argue that apart from demanding
reservation also in private sector the movement of the disadvantaged section should
exert pressure on the government to improve the quality of education in governmentmanaged institutions. The people from the disadvantaged sections do not have the
means to afford quality education offered at high prices in elite schools meant for the
well-off sections of society. Thus the introduction of the new economic policy has
marginalised a large section of the population, as they do not have the necessary skills
to benefit from the opportunities offered by globalisation. To make the marginalised
partners in the bounty offered by globalisation process there is need of big investment
in imparting that kind of skills in them that they do not lag behind aspirants from
privileged section of society. Dreze and Sen are of the view that there is great opportunity
here for channeling political activism in the direction of forcefully demanding expansion
of basic education, health care and social security for those who are left out of the
system.

42

5.5.4

Women

Globalisation can be seen as an ideology committed to production for profit, which

leads to relative or absolute deprivation of women, colonies and marginal groups and
communities. The exigencies of competition and market are used to enforce policies,
which aims at profit making at the expense of people and planet. Angela Miles is of the
view that feminists all over the world have come to reject the profit-based market
system which compels private ownership of all the earths goods and recognises only
those things as valuable which can be bought and sold for profit on the market. This
market does not value the work of nature and women. Feminists in developed countries
are fighting for recognition of the value of the goods and services produced by them in
homes. They are also fighting for mens equal participation in such works. They also
demand recognition of the value of the social support provided by women in the form
of childcare, health and educational services. They are also struggling both in North and
South to maintain traditional pattern and capacities of subsistence in the face of devastating
development process. The phenomenon of globalisation its commitment to
commercialisation, modernisation, export-oriented development, growing reliance on
private sector and the obsession with profit motive has adversely affected the cause of
women in India also. There has been a sharp fall in womens employment in the
organised sector in the era of globalisation. The expansion of informal sector has put
women in the category of reserved army. They have joined the rank of poor. This
increasing feminisation of poverty is a matter of grave concern. Even in todays India
patriarchal norms established nearly two thousand years ago continue to prevail. The
media and the education system continue to project the ideals of motherhood and loyal
and faithful wife. The subordinate position of women in society is reinforced by a look
at declining sex ratio of girls, growing domestic violence of all kinds against women,
the spurt in dowry deaths and rising rape cases. Derez and Sen hold that the persistence
of sharp gender inequalities in many different forms is one of the most striking aspects
of the Indian economy and it yields disparities in power, decision-making and wellbeing. They are of the view that subordination of women in Indian society tends to
impair their effectiveness in reducing deprivation in general. Womans emancipation in
the form of basic education and economic independence can have many positive impacts.
Kerala is a shining example in this regard. There womens emancipation has a direct
impact on childcare and a noticeable check on fertility rate. The suppression of women
from participation in social, political and economic life hurts the society as a whole, not
just women. Women have often been active in demanding and working for basic social
change. Social movements in general and womens movement in particular should exert
enough pressure on government so that proper policies for womens emancipation should
be made and also implemented.

5.5.5

Networking and Cooperation

Most of the social movements are generally preoccupied with their on particular struggle.
They are gripped with the mindsets of our movement and their movement. This
exclusiveness makes them vulnerable in the event of oppression unleashed by state.
With networking and coordination among them these social movements can play
important role in achieving democratic social transformation. The need of networking
and coordination is not limited to social movements within a country. Environment
Movements and antiWTO movements have demonstrated global networking and
43

coordination. Aaron Pollack is of the view that social movements are increasingly going
global in their response to the neoliberal economics. The programmes and policies
which have impact on lives of people are not exclusively in the hands of national
governments. Many times programmes and policies are direct consequence of the
decisions taken by global actors. This necessitates networking and coordination among
social movements on global level to bargain for a better deal. The communication
revolution that has accompanied globalisation has created a situation in which any form
of movement in any part of the globe can easily attract the attention of global community.
This can very well create public opinion in favour or against some issues.
Rodrik in his book Has Globalisation Gone Too Far? (1997) argues that economic
globalisation catalyses social protest in three ways. First, unskilled workers in the
developed countries perceive a decline in their bargaining power as a result of greater
capital mobility and feared increase in the elasticity of demand for domestic labour.
Workers fear that capital has a decreased incentive to maintain the post-world War II
bargain, in which capital provided workers with a stable living wage in exchange for
the promise of labour peace. Accordingly, unskilled workers protest globalisation as
they now face increased uncertainity about wage custs, instability in labour markets, and
lower benefits. Second, opposition can arise as globalisation eclipses domestic norms.
Most countries uphold distinct norms about labour market standrads and acceptable
market practices. When world markets are highly protected, these normative differences
are juxtaposed but rarely come into conflict with one another . With greater international
economic integration, however, these normative differences clash directly and place in
sharp relief distinct and conflicting beliefs about state responsibilities vis--vis citizens.
Where greater economic integration takes place at the expense of naional legal norms,
globalisation processes can and do endanger political opposition. It also triggered off
anti-child labour movements. Third, opposition arises as workers blame globalisation
for dismantling the welfare state. International institutions pressures to whittle away at
social programmes and arrangements that protected certain categories of workers in the
past from unstable, unpredictable, and more open markets.
In india because of globalisation industrial growth has increased which provide
employment in informal sector. Hence workers get fragmented and compete among
each other for security and job. It adversely affect organised struggles. What we have
is localised working class movements.
Because of the increased international net work of activists for Human Rights,
transnational collective action has increased. International pressure against Gujarat
communal violence and support to the Narmada Bachao Andolan are some of the most
important examples.

5.6 SUMMARY
To sum, it can be said that rolling back globalisation does not seem to be a plausible
option because an overwhelming consensus exists today in its favour both among political
parties and intellectuals. Globalisation seems to be perpetuating old inequalities and also
creating new kind of inequalities. That is why there is a need for what has been called
shaping globalisation. The wealth and opportunities which are created should benefit
every section of society. The state policies should aim at imparting education and other
technical skills to the disadvantaged sections like dalits and women. This can help them
44

to develop a sense of partnership in progress. There is a greater need of powerful social

movements in present context more particularly because state appears to be on the
retreat. There is also a need of coordination and networking among social movements
both on national and global levels to ensure sustainable and equitable development. It
is also necessary to ensure that development does not take place at the cost of rights and
freedom of the people.

5.7 EXERCISES
1) Identify the main features of globalisation.
2) Discuss the impact of globalisation on various sections of Indian society.
3) How do you relate the social movements to the impact of globalisation?

45

UNIT 7 DALIT MOVEMENT

Structure
7.1
7.2
7.3

Introduction
Who are Dalits?
Political Mobilisation of the Dalits
7.3.1
7.3.2

7.4

Bahujan Samaj Party and the Dalits

7.4.1
7.4.2

7.5
7.6

Pre-independence Period
Post-independence Period
Ideology
Limitations of the BSP

Summary
Exercises

7.1 INTRODUCTION
In recent years there has been a growth of academic interest in dalit mobilisation and
movements in India. This is mainly due to the fact that there has been greater mobilisation
and political participation of dalits in the electoral process in the country as a whole.
It is primarily the Bahujan Samaj Party (BSP) which in fact is responsible for the
mobilisation of the dalits and the democratic upsurge revolving around the dalits in the
country. This unit focuses on dalit mobilisation, assertion and movement in the
contemporary India. It deals with the meaning of dalits, their mobilisation in the pre and
post-independence period. It also discusses the ideology of BJP and its mobilisation of
dalits.

7.2 WHO ARE DALITS?

In the beginning let us turn to the question, who are the dalits? What is their condition
in the society? The term dalit is a Marathi word and literally means ground or
broken to pieces and it was first popularised by the Dalit Panthers in Maharastra by
which they meant the Scheduled Caste population. Later on there had been attempts to
broaden this definition to any oppressed group (Chandra, 2004). Dalits generally refer
to the Scheduled Castes alone, the castes that in the Hindu Varna system were outside
the Varna system and were known as Avarnas or Ati-shudras. They were considered as
impure and untouchables and were placed in the caste hierarchy which perpetuated
inequality. There are even some people who include the Scheduled Castes, Scheduled
Tribes, the Other Backward Classes and even other converted minorities into this category.
For our present purpose we shall, however, refer to the SCs alone and not the other
categories. The Dalits constitute around 15 per cent of the Indian population and belong
to the lower rungs of the Indian society, economically and socially. According to the
1991 census their number was 138 million persons i.e., around 15.8 percent of the
Indian population. According to the 2001 census they constitute more than 1,666 lakhs
and around 16.2 per cent of the entire population. They are spread throughout the
country though they are concentrated more in some states like Uttar Pradesh, Punjab,
Bihar, West Bengal, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Rajasthan, Orissa and Maharastra.
54

Their population is spread throughout the parliamentary and assembly

constituencies but in the country as a whole it constitutes saround one third of the
electorate (Chandra, 2004).
The Dalits not only belong to the lower caste category but also belong to the lower class
category of the Indian society. They are mainly poor peasants, share-croppers and
agricultural labourers in the rural economy. In the urban economy they basically form
the bulk of the labouring population. Studies show that the condition of the Dalits in
the country as a whole has not changed significantly over the years (Mendelsohn and
Vicziany, 1998) even though the state in India had pursued propoor policies aimed at
ameliorating the condition of the poor among whom the Dalits constitute a large chunk.
Mendelsohn and Vicziany argue that the post-independence regime has failed to bring
about a systematic redistribution of resources in favour of those at the bottom of society,
and it has also failed to pursue a consistent, albeit non radical, strategy of supplying
basic needs (health education and simple welfare) to the poor.
As a result of the policy of protective discrimination an elite (mainly middle class) has
emerged among dalits and it is these elite who have been the main beneficiaries of the
state policies. As D L Sheth has noted that the middle class that comprised essentially
of the upper castes now includes a small section of the lower castes or dalits (Sheth,
2002). As a result of these changes the entire dalit population may now be divided
roughly into two sections; a section of dalits who have remained as they were earlier
and a small, a narrow section who are relatively better off than the majority of the dalit
population. This, however, may be considered as a positive change since it is this
section (the middle class) among the Dalits who are primarily responsible for their
mobilisation and assertion in contemporary India. Another change may also be noted
and that is blatant form of caste discrimination which was practised for centuries is not
practised in India today.

7.3 POLITICAL MOBILISATION OF THE DALITS

7.3.1

Pre-Independence Period

At the All India level Ambedkar initiated the articulation of dalit interest for the first
time in the 1920s. Prior to Ambedkar there had been attempts to bring about reforms
in their condition in some of the Indian states, for example, Phule in Maharastra. But
it was an attempt towards reform rather than towards the mobilisation of the dalits for
political objectives. Ambedkar is known to have developed differences with Congress
on several important questions relating to dalit issues and more or less remained the
only spokesperson and the pre eminent advocate of the dalits from 1919, for more than
three and half decades in the preindependence period. Though the Congress talked
about the necessity of removing untouchability, yet it did not articulate any concrete
demand or programme to protect the interests of the depressed classes till 1917 (Shah,
2001). In contrast, mobilisation by Phule and Ambedkar in 1930s was firmly based on
the belief that unless the caste system is destroyed the social evil of untouchability
cannot end and that it is possible only if dalits acquire power. Hence in 1942 he formed
the All India Scheduled Caste Federation (AISCF). Earlier he formed several
organisations, the most important being the Indian Labour Party (ILP). The ILP was an
organisation of a different kind in the sense that it aimed and attempted to mobilise a
55

broader section of the Indian society and not exclusively the dalits. He sought to use this
organisation to appeal to wider audience including the industrial workers and the
agricultural labourers. Duncan argues that he formed the ILP probably because he was
convinced that a wider support base than the Scheduled Caste was essential and hence
he embarked on a more class like strategy (Duncan, 2000).

7.3.2

Post-Independence Period

The formation of the AISCF was a very significant development in the history of dalit
mobilisation in the country though it was not much successful and suffered defeat in the
elections of 1946 and again in 1951. These reversals convinced Ambedkar that a separate
political party was required which will have a wider electoral strategy. After his death
in 1956, the AISCF was dissolved and the Republican Party of India (RPI) was formed
in 1957. The party, the first of its kind accepted the fundamental provisions of the
Constitution and vowed to pursue its objective through the medium of parliamentary
democracy. It functioned for almost two decades and was successful in establishing its
base in the state of Maharastra and to a limited extent in the state of Uttar Pradesh,
though it is in the latter the RPI succeeded more in electoral terms than in Maharastra.
The RPI was also able to launch some major agitations for example, the agitations for
land distribution in 1959 and 1964-65. These agitations, however, were more of an
aberration rather than a general feature of RPI politics; they were, in fact, isolated
episodes and not harbingers of sustained mass movements (Duncan, 2000). The sporadic
nature of RPI politics was probably the main reason why the RPI could not keep its base
intact and always had to confront the problem of losing its support base as soon as the
agitations ended.
By the mid 1960s it had established itself in the state of Maharastra and Uttar Pradesh.
These were the states in which it had a strong presence. Very soon, however, the RPI
weakened largely because of internal differences on the issue of aligning with the
Congress. A section of the leadership within the party was pragmatic and was interested
in joining hands with the Congress whereas others were of the view that an alliance with
the Congress would lead to a dilution of the greater objective of the party of promoting
solidarity of the SC population in the country. On this issue some of the leaders broke
away from the party and joined the Congress. It broke into several factions and today
the various factions only play a marginal role in the politics of Maharastra.
The failure of the RPI to keep up to the lofty ideals of Ambedkar and to fulfil the
aspirations of the dalit youths led to the formation of the Dalit Panthers in Bombay in
1972. The Dalit Panthers drew its inspiration from the writings of Ambedkar and Marx.
Its leaders critisid the RPI leaders for having failed to keep up to the ideals of Ambedkar
and for its persistent splits and electoral failures. They sought to project themselves as
an alternative to the RPI and very soon were successful in attracting the Dalit youths
and students. Though initially it tasted success in the state of Maharastra, yet very soon
the movement (organisation) fell pray to the same problems that had confronted the
RPI. Due to internal conflicts among leaders on several issues, the movement collapsed
in a few years after its inception.
Why is it so that dalit political parties including the association formed by Ambedkar
could not succeed or could succeed only partially in their political objectives? There are
numerous reasons behind these. Duncan (2000) has noted three problems with these
56

associations. Firstly, the parties/association to him always relied on the support of

particular caste groups rather than on the Dalits as a whole. The organisations mainly
relied on the Mahars in Maharastra and the Chamars (Jatavs) in northern India, particularly
in Uttar Pradesh. It is these castes that formed the backbone of the associations. As a
result the other dalit castes felt neglected and suspected these parties as a party of that
caste group and not theirs. Secondly, according to Duncan one of the issues for the
organisation was the issue of whether to support other political parties as a part of their
strategy during the elections or not? Ambedkar had left no clear directives in this regard.
In the absence of a clear guidance from Ambedkar, the party leaders were caught up in
ideological and strategic struggles. Some were in favour of supporting the Congress and
other parties, whenever the need arouse, whereas others felt that supporting the Congress
will lead to dilution of the aim and objectives of the party. On this question alone many
of the parties including the RPI split and this weakened the movement in the country
as a whole. Thirdly, these political parties did not develop any modern organisational
structure which could be geared up or could be used for the purpose of diffusing inner
party struggles and help achieve cohesion. All these hastened the decline of the
Ambedkarite parties including those formed by Ambedkar. Another cause of decline
may be added. The Ambedkarite parties were unable to cut into the vote banks or
support base of the Congress party, which was really an overwhelming phenomenon.
Since Congress was a political party of all section of the Indian population the lower
caste population did feel comfortable with the programmes and policies of the RPI. The
welfares policies of the Congress appealed to the dalits in the country in general and in
Uttar Pradesh and Maharastra in particular. The expansion of the dalit parties in recent
years has taken place only after the Congress had declined considerably and has created
a vacuum for other political forces in the country. Hence, it is not surprising that the
BSP has grown in a state (Uttar Pradesh) where the decline of the Congress has been
more rapid and complete than in any other state in India.

7.4 THE BAHUJAN SAMAJ PARTY AND THE DALITS

The formation of the BSP by Kanshi Ram in 1984 marks a new beginning in the history
of dalit mobilisation and politics in the country. One of the significant features of the
BSP happens to be the fact that it had succeeded at least partially (particularly in North
India) where Ambedkar and Ambedkarites failed in their objective in the country in
more than fifty years. The BSP succeeded at a time in north India when the dalit parties
in western India were under disarray. The BSP after its formation has not only succeeded
in establishing a stronghold in some states in northern India but it has also been able
to form governments along with its pre or post electoral allies in the critically important
state of Uttar Pradesh. Though the governments were short lived, yet these are remarkable
events since it has important implications for the dalits not only in the state of Uttar
Pradesh but throughout the country.
Gail Omvedt has termed the formation of this party as deliberate. It has its root in a
government employees federation called the BAMCEF i.e., Backward and Minority
Central Government Employees Federation, which was formed in 1978 by Kanshi Ram
in Punjab but later on extended to Uttar Pradesh. Initially the BAMCEF supported the
activities of the RPI in Maharastra and sought the support of all the SCs and politicians
from other parties (Chandra, 2004). Its primary aim, however, was to organise the elite
section of the dalits who had benefited from the policies of reservation of the Government
57

of India. The formation of this organisation was critical because it is this organisation
that provided the initial organisational and financial base for the BSP. Kanshi Ram tried
to argue and mobilise dalits on the grounds that the further advance of the community
could only take place if the whole community stood in a group. He was successful in
this effort considering that within a span of more than a decade in the early 1990s the
BAMCEF had a membership of around of 2 lakhs (Hassan, 2000).
The most important decision that was taken in the course of the formation of the BSP
was the formation of Dalit Shoshit Sangharsh Samaj Samiti commonly known as the
DS4 in 1981. The formation of this organisation was of critical importance considering
that it is through this organisation Kanshi Ram tried to increase his influence among
other sections of the society, which were hitherto not touched by the BAMCEF. The
DS4, in fact, served as the organisational base for the formation of the BSP and took
up political issues. It did so in two significant ways. One was through ideological
campaigns that it carried with its mouthpiece The Oppressed Indian and secondly
through the organisation of meetings, rallies mainly bicycle rallies and social action
programmes throughout the country. Through the first it sought to educate, organise
and agitate the oppressed groups and through the second it sought to restore selfrespect and equality for the oppressed castes in the society (Singh, 2002). The activities
of the DS4 were prominent and frequent in 1983 and 1984, i.e., just before the formation
of the BSP. Hence, it is clear that the DS4 was the precursor to the formation of the
BSP by Kanshi Ram and in this sense the formation of the BSP was a calculated and
deliberate one. It appears that it is through the DS4 Kanshi Ram sought to do the
necessary spadework before the formation of the BSP.
Having set the stage and the ground Kanshi Ram inaugurated the BSP on the 14th of
April 1984. He acquired a useful partner when he persuaded Mayawati to join the party
in Uttar Pradesh. The joining of Mayawati in Uttar Pradesh became crucial for BSP
because with this the party was able to get a solid leader in the state. Mayawati belong
to a Chamar family and studied in Meerut and Delhi Universities and was in the
teaching profession. She left her job to become a full time politician. Her family was
in fact associated with the RPI for some time in Uttar Pradesh.
Kanshi Ram, it is said, deliberately tried to construct a new ethnic category, the Bahujan
which included the SCs, STs, OBCs and the converted minorities (Chandra, 2004). This
he did deliberately keeping in mind that the SCs alone cannot give him the much needed
power because of their number which is around 15 per cent of the population and one
third of the total electorate in the country. With a careful appeal to the ex-untouchables
and with the appealing slogans of Brahmin, Bania, Thakur Chor Baki Sab DS4, the BSP
made an immediate impact on the dalits vote bank in north India. Dalits in northern
India had traditionally rallied behind the Congress party but soon it was found that the
BSP was making inroads into the Congress vote bank. In the Lok Sabha elections which
were held in December 1984 and the assembly elections in March 1985 though it lost
all the seats in the state it contested, it was able to draw million of votes. More importantly
it was able to draw the votes of the Congress as a result of which 51 seats went to the
Lok Dal (Omvedt, 1994). It was able to repeat its performance in Punjab in the same
year held after a few months. It adversely affected the Akali Dal in Punjab. In this
period the BSP and DS4 campaigned throughout the country through nave means and
could consolidate its support base further in northern India. Nave forms of campaign
included the use of by-cycles, organising huge cycle and other form of rallies and
58

awakening programmes. In these campaigns the BSP chose to attack the domination of
the upper castes in the society and the wretched condition of the scheduled castes and
other downtrodden in the country. This helped the party, extended and consolidated its
base and its proof was the Allahabad Lok Sabha bye-elections in 1987. Kanshi Ram as
the BSP candidate was able to secure 18 per cent of the popular votes against 24 per
cent of Sunil Shastri and 54 percent of V P Singh (Omvedt, 1994). On the whole in the
elections, the BSP showed its growing popularity among those social groups, which
were earlier with the Congress. It was with this election that the BSP emerged as a
central political force and Kanshi Ram became a national figure.
The 1989 Lok Sabha elections followed and the party faired quite well by securing three
seats with 2.4 per cent all-India votes from the 235 Lok Sabha constituencies that it
contested. With this impressive performance, the BSP was able to become the sixth all
India party in terms of votes polled. It continued its electoral gains and was successful
in getting itself recognised as a National Party by the Election Commission in 1997. In
Uttar Pradesh it has been the largest gainer. It seats went on increasing in the state
assembly from 13 in 1989 to 66 in 1993 (Kumar, 1999). In the elections held in 1996
it gained 66 seats, its best performance however has been in the 2002 elections when
it secured 97 seats. This performance of the BSP is remarkable considering that in the
previous elections it had secured 66 seats, though its strength ultimately got reduced to
43 by 1998 due to a number of splits in the party. Its vote share in the state has been
around 20 per cent, which is very impressive. After having discussed about the spectacular
growth of the party let us turn to its ideology and strategy that it had adopted so far.

7.4.1

Ideology

The BSP ideology has to be understood in the background of the overall effort made
towards mobilisation of the dalits since the national movement in India. It must be noted
in the beginning that its ideology has been shifting from time to time according to its
strategic needs. Gail Omvedt has noted that the BSP ideology can best be described as
vague. She argues that there is no clear ideology in the programme and functioning of
the party. The sole thrust is on the breaking of the caste system after acquiring state
power (Omvedt, 1994). What is, however, true is that it has no economic programmes
as such and hence the party is not clear what it intends to do after acquiring power. It
is because of this ideological vagueness one finds that most of its agitations are symbolic
in nature and it is not around economic issues. And secondly because of this it had
vacillated on economic issues after acquiring power in the state of Uttar Pradesh.
Due to this vagueness it becomes very difficult to comment on its ideology. A tentative
effort must, however, be made here. One thing that needs to be said in the beginning
is that, ideologically the BSP draws heavily from the writings of Ambedkar and to a
large extent from the speeches of Kanshi Ram and Mayawati. The party also draws
inspiration from Phule and Periar. The central point regarding its ideology is that it
provides a critique of the Brahminical social order in the country. In this critique it
draws heavily from Phule who provided a critique of Brahmanism and Brahmin power
in Maharastra in the second half of the nineteenth century. The BSP and Kanshi Ram
believe that the Indian society consists of two different groups. The first group consists
of the low castes including the Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes, Other Backward
Classes and the religious minorities. In the second category it is the Brahmins, Kayasthas,
Banias and Rajputs or the traditional upper castes (Singh, 2002). The higher castes
59

though constitute only a minority (around 15 per cent of the population), yet still they
manage to rule, because of the votes and thus the consent they acquire from the lower
castes. This system, according to the BSP, will not continue and will come to an end
as soon as the lower castes capture political power.
In Kanshi Rams opinion the Brahminical social order that exists is Aryan in its origin.
The Aryans evolved this social order after invading India and subjugating the original
inhabitants or the Mool Nivasis that is the Dravidians in the country. After the Aryan
conquest the Dravidians were reduced to the level of untouchables. This social order
that came into being after the Aryan conquest to Kanshi Ram is based on caste and not
class and it rests upon falsehoods and religious myths. Hence the Brahminical social
order, which emerged was a social order that was unjust and in which, Brahminism
became the ruling socio-cultural ideology. The purpose of this ideology was the complete
justification of the division of the society into major caste groups. Historically, the BSP
argues that no Hindu community but only Jatis and the Samaj, ever existed which came
into existence. Hence, one notes that the perception of the BSP on the Indian society
is similar to the perceptions, which emerged in South India during the colonial period
as reflected in the Dravidian movement of Naicker (Periar) and the early ideology of
DMK and also that of Phule.
It is from this assessment of the Indian social order that they construct their objective
and strategy. The main aim is to end or destroy Brahminical rule and attain political
power for the Bahujans. Attainment or capture of political power is the key to them.
According to Kanshi Ram political power is the master -key with which you can open
any lock, whether it is (a) social, educational or cultural lock (quoted in Chandra, 2004,
p. 145). Therefore, the attainment of political power is central to their strategy by which
any transformation (real transformation) can be made. This will help improve the
economic advancement of the bahujans in the society. It is only after the attainment of
state power historical injustices can be corrected and the bahujans and more particularly
the dalits can improve their socio-economic conditions. Thus, the BSP believes in total
revolution; in the total destruction of the Hindu social order but this was to take place
only through the ballot box. It firmly believes that the condition and position of the
dalits can improve for the better by a two stage revolution. The first is through electoral
victory from the Brahmins and the upper castes those who constitute only around 15 per
cent of the Indian population and in the second stage the revolution will penetrate
deeper into the society and will thoroughly transform it (Singh, 2002).
The BSP contends that democracy which exists in the country is a fake dominated by
the upper castes. It belongs to them. The establishment of this democracy through adult
franchise has helped the upper castes and their parties who continue to hold power over
the political and social system. The Congress, the dominating political party in the
country, has been the political party of the upper castes and had pursued policies
throughout for the benefit of the upper castes. The policies, which it pursued for the
lower castes did not benefit them at all. In this kind of the situation what is therefore
necessary is to establish real and substantial democracy where power would be in the
hands of the majority, the dalits the bahujans.

7.4.2

Limitations of the BSP

Now let us focus on the problems the limitations which the BSP confronts as a political
party. We will see that the limitations the BSP faces are serious enough and some of
60

these problems are similar to what the other Ambedkarite parties including the RPI had
faced earlier.
One of the more serious problems, which it confronts, is the problem of ideology. It
appears that the BSP has an exclusive ideology. It has a programme for the dalits in the
country but not for the vast mass of the poor even though it claims that it represents the
majority or the bahujans. Secondly, the ideological programme does not contain any
economic programme for the category which it sought to mobilise. In the absence of an
economic package or content the BSP ideology looks very limited, or restricted to social
justice alone. That is why it has become difficult for the BSP to pursue or give directions
to economic policies whenever it has attained power in the state of Uttar Pradesh. Thus
the ideology of the BSP happens to be an exclusive one.
The second problem with the BSP, which Jagpal Singh (2002) and others have noted
is that the BSP is a leadercentric party. Though it has adequate number of leaders and
functionaries, yet it is a party in every sense led by its supremo Kanshi Ram and to
some extent by Mayawati though in more recent times Kanshi Ram had been sidelined.
On several important occasions it is these two important leaders who have taken decisions
alone by ignoring the party altogether. This is a problem, which we have noted earlier,
a problem common with the Ambedkarite parties formed after the death of Ambedkar.
The RPI and other Ambedkarite parties have faced similar kind of problems. Even
Ambedkar himself never had any inclination for a strong organisation and an organised
movement. Ambedkars biographer Keer has noted that:
Ambedkar did not try to organise his political party on modern lines. He
had no taste for individual organisation. There were no regular annual
conferences or general meetings of the organisations with which he was
connected. Where and when he sat was the venue of the conference and
the time for decision (quoted in Ian Duncan, 2001).
The more serious problem with the BSP is its limited social base. Despite of all the talks
of Bahujan Samaj and all the claims that the BSP will represent 85 per cent of the
population in the Indian society the fact remains that in north India it remains a political
party of Chamars/Jatavs. The Chamars constitute the backbone of the BSP support. We
have seen earlier that the Chamars or the Jatavs in Uttar Pradesh were the most politicised
of the castes in the state. It is this caste which benefited from the policy of reservation
of the central and the state governments and it is this category that forms the backbone
of the BSP. It does not represent the interest or the Balmikis or the Pasis who are the
poorest among the dalits but it represents only the elite among the dalits. In UP it had
expected to increase its appeal, it has even attempted to become a catchall political party
but failed miserably in this effort. The primary contenders in UP of the party are the
Samajwadi Party, the BJP and the Congress. In a situation of this in a fragmented party
system where the competition is highly multi-cornered kind it looks very unlikely that
the BSP will be able to improve its vote share further though in terms of seats it may
gain some more seats as seen in the 2002 elections. The expansion of its social base is
more unlikely also because the BSP governments in the state have clearly shown its
caste bias in favour of the Chamars which alienated other castes and the minority
communities from it. Moreover, apart from UP the BSP does not have a significant
presence in other states especiality in the west, southern states and the east.

61

Fourthly, since the prime agenda of the BSP is to capture power and this had led the
party to pursue unusual strategies to attain power in Uttar Pradesh. It had formed
alliances with parties with which it does not have any ideological and programmatic
affinity at all. Its alliance for example with BJP on three different occasions including
during the 2002 elections has raised considerable doubts about the sanguine purpose and
objective of the party. This had two different kinds of effects. In political circles and
in the eyes of the electorate, the BSPs credibility has gone down; very often it has been
referred to as an opportunist party ready to form coalitions with strange forces. This
kind of opportunism and lack of purpose to a large extent has eroded the credibility
among a large section of the non-dalits, these non-dalits are included by the BSP in the
category of bahujans. With these limitations, the BSP will find it extremely difficult to
expand its social base among these sections of the community. But despite these
limitations the progress of the BSP in the recent years particularly in the 1990s has been
dramatic.

7.5 SUMMARY
A brief survey of dalit mobilisation and movements in India in the contemporary period
reveals that though the mobilisation of dalits at an India level had started prior to
independence with the efforts of Ambedkar who differed with Gandhi and the Congress,
it gained momentum with the mobilisation efforts of the BSP after its formation in
1984. The BSP had succeeded in many respects, it had mobilised dalits politically to a
significant extent in some states. Though it suffers from its own set of problems it has
succeeded in coming to political power in the largest state of Uttar Pradesh which no
dalit organisation either formed by Ambedkar or later was able to do. All this probably
indicate that in future years there will be greater participation, assertion and mobilisation
of dalits at the all India level.

7.6 EXERCISES
1)

Explain the meaning of dalit and discuss dalit mobilisation during the pre-colonial
period.

2)

Critically evaluate the growth, ideology and the social base of the Bahujan Samaj
Party.

3)

What are the limitations of the BSP? Discuss.

62

UNIT 8 BACKWARD CLASS MOVEMENTS

Structure
8.1
8.2
8.3
8.4

Introduction
Who are the Backward Classes?
Socio-Economic Conditions of the Backward Classes: Impact of the State Policies
Backward Class Movement in the Post-Independence Period
8.4.1
8.4.2
8.4.3

8.5
8.6

North-South Comparison
The Electoral Mobilisation
Politics of Reservation

Summary
Exercises

8.1 INTRODUCTION
Past three decades have seen the emergence of the backward classes in different fields
of life. This has been more spectacular in electoral politics. Though backward classes
became a significant social and political force in some parts of the country, especially
south India even earlier, they got national attention following the introduction of the
Mandal Commission Report by the V P Singh-led government at the centre in 1990.
This unit deals with different aspects related to the collective actions of the backward
classes in India.

8.2 WHO ARE THE BACKWARD CLASSES?

Marc Galanter in his book Competing Equalities: Law and The Backward Classes in
India observes that backward classes is a very loose concept. Sociologically, these
classes consist of a large number of the backward castes which remain above the
Scheduled Castes and below the upper castes. These castes consist of intermediate
castes the cultivating castes, artisans and service castes. In the traditional social and
economic structures, while the intermediary castes were involved in the production
process in the land, the service castes and artisans provided services to the society. The
backward classes known as the Other Backward Classes (OBCs), are other than those
backward classes, which include the dalits/Scheduled Castes and the Scheduled Tribes.
The principal intermediary OBCs are Yadavs, Kurmies, Koeris, Gujjars and Jats in
north Indian states like Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Rajasthan and some of them in Haryana
and Madhya Pradesh; Kappus, Kammas, Reddies, Vokkaliggas, Lingayats, Mudliars in
south Indian states like Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu; Patles, Kolis,
Kshatriyas and Marathas in west Indian states like Guajarat and Maharashra. They
belong to the upper or dominant backward classes. The service castes and artisans,
principal castes among them being carpenters, blaksmiths, barbers, water carriers, etc.,
are found in almost all states in varying numbers. They are also known as the Most
Backward Castes (MBCs) in some states. Their relations were regulated by Jajamani
System. In this system the service castes and artisans were known as clients of the
dominant or superior castes. The latter included both the high castes and the intermediary

63

cultivating castes. In this unit the backward classes and Other Backward Classes will
be used interchangeably.
The OBCs, in fact, include heterogeneous caste groups with differences in their social
and economic conditions and political participation. Even the OBCs which share common
characteristics in terms of their place in the social hierarchy differ from each other
depending on their agrarian history. Not all intermediary castes which are now identified
as OBCs belonged to the inferior group so far as their position in the agrarian structure
was concerned. For example, Jats in most part of UP, Punjab which also consisted of
the area of present day Haryana and Bharatpur region of Rajasthan were a dominant
community even in the pre-Independence period. They had their on traditional caste
councils or khaps headed by the hereditary chief or chaudhary to manage their juridical
and social affairs. They were independent peasant-proprietors involved in the cultivation
of land; they did not have the landlord above them and they paid rent to the state
through their own representatives. While they were independent of any landlord between
them and the state, they were placed in the dominant position over other village
communities. But most of other intermediary castes were not independent peasantproprietors. They were the tenants of landlords, who in several instances were the
absentee. They were exploited by the latter in several ways. These intermediary castes
were subjected to the exploitation of the landlords like the service and artisan castes.
Thus, despite belonging to different castes, the intermediate castes, artisans and service
castes shared certain cultural and economic characteristics. That is why the OBCs are
those castes which are educationally and socially backward, not necessarily economically
and politically.
To get categorised or recognised as an OBC, is political issue. A community should
possess enough political clout to get itself identified as an OBC. There are several
instances of demand by the castes to get themselves identified as OBCs. In 1999 the
Rajasthan government and in 2000 the Uttar Pradesh government added the Jats to the
lists of OBCs.

8.3 SOCIO-ECONOMIC CONDITIONS OF THE BACKWARD

CLASSES: IMPACT OF THE STATE POLICIES
The backward classes emerged as a powerful social, economic and political block during
the post-indenpendence period in the countryside as a result of the policies of the state.
But there have remained internal differentiation among them. While the intermediary
castes came to control the affairs of the village society, the artisans and the service
castes joined the ranks of the marginalised groups of the wage labourers, marginal and
poor farmers. Even though the upper backward or the intermediary castes also are
undergoing differentiation in terms of the economic and educational entitlements, in
political terms these differences get blurred. It will be imperative to discuss the impact
of the state policies on the rise of the backward classes in the country. The principal
policies which impacted them included: the land reforms which consisted of the abolition
of landlordism, putting ceilings on the size of the landholdings, consolidation of
landholdings, and Green Revolution in the selected areas of the country; welfare schemes
for the welfare of the lower backward classes. Besides, the state policies the changes
which occurred from within the society population growth, breaking down of the
64

jajmani system also affected them. Although the state policies in different states of the
country did not have the uniform and desired impact on the backward classes in the
country, they definitely gave rise to the backward classes. They became the owners of
their land, which they had been cultivation before the land reforms as the tenants,
captured the local level political institutions like village panchayats in several parts of
the country. On account of their numerical strength along with the control on the village
land they came to control the village vote banks. All the upper backward classes are
relevant examples of this change Jats, Yadavs, Kurmies, Gujjars, Kappus, Kammas,
Reddies, Lingayats, Vokaliggas, Patels, Kolis, Marathas, etc., in different regions of the
country.
It must be emphasised that among the state policies it was the Green Revolution which
had the most remarkable impact on the rural economic, social and political life. Most
of the groups affected by this belonged to the upper backward classes. It not only
disturbed the traditional patterns of relations it also gage rise to the emergence of
capitalism in agriculture. It was marked by the machenisation, displacement of human
labour in agriculture and development of marker economy and commercialisation of
agriculture. Even the capitalism had the differential impact on the backward classes.
While the upper backward produced mainly for the market and remained largely the
self-cultivators, those belonging to the lower backwards joined the ranks of the wage
labourers in the agriculutre or the non-agrarian sectors or even migrated to the cities.
The fact that the OBCs belong to distinct economic categories and to the middle castes
and the artisans and the service castes have given rise to the issues which are both
economic and caste-related. As you study in sub-sections 8.4.2 and 8.4.3, these have
been the focus of the mobilisation of backward classes through out the post-Independence
period both at the national and state levels. However, the nature of these issues have
changed over a period of time. For example, the social issues were combined with those
of abolitions of landlordism and demand for providing ownership right to them in land
before the implementation of the first phase of land reforms. Theses were replaced by
the issues which emerged mainly after the Green Revolution remunerative price of
the crops, subsidised inputs, better infrastructure along with the issue of reservation in
the political institutions and public jobs for the backward classes.
Another factor which is related to the changes in the socio-economic conditions of the
backward classes is rise of a middle class among the OBCs. Despite the failure of the
education policies a group of educated persons, who became their spokespersons, had
emerged among the backward classes. However, this group was not as big as it was
among the high castes. In north India Charan Singh, S. D. Singh Chaurasia and Chaudhry
Brahm Prakash were some of the spokes persons of the backward classes belonging to
the early decades following Independence.

8.4 BACKWARD CLASS MOVEMENT IN THE POST

INDEPENDENCE PERIOD
8.4.1

North-South Comparison

In comparison to North India, the backward classes in south India were moblised much
earlier. They not only got reservation in the government jobs but they were also mobilised
65

into the social movement and entered politics in south India much before than the
backward classes of North India. Christophe Jaffrelot in his book Indias Silent Revolution:
The Rise of the Low Castes in North Indian Politics attributes the early rise of backward
classes in South India and their late rise in North India to the processes of ethnicisation
and sanskritisation respectively. Through ethnicisation the backward classes of south
India questioned the Brahminical domination and sought to replace it with that of the
backward classes or dravidians. It was a revolt against sanskritisation in south. They
not only got reservation in the public institutions and they replaced the brahminical
domination in politics also. As compared to the north Indian states, where reservations
for the OBCs were introduced from the 1970s at different points of time, the south India
states had completed the process of granting reservation for the OBCs by the 1960s.
This process in south India, in fact, had started as far back as in 1921 when the
Maharaja of Mysore decided to implement reservation for the OBCs in the government
jobs in order to end the Brahamin monopoly there. In the post-independence period
different states in south India appointed backward classes commissions under pressure
from the backward classes organisations and political parities, which espoused for the
causes of the backward classes. In contrast, the north Indian backward classes were
undergoing the process sanskritisation. Unlike their counterparts in south India they
attempted to follow the customs, habits and rituals of the high castes. Several backward
castes traced their lineages to the high castes Brahmins or Kshatriyas.
Scholars explain this difference between north and south in the following way. The
Brahmins had monopolised the high castes domination over the low castes in South
India and their number in comparison to Brahmins of north India was much smaller. In
contrast, the Brahmins were not the only high castes in north India. Their domination
over the low castes was shared, thus diluted, by several high castes - Rajputs, Kayasthas
or even Vaishyas. In north India the organisation like Arya Samaj spread the message
among the backward classes that it was the karma not the birth which determined the
place of a person in society. While it encouraged the backward classes to sanskritise
themselves by tracing their lineages to the high castes, wearing janeo (sacred threads),
etc., it also attempted to bring back to Hinduism those Muslims who were supposed to
have converted from Hindu religion through the Suddhi movement. This instead of
challenging the hegemony of the high castes or Brahminism revived it and strengthened
it. As a result it dampened the chances of strong backward class movement in north
India. The backward classes virtually were the non-Brahmin classes in south India.
Unlike their counterparts in north India, they did not attempt to follow the high casts,
i.e. Brahmins, they in fact questioned their domination in culture, administration and
politics. The most effective expression of the dravidian revolt against the Brahmin
domination in south was provided by the Self-Respect Movement led by E.V. Ramaswami
Naicker, alias Periyar, during the 1920s and 1940s. The Self-Respect Movement was
based on the premise that the original inhabitants of India were non-Brahmins or the
dravidians, not the Brahmins. The main principle of this movement was Samadharma
or equality. In order to get their self-respect and the non-Brahmins should replace the
dominance of Brahmins in education, culture, politics and administration. The SelfRespect Movement included: boycott of Brahmins in rituals like weddings; condemnation
of varnashrama dharma; burning of Manu Smriti. The non-Brahmins added suffix
Dravida and Adi to their associations. M. C. Raja (1883-1947) was another advocate
of the dravidian ideology. He became president of the Adi Dravida Mahasabha in 1916
and chaired the All India Depressed Classes Association since 1928.
66

Not only in south India even in west India the backward classes were mobilised much
earlier in comparison to north. Jyotiba Phule belonging to backward Mali caste who
became a source of inspiration for the latter day social reformers including E.V. Naicker,
Dr. B. R. Ambedkar and the non-Brahmin Maratha rulers of Kolhapur Sahuji Maharaj,
set up Satya Shodak Samaj in 1873 in the Bombay Presidency in order to mobilise the
low castes including dalits and non-Brahmins or backward classes. Satya Shodhak Samaj
was able to unite untouchables and backward caste peasants. Christophe Jeffrelot considers
Phule to be the first social reformer who did not fall into the traps of sanskritisation.
He was also the first reformer who worked for the alliance of the Bahujan Samaj, the
low castes, backward peasant classes and untouchables. He gave Aryan theory which
suggested that the high castes Aryan were not the original inhabitants of India; they had
come from outside. The original inhabitants were the untouchable, artisans, services
castes and the peasant backward classes. The high cases had subjugated the low castes
and established their dominance over them. His Aryan theory inspired several low
castes leaders of the early 20th century and the latter period; Mangoo Ram held that the
dalits in Punjab were Ad Dharmis; Achhootanand in UP held that dalits in UP were
Adi-Hindus; and south Indian reformers believed that the Brahmins were outsider Aryans
in their areas, and they as dravidains were the original inhabitants of their area.
The Maratha princes like Maharaja of Baroda and descendent of Shivaji, Maharaja of
Kolhapur, Shahu, inspired by the philosophy of Phule challenged Brahmins domination
of their administration. Shahu introduced policies to empower the non-Brahmins in
administration and to end Brahmins domination in it. He set up boarding houses for the
students belonging to the low castes; made primary education free and compulsory in
1917; and most importantly he introduced 50 per cent reservation of seats in government
jobs for the members of backward communities in the state administration. He also
encouraged Marathas to replace the Brahmins in administration and replaced the Brahmin
priests with them. Again, the British administration reserved seven seats for the Marathas
and allied castes in the Legislative Council of the Bombay Presidency in 1919.
Organisations like All India Maratha Mali Union, Yadav Gavli Association emerged in
the Bombay Presidency. These organisations strove to forge an alliance of different nonBrahamin castes.

8.4.2

The Electoral Mobilisation

The backward class politics in India has largely been related to electoral mobilisation
and creation of support base among them by the political parties and leaders. Other
issues like the reservation for the OBCs or their mobilisation on the class issues like
those related to the farmers also get linked to the electoral politics. The increasing
participation of the OBCs, their entry into the state legislatures and parliament is indicative
of the empowerment of the backward classes. During the post-Independence period
there have been attempts on the parts of individual leaders and political organisations
to mobilise the backward classes into the participatory politics. While the backward
classes in south India emerged before the independence and they benefited from this
legacy in the post-Independence period, in the north India their systemic mobilisation
took place in the post-interdependence period. The main leaders and political parties
which mobilised the backward classes in north India include Charan Singh, Karpoori
Thakur, Socialist parties and the different political formations at different point of times
like Samajwadi Party and Rashtriya Janata Dal in Uttar Pradesh and Bihar.
67

Charan Singh carved out a political base for himself among the middle caste peasantry
in UP and Bihar through a well designed strategy. He could do this while he was still
a member of the Congress Party. Though Jats, the caste he belonged to did not fall in
the official category of the OBCs till 2000 in UP and 1999 in Rajasthan, he identified
himself with the backward classes of UP and Bihar. These castes were mainly Yadavas,
Kurmies, Koeries, Kachhis, Lodhs, etc. His strategy was two fold he combined the
caste issue with the class issue. Through out the 1950s and 1960s, he addressed a large
number of meetings of the backward classes belonging to Yadavs, Kurmies, Koeries
and Lodhs in UP; attended the backward class meeting in Badhoi in 1953. He also
praised the role of Congress in abolition of landlordism, in which he had played prominent
and decisive role. These activities of Charan Singh projected him as a backward class
leader. This created division within the Congress; a section of the high caste Congress
leadership accused him of identifying with the backward classes. They argued that
Charan Singh's activities had alienated Congress from the high castes, and suggested
that attempts should be made to win back support of these castes to the Congress.
Charan Singh defended himself by arguing that he was not favouring the backward
classes. Rather the Congress had neglected them. When Charan came out of Congress
in 1967 and formed the Samyukta Vidhayak Dals (SVDs) coalition government, he
gave 29.63 per cent representation to the backward classes in ministry. Merger of his
Bharatiya Kranti Dal headed by him with the Samyukt Socialist Party (SSP) which
resulted in the formation of the Bharatiya Lok Dal in 1974 made him a close ally of the
socialists. This won him ally allies among the backward classes in both state UP and
Bihar. Through the allies like Karpoori Thakur in Bihar and Devi Lal in Haryana,
Charan Singh emerged as a leader of the backward classes and peasantry in north India.
Meanwhile, after becoming the self-cultivators as a result of the land reforms, Green
Revolution and having availed of educational and other policies a generation of leaders
belonging to the intermediary castes emerged on the political scene by the 1970s in
north India. After the death of Charan Singh in 1987 and Karpoori Thakur in 1989, they
have come to occupy a an important place in politics of north India, especially UP and
Bihar. Mulayam Singh Yadav, Lallu Prasad Yadav and Nitish Kunar provide some of
such example. As far back as 1930s in Bihar, three major backward classes Yadavs,
Kurmies and Koeries formed Treveni Sangh to replace the dominance of high castes
Brahmins, Bhumihars and Rajputs in the electoral politics. This alliance, however,
could not sustain after the elections of 1937.
Sanjay Kumar observes in his article New Phase in Backward Caste Politics in Bihar,
1990-2000 (1999) that it was 1995 assembly election in Bihar which showed a new
trend towards the empowerment of the OBCs in the state. It was marked by the
polarisation of the backward support base; Yadavs supported the Janata Dal while the
Kurmies and Koeries supported Samata Party. The fact remains that despite the division
in their support to different parties including the BJP, the OBCs have become a force
to reckon with in politics of Bihar. The division of support of backward classes to
different parties is indicative to the competitive politics among the backward classes, to
their empowerment. In case of Gujarat Ghanshyam Shah argues that the OBCs support
to BJP there does not mean their support to the ideology of Brahminical dominance.
It is part of an electoral game in which the needs of the upper backward classes are
satisfied.

68

It can be said that after the backward classes have emerged as a social block by the
1970s in north India their mobilisation has largely been in terms of electoral politics,
i. e. allotment of tickets by political parties to the OBCs, their entry into the legislative
assemblies and parliament and formation of governments by the political parties headed
by the backward class leaders or those who identified with them. The political parties
with different denominations led by Charan Singh, Janata Dals of different factions and
Samajwadi Pary led by Mulayam Singh Yadav can be identified as backward class
parties. The emergence of the BSP in the 1980s as a political force opened an opportunity
for an alliance of the Bahujan Samaj, the backward classes and the dalits. This brought
the together the Bahujan Samaj Party and BSP the representatives of the OBCs and
dalits, together to form the government in UP in 1993-1994. But because of the
contradictions among the OBCs and dalit social basis of these parties and personality
differences among the leaders, they could not continue the alliance. Even a large number
of the BJP leaders belong to the OBCs.
It must be noted that the backward class mobilisation by different parties has
largely been confined to the upper backward or the intermediate castes, who form the
dominant sections of the village society. The artisans and the service castes, generally
known as the Most Backward Classes (MBCs) remain largely excluded from
empowerment. However, some attempts are also made to empower them. For example,
in 1975 the Congress government appointed the Most Backward Class Commission in
UP generally known as Sathi Commission named after its chairman, Chhedi Lal Sathi.
Even Rajnath Singh, the BJP Chief Minister of Uttar Pradesh appointed Social Justice
Forum under the chairmanship of Hukum Singh in 2001 in order to suggest measures
to empower the MBCs of UP. But these measures were unsuccessful for one or the other
reasons.
At the same time when Charan Singh was attempting to carve out his base among the
backward classes in UP, the socialists were also involved in this pursuit in north India.
In an attempt to end the monopoly of the high castes Dr. Ram Manohar Lohia sought
to mobilise the backward classes as soon as he broke away from the Congress. He
advocated 60 per cent reservation for the backward classes, dalits and minorities in the
government jobs. Merger of the Indian National Backward Classes Federation, a splinter
group of the All India Backward Classes Federation in 1957 with the Socialist Party
brought the socialists and the backward classes together. Through out the 1960s socialists
and backward class leadership continued to raise the issues of the backward classes.
The most important of these was the demand to implement the Kaka Kalelkar report.
Leaders like Mulayam Singh Yadav and B. P. Mandal were active during this period.
But by the 1970s the AIBCF became defunct. However, the emergent backward class
leadership continued to raise their issues even after that.

8.4.3

Politics of Reservation

The introduction of Mandal Commission Report by the V P Singhs government in

1990 recommending reservation 27 per cent reservation for the OBCs in the central
government jobs made the reservation a national issue in Indian politics. It not only
drew reactions in its support or against it, it also changed the contours of Indian politics.
The appointment of Mandal Commission by the Janata Party government in 1990 was
result of the pressure of the backward classes leadership and their clout. As mentioned
69

earlier by the 1970s the backward classes, especially those belonging to the intermediate
castes had already made their presence felt in the politics of India and states.
The demand for reservation for the backward classes was raised in the Constituent
Assembly by Punjab Rao Deshmukh, like Dr. B.R. Ambedkar had raised the similar
demand for the Scheduled Castes. In order to articulate the reservation issue for the
backward classes he founded All India Backward Classes Federation (AIBCF) on 26
January 1950. Within the AIBCF the differences grew between those having allegiance
to the Congress on the one hand and those having allegiance to the Socialist Lohiaites.
This resulted in the split in the AIBCF, with the splinter group naming itself as National
Backward Classes Federation (NBCF). The former was headed by Punjab Rao Deshmukh,
a Congress leader and the latter was headed by R L Chandpuri. After the death of
Chandpuri , Chaudhry Brahm Praksah became its leader. Besides, a large number of
informal and unregistered organisations existed in different states and different levels in
country.
The Mandal Commission was result of the consistent demand by the backward class
leadership to get the Kaka Kalelkar Commissions, the first backward class commission
report accepted. The Kaka Kalelkar Commission was also the result of the demand for
such commission by the backward class leadership at the time of Independence. But
Kaka Kalelkars recommendations of class as the criterion for identification of the
backward classes and rejection of the Commissions report by the parliament led to the
demand of appointment of another commission which would take social and educational
backwardness as the criteria for identification of the backward classes.
The implementation of the Mandal Commission report, however, has not settled the
issue of reservation. Newer groups continue to demand to be recognised themselves as
the OBCs. Whether a community can get itself identified as OBCs is a political question;
it depends on the political factors.

8.5 SUMMARY
The backward classes are also known as the Other Backward Classes or the OBCs. They
consist of the heterogeneous groups the intermediate peasant castes, artisans and the
service castes. While the intermediate castes among the OBCs or the upper backward
have emerged as among the most assertive social group in the country, the other sections
of the OBCs also known as the Most Backward Classes (MBCs) remain excluded from
the preview of development and empowerment. The backward class movement started
late in north India as compared to south India.
The mobilisation of the OBCs has been around two issues their electoral participation
and the reservation. In north India they have been mobilsed by Charan Singh, Socialists
including Ram Manohar Lohia, Karpoori Tahkur and different political parities. They
linked the social issues of the OBCs with the economic issues of the peasantry. The
appointment of Kaka Kalelkar and Mandal Commissions and the implementation of the
latter's report were result of the backward class mobilisation. The mobilisation of the
backward classes on their recognition as OBCs, appointment of backward class
commissions, politics related to them the support and opposition to them, continue
to remain relevant in the politics of social movement in India.
70

8.6 EXERCISES
1)

Who are the backward classes? Discuss the impact of the state policies on their
emergence.

2)

Compare the conditions of the backward classes in north India with those in south
India.

3)

Discuss the patterns of mobilisation of backward classes in electoral politics.

4)

Write a note on the reservation politics.

71

UNIT 9 ETHNIC MOVEMENTS WITH SPECIAL

REFERENCE TO TRIBALS
Structure
9.1
9.2
9.3
9.4
9.5

Introduction
What are Ethnic Movements?
Approaches to Study Ethnic Movements
Ethnic Movements During Post-independence Period: A General View
Ethnic Movements with Special Reference to Tribals
9.5.1 Who are Tribals?
9.5.2 Tribals of North-East India or the Frontier Tribes
9.5.3 Tribals of Regions other than North-East India or the Non-frontier Tribes

9.6
9.7

Summary
Exercise

9.1 INTRODUCTION
Even before India could assume its present shape a sovereign, democratic and secular
republic following the attainment of Independence from the British rule, different ethnic
groups have been clamouring for their recognition in the society in terms of cultural,
economy and politics. Such claims became more strident after the country became
independent. As the time passes more and more claims are made by several groups,
many of whom were not visible on the political scene earlier. Many scholars categorise
such movements as ethnic movements. This unit attempts to discuss ethnic movements
in India with special reference to the tribals.

9.2 WHAT ARE ETHNIC MOVEMENTS?

For a proper understanding of ethnic movements it necessary to understand what we
mean by ethnicity as such movements are associated with it. Ethnicity is denotes towards
identification of a group of people on the basis of certain criteria or markers which they
are supposed to share with each other. These markers include culture, race, language,
religion, customs, history, economic experiences, etc. For a group of people to share
such attributes another requirement is that they get mobilised into some collective action
for attainment of certain demands. The number of markers or attributes which form the
basis of an ethnic group depends on the choice of these factors by the ethnic group or
its leadership. But there are differences among the scholars regarding the number of
attributes which constitute and ethnic group. Scholars in India generally consider that
mobilisation as ethnic which is based on the multiple attributes language, religion,
culture, history, economy, etc. For example, the language based mobilisation is considered
as linguistic mobilisation and the groups as such is considered as linguistic group.
Similarly caste based mobilisation is considered as dalit, backward or any other caste
mobilisation. In India the religion-based mobilisation is called communal mobilisation.
But the scholars who follow American and European traditions catergorise even the
mobilisation based on the single attribute language, religion, caste, etc, as ethnic
mobilisation. They also do not distinguish between the communal and ethnic mobilisation.
72

For example, Paul R. Brass uses ethnic and communal mobilisation interchangeably. On
the other hand, Dipankar Gupta in his book The Context of Ethnicity: The Sikh Identity
in a Comparative Perspective differentiates between communalism and ethnicity. He
argues that the ethnic mobilisation is related to the nation-state the territory and the
sovereignty. And the communal mobilisation does not involve the nation-state. It is
confined to the government and two or more communities in the conflict, one of which
alleges that the government discriminates against it in preference to the other. The point
in dispute could be job, specific rights of the communities, etc. According to him in the
ethnic mobilisation the loyalty of one ethnic group to the referent of nation-state is
questioned. It is not so in the case of communal mobilisation. Also, the group identities
are not permanent. In the changing context of time and space an ethnic identity can
become communal and vice versa. However, the general tendency among the scholars
is to consider the multi-attributes mobilisation of the communities as ethnic.
Ethnicity is also a relative term. An ethnic group differentiates itself from another
groups which also shares certain attributes which are different from it. It feels that it has
to preserve its identity and interests from the percieved or real threats of other ethnic
groups and institutions, and processes associated with them. Ethnic movements are
concerned with the preservation and protection of the cultural identities of the ethnic
groups and their other interests. Another concept which is related to the ethnicity is
nationality or nation. While some scholars differentiate between ethnicity, nationalities or
even nations they are used interchangeably. If one section of scholars considers a multiplemarker based mobilisation as ethnic, there are others which call these as the mobilisation
of the nations or the nationalities. Therefore, in the light of the literature available the
terms ethnicity and nationalities/nations are used interchangeably in this unit.

9.3 APPROACHES TO STUDY ETHNIC MOVEMENTS

You have already in unit 2 about the approaches to study social movements which
include ethnic movements also. There are, however, some approaches which are used
specifically to study the ethnic movements. The most commonly used approaches to
study the ethnic movements are: the primorial, the instrumentalist and the approach
which combines the features of primordial and instrumentalist approaches. The primordial
approach holds that the basis of the formation of the ethnic groups are given. There
are traits of an ethnic group which are inherited by them, i.e., culture, language, customs,
religions, etc. Similarly other ethnic group also has certain inherited characteristics.
Since the differences in the markers of various ethnic groups vary from each other, they
involve in the ethnic movements because of these given traits. There are bound to be
conflict between different ethnic groups. The advocates of the instrumentalist approach
on the other hand believe that ethnic groups are creation of the leadership or the elites
belonging to these groups. The differences in the language, culture, customs, economic
conditions of the people or the social cleavages are manipulated by the elite of the
ethnic groups to generate ethnic consciousness and start ethnic movements. There both
real and imagined reasons for the formation of ethnic movements and generation of the
ethnic movements. The ethnic community when created on the basis of imagined attributes
are thus imagined or constructed communities. The advocates of the third approach
believe that both of these approaches are marked into bi-polarity the basis of
ethnicity is either given or imagined or constructed. But there are problems with
both of these approaches. While the primordial approach does not explain why and
73

how an ethnic group gets mobilised into the collective action, the instrumentalist
approach does not explain as to why an ethnic group responds to the call of the elite,
leaders or politicians. They advocate a combination of both the primordial and
instrumentalist approaches instead of bi-polar approach.

9.4 ETHNIC MOVEMENTS DURING POST-INDEPNDECE

PERIOD: A GENERAL VIEW
Almost all the major regions of the country have witnessed ethnic movements. They
take the forms of movements for regional autonomy, for creation of separate states,
demand for secession or insurgency. These manifestations of ethnic movements are also
called self-determination movements. In several cases ethnic movements give rise to
conflicts or riots on the lines of ethnic divide based on all or some the markers tribe,
caste, language, religion, etc. The self-determination movements actually question the
nation-state building model which was introduced by the Independent India. Known as
Nehruvian or the Mahalanobis model this model presumed that in the course of
development or modernisation the identities formed on the basis of ascrptive factors
language, caste, tribe, religion will disappear and the development will take place on the
secular lines. But much before the effect of this model could be felt, it was questioned
on the all major consideration language, region and nationality. Although the movements
started with the demand based on single marker like language or culture, they drew
support of people who shared more than one attribute in a particular region. Starting
with the rejection of the Indian Constitution by the Nagas in the North-East, (see subsection 9.5.4) it spread in the form of Dravidian ethnic movement and demand for the
formation of linguistic states with classic example of the movement of for creation of
separate state of Andhra Pradesh in South, movements in Jammu and Kashmir and
Punjab and Shiv Sena's against South Indians in Mumbai.
In Tamil Nadu following the legacy of E V Ramaswami Naicker three issues formed
the basis of ethnic movement in the first two decades following independence language,
dravidian culture, and religion. The leadership of the movement argued that imposition
of the North Indian Hindi language, Brahinical Hindu religion and Aryan culture were
detrimental to the development of the dravidian identity. Therefore, the Tamil ethnic
movement had demanded, stoping of the imposition of Hindi language secession from
India. However, towards the end of the 1960s the demand for secession was given up
by the Tamil nationality/ethnic group. It then shift its demand to get autonomy to the
states. Though the Dravidian assertion in India has become milder since the late 1960s,
sentiments against the imposition of Hindi language still are important factors of
mobilisation there. In the light of the movements and violence generated by them
prompted Salig S. Harrison to describe the decades of the 1950s-1960s as the most
dangerous decades.
The state was initially reluctant to reconsider the demand for the linguistic reorganisation
of the state. But it had to consider this demand following the death of a Gandhian P.
Srinivasulu who died of hunger strike demanding a linguistic state of Andhra Pradeh.
Governments acceptance of demand to create Andhra Pradesh led to the reorganisation
of the states on the linguistic basis in 1953. But reorganisation of the state did not halt
the demand for the separate states.
74

The ethnic movement in Punjab was based on three types of issues regional, religious
and economic. Spearheaded by the Akali Dal, the leadership in Punjab argued that since
Sikhs follow a separate religion and speak different language, they should get a separate
state. On some occasions, it got reflected in the communal divide between the Hindus
and Sikhs in the state, resulting in the ethnic conflict. They launched a Punjabi Suba
movement during the 1950s and 1960s demanding a separate state of Punjab for them.
Baldev Raj Nayar observes that Akali Dals strategy during the Punjabi Suba movement
included constitutional means like memoranda, rallies and marches; penetration into the
Congress organisation in order to influence the party in favour of a separate state; and,
agitational means which included marches to shrines, intimidation and force. As a result
of the Punjabi Suba movement, Punjab was created as separate state on November 1,
1966. According to Paul R Brass, the attitude of the central government towards the
ethnic conflicts or mobilisation in the 1950s and 1960s was marked by an unwritten
code aversion to the demands for creation of the states on the religious grounds; no
concession to the demands of the linguistic, regional or other culturally defined groups;
no concession to groups involved in ethnic dispute unless there was support to the
demand from both groups involved in the conflict. In his opinion, demand for creation
of a separate state of Punjab was accepted only when there was also a demand for
creation of the separate state of Harayana for Hindi speaking population of the same
state.
The ethnic movement in Punjab again arose in the 1980s. It challenged the sovereignty
of the Indian state the notion of India as a nation-state. It sought to establish a sovereign
state of Khalistan, to be based on the tenets of Sikhism. The Khalistan movement and
the issues related to were generally referred to as Punjab Crisis. The movement
became violent and came to be identified with terrorism in the popular, academic and
political discourse. The advocates of the Khalistan movement argued that Sikhs, as
followers of the minority religion have been discriminated in India despite their
contribution to Indian economy and army. The rise of Khalistan movement, terrorism
or the in the 1980s has been a sequence to the political developments in the country
which preceded it. The 1970s were marked by the challenge of the Akali Dal to the
dominance of the Congress in Punjab. In order to meet this challenge the Congress took
the help of Sikh religious leader Sant Jarnail Singh Bhinderanwale in the 1980 Legislative
assembly elections in Punjab. The use of services of Bhinderanwale had its cultural and
political implication for the country and the state. It encouraged Bhinderanwale to assert
his authority independently and assume the leadership of the Khalistan movement. Not
only a large number of Sikh youths were attracted to the movement, the movement also
received support of the foreign forces. The state responded with the Operation Blue
Star: sending of the armed forces to nab terrorists who were hiding in the Golden
Temple at Amritsar including Sant Bhinderanwale. This ultimately led to the assassination
of Indira Gandhi. The Khalistan movement also resulted in the ethnic divide between
the Hindus and Sikhs in Punjab.
The scholars have explained the ethnic movement of the 1970s and 1980s in Punjab
in terms of socio-economic and political factors. Those who explain it in terms of the
socio-economic factors follow the Marxian perspective. They argue that the Punjab
Crisis occurred in the wake of green revolution; inability of the Sikh farmers to meet
the rising cost of investment in agriculture, rising unemployment among the youth and
growth of the consumerist culture which gave rise to the feeling of losing Sikh identity,
75

etc., contributed to the rise of militancy in Punjab. The scholars who give the political
explanation find the socio-economic explanation inadequate. They argue that the Punjab
crisis was the result of a manipulation of the religion and problems of the people by the
politicians.
The basis of ethnic movement in Jammu and Kashmir are language, religion and
geographical location. A section of people of the state have argued since the ethnic
composition of state in terms of language, religion and geography is different from the
dominant ethnic groups in the country, region should be treated differently. Some of
them have not considered themselves as members of the Union of India. As a result,
they have demanded cessation from India; some have advocated merger with Pakistan,
some have demanded a separate state for the region and some have advocated merger
of two Kashmirs one occupied by Pakistan and other of India, to become a single
state. Supporters of this perspective have launched insurgency involving violence and
loss human beings and material. They are supported by the foreign forces, especially
Pakistan. The popular leadership in the state has also been divided on the issue of
relationship of the state with the nation-state. Hari Singh, the ruler of the Jammu and
Kashmir initially opposed the accession of the state into the union of India. But he had
to agree to it in the face of attack of the Pakistani forces. Sheikh Abdullah had supported
the merger of the state with Union of India. But in the course of time he wavered on
the issue. He formed Plebiscite Front, which led to his incarceration by the central
government from 1953 till 1964. According to Balraj Puri the reasons for the insurgency
in Jammu and Kashmir include: attitude of the central government, the lack of opposition
in the state, derailment of democracy by the central and state leadership, rising
unemployment and other problems of people, cold war and Pakistan. Even within Jammu
and Kashmir there are ethnic movements by the smaller groups in Laddakh and Jammu
and Kashmir, demanding autonomy within the state of Jammu and Kashmir. These
regions allege that they are discriminated against by the dominant religious communities
and prosperous regions Muslims of Kashmir.

9.5 ETHNIC MOVEMENTS WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO

TRIBALS
In the earlier section you have studied about the ethnic movement in general, specifically
regarding the non-tribals. In this section you will study about the ethnic movements of
the tribals of India. In fact, the tribals provide the most appropriate examples of the
ethnic movements in the country. In their case, almost all factors, both real and imagined,
which the tribal communities share among themselves culture, customs, language,
race, religion (indigenous or otherwise), economic issues, contribute to their mobilisation.
Even if the their mobilisation starts with a single marker, it is the multiple markers
which come to play their roles in the due course. Tribal ethnic movements find their
expression in all forms, as discussed in the section 9.4 of this unit insurgency,
protection of the culture and economy of the sons of the soil from the outside exploiters,
secession from the Union of India, autonomy movements/ demand for the separate state;
and, ethnic conflicts and riots.
The most common issues which account for the tribals ethnic mobilisation are: perceived
or real threat to their indigenous culture and economy including the natural resources
like mineral, forest and modern market opportunities by the outsiders (non-tribals middle
76

classes, businessmen, moneylenders, bureaucrats); their discrimination by the state,

especially at the central levels and its representatives (central government employees,
army, police, etc.).

9.5.1

Who are Tribals?

Unlike the Scheduled Castes, there are differences among the scholars on the criteria to
identify the tribals or the Scheduled Tribes. While the Scheduled Castes consist of the
erstwhile untouchable castes placed in the lowest rung of the Hindu society, the tribals
follow multiple religions in the country Buddism, Christianity, Islam or their indigeneous
religions. However, there is almost a unanimity among the scholars on certain
characteristics of the tribals. The principal of these characteristics are as follows:
1)

Their close association with nature, mainly the forests;

2)

Relatively traditional means of cultivation and less developed market;

3)

Near absence of the rigid division within the community and discrimination on the
basis of birth, unlike the caste division among the Hindus;

4)

Presence of the traditional chiefs or headmen and better position of women as

compared to the non-tribals;

5)

Attachment/reverence to traditional customs and culture.

Article 342 of the Constitution attributes isolation, backwardness and cultural

distinctiveness as the characteristics of the Scheduled Tribes.
These characteristics, however, have undergone changes as a result of modenisation
education, impact of Christianity on many tribes, changing cropping pattern or penetration
of market, economic differentiation and emergence of middle classes and in some cases
decline in the authority of the traditional chiefs. These changes have given rise to the
ethnicisation of tribes reflected in their ethnic movements. Article 342 mentions 212
Scheduled Tribes in the country. The tribes are found in all parts of the country all
states of north-east India, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, Rajasthan, Jharkhand, Guajarat,
Dadra Nagar Haveli and Lakshdweep Islands. The tribals of north-east are called frontier
tribes and those of other parts of the country are called non-frontier tribes. Of the entire
tribal population 11 per cent are found in north-east India and 89 per cent are found in
other regions. Tribals have been involved in the collective action for one or the other
goals. (Ghanshyam Shah, pp.92-96).

9.5.2

Tribals of North-East India or the Frontier Tribes

North-East India as a single region has the largest number of the tribal population in the
country. They follow different religions especially Christianity, Budhism, Hinduism and
indigenous religious tenets. They can further be divided between the plain and hill
tribes. Almost all state of North-East India have witnessed one or the other forms of
ethnic movements. In this sub-section we will deal with some ethnic movements with
examples from states of North-East India Nagaland, Assam and Meghalaya.
It is important to note ethnic issues of North-East India are related to the geographical
factors, its regional dimensions. Though there are differences among different tribals of
North-East India in terms of their cultural practices, they share common experience of
77

deprivation due to their regional location. A large amount of literature exists on the
North-East which seeks to explain the ethnic problems of the region. But there are wide
differences in the discourse on explaining the ethnic issues of the region. And the divide
in the discourse also reflect on the basis of the formation of the ethnic identities and the
movements in the regions. The problems of the North-eastern region insurgency,
autonomy movements, ethnic conflicts, riots, etc., have been explained by mainly two
perspectives: first, the modernisation/development/nation-state building perspective
and; second, the federation-building perspective. The followers of the first perspective
largely argue that the problems of the North-East are related to the issues of nationstate building; conflict between the new middle classes, especially among the tribals
of the region, which has emerged as a result of the modernisation/development/transition
Democratisation) with the traditional leadership; inability of the system to meet the
rising aspiration of this group. The main advocates of this perspective are S K Chaube,
B P Singh, B G Verghese and Myron Wienor. Most of these writers do not hail from
the region. The second perspective is actually the critique of the first one and is
available in the writings of the scholars who hail from the region. The principal adherents
of this perspective are Sanjib Baruah, Udyan Sharma, Sanjay Hazarika, Sajal Nag, M
P Bezbaruah. They argue that problems of the North-East India arose because the nation
leadership overlooked the perspective of the people of the region in their quest for
nation-building. In order to build nation-state the central government adopted step
motherly treatment towards the North-East; ignored the periphery and the smaller
nationalities; shown arrogant attitude towards them; have been indifferent to the human
rights violation in the region. They argue for a Federation-Building perspective in
place on the nation-state building perspective. (Jagpal Singh (2005), Challenge of
Ethnicity to Federalism: Discourse on the North-East India in Akhtar Majeed (ed.),
Federal India: A Design for Good Governance, Centre for Federal Studies in association
with Manak Publications, New Delhi). The need for a Federation-building perspective
has been most prominently underlined by Sanjib Baruah in his books India Against
Itself: Assam and the Politics of Nationality (Oxford University Press, 1999) and Durable
Disorder: Understanding the Politics of North-East India ( Oxford University Press,
2005). Let us now discuss some examples of Ethnic movements of tribals in North-East
India.
The Nagas
Movement of the Nagas which is often referred to as Naga insurgency is called the Naga
national movement by the Nagas. It is the oldest movements relating to the ethnicity or
the nationality question in the country. The nationality/ethnicity in Nagaland had all
dimensions relating to the ethnic movement demand for autonomy, secession from
India and ethnic conflicts. Nagas believe that they form a nation which is different from
other ethnic groups or nationalities/nations in India. They had always enjoyed their sovereignty
with distinct culture, customs and history. A section among them believe that they have
never been part of India and they would like to retain their identity, by joining Indian
Union their sovereignty would be compromised. They do not recognise the merger of
Nagaland with the Union of India and and consider it as done under coercion. That is
why many Nagas did not recognise the Indian Constitution, the VI Schedule meant for
the North-East India and participate in the first general election held in 1952.
The Nagas elite consisting of the those educated in the Christian educational institutions
and few neighbouring village headmen formed Naga Club in 1918 to take up the social
78

and administrative problems of the people of Naga Hills. In a memorandum to the

Simon Commission in 1929, the Naga Club pleaded to exclude the Nagas from the
administrative reforms which it was supposed to recommend and retain the Nagas
directly under the British administration. At the initiative of the Deputy Commissioner
of the Naga Hills District, District Tribal Council, an organisation of the individual
Naga Councils was formed in 1945. In 1945, the name of the District Tribal Council
was changed to the Naga National Council (NNC). The NNC reached an agreement on
a 9-point programme with the representative of Government of India, the Governor of
Assam, Sir Akbar Hydery on 27-29 June, 1947. The main provisions of the agreement
included protection of ttribal land from alienation, creation of administrative autonomy
and special responsibility of Government of India to implement the agreement. Asserting
that Nagas are a separate nation from India, they announced formation of the Honkin
Government or the Peoples Sovereign Republic of Nagaland. This resulted in violence
between the Indian Army and Nagas. This was followed by a 16-point agreement
between the Prime Minister of India Jawaharlal Nehru and the Nagas in July 1960. This
finally led to creation of Nagaland as a separate state on August 1, 1960, out of Assam
of which it was a part.
It should be noted that there were differences among the Naga leadership over the issue
of Nagaland as a separate state within the Union of India and Nagaland as a sovereign
state/nation. The former founded Nagaland Nationalist Organisation (MNO) and the
latter formed the Democratic Party of Nagaland. The MNO which was active in getting
the Nagaland made a separate state were in favour of giving up the violence and
accepting the Constitution of India. The question assumed a new dimension following
the singing of Shillong Accord in 1975. According to it the Nagas accepted the Indian
Constitution, deposited their arms to the Government of India, and in turn the government
released Naga political prisoners and promised their rehabilitation.
The signing of Shillong Accord was not welcome by a section of the Nagas. The latter
denounced the Accord for compromising their sovereignty and betraying Christianity.
They now sought to mix the issue of Naga sovereignty with Maos ideology of socialism
and formed National Socialist Council of Nagaland (NSCN) led by a Tanghkul Naga
T. Muivah and Isak Swu. The NSCN leadership has guided the Naga movement while
staying outside India. In their negotiations with the Government of India under the
Prime Mastership of Atal Bihari Vajpayee and Manmohan Singh they have raised two
main issues the issue of sovereignty of Nagaland and creation of a Nagalim, territory
merging all areas of the North-Eastern states where Nagas stay. Apart from Nagaland,
these states are Manipur, Arunachal Pradesh and Assam. They argue that while creating
the boundaries of various states, the Government of India merged the territories inhabited
by the Nagas into different states. This divided them. They demand that the Nagas
should be reunited into Nagalim. This demand has provoked opposition from these
states. This has repercussion on the ethnic relations within these states. The Nagaland
also has witnessed the ethnic riots and conflict between two major tribes of the state
Nagas and Kukis. The former allege that the latter are not the original inhabitants of the
state, while the latter refute it.
Bodos of Assam
The tribals of Assam Bodos, Karbis and Adivasis have been involved in collective
ethnic mobilisation since 1980s. The Bodos and Karbis are demanding creation of the
79

separate states respectively from within the present Assam. The Bodos and Karbis are
the indigenous tribes inhabiting their respective habitats. The former are found in lower
Assam districts like Kokhrajhar, and Karbis inhabit Karbi Anlong district of the state.
The Advasis consist of tribes like Oraons and Santhals who mainly immigrated to the
state during the colonial period as tea plantation labourers principally from Orissa, Bihar
and eastern Uttar Pradesh. Apart from the working as the plantation labourers, they also
cultivate land as poor peasants. The Adivasis demand protection of their rights in terms
of reservation in the government jobs, protection from the dominant ethnic tribes as
there have been several instances of violent ethnic riots between the Bodos and the
Adivasis.
The tribals of Assam participated in the six year long Assam agitation led by the All
Assam Students Union (AASU) from 1989 to 1985. The movement which was directed
against the foreigners united major communities of Assam tribals and non-tribal
Assamese, on the common perception they shared common experience in terms of their
belonging to a backward and discriminated state, facing the challenge of the foreign
infiltration, especially from Bangladesh and Assam. In the course of time, however, the
differences between Bengalis who had been living in the state since the 19th century and
were the citizens of the country and the Begladeshi immigrants got blurred. Led mainly
by the students and the middle classes, the movement had become violent on a number
of occasions. But as soon as AASU transformed itself into a political party the Assom
Gana Parishad (AGP) and formed the government following its victory in the 1985
assembly elections, the tribes like Bodos and Karbis which had participated in the
AASU agitation started agitation for creation of their separate states. They felt that the
AASU movement was led by the dominant communities of Assam utilised the support
of the smaller tribes like them. Once the AASU signed Assam. Accord with the
government of India and formed AGP government in the state, the AASU leadership did
not give due recognition to the smaller tribes like them and attempted to impose their
cultural code on them. They asserted that they were different from the Assamese.
Ragarding this Sanjiv Baruah quotes a Bodo source saying We Are Bodos, Not
Assamese in his book India Against Itself (Chapter 8). The new generation of leaders
provides leadership to the Bodo movement. The All Bodo Student Uniot (ABSU)
presented a 92-point Charter of demands to the government, which included demands
for the recognition of their culture, language and provinding opportunities for their
educational and economic development. For achieving these demands they demand a
separate state of Bodoland. It must be noted that like Karbis they also do not question
of the sovereigntry of the Indian state. Unlike ULFA (United Liberation Front of Assam)
they want a separate state for them within thin Union of India under the Constitution
of India. They have resorted to violent means targeting the state agencies, especially
those belonging to the central government and the armed forces. They have also directed
their violence against the Adivasi immigrants, triggering of the ethnic violence. The
government has responded by setting up Bodo Autonomous Councils to grant them
local autonomy. But it has not responded to their demand for creation of separate state.
Tribes of Meghalaya
Meghalaya has three main tribes Khais, Jaintias and Garos, who inhabit Khasi, Jaintian
and Garo hills of the state. They are distinct for the existence matrilineal system which
accords better position to women as compared to the patrilineal found among other
communities of India. Like some other tribes of the North-East India, educated Christian
80

elite had already emerged among them in the state, especially the Khasis during the preIndependence period. Shillong which remained capital for around a centurty of Assam,
of which areas consisting present Meghalaya state were constituent, provided a suitable
place for the growth of an elite section among them. The tribals of Meghalaya have
been coexisting with non-tribals in Meghalaya, especially Shillong since the late 19th
century, following shifting of the capital of Assam from Cherrapunjee to there. The nontribals who migrated into Shillong and other parts of Meghalaya since the late 19th
century consist of mainly Bengalis, Biharis, Rajasthanis, Sikhs and till formation of
Megalaya as a separate state in 1972, the Assamese. The non-tribals despite their
differences form a separate ethnic groups in the sense that their culture, features, customs,
etc. are different from those of the tribals.
The 1960s witnessed the movement of the ethnic groups of areas of Assam, which later
assumed the form of a separate state of Meghalaya, for creation of a separate. This
movement saw the involvement of all ethnic groups tribals and non-tribals of the
region. It was their combined resentment against the language policy of the dominant
group, the Assamese. They resisted against the language policy of Assamese
government which sought to make the Assamese as a medium of instruction in schools
and also an official language. This was seen as an imposition of the Assamese on the
non-Assamese including the tribals and the non-tribals. Both set of ethnic groups
tribals and non-tribals jointly particiapted in the movement for creation of Meghalaya
as a separate state.
The relations between the tribals and non-tribals of Meghalaya, however, underwent
changes following the formation of the state in 1972. These were now marked by the
ethnic divide. The state government in the state introduced land regulations prohibiting
the transfer of land from the tribals to non-tribals, reserved seats in the legislative
assembly for the tribals (56 out of 60 assembly seats for the tribals), reserved 85 per
cent state government jobs for the tribals. This provoked reaction from the non-tribals
of the state; who alleged that their contribution to the economy of the state was not
recongised and they were being discriminated against. The views of the tribals are
articulated specially by the organisations of women, students and politicians, most
assertive among them being the Khasi Students Union (KSU) and the Federation of
Khasi, Garo and Jaintia people (FKJGP). The KSU and other tribals representatives
argue that due to the influx of the outsiders the non-tribals, their cultural identity is
eroded, economic opportunities are exploited. The central government symolised by the
army, central para-military forces is seen to be encroaching upon their rights. Therefore,
the tribals of the state demand: the cancellation of trade licenses of the non-tribals, their
removal from the state, increase in the reservation for the tribals in the state government
jobs, etc. The KSU and other tribal organisations often raise these issues through
pamphlets, in the rallies, newspapers, etc. The divide between the ethnic groups also
resulted in ethnic riots on some occasion. Since the late 1990s the state has also seen
the rise of some insurgent groups.

9.5.3

Tribals of Regions other than North-East India or the NonFrontier Tribes

The tribals of other regions than the North-East or the Frontier tribes of the states of
Madhya Pradesh/Chhattishgarh, Bihar/Jharkhand, Gujarat, Rajasthan and several others
81

states have been mobilised on ethnic lines on several occasions. In modern history their
revolt had been conspicuous against the intervention of the British authorities in the
power of the tribal chiefs and against exploitation of their natural resources by the
British and their collaborators such as the outside businessmen and bureaucrats or dikus.
The tribal chiefs mibilised their fellow tribals in order to restore their power and resources
and evoked their golden past in order to retain their ethnic identity and autonomy. The
British administration retaliated against these movements with ruthless violence including
assassination of the leaders of these movements. Birsa Munda revolt in Chhota Nagpur
was among the most prominent of such movements during the pre-Independence period.
Such movements have been termed as millenarian movements by K S Singh.
The issues which formed the basis of collective mobilisation of the non-frontiers tribals
in the post-independence period have varied from state to state. These have included the
movements for creation of separate states for the tribals out of the existing states like
Jharkhand out of Bihar and Chhattisgarh from Madhya Pradesh or separate districts
within the same state like demand by the Dang tribes for creation of a separate state
within former Bombay state; against the encroachment of tribal land for the creation of
dams resulting in the displacement like in the Narmada Valley. Some scholars have
observed that during the 1990s the tribals have been mobilsed by the Hindutva forces
against the Christian and Muslim tribals in some states, especially Guajarat, Madhya
Pradesh and Rajasthan. This contributed to the division of the tribals on the communal
basis (Shah, 2004; p.98).
The movement for autonomy expressed in the form of demands for separate states,
districts out of present states or creation of autonomous administrative bodies are among
the most commonly raised demands of the tribal movements. The basis for such demands
are their grievances against the dominant for political formations: their cultural and
linguistic identities are under the threat of erosion; their economic resources and
opportunities are appropriated by others/outsiders; they are not given due recognition,
etc. The tribal leadership, both traditional and modern, mobilises the tribals into collective
actions. The acceptance of their demands depends on the political circumstances. But
once a set of demands is accepted, the leadership looks for other issues. For example,
after the creation of separate state of Jharkhand out of Bihar, the tribal leaders attempted
to change the domicile laws. Similarly, after the creation of a separate state of Meghalaya,
the tribal leadership introduced legislation changing the rules regarding inheritance and
transfer of land. Thus, the ethnic mobilisation is a continuous process in a democracy.

9.6 SUMMARY
To sum up, mobilisation of the people on the basis of markers, real or imagined, which
they share language, religion, culture, customs, race, etc. into collective is called
ethnic mobilisation. Ethnic communities in such situation relate and compare themselves
to other ethnic communities and have grievances which they want to get resolved. Etnic
mobilisation finds expression in the form of self-determination movements autonomy
movements, cessation, insurgency or ethnic conflicts. The tribals of India have been
involved in ethnic mobilisation for different purposes both before and after independence.
They have taken recourse to both the violent and non-violent means. Success or failure
of ethnic movements depend on political factors. Once one set of demands in ethnic
mobilisation is accepted, in due course time on other demands the ethnic movements
start. Thus, ethnic mobilisation is a continuous political process.
82

9.7

EXERCISES

1)

Explain the meaning of ethnic mobilisation and discuss the approaches to study it.

2)

Give a general view of the ethnic mobilisation during the post-colonial period.

3)

Discuss the general features of tribal ethnic movements in North-East India.

4)

Write a note on the ethnic movements of the non-frontier tribes.

83

Development, Displacement
and Social Movements

Unit 30
Civil Society Movements and Grassroots
Initiatives
Contents
30.1 Introduction
30.2 Civil Society: Meanings and Dimensions
30.3 Civil Society as Social Movements
30.4 Non-Governmental Organisations as Civil Society Actors
30.5 Relationship Between NGOs and the Government
30.6 Marginalisation and the Marginalised People
30.7 Civil Society and Empowerment of the Marginalised
30.8 Civil Society Movements: A Critique
30.9 Conclusion
30.10 Further Reading
Learning Objectives
This Unit will help you examine critically:

meanings and dimensions of civil society;

civil society as social movements;
non-governmental organisations (NGOs) as civil society actors;
relationship between NGOs and the government organisations; and
role of civil society for empowerment of marginalised.

30.1 Introduction
In Unit 1 of Book 1 of this course we have briefly talked about the emerging
role of civil society in contemporary development practices. In this unit we
shall be discussing in detail the meanings and dimensions of civil society; its
changing role and status in developmental processes. Civil society itself has
emerged as a social movement in recent years, while it has always been part
of larger social movements in society. The interface between the civil society
and social movement has been a subject matter of curiosity to sociologists.
We shall discuss this facet of civil society in this unit. Along with the state and
the people, civil society has emerged as a partner of development.
The World Development Summit 1995 emphasised the role of civil society in
the empowerment of the marginalised. Here, besides discussing civil society
as a social movement, this unit also analyses the role of civil society in the
empowerment of the marginalised people in society. While we are discussing
marginalised people, it is imperative to discuss the process of marginalisation.
A small discussion on the marginalisation and empowerment of the marginalised
people is also part of this unit. This unit will also provide you a critical overview
of civil societys role in development.

30.2 Civil Society: Meanings and Dimensions

212

The term civil society is derived from the Latin word civilis societas which
means associations or communities that work above and beyond the state.
Civil society thus consists of a host of institutions that look after the activities,

which are not taken up by the state. These may relate to various religious,
cultural, economic and other activities of society.

Critique of Knowledge
Society

The medieval church of Europe, Hindu Maths, Sikh Gurdwaras, Muslim Mosques,
and other religious trusts in India, caste and kinship associations, business,
sports, cultural associations, etc., represent the civil society.
It is important that civil society is also referred to for its moral value and
authority; as the state is more akin to an administrative unit. Civil society, in
opposition to the state, lays the moral foundation of society (NSI 1996). It is
in this sense that civil society has widely been viewed as an epitome not only
of moral authority but also as a bastion of culture against the state, the law
and capitalism. However the dimension of opposition in civil society has been
in a state of flux as its relationship with the state, the market and capitalism
has not always been the same everywhere and every time. However, today we
tend to see civil society as the home of culture, of freedom, of independence
(all good things), which enables us to rein in the state (which can do us harm
if permitted) (Ibid 1996).
Importantly, Civil society has long been playing a pivotal role in influencing the
states policy on social welfare, articulating views on current issues, serving
as the voice of constructive debate, providing a forum for the exchange of
new ideas and information, initiating social movements by way of creating
new norms, identities, institutions (Cohen and Arato 1994). Civil society is,
together with the state and the market, one of the three spheres that interface
in the making of democratic societies.
Civil society is the sphere in which social movements become organised. The
organisation of civil society, which represents many diverse and sometimes
contradictory social interests, is shaped to fit the social base, constituency,
thematic orientations (e.g. environment, gender, human rights) and types of
activity. They include church related groups, trade unions, cooperatives, service
organisation, community groups and youth organisations as well as academic
institutions (UNDP 1993:1). Civic involvement has always been an inseparable
part of the development process of human society. In Putnams argument,
higher levels of civil involvement gives rise to social capital which in turn
makes possible more civic involvement (Putnam 1993).
In Gramscian (1998) sense, civil society is the terrain where the state, the
people and the market interact and where people wage war against the
hegemony of the market and the state. The status of civil society organisations
has been widely explained in terms of their relationship with the state and
the market. In Tocquevilles view, civil society represents a vision of politics
and democracy that is non-state centered and that has taken root in
contemporary social movements and non-governmental organisations (NGOs)
(Smith 2001). However to the liberals and the neo-liberals, civil society is
organised around the market economy (Taylor 1990) as a non-political privatised
delivery system for services such as welfare, education, healthcare, clean
water and so on. In recent years there has been a phenomenal proliferation
of the civil societies all over the globe. Social scientists have attributed this
phenomenon to the crises in the states on the one hand and the market
triumph on the other. At times the state is beset with a legitimisation deficit
that destroys the conditions of its own stability, paving the way for the civil
society (Chandhoke 1995).
Notwithstanding such a debate on the pro or anti State stand of civil societies
or that of State failure of legitimisation crises, civil societies have been viewed
as a force for democratisation, counterweights to the state and economic
power and have emerged as alternative vehicles of citizens participation at
both the national and transnational levels of governance. Their activism and
213

Development, Displacement initiatives have also been viewed as a movement for transformation of regional,
and Social Movements
national and global politics and economics (Edwards 2000). Many scholars,

however, see the civil society beyond the state and market syndrome, as the
state and the market contribute something, but not everything towards the
cohesion and the dynamics of the society (Beteille 2000).
Indeed there is a need to view the civil society both as a structure (of
organisation, social and political space and relationship) and also as a process
(the ways in which the elements of structure come into being, and
interrelate)(Blaney and Pasha 1992). In the wake of globalisation, introduction
of the structural adjustment programme and paradigm shift in the social
development strategy there has been an attempt to redefine the role of the
state and the civil society. In the emerging scenario the emphasis has been
a) on the increasing roles of the civil societies to take the burden off the
state, by involving citizens and communities in the delivery of the collective
goods (World Bank 1997:3), and b) on strengthening of the abilities and
opportunities of civil society and local communities to ensure the process of
empowerment of the marginalised in society (UN 1995). However, in the
contemporary development discourse, there has been a process of involvement
of civil society organisations along with the state in the formulation and
implementation of development initiatives. What have been the relationships
of the civil society with the people on the one hand and the state on the
other? We shall discuss this issue in the following sections of this unit. Let us
begin with the relationship of civil society with social movements.
Reflections and Actions 30.1
What do you mean by civil society? Can a civil society be described independent
of the existence of the state?

30.3 Civil Society as Social Movements

In the last block of MSO-004 we shall be discussing in detail various aspects of
social movements and their transformation. In this section let us know very
briefly what we mean by social movements and what are the relationships
between social movements and civil society, initiatives or activisms.
Conventionally, social movements have broadly been perceived as organised
efforts to bring about changes in the thought, beliefs, values, attitudes,
relationships and major institutions in society, or to resist changes in any of
the above structural elements of society (H. Blumer 1976; H. Toch 1956; Haberle
1972; J.R. Gusfield 1972, J. Wilson 1972). Social movements are viewed as
intended and organised collective actions based on certain defined aims,
methodology for collective mobilisation, distinctive ideology, identified
leadership and organisation. However, since the late 1960s, especially in the
wake of the proliferation of new forms of collective protest, resistance and
mobilisation, like the students, environmental, Black civil rights, womens,
etc., movements in the United States and Western Europe, efforts have been
made to identify new elements in social movements. It has been widely
recognised that social movements help to generate a sense of collective
identity and new ideas that recognise the reality itself. And redefine modes
of collective existence and Melucci (1996) has emphasised on collective identity
formation. To him, social movements grow around relationships of new social
identity that are voluntarily conceived to empower members in defense of
this identity (Melucci 1996). Eyerman and Jamison (1991) highlight that:
by articulating consciousness, the social movement provides public
spaces for generating new thoughts, activating new actors, generating
new ideas. Thus by producing new knowledge, by reflecting on their
own cognitive identity, by saying what they stand for, by challenging

214

the dominant assumptions of the social order, social movements develop

new ideas that are fundamental to the process of human creativity.
Thus social movements develop worldviews that restructure cognition,
that recognise reality itself. The cognitive praxis of social movements
is an important source of new social images and transformation of
societal identities (Eyerman and Jamison 1991: 16166).

Critique of Knowledge
Society

Social movements are framed based on a collective identity of various groups,

namely, women, environmentalists, students, peasants, workers, etc., who
are organised on the basis of common identity and interests. To Allan Scott
(1990), in a social movement the actors collective identity is linked to his or
her understanding of their social situation. To him a social movement is a
collective actor constituted by individuals who understand themselves to have
a common interest, and at least some significant part of their social existence,
a common identity (Allan Scott 1990: 6).
However, participation in social movements may not always be for the quest
of an identity; rather, it may be for the gratification of political and material
interests. Tilly (1978), McAdam (1982), Tarrow (994) and many others are of the
view that social movements manifest in response to the increase in the potential
political opportunities and growing receptivity of the state to the activities
of the challenging groups. In general, these scholars emphasise the various
resources involved in the manifestation and operationalisation of social
movements. This approach, known as resource mobilisation, assumes that
collective actions are related to the specific opportunity structures. Here
importance is given on the rationality of human action, whereby the participants
in the social movement calculate the costs and benefits of their participatory
action in collective mobilisation. In this approach social movements are seen
either as the creation of entrepreneurs skillful in the manipulation or mobilisation
of social resources or the playing out of the social tensions and conflicts. Thus
the motivation of the actors is seen as rational economic action. The resource
mobilisation theory, indeed, aims to interpret those sets of social movements
that are the visible parts of the American social reality in management terms.
It is linked to the policy problem of containment (Tilly 1978: 47).
Civil Society and Social Movement: The Interface
In the context of globalisation or otherwise there have been claims of
universality of civil societies. It is argued at one point that specific economic,
social and political conditions influence the growth and functioning of the civil
societies and thereby it cant be universal. On the other hand, there has been
the argument that as there have been universal processes like modernisation,
secularisation, democratisation, globalisations and so on, the claim of
universality of civil society has emerged to be a reality. In view of the emergence
of global social movements viz. human right, animal right, ecological and
environmental etc. global civil society has been a reality. Phenomenal expansion
of Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs) has smothered the global
emergence and networking of civil societies as a social movement. In this
backdrop, let us examine the interface between civil society and social
movements. There are important parallels between social movements and civil
society initiatives. It is rather at times pointed out that civil society initiative
is a variant of social movements. Here, before we go into identifying this
variant(s), we should know the parallels.

Both social movements and civil societies are having structures like
organisations, a well-identified leadership and ideology.

Civil society initiatives and social movements are social processes, which
undergo several stages of progression from mobilisation to intensive
collective action.

Both structures and the processes have support bases or bodies of followers
who are mobilised through diverse means to get their objectives fulfilled.
215

Development, Displacement
and Social Movements

In general both social movements and civil societies pledge for change in
established order of the society. However, many civil societies or social
movements also well work to resist change in society. For example, many
religious organisations pledge for the fundamentalist position in society.

Both civil society and the social movement occupy a civil space in society.

Though a good deal of moral authority and idealism are attached to civil
society activism and to social movements, at times both these processes
are initiated by enterprising people for the maximisation of specific
interests. Here both processes are amenable to caption by the state.

The creation of a new collective identity is an essential part both of

social movements and civil societies. Collective identities are evolved
either based on certain issues or ideological choices. However, identities
also get reconstructed or transformed through the processes of sustained
mobilisation.

However, notwithstanding these parallels, social movements are broader

categories or agencies. At times social movements look for a radical change by
attacking the pre-existing power structure of society, e.g., the Naxalite
movement. Civil society, on the other hand, looks for gradual change within
the existing arrangement. Though civil society initiatives tend to be apolitical,
many a time they ask political questions and political solutions through
developmental activities. Indeed in the contemporary development discourse
of development with empowerment, civil society division is very much involved
in the political issues at the grassroots.
Reflection and Action 30.2
Analyse the characteristic features of social movements. What are the linkages
between social movements and civil societies?

30.4 Non-Governmental Organisations as Civil Society

Actors
It has been pointed out in the first section of this unit that there are several
manifestations of civil society. So far as the developmental activities are
concerned, Non-Government Organisations (NGOs) have emerged as important
civil society actors at the grassroots. Let us examine some of its features.
The non-governmental organisation or the private voluntary organisations are
basically non-profit making bodies whose primary aim is to contribute to the
reduction of human sufferings and the development of the poor and the
marginalised groups. They are an integral part of both the national and global
civil society as they include both local communities, cooperatives, church
groups, trade unions, environment groups and consumer associations, womens
groups, peasant leagues, as well as international organisations like Amnesty
International, Oxfam, Friends of the Earth, etc. These organisations are best
known for their relief, educational, lobbying, human rights, health, employment
generation, and poverty reduction activities. They are growing at a very fast
rate in the developing parts of the world due to the increasing disillusionment
especially of the poor with the government. The market has also failed to
serve the interests of these vulnerable sections of the population. As a result
many hopes have been placed on the NGOs, also known as the third sector.
NGOs are conceptualised as non-profit and non-governmental organisations.
Anheier and Salaman (1999) highlight some of the common characteristics of
NGOs. According to them NGOs are:
216

organisations, i.e., they have an institutional presence and structure;

selfgoverning, i.e., they are fundamentally in control of their own affair;

and

voluntary, i.e., membership in them is not legally required and they attract
some level of voluntary contribution of time or money.

private, i.e., they are institutionally separate from the state;

Critique of Knowledge
Society

non-profit distributing, i.e., they do not return profits to their managers

or to a set of owners;

It is significant that the element of private is to be understood in a very

limited sense. It means that NGOs are neither part of the government apparatus
and public administration nor are they dominated by public officials (Anheier
and Salaman cf. Symthe and Smith 2003). Nor are they a private enterprise to
earn profit. Indeed they have the social objective of providing selfless service
to the millions, especially in those areas of activity where the state has either
not been able to reach out, or has not been effective in providing service as
per the local requirement and has withdrawn. At times the state has looked
for collaborative arrangement with the NGOs to provide much needed service
to the people, especially to the marginalised section of society.
Paul Streeten (1998), after examining the functioning of the NGOs in the
developing societies, claims that NGOs have certain advantages in promoting
development at the grassroots. This is mostly because of the fact that

NGOs are good for reaching and mobilising the poor and remote
communities.

NGOs are participatory in their approach and follow a bottom up strategy

for the implementation of projects at the grassroots.

They are more innovative, flexible and experimental than the governments
agencies.

The NGOs projects are cost effective and efficient.

The NGOs promote sustainable development.
They are potentially organising and representative bodies in civil societies.

However, there has been a wide gap between the ideal image of NGOs and
their modes of functioning at the grassroots. Indeed, the ideal-typical image
of the NGOs has been widely demystified by several researchers. It has been
pointed out that even though the NGOs work in the name of the poor, in
effective terms they reinforce the rule of the power elite, incur a higher
administrative cost, impose an autocratic, top down and non-participatory
approach to development. Again, NGOs are not financially independent. As
most of the NGOs flourished under a charismatic leadership or are a body of
dedicated workers, many of the project, collapse with the disappearance of
such leaders and workers. It has also been pointed out that NGOs have no
clear-cut objectives that they suffer from the problems of sustainability, and
non-replicability; and being small they reach only a few people in developing
countries. They fail to reach 80% of the 1.3 billion estimated to be living in
extreme poverty. Even the much publicised Grameen Bank of Bangladesh,
often cited as a model NGO, accounts for only 0.15% of national credit and all
NGOs in Bangladesh together provide only 0.6% of total Credit (Streeten 1998
112-113).
It is important to mention that NGOs are to work in a context and to interact
with various forces. They are largely dependent on the government and the
international agencies for funds. They are also to interact with the local level
politicians. At times their plans and programmes are framed, modified and
executed under the influence of these politicians. NGOs activities are also
conditioned by localised culture and values of the marginalised people among

217

Development, Displacement whom they are working. In the following section of this unit we shall be
and Social Movements
discussing the relationship of the NGOs with the government rather than with

marginalised people.
Reflection and Action 30.3
Discuss the major features of NGOs and their advantages and disadvantages in
representing the cause of downtrodden.

30.5

Relationship Between NGOs and the

Government

The relationship between NGOs and the government has been rather very
complex in recent years. While on the one hand there have been more and
more recognition and encouragement for the NGOs activism by the government,
there have been severe criticisms of the government agencies by the NGOs for
their rigid bureaucratic and traditional outlook. The government has also been
trying to make the NGOs accountable to its, and to the law of the land, to
ensure transparency in financial dealings, etc. The NGOs are also trying to
make government officials, accountable to the people, to ensure impartial
functioning of state organs at the grassroots level. However notwithstanding
the contradictory position, there have been several areas of cooperation
between the government and NGOs.
NGOs are mostly working on the legalised issues and on a small scale. The state
policies on area development, desert development, tribal development, womens
development etc., which are addressed at a local level need a vast body of
local inputs and resources. The experience and the expertise of the localised
NGOs usually come to help in a big way for the successful implementation of
these polices. Again the NGOs also formulate innovative projects on these
issues receiving expert help from government agencies (Streeten 1998). According
to an estimate there are over 30,000 NGOs in India. The Indian state was
initially indifferent if not hostile to NGOs activism. The situation has changed
since the Eighth Five Year Plan 1992-1997, and now the government openly
encourages the participation of NGOs in development sphere (Bavaskar 2004).
However NGOs relationship with the state has widely been dichotomous in
nature. Though many of them supplement government plans and programmes,
they are also simultaneously critical of government policies. Again, while on
the one hand they have been defined in terms of negation of the state, on
the other they have remained widely dependent on the state for funds.
Policies of the NGOs are also at times guided and framed by state policies.
In recent decades there has been a process of internationalisation of NGOs
activism. While working on local and national issues, the NGOs have started
getting serious attention and recognition from international agencies. At the
international level, many NGOs also take part in the transnational campaign
against various social evils like drug addiction, poverty, illiteracy, HIV\AIDS,
child abuse, womens rights, environment protection, disarmament, violation
of human rights, etc. NGOs also educate people in influencing government
policies on several international issues. In the process of undertaking all these
initiatives, NGOs have been part of global networking.

218

Over the years there has been a phenomenal growth of the transaction NGOs,
with more working at the global level with larger issues. One of the reasons
for such growth has been the crisis in the State caused by massive state
deficits, financial crisis and economic restructuring. As the state functioning
is going to be restructured along the lines of the corporate market model, and
it is also withdrawing from the social sector, NGOs are emerging as important
stakeholders and providers of services to the marginalised people.

In the developing countries many NGOs function by receiving funds from foreign
agencies. There has also been a tendency to ignore the law of the land by
these NGOs. Here serious questions are raised not only by academicians and
policy planners but also by the common people on their accountability and
mode of spending.

30.6

Critique of Knowledge
Society

Marginalisation and the Marginalised People

In developing countries like India, civil societies like NGOs play a crucial role
for the social development of the marginalised people. Again these groups of
people have also developed a sense of expectations from the NGOs as the
state-sponsored development initiatives have miserably failed to elevate their
status in society. As discussed in an earlier section, in the contemporary
development discourse, the concept of empowerment of the marginalised has
got a special focus and civil society initiatives have been given an emphasis.
As the role of civil society has acquired a special significance for the social
development and the empowerment of the marginalised people, and it has
developed a substantive relationship with them let us discuss first who are
the marginalised people and how the developmental processes have contributed
to their marginalisation in society.
Marginalisation in conventional parlance is a complex process of relegating
specific group(s) of people to the lower or outer edge of society. It effectively
pushes these groups of people to the margin of society economically, politically,
culturally, and socially following the parameters of exclusion and inclusion.
Sociologically there are several important dimensions of marginalisation and
one is to understand it in the larger context:
Dimensions of denials and deprivations: The process of marginalisation
economically denies a large section of society equal access to productive
resources, avenues for the realisation of their productive human potential,
and opportunities of their full capacity utilisation. These denials ultimately
push these populations to the state of rampant poverty, human misery,
devaluation of their work, low wage and wage discrimination, casualisation in
the workforce, and livelihood insecurity. Thus they are provided with very
limited space for upward occupational and social mobility, and are excluded
from the range of economic opportunities and choices. Politically, this process
of relegation denies these people equal access to the formal power structure
and participation in the decision-making processes leading to their subordination
to and dependence on the economically and politically dominant groups of
society. Politically they emerge to be the underdogs, un/under represented
and disempowered. In the continuous process of this relegation, they emerge
to be culturally excluded from the mainstream of society becoming part society
with part culture, outsider for within, alienated and disintegrated. They
eventually get a stigmatised cultural existence, an ascribed low social status
and become the victims of cultural segregation. As a consequence of the
economic, political and cultural deprivation, a vast chunk of the population of
the country has emerged to be socially ignorant, illiterate, uneducated and
dependent. Devoid of the basic necessities of life they are relegated to live
on the margins of society with a subhuman existence.
Artificial structure of hierarchy: Indeed marginalisation is a man-made and
socially constructed process which is permuted and continuously reproduced
on the basis of on unequal relationship of dependency and domination. In this
context, even the natural differentiation between men and women, linguistic
or ethnic groups and so on are put in an order of hierarchy with the guiding
principle of domination and subordination. This process of creating hierarchy
has arranged social groups in steep ordering of people, with a powerful few
at the social and economic command deciding the mainstream of the society,
polity and the economy. On the other hand, within the same arrangement the
vast majority has remained powerless, occupying the bottom of the socioeconomic hierarchy and surviving at the periphery of the social order.

219

Development, Displacement Bases of legitimacy and reproduction: The process of marginalisation has also
and Social Movements
been historically embedded in a socio-cultural context. Significantly there are

strong institutional, normative and ideological bases, steaming out of the

primordial interpretation of the institutional and normative arrangements of
caste, ethnicity, race, gender, patriarchy, religion and so on, to provide
legitimacy to the processes of marginalisation. Again, the ongoing processes
of socialisation, education, politicisation, enculturation, etc., contribute to
their reproduction in society. Thus, over a period of time, the socially
constructed marginalised categories tend to appear to be the empirical
categories, viz., the low castes, tribes, women, blacks and so on.
Development strategy and marginalisation: The development strategies, which
were implemented within the pre-existing structural arrangements of society,
have not been able to bring an end to the deprivation of the marginalised
groups, rather than have largely contributed to the social reproduction of
marginalisation.
The Human Development Report 1990 highlighted ruthless, voiceless, jobless,
futureless facts of development. Indeed the marginalised people have emerged
to be the major victim of these processes of development. In every human
society there are vulnerable sections of marginalised population who are
deprived of socio-economic opportunities and choices for their minimum
sustenance, and are victims of the artificial structure of hierarchy and social,
cultural and political exclusion. In the Indian context, marginalised people are
the rural poor, urban, slum-dwellers, manual workers in unorganised sectors,
scheduled castes, tribes, women, and other such categories.
An analysis of historical facts reveals that the pre-existing arrangement of
distribution of power is hierarchical in nature. This process of hierarchisation
has arranged social groups in the steep ordering of people with a powerful
few at the social and economic command, deciding the mainstream of the
society, polity and the economy. On the other hand, within the same
arrangement, the vast majority have remained powerless, occupying the bottom
of the socio-economic hierarchy and surviving at the periphery or the margin
of the social order. Here power as an enabling provision has deprived the
powerless of the chance to decide the course of their lives by themselves.
As conventionally development initiatives were implemented through the preexisting institutional arrangements of society, the marginalised people had
very little or no participation in those developmental activities. Again, those
initiatives were channlised through the pre-existing power structure. The
systemic arrangements have not only legitimised the process of their
subordination and deprivation in society through several means, but also
contributed to the process of reproduction of this inequality and social
construction of marginalisation. Thus the process of marginalisation has
remained historically imbedded, notwithstanding the state sponsored initiatives
implemented for the upward mobility of the marginalised groups. As against
this backdrop, there has been serious rethinking for the participation of the
marginalised people in development. As the welfare or emancipation approach
of the state has failed to integrate the marginalised people in the development
process, an alternative has emerged to evolve the strategy for empowerment
of the marginalised people. Let us explain in the next section what we mean
by empowerment.

30.7 Civil Society and Empowerment of the

Marginalised
Empowerment is a political process. Before we go into conceptualising
empowerment, it is necessary to develop an understanding of the following
interrelated dimensions of this process.
220

Dimensions of Legitimacy of Power: The centrality of the notion of

empowerment is located in the dynamics of sharing, distribution and
redistribution of power, which has a basis of legitimacy. In the sociological
sense of Max Weber, power is ones capacity to have control over others; and
as such, when this capacity to control is legitimised, it becomes authority
(Julien 1968). Indeed the logic of empowerment essentially involves the
dynamics of authority. While one talks of the process of distribution/
redistribution of authority or in that sense legitimised power, one naturally
questions not only the bases of legitimacy for the authority, but also the
societal arrangements through which power relations are operated. Following
the same logic, powerlessness has also been legitimised within the given social
order. Hence empowerment will mean a process of distribution of power through
legitimised means.

Critique of Knowledge
Society

Context of Use: While talking of authority (legitimised power) as the

accompaniment of empowerment, James Herrick (1995) points out that authority
in general is used in the following contexts: a) regulatory, based on ones
formal position and status in relation to others; b) expert knowledge, where
the expert may possess the power to define ordinary people or to withhold
knowledge from those whose well-being is affected by it; and c) relationship
ability or interpersonal skills, where power comes from interpersonal influence
based on abilities to work with people. In human society, however everybody
has no equal authority as people have unequal access to the resources that
determine power. Indeed, those who have power are those who have control
over material resources, knowledge and ideology. Hence the process of gaining
control over self, ideology, material and knowledge resources, which determine
power, may be termed empowerment (Batliwala 1993). Thus the process of
gaining control over resources is to be seen within the given context of
devisal deprivation, structure of hierarchy and the process of legitimisation
and reproduction. Indeed the process of empowerment endeavours to construct
an alternative context for equal access to the resources that determine power.
Dynamics of Power Relations: The meaning of power in empowerment practice
needs to be examined in terms of power relations. First, that there should be
the ability to exercise power in a given context as having power is not the
same as exercising it. Second, the exercise of power takes in the objective
reality of empowerment the structural conditions that affect the allocation
of power; seizing or creating opportunities in the environment, changing
structural conditions. Third, power relations can be symmetrical or
asymmetrical. Relations of symmetry are those where relatively equal amounts
and type of power and authority are exercised and are based on reciprocity.
Relations of asymmetry are those involving unequal amount and types of
authority and are those of subordination and super-ordination. It is the latter
case - power relations of asymmetry, which we suggest is the major stage for
empowerment practice (Heller cf. Herrick 1995).
Principle of Change and Transformation: The process of empowerment
challenges the power structures of subordination. In the words of Sen and
Crown (1988) empowerment is concerned with the transformation of the
structure of subordination. It implies a process of redistribution of power
within and between families/societies (or systems) and a process aiming at
social equality, which can be achieved only by disempowering some structures,
systems and institutions. To Sharma it is having a specific focus for the
disadvantaged sections (Sharma 1992: 29). The processes of demolition of the
pre-existing structure of subordination and redistribution of power, however,
are not automatic. These also involve participatory approaches that enable
people to emancipate themselves (Konenburg 1986: 229), a process of the
creation of new knowledge (Colin 1990), a process of conscientisation (Freire
1972) and new identity formation with alternative sensibility. Indeed the process
of empowerment is a social movement that looks for a radical change in the
systemic arrangements of society (SinghRoy 1995). Hence empowerment is
221

Development, Displacement viewed not as an end in itself, but as a means to an end a strategy to bring
and Social Movements
liberation from all domination. Liberation from all domination, to Freire, is the

fundamental theme of this epoch. This liberation is not a mechanical process

but the critical thinking of the socio-historical reality of the life; ability to
intervene in reality with a commitment is the harbingers of liberation. To
quote Freire:
Men emerge from their submersion and acquire the ability to intervene
in reality, as it is unveiled. Intervention represents a step forward
from emergence, and results from the conscientisation of the situation.
Conscientisation is the deepening of the attitude of awareness
characteristics of all emergences. By achieving awareness they come
to perceive reality differently (Freire 1972: 81-85).

In developing countries like India, development practices were geared towards

growth with stability. In the fifties and early sixties with the basic thrust
being for industrialisation, agricultural modernisation and expansion of
infrastructure, education and mass communication. However in the backdrop
of imbalanced economic development, increased class inequality, gender
segregation and sharp downward mobility of a vast section of the population
along with increased levels of poverty, illiteracy and ill health, development
policy was reoriented in India in the early seventies to incorporate the
philosophy of social justice in the development discourse. This reorientation
of development with justice envisaged strategies to integrate the hitherto
neglected underprivileged, weaker sections, deprived and marginalised
groups into the mainstream of society by providing various state-sponsored
economic (employment, access to productive resources, etc.) and social
(education, training, healthcare, water, housing, etc.) benefits to them.
The development practice in India has been reoriented once again since the
mid-eighties to associate the notion of empowerment with development.
This reorientation aims at ensuring the basic necessities of life to the people
by sharing power with them through institutionalised means, i.e., laws,
legal procedures and international obligation. The significant point of departure
here is that while the earlier discourses saw the poor people as beneficiaries,
the emergent one has recognised them as partners of development.
Accordingly there has been a new coinage of the term social/human
development since the mid-eighties with the recognition that the human
person is the central subject of development (United Nations 1985). The
context of this reorientation, however, has been globalisation and the structural
adjustment programme that implicitly or explicitly looks for the reduction of
state expenditure in the social sector - health, education, food security and
other basic needs and the encouragement of provatisation. Thus the state
has emerged as central to economic and social development not as a direct
provider of growth, but as a partner, catalyst and facilitator (World Bank
1997).
In this context, it is essential to examine the recommendation of the World
Development Summit, 1995 which talks about people initiatives, people
empowerment and strengthening capacities of the people. Regarding the
objectives of development, it specifically mentions that:

222

empowering people, particularly women, to strengthen their capacities is

the main objective of development and its principal resource. Empowerment
requires the full participation of people in the formulation, implementation
and evaluation of decisions determining the functioning and well-being of
our societies. To ensure full participation of the people, it is pointed out
that the state should provide a stable legal framework in accordance with
the constitutions, laws and procedures consistent with international law and
obligation; which promotes, among with other things, the encouragement of
partnership with free and representative organisations of civil society,
strengthening of the abilities and opportunities of civil society and local
communities to develop their own organisations, resources and activities
(UN 1995).

It is in relation to the above that the World Development Report, 1997,

emphasised the need on for effective role of the state for social and economic
development, but in a new form. It writes:

Critique of Knowledge
Society

the state is central to economic and social development, not as a

direct provider for growth but as a partner, catalyst and a facilitator
the world is changing, and with its our ideas about the states role
in economic and social development (World Bank 1997: 1).
In view of the collapse of the command and control economies, fiscal crises
of the welfare states, explosion in humanitarian emergencies in several parts
of the world, growing lack of confidence in governance among the marginalised
groups, endemic corruption within the system, increase in poverty and various
dramatic events, especially technological change in the world economy on the
one hand and the growing discontent of the people, manifestation of grassroots
mobilisation and increasing pressure of the civil society on the other, a
redefinition of the states responsibilities has been evolved as a strategy of
the solution of some of these problems. According to the World Bank:
This will include strategic selection of the collective actions that states
will try to promote, coupled with greater efforts to take the burden
off the state, by involving citizens and communities in the delivery of
the collective goods for human welfare to be advanced, the states
capacity - defined as the ability to undertake or promote collective
actions efficiently, must be increased (ibid: 3).
It is apparent that within the given perspectives of the stable legal
framework, strategic selection of collective action (i.e., co-option of
grassroots mobilisation) by the state, possible partnership of the state with
civil society and state-sponsored initiatives of civil society to have their own
organisation, the following three important dimensions have emerged very
clearly: a) all initiatives for the empowerment of marginalised groups should be
in accordance with the prescribed rule of the land; b) the state will selectively
co-opt peoples initiatives as and when required, and c) the non-government
organisations (NGOs) would acquire a significant role to take the burden off
the state for the empowerment of the marginalised.
Reflection and Action 30.4
Examine the role of civil society in empowering the marginalised in our society

The NGOs are claimed to have emerged as equal partners in development along
with the state in most parts of the developing world. There is no denying the
fact that a small section of NGOs have done substantive work for the social
development and empowerment of marginalised groups, opting for various
innovative alternative channels of development. The efforts of the Selfemployed Womens Association (SEWA), Ahmedabad, and the Bankura Project
of the Centre for Women Development Studies (CWDS), New Delhi, may be
cited as examples here. However, the experiences of SEWA, CWDS and a few
such other institutions do not represent the whole story of NGOs activism in
India. A good section of the NGOs in India have emerged to be the state in
disguise in many parts of the country mostly because of their hierarchical and
bureaucratic structures and style of functioning, conventional outlooks, lack
of dynamism and inability to generate a community of change agents from
among the marginalised people. They mostly produce stereotypes and
contribute to the prevailing power structure. Though most NGOs start with
the promise of inculcating the culture of change agents through their
interventions to break the age-old structure of subordination and
marginalisation, in actual practice they end up inculcating the culture of target
group beneficiaries who are passive recipients of benefits of various
development schemes. Because of their dependency on the state for funds
and other resources, they reinforce the state structure and in turn the various

223

Development, Displacement structures of subordination of marginalised groups. Mr Ashis Kumar, activist of

and Social Movements
a prominent NGO, articulates his frustration:

It is impossible to act as a change agent or to create a community of

change agents within the given complexities of our society. The donor
agencies have their specific expectations; you are to get your money
channelised through government and bureaucracy. You are to negotiate at
every stage. At the local level there are power dynamics - you are to
accommodate their interest. At the grassroots you are to meet the
immediate needs of the people. As an organisation we are to survive
within the system. Indeed we are to compromise at every stage as
survival strategy. We are however, sure of one point very clearly that if we
can survive within these processes, we can contribute to empowerment of
the people by not creating alternatives, but by subscribing to the ongoing
processes (cf. SinghaRoy 2001).

30.8

Civil Society Movements: A Critique

Though the NGOs begin with the philosophy of negation of governmental

initiatives, they are guided by the economic and social policies of the
government. In a system of structural dependency on the state, the NGOs
without a committed manpower will provide only a limited space for the
creation of alternatives. Many NGOs have even proved their inability to fulfill
their commitment to the state. It was in 1996 that Central of Council for
Advancement of Peoples Action and Rural Technology (CAPARD) blacklisted
around 150 NGOs for not fulfilling their commitment. Though the process of
proliferation of NGOs has been very sharp in recent years, their disappearance
from the public scene has also been conspicuously marked. To whom are they
accountable? To the state? To the people? In a scenario where the NGOs have
been unable to either inculcate the culture of change agents or to form a
new collective identity of marginalised groups at a substantive scale, it is very
doubtful whether NGO activism will alone pave the way for the empowerment
of marginalised groups. However notwithstanding all the criticisms and
limitations, there is no denying of the fact that civil societies have been able
to initiate a process of mobilisation at the grassroots. Historical evidence
shows that such changes in the pre-existing power structure are possible only
through sustained grassroots mobilisations, social movements, selfless
interventions of civil societies (NGOs, peoples cooperatives and progressive
institutions) and well-articulated alternative policy formulations and their
execution with a political commitment for the redressal of power imbalances
at the grassroots. After all, the marginalised people cannot stand in isolation
on an unequal footing compared with the state (SinghaRoy 2001). Collective
mobilisation as a long-term political investment will pave the way for the
empowerment of the marginalised. Hence there is a need to view civil society
activism not with a vote of negation but constructive criticality.

30.9 Conclusion
In this unit we discussed the role of civil society in the development and
empowerment of the marginalised groups in society. In the early part of this
unit we discussed the meanings and dimensions of the civil societies and their
linkage with social movements. The significance of the NGOs as civil society
actors, their relationship with the state and the marginalised people are
discussed in detail. In the context of the emerging discourse on development
with empowerment, the significance of civil societies is critically examined.
The unit concludes that as the civil societies have emerged to be an important
partner of development along with the state and the people, their roles are
to be seen very critically.

224

30.10 Further Reading

Critique of Knowledge
Society

SighaRoy, D.K. 2003(rpt). Social Development and the Empowerment of the

Marginalised: Perspectives and Strategies. Sage Publication: New Delhi
Streten, P. 1998. The Contribution of Non-Governmental Organisations to
Development. In Political Economy Journal of India. Vol-6 No.2: 111-21

225

Development, Displacement
and Social Movements

Glossary
Adult Education: Adult education is the practice of teaching and educating adults. It includes organised public educational programs, other than regular full-time and summer
elementary and secondary day school that provide opportunities for adult and out-of-school
youth who have not graduated to further their education. This is often done in the workplace,
or through extension or continuing education courses at secondary schools, or at a
college or university or as evening classes.
Agronomists: Agronomists are soils specialists who conduct research in everything from
the very basic to the applied issues of soil and water management and land use to
improve quality and yield of crops. They study interactions among plants, soils, and the
environment. They use sophisticated research tools and techniques to develop new crop
hybrids and varieties that grow more efficiently and are more beneficial to society.
Agronomists research ways to produce crops and turf, and ways to manage soils in the
most environmental friendly way.
Bandwidth: The data transfer capacity of a telecommunications channel, usually expressed
in terms of the number of bits per second that can be transmitted (a bit being one unit
of information). Narrow bandwidth would correspond to a dial-up modem with 2400 to
56,000 bits per second while broadband can extend to more than 10,000 times this rate.
Biodiversity: Organisms are organised at many levels, ranging from complete ecosystems to
the biochemical structures that are the molecular basis of heredity. Biodiversity means the
number and variety of different organisms in the ecological complexes in which they naturally occur. A large number of species signifies a healthy atmosphere and characterises the
food chain, representing multiple predator-prey relationships.
Biopiracy: Biopiracy refers to the privatisation and unauthorised use of biological resources
by entities including corporations, etc. outside of a country, which has pre-existing
knowledge. It also means the smuggling of diverse forms of flora and fauna, and the
appropriation and monopolisation of traditional populations knowledge and biological
resources. Biopiracy causes the loss of control of traditional populations over their
resources. Particular activities covered by the term are a) exclusive commercial rights
to plants, animals, organs, microorganisms, and genes b) commercialisation of traditional
communities knowledge on biological resources, c) patenting of biological resources.
Broadband Networks: Broadband is a high-speed data transmission capability. It has a
transmission speed in excess of 256,000 bits per second in both directions. The term is
commonly used to refer to Internet access via cable modems, DSL (JetStream, for example)
and increasingly, wireless technologies (WiFi).
Casualisation of Labour: This means expansion of casual/informal employment, which means
part-time or temporary or contract employment. They may have to work with minimum
wage with no social security cover and trade unionism to raise their work related issues.
Casual workers excluded from many of the benefits enjoyed by ongoing, and fixed-term
employees, such as legislative protections against unfair dismissal, job security etc.
Counter-culture: In sociology, counterculture is a term used to describe a cultural group
whose values and norms are at odds with those of the social mainstream, a cultural equivalent of a political opposition.
Cultural Barriers: Events or occurrences based on culture that create communication
problems between individuals from different cultural backgrounds.
Cyberspace: It describes the world of connected computers and the society that gathers
around them. The term was coined by author William Gibson in his 1984 novel Neuromancer.
Cyberspace is now used to describe all of the information available through computer
networks and it is commonly known as the Internet.
De-industrialisation: Generally refers to an absolute decline in industrial output or
employment rather than simply a decline relative to other sectors of the economy.
De-territorialisation: Some scholars define globalisation in terms of deterritorialisation. For
them it is process that entails a reconfiguration of geography, so that social space is no
longer mapped in terms of territorial places, territorial distances, or territorial boarders
(Scholte 2000). Global relations, becomes trans-border exchanges without distance. Such
relations are becoming more significant as communication and production increasingly occur without regard to geographic constraints. Transborder organisations of many kinds
proliferate, and more people become aware of the world as a single whole.

226

Devaluation of Currency: Devaluation means the official lowering of the value of one countrys currency in terms of one or more foreign currencies as a result of deliberate government action. This also means a reduction in a countrys official rate at which one currency
is traded for another. Devaluation makes a countrys exports cheaper abroad by reducing
their prices in terms of foreign currencies and makes imports more expensive by raising
their prices in terms of the home currency. Devaluation can provide a short-term boost to
an economy encountering balance of payments imbalances, by altering its price competitiveness, but generally has inflationary consequences.

Critique of Knowledge
Society

Development Induced Displacement: Development-induced displacement is the forcing of

communities and individuals out of their homes, often also their homelands, for the purposes of economic development projects. It is a subset of forced migration. It has been
historically associated with the construction of dams for hydroelectric power and irrigation
purposes but also appears due to many other development activities, such as mining,
infrastructure development etc.
Digital Divide: The term digital divide was coined in the 1990s to describe the perceived
growing gap between those who have access to and the skills to use ICT and those who, for
socio-economic and/or geographical location, age, gender, culture have limited or no access. There was a particular concern that ICT would exacerbate existing inequalities.
Digitisation: Digitisation generally refers to the process of converting data and information
in paper, analog sound tracks, graphics, etc. into binary coded files for the purpose of
computer storage and manipulation.
Disinvestment: Disinvestments was a term first used in the 1980s, most commonly in the
United States, to refer to the use of a concerted economic boycott designed to pressure
the government of South Africa into abolishing its policy of apartheid, which was still in
force at that time. In India since 1991 the term is applied to the privatisation of State-held
assets by selling out equities.
Drip Irrigation: This is a water-conserving irrigation system where a system of tubes with
small holes allow water to drip out onto the root zone of plants. This method results in very
little evaporation or runoff, saving water by directing it more precisely, reduced transmission of pathogens, and fewer weeds.
Electronic mail: More often called E-Mail. This is a communication that requires an electronic device for storage and/or transmission. E-mail is a fast, easy, and inexpensive way to
communicate with individuals or groups on networked computers and computers equipped
for Internet access. Besides basic correspondence, with some systems you can attach and
send documents and other files.
Fiscal Deficit: Fiscal deficit is the gap between the governments total spending and the
sum of its revenue receipts and non-debt capital receipts. It represents the total amount of
borrowed funds required by the government to completely meet its expenditure.
Foreign Exchange Reserve or Forex Reserve: Forex is the market where one currency is
traded for another. It is one of the largest markets in the world. Foreign exchange are
counted in US dollars. Indias forex reserves recently passed the 100 billion US$ mark.
India has built up this reserve after an unpleasant incident in the early 1990s, when the
countrys gold reserve had to be pledged because of a balance of payments crisis.
Fossil Fuel Power: Power generated from coal, oil or natural gas that result from the fossilisation of ancient plants or animals. Fossil fuels are the remains of plant and animal life that
are used to provide energy by combustion which are produced by the decomposition of
ancient (fossilized) plants and animals. These fuels have taken millions of years to form.
Genetic Diversity: Genetic diversity is heritable variation within and between populations
of species. This is a property of a community of organisms of a certain species, in which
members of the community have variations in their chromosomes due to a large number of
slightly dissimilar ancestors; this property makes the community in general more resistant to
diseases or to changing ecological conditions.
Genetic Engineering: This is the technique of removing, modifying, or adding genes to a
DNA molecule in order to change the information it contains. By changing this information,
genetic engineering changes the type or amount of proteins an organism is capable of
producing, thus enabling it to make new substances or perform new functions.
Genetic Pollution: Uncontrolled escape of genetic information into the genomes of organisms in the environment where those genes never existed before. This also means the
unintended transfer of genetic material from a genetically engineered organism to one that
is not genetically engineered.

227

Development, Displacement Human Capital: The stock of knowledge and skill, embodied in an individual as a result of
and Social Movements
education, training, and experience, that makes them more productive enable them to
derive economic benefits from that. It is the stock of knowledge and skill embodied in the
population of an economy. Human capital can be acquired formally, for example through
schooling, or informally, for example through on-the-job learning.
Hydraulic System: A system designed to transmit power through a liquid medium, permitting
multiplication of force in accordance with Pascals law, which states that a pressure exerted on a confined liquid is transmitted undiminished in all directions and acts with equal
force on all equal areas. It is a mechanism operated by the resistance offered or the
pressure transmitted when a liquid is forced through a small opening or tube.
Indigenous Knowledge: Indigenous knowledge refers to the knowledge belonging to a specific ethnic group, which is unique to a given culture or society. It is the basis for local-level
decision-making in agriculture, health care, food preparation, education, natural resource
management, and a host of other activities in rural communities. Indigenous information
systems are dynamic, and are continually influenced by internal creativity and experimentation as well as by contact with external systems. It is the knowledge that people in a given
community have developed over time, and continue to develop. It is based on experience,
often tested over centuries of use, adapted to local culture and environment.
Inflation: The rise in price of goods and services, or Consumer Price Index (CPI), when too
much money chases too few goods on the market. Moderate inflation is a result of economic growth. Hyperinflation (rising at rates of 100% or more annually) causes people to
lose confidence in their economy and put their money in hard assets such as gold and real
estate.
Information Processing: Organisations need to process a rapidly growing amount of
information. Information processing is the process by which data are handled and stored
to ensure the smooth and efficient handling of information. By typing text, entering data
into a computer, operating a variety of office machines etc. all grouped into information
processing. Those who engaged in information processing jobs are often called as word
processors, typists, and data entry keyers, electronic data processors, keypunch
technicians, or transcribers.
Intellectual Capital: Is the possession of the knowledge, applied experience, and professional skills which when properly motivated, translated into customer relationships and can
provide the organisation with a competitive edge in the marketplace.
Intellectual Property: Intellectual properties are creation of the intellect that has commercial value, including copyrighted property such as literary or artistic works, and ideational property, such as patents, appellations of origin, business methods, and industrial
processes. The term often used to refer generically to property rights created through
intellectual and/or discovery efforts of a creator that are generally protectable under
patent, trademark, copyright, trade secret, trade dress or other law.
As defined by Article 2, section (viii), of the Convention Establishing the World Intellectual
Property Organisation, done at Stockholm, July 14, 1967, intellectual property shall include the rights relating to: literary, artistic and scientific works, performances of performing artists, phonograms, and broadcasts, inventions in all fields of human endeavor, scientific discoveries, industrial designs, trademarks, service marks, and commercial names and
designations, protection against unfair competition, and all other rights resulting from intellectual activity in the industrial, scientific, literary or artistic fields.
Liberalisation: In international terms liberalisation means trade between nations without
protective customs tariffs or free trade. This implies trade or commerce carried on without
such restrictions as import duties, export bounties, domestic production subsidies, trade
quotas, or import licenses. Internal trade liberalisation means loosening of government
restrictions in trade related aspects.
Life-long Learning: A continuum of the learning process that takes place at all levels formal, non-formal and informal - utilising various modalities such as distance learning and
conventional learning. This is a broad concept where education that is flexible, diverse and
available at different times and places is pursued throughout life.
Livelihood Opportunities: A livelihood comprises the capabilities, assets (stores, resources,
claims and access) and activities required for a means of living. The five types of capital
asset that comprise a livelihood are financial, physical, natural, social, and human.

228

Modernisation: Modernisation implies an approach toward the institutions, structures, and

values of Western society. Historically modernisation is the process of change toward those
types of social, economic and political systems that have developed in Western Europe and

North America from the seventeenth century to the nineteenth and have then spread to
other European countries and in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries to the South
American, Asian, and African continents (Eisenstadt, S. M. 1966). Generally, the classical
modernisation means the historical process of the great changes of the transformation from
traditional agricultural to the modern industrial society since the industrial revolution in
18th century.

Critique of Knowledge
Society

Molecular Biology: This is a field of biology that studies the molecular level of organization,
which means the study of the structure, function, and makeup of biologically important
molecules. It studies the molecular basis of life including the biochemistry of molecules
such as DNA/RNA and proteins and the molecular structure and function of the various
parts of living cells.
Monopoly: Monopoly means exclusive control or possession of something. In economics,
a monopoly is defined as a persistent market situation where there is only one provider
of a kind of product or service. Monopolies are characterised by a lack of economic
competition for the good or service that they provide and a lack of viable substitute
goods.
Neo-classical Economics: Neoclassical economics refers to a general approach to economics based on supply and demand, which depends on individuals (or any economic agent)
operating rationally, each seeking to maximize their individual utility or profit by making
choices based on available information. Mainstream economics is largely neoclassical in its
assumptions. There have been many critiques of neoclassical economics, both from within
orthodox economics, and from outside of it, and often these critiques have been incorporated into new versions of neoclassical theory.
Network Society: The term Network Society was coined by Manuel Castells as part of his
extensive analysis of modern society. The network society goes further than the information society that is often proclaimed. Castells argues that it is not purely the technology
that defines modern societies, but also cultural, economical and political factors that make
the network society.
Paradigm Shift: A complete change in thinking or belief systems that allows the creation of
a new condition previously thought impossible or unacceptable. It just does not happen
but rather driven by changes. A paradigm shift is the term first used by Thomas Kuhn in his
famous 1962 book The Structure of Scientific Revolutions to describe the process and result
of a change in basic assumptions within the ruling theory of science. It has since become
widely applied to many other realms of human experience as well. Presently agents of
change are driving a new paradigm shift. The signs are all around us. For example, the
introduction of the personal computer and the Internet has impacted both personal and
business environments, and is a catalyst for a Paradigm Shift. We are shifting from a mechanistic, manufacturing, industrial society to an organic, service based, information centered
society, and increases in technology will continue to impact globally. Change is inevitable.
Its the only true constant.
Patent: A patent is a set of exclusive rights granted by a government to a person the sole
right to make, use and sell, for a fixed period of time in exchange for the regulated, public
disclosure of certain details of an invention. The person applying for a patent does not
need to be the inventor who created or authored the invention. Many audio and video
technologies are covered by patents.
Privatisation: Privatisation is the process of transferring property, from public ownership to
private ownership and/or transferring the management of a service or activity from the
government to the private sector.
Radioactive Wastes: Radioactive by-products from the operation of a nuclear reactor or
from the reprocessing of depleted nuclear waste.
Renewable Energy Resources: Resources that are continually being renewed and
replenished and are unlikely to run out. They include solar energy, hydropower, wind,
waves and tides. Renewable energy and energy efficiency technologies are key to
creating a clean energy future. Most renewable energy comes either directly or indirectly
from the sun. Sunlight, or solar energy, can be used directly for heating and lighting
homes and other buildings, for generating electricity, and for hot water heating, solar
cooling, and a variety of commercial and industrial uses.
Scientific Information: These are Factual inputs, data, models, analyses, technical information, or scientific assessments based on scientific data. This includes any communication or
representation of knowledge such as facts or data, in any medium or form, including textual, numerical, graphic, cartographic, narrative, or audiovisual forms

229

Development, Displacement Service Economy: The service economy consists of all those economic activities not inand Social Movements
volved in the production and processing of goods and energy. Service economy can refer to
one or both of two recent economic developments. One is the increased importance of
the service sector in industrialised economies. Services now account for a higher percentage of GDP than just 20 years ago.
Social Exclusion: This is a term to describe marginalisation from employment, income, social
networks such as family, neighbourhood and community, decision making and from an adequate quality of life, the various ways in which people are excluded (economically, politically, socially, culturally) from the accepted norms within a society.
Social Sector: Social sector of an economy includes those areas where any investment may
not gain financial returns. Social sector investments lead to the accumulation of human and
social capital in a society. Social sector mainly includes poverty eradication, employment
generation, education, health, water supply, sanitation, housing, slum development, social
welfare and nutrition, rural employment and minimum basic services.
Staple Food: A staple food is a basic but nutritious food that forms the basis of a traditional
diet, particularly that of the poor. Although nutritious, staple foods generally do not by
themselves provide a full range of nutrients, so other foods need to be added to the diet to
prevent malnutrition. Staple foods vary from place to place, but are usually of vegetable
origin, from cereals, pulses, corn, rice, millets and plants growing starchy roots.
Symbolic Analysts: Symbolic analysists solve, identify, and broker problems by manipulating
symbols. They simplify reality into abstract images that can be rearranged, juggled, experimented with, communicated to other specialists, and then, eventually, transformed back
into reality. The manipulations are done with analytic tools, sharpened by experience.
These tools may be mathematical algorithms, legal arguments, financial gimmicks, scientific
principles, psychological insights about how to persuade or to amuse, systems of induction
or deduction, or any other set of techniques for doing conceptual puzzles (Robert B. Reich
1991).
Trade Deficit: Trade deficit is an excess of imports over exports. Trade Surplus is an excess
of exports over imports. Balance of trade means both surplus or deficit. The Balance of
trade is made up of transactions in merchandise and other movable goods. Balance of trade
figures are the sum of the money gained by a given economy by selling exports, minus the
cost of buying imports.
Trade Secrets: A trade secret is a confidential practice, method, process, design, or other
information used by a company to compete with other businesses. It is also referred to in
some jurisdictions as confidential information.
Vicious Cycle: A Vicious cycle is a cycle in which one problem leads to another, which in
turn aggravates the first problem. For example poverty. A poor person may not be able to
invest in the education of their children or to provide enough economic support this may in
turn lead to the poverty of the younger generation also.
Water Conservation: Water conservation means the care, preservation, protection, and
wise use of water with methods ranging from more efficient practices in farm, home and
industry to capturing water for use through water storage or conservation projects etc.
World Wide Web (WWW): A hypermedia-based system for browsing Internet sites. It is
named the Web because it is made of many sites linked together; users can travel from one
site to another by clicking on hyperlinks. The World Wide Web is a portion of the Internet
comprised of a constellation of networked resources. Its Internet servers utilise HTTP to
transfer documents and multimedia files formatted in hypertext markup language (HTML).
Not all servers on the Internet are part of the World Wide Web.

230

References

Critique of Knowledge
Society

Abraham, Biju Paul 2000. The Emerging Patents and Intellectual Property Rights Regime:
Implications for Indian Economy. In Purushottam Battacharya and Ajitava Roy Chaudhuri
(ed.) Globalisation and India: A Multidimensional Perspective. Lancers Books: New Delhi
Acharya, S. 2001. Indias Macroeconomic Management In The Nineties. Indian Council for
Research on International Economic Relations: New Delhi
Anderson, Benedict 1983. Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of
Nationalism. Verso: New York
APEC Economic Committee 2000. Towards Knowledge-based Economies in APEC. APEC
Secretariat: Singapore http://www.apecsec.org
Australian Council of Trade Unions 1994. Green Jobs Industry. Australian Conservation
Foundation: Australia
Balakrishanan, N. 2001. Information and Communication Technologies and the Digital Divide
in the Third World Countries. In Current Science. 81(8): 966-972
Balakrishnan, P. 1996. The Current Macroeconomic Stabilisation Programme and the Indian
Economy. In M. Chattopadhyay, P. Maiti and Rakshit (ed.) Planning and Economic Policy in
India. Sage Publications: New Delhi
Bandyopadhyay, D. 1997. Peoples Participation in Planning: Kerala experiment In Economic
and Political Weekly 32(39): 2450-54
Banerji, Arun Kumar 2000. Adjusting to the process of Change: India and Globalisation. In
Purushottam Battacharya and Ajitava Roy Chaudhuri (ed.) Globalisation and India: A
Multidimensional Perspective. Lancers Books: New Delhi
Bardhan, P. 2001. Social Justice in Global Economy. Economic and Political Weekly. February
3-10
Bardhan, P. 2003. Poverty, Agrarian Structure, and Political Economy in India. Oxford University
Press: New Delhi
Barrett, M. 1998. Womens Opression Today. Verso: London
Batliwala, S. 1993. Empowerment of Women in South Asia: Concepts and Practices. ASSBAF
and FAO Freedom from hunger campaign, Action and Development: New Delhi
Baxi, Upendra 1992. Globalisation - A World Without Alternatives. Sare Economists: New
Delhi
Bedi, Arjun. S. 1999. The Role of Information and Communication Technologies in Economic
Development: A Partial survey. Paper presented at the Global Development Network Meeting,
Bonn
Bell, Daniel 1976. The Coming of Postindustrial Society: A Venture in Social Science Forecasting.
Basic Books: New York
Beteille, Andre 2000. Antinomies of Society: Essays on Ideologies and Institutions. Oxford
University Press: New Delhi
Beyer, Peter F. 2003. Four Approaches to Globalisation. In Robertson R. and Kathleen E.
White (ed.) Globalization Critical Concepts in Sociology. Routledge: London
Blaney, D. L., and Pasha, M.K. 1993. Civil Society and Democracy in the Third World: Ambiguities
and Historical Possibilities. In Studies in Comparative International Development. Vol. 28,
No. 1: 3-24
Bloustein, S. etal 1992. An Assessment of the Chemical Industrys Commitment to the
Principles of Community Right to Know. RMIT: Melbourne
Blumer, H. 1951. Social Movement. In A.N. Less (ed.) New Outlines of Principles of Society.
Barnes and Noble: New York
Bodmer, W. 1985. The Public Understanding of Science. Royal Society: London
Boshier, R.W. et al. 1997. Best and Worst-dressed Web Courses: Strutting into the Future
in Comfort and Style. In Distance Education. 18, 1: 327-349
Boyd Barrett, O. (1998). Media Imperialism Reformulate. In D. K. Thussu, (ed.) Electronic
Empires: Global Media and Local Resistance. Arnold: London
Bresser, Pereira and Luiz, Carlos 1996. Economic Crisis and State Reforms in Brazil. Towards
a New Interpretation of Latin America. Lynne Rienner: Boulder and London

231

Development, Displacement Brian, Pinto and Farah, Zahir 2004. Why Fiscal Adjustment Now. World Bank Policy Research
and Social Movements
Working Paper No. 3230 March
Buggi, C., Reddy, S. and Gowda, G. 2001. Impact of Globalisation on Agrarian Class Structure.
Its implications for Indian villages. In Third Concept. January p 17-19
Burns, E. Bradford 1993. A History of Brazil. Columbia University Press: Columbia
Bush, Stephen 1993. Indigenous Knowledge of Biological Resources: The Role of
Anthropology. In American Anthropology. 95(3): 653-686
Byres (ed.) 1998 The Indian Economy: Major Debates Since Independence. Oxford University
Press: New Delhi
Cable, Vincent 1999. Globalisation and Global Governence. The Royal Institute of International
Affairs: London
Castells, M. 2001. The Internet Galaxy: Reflections on the Internet, Business,
and Society. Oxford University Press: New York
Castells, M. 1998. The Information Age: Economy, Society and Culture. Vol.1 The Rise of
Network Society. Blackwell Publishers: London
Chadha, G.K. and P.P. Sahu 2002. Setbacks in Rural Employment: Issues for Further Scrutiny.
In Economic and Political Weekly. May 25
Chand, Ramesh 1999. Emerging Crisis in Punjab Agriculture: Severity and Options for future.
In Economic and Political Weekly. March 27
Chanda, R. 2002. GATS and Its Implications for Developing Countries: Key Issues and Concerns.
Department of Economic and Social affairs. United Nations: New York
Chandhoke, Neera 1995 State and Civil Society: Explorations in Political Theory. Sage: New
Delhi
Cohen, Jean L. and Andrew Arato 1994. Civil Society and Political Theory. The MIT Press:
Cambridge
Coicaud, Jean Marc and Veijo, Heiskanen (ed.) 2001. The Legitimacy of International
Organisations. University Press: Tokyo
Correa, Carlos M. 2000. Intellectual Property Rights, the WTO and Developing Countries: The
TRIPs Agreement and Policy Options. Third World Network: Penang
Crede, Andrews and Robin Mansell 1998. Knowledge Societies in a Nutshell: Information
Technology for Sustainable Development. IDRC: Canada
Curran, J. and Gurevitch, M. (eds) 2001. Mass media and Society. Eward Arnold: London
Deaton, A. 2003. Is World Poverty Falling? Southern Economist. January p. 21
Deaton and Dreze 2002. Poverty and Inequality in India: A Re-examination. Centre for
Development Economics Working Paper. Delhi School of Economics: New Delhi
Desai, Meghnad and Yahia Said (eds.) 2004. Global Governance and Financial Crises. Routledge:
London
Desai, Mira K. 2005. Intra and Inter-Cultural Diversities in the Era of Globalization:
Transnational Television in India. In Global Media Journal. Volume 4, Issue 7
http://
lass.calumet.purdue.edu/cca/gmj/Fall2005/non_referreed/DesaiFa05.htm
Deshingkar, J.P. and Anderson 2004. Agriculture and Natural Resource based livilihoods
in an era of Economic Reform and Globalisation. In J.P. Deshingkar and C. Johnson (ed.)
Policy Windows and Livilihood Futures: Trends and Prospects for Poverty Reduction in
Rural India. Oxford University Press: New Delhi
Dev and Mooij 2002. Social Sector Expenditures in the 1990s. Ananlysis of Centre and
State Budgets. Economic and Political Weekly. March 2-8
Dev, S. Mahendra and Ajit Ranade 1999. Persisting Poverty and Social Insecuity. A Selective
Assessment. Kirit S. Parikh (ed.) India Development Report. Oxford University Press: New
Delhi
Dierkes, M. and Von Grote, C. (eds) 2000. Between Understanding and trust: The Public,
Science, and Technology. Harwood Academic Publishers: Amsterdam
Drucker Peter, F. 1988. The Coming of the New Organization. In Harvard Business Review.
88: 45-53
Drucker, Peter 1994. Post-Capitalist Society. Harper Business: New York

232

Edsalt, S. 2000. GATS to Impact Public Education. NSW Teachers Federation: Education on
Live. Development Policy No. 7, August

Edwards, Michael 2000. NGO Rights and Responsibilities: A New Deal for Global Governance.
Central Books: UK

Critique of Knowledge
Society

Erickson, J. 1998. Online - and in fashion. The Internet comes into its own as a Catalyst
for Political Change and Economic Activity. In Asiaweek. December 25
Eyerman, R. and Jamison, A. 1991. Social Movement: A Cognitive Approach. Polity Press:
Cambridge
Feather, John 1998. The Information Society: A Study of Continuity and Change. Library
Association Publishing: London
Foray, D. and B.A. Lundvall, (1996), The Knowledge-based Economy: from the Economics of
Knowledge to the Learning Economy. In OECD Employment and Growth in the KnowledgeBased Economy. OECD: Paris
Foucault, M. 1977. Discipline and Punish: The Birth of the Prison (Translated from French by
Alan Sheridan), Allen Lane: London
Frase, P and OSullivan, B. 2003 The Future of Education Under the WTO. www.
campusdemoeracy.org/wtoed.html.
Freeman, L. 1999. Gulliver in Southern Africa: South Africa and Zimbabwe in the PostApartheid Era. Paper delivered at the University of Western Australia, Perth, 26-29 November1999
Freire, P. 1972. Pedagogy of the Oppressed. Penguin Books: Middlesex
Galligan, B., Roberts, W. and Trifiletti, G. 2001. Australians and Globalisation: TheEexperience
of Two Ccenturies. Cambridge University Press: U.K.
Galtung, J. 1979. Development, Environment and Technology: Towards a Technology of Self
Reliance. United Nations: New York
Georgios, I. et al 2004. Social and Economic Transformation in Digital Era. India Group:
U.K.
Ghosh, A. 1991. The Budget and its Relevance for Restructuring the Economy. In Economic
and Political Weekly. vol. XXVI:34, 2011-2019.
Ghosh, J. 1998. Liberalization Debates. In T.J Byres (ed.) The Indian Economy: Major Debates
Since Independence. Oxford University Press: New Delhi.
Giddens, A. 2000. The Third Way and its Critics. Mass Polity Press: Malden Jhabvala, Renana
and Sinha, Shalini 2002. Liberalisation and the Women Workers. Economic and Political
Weekly. May
Gill, S.S. 2003 Globalization: Higher Education will suffer. In The Tribune. July 20
Gladieux, L.E. and Swail, W.S. 1999. The Virtual University and Educational Opportunity. The
College Board: Washington, DC
Gordon, Sandy 1997. Globalisation and the Economic Reforms in India. In Australian Journal
of International Affairs. Volume 51, No. 1
Government of India 1988. India, 1988-89. Publications Division, Government of India: New
Delhi
Government of India 2003. India, 2003-04. Publications Division, Government of India: New
Delhi
Gramsci, A. 1998 (rpt). Selections From the Prison Notebooks. Orient Longman: Chennai
Gray, R. H., and C. D. Becker. 1993. Environmental Cleanup: The Challenge at the
Hanford Site, Washington, USA. Environment Management. 17:461475
Griffin, Keith 2004. Globalisation and Culture. In Stephen Cullenberg and Prasanta K.
Pattnaik (ed.) Globalisation, Culture and Limits of the Market. Oxford University Press: New
Delhi
Griffin, Michael 2002. From Cultural Imperialism to Transnational Commercialisation: Shifting
Paradigms in International Media Studies. Global Media Journal. Vol.1, issue 1 (http://
www.lass.calumet.purdue.edu/From Cultural Imperialism.htm)
Guha, A and Ray, A.S. 2000. Multinational versus Expatriate FDI, A Comparative Analysis of the
Chinese and Indian Experience. Indian Council For Research on International Economic
Relations
Gusfield, J.R. (ed.) 1972. Protests, Reforms and Revolt: A Reader in Social Movement. New
Wiley and Sons: New Delhi

233

Development, Displacement Haberle, R. 1972. Types and Functions of Social Movement. In International Encyclopedia
and Social Movements
of Social Sciences. Macmillan and Company: New York
Hardiman, D. 1998. Well Irrigation in Gujarat. Systems of Use, Hierarchies of Control. In
Economic and Political Weekly. 33:25, p. 1533-1544
Hazel, Henderson 1999. Beyond Globalisation: Shaping a Sustainable Global Economy. West
Hartford, CT: Kumarian
Helene, Moussa 1999. Global Surge in Forced Migration Linked to Colonial Past. Womens
Press: Toronto
Henderson, D. 1999. The MAI Affair: A Story and its Lessons. The Royal Institute of International
Affairs: London
Herbst, Jeffrey 1990. State Politics in Zimbabwe. University of Zimbabwe Press: Harare
Higgot, Richard and Antony, Payne (ed.) 2001. New Political Economy of Globalisation.
Cheltenham: U.K.
Hillary, John 1999. Globalisation and Employment: New Opportunities, Real Threats.
Panos Briefing No.33 http://www.nswef.org.au/edu
Hoffman, D.L. and Novak, T.P. 1998. Bridging the racial divide on the Internet. In Science.
April 17, 390-391
Hurrell, Andrew 1992 The International Politics of Amazonian Deforestation. In Andrew
Hurrell and Benedict Kingsbury (ed.) The International Politics of the Environment.
Actors, Interests and Institutions. Clarendon Press: Oxford
Ila Patnaik, 2003. Indias Policy Stance on Reserves and the Currency. Working Papers 108,
Indian Council for Research on International Economic Relations, New Delhi
James, H. Marsh (editor in chief) 1988. The Canadian Encyclopedia. Second Edition,
Volume 1. Murtin Publsihers: Edmonton
Jessop, Bob 2003. The State and the Contradictions of the Knowledge-Driven Economy. In
Bryson, J.R. et.al. (eds) Knowledge, Space, Economy. Routledge: London
Joshi, V. and Little, I.M.D. 1998. Indias Economic Reforms 1991-2000. Oxford University Press:
New Delhi
Kacowicz, Arie M. 1999. Regionalisation, Globalisation and Nationalism: Convergent, Divergent
or Overlapping Alternatives? University of Notre Dame: Indiana
Kapila, Uma, (ed.) 2000. Indian Economy Since Independence. Academic Foundation: New
Delhi
Keniston, S. 2003. CMTE - the Underground Potential. CMTE Postgraduate Conference.
Brisbane: Australia 19 May
Khan, A.R. 2003. Economic Survey 2003-04. V.P.G. Books: Delhi
Khor, Martin 2001. Rethinking Globalisation: Critical Issues and Policy Choices. Books for
Change: Bangalore
Konenburg, J. 1986. Empowerment of the Poor: A Comparative Analysis of Two Development
Endeavours in Kenya. Kninlijk Institute Voor de Tropan
Kundu, A. Bagchi and Kundu, D. 1999. Regional Distribution of Infrastructure and Basic
Amenities in Urban India: Issues Concerning Empowerment of Local Bodies. Economic and
Political Weekly. 34(28), July
Kundu, Amitabh 2001. Urban Development, Infrastructure Financing and Emerging Systems
of Governence in India: A Perspective. In Social Sciences Selection. Vol. 4, No.5, April
Kurian, C.T. 1994. Global Capitalism and the Indian Economy. Orient Longmont: New Delhi
Latchem, C and Hanna, D. 2002. Leadership for Open and Flexible Learning. Open Learning.
17(3), 203-215
Lee, C.C. 1980 Media Imperialism Reconsidered: The Homogenizing of Television Culture.
SagePublications: London
Leonard, A. 1998. Soweto online. In Salon Magazine. 16 November
Lewenstein, B. 1992. The Meaning of `Public Understanding of Science. In Public
Understanding of Science. 1, 45-68
Lokayan Bulletin, (Editorial) 1991. Dams on the River Narmada: A Call to Conscience.
May-August Vol. 9, No.3 and 4, Pp 1-10

234

Lundvall, B.A and B. Johnson 1994. The Learning Economy. In Journal of Industry Studies.
Vol. 1, No 2, December, pp. 23-42

Critique of Knowledge
Society

Lyon, D. 1988. The Information Society: Issues and Illusions. Polity Press: Cambridge
Makambe, John. 1996. Participatory Development: The Case of Zimbabwe. University of
Zimbabwe Press: Harare
Malcolm, Waters 2001. Globalization. Routedge: Oxford, UK
Mandal, R. 1994. Privatisation in the Third World. Vikas Publishing House: New Delhi
Mander, J. 1996 Corporate Capitalism. In Resurgence. November/December, No. 179:10-12
Mander, Jerry and Edward Goldsmith 1996. The Case Against the Global Economy and for a
Turn Toward the Local. Sierra Club Books: San Francisco
Maria J.F. Willumsen and Eduardo Giannetti da Fonseca (ed.) 1997. The Brazilian Economy:
Structure and Performance in Recent Decades. North-South Centre Press: University of
Miami
Martinussen, John Degnobl 2001. Policies, Institutions and Industrial Development. Sage
Publications: New Delhi
Mascarenhas, M. 2003. Unpalatable Truth. The Hindu. June 22
Mathur, Hari Mohan and David Marsden (ed.) 1998. Development Projects and
Impoverishment Risks. Oxford University Press: New Delhi
McAdam, D. 1982. Political Process and the Development of Black Insurgency 1930-1970.
University of Chicago Press: Chicago
McCully, Patrick 1998. Silenced Rivers. The Ecology and Politics of Large Dams. Orient
Longman Ltd.: Delhi
McDelland and Steward Inc. 2000. The Canadian Encyclopedia, 1999. The Canadian Publishes:
Toronto, Canada
McLennan, Gregor 2000. The New Positivity. In Eldridge, John et.al. (eds.) For Sociology:
Legacy and Prospects. The Sociology Press: Durham
McLuhan, Marshall 1964. Understanding Media. McGraw-Hill: New York
Melucci, A. 1996. Symbolic Challenge of Contemporary Movements. In S.M. Buechler and
J. Cylke (ed.) Studying Collective Action. Sage Publications: London
Modelski, George and Kazimierz Poznanski. 1996. Evolutionary paradigms in the social
sciences. International Studies Quarterly 40 (3): 315-20
Morris, Merrill and Ogan, Christine(1996). The Internet as a Mass Medium. In
Journal of Communication. 46(1).39-50.
Moussa, Helene 1999. Global Surge in Forced Migration Linked to Colonial Past. Womens
Press: Toronto
Moyo, S. 1995. The Land Question in Zimbabwe.

SAPES Publication: Harare

Naisbitt, J. 1986. Reinventing the Corporation: Transferming Your Job and Your Company for
the New Information Society. Nicholas: London
Nayyar, D. 1996. Economic Liberalisation in India: Analytics, Experience and Lessons. Orient
Longman: Hyderabad
Nayyar, D. 1997. Globalisation: The Past in Our Future. Third World Network: Penang, Malaysia
Nhema, A.G. 2002. Democracy in Zimbabwe: From Liberation to Liberalisation. University
of Zimbabwe Publications: Harare
Night, J. 2002. Trade in Higher Education Services: The Implications of GATS. The Observatory
on Borderless Higher Education: London
Noble, D. 1997. Digital Diploma Mills: The Automation of Higher Education.
OBrian, R. 1992. Global Financial Interpretation: The end of Geography. The Royal Institute
of International Affairs: London
Ohmae, K. 1990. The Borderless World. Collins: New York
Osborne, Thomas 2003. On Mediators: Intellectuals and the Ideas Trade in Knowledge
Society. In Economy and Society. 33(4) 430-447
Ott, C. 1998. Computers in the Classroom Promote a Conservative Vision of Education but
Liberals dont Seem to Have Noticed. In Salon Magazine. August 28

235

Development, Displacement Panikkar, K.N. 1995. Globalisation and Culture. In The Hindu. 4th October
and Social Movements
Parikh, Kirit, S. (ed.) 1999. India Development Report. Oxford University Press: New Delhi
Parikh, Kirit, S. and Ajay Shah 1999. Second Generation Reforms. In Kirit S. Parikh (ed.)
India Development Report. Oxford University Press: New Delhi
Patnaik, P. 1986. Public Debt as a Mode of Financing Public Expenditure: Some Comments.
In Economic and Political Weekly. Vol. XXI, No. 35, August, pp.1545-1552
Patnaik, P. 2003. On the Economics of Open Economy De-Industrialization. V.V.Giri Memorial
Lecture delivered at the Annual Conference of the Indian Society of Labour Economics,
Kolkata, available from http://www.macroscan.com
Patnaik, P. 2004. On Financing Infrastructure on the strength of Reserves. In Economic
and Political Weekly. December 25
Patnaik, U. 2004 The Republic Of Hunger. Lecture delivered on the occasion of the 50th
Birthday of Safdar Hashmi, Organized By Sahmat (Safdar Hashmi Memorial Trust) April, New
Delhi
Pavlik, John V., and Everette E. Dennis 1998. New Media Technology: Cultural and Commercial
Perspectives. 2nd ed. Allyn and Bacon: Boston
Peter, Flynn 1996. Brazil: The Politics of the Plano Real. In Third World Quarterly
Piererse, J.N. 2001. Globalization and Collective Action. In Pierre Hamel (ed.) Globalisation
and Social Movements. Palgrave: Great Britain
Pierre, Hamel et al 2001. The Shifting Frames of Collective Action. In Pierre Hamel (ed.)
Globalisation and Social Movements. Palgrave: Great Britain
Pinto, B. and F. Zahir1 2004. India: Why Fiscal Adjustment Now. World Bank Policy Research
Working Paper 3230, March
Pitroda, S. 1993. Development, Democracy, and the Village Telephone. In Harvard Business
Review. November-December, 66-68
Poux, C. 2001. Cultural Imperialism. In http://iml.jou.ufl.edu/projects/Spring01/Poux/
Cultural%20Imperialism.html
Putnam, R. D. 1993. Making Democracy Work: Civil Traditions in Modern Italy. Prinston
University Press: Princeton NJ
Pyle, Jean. L. 2002. Globalisation, Universities and Sustainable Development: a Framework
for Understanding the Issues. In Jean L. Pyle and Robert Forrent (ed.) Globaliation,
Universities and Issues of Sustainable Human Development. MPG Books Ltd.: Cornwell
Rakshit, M. 1991. The Macroeconomic Adjustment Programme: A critique. In Economic
and Political Weekly. vol. XXVI: 34, 1977-1988
Rakshit, M. 2002. Some Macroeconomics of Indias Reforms Experience: An Outline.
Paper presented at The Indian Economy Conference at Cornell University, April,
downloadable at http://www.arts.cornell.edu/econ/indiaconf/Rakshit%20outline.pdf
Rakshit, M. 2004 Some Puzzles of Indias Macro economy. Paper presented at the National
Conference in Honour of Prof. K.N.Raj at St. Thomas College, Thrissur, October.
Rakshit, Mihir 1998. Studies in the Macroeconomics of Developing Countries. OUP: New
Delhi
Rene Morissette, Xuelin Zhand and Marie Drolet 2003. Are families getting richer. In
Canadian Social Trends. Autumn 202, No. 66.
Romer, Paul M. 1990. Endogenous Technological Change. In Journal of Political Economy.
University of Chicago Press, vol. 98(5), pages 71-102
Roy, Alok 1997. Economic Liberalisation in India: Balance of Payments Implications. In
Economic and Political Weekly. July11
Roy, Alok 2000. Globalisation challenges in India. In Purushottam Battacharya and Ajitava
Roy Chaudhuri (ed.) Globalisation and India: A Multidimensional Perspective. Lancers Books:
New Delhi
Schiller, H.I. 1976. Communication and Cultural Domination. International Arts and Sciences
Press: White Plains, NY
Scholte, J.A. 1999. Globalisation: Prospects of Paradigm Shift In M. Shaw (ed.) Politics of
Globalisation: Knowledge, Ethics and Agency. Routledge: London

236

Scott, M. 2001. Danger Landmines: NGO-Government Collaboration in the Ottawa Process.

In Non-Profit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly.

Selnow, G. W. 2000. Internet Ethics. In R. E. Jr. Denton (ed.) Political Communication

Ethics: an Oxymoron? Praeger Publishers: CT, Westport

Critique of Knowledge
Society

Sen, A. and Himanshu 2004. Poverty And Inequality In IndiaII, Widening Disparities During
The 1990s. Economic and Political Weekly. September 25, 4361-4375.
Sen, G. and C. Crown 1988. Development, Crisis and Alternative Visions. Earthscan: London
SEWA 2004. Impact of Globalisation on Informal Sector. A Casestudy of SEWA Members.
http://www.sewa.org
Sharma, K. 1992. Grass-root Organisations and Womens Empowerment: Some Issues in
Contemporary Debates. In Samya Shakti. 1(6): 28-43
Shaw Annapurna 1999. Emerging Pattern of Urban Growth in India. Economic and
Political Weekly. April 17-24
Singh, N. and T. N. Srinivasan 2004. Fiscal Policy in India: Lessons and Priorities, Paper
presented at the NIPFP-IMF conference in New Delhi, February
Singh, Nirvikar and T. N. Srinivasan 2004. Foreign Capital Inflows, Sterilization, CrowdingOut and Growth. Princeton University Press: Princeton
SinghRoy, D.K. 2003(rpt). Social Development and the Empowerment of the Marginalised:
Perspectives and Strategies. Saga Publication: New Delhi.
Siva, Vandana 2005. India: Soft Drinks, Hard Cases. Le Monde Diplomatique. March (http:/
/www.mindfully.org)
Smith, Peter 2001. The Impact of Globalization on Citizenship: Decline or Renaissance?
Journal of Canadian Studies 36(1): 116-140
Smythe, E. and P.J. Smith 2003. NGOs, Technology and the Changing Face of Trade Politics
In K.L.Brock (ed.) Delicate Dances: Public Policy and the Non Profit Sector. McGill-Queens
University Press: London
Spanish Report 1998. Green Jobs Project.
Srinivasan, T.N. 2003. Indian Economic Reforms: A Stock Taking. Stanford Centre for India
Programme. Working Paper no. 190
Statistics Canada 2001. National Income and Expenditure Accounts. Catalogue no. 13-001PPB, 4th Quarter
Stehr, Nico (2001) The Fragility of Modern Societies: Knowledge and Risk in the Information
Age. Sage Publications: London
Stephen, Deery and Nicholas, Kinnie (ed.) 2003 Call Centres and Human Resource Management:
a Cross-national Perspective. Basingstoke: Hampshire, New York
Stevens et al 2004. The Impact of Reform of international trade on Urban and Rural Change.
Report to the rural-urban change policy division. DFID: London
Strange, S. 1996. The Retreat of the State: The Diffusion of Power in the World Economy.
Cambridge University Press: New York
Streten, P. 1998 The Contribution of Non-Governmental Organisations to Development.
Political Economy Journal of India. Vol-6 No.2: 111-21
Sundaram, K and S. D. Tendulkar 2003. Poverty Has Declined in the 1990s: A Resolution of
Comparability Problems in NSS Consumer Expenditure Data. Economic and Political Weekly.
January 25.
Sundaram, K. 2001. Employment-Unemployment situation in the nineties: Some Results
from the NSS 55th Round Survey. Economic and Political Weekly. March 17
Swasti Mitter 2001. Globalisation and ICT: Employment Opportunities for Women. In IT
Information Technology. Vol. 11, No. 2 December
Tarrow, S. 1994. Power in Movement: Social Movements, Collective Action and Mass Politics
in the Modern State. Cambridge University Press: New York
Taylor, Charles 1990. Invoking Civil Society. Working Papers, No. 5, Centre for Transcultural
Studies, Chicago
Toch, H. 1965. Social Psychology and Social Movements. Bobbs-Merrile: Indianapolis
Toffler, Alvin 1980. The Third Wave. Pan Books: London
Tolly 1978. From Mobilization to Revolution. Addison-Wesley: Massachusetts
Tomilson 1991.

Cultural Imperialism: A Critical Introduction. Pinter Publisher: London

237

Development, Displacement Tuchman, G. 1981(revised edition). The Symbolic Annihilation of Women by the Mass Media.
and Social Movements
In S. Cohen and J.Young (eds) The Manufacture of News. Constable: London
UNCTAD 1996. The TRIPs Agreement and Developing Countries. New York and Geneva
UNDP 1999. Human Development Report. Oxford University Press: New York
UNDP 2003. Human Development Report. Oxford University Press: New Delhi
United Nations 1999. World Survey on the Role of Women in Development: Globalisation,
Gender and Work. United Nations Publications: Geneva
Virmani, A. 2001. Indias 1990-91 Crisis: Reforms, Myths and Paradoxes. Planning Commission
Working Paper no. 4,
December
Volkmer, Ingrid 2003. Dialectical Spaces in the Global Public Sphere, Media Memories Across
Generations. Joan Shorenstein Center on the Press, Politics and Public Policy, Harvard
University, Cambridge. Working Paper Series, 2003-5.
Wang G, Jan Servaes and A. Goonasekera 2000. The Communications Landscape, Demystifying
Media Globalisation. Routledge: London
Webster, Frank 1995. Theories of the Information Society. Routledge: London
Weisman, D.L. and Sibley, D.S. 1998. Raising Rivals Costs: The Entry of an Upstream Monopolist
into Downstream Markets. In Information Economics and Policy. 10, 451-470
Wilson, J. 1973. Introduction to Social Movements. Basic Books: New York
Woolgar, Steve (ed.) 2002. Virtual Society? Technology, Cyber bole, reality. Oxford University
Press: Oxford
World Bank 1997. The World Development Report. OUP: New Delhi
Website Addresses
http://cade.icaap.org
http://news.bbc.co.uk
http://oecd.org
http://sewa.org/
http://twm.co.nz
http://www.dcita.gov.au
http://www.dfait-maeci.gc.ca
http://www.economics.adelaide.edu
http://www.firstmonday.dk/issues/issue3_1/noble/index.html
http://www.greenpeace.org
http://www.idsnet.org
http://www.ilo.org
http://www.indiainfoline.com
http://www.med.gov.nz
http://www.mssrf.org/
http://www.nationmaster.com
http://www.opt-init.org
http://www.pathfinder.com/asiaweek/current/issue/cs6.html
http://www.phmovement.org
http://www.photius.com
http://www.salonmagazine.com/21st/feature/1998/11/cov_feature2.html
http://www.thecornerhouse.org.uk
http://www.usaid.gov
http://www.citizen.org
http://www.wto.org

238