<bwttnaan

ir*ss

THE MODERN

GREEK LANGUAGE
IN ITS

RELATION TO ANCIENT GREEK

BY
v

E.

M.

GELBART,

B.A.

Formerly Scholar ofBalliol College, Oxford

Modern Language Master at the Manchester Free Grammar
;

AT THE CLARENDON PRESS

M DCCC LXX

School.

PREFACE.
sending out into the world the present volume, I have
else to say by way of prefatory remark than to express

little

the sense of the obligations I

am

helped and encouraged me.

Foremost among these must

name

under to those who have

W.

Walker, Esq., late Fellow of Corpus

Christi College, and Head Master of the Manchester Free
Grammar School, my kind friend and instructor, who is the
stand the

of F.

cause, in a sense which he will sufficiently understand, of

the publication of this work.

My

best

due to Professor Jowett for

it was
yet in

thanks are also

looking over a portion of the same while

embryo, and for most valuable suggestions which

attempted to follow out

and

to

my

friends S. Verse's

have

and

A. Pantazides for the loan of various works which have been

of indispensable service to
chapter of this book.

my

indebtedness

willingness to

me

in the preparation of the final

Nor can

to the

refrain

learned lectures,

from expressing
and ever-ready

communicate information with which

all

who

have attended the public instructions of the Professor of

Comparative Philology are so well acquainted, and which
have had no unimportant influence in moulding the views
hereinafter

set

forth.

From
b

Professor Gandell,

and Dr.

PREFACE.

vi

Hessey, Grinfield Lecturer on the Septuagint,

have also

obtained valuable information.

To
for

Professor Blackie of Edinburgh

easily discover

where

will

on Greek Pronunciation.
must tender

my

Hermann Eduard Marotsky,

the Rev.

Church, Wright

Street,

warmest thanks

my

to

Minister of the Ger-

Manchester, without the encou-

ragement and confirmation afforded by whose

ledge,

He

have derived help from his interesting

Last, but not least, I

man

thanks are due

kind and unexpected encouragement.

very

treatise

my

critical

know-

concluding essay on the dangerous domain of

theology would hardly have been hazarded.

I

on other obligations
themselves, though in one case

have no right however to be

of a less personal nature in

at least

silent

proceeding from a personal and esteemed friend, the

Rev. George Perkins,

M.

A.,

author of the lucid and able

Cambridge Journal of Philology for December,

1869, entitled Rhythm versus Metre/ to which I am much

article in the

'

indebted.

Other works which

Schleicher's

Renan's

'

'

'

have advantageously consulted are

Compendium

Eclaircissements

quelques points
'

de

la

der Vergleichenden Grammatik,'

tire's

des Langues sdmitiques sur

Prononciation

grecque,'

Mullach's

Grammatik der Griechischen Vulgarsprache,' Liidemann's

Lehrbuch der Neugr. Sprache,' Prof. Telfy's Studien iiber

Alt-

'

und Neugriechen und

die Lautgeschichte der Griechi-

schen Sprache,' Sophocles' Modern Greek Grammar' and

Glossary of Later and Byzantine Greek.'
'

'

Finally, I would take this opportunity of thanking the

Curators of the Taylorian Institution at Oxford for their
great kindness in granting me the use of the room in which

PREFACE.

Vll

which form the foundation of

I delivered a course of lectures

the present treatise.

have passed over any in silence I hope

understood that such silence is unintentional.
If I

In conclusion,

books to be used
in

its

will

some account of

give

fessor

Mullach's

'

Grammatik
'

sprache/
'

Sophocles'

especially

The most

relations with ancient Greek.

works on the subject with which

the best

modern Greek,

in the study of

am

der

be

will

it

instructive

acquainted are Pro-

Griechischen

Vulgar-

Modern Greek Grammar/ and

Glossary of Later and Byzantine Greek/

his

All three of these

works contain some account of the development of modern

from ancient Greek; and each supplies in some measure
Professor Mullach's work

the deficiencies of the others.

is,

on the whole, the most scholarly and exhaustive. His account

of the Greek dialects, ancient and modern, is specially valuable.

All

would have been

recognition of the discoveries of

modern philology

region of comparative grammar.

cially his

Grammar,

and wider

better for a larger

Sophocles' works, espe-

be used with caution.

require to

in the

For

the headings 'Ancient' and 'Modern' which he places over

be read, in nearly every case,

Language of Polite Society' and Language of the Common
People,' or 'Cultivated' and Vernacular;' for the so-called

his various paradigms, should

'

'

ancient forms never died out, but

in the

more

cultivated

may

nearly

modern Greek of

all

be found

the middle ages.

Where, however, the so-called modern form has completely

supplanted the

classical, as in eypdfacro for eypdcpov, ypd(pf(rai

be noticed.

Again, in

by Mr. Sophocles

to system,

for ypdfai or ypdtyr], the fact should

other ways truth

as

when he

is

sacrificed

gives TOV narepa, roG

b 2

civSpa,

as the

modern Greek

PREFACE.

Vill

for rov

irciTpos,

TOV dvSpos.

the classical forms are

These forms occur no doubt, but

more common even

in the vernacular,

which however the metaplastic nominatives irarepas and

For the study of the
avfyas have supplanted ira-r^p and 01/77/3.
in

popular language as contained in the Klephtic ballads, &c.,

all

'

Carmina popularia Greciae recentioris' renders

other collections superfluous.
For the history of modern

Passow's

Greek
tains

literature

some

Peucker's

valuable

'

Neugriechische Grammatik

contributions,

which

may be

'

con-

further

supplemented from the NtoeXX^tKr) <JuXoXoyia, a work lately

published in Athens, and forming a biographical history of
mediaeval and modern Greek

literature.

CONTENTS.
CHAPTER

I.

Introduction.
Causes for the neglect of the study of modern Greek.
prejudice; counteracted

of Greece

by

Antiquarian

Political insignificance

utilitarianism.

hopeful signs. Obscurity of modern Greek literature

Direct practical utility of an acquaintance
:

actual but unmerited.

with the language.

and theologians.

Reasons why

The

it

should be studied by scholars

obstacle presented

by the Erasmian system

of pronunciation, pp. 1-7.

CHAPTER
On
The

II.

the Pronunciation of Greek.

opinion of Schleicher. What is meant by the general identity of

modern and ancient pronunciation. Modern pronunciation either

barbarized or legitimately developed. Difficulties of the former

alternative.
Examination of evidence regarding the original pronunciation of each letter. I. Vowels. II. Consonants. III. The
aspirate.

General conclusion, pp. 8-40.

CHAPTER

III.

Accent and Quantity.

Their connection in the law of accentuation.

All modern Greek

vowels not isochronous.

Syllables not necessarily lengthened by

stress.
Real explanation of the supposed conflict between accent
and quantity traced to our use of the Latin accent in Greek.

Erasmus and the

bear.

Insular character of our prejudice.

brings out, but does not obscure quantity.

How

is

Stress

emphasis

CONTENTS.

View of Mr. W. G.

given?

rhythm

in

poetry.

foundation of verse

Opposition of accent and quantity as the

not absolute.
Importance of quantity in

Accent heard

accentual verse.

Dominant importance of

Clark.

in

Musical

quantitative poetry.

rhythm. Error of ignoring the importance of ictus. Significance

of accent in ancient poetry. The rhythm of ancient Greek prose
destroyed by ignoring the accent, pp. 41-67.

CHAPTER
On

IV.

the Origin and Development of

Accidence.

physic.

logic, and metaMere accidence indepen-

Connection of grammar,

Origin not one, but various.

No

Modern Greek

rigid line of demarcation.

dent in a sense of the progress of thought. Levelling tendency.

common to ancient and
Tendency to metaplastic formations
:

modern Greek.

The

apparent metaplasms not simply such.

preservation of archaisms in the vulgar language. Analogies

in English.

Many

The

Grinfield lecturer

ciple of extended analogy.

The mixed
dialectic

declensions.

on the Septuagint.

The

prin-

Phrynichus and modern Greek forms.

Dialectic influences.
Archaisms and
artificial.
The Macedonian
The disappearance of the dative

forms of the Septuagint not

dynasty and the

KOIVT) 8id\fKTos.

case, pp. 68-84.

CHAPTER

V.

The Origin and Development of Modern Greek

Syntax.

modes of expression between modern and ancient Greek.

Compound tenses. Tendency to waste words, pp. 85-90.

Difference in

CHAPTER

VI.

Modern Greek Phraseology.

Euphemism.

The

The

influence

Eleatics, Sophists,

more

explicit

Cyrenaics.

of philosophy;

and Rhetoricians.

the Ionic philosophers.

Modern Greek

but less expressive than ancient.

The

Cynics.

Plato.

The

Stoics, pp.

particles

Socrates.

91-100.

The

CONTENTS.

CHAPTER
The

XI

VII.

Development of Modern from

Historical

Ancient Greek.

The Macedonian age. The language of the

and
the
New Testament not simply Hebraistic. MoSeptuagint
dernism of the Septuagint of Polybius and of the New Testa-

Hellenistic

Greek.

New

The age of
The
Byzantine period. Apoinscriptions.
phthegmata Patrum. Theophanes. Malalas. Leo the philosoment.

Nubian

Diocletian.

pher.

religious meaning of certain words.

Porphyrogenitus.

Theophanes Continuatus.

Specimens of

Close of
popular language in Scylitzes and Anna Comnena.
the mediaeval period. Theodoras Prodromus the first modern

Greek

writer, pp. 101-113.

CHAPTER
Dialects of
Asiatic.

Chiotic.

Cretan.

clension

Modern

and conjugation.

Greece.

Peloponnesian. Dialect of the

Its deIts Doricisms.

Cyprian.

The Tsakonian

Ionian Islands.

VIII.

dialect.

Traces of Semitic elements.

Tsako-

nian probably a lingua franca. Specimens of Tsakonian. Albanian

considered as modern Graeco-italic. Its alphabet partly Greek

and partly Latin.

Prepositions.

The

infinitive

mood.

Conjugation.

Pronouns.

Numerals, pp. 114-137.

CHAPTER
Modern Greek

IX.

Literature.

Rochoprodromus. Sethos. The Book of the Conquest. Belthandros

and Chrysantza.
Kornaros.
Chortakes.
Scuphos.
Gorgilas.
Rhegas.

Cumas.

Coraes.

Oekonomos.

Palle.

Nerulos.

Angelica

Christopulos.
Klephtic ballads. Belief in genii. AnaloCultivated Literature of the present
gies in the Old Testament.
day. Tricupes. Roides.
Asopios. Rangabes. Zalacostas. Va
laorites.

Conclusion, pp. 138-177.

CONTENTS.

XI 1

APPENDIX
On

the Greek of the Gospels of St.

St.

Preliminary considerations.
but not vernacular.

The

criticism, pp.

The

Testament popular,

The

Acts.

John.

Agreement with the

results of

179-188.

II.

Short Lexilogus, pp. 189-208.

Index of Greek and Albanian "Words,

pp. 209-216.

CORRIGENDA.
Page

33, line 9, for

.,

^6p8oAos read

fj.(p8a\cos.

130,

7-/or fyfa ren(l fyQov.

26, and elsewhere, for e8c read

141,

14,/or

35.

'>

artificial.

List of striking modernGospel according to St. Luke. His

St.

APPENDIX
A

New

Greek of the

Revelation.

modernisms.

John and

Luke.

Luke and the Acts somewhat

Frequency of modernisms in
isms.

I.

iTfpifiorjTov

read

i8{.

irtpifio-fjTov.

German

CHAPTER

I.

Introduction.

THE

present spoken and written language of Greece is

one of the most remarkable phenomena in the whole field of

and none the

less

remarkable, perhaps,
small amount of notice which it has met with.

philology,

It is

known

is

the

a strange and unparalleled fact, that one of the oldest

languages in the world, a language in which the

and deepest thoughts of the greatest poets, the

wisest thinkers, the noblest, holiest and best of teachers,
have directly or indirectly found their utterance in the farloftiest

ages of a hoar antiquity, should at this day be the

living speech of millions throughout the East of Europe
and various parts of Asia Minor and Africa ; that it should
off

have survived the

fall

of empires, and risen again and again

from the ruins of beleaguered cities, deluged but never

drowned by floods of invading barbarians, Romans, Celts,
Goths and Vandals, Avars, Huns, Franks and Turks ;
often the language of the vanquished, yet never of the dead ;
with features seared by years and service, yet still essentially
Slaves,

the

same

memory
Yet
its

it

instinct with the fire of

life,

and

beautiful with the

of the past.
is

perhaps

still

stranger, that while the records of

youth and manhood form the

lifelong study of thousands

INTRODUCTION.

England, France, Germany, and the rest of Europe;

nevertheless, almost the first symptoms of sickness and
in

decay were the signals for us all to forsake it, few of us

waiting to see whether its natural vigour had carried it on

most of us too

to a green old age, or whether, as

assumed,

it

was buried

easily

and had given place

best sunk into the dotage

in a quiet grave,

to a degenerate scion, or

had

at

of a second childhood.

seems hardly too much to say that our conduct in this

regard shows a kind of literary ingratitude which ought to
shock our moral sense. Greece has in various ages preserved
It

to us the succession of culture

when

For us

overrun with savages.

it

the rest of the earth was

has held the citadel of

civilization against the barbarism of the world,

the danger

is

over

trouble ourselves

we have
how

little

and now

forgotten our benefactor,

it

fares with him.

The

and
case

reminds us of the words of the Preacher, ' There was a little

and there came a great king
city, and few men within it
against it, and besieged it, and built great bulwarks against it.
;

Now

there

was found

in

wisdom delivered the

same poor man/

his

The
learned

it

a poor wise man, and he by

city; yet

reasons for this neglect are

men of the old school it

no man remembered

many and
is

due

various.

that

With

to a certain anti-

quarian bent of mind, amounting to a positive prejudice

The manner of life which
against everything modern.

such persons lead

is

not inaptly expressed in the words

of Southey:

'My

days

among

Around me

the dead are passed,

I behold.

Where'er these casual eyes are

The mighty minds of old.

My

cast,

never-failing friends are they,

With

whom

I converse night

and

day.'

INTRODUCTION.

To
whom
the

those extreme devotees of the

Aristotle

of

last

is

3
'

good old times

'

to

the last of philosophers and Augustine

theologians,

dead

of

whom

and

with

itself

almost the best reason for

the

fact

that

a language

is

studying

the discovery that the elder and nobler of the

it,

is

tongues Greek and Latin is as really alive as it was

Homer, can hardly be expected to prove
welcome. This is, however, less and less the spirit of the

two

sister

in the days of

own day. The

Grammar has opened

study of Sanscrit and Coma new field and awakened

learned in our
parative

new

Now

interest.

least a certain value,

all

languages,

new

or old, have at

even though they be as barbarous and

destitute of literature as

most persons suppose the language

of modern Greece to be.

Again, from quite a different quarter a reaction has arisen

against the exclusiveness of the old school; a reaction

which forms part of the great

utilitarian

movement of

this

nineteenth century.
The voice of the middle class, which
has found a powerful spokesman in one of our most distinguished statesmen, himself a scholar of no mean attainments,
has been heard to declare, in the words of a Wise Man of old,
that

'

live

dog

is

better than a

dead

lion.'

The remaining

reasons for the general neglect of the

language of modern Greece may be briefly summed up as
follows
the political insignificance of the nation the ob:

scurity

of

its

literature;

the

small

practical

use

of the

language; and last, but perhaps not least, the prevalence,

in our own land
especially, of the Erasmian system of pronunciation.
With reference to the first point, a few words
may not be out of place.

The

political insignificance

long duration.

in education as the

was

established,

of Greece cannot be of very

people which has made such rapid

Greek

nation, since

its

must be worth something

B 2

strides

independence

after

all.

The

INTRODUCTION.

4
of

evils

national

place-hunting,

and party

resources,

strife,

squandered

bankruptcy,

are inseparable for the present

from a nation so suddenly called into existence, and composed of such very raw materials as was the Greek nation
in 1828.

are evils deeply

by the large majority

of the people, and there are many signs that they are on
the way to removal.
As a hopeful symptom, I would refer

They

felt

to the appearance of a very ably edited illustrated periodical,

now

issued monthly in Paris, and supported by influential

Greeks wherever the Greek language is read and under-

stood.

It

entitled

is

'

'EdviKT)

'

or

'ETri&wpj/o-is/

National

Review,' and contains articles, both original and translated,

on every branch of Science, Literature, and Art. But the
great importance and significance of the work appears to me
to be the wholesome truth which it desires, as the chief
object of

The

'

publication, to inculcate

its

Revue

November,
question

de

1869,

the

Greek mind.

'

Tlnstruction

thus

on

Publique

comments on

4th

of

periodical

in

the

for

the

'

Les r^dacteurs de VEOviK^j 'EiriOtuprjcris se proposent de faire p^netrer

dans leur pays les notions scientifiques dont 1'absence nuit, en Grece,
au developpement de 1'agriculture, du commerce et de 1'industrie.
.

Persuades que la principale cause de 1'abaissement de la Grece est dans

le manque de routes publiques, ils feront tous leurs efforts
pour

combattre

ruineuse d'unc

['institution

restauration de la nation hellcSnique, a

(de drachmes), et pour tacher de faire

armre

inutile,

qui,

depuis

la

dvore

plus de trois cents millions

couler dans le domaine de 1'agri-

culture et de 1'industrie ces flots d'or et d'argent depensds sans raison.'

With regard to modern Greek literature, that it is obscure

must be admitted, but that its obscurity is well merited is
by no means so certain. To begin with the Epic poetry
of modern Greece, Belthandros and Chrysantza is without
'

'

more imaginative poem than

question a far
genlied,'

and

compare

the

have

little

the

'

Niebelun-

doubt that any one who would

two, would feel that the former

is

the

work

INTRODUCTION.

The popular songs of the Greek

of a far superior genius.
mountaineers are acknowledged by every one who knows
them
In

to

be quite without

parallel.

poetry there are few writers, ancient or modern,

lyric

Christopulos would compare unfavourably. The

present polite literature of Greece has scarcely had time
to ripen, but one poet at least, Zalacostas, has certainly the
with

whom

marks of genius

and the prose productions of Greece are

already of sufficient

importance to

attract

notice

the

of

our best Reviews.

With respect to the practical usefulness of the language,

may remind those who are accessible to no other argument than that of direct utility, that a competent acquaintI

modern Greek will obviate the necessity of

engaging an interpreter when travelling in Greece, Turkey,

ance with

Egypt, and Asia Minor.

Greek, as the language of the

most thriving mercantile race, is the medium of communication between many of the various nations of the East.

The

real

importance

of

modern Greek

however,

is,

rather a matter for the attention of the scholar, than the

man

I will briefly point out what

of business or pleasure.
I conceive to be the real advantages derivable from the

study of
I.

modern Greek.
I

First,

will

mention what scholars

like

Ross and

Passow have already noticed, that great light may be

thrown on the meaning of classical authors from the study
But this is of course
of the modern Greek language.
especially to be looked for in proportion as the usage of
the writers departs from the recognized classical standard.
Hence the knowledge of modern Greek is of chief significance in the verbal criticism of the New Testament and
Septuagint.
II.

But

this is

not

all.

to show, that the idioms of

I believe,

and

hope

to

be able

modern Greek may be employed

INTRODUCTION.

6
in

manner

hitherto quite

unlocked

in the criticism

for,

of documents of doubtful age, as for example the Gospel

of St. John, with a view to determining the period at which
they were written.
III. Comparative philology derives no unimportant light
from modern Greek, because it preserves many archaic
forms, which are postulated by philologers, but not actually

found in any known ancient dialect.

The relation between accent and quantity in poetry
can never be fully nor fairly judged by any one who is
to be

IV.

not familiar with the sound of Greek read accentually, a

familiarity which can hardly be acquired apart from a

Greek

acquaintance with

practical

as

living

spoken

language.

The

pronunciation of Greek and the interchange of

certain letters within the limits of the Greek language is a
sealed mystery to those who are ignorant of the sounds

V.

which tne Greeks of the present day give to the

their alphabet

and

letters

of

their several combinations.

To
will

prove and illustrate the propositions here advanced

be the main object of the following work.

The
to

the

attention of the reader will be directed

question

of the

first

of

all

original pronunciation of Greek,

on account of

its philological importance, and partly

because the prevalence of the Erasmian system of pronunciation in the West of Europe, and in England especially,
where it may be said to have accomplished its own reductio

partly

ad absurdum,

has built up a wall of partition between the

themselves and those who make the Greek lan-

Greeks
guage

their

study,

which completely severs us from one

another.

How

small the resemblance between our pronunciation

of (f>vT(vcravTfs and the Greek
How can we wonder that
!

in QMifyoolyoosdntes,

he should

fail

to recognize his phitfyh-

INTRODUCTION.
Mutual disgust

sandes ?

a disparity.
find

it

When we

is

the natural result of so great

hear Greek spoken by Greeks,

we

seems to

us,

hard to believe that

this jargon, as

it

has any relation with the language we used to learn at

On the other hand, the Greek who is not well
school.
acquainted with the origin and history of the controversy
pronunciation, is liable to the mistake that a

on Greek
deliberate

insult

what are to him,

is

at

intended by those

who

his mother-tongue, a pronunciation which,

nious in

itself,

substitute for

any rate, the harmonious sounds of

must sound

to

him

however eupho-

at best like the

distortion, the ghastly caricature, of a familiar voice.

hideous

CHAPTER
On
'Eav ovv

/*?)

the Pronunciation of Greek.

fl8S> rf)v 8vva.jj.iv TTJS (pcuvrjs, tffoftai rq>

Kol & \a\u>v (V (pol Pdpffapos.

Das

II.

Sr. PAUL.

jC

Coo.

\a\ovvn

Pdpj3apo$'

l^'U

Altgriechische nach Art des Neugriechischen auszusprechen 1st ein

der auf vollstiindiger Unkenntniss der Sprachengeschichte

Fehler,

und der Lautlehre iiberhaupt beruht.

SCHLEICHER, Compendium der

Vergleicbenden Grammatik.

THE

avros c0a of so distinguished a philologist as Schlei-

to

cher,

pronounce ancient Greek like

a mistake founded upon complete igno-

the effect that to

modern Greek

is

rance of the history of languages and of the whole doctrine

of pronunciation, will probably be enough to set this question
at rest in the minds of most people.
The writer of these

pages ventures to dissent from

this

conclusion, which Pro-

Schleicher arrives at entirely on ^ priori grounds,

betraying at the same time a very insufficient acquaintance
fessor

with

modern Greek pronunciation.

acknowledged

It

must however be

that the theory of pronunciation

which Pro-

fessor Schleicher rather leaves to be inferred, than states as

the one to which he inclines, has the striking merit of consistency,

system.

and

is

far superior to

any form of the Erasmian

ON THE PRONUNCIATION OF GREEK.

Nor would we be misunderstood when we

say that we
between
the
of
the
general identity
opinion
modern Greek pronunciation and that of ancient times.

favour the

We

do not mean

to say, for example, that the diphthongs

so called were never diphthongs in reality, or that

never pronounced

like

But

in haphazard.

ph

was
com-

<p

that

all

parative philology can prove, all that a priori reasoning requires, and, as I think we shall see, all that a posteriori

evidence for the most part allows us to believe, is, that the
above letters were so pronounced in some pre-historic period
of language,

which

when Greek was forming, when

consists

it

were in a

state of fusion.

How

has nothing to do with the question,

pronounce Greek

able to

the pages of

From

as

we

find

the elements of

This, however,

is it

most reason-

for the first time in

it

Homer ?

that time,

and we know not

earlier, the language,

have passed over

it,

how many

for

the

notwithstanding

remained in

stereotyped and fixed,

words and the manner

all

its

centuries

changes which

essential features

especially as regards the forms of

in which they are written.

Now,
stand with the a priori argument ? Is it most
likely that the forms have been preserved, but the pronunciation utterly corrupted, or that both have been handed

how does

it

us together?
To believe the first is to believe
to
the
whole
analogy of what we know of
contrary
other languages.
Since Sanscrit was Sanscrit, who doubts

down

to

what

is

pronunciation has been in the main preserved?

Since German was German, who questions the fact that it

that

the

was sounded

as

it

now

is ?

Or how can we

believe that

Chaucer, whose English differs from our own as regards the

grammatical forms more than Homer from Romaic, if read

by us

in the present day,

would be perfectly

unintelligible

to himself?

Again, the following argument must

commend

itself

to

ON THE PRONUNCIATION OF GREEK.

10

If the modern Greek pronunevery one's understanding.

ciation be not the same with that known to the ancients, it

must

either be a legitimate development from it, unaffected

external
influence, or it must be a corruption, the result
by
If a legitimate development, then no
of foreign admixture.
one can fix a priori the limits of its first appearance ; and it

may

be as old as

just as well

Homer

as not.

If

it

be the

contact with foreign influences, then it will be

possible to explain the peculiarities of modern Greek pronunciation from such external causes.
Here we may at
result of

once eliminate Turkish, because we know that at the first

appearance of the Turkish supremacy in Greece, hundreds
of families fled to the

West of Europe, bearing with them

that very system of pronunciation

still

use, but

which learned Europe universally allowed

What

the time of Erasmus.

tonic, Slavonic,

ou the

which not only the Greeks

Roman.

then

until

French, Teu-

But none of these throw any

light

peculiarities of Greek pronunciation, as the sounds

given to

y, 0, 5, pfi, HIT, v8, vr, 01,

tration mainly,

et, 77,

and indeed almost

t,

uniformity of

which receive

exclusively,

Again, the general, though by

itself.

us

is left

illus-

from Greek

no means complete

modern Greek pronunciation wherever

the

another very strong argument for its

spoken,
language
antiquity, and against its being a corruption resulting from
The fate of Latin has been
contact with other languages.
is

is

In the Spanish dialect of modern Latin we

very different.
the
trace
influence of Arabic, in Italian of Teutonic,
clearly
in

France of Celtic sounds.

though the countries where

In Greek, on the other hand,

spoken are as widely distant,

and the foreign influences to which it has been subject as
diverse,

same

we

find,

it is

with very

trifling

dialectic

universal traditional pronunciation

unlearned

alike.

variations,

among

the

learned and

In Egypt, in Asia Minor, on the shores of

the Euxine, in Constantinople, in Athens, in Crete, in the

ON THE PRONUNCIATION OF GREEK.

11

Aegean, the pronunciation presents the greatest harmony

controjust in respect of those letters on which the whole
versy turns.

We

now proceed

one by one, the peculiar

features of Greek pronunciation, and collect the evidence on
the subject supplied by MSS., ancient inscriptions, the notices
of grammarians, transcriptions into Latin and the Semitic
shall

to notice,

languages of Greek words, &c., as it bears upon each parAt the same time we shall endeavour to
ticular sound.

show what we hold

general identity of

to

be in

the strongest proof of the

ancient Greek pronunciation,

itself

modern and

namely, that exactly the same letters appear to be interchangeable in ancient as in modern Greek. Had' the letters

changed their force, this extraordinary

coincidence, which would then have to be regarded as the
result of mere accident, would be positively inexplicable.

in question altogether

may present a more

the
corresponding changes in modern
complete appearance,
be
and ancient Greek will
given, even where there is no

In order that this part of the evidence

letters.

We

as a in

most

controversy with respect to the sound of the

will begin with

VOWEL SOUNDS.
A.
This

letter

is

pronounced by the Greeks

It has
languages, or as ah, or the a in father in English.
never been doubted that this was the original sound of a.

Schleicher, however, points out that besides the

cation of a into

an original a

is

o, a,

and

77,

and

its

first intensifi-

further intensification into <,

often frequently represented

by

or

o.

Thus,

besides the dialectic forms fiepeQpov epoyv for fiapadpov apa-rjv,

we have K\eos for xXafas, from grdvas, 7rXe7o> or TrXeto from

pldvdmi, pe'F) from srdvdmi, (pepea-m answering to bhdras?, &c.

So too in modern Greek we get riVora for TiVore, as in

ON THE PRONUNCIATION OF GREEK.

12
Aeolic,

for Kpa/3/3cmoi>, pcrrdvi for pafpdvtov, CVTOV for

Kpe/3j3unoi>

from

auTot), ayytfoo for cyyifa,

fyyvs.

As examples of a interchanged
Greek the Aeolic

with

we have

o,

= (TTparos
orporos ova ovex^p^o-f

fjuftpoTov for ijuftparov,

i.

e. TJfyiaproi/,

and

o/iitos

in ancient

avto dff^cop^tre,

ap.a, OJK.OS

and

ayxoy,

In modern Greek we have, in

oppo)Sea>

and

manner,

KarafioBpa for Karafiddpa, apfj-adia for 6pp.a8id.

dppo>5e&>.

like

Com-

pare the classical ,3o0pos with @d6pov, eVi/Sdtfpa.

Schleicher observes that the three terminations of contract
verbs, aw,
in

ea>,

and

were

oo>,

modern Greek

>

is

language of the

in the

in ancient

Greek

originally but one, viz.

always represented by

common

for TreptTraretTe,

all

is

As

people.

<po[3a<rai

for

ao>,

dco.

So

at least

^/ratt for frrfl,

<po/3ettrat,

i.e.

seldom weakened into

0oj3^

v,

or

yet this

appears to have been the case in vvg, ovvg, KVK\OS, p.v\os, and
a few other words, as p.v(rrag, which also appears in the form
fiao-ra, and ftvdos, which is found side by side with ftdOos.
In modern Greek

we

So,
get o-Kixpos for o-Kd<pos or O-KO^T/.
again, we have the diminutive appellation d<piov, as in x<pn(ptov, frequently represented by ixptov, as favfyiov.
In ancient Greek a is often weakened into t, as 10-61 for
ds-dhi,

-r(Qr)\Li

for dddhdmi.

Compare

in

modern Greek

^aXa, fyixa\ici, with the classical ^ands, ^aKafft.

as in ancient Greek,

and a for
becomes at, as
TriKpd,

>;,

we have

rj

as /SeXoVa for

for a,

^t*cpj)

/SfXoV?/.

alcrds, aid, dial, irapai.

KOTat/SaiVo), dvaiftatva, iriatvat

Atara, a covenant,

may

for

Tridvco,

for
in

So

in

bably an older one.

A is prefixed to many words more or

/uicpa, TTIKP?)

less

'A/Spvov,

dftporavov,

and many

others, in

for

Homeric Greek
modern Greek
KaOundw.

dt'atra,

and pro-

perhaps for the

sake of euphony, as d/SX^po'y, fampoirq, atrmdpa,

classical

In modern,

Ka6urratvt& for

be another form of

i-

dcrracpis,

in

d^3StXXa, d^pdp.u\ov for fipdftvXov,

modern Greek.

ON THE PRONUNCIATION OF GREEK.

13

E.

Pronounced

German a

like the

made
ginal

Manner.

in

of which

letter,

o is

As a

s>

representative of an ori-

interchangeable with that

ancient ; OX&POS for fx@P s %>

>

Conversely, e&Wes for

'
ancient and "EKvp-nos for

modern Greek.

for eo>, in

'A7reAAwi> for 'ATro'AAwi/, in

e\^e for m//*, in

modern Greek.

eKflvos,

in ancient

fie,

more

broader,

is

it

another,

as OX&POS for ex&P

little

This sound has never been

the subject of dispute.

a,

only a

like e in better,

fp.e,

It is also prefixed,

TOVTO,

e'rovro,

o-e,

eVe,

as

(ru,

ccrv,

in

modern Greek.
H.
This

letter is

ee in see,

nounced

or

pronounced by the Greeks

e in

and

it,

fo;
still

like

t,

that

is

like

while the followers of Erasmus propronounce it, as the Italian e long, i.e.

Hence in the early days of the controversy

as ey in they.
concerning the original sounds of the Greek letters, Reuchlin
and his adherents, who favoured the modern Greek pronunciation, were

called the Itacists or lotacists,

Erasmians received the

title

of Etacists.

while the

The name

is

un-

fortunate, because just the one point in which the advocates

of the modern pronunciation would be most inclined to

make a concession
sound of the

That

T)

letter

was

to their adversaries, is with regard to the

;.

originally the representative of a

sound

dis-

from i is etymologically certain, inasmuch as in the

Ionic dialect, and in certain cases in Attic, 17 stands for the
doubly strengthened a, whereas i is a weakened a, in the
tinct

few cases where

are cases where
ftnr\r]crtos.

short

t.

In

it

T]

represents

At the same time there

it.

represents a short

these

instances

17

a,

as

in recrcrapriKovTa,

may perhaps

stand for

ON THE PRONUNCIATION OF GREEK.

14

E. Sophocles, in his Introduction to the

'

Glossary of Later

and Byzantine Greek/ London, 1868, adduces the authority

of Dionysius of Halicarnassus, Aelianus Herodianus, Terentianus Maurus, and Sextus, to prove that the sound of

rj

day from

differed in their

and was

t,

like the

long Italian

<?.

Dionysius says, in pronouncing rj the breath strikes the roots

of the tongue, in sounding i the back of the teeth. This,
though a very vague distinction, is not altogether inapplicable

between the sounds of ay and ee. Herodian simply says people are mistaken in saying VTJO-TIJS for

to the difference

Here

v/Jorts.

may be very well one

Terentianus Maurus says, distinguishing

the difference implied

of quantity only.

between
nativitas
o-uoTuXev

long

and

Temporum momenta

fieV

TO

r\

yiWrai

short

rj

e,

e.

eKraQev

TO

fie

was sounded

T}

greatly to

In the

ay.

modify the value

first

place,

it

soni
*

thing, viz.

ylvtrai

Kal

That

r).'

is,

This would seem to a casual reader

Erasmians contend,

to prove the point for which the

that

non

distant,

and Sextus says much the same

;'

r)

'

77,

A
to

little

consideration

be attached to

viz.

serve

will

their testimony.

should be remembered they are

more

all

Romanized Greeks, in as far as they are Greeks at

all, and they would therefore
readily imagine that the
must or ought to be pronounced like the letter which they
or less

rj

used to represent it ; and as to them

cluded TI = e. Again,

e,

they naturally con-

is
rj
etymologically they were right
not only the strengthening or lengthening of a, but also of e.

As

cpa>Ta> rjptoTTjcra, eVey/cco fjveyKov,

cvpu

r)vpov.

was considered by the ancients as a long f, so

was
for the old name of
was ft, according to the principle which governed the original nomenclature of the Greek
Again,

if

rj

and which was that each

So o was called
long sound.

alphabet,

by

its

letter
ov,

yet

should be

named

no one supposes

really the long sound of o, because we know that

ov was always transcribed in Latin by u.
Equally certain is

that ov

was

THE PRONUNCIATION OF GREEK.

OAT
that

it

vowel

was almost invariably represented by the simple

ft

Consequently we are led to the concluwould be respectively the representatives

and ee, which are their exact phonetic

i in Latin.

sion that ov and

ei

of the English oo

For

parallels.
te

ov actually stands for oo in

ov

xp v<r

e. g.

15

xp vcr

as in English so in

v v ) <popeere

Greek

it is

(popeire.

for
Greek, and
In other words,

long sounds

plain, that certain

actually to certain short ones, of which, ac-

corresponded
cording to a priori phonetic

rules, they could not have been

the representatives. An approximation to the English long e
may be seen in the Dutch double e, and in the Hungarian /.

That

and

were very similar in sound is rendered highly

probable both by the fact that they were each held to be the
representatives of a long e, and that they were interchange77

able even within the limits of the

not only
KKfis

or

KTJVOS

and

same

So we have

dialect.

T^VOS for Ktivos, but also /3ouAei

and

xXftf, <\eiTos

Nor does

K\T)TOS.

and

jSouX^,

the Latin tran-

scription of 77 by e prove that it was sounded ay : for the

Latin e represented very often an
and on the other hand
<?z",

tended to become, and therefore probably closely resembled

in sound, the simple I.
So we have tristes from tristeis,
written tristis ; Vergilius written Virgilius, &c.
and not only
but
in
the
is
in
transcribed
so,
Byzantine period designatus
Greek dio-iyvdros while, on the other hand, Plutarch writes
:

Palilia, Ua\r]\ia

scription of

77

'.

by

where plainly
e in

77

= long

So

i.

that the tran-

Latin inclines us to believe, not that

17

was sounded
from

ay, but that e in Latin was hard to distinguish

When shortened, 77 tends to become *, not only in

I.

ancient

but also in

modern Greek,

Ionic for ^po's, dvadep.a for

ep6s for

Irjpdy,

Oepiov for

dvd6rip.a

drjpiov,

as for example, Sepoy,

and

in

modern Greek,

pepiov for pripiov, Kfpiov for

Krjpiov.

Of the
of

very close resemblance between

Homer,

that

is

and

77

in the time

between the sounds represented in

later

ON THE PRONUNCIATION OF GREEK.

16

times by i and 77 respectively, we have, Professor Mullach

thinks, instances in the parallel forms TJKCD and t*a>, (iriftoXos

and

seems to be simply i lengthened by

C7n]fio\os (where
combined force of the accent and the ictus), yiyas and
yrjyevqs, which two forms we have together in the Batra77

the

chomyomachia,
FrjyevcGW avbpwv

from

7n'Sa

mjSaa),

stands for long

rjSe

p,ip.ovp,fvoi

and

I&F.

epya yiydvrav,

In

many

of these cases

in others for a shortened

77,

an inscription found
rjpwuv.

The

derives

all its little

Carpathus in which

at

Ross gives

77.

ipaa>v

stands for

significance of this would depend greatly on the

In the Cratylus of Plato, the
antiquity of the inscription.
false
of
obviously
A^r^p from 8i8a>/u and /^rr/p,
etymology

77-

and

So

81-.

plausibility

from the resemblance between

in Aristophanes' Pax, 925, the point of a

pun depends upon the resemblance in sound between &oi

and porjQelv, and again, 928, between m and tyvia.
Nor
should the later parallel forms Trpiorr]? and Trpfjcms, o-Kqirav and
o-KiTrav, with the Latin Scipio, which Plutarch writes S/crjTnW,

be forgotten.
All the Semitic transcriptions, of whatever age, agree in

representing 77 by
according to M. Renan, in his very
learned and interesting pamphlet, Eclaircissements tire's des
*',

'

Langues

se'mitiques sur quelques points de la Prononciation

grecque.'

Thus

in the Syrian Peschito

K^ar =

Ktfo,

Kvprjvr)

= Kourini.
In
/3^/xa,

Hebrew we have
diathiki for

Tarschisch for Tap^o-o-tfc, lima for

8ta0T)Kr], listis

In Aethiopian, paraclilos =

for

\rja-TTjs.

irapdKXrjTos,

mestir for

/iucrr^ptoi/.

In Arabian, Dimas for Afoas.

In the eighth century after Christ, Theophilus of Edessa,
a Syrian astronomer who enriched his literature by translations

from the

Iliad

and Odyssee, introduced a system of

ON THE PRONUNCIATION OF GREEK.

Ij

which M. Renan thinks must have represented

a pronunciation reaching back to a very early age, and in
vocalization,

which the
In the
fXaKTio-c,

letter

New

are

appears as an

Testament,

no doubt

turned on

errors in spelling, but they

early prevalence of the confusion of

It is

not of

much importance

??

with

2aXa0i)jX

because

r;

Greek the Hebrew

was the only letter left

.I,

the

as in

'E/z/iai/ouTjX,

for this purpose,

the rest having been appropriated to the

all

show

so too

that 9 represents in Alexan-

drine and Hellenistic

:

its side.

KajutXo? for Ka/z^Xoy, e'XaKT^o-e for

Hebrew sounds

which they most resembled.

There is another passage in Plato's Cratylus, 418 c, bearing on the sound of the letter r?, to the consideration of

which we must devote a few

both by the
their views.

fJKicrTa

and

It is this

Of TraXaioi

ov%

Itacists

it

has been claimed

of f)fJiTpoi TO) laird KOI T<u SeXrct cv

/xaXa e'xpairro,

feat

al yvvaiKfs, airrep /uaXicrra rr]v ap-^aiav (fxavrjv <ra>bv<rt.

NUJ/ avr\ p.v TOV 'Iwra

fjiev

lines, as

Etacists respectively in support of

ap^aiOTarot ipepav

TJ

Ei

TTJV

T
r)

Hra

rjp.fpav

p.fTacrTp(povcri.

Olov of

fKaXovv, of 8e e/xepav, of 5e vvv

rjpepav.

Here

it

the former

seems we must read, instead of

77

connecting

fj

^Ura, simply *Hra,

'lira ^ Et.

The Erasmians are so

the passage, that we must

far right in their interpretation

of

agree with them in thinking that if

Plato had not recognized a difference between i and 77, he
would scarcely have distinguished the two as he has done ;

but

if

we

are really to believe that he

meant

77

to represent

the sound ay in day, then the result is most alarming for the
defenders of the Erasmian system, inasmuch as we have it

on the authority of Plato that the pronunciation of ^ra as

so far from being an innovation as the Erasmians con,

ON THE PRONUNCIATION OF GREEK.

tend,

was the most ancient sound of that

be that Plato

The

letter.

truth

thinking merely of the quantity of

which
he distinguishes. He speaks of
the respective sounds
than t or e, /xe-yaXoTrpeTreo-repov by which
77 as a grander sound

appears to

is

he can only mean that it is longer or fuller.

In any case he must have been wrong, at
the general principle

for neither

least as regards

can we believe that the

tendency to lotacism was an archaism which has been

revived quite lately in modern Greek, inasmuch as we can
trace the tendency throughout the historical period of the

more and more strongly marked

language grows older nor, on the other hand, can we

Greek language, and

as the

find

it

believe that long vowels like 9 were originally represented

short ones like

by

f.

knew of

course nothing whatever of the now ascertained principles of philology, and he was led to his conclusions probably by the knowledge of the fact that f^fpa was
Plato

found in ancient documents and inscriptions written, in dewhich was not_used as a vowel until
77,

fault of the letter

the Archonship of Euclides, 403 B.C.,

this

that

view be correct, we
the

was by

may

e>e'pn

to

appeal

or l^pa.

Plato

most ancient way of representing the

in

If

proof

letter

77

t.

The Scholiast on Eurip. Phoen. 685 tells us expressly that

before the time of Euclides t was used for 17, o for oyie'ya.
Theodosius the Grammarian, who lived in the fourth century
was formed by joining two
after Christ (?), assures us that
77

This

of course impossible, inasmuch as

t's together.
was originally used as the sign of the aspirate, but it shows
was considered as equivaat any rate that by Theodosius
is

77

T)

lent to a long or double

The well-known
noticed
1

line

t.

of Cratinus

still

remains to

'O

8'

T]\i6ios

&(TTTfp irpoftarov

fir/

j3r}

\tya>v

be

ON THE PRONUNCIATION OF GREEK.

19

Everybody feels, it is argued, that to represent the bleating

of a sheep by a sound equivalent to /3T, /3I, the vowel being
sounded as ee in see, would be inadmissible.

we must

confess that the attempts to render the

noises of animals by the articulate sounds of pepoTrav dvdpaAfter

Trav,

all,

are very diverse and very unsatisfactory.

understand their

tempt to reduce

language, and
it

is

We

do not

hopeless for us to at-

The German

peasant hears

Greek ear seemed

to distinguish

to writing.

his frogs say acht, achl, the

it

the mysterious syllables PpfUfKCKeg. In English the very word

bleat shows the possibility of associating an ee sound with the

Yet we think our sheep say bah, bah,

noise of the sheep.
and I confess the Greek sheep seemed to me to say so too.
this may have been a Doricism.
As however the letter y could hardly have been in use as a
vowel when Cratinus wrote, it is nearly certain that he must

But

perhaps simply /3e', /3e'. This being

so, the whole argument of the Erasmians falls to the ground
as a demonstration in unreal matter.'

have written

/See,

$ee, or

'

I.

Pronounced unquestionably as
which
under

it

interchangeable have been, or

is

letters

will be,

with

noticed

their respective heads.

O
Both sounded nearly

The

in saw.

and indeed

o>

like o in core, gore, shorn, or like

is

rather

felt

aw

than heard,

beginning of a syllable sounds short, and

Ao'yoy sounds \a>-yos ; irpaysyllable, long.

at the

end of a

fjLariKms,

TTpaynaTiKos.

likely

and

distinction in quantity

o at the

seems

The

ee in see.

That

this

from the accent

was so

in

ancient Greek

in TrdXewy, povoKcputs, &c.

almost impossible to preserve the pure sound of o

C 2

It is

when

ON THE PRONUNCIATION OF GREEK.

20

much

Our o in note is not strictly the o in not

lengthened.
6 rapidly followed by do, as in boot.
the
sound
but
lengthened,
Double

sounds

in

English as

it

did in Greek, simply

do.

Ou was one form of long o, and w/xeya was another, the latter
used no doubt in those cases where the o sound was still

Thus

preserved.

form

for o

Greek

it

that

is

we have

povpya for dpopyrj,

modern Greek,

for

ov^coj/t'^o),

strengthened

modern

povxTfpos,

modern Greek, and many

Ou stands more frequently for

in

ou as a

e. g. JJLOVVOS, ouAd/ifz/or, fio^drjpos,

others.

w, as yovv, ovv for y&v,

3>v

so

Kifiovpi for Kiftwpiov, Kov<pbs for Koxjkdr, \l/ovviaa

&C.

as a vowel.

The modern Greeks

generally pronounce this letter

Schleicher
long
simply
says it was originally
sounded like the German or Italian u, but soon acquired

as

i.

the sound of the

is

preserved

in

German

u, or

French

u.

The

old sound

numberless modern Greek words, which

be regarded as Boeotic' forms, like yowrj for ywr).

may
Here follow a few examples, taken for the most part from
all

Sophocles'
,

'Modern Greek Grammar:'

dyicouXa, ayxvpa, tiyKovpa, rvKavij, dovKavrj (cf. in

Homer

for TVTTOs), (TTOVpaKlOV fOT (TTVpCtKlOV, KO\\OVpa for KoXAvpd,

Tpovrra for rpvira, <TKOV\OS for (TKuXoy, KouXXos for KuXXdy, povKavij

for pvKavr],

to

which we

Doric or Boeotic form for

for p-vpfjivpifa, povpfuyyi

may add

KOVTO\IOV,

KVTO\IOV,

e. o-KiraXtoz>,

from

i.

undoubtedly a
/xov^/ioupi^a)

p.vpp.T)g.

In Chios, Thessaly, and Macedonia, according to Professor Mullach, the U sound is still heard.

The Tsakones at present inhabiting the ancient Cynuria,

whose name Professor Mullach thinks may be a corruption
of the ancient KavKoves, have preserved to us another
peculiarity of the pronunciation of v, namely, its tendency to

ON THE PRONUNCIATION OF GREEK.

be sounded

we have

like the

English

VIOVTTO. for VVKTO,

i.

e.

u, viz.yoo.

Thus

in

21

Tsakonian

w.

Boeotian inscriptions we have Aioviovo-tos, AioiWa?,

I suspect however, from the examples ad'OXiowTnWof.
duced, that both in the case of Tsakonian and Boeotian

So

in old

represents the liquid sound of X and v before u, as in

modern Greek generally is the case whenever these letters

the

stand before

v,

t,

T]

and

similar sounds.

generally represented by ou
as kindounos oksoufafon for KtvSwos ogvftcxpov.

In Syrian transcriptions v
(English

00),

Similarly in the

is

Chaldaean of Daniel, Soumphonia =

Svptycwia.

here remark, by the way, that to propose a Semitic

this and other Greek words in Daniel, is what
for
origin
dea-iv 8ia(f)v\dTT(ov.
And not only
no one could do, et
I

may

so, but the words in question, both as regards their form

and signification, are evidently not earlier than the Macca-

baean period.
form enough

J'nnJpa tyavrepiv for ^aXrrjptov

for the

Koivf)

didXeKros

a natural

is

which arose

after the

Macedonian conquests, but would be inexplicable before

that time.

Coptic

and Aethiopian

transcriptions

thinks, the Boeotic

largely prevailed

with

agree

earlier Syrian in transcribing v as ov, following, as

M. Renan

and Aeolic pronunciation which,

among

the

it

seems,

the Greek-speaking populations of

the East.

In later Syriac however, as in the Peschito version of

the New Testament, we find i as the representative of v, according to the prevailing, though not universal, modern Greek
usage as Evroclidon = EupoKXvSaw, Didimos = Aidvpos, clamis =
:

In Sountico for SiWu^os the accented

syllable preserves the 00 sound, while the unaccented has
That the unaccented v was the first to become i
lost it.

xhap.vs,

hili=v\r].

we may
dov

infer

and

from the
/u,dXi/3off,

common

<^ITVU>

and

occurrence of such words as

^vTevto, pdpfSiXos

and

/3pd/3vXos,

ON THE PRONUNCIATION OF GREEK.

22

and such endings as -rjpos, -vpos, -vXoj, -iXo'y, -77X0?, used

apparently without any distinction in
indifferently, and
as

meaning,

dyKvXor,

\iyvpos,

avarrjpos,

7roiKi\os,

ctri)Xoff,

Neither accent nor quantity seem

orpo'^iXoy, a1crv\os, tyrjXos.

such words; yet v\os seems most often

paroxytone; when the accent is removed the tendency to
become 77X0? or iXos would seem to increase. In Latin a
to

be very fixed

in

short unaccented u also

becomes

easily

2',

as in maximus,

maxumus, optumus^ another instance of the

optimus, for

way

which the lotacizing tendency in Greek is paralleled in

Latin.
There are many instances, however, of an accented
in

becoming

witness

and

/3u/3Xo?

and

/3//3Xoy, fipi-6a>

/3pvo>, (pirpov, (pvrpa, pvy^os and pis, pinrru) and piirTa>

also nvd- and mO-, TTVO-TI? and irians, p-ixros (perhaps

and

p.lcros, ^fiBios

6iov.

E and

and

wfiiV, ^L^Lp.vdiov

"*l/ip.p.i-

and

/cXrjToy,

from

<rTvpa

also

fcXfiToy,

on/pffo), (p\r)vbs

and

crrOXo?

and

from

or^Xr/,

<p\w6s.

<pi\va>

In Arabic, Aethiopian, and Persian transcriptions

nearly always represented as /: Kipros, asicriton,

and so on,

and

p.vaos)

v are also interchangeable, as in fivKdop-ai

K\vrbs

and

and

^vdios, oSwr;

ftapvda>,

probably

'.

for Kvn-pos, do-vyKpirov, (Tvvyf, irv\as.

sizi'ge,

The

is

pilas,

Septua-

gint follows here, as in other cases, the lotacist pronunciation.

In

the

Oovydrrjp

Aeolic

The same

ov

dialect

but more often

t,

as

sometimes

stands

for

u,

as

i^-oy, tVe/>.

three gradations

are

found in German

as

South pronounced as finf; so nutzlich,

Uber stands in Martin Opitz, the
and nitzlich.

funf, ftinf, in the

niitzlich)

founder of what

is

called the

first

Silesian School in

literature in the

seventeenth century, for

South sounds as

iber.

Even in
and giltig,

and Gebirge, gultig

and Sprichwort are used
and fancy of the writer.

iiber,

German

which

in the

the written language, Geburge

Hiilfe

and

Hilfe, Spriichwort

indifferently according to the taste

ON THE PRONUNCIATION OF GREEK.

AT
are

pronounced

German when

the v stands

aw and ew

as

in

between two vowels or before

cases as

in other

a medial;

ET

and

modern Greek

in

23

or

e<

respectively.

The

English letters v and/" are only approximations to the Gerand v in English, and in
man zv = @, and the Greek <.
are
made
most European languages,
by means of the upper

in German, are formed

one
who compares the
Any
two sets of sounds by pronouncing A/3 or Av-, and Av, A$,
or Av and Af, in rapid succession, will see how much nearer
the Greek /3, or v consonantal, and <p, are to the vowel

teeth

and the under

<,

lip,

j3,

and

by the contact of both lips.

sound

The

tions.
is

or even u (French), than the English approxima-

oo,

marked by
It

is

from

transition

oo (u Italian)

to

(German)

the English w.

worthy of observation that v never stands

at the

beginning of a word of Saxon origin; while in the middle

of a word it generally represents either b or f; but very

German

Saxon w.
That ov and cv were sounded as a/3 and e/3, if followed by
a vowel, is generally admitted, and this is according to the

seldom,

if

ever, the

or

analogy of Sanscrit.
In these cases the v represents the digamma, which in
its turn
represents the Sanscrit or old Indian v, so-called,
but what in reality is the consonantal sound of u = oo, into

changed if followed by another

=
vowel, as in grdvas, pldvdmi, srdvdmi nXef-'os, TrXepco, peFi.
The modern Greek forms TrXfuw, pevoo preserve the F, as u
which the vowel sound

is

consonantal.

But there are signs that at a very early period the

consonantal sound of v was heard even before a consonant.
In Syriac, av and
Pavlos,

Avgoustos;

ev

are rendered av

and

evkaristia = ev^a/no-Tia,

ev,

as Evroclidon,

evtikis

ON THE PRONUNCIATION OF GREEK.

24
It

true that av in Syriac represents also

is

to,

as lavseph =

and M. Renan suggests that

'Icoo-qcp,
av in Syriac was pronounced au (German), which is possible
but in any case there is the fv = ev remaining. Av and o>,
are plainly nearly related,
as well as the Latin au and
Bariavna

for Bapicow

<?,

whatever

may

Bapa, lautus,

Oavfia,

rpco/za,

have been their pronunciation

So

amavit, amavt, amo.

In

in

modern Greek

lotus,

as rpavpa,

Claudius, Clodius, aut,

modern Greek

p.avpos,

M&pos,

o,

avriov,

sometimes becomes

also

tv

o>,

as

with which we may compare euXaxa, a

>//-a>p.ara,
Laconian form of auXa, and the form o>Xa, also Doric.
In MSS. we have the double forms \avpos and Xa/3por, \avpa
,

and

Xo/9pa,

and

KaXaupoox//-

cannot doubt, for av +

= avs

vdvs, and other adverbs.

mated deva> and eo>, and

Homer

In

KaXa/Spwi//

a\|/>

is,

being added, as in OVTWS

and

e^-w, the sig-

Compare fo'^oo
modern Greek e7n'o-Te\//a, Ka-^ts,
The Homeric word fydifjw is
Kavo-is.
for
7ricrTfva-a,
&c.,
derived by Liddell and Scott in a procrustean manner from
and the 6, being a mere
tyi, 6Ip.os, notwithstanding the long
in

ending, while the

last

analogy, elided

all
1

ou

KaiTTtp

of i$i

between

<

is

and

ov TOIOVTOLS

pa8tov

violently,

and contrary

to

6.

dv8pd(riv

dirt(TT('iv,'

must

is no such ending as 0Z/zoy; and,

one
thing certain about <p0, it is that
secondly,
no vowel has been dropt between the two letters. Let us,
however, admit the identity of the Homeric and modern

submit,

that there

first,

if

there

is

pronunciation, and we see at once that i$0ijuos is but another

way of writing r/#0u/*or, the Epic form of fvdvpos. Here

every single letter

has been
with

<p#iVo>
i)

lost.
:

With

as

is

accounted

Probably
well

<p&ii/o

as

&Vo>,

6ta>,

and the accent and

for,

In Wvs for ev8vs

quantity as well.

it

0W,

Qodfa,

appears that the (p

6iva are connected

66os,

OCLTTOV,

Sanscrit

ON THE PRONUNCIATION OF GREEK.

25

AI.

This combination as pronounced by the Greeks is not to

be distinguished from e. So we get in the grammarians
tyeKas and \lfaiKas, while ye- in the compounds seems to
AiVv?, high, lofty,

represent yai-.

and

from

tyri\6s,

becomes

At-oV

stands for

virep) to
edv.

<paiyya>.

tions

and

at

KttiwfUf fdopa

from

is

and

re

suggest the same.

and

for

The

and

a/na^T/roy,

ptvof,

p,aifj.da)

instead of

often

stands for the Sanscrit

(^epecrat, (frfpeTni,

interjec-

stands for

at

for

fiF/iaco,

e.

or X

'7

"

'

5'?

are

It invariably
at,

as

short as a rule, both

in

in the verbal termination

for bhdrase, bhdrate.

At the end of a word

at

is

prosody, as also before a following vowel in scansion,

renders

X mTT7

a/n6fia^eroy,

>

show how

according to

are,

from x e/co implying the verbal adjective x e

sufficient to

and probably

(paivco,

Kei/6s for Kaibvbs, related to

alapa, paivQfuu

dp.aifj.aKTOs for a/AaKeTos

rt.

same word.

Curtius, but two forms of the

e

VTTCITOS, v-^na-ros,

(cf.

be connected with

3>eyyo>

Kat

seems

which

absolutely certain, that, in such cases at least,

it

could not have been sounded as a diphthong. Schleicher

considers the termination of the second person plural pas-

it

sive

to stand for -a-dpe,

-a-6e,

which

is

short for -a-Bfai -

The

diphthongal sound of at, as of the other sodiphthongs, was probably heard only when it was
written with a diaeresis, as is the case at present in modern
-sdhvai.

called

Greek.

was represented by ae, as Aeacus, Aeneas,

Maenades, and ae was most undoubtedly a monophthong,
In Latin

much

so

at

so that

if

the metre required

archaic representative at

its

was used,

it

be diphthongal,

to

as terrai frugiferai.

In Greek inscriptions belonging to the

we

find

Crat.

412

representing
d, is

at,

and

vice versd.

quoted as proof that

1*0101;

Roman
When

period
Plato,

was pronounced

ON THE PRONUNCIATION OF GREEK.

26

because he derives

to

250

B.C.,

we have
crv

AvcraviT),

Where
the

8uu6v,

to

may be

it

sufficient

In Callimachus,

spell.

the following epigram:

de

vm^i maXbs, Ka\bs, aXXa

Trplv

XXoy is supposed to be the echo of vai\i

consonants disappearing, as we know

ex

initial

actually

from

it

knew how

reply that Plato

do

in

they

an echo.
ET.

This combination written without the diaeresis

no doubt was, sounded as

Nat^i rhymes, as

t.

seen,

In Latin,
and in Greek
regularly appears as
we have 'iprjv and fip^v, tXXo> and eiXo>, 1X77 and ftX?/.

to exei.
itself

and

is,

we have

z',

Semitic transcriptions

point the same way, as well as

all

and akfi^^aTiw in Diogenes Laertius.

In the Scythian patois, Aristoph. Thesm., t stands for short ft,
as o for <.
Herodian, M. Victorinus, Choeroboscus, and
the

pun on

aXX' l^anov

Theognostus identify ei with

sound peculiar to itself.

i,

while Sextus says

had a

it

Ol.

Now
in

sounded

see.

* than

like

t,

or

v,

that

is,

equivalent to

ee

was sounded apparently more like

letters or combinations, inasmuch

it

Originally

77,

any of the other

name

ityiXoi/ was given it to distinguish it from

v Sta 8i<f>66yyov by the later grammarians.
or
bfyOoyyos
So in Boeotic we get TVS for rot?. In the same way 2\//iXov
was so called to distinguish it from at or c Sta 8i<p66yyov.

as

the

Thus John Lydus,

de

dio\oyov

ypcKfrofJLevov,

quaerere
dXXa ^tXr;

vop.ia>
TI

8c

a Byzantine grammarian,
TI

piv

\^tX^s

olov (ptvvav.

"On

(rr)p.aivei

[Kuai'ara>p]

KvaiWcop
fie

/IT)

rolvvv

dtydoyyos

tells us,

Sta

TTJ

777-777-7;?

arro

(V npooip-lois

ypatpfrai, ovSerepov peit TCOV flpT)fj.VQ)V

(TT][J,ait>ei

77

TOV

Xt'^tf,

TOV de

ON THE PRONUNCIATION OF GREEK.

Kal P\d<r<f)T]p.ov 8ia rrjs ypafyfjs eViSei^ei,

Hence

it

evident that the

is

simple as

to double,

word

27

on

qiieror

which means

tyikov,

is

opposed
by Kriiger and Buttmann,

to

which

know

falsely explained unaspirated

say nothing of the inappropriateness, amounting to absurdity, of calling e unaspirated,
as though it had formerly been one sign of the aspirate,

was

or applying this designation to v, the peculiarity of which is, that except in a few
dialectic forms it is invariably aspirated at the beginning
it

not, as far as I

of a word.

The

Semitic transcriptions of 01 are very various sometimes it appears as /, as kirogrellios for x oi P7P^^ ins
:

Aethiopian sometimes as o, as Phonix for

a mere mistake and most commonly by
;

proving the similarity of the sound of

have seen, is also represented by ou.

01

to

3>oiVi,
i.

ou,
u,

e.

probably
u or oo,

which, as

we

The Aeolians changed ou to 01, as Molo-a for MoOo-a, which

was probably very much the same thing as if they had written
it

Mvo-a.

Oi

and

and often in scansion,

witness II. xiii. 275
the end of a word

short (as a rule) in prosody,

is

that not only at

eWi

and again, ToTo?

(quoted by Mullach),
eu>i> ofo? OVTIS.
It was then plainly no diphthong.
Oeconomos,
a Greek writer of the present century, thinks it was sounded
old' dperrjv olos

in

some

into

we

t.

dialects as ou

= u

Italian,

and

find iTpovKO. for Trpoina, <f)\ov8iov for

ar/xoTrXouj/ for

The Germans
it

some as u passing
In modern Greek

<p\oii$i.ov

Or

(foXoidtov,

as well as the ordinary i sound.

ar/zoTrXotoi/,
= eu
generally prefer o (
French) as the re-

presentative of
scribes

in

This appears to us highly probable.

01,

and compare oe which invariably tranwe do not know how the Latin oe

in Latin, but

was sounded, although we do know that it was, like the

Greek 01, monosyllabic, and, like it too, easily passed both

ON THE PRONUNCIATION OF GREEK.

28
into

u and

If

and

01

i\

compare foedus with

were

oe

really like the

forms as

compare such

fidus> moenia with munire.

German

sohnen,

o,

we may

then

siihnen,

and

also

(according

Southern pronunciation) sihnen.

The account of the ambiguous oracle in Thucydides, ii. 54,
clearly proves at least the close resemblance in sound between
to

and

Xoifj.6s

The

X</ioy.

from the words

is

sense which Mr. Sophocles obtains

precisely the reverse; but he obtains it

He

by sundry glaring mistranslations.

to the fact that u5eo-0cu,

draws our attention

&>i/o/*do-$ai, clprjo-Oat,

and

reference to the sound of the word, which

and

case,

He

some maintaining
'

says simply

word

'A

partly not the

'

that

but

\oipbs
it

among men,
mentioned had not been
whereas Thucydides

Xt/zoV.'

was not plague

was spoken

that

of,

but

Again, the opinion prevailed at this time that the

was

said

dispute arose

that the calamity

(u>i>o/iao-&u)

famine.'

bear

partly nothing to the point.

renders as follows:

called

aaovrat, all

is

Xot/ior:'

whereas

all

that the

words

will

bear

^^v

eVoiis,
spoken of was Xot/zoV Again, TTJV
OVVTO could not mean adapted their recollections,' but simply
gave the account.' By such ingenious distortions does Mr.
'

the thing

'

Sophocles adapt a passage, which is clearly a stumblingblock to his theory, into a bulwark of defence.

TI
modern Greek

sounds

in

makes

vibs

which

vio'f,

as

nearly always
In Syriac oios occurs for
the more remarkable as the usual Syriac

two short
is

syllables.

representative of u alone is ou.

Passing on to the consonants,

we begin

B = German
Liddell and
It

Homer

simply.

Scott admit that

frequently stood for the

it

with

iy.

was

digamma

softer

than our

b.

in dialectic forms, i.e.

ON THE PRONUNCIATION OF GREEK.

2$

words where the digamma was still sounded; as

So in modern Greek we
/SaXtKios, for e'tKocrt, 17X1*10?.

in those
jSeiKtm,

a hollow, compare ayKo? and ay-yos, &c. ; fipiCa, as

in ancient Greek for pia, in the sense of rye; ftovpKos, etymo-

have

fidyya,

same with

logically the

stands for

It

and pa^oOXa.
the consonantal sound of v in such tran0/3*09, fipdxos,

probably in the proper name

Ayaftos for dyavos; and the word drroXavu is only another
way of writing an-oXtt/Sw. So in modern Greek we get avd/3co
scriptions as

from

Aa/St'S,

Sfftripos,

of which

ai/aTTTw,

it is

the root, in the sense of to burn

Greek

the ancient

In the middle of a

a#co, evavu.

compare
word it thus preserves the digamma in modern Greek, and
in such positions may be equally well written as t>; e.g.
TrXeuoo, peva), 7rXe'/3a>, pe/3o>.

come from

If o-/3as

the Sanscrit sev, then

be written aevas; but

'

move

ginally

and

that case

in

certainly

the

it

for a

it

it

should properly

meant

possible that atftonai

is

ori-

person/ the ancient sign of respect

stands for

causative,

of which

o-euo/iat,

written

with

of

instead

/3

o-0j3eco

preserve the sound of the last consonant in the root.

is

to

v,

Compare

<po/3eo>, ([email protected], (pevya), i.e. (pfftyw.

As
in

stands for the Sanscrit g, and thus

interchangeable with y, as /3e'0upa, yetyvpa;

a rule, however,

Greek

it

is

&\e(papov, yXecpapov.

/3

So

in

modern Greek we have

yoinra for jSovTra, yovyovpas for (36pj3opos (?)

),

Before
as vifa for

t,

pronounced

j/i'j8i3-

of such a change in

Greek

it is

very rare,

it

modern Greek, but even

a y was heard in such cases after the

rpi/3o>

in ancient

and probably arose from the

are probably from the

ydpyvpa,

becomes, like y and 5, ^

Xa/Sto/nat. I can find no instance

as y,

Xa^o/xat for

y\e<papov,

cf.

same

/3.

Thus

fact that
rpt'^a

and

root, rpifeo expressing the

grating squeaking noise caused by rpi'/3o>.

form would be rpt'/Syco, which occurs in

The

intermediate

modern Greek,

as

ON THE PRONUNCIATION OF GREEK.

30

well as both rp^ca

and

modern Greek forms.

are

The hard
follows

as efi/SaiW,

/*,

Greek)

/3i>Cdo>

<,

as BiXar7roy,

cf.

modern Greek

B,

and

and
is

for

vi'/3yo>,

0e/3yo>, i.e.

when #

preserved

fjLJ36Xip.os.

as

fi,

/ze/z/3pa?

for

&i\apds, BtXapdy

4>iXt7T7roy
;

With

for

(ancient

/3e/i/3pa?

(modern Greek)

dx?j3d8a

(modern Greek)

<p\r)(TKOvvi

/3im'i7

Cf. (pfftopai

;HW>
Macedonian

/iudo>,

vi$a>

unaspirated sound of b

interchangeable with

is

So

Tpi'/3a>.

as

TT,

Greek)

(ancient

aXel/3a>, dXe/(pa>
/Sctreii/,

with

P^TJO-KOVVI,

Trarflv, TTUTIW;,

(ancient Greek) ; 'Apama for 'Apa/3ia (modern Greek).

A are interchanged, as @(\<piv, /3X)p for 8e\<piv, SeXeap

(ancient Greek)

Kowdfii

for

Kowddt,

from

Ktvados

(modern

Greek).
r.

a guttural semivowel, like the German ^

in Tflg : before t and e, however, it sounds like a very strong
y in other words, it sounds more palatal. The sound of the

This

letter is

Hebrew

and most

tradition,

Gandel informs me, corresponds exactly

Thus we find in the Septuagint rda,
y.
nW nioj^: which proves almost to demonstration

as Professor

soft,

to

preserved according to the most probable

faithfully rendered by the Arabian g

as

V,

the

Greek

rdjuoppa, for

that the present pronunciation of y

must have prevailed

if

we

can we understand

its

the time of the translators of the Septuagint.

assume

was a

that y

soft semivowel,

in

Only

evanescence, not only as a transcription of V before an unaccented vowel, as 'A/iaXeV, 'HXi, but also in Greek words,
especially before palatal vowels, as ala for yala, Iwos for

and
for

eyo>t>,

as before

-an.
for

middle of a word between two vowels, as

in the

So

dXt'yoy,

dXt'yoy;
a-

or before

/*,

as

T^pa

in aorists of verbs, -d

in

modern Greek we get

lotv

for

eyo>i>,

X'o>

for

r/uf/y/ia,

av,

as well

for -dyto>, aorist -aa-a for

the dialectic forms Xios

for Xeyco, irpapa for Trpay/na, &C.

ON THE PRONUNCIATION OF GREEK.

With

yam we may compare

a?a for

ancient Greek

nected

and

forms as

vyidfa,

vyuiivto,

In yov\ta for oflXm

and

as

t'ovXoy,

<$cyyt

cf.

before

v,

dypeo>,

often

is

ancient, y

in

Xu/co0cos,

as yveda for

v6<pos,

XT^LIT/,

form of

and

<papov,

in

ve(pos

or

j3Xe'<o)

yXaKw, \dpos, y\dpos

is

cf.

ov\os

',

for XVKO-

as well as

yvocpos, for Xevo-o-o),

y\r)/j.rj )

probably but a sigmated

standing for yXe^o-co

modern Greek

t,

for Xei^o).

yXauo-o-o>,

\vacra>

jSXfVo),

stand for

as y\vi<o(peyyci

X,

vr]6a>, y\d<p<i)

'.

may

In modern Greek, as in

cupeo>.

Here we may compare

i.e.

it

prefixed to
XOKO),

con-

one form or omitted from

to the

the other.

all

hard to say in such

af//a, whether the y is to
is

it

yiarpbs, yaT/ia for larpos,

be considered as prefixed

In

for vytatvw.

no doubt

are

la.op.ai

modern Greek

in

laivo>

31

yXeVo), also the

compare yXemodern Greek

(rvvvf<pov, crvyv((pov.

The

y in modern Greek is often of etymological

significance, in cases where it has disappeared from the
classical form.
A.vy6v or 'A/3yoi>, for woV, preserves the oriletter

more

ginal avjdn far

truly

<0/3eoi>,
Hesychius,
than the Attic p.va.

//ma,

first is

from the
In

That

nasal.

this

Where two
was so

fact that avy-, eVy-, &c.

this position the

case with

The

than even the form given by

ovum; as does /uiya for

or the Latin

viz.

/3

after

nasal y

is

come

y's

6iy- )

dyKadi

we know

were always written ayy-, e'yy-.

its hard sound, as is the

second y retains

/z.

sometimes prefixed to a guttural

to strengthen a syllable, as in Sanscrit so

modern Greek.

together the

in ancient Greek,

Examples

in

in order

ancient and

Ak', ank'amt, diyydvu from root

from aKavQa (modern Greek), and

Say/ca^ca

for

A
= Spanish
harder.

have

</,

or th in then, except after

Thus a

Aei>s

and

lisped

z,

becomes

Zevs, dpifrXos for api'S^Xoy,

v,

8.

bp

where

it

sounds

Accordingly

we

for SopKds.

In

ON THE PRONUNCIATION OF GREEK.

32

modern Greek,
often this

frpKabiov for Sopitddtov,

sorbed, as 7re6y for

7re8id?,

Only on

for UoSeuv.

we understand how

o-S

grammarians
whereas etymologically
stands for

ds,

being that

o-S

came

and

in

8s are

to

i,

in Doric,

represent

as

was accounted by the

compounded of 8 and a-,

extremely doubtful whether ever

it never stands for 0-8, the fact

that

ways of approximating the sound of

8 being so soft,

the half consonantal

modern Greek Mrrovfrwas

how

or

letter,

it is

and certain

The sound of

Most

the assumption that 8 = th in then, can

double

for o/zafi.

a palatal vowel has been ab-

and

0av/zao-Sa>,

To>0ao-8a>,

/ieXiVSo),

when

the case

is

'/iat'

so

it

we have

easily passes into y before

yia for 8m, &c.

Thus we

have reason to suspect that ytyvpa was originally 8iai<pvpa,

perhaps Aeolic for bialQvpa, although the accent and the

More certain
quantity are against this derivation.
tci>K&>
that
Stands for yta>Ka>, from 810x0) tamo for yiatvco,

earlier
is

it

modern Greek yepbs or ytfpbs for 8iep6s,

another form of vyuipos.
So we have too in modern Greek
If iepbs means originally
laKiovy 8taKioi/, yiaKiov, for a rudder.
strong, as some philologers think, 8iep6s, vyiepos, yfpos, and
Itpos are all different forms of the same word; vypbs is
probably the result of metathesis. So we see little reason
from

diaivco

the

to doubt the identity of

The

yvaXos, hollow.

{JaXor,

earliest

glass,

and

meaning of

yva\ov, yvaXat

vahov

from

was a hollow

transparent stone in which mummies were enclosed among

the Egyptians (Herod. 3. 24).
So aldepia yva\a, used of the

heavens
render
in

it,

not the
so

which the

many
yvaXov.

flies

much

'

vault of heaven,' as Liddell

as the hollows of heaven,

i.

e.

and Scott
the spheres

were supposed to be embedded, like so

amber.
The modern Greek for va\ov is

stars

in

Z=z

in English.

Schleicher himself completely discards the notion of pronouncing f as ds or sd. Etymologically, it stands for yi, 8t,

ON THE PRONUNCIATION OF GREEK.

or

followed by another vowel, as

/3t

rpi/3yeo, Tpiftiat,

rpia>

modern Greek we
yaXdyios or yXdyio?,

get Smrd^co

ra-ou^oa

yidXov,

from

dXoz>

zd@a\r)s for Aid/3oXo?,

i.

vlftyo),

'ix

from

vos >

before the letter

p.,

rpi/3a>,

So

yaXd&os

from the Latin

from

from
appi<prjs, an extravagant dresser,
of a- into
mentioned by Liddell and

wa>

dpp.dyia>.

diardyia),

rcrouyico,

the hollow print of the foot

e.

i/i'/3to>,

Zevs for Aieus, appofa for

33

in

for

.f^tf /

yva\ov, shortened to
fapi^qr, better written

The change

SiappiVrco.

Scott, is almost always

as Zpvpva, &uKp6y, &iepdXeos,

wypa,

^ivvrj.

This fact
In modern Greek, <r before /n always sounds as
in
is of itself enough to prove the identity of the sound of
ancient and

modern

th in thin,

times.

somewhat more

forcibly

pronounced

than in English.

and it appears
was anciently sounded as

originally stood for the Sanscrit dh,

Schleicher's opinion that

But

hothouse.

it

must

this

have

been

in

the

to be
th in

pre-historic

Perhaps such forms as OT&K?) for

period of the language.
In modern Greek we
drriKT} may be relics of such a sound.
have

But that 6 was very like the

may be inferred from the fact that the Laconian

rdrtfot

English th
dialect

for the Goths.

changes Q into

<r,

as

o-dXao-o-a, o-eloy, 'Ao-di/a..

In modern

Greek we get dxavTo-oxoipos for dKa.v66%oipos. In Aeolic 6 becomes (p, as <j>r)p, (pXi/3co, <Xd<. So in modern Greek we have
<P\i@a>, <p\i@epbv for

0Xij3o>,

0Xt/3epoV, (prjKapiov for 6r]<apiov.

Doric x sometimes stands for

modern Greek

6,

In

as opvixos for Spvidos, so in

opvtxa for opvida, and, z^V*

57^^,

a^

for

K.
Like the English k before the guttural vowels; before the
in civitk, and
nearly approaching the Italian c
The best idea
with a very close resemblance to a palatal /.

palatals

more

ON THE PRONUNCIATION OF GREEK.

34
I

can give of

sound on paper

this

is

perhaps

tk,

as

pronounced approximately tkeenos, tktn/ sound is

actually heard,

Kevrpov, Kirpivov, KCU,

dron, tk&treenon, tkeh ; not that a

but that after forming a palatal / (and our English / is mostly

In
palatal) the tongue is in the right position for forming K.
Crete, K palatal sounds just like the Italian c before e or
or our ch in chin.
In the same way the Sanscrit ch was
z',

formed from
sounds.

through the influence of contiguous palatal

k,

It is

therefore probable that the Italian c palatal

is

also legitimately developed from the old Roman sound

given
to c before e and 2, as in cecidi ; while the French c dental

and ch
and

palatal, the

c palatal

/j,

Spanish z and

are

more or

c palatal

th,

the

less unsuccessful

The

approximate the true pronunciation.

German

attempts to

sound of

palatal

<

evidently represents the intermediate stage through which

the guttural k must pass, and must always have passed, in
order to become the palatal ch.
In pronouncing K palatal

the tip of the tongue

coming right up to the

may be seen in
not
ep/cos 6d6vv
;

mouth

a Greek's

that the tip of the

tongue
actually used in pronouncing the K, but the upper
part of the tongue is brought so far forward that the exis

tremity necessarily reaches the teeth, and indeed protrudes a

little
beyond them. K palatal being thus so nearly allied to
T,

we

shall not

So we have

be surprised to find them interchanged.

in ancient

for Koipavos (for v

K.IJJUOV

and

for

Greek

n/ico, <mA/3o'co

<^reiai/a>,

i.

e.

especially in the

for

TII/OO-O-W,

the latter form

is

and K are

possibly for

common

also found

and

*),

ir6<a.

So

dialect,

/*M>

from

Tsakonian

rvpawos

at

<Kai/o> for

Conversely, repios Or

Greek, are clearly connected with

/cat,

(pKvdptov for <f)Tvdpiov,

trrtX/3oco,

fvQfidfa or ciidfidva.

meaning suitable, or similar,

and

rls for KIS, re for

see above, as well as for

for Tip&v, rrjvos for Kclvos, TTOTC for rroKf

modern Greek,

in

ot

to

Kaipios.

modern and

ancient

KIVCG>.

interchanged in Greek.

The

ON THE PRONUNCIATION OF GREEK.

original

have

form of

ITTTTOS

and

KonreXa

nected with

was
a

KOKGWTJ,

So

IKKOS.

girl

KOTT-TO), KOTTTyi/cu.

in

KOOKO,

35

modern Greek we

an indentation con-

much doubt whether

be not also connected with the root

KOTT-,

d-Ka>Kr)

instead of being

a lengthened form for drf and whether 8ioKa>xr), &c., ought

not also to be written SiaKo)^, standing for
:

A.
Interchangeable with

v,

as in Doric r\vQa for rj\6a.

modern Greek, dw^avrbs becomes

Tsakonian stands

is

So, in

d\v<pavTos, while avdc in

for oA(pt.

also interchangeable with p

d/zeXyo>

and

dfif'pyto

are

same word. 'A/iepya> is the older form, and is

modern Greek for d/ieXya>. Here we must say
Buttmann is quite right in rea word on WKTOS dfioXy<5.

originally the

preserved in

jecting the translation

'

milking time/ but plainly wrong in

rejecting the derivation from d/ieXyo> or dp.cpya>.

of the word is such that no other derivation

Eustathius

may

also

Achaean word for

suggested by the word
and

sense

NUKTOS

d/xoXyoi

is

possible.

be right in saying that dpoXybs

old

the

The form

to

iVjudw,

derivation

means

dupr).

in

similar sense for

bruise out,

are

the

quite

dregs

and

plain

of

night,

OK^

t/c/idy.

and

an

is

is

But

natural.

most

poetical expression for the dead of night.

or
djuovpya, from d/xepyco, means, in both modern
'A/idpyj/
and ancient Greek, neither more nor less than dregs or
fitting

and

squeezings out ; that is, what is left after the

This is plainly the sense in
squeezing out of wine or oil.

lees,

the

which

it

is

2. 2.6, OVK

used to express clotted blood in Eur. Phaeth.

cz/ioXyoi/ f'o/jio'pere,

torou

ri'y e'crrti/

atfiaroy ^a/xat

7recra>i/,

where the cognate cgopop-yvvm, only another form of e'^a/uepyo),

seems plainly used with a poetic sense of its identity in root.

No more

exact comparison could be used than the lees of

ON THE PRONUNCIATION OF GREEK.

36
wine

for clotted blood.

strophe,

Who

more

1-3, beginning,

is this

The modern Greek form

Edom?'

well-known apocometh from

Isaiah's

Compare
'

Ixiii.

that

for dfaX^bs

archaic than the classical, inasmuch as

is

it

d&fp(f)6s,

is

derived

from the Sanscrit sagarbhjas. In modern Greek the common

form for rj\dov is r)p&av\ and epxapat appears also as ep#o/icu,
leading to the conclusion that eX0o> and epxp- al are not
For x an d 6, see above.
distinct but identical roots.

and

So, too, a\<ptTov, avBos,

and are verbal

participles

respectively for dX-d-rov

in the first case, as in

The

Greek.
sents the

that dX0e&>

6 in dXe#o>

apros are probably

formed from

and

dXe'o>

or

all

aXros with paragogic

0X1^6$- in

seems

identical,

standing

dXe'0o>,
t

inserted

ancient, Kamvos in

modern

to stand for

digamma: cf. aXcvpa or aXeFpa.

and dv0co>, dXSmW and ap8a>, are

which repre<f>,
I cannot doubt

all

cognate words.

M.
With regard to the pronunciation of
and the same may be said of
dispute

this letter there is

no

N.
the letters

When, however,
and

and N are combined with

become medials,
=
instead of tenues, ep.7ropos
In the
Jmboros, evrtpa - e'ndera.
same way the guttural nasal y, when placed before
converts

TT

T respectively,

/MTT,

vr,

these consonants

the K into

its

Moreover,
and
after
and
become
8,
/3,
^, v,
-y.
y nasal,
simple medials
instead of semi-vowels.
With 3 and 5 however this is not
corresponding medial,

oy/co?

recognized by the educated, although

it

oyyos.

is

universally pre-

mouths of the common people. This phonetic

law may be most shortly expressed as follows
/n, v, and y
nasal take after them the corresponding unaspirated medial.
valent in the

Exception

If y

be followed by

x,

the latter preserves

its

ON THE PRONUNCIATION OF GREEK.

sound, and the same

we may

that

may be

p,

say,

said of

and y

v,

<p,

6 after

are followed

by

p,

37

and

8
sponding unaspirated medial, or aspirated tenuis.
In modern Greek therefore, as far as the sound

we may

erned,

so

is

con-

write indifferently, at least according to the

popular pronunciation,
= andra, avrpov Or
ai/8pa
eV8uj/oj

their corre-

= embe'no, avrpa or

cppuiva) or e^iTraiW

= andron, aynos Or ayyos = dngOS,

avftpov
=
No one can doubt that this was
endyno.

or evruvo)

Greek from time immemorial, who will

consider such forms as Trareco and f^arca, 'A/z/Spa/cia and
AyiTrpaKia, eVrweo and cpdvo), fVTf\fj(na and fv8f\fx.eta
O.JKOS
and ayyoy, Bpiyyos and OpiyKOs, cv&ov and eVror, ev86crdia and

the case in ancient

evTocrdia, pvvraKJjs

Between

/n

and

and

p,

pvv8aKrj.

and

and

p, p,X

and

vX,

/3

(or

TT), 5,

or r

respectively are inserted.

So we have
or

a/iTrXaKicrfca), TJIL$\O.KOV

TrXoj-

in ancient Greek,

is

for

or

^a/iT/Xo'y, Kopop,7r\o

often prefixed, as

p.farrjp.^pia,

rjp.ir\a.Kov.

dvdpos, d/ij3Xa/aWa>

In modern Greek, x aM~

for K0p6p.r)\o, pirpe, p.fip, OI

<r/uKpoV,

ancient Greek;

o-p.iya>,

/3pe

for

modern

Greek.

Double
y,

s,

2<r in

o-

the later Attic dialect

in

KOTTV<POS

preserved in modern Greek.

terminations like -ao-o-w in <puXao-o-a>,

which

is

stood originally for

for yj instead of

but

and

Trpa/c.

Kopvo-o-w,

&c.,

but afterwards apparently also

as in Tao-o-o) and Trpao-o-oo.
Schleicher

*/,

or

^/,

imagines that in these cases rayrax

became TT, as in
must have been

the intermediate stage

So we get

in

and

-rrpay-

are softened from

modern Greek

<puXayo>, <pv\dfa,

ON THE PRONUNCIATION OF GREEK.

38

< are sounded by the common

on the other hand, after $ and x,
This explains in ancient Greek
the forms oxQrj and awi), OTTTOP and e<0dr, avdu = a(f>6is and
a&ris = atyTis, fiTfvOev and fvdfvrev = evrctpdev and ev6c<f>Tfv, re-

Before

this letter

TT

and

people as $ and x > while,

& has more the sound of r.

spectively.

Has no exact representative in any European language

but is like a labial f, and answers to
that I know
and the
German w, as their corresponding sharp sound.
;

X.

German ch in Bach, but with this difference,

German ch becomes palatal by the influence of the

like the

is

that the

preceding vowel, while x

follows

The same

it.

Greek says

Where

affected only

is

thing applies to

German *x-o>, x- TO^VS.

the
German says fy-a>, dividing
e-yo>
to
the Greek ear the German
Thus

Z-x**, a-xn, ra-xvs,

the

Greek says

the syllables differently.

by the vowel that

and y. Thus the

the

7>

pronunciation of these Greek words sounds like !x tctf "X-7,

In the same way the German words lach-en,
TIIX-VS, tyio>.
mach-en, would naturally be read by Greeks Xd-xcv, pa-x f v,
>

while trag-en would

The

become

rpd-ytv.

haphazard and inkhorn, has

laKxrj, 2a7r0&>, O7r<pis, ftpoKxos,

when

and x as ph, and kh in

but the obsolescent relics,

prehistoric pronunciation of

required

left

and these

by the exigencies

for the

most part only

of metre.

Greek Khurdistan is written Kxovdi(rrdv.

X and K are often interchanged, as

In modern

fo^o/icu $e/co/icu, o-^fXls-

ON THE PRONUNCIATION OF GREEK.

modern Greek

so in

(TKoXeto

o-cdXao-/za,

for

vxtfa,

especially after a,
<rxoXao>ta,

o-^oXeioi/

39
as

<m'<,

but also

for

as t.hp
the representative of

no

further

TTO-,

(u

consonantal)

cr,

requires

/3o-,

comment.

THE

ASPIRATE.

no longer heard in modern Greek, and we do not

know that it was ever sounded as h, though it is not easy to
This

is

having been sounded otherwise. The fact

the so-called rough breathing stood properly for some

conceive of
is,

letter

its

which had been

out at the beginning of a word,

Often too it was written where it had

left

more especially for o-.

no etymological meaning,

and often omitted where we

If it had any sound it was most

should expect to find it.
in Latin, extremely evanlikely that of h, and like that letter

The

a mere sign in all the modern Latin

dialects, except in French, where a distinction is made between an aspirated and an unaspirated h. But even in French
escent.

neither the

Latin h

is

one nor the other

between the h

custom

in

is

can detect)
habit and the h

the English ear

as

sounded
;

(at any rate so far

and the only difference

in harpe

is,

that

not before the other.

So, too, in ancient

is

it

to cut off the vowel of the article before the

the

one and

Greek the only

rough and the smooth breathing may

was the custom to turn K, TT, T into x, $, 6

difference between the

have been that

it

before words which had the rough breathing, whereas before

the
this

smooth breathing they remained unaltered; while even

characteristic was effaced in the Ionic dialect.

In modern Greek, though the rough breathing

heard,

it

affects the

is

pronunciation of a preceding tenuis

not

and

ON THE PRONUNCIATION OF GREEK.

4<D

Several

show

Compounds,

as e^e'ros for eVeVo?, ^fBavpiov for fjuravpiov,

that the people

matter quite

have exercised

independently

of,

their instinct in this

because occasionally at va-

riance with, grammatical traditions.

They

say too, a<'

ov,

0'orov, but KOTI, aTToXovs.

The law

of compensation with regard to aspirated con-

sonants, as seen in such forms as x^ TP a

&c.,

also

losing

wdpa, X LT<* V

modern Greek;

holds good in

its x>

'

>

Ktffav,

e.g.

becomes

our comparison of modern Greek pronunciation with what appears to have been the pronunciation of

The

result of

even in the minutest particulars, so far

as we can trace them, the same phonetic laws were at work
classical times, is that

in the time of

Homer and

of Thucydides as are at work

now, and that they produced the same

Can any one

results.

anything short of a miracle could have produced so exact a coincidence, except upon the assumption

believe

that

that the pronunciation

now

identical with that of ancient times

The
until

discussed, as

in the

main

at least

consideration of the question

we have

is

prevailing

is,

however, incomplete
in the next

we propose doing

chapter, the kindred subject of Accent

and Quantity.

CHAPTER

III.

Accent and Quantity.

QUANTITY,

peyeGos,

was the foundation of ancient Greek

we shall see, by no means its only regulating

In modern Greek, quantitative verse no longer

verse, though, as

principle.

and therefore the quantity of syllables has lost the chief

That quantity was
significance which it once possessed.
ever recognized in pronunciation apart from metrical conexists,

siderations there

know

is

but small evidence to show

whereas we

were introduced by Aristophanes of Byzantium about two hundred years before Christ, in order to
that accents

preserve the true pronunciation of Greek at the time when it

was becoming the vernacular of many Oriental races. The

apparent influence which quantity had on accent is to a

the result of an
great extent, if not altogether, imaginary
The reason that dvdp>7rov is not written
artificial theory.

by no means that

a long

but simply
because avQpwnov stands for dvQpaTroaio, dvdpa>7Toio, and the
accent did not admit of being put further back than the last
avdpwnov,

syllable

is

In

but one.

simply stands for os

forward.

With regard

to

ov

TroXewr,

is

o>?

is

syllable,

no contraction, but
is not drawn

consequently the accent

modern Greek,

it

is

neither correct to say,

ACCENT AND QUANTITY.

42

with Sophocles, that all vowel sounds are isochronous, nor

with Mr. W. G. Clark ('Journal of Philology,' p. 105), 'that
the stress in

modern Greek

is exactly like our own, and is

the
sound as well as raising the voice.
given by prolonging
Thus \6yos, ovos, avdpa>7Tos are pronounced \a>yos, a>vos, av-

The examples which Mr.

6POTTOS.'

Clark adduces are correct

as regards the fact, while they sufficiently refute the assertion

of Sophocles that all vowel sounds in Greek are isochronous.

But Mr. Clark has been misled with respect to the true
explanation of the lengthening of the syllables in question,
and that not only as regards Greek, but equally as regards
English.

Neither in Greek, nor in English, has the accent or stress

any power to lengthen a vowel sound, although the absence
of accent

may

in certain cases,

and

especially in English,

tend to obliterate the sound of a vowel.

In English as in
Greek, and in almost all languages, when a syllable ends in
a consonant, the preceding vowel is short; when in a
vowel, that vowel is mostly long; a very simple and intelligible

law of compensation, which in

Hebrew

is

an estab-

lished rule.
It is surely a strange thing that most scholars should have
concurred in regarding the combination or simultaneous
recognition in pronunciation of accent and quantity, as an

insoluble

problem;

for

we

ourselves

solve

the

problem

The accent conevery sentence we utter.

as
a
short
falls
on
syllable,
tinually
getting, picking, impossible,
critical; while a long syllable, whether long by virtue of the
practically

in

number of consonants
sound of the vowel,

is

heard, or by the long or diphthongal

perpetually found without the accent
:

abnormal, financial, fe'rfile, perfume, perfect, a priori, which is

nearly always so pronounced, in spite of the fact that the
first

i is

short in Latin.

many an other imaginary

So

that

difficulty,

we may

say of this, as of
solvitur ambulando.

ACCENT AND QUANTITY.

43

any longer believe in the reality of the

supposed conflict between accent and quantity, who considers for one moment its origin, which is nothing but our

Nobody

will

principles of Latin accentuation.

application to

Greek of the

In Latin

a rule that the accent always

it

is

falls

upon

the

penultimate when long, and in words of more than two

So that one may say that,
syllables, never when short.
wherever it is possible, the long syllables receive an accent,

and the short ones are unaccented.

Every language has
its own law of accentuation, and this was the Latin law,

we know

as far as

and natural law

it

it

from Quinctilian, and a very simple

was; but perhaps there

other language on the face of the globe

so uniform and monotonous.

stress is

is

scarcely any

whose system of

Now,

just

because

the Latin accent, however fallaciously applied to Greek, does

in a remarkable manner tend to preserve to a great extent

(though by no means completely) the quantity of syllables,

the notion has arisen that it could not be otherwise preserved.

That

this

notion

completely false

is

is

practically

shown, first in our own language, secondly in Latin, in

which we have to recognise, and do recognise, the length
of the

many long

according

to

the

Greek as spoken

which

syllables

Latin

system to

it

is

impossible

accent,

in the present day, in

and

even

lastly

in

which not only,

as in every other language, are syllables containing several

contiguous consonants long by the very nature of the
case, but of the vowels

some

are always long, as

v,

i,

01, et,

and others common, as

e,
at, a>, ov, the latter being long
or short according as they stand at the end of a syllable
or are followed by a consonant.
Besides this, it is to be

observed that

all

the

common

vowels sound short before

p.

The accent, so far from altering the quantity, only tends

to make it more distinctly heard.
For instance, ovp has
the ov always short, but this

is

far

more

distinctly

heard

ACCENT AND QUANTITY.

44

in (frayovpa than in ovpd;

this

more

far

is

always short, but

= egepeais, than
plainly heard in egaipeais
so, too, aip is

when belonging to one syllable, are

but this strikes us more forcibly in the pro-

in aipfTiKos.

Q.S,

always short,
nunciation of

7rpayp.aTiKo>s,

os,

than in that of

CXTTT^TLOV.

Erasmus himself never recommended

Greek accent in pronunciation, and very
between accent and quantity as

distinction

his lesson into the

mouth of a

bear,

who

the disuse of the

well draws out the
follows.
is

made

He

puts

to say

There are some men so dense as to confound stress with

length of sound, while the two things are as different as
possible. A sharp sound is one thing, a long sound is another.
1

Intensiveness
yet 1

have

not the same thing as extensiveness.

And
learned men, who, in sounding the words

is

known

their

might and main,

though
could

it

is

be.

short

Why,

middle syllable with all

it has the acute accent,

the

dvexov KOI OTT^OU, lengthened

just because

by nature,

in fact as short as a syllable

the very donkeys

might

teach us

the

between accent and quantity, for they, when they

the sharp sound short, and the deep one long/
bray,
Yet Erasmus is wrong in maintaining that the syllable
difference

make

formed by the
if

by

that he

ve in di/e'^ov is

means

sound, inasmuch

as short as a syllable can be,

has the shortest possible

that the

it does,
at the end of
standing,
a syllable, it is inevitably lengthened more or less.
The
followers of Erasmus in Germany, however vicious their

as

as

pronunciation in other respects, invariably read Greek so

that the accent shall be heard, and never dream that they
are sacrificing quantity.

Our

prejudice, then, against accents is for the most part

insular, and deepened moreover by the insular peculiarities

of our pronunciation.
in

This

is

especially

the

case with

v, which we ordinarily pronounce

The result
exactly the same manner, namely as you.

respect to long

and short

ACCENT AND QUANTITY.

45

when we want to show the difference between

lor O and short v. we have no other means open to us than
long
f this

is,

that

on the long v and leaving the short

In Tjur^ei and imevQwos we pronounce the
really long, and we only distinguish between

at of laying a stress

accented.
v as jyou,

i.

e.

the long v in the one case and the short v in the other
by flying in the face of the Greek accent, and reading

In this case,
the words respectively rjvrvxfi and vTrevdvvos.
so far from preserving the true quantity by the use of the
Latin accent,

we

are only covering a false one.

foregoing considerations must have made it plain

every one who has followed them, that the Latin accent

The

an

means of
marking the right quantity of Greek syllables. Such difference of quantity as is still recognised in modern Greek and
other modern languages, so far from being obscured or
altered, is only more strongly brought out by the accent.
is

neither

an indispensable

nor

infallible

And

although, as a matter of fact, the quantities of Greek

vowel sounds at the present day no longer exactly correspond to the ancient quantities, yet it would be very easy
to

preserve and recognise the ancient quantities

if

there

were any object in so doing. It is inconceivable that the

difference between a long and a short a or i in ancient

Greek was ever anything but a very subtle and evanescent

one, to a great extent artificial and based upon the usage
of scansion; and one, as we know, singularly inconstant
and varying.

The

lengthening of o, however, seems plainly to have

occurred subject to the very same conditions as in the
present day.

"OXos and ovXop,

/3o'Ao/icu

and

/3ouAo/nai, p.6vos

and

ov\ofj.evr]v, AluXov, vovos and vovvos, all present us with

cases of o lengthened by position, that is, because it stands
before but one consonant.
do we never find irovaos and
fjiovvos,

Why

TOVCTOS,

but always

Trdo-o-oy

and roWor, when the metre requires

ACCENT AND QUANTITY.

46

Simply because

it ?

language the
double;

and

o-

felt

and

rdo-os

i.

e.

being consonantal, the

making

that

period

early

to be, as

it

etymologically

o-

that the greater the

less the pcyedos

is,

belongs to the preceding

impossible to lengthen the vowel.

it

of the

Greek
really

standing respectively for TTOO-O-OS

(originally) jroa-tos and roVtos ; of which the

TTOO-OS

rSffo-os,

at

was

syllable,

Thus we

see

consonantal peyedos of a syllable, the

of the vowel, and vice versd.

It is

therefore

incorrect to speak of the a in /3Xa being long by position ;

it is short
by position, and that just because the syllable is

In Aio'Xou, on the other hand, the o is

consonantally long.
long by position, or at least has a tendency to become so,

though short by nature.

Having

established, then, the variable

of quantity

among

the

ancient

and uncertain nature

Greeks,

except so

and,

was of etymological significance or depended on

syllabification, its arbitrary and artificial character, we will
far as

it

proceed to enquire what was meant respectively by accent,

Trpoo-oS/o, emphasis, or stress in Greek, and how it was related

and quantitative rhythm.

G. Clark, in his Essay on English Pronunciation
of Greek,' quotes in answer to the question how emphasis
to quantity

Mr.

W.

'

given, the words of Priscian

is

'
:

Vox

scilicet altitudine,latitudine, longitudine,'

'

Thus

a syllable
1

may

tripartite

be emphasized in three ways

by raising the note

2.

by increasing the amount of sound

3.

by prolonging the sound/

'

dividitur,

and remarks thereon:

'

Emphasis,' he observes,
may be given by employing
each of these methods, or any two of them, or all three
together.'

On
go

this

we have

together.

By

only to remark, that i and 2 usually

raising the note we necessarily, if we

ACCENT AND QUANTITY.

47

employ the same quantity of breath, also increase the sound,

inasmuch as we economize breath. So the shriller whistle
of a steam-engine,

ceteris paribus, is

always the louder.

Emphasis by prolongation, though

very rare,
'

if it

possible,

is

certainly

ever occurs.

What we blend/ Mr. Clark

'

proceeds,

both Greeks and

and 3. This is not quite

We,
Englishmen, and certainly the speakers
modern
of most
languages, do not, as we have seen, blend
together i and 3, whereas the Latins did so far blend them,
that while they never lengthened a syllable because it was
Latins kept

distinct,'

meaning

that is

accurate.

accented, they did as far as possible accent

it

where

it

was

long.
'

In modern Greek the ancient tradition

that the stress, as a rule, falls

upon

is

so far preserved

the syllable which in

ancient Greek received the accent and in pronouncing which

the voice was raised/ 'But/ continues Mr. Clark in the words

already quoted and called in question,

'

the stress in

modern

Greek is exactly like our own/ which is so far correct,

and is given by prolonging the sound as well as by raising
the note/
Even were it true that the accent sometimes con'

tributes to lengthen the

sound of a vowel,

it

would be ob-

viously only an accident of the emphasis and not part of

The many cases (and they are the majority) in which
it.

a syllable

is

accented without any lengthening of the vowel,

show that emphasis is given in modern

as in ancient Greek simply by raising the musical or quasimusical note, and not by prolonging the sound.
But Professor Max Miiller, in one of his (I believe unpublished)

were

sufficient to

lectures, has discovered

an

entirely

new

difference

between

modern accentuation, which, though nearer the

on the whole than Mr. Clark's, is also very much

ancient and
truth

at variance with

He

what

am

compelled to regard as the

fact.

says that the ancient accent indicated a musical elevation

ACCENT AND QUANTITY.

48

of the tone, while the modern accent indicates simply stress.

But what is 'stress?' Is it not an elevation of the tone?

Mr. Clark and every one

else has allowed that,

whatever

else they may suppose it to imply.

Now the only difference
between a musical and an unmusical intonation is this, that

a musical tone consists of regular waves of sound, while

is a jarring irregular succession of un-

an unmusical tone

That the ancients spoke more musically

equal vibrations.
than we do, especially the ancient Greeks, may be readily
admitted, but that they absolutely sang all their words will
not be easily believed by any one, and would render com-

between singing and speaking,

as the literature and records of any

pletely nugatory the distinction

which

is

as old at least

known

It is then, therefore, merely a question of

people.
degree as to the regularity, that is the music, of ancient
and modern intonation. Of all cultivated languages, English
is

perhaps the

least musical,

comes German as spoken

as spoken in the south.
especially in the pulpit,

except possibly Dutch.

in the north, after that

More

Then
German

musical are French, Welsh,

But the
Spanish, and Italian.
excited in preaching or public speak-

Greeks, especially when

like a tune is
ing, intone so melodiously, that something very
heard, of which the higher notes are always the more emphatic syllables.
characteristic

that if musical intonation really

of ancient

has been most

Greek

So

Greek accentuation,

this

was

feature

The

written signs for

faithfully preserved.
attributed
to Aristoare
we
have
them,
accents, as

phanes of Byzantium, but spme kind of notation for marking

Not only does
stress must have existed before his time.
Aristoxenus, Aristotle's scholar, treat of accents, but a verse
of Euripides has been discovered with accentual marks
written

used the
accent.

on the walls of Herculaneum; and Plato himself

word 7rpo<ra>8ia, the grammarian's term for a written
It is just

possible that Trpoo-wSia

may mean

in Plato

ACCENT AND QUANTITY.

49

but this
only the accent as heard, and not also as written,
The Greek system of accentuation bears
s not very likely.
a close affinity to that of Sanscrit.

Excepting isolated dialectic divergences, as *aXo? for KaAo'?,

which for the most part have survived in various modern
dialects of Greece, the general system of accentuation was,
high antiquity would lead us to expect, everywhere
the same, and there cannot be the smallest doubt that the
as

its

Homeric poems were accented

Now

in the

main

as

we have them.

what relation did accent stand to quantity ?

The usual reply is, that it had nothing whatever to do

with

in

and

it,

just in this very point

between modern and ancient

But

this is not the

is

said to

lie

the difference

versification.

case, for, in the first place, the

word

foundation of modern scansion, as

the quantity of syllables was the foundation of ancient Greek
versification, yet is by no means sufficient of itself to account
1

accent,' although the

run of a

for the

line.

Both

in ancient

and modern poetry

the apxireKToviKT), or sovereign science, as the Rev. G. Perkins

well points out in the 'Journal of Philology' (vol.

i.

253-263),

not metre, nor quantity, nor accent, but rhythm, to which

the former are merely subsidiary.

is

The

recognition of the dominant importance of rhythm

due mainly to Bock, and the verification and development

is

of the theory to Rossbach and Westphal, who are followed

with some modifications by Dr. Heinrich Schmidt in his work
'

Die Eurhythmie/ of which only the first part, Die

Eurhythmie in den Chorgesangen der Griechen/ has at preentitled

'

sent appeared.

The

rhythm to metre and quantity

Perkins in his essay above
Mr.
by
can hardly do better than quote his
relation of

are so well expressed

alluded

words
'

The

alone

it

to,

that

master-science, that to
exists, is

which metric

the science of rhythm.

is

The

subsidiary,
facts

and

and

for

which

details of the

ACCENT AND QUANTITY.

50

rhythmic what shaped stones and carved timbers

but
not
are to architecture,
dictating the character of the structure,

mere metrician are

to

themselves liable to be altered in subordination to the builder's thought.

And when we consider how strong and

faculty, how we can make a clock tick to
strange indeed

if

man's

this plastic energy.

rhythm

asserts its

own

self-willed

is

the rhythmical

almost any time,

it

would be

creation, language, refused obedience to

and a most
way, in which

Well, one way,

dominion over metre

important

is,

that while recognizing

and

them of their independent character and individual ictus, and makes them parts of new and larger
groups (to which the old rhythmic still gives the name of feet}, held
together by one dominant ictus. Take for instance Tennyson's Locksley
Hall. Assuming as we must that accent not quantity determines the
dealing with the metrical

feet, it strips

relation of the syllables in English verse, the metre

is

trochaic tetra-

Yet no one would think of reading it by single

There may
with
an
trochees,
equal stress on the first syllable of each.
be some arbitrariness, more or less diversity in our modes of grouping
and accenting, but
them we do. Most readers probably break

meter

catalectic.

group

the line into two rhythmical feet, each of four trochees, allowing for
the catalexis in the last half; though they might not be equally agreed
about the syllables on which to place the ictus. The scanning of some

of the classical metres by dipodiae instead of single feet, which is generally recognized as essential to the beauty of the verse, is itself a

rhythmical rather than a metrical process.

But rhythm does more than combine a succession of metrical feet
'

into a larger rhythmical foot with a single ictus.

It takes liberties
with metrical quantity, and declares that under certain circumstances

a spondee or a dactyl shall be delivered as a trochee, that the a 2

relation shall for the time cease, and become, if not precisely 2:1,
:

something

sufficiently

The proof that

near to pass for

the

it.'

modern rhythmicians

are right in their

is, that they have reduced the seeming anarchy

of Choric and Pindaric verse to order, law, and rhythmical

principle

harmony, appreciable even by our modern

before was mere prose they have rendered

ears.

What

into

poetry.

Quantity, then, is not all in all in ancient Greek poetry,

neither is accent all in all in modern verse.

Here

at

once the absolute opposition between accent

ACCENT AND QUANTITY.

51

quantity is somewhat softened as soon as they appear

but subordinate parts of a higher unity, namely rhythm.

not wholly disregarded

impossible that it should be so.

Again, the quantity of syllables

in

modern poetry;

Glanced must be

is

it

is

to be a longer syllable than met; the

tongue cannot possibly get over the one in the same time
that

it

felt

gets over the other

strongest ictus always

be

felt

to

fell

and English verses

in

which the

the shortest syllables

upon

would

compare Lord
of Cowper, he must

If any one will

be intolerably bad.

Derby's translation of the Iliad with that

see that just in this respect the

rhythm of the former

To

superior to that of the latter.

illustrate

is

by an extreme and, as regards Cowper, merely fictitious

let us suppose that where Lord Derby translates
Prone

'

in the dust

he gnashed the brazen

which (rhythmically) would have sounded

it been
'

far

the difference
case,

point,'
still

Prone on the ground he gnashed the brazen

better

had

point,'

Cowper had rendered

'

which

Upon a sod he

is
'

bit a

metal head/

rather worse in point of rhythmical grandeur than

Peter Piper picked a peck of pickled pepper.'

But how much worse

may the rhythm be made, by

has no ictus, thus (the
which
lengthening every syllable
reader must excuse the time-honoured practice of nonsense
still

verses),
'

And

Stretched thus each bit each other's leg and head.'

yet the ictus

falls far

more

regularly (in as far as ictus

as identical) than in Lord

and word-accent may be regarded

Derby's noble

line.

Not only then

is

accent not everything

modern poetry, but quantity is plainly something. If we

now show that accent too was something in ancient
Greek poetry, then the difference between quantitative and

in

can

ACCENT AND QUANTITY.

52

accentual rhythm will resolve

rhythm
in

all

itself into

one of degree, and

will appear the one great unifying principle, the all

of both modern and ancient verse.
Now, as Mr.

'We may

Clark remarks,
Elenchis,

c. iv.)

infer

from Aristotle (De Soph.

was heard

that the accent

in the recitation

of Homer, and from the famous story of the mistake made

by the actor Hegelochus in line 279 of the Orestes of Euripides,

we may

infer that

it

was heard

also in stage dialogue.'

Republic (399 a), Socrates, who is discussing with Adimantus which are the best kinds of music
for educating the warrior classes in his ideal city, says, OVK
Again,

in Plato's

olda ras appovias'

dXXa

KardXeiTre

JJ.OL

fKcivr/v rrjv apfioviav,

TroXe/UK// Trpd^ei OVTOS avftpfiov Kal ev Trdar)

av

p.ip,r]craiTO

(pdoyyovs T

i]

ev re

/3iaia> fpy curia irpcTrovrcof

KOI Trpocrcodias.

This not only proves that in lyric poetry the accents had
some significance, but it shows moreover that there were
certain tunes, or classes of tunes, in which the rhythmical,

which as rhythmicians

tell

us,

must have been

also

the

musical, beat, coincided more or less with the natural enun-

and the accentual

ciation

On

the other

US, Aet

TTJV

cxpavfls

Troielo-dai.

(pcovfjv

stress.

hand Aristoxenus, a pupil of

ev

r<5

/ueXco&eii/

Now

ras

p-ev

Aristotle, tells

eVrmzcreis

Kal dvecreis

there are two ways in which the

natural or accentual stress of words

may be

obscured, either

by the musical beat (time) running counter to it, or by the

musical note rising just where in the natural stress the voice
would be depressed.
In modern verse some account

is

nearly always taken of

same time we often have two distinct

a
musical
one, and a metrical or accentual one
rhythms,
the accent, but at the

or

indeed

rhythm
cess

is

we may

say,

that

every accentual

or

metrical

capable of being accommodated (and in the pro-

of accommodation, more

various musical rhythms.

The

or less sacrificed) to very

musical rhythm modifies or

ACCENT AND QUANTITY.

Disturbs the natural or accentual,

of

ictus,

its

called

it)

both by the non-coincidence

and by the lengthening

Greek song the

(or

Thus

of certain syllables.

53

TOVTJ

Greeks

as the

in a popular

modern

lines

ApeS/rare iraXiv epacrral ev$aip.ovas vap<i(r(rovs y

'Ho TOV Matou rovs Tfpirvovs KOL evwdeis TrapaSeicrovs'

Kat

TTJV

Trapdevov ore\|mrf

'Eyco 8ev

Si'

KOTTTCI)

fj.e'

fjris

cos

avdos K\ivei'

drredavcv fKfivrj

becomes, when sung,

|

'llo

TOV-OV-OV pal

Kai

fvcoSets

Kat

TTJV

'E-yw

Sei/

Xiv e-e-e-poorot

Trd

Ape\/ra-a-a-T

ov TOV-OVS reprrvovs
Kal ei/coSeis ira

TTO.-

Trap6e--vov ore^a-a-are
KOTTTCO

For the most

Si

part,

e/ie,

-paftfi-eiI

TJTIS a>s

u-a-avdos K\iVflfieifi

diredavev fKfi-Ct-fi-tl-vfi.

however,

we may

say that the musical

must bear a very close relation to the

closer, may we infer, was the relation be-

rhythm, in English,
accentual.

Still

tween musical time and rhythm with ancient Greeks, inasmuch as all their quantitative measures seem to have been

formed with a

own
an

verse

is

direct view to music,

whereas

accommodated

much

of our

to a tune

only accidentally
by
or vice versd, the composer and the poet

after- thought,

being usually two different persons.

The difference then between a recited and a sung verse
would be found in Greek neither in the metre nor in the
'

rhythm, but only in the tone, that is, the elevation,' of the
voice.
In other words, in recitation the accent was heard
;

might certainly be felt, as with us, but as far

as sound goes it was swallowed up in the music.
This is
the view of Dr. Heinrich Schmidt (Eurhythmie, p. 13), according to whom the verse ictus = a louder sound, the word

in singing

it

ACCENT AND QUANTITY.

54

accent = musical elevation of

Mr. Clark, in the Essay

above referred to, propounds a view exactly the opposite,
supposing that the accent was heard in recitation only by
means of an increase in the amount of sound, i. e. by the
forte.

accented syllables being sounded louder than the

if this

were

came of

rest.

But

Mr. Clark's theory, beand the rhythm ? For he says, When

so, what, according to

'

the ictus

the rhapsodists recited epic

assembled multitudes

at

poems

Olympia or

in the

open

Crissa, they

air to

the

must have

chanted in monotone or nearly so, else they could not have

been heard by the vast audience. So also in the theatres,

who had

make themselves

audible to thirty
thousand spectators, must have chanted the dialogue in a
kind of ad libitum recitative.' How then, one naturally asks,
the players

to

was the ictus of the verse represented ? Not by more forcible

or louder utterance, for that, according to Mr. Clark, was the
in

way
fact

which

ictus,

is

elevation

excluded by monotone.
The
the very essence of rhythm, has been

because that

is,

Not by

which the word-accent was shown.

in the pitch,

is

He supposes that
overlooked by Mr. Clark altogether.
quantity constitutes the essence of rhythm. A more complete
mistake could not be made. A number of long and short
may lie together in the order in which they stand in
a hexameter verse, but ictus alone can separate them into
syllables

by a magician's touch, clothe the dead skeleton

of syllables with the life and vigour of a rhythmical succes-

bars, and, as

Mr. Perkins, in his Essay above quoted, well remarks

and we may
that we can make a clock tick to any time
the
add, a railway train often seems, by
rattling of its wheels
sion.

over the regular intervals made by the joining of the rails,

to beat time to a great variety of tunes, according as our
fancy, or perhaps an occasional jolt, causes us to place the
ictus here or there.

the hexameter,

if

Now

the ictus

this

would be

just the result with

had not been

distinctly given

ACCENT AND QUANTITY.

the pause at the end of the
done something, but very

line,

and the

55

quantity,

would have
ear

towards leading the

little,

towards the right ictus, and the

would have been as uncertain, or nearly

general rhythmical effect

so, as the ticking

a clock or the jolting of a railway train.

must then have been to show the ictus.

took care of the

ictus,

The main
If

the

of

thing
reciter

the accent would take care of

itself.

Certainly the accent would only be heard in as far as the

departed from the completeness of monotone.

recitative

And some
for to

such slight departure did,

chant in perfect monotone is

I
all

doubt not, occur;

but as impossible

of execution, as it is wearisome to the ear. Yet, I must

It is
confess the great difficulty here is a practical one.
very hard to realize the distinction between a high and a

loud note, not indeed in theory, but in practice. It is hard

to say whether in the language of ordinary life syllables are
emphasized by being pronounced in a louder tone or in a
higher key

seem always

the two

this is really the difficulty to the

tive verse
is

not

how

practically

at the

same time

go hand

modern

in hand.

And

reciter of quantita-

combine quantity with accent, that

and is a problem which we solve

to

a very simple thing,

in every sentence

and

to

we

utter

but

how

to

combine,

distinguish, the accent of the word,

and the ictus or beat of the verse. Yet, after all, the difficulty
As we have before observed,
is one of small significance.
be
the accent would
always felt, whether heard or not, and
could be no more mentally ignored than
song, where very frequently
musical beat.

it

is

it is

in a

modern

in direct opposition to the

That notice was taken of the accent in writing verses will

we cannot
appear from the following considerations. First,
in modern song, where the musical
even
accent
the
ignore
beat by no

Here,

if

means

necessarily coincides with the accentual.

the coincidence

is

too

marked and

constant,

we

get

ACCENT AND QUANTITY.

56
a jingling

and monotonous

musical beat

we

feel at

is

at

always

effect.

If,

on the other hand, the

variance with the accentual, then

once that the tune was never made

for the words.

same relation should we a priori suspect to

between the rhythm ( = scansion = musical beat) of a
Greek verse and its accentual emphasis.
In other words,
Precisely the

subsist

we should expect

the accent as a rule neither wholly to

coincide nor wholly to clash with the scansion, and this
is
Those lines in the ancient poets in
precisely the case.
which accent and rhythmical ictus exactly coincide, as well as

those in which they are exactly opposed, are the exceptions,

occasionally introduced no doubt by way of variety, but

avoided as a

Of

coincide, I
'

rule.

which the accentual and quantitative rhythm

borrow the following examples from Mr. Sophocles'

lines in

Modern Greek Grammar/ and

'

Glossary of Later and

Byzantine Greek/ pp. 21 and 50 respectively.

ii.

Iliad,

188:

OvTiva

Odyssee,

ii.

/3ao*iA^a

121

ii.

Tacoi>

Ib.

fJiiv

OVTIS

225

Kai

i/OT^tara

Ofjioia

Aristophanes, Ach. 68
"Avbpa Ttdcavbv

HrjvfXoTreirj.

ap.vfji.ovos

?]v eVat/)or.

o~TrapaTT(i)V

Kai

rapuTTW

/cat

KVK.WV,

Eq. 317:
Tots aypoiKOKrtv iravovpytos uxrre

Ib.

Ki^fiij.

MefTcop 6? p* 'oSvffTjo?

Ib.

avdpa

el-oxov

Vesp. 38

Ib. Lys.

Kav

310:
p.r)

KaXovvTGiV rou? no%\ovs

(})aiveo~dai

rra\v.

ACCENT AND QUANTITY.

many more

sophocles gives

tf
which might no

instances,

doubt be considerably multiplied.

He also adduces, among others, the following examples

of a double rhythm, the one accentual, the other quantitative.
Quantitative Trochaics.

Aeschylus, Pers. 157-159:

*Q

J3a6vd>va>v avcurcra II(p(ri8a>v VTrepTarr)

Mr)TT)p

Qeov

Hv

SZepgov yepcua, ^alpe,

r)

TL

Aaptiov yvvat.

evvarfipa Hsparwv, 6fov Se KOL

p.ev
(jLTj

8aifj.cov

e<pvs,

p-rjTrjp

TraXatof .....

Aristophanes, Ach. 676, 712, 718; Nub. 576, 585:

Ot yepoi/res
Tot?

TrnAaioi p.jj,<pop.(rda

oi

veoicri

Tbv yepovTa

rat

yap

yepovri,
v/zti/

els

i'S'

TOV veov ^e

p.efjKpop.fO'ff

tavrbv evdeus

Accentual iambic tetrameters, or

as

all

the

modern Greek popular

Tro'Xei.

rfj

XaXoy ^a) K\eiviov.

evpvTrpaxros KOI

5'

vew.

TO)

emvriovi
vve\KV(ras.

o-n'xot TroXm/co/,

the

same

ballads.

Accentual Trochaics.
Ib.

Nub. 1045; Vesp. 241, 244; Lys. 313, 365:

KamH

riva

2i/n/3Xoi>
'ETT'

Se

avrbv

yva>fj.rjv

(pacri
a>s

Tts ^uXXa/Soir'

e^cov ^e'yeis TO. depfia Xovrpa

xpr]^ar(>v

fX ftv

Ko\ovp,fvovs o)V
civ

TOV

"

7ray7 e ?

^Si'/cT/crev*

avrov.

aXXa.

v\ov T>V ev Sajuaj

Quantitatively scanned, these have the rhythm of the

Tj-oXiTiKo's-,

more

usually found as an accentual measure.

Rare as such exceptions

are,

we cannot

attribute

them

to

Their comparatively frequent occurrence in Aristophanes is in itself suggestive. Is it not extremely probable
that such lines were inserted by the poet, that it might be

accident.

ACCENT AND QUANTITY.

58

optional to the actor, as he judged best for comic effect,

either to say or sing them, that is, to
say them according
to the accent, or to sing them according to the
quantity ?

That accentual rhythm was perfectly well understood by

the ancients, and was in fact among some nations at least

much

older than quantitative,

nian measure
old

German

the

same

among

poetry, as the

Romans,
'

The

almost certain.

is

Satur-

the epic metre of the

Niebelungenlied/ are essentially

as the English popular measure, so often found

in nursery rhymes,

'A

the

and

ballads.

captain bold of Halifax,

Byron compares,

who

lived in country quarters,'

with
EiTre p.as

Kai

We

TTJV

2>

(pi\(X\rjva irS)S <pepeis rfjv

a.7rapay6pr)Tov TO>V

cncAa/SiW

TOVDKUV rvpavviav.

have just seen the same metre, both accentual and

quantitative, in Aristophanes.

In Latin and German

form
1

it

occurs in a somewhat mutilated

as indeed not unfrequently in English,

e. g.

The king was in his counting house, counting out his money,
The queen was in her parlour, eating bread and honey.'
|

In the

first

line,

if

we

divide

it

into

two

Ko>An,

to use the

language of the rhythmicians, we get an external catalexis,

in the
which we must remedy either by pause or by TOVTJ
second line we have both internal and external catalexis,
:

which we must remedy, the

by

first

by

TOVTJ,

and the second

or pause.
Compare the Saturnian verse:
TOVJ]

Quod

re sua difeidens dspere afleicta

hc'ic vovit voto hoc soliito

Parens timens

Decuma

facta poloiicta leibereis lubentes.

More uncouth and

metre

truncated

still

is

the old

German

epic

ACCENT AND QUANTITY.

'

59

Gunther und Hagen die Recken wohl gethan.

Beriethen mit Untreuen ein'n Birschen in den

Tann

Mit ihren scharfen Spiessen wollten sie jagen gehn

Baren, Schwein und Biiffel was konnte kiihnres g'schehn.'
;

How

'

such lines/ observes Mr. Clark, referring to the

iriKoi above
quoted, would have puzzled Aristoxe'

nus or Dionysius

'
!

Dionysius himself gives us a pretty clear answer

question what he would have thought of the accentual modern heroic measure, when he gives as accentual
I think

to

the

the following lines which scan precisely in the

(rrpoarwdiKovs)

same way
Ou

/SejS^Xos
8'

Kayo)

MS Xeyerai TOV veov Aiovucrov

f^epyao-irjs

[reading corrupt] wpyiaa-^vos

Hephaestion's Enchiridion completes the

IleXovo'iaKoi'

We

that question

more

it

What was

return to the question,

accent in quantitative rhythm

will

thus

Kf(paios Trapa TeX^a.

now once more

will

k'OSet'CDi'
the value of the

triplet

jyxoj.

be necessary

to

To

answer

remind the reader once

rhythm is the dpxireKToviKr] of all verse, and

and
accent only the subordinate means of which
quantity
rhythm is the end. But rhythm would inevitably degenerate
that

into jingle

if it

were not

verse which scans too

and

some counteracting tendency.

easily runs away with the reader,

for

rattles off with ever-increasing

Now

there are two available

rattling tendency.

Both are
rhythm.

speed

like a railway train.

means of checking

The one

is

this jingling

quantity, the other

is

or

accent.

whether in quantitative or in accentual

Accentual rhythm is perhaps more liable than
available,

quantitative to degenerate into jingle, because the natural

accent of each word gives at once the rhythmical ictus ; the

verse consequently tends to scan itself.
This tendency may

be remedied partly by the inherent quantity of certain long

ACCENT AND QUANTITY.

60

upon which no accent

falls

by introducing
which
is given by the general or
accentual
scansion, and
pervading
the actual stress on particular words; so that the wordaccent shall only generally, and not in every case, represent
the rhythmical beat. Both means are needed, because, firstly,
syllables

an occasional variation between

partly

that rhythmical ictus

accentual rhythm, quantity is of so little account, that

retarding tendency is not sufficient of itself to prevent

in
its

a verse from becoming jingling and monotonous; and

secondly, the variation in accent must be restrained within

narrow

it would
spoil the music of
somewhat monotonous and

limits, or

Compare

the

the rhythm.
jingling

rhythm

of the ordinary modern Greek

y

KaXu
ttov

To

TO f-^ovv

TO.

Set/

\dpov

KaXoKcu'pi

/Sovfa,

Xdpov

Travre^ovve,

7rpo/3ara,

fiv

KaX6p.oip

KOI TOV ^et/xcoj/a %iovia.

Tpfis dvo~p(op.voi /SouXozreu TOV adrj va

'O evas Xeyei, TOV Mai' va

(3yfj,

TOVS filXyo-fv OVTOV

t-avOrj

dvo'pa>p.evoi

p,f,

povrovv

TO.

p.ov,

pov^d

'

'Eya> TO

pav^a ftydvu

Kai Ta KaXiyoTraTTOfTO'a

HdpTC

Na
Na

va

7raa>,

va i8a

Kopjj,
'K.oprj,

ifiw

f]

p.dvva

with the lines quoted above

Aptyare

TOV

(pvcrovv

KOI

p.ds voydet 6

KOI

TO.

/^laXXta

TO.

Ta

/iaXXta

Xapoy.
Koj3u>,

o~Ku\a T dmGovo).
e'/ie '$

p,ov,

TTCO?

TOV Trdvo)
ffklftorai

KOQ-/LIOI/,

yui

pov, TTWS K\aiovv yia

r* ddepfpia

crov 's

(f)V\\a.

KOI

T d8ep(pia o~ov

<rc'va

o-fva

T^ pdvva

KaXo/catpt,

TO.

TOV KUTO)

ep.e 's

TTJV

dv8pa>p.voi p.nv,

p,e,

Trao),

'

TO,
's

's

(TOV,

KOI TO Ka\iyi crov,

ro'ctKiVoui',

aAXoj TO

K' 6 TplTOS TO XlVOTTtopO, TTOV TTffpTOWe

Koprj

ol

8ev Kaprepovve'

fls
TTJV

TOV

xP

povya Ko

7rd\iv (pao-Toi fuSm'/uovar vopKiaraovs

'Ho TOV Maiov TOVS Tfprrvovs KOI

eutoSety

ACCENT AND QUANTITY.

Lai

TrapQevov ort'\^arf,

TTJV

'Eya> 8ev Korrrco BL eue'

Aev

KOTTTft

XAeudei

Awarat

dvepao~Tos

TTJV

K\d($ov TrXeov'

p.vpo~i.vr)s

Kwrrdpio-anv,

TTevBifj-a,

K* eya) riyarrqcra TTOTC, K

e'A

Afv dvai 6

(tXlffl*

obvvrjv TOV TO avBos TO a>paiov.

fj.di>oi>

dez/

livdos

dirtBavev eKftvq,

Bfftaprjufvrjs Ke^aXr)? ro

AXXu

cos

rjris

61

1707x01/77 era

Ma'toy

jSios

juercoTroi/
e'ya)

dvTrjyaTrrjdrjv'

<pev

TT\T)V

va Spe^y

va are^?/.

e\r)(T^.ovf)6r]v.

atclu/tos*

6eV

MapatVoj/rai at dvdrjpal TOV epu>Tos

Kat (pfvyfi
'Os

Here

vfGTTjs p,as,

f)

op/cot (Trade POTATO? els

will

it

metre for

acrrpaTrr)

<rrr]Qr)

yvvaiKfla.

be observed Spe^are stands as regards the

8pe\^a're,

epaorat for cpao-rat,

for Swarat, dvdrjpal for

on

a>s

ftvQrjptu,

jfrt?

for

jyri?,

for aorpaTrr;,

do-rpaTrr)

8Ji/art

and SO

the word-accent sometimes clashing with the ictus, as

in Spe^are, Swarat,
fainter ictus, as in

sometimes standing

in the place of the

The

quantity
of certain syllables has also a retarding influence, as in
Stands irrationallter for am/yon-r^i/.
I
dvTr)yairr}6riv, which
do-Tpairrj, peftaprjuevris, KetyaXris.

consider the above one of the most perfect examples I have

in any language, of melody without monotony, and

met

rhythm relieved from

jingle.

In quantitative verse the same principles may be seen

at work, but as accent is here the secondary element, and

one rather
retarding

felt

force

than heard, the influence of quantity as a

comes more prominently forward.

hexameter, according to
consisted of dactyls, as
'AvSpd

p,oi

('went

its

Movaa

original

The

rhythmical intention,

7ro\vTpo7rov os p.d\a rroAXa,

with one spondee at the end to indicate, as it were, that

the rhythm had run itself out of breath, and must
pause,
before beginning again.
Here the long syllables, with the

ACCENT AND QUANTITY.

62

exception of the final syllaba anceps, all receive the ictus.

Spondees were then substituted for dactyls, in the hexameter
verse

'Tardior ut paullo graviorque rediret ad aures.'

It

is

true that, metrically, the long syllable

as equal to two
is

is

regarded

short syllables, but the rhythmical effect

now, long syllables occur without the

one doubts that the spondaic hexameter is slower

different, because,

No

ictus.

and more majestic than the dactylic. A stronger measure

was adopted to restrain the impetuosity of the iambic tragic
in

verse,

accordance with the principle that Rest

chief characteristic of

Greek tragedy.

Here

is

the

alternate

in

feet long syllables were substituted for short at the discretion

of the poet. The ear tells us at once why the long syllables
were only allowed in the first half of each perpov: that is,

before the second, and not before the fourth syllable. These
second syllables received the stronger ictus
therefore the
;

long syllable immediately preceding was parhad a long syllable stood before the

effect of the
tially

neutralized

weaker

ictus,

it

would have

overpowered

it,

and

spoilt

the rhythm.

So much
check

We

for the influence of quantity considered as

to the rapidity of rhythm.

shall

now proceed

to

show

that accent

had

also a real

though a secondary importance in this respect. The verses

of Virgil are acknowledged to run more smoothly than
those

of

because

Lucretius.

Why?

Mainly,

without

doubt,

scan accentually as well as quantitatively,

not indeed completely, or they would be mere jingle, but
Virgil's

comparatively.

Compare,
'

for instance

tii
patulae recubans sub tegmine fagi
Silvestrem, tenui Musam meditaris avcna,'

Tityre,

ACCENT AND QUANTITY.

63

with

Quorum Agrigentinus cum

'

primis Empedocles

est.'

The fact is, Virgil seems to have exquisitely struck the

mean between lines that scan themselves and lines that can
None read like mere prose, none are
ardly be scanned.
ere jingle.

Lucretius mostly fell into one of the two opposite extremes.

Either his lines read accentually, are mere prose, or they
scan themselves, which, though with him a rarer, is a yet
greater defect.
'

.iuch

Hie

lines

E.g.

est vasta

Charybdis et hie Aetnaea minantur.'

and are

are great favourites with schoolboys,

proportionately rare in Virgil.

If we compare the Latin hexameter with the Greek,

main

find the

shall

difference to consist in this

that

we
in

Latin, accent and ictus nearly always coincide at the end

of the verse, the contrary being only possible when the last

word

is

a monosyllable, as in

I'

Empedocles

inasmuch as the

last

e"st

odora canum

syllable but

invariably receives the stress.

one

in

'

vis

Latin,

if

long,

In Greek, on the other hand,

such endings as
aXye' edrjKC,

are

Aavaol(riv

dpyyuv

common.

Greek verse has thus the advantage of very great variety

as compared with Latin.
At the same time, the relation
of accent and ictus is so nicely observed, that there is hardly
in

all

Homer

a line which, accentually read, sounds like

mere prose.
The same holds good of iambic verse, while in the choric
measures there is nearly always an accentual rhythm, which,

ACCENT AND QUANTITY.

64

is

does not exactly coincide with the quantitative,

it

though

generally sufficient to indicate

'lo>

ODS

yevfdi.

TIS

Tis yap,
TCLS
f)

example

KOI TO /n^5
dvrjp

TrAe'oj/

evdatp-ovias (pepei

a.7roK\ivai

'

TOI TrapaSety//

(TOV

TOV o~bv Sat/zova, TOV vov,

Or

for

TOCTOVTOV oaov do<elv

KOI 5oaz>r'

To

ftporwv,

"(ra.

vp.cis

it

<b

rXd/icoi/

OtfitTroSa,

again

de dpofjiov <pepop.ai \v<rcrr)s

p,dpya> y\<acr(rr)s d<paTi]s.

Here

the last line gives the clue to the quantitative scansion,

but a regular accentual rhythm runs through the first two.

In the iambic trimeter the Greeks seem specially to have

avoided the regular coincidence of ictus and accent at the

end of a line. The immense majority of verses, whether in
Aeschylus, Euripides, Sophocles, or Aristophanes, have no
accent on the last syllable, and at least thirty out of every
the accent on the last syllable
fifty will be found to have

but one.

became a

The

later imitators

observed

this,

and

it

finally

end of every iambic verse should be

The same desire to check the
accented on the penultimate.
too rapid run of the iambic trimeter was the origin of the
rule that the

choliambic verse.

cented on the

last

All the choliambics of Babrius are acsyllable but one.

Thus,

in the desire to

into the opposite extreme

avoid jingle, the later poets
of harsh monotony, which the fine taste of the great originals
There is, then, a law in the very
enabled them to avoid.
fell

lawlessness of the Ancients

'

Ars

est celare artem.'

ACCENT AND QUANTITY.

What has been

65

called the clashing of the accentual with the

quantitative beat constitutes the real beauty of quantitative

measure.

It

this

is

TVTTOS

which makes the charm and

dvTiTVTTos

melody of the old heroic verse. The accent and quantity

of these two words as well as the thought expressed in them
:eem to me exactly to embody the idea of beauty in quantiwhich

tative versification,

is,

as beauty always

Where both

of contrasts.

is,

the

harmony

coincide, as very rarely in Epic

poetry,
'

Indignor quandoque bonus dormitat Homerus,'

ien the other part of the line

(in which, happily for
this
coincidence
takes
llustration,
place) is realized

my

Kal

eVt Tr^/zcm

Ttr]\L

The rhythm of Greek

and

centual,

to

is

KfZrai.

prose was, no doubt, wholly acif read

my mind completely destroyed

according to the Latin accent, as

and

I will give as

universities.

is

done

in our schools

an example the concluding

words of Aeschines' oration against Ctesiphon

a)

ovv

[icv

TO.
ft1

fteV

0)

yrj

Kal

Ka\a Kal

rj\if
TO.

Kal dperr] Kal crvveo'is Kal TraiScia,

alcr^pd, fteftorjOriKa Kal flprjKa.

77

Kal

Ka\S)s Kal ai(os TOV d8iKr)p.aTos KaTrjyoprjKa, flirov a>s fj3ov-

fipr)neva>v \6ya>v

Kai CK TO>V 7rapaAfAetju/ifi>a)j/ avTol TO. 8iKaia <al

Ta

o~v/Ji<f)epovTa virep TTJS TroXecos \lsr](pi(rao'6.

Compare the following words from the conclusion of a

modern Greek funeral oration on Lord Byron
:

2v

8e,

(f>pio~o~ts

TO

VTTfprj(f>avov

o~rjp,pov djro

edatpos

TOV OTTOLOV

O-QU,
ol

2OYAI,

eprjfjiov

TOVS fyovs TOV

Krj8evop,ev

6<p6a\p,oi}

f)p.els

Kal

eyKaraXeAftfi/tevoi/,

?roXe/iou,

rjo-i/x^s

TCKVOV

dia iravrbs KXfio~6evTes }

TOVS

eva>

6opvj3ovvTas

<rou

8ev 6a

irpocr(pi\es,
o~e

ACCENT AND QUANTITY.

66

In conclusion, with regard to the practical question, how

are to pronounce Greek, I can only state, from my per-

we

sonal experience and that of others similarly circumstanced,

my unalterable conviction, that the man who has once

learned to read Greek fluently, with accent and intonation

as the Greeks read it, will never be able to tolerate either

Homer or Xenophon or Sophocles read with the Latin

accent and the miscalled Erasmian pronunciation.
Any one who has followed the arguments and evidence
adduced in the preceding chapter, must, I am sure, be
convinced that the way in which the ancient Greeks pro-

nounced

language was

their

at least far

Greek pronunciation, handed down

unbroken

more

as

like the present

has been by an

it

of tradition, than the wholly arbitrary system

which the followers of Erasmus have invented while few
line

have ever questioned, I may say among continental scholars

no one has ever doubted, the propriety of reading Greek
according to the accent.

moreover, the Greek accent alone preserves the true

rhythm of the noble orations of Demosthenes if a practical
If,

familiar sense of

to

show

it

good one,

is

absolutely necessary, as I have tried

in order to distinguish a

is,

is

it

it

not time

bad verse from a

we abandoned, once and

for ever,

method, whose only justification is that it

enables Englishmen to speak Greek so that, in the words
of Fuller, they can understand one another, which nobody

a barbarous

subjoin a short sentence, with an interlinear

English transcription embodying the chief peculiarities of

else

can?

modern Greek pronunciation:

*O ovpavos Kcii 17 yrj OVK eVAao^trai/
O ooranos tkeh ee yee ook eplastheessan
Ti>x6r](Tav

teekhtheessan

oXiyov

KOT'

oleeghon

kat'

o\iynv
ole^ghon

ov8\

fiiBvs,

aXXa

avtir-

ephthe^ss

alia

anep-

ol

oodh, ee

(ivdpconoi

01

viol

anthropee

ee

ee-e6

ACCENT AND QUANTITY.

rov

Qenv

too

theoo eebhr^theessan exephneess

<

TOV

eai(pvr)<;

rjvpfffrjtrav

TOV

ftdQovs

rAeiot

a)S

telee-ee

oas tkSh neen

KOI

o~KOTovs

6j
teal

^aoTiK^s

ovS'

vvv,

oodh'

(rvyxyo'fws

ek too bhahthooss too skoa-tooss tkeh khaoteekeess seengkhe6ss8oss

dyyf\(DV

o~d\7Tiyiv

angelloan salpeengxeen proekleetheessan

aAXa

dyaTTwa-t,

TIOVTS,

(rcoTijpias

ahlah peri -tees eh-ahphtoan

ah-gh-ah-poassee

<pevyov(ri

aoTr\iav,

TTJV

deezondess phebhghoossee

iroXffjLOV

ton-bolemon

oodhfe

lavT&v

rfjs

TTfpl

TOV

ovSe

7rpoK\fi6r)o~av,

teen ah-oa-plee-ahn

(pv&fi
feessee
(frpov-

soateere^ahss phronKOI

e^TTiTrrova-iv

tkgh

embeeptoosseen

epicri

KOI

p,d)(ais,

KOI

TTJV

avdrjv

TOV

"Apeos

erreessee

tkgh

mahkhehss

tkSh

teen

ah-bhdheen

too

'Ahrfios

ai

p.avddvov<n.

phthenggestheh mahnthahnoossi.

N.B.
there

is

The

circumflex accent sounds as the acute,

no reason

to think that this

and
was ever otherwise

way of recording the fact

had swallowed up a barytone by

the circumflex being simply a

that

an oxytone

syllable

means of contraction

the acute accent, therefore,

is

the predominating one, while the grave would be

plainly
felt

just

form was present to the

becomes dyairq, there is no reason

in proportion as the uncontracted

mind.

When

dycnrd-cl

lum, which
is

by

is

is

is

As

the acute.

that the syllable

as

heard any more than the IWTO subscripswallowed up by the a, just as the grave accent

to think that the

to the written grave accent,

on which

it

it

indicates

stands receives a slight stress

compared with the unaccented syllables, but one which

almost lost by comparison with the accent of the word

which follows

it

reads almost as

so that a word accented on the

if it

were part of the next.

last syllable

CHAPTER
On

IV.

the Origin and Development of

Modern

Greek Accidence.

IF the question were asked, what is the origin of the

Greek of the present day ? is it the offshoot of Byzantine
literature, the creation

and

sophists,
in the

of Church fathers, or of philosophers,

is its source to be looked for

rhetoricians, or

common

dialect of the

Ptolemaic

era, in the

idioms of

Dorians, Aeolians, and Boeotians, or the vulgarisms of the

Athenian market-place
it

had

its

beginning in

none of them
in

the true answer, perhaps,

none of these and

alone, and

in all of

in all of

would

them

be,
:

in

them together.

In speaking of the history of a language we should bear

mind the distinction between its outer and inner part, the

form and the matter, the skeleton of grammar, and the life
which makes that skeleton a living body with a living soul.

These two

parts of language should never

and yet

is

there

is

be confounded,
sometimes hard to keep them separate. For
an essential, as well as an actual connection between
it

them, which

The mere

may be

set forth as follows.

shapes and changes of words in a language

its grammar, while the thought of which these
called
be
may
shapes and changes are the expression may be spoken of as

ON MODERN GREEK ACCIDENCE.

69

the metaphysic of the age to which it belongs.

But between this outer part the grammar, and this inner part
the thought, comes a third something, which is neither
altogether outward nor altogether inward, and which, for
want of a better name, we may call the logic of a lan-

guage, or the way in which

in words.

the thought

finds

utterance

Now, just as the metaphysic of one age will tend to become the logic of the next, so logic will in its turn become
petrified into grammar, as we shall soon see by examples in
Hence the difficulty of drawing a
the language before us.
rigid line of demarcation

and

the thought

itself.

between the mere vehicle of thought

Grammar and thought, linked as

they are in the nature of the case by logic, which is the way
which the one finds utterance in the other, merge together

in

by scarcely felt degrees, like the waves of the stream of time

which bears them along, so that it is often hard to say
whether we are treading in the domain of philosophy
or of grammar, or lingering on the border-land between
the two.

The combination
however no

nomena

of causes in producing

excuse for confusing them,

are to be explained

phenomena is
when those phe-

and when we are attempting to

we must beware of attri-

write the history of a language,

We

buting every change and development to one source.

should begin by inquiring whether there be any part of
language which is quite independent of the progress of
human thought. If there be, we may then proceed to inquire what are the causes which

Then we can go on

may have

affected

its

de-

to consider the influence

velopment.
of intellectual progress on such part of language as must
be considered liable to be affected by it.

Nor can we be long in admitting that there

language which may be changed independently

is

that in

of the ad_

ON THE ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT

70

vance of thought, or remain unchanged in spite of it and

this is the mere form which words or inflections assume,
which is a very different thing, it must be remembered, from
;

in their

changes

usage and meaning

To make

disuse or introduction.
It

or,

again,

from

their

by an example.

this clear

plainly, as regards the history of thought, a matter of

is

indifference whether the

word

olvos

be written with or without

a digamma, whether we write cvrl as in Doric, eo-rt as in

Attic, or five as in modern Greek, whether ecouroi) as in

Herodotus, eavroC or avTov. It is very different when the

Homeric demonstrative 6, 17, TO becomes the simple article,
or

when

the infinitive

the subjunctive with

mood

in later

Greek

In accordance with the above remarks

the following pages,

words and

is

supplanted by

tva.

first,

to

is

it

proposed

in

consider the mere forms of

or the purely outward part of the

then
the
;
structure, in which the movement
of thought already begins to play a part
finally, the use
and formation of words, in which the inner life of the laninflections,

Greek language

guage

attains its greatest significance.

First, then, as to

I.

It

this

mere grammatical forms

THE ACCIDENCE

OF

or,

MODERN GREEK.

must not be supposed

head

is

in

common

of educated men.

that every form discussed under

use in the language of literature and

The

cultivated language

for the

most

part preserves the grammatical forms of the age of Thucydides, avoiding, as a rule, all the extremities of the later
Attic dialect, as, for instance, 6d\arTa for &iXa<ro-n,
povrjvos

for

xtpvovrjo-os.

In the language of the

people, however, the following peculiarities

noticed.

or x fp~

common

may be

briefly

O^ MODERN GREEK ACCIDENCE.

a.

o'a,

and words

in the plural

b.

made

like

it,

make

Jl

in the genitive

TIJS

dogas,

dais, ace. ral? So^aty = ray Sd|a9.

fj

host of nouns belonging to different declensions are

Thus rap-ias, "A\vs, Mapi-i?, Or Mdprrjt,

to follow One.

contracted from Maprtos,

ndpis,

"Ap???,

K<pa\as,

in

are,

the

declined alike, namely, by cutting off

singular number,
the sign of the nominative -$-, in the genitive and vocative,
and changing it to v for the accusative.
all

This v is dropped in pronunciation where the phonetic

laws of the language admit it.
c.
The plural of many words, especially of foreign origin,

formed by adding -dfs to the stem, as Traa-dfes from Traa-as,

p.a'ip.ovdes from
p.a'ipov, monkeys
p-awddes, from
pashas

is

p.dvva,

fj

17

mothers.

These plurals are always paroxytone, whatever the accent

of the word in the singular.
d.
or ov, take
Many feminines, whose root vowel is
s

in the genitive singular, as

case

is

mon,
g.
eVe

as

fj

Of

as TO

ypd-^tfjiov,

genitive

ypa^ip.aTa.

the pronouns,

eVei/a, r)p.fls

ep.as

vp,els

and

pay.

becomes

o-a?.

The

the personal

com-

\eyovo-t

ep.e

often appears as epeva, and a-f as

(pels, and in the accusative

becomes often

The

o-els

latter,

and

and

article,

pronoun

In the verbs
h.

i/ioi>,

alya, 6 Trarepas, 6 /SacrtXeas.

the place both of fjpas

aas,

Ko>, TTJS

Metaplastic nouns or secondary formations are

and

both

TO.

plural

ypa.ilfip.aTos,

f.

77

nouns of a compound de-

irregular

clension, especially verbals, in

TOV

p.a'ip.ov, rijs p.a'ip.ovs,

Ko>s, TJ/S Koi).

f/

There are a few

e.

f)

of the classical form, which in this

KOJS (exactly the reverse

used as an

enclitic, supplies

^p.wv.
catls-,

ace.

as enclitic

and

and

enclitic possessive

proclitic, is

used for

in oblique cases.

becomes

\eyovv Or \eyovve.

For

eXeyoi/

we have

ON THE ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT

72
e

Xeya

for eXea?, e'Xee s

v,

we

find Xeyeo-at, for \(yop.e6a, Xeyd-

and various other forms down

For eXcxfyv we get f\x&l Ka

X<?e for Xeot>, and do. passive

to the tragic

In the imperative aorist

Xe|ou for

third

'Aya7raj(rt

often

is

person

act.

Ae^//.

In the present tense of contracted verbs in do,

*'.

the

uncontracted, as dyandei for dycnra.

dya-rrovv or -oCj/e, sometimes

appears sometimes as

as dyarrave.
l,

In the passive,

for e'XeaTe, eXtgerc.

instead Of Xey^ or Xeytt,

'Ayanovp-fv is written for

and the

whereas

ayctTrco/zei/,

voeti,

become vodei, &c. eVt/z<v is eVt-o'o becomes -di>w, on the

-fs, -f
analogy of 5wo> for
urw for eVrwco
so Seco becomes fieVo).
In ancient
like generally

Greek we may regard cuV&> (pronounced ej>o>)

ening of eo), and ai/co as a strengthening of acu.

as a strength-

The verb et/u presents all the appearance of a verb in

/.
the middle voice, being conjugated thus: etftm, efo-m, f'j/t,
etfie^a,

da-Sat
/^.

ftcr^f,

eii/e

imper.

The

impf.

fj^ovv,

?j(ro,

^TO, fjp.f6a,

rj<r()f,

rjrov

inf.

eo-o.

present participle active often appears as an indeThe feminine

ovras, Xeyoi/ra?, &c.

clinable metaplastic in as

however by no means disused. The only other

\eyavara
participles in use among the uneducated are the present
passive and perfect passive, the latter minus the redupliis

cation, as ypappevos,
ticiple

dXifjipevos,

The

6pap.^fvos.

present par-

sometimes appears as though formed from the con-

jugation in

however,

is

-pi, e.g.

fpxdpevos, \tydp(vos.

never found in the

The

common

termination

-/it,

language of the

people.

Such are the main features of modern Greek accidence.

Let us attempt to account for them and to trace their development.

We

will

begin by inquiring what causes remain to us,

when we have eliminated those which belong to the intellectual

movements of the Greek mind, and, of course, could explain

OF MODERN GREEK ACCIDENCE.

73

nothing so merely external as the bare accidence of a Ianguage.

amongst the influences which would remain

First

to

be

the levelling tendency common to all languages, or, in other words, the ever-increasing desire to do
away with irregularities in grammar.

considered

It

is

may be

said that all language

intention, but in the

ness of matter, that

is

originally regular in

formation of words, the stubbornthe difficulty of pronouncing certain

first
is,

combinations of sounds, causes irregularities in the result.

These irregularities are then transmitted from race to race,
the reason of them being forgotten, their existence becomes an inconvenience, and a levelling tendency

and

sets in

So

1
.

in English

clomb, he holp,

given

way

we now

and

in

say, he climbed, he helped, for he

Spanish the participle apreso has almost

Here then at once we see the

to aprendido.

explanation of such forms as TOV "Apr), TOV "A\v, &c.

instance of the latter form, so far as I am aware,

first

The
is

to

be found in an anonymous writer of the tenth century,

known

as

Theophanes Continuatus.

In Constantine Porphyrogenitus, also an author of the

959), we get p.ovoyfvf) as the vocative of

tenth century (905

fjiovoyfVTjs.

Porphyrogenitus, as

he

tells

frequently the current forms of the vulgar

excepting in his Life of

artificial

language

in

numerous modernisms

St. Basil,

be

himself,

used

Greek of his day,

is

written in an

of classical writers.

His

noticed in their place.

The

imitation
will

which

us

very same tendency made the ancient Greeks say TTJV epiv
instead of TTJV epiSa, TOV yeXwv for TOV yeXoora, and the like.

Accordingly Sanscrit is more irregular than Greek, and Greek

than Latin; that is, the older a language is, the less regular is its

grammar.

ON THE ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT

74

We

have also

is

epos, epov for epcos, epara.

point of view this

one of the forms of the tendency

noticed, for

it

is

plain

if

we

may be regarded
above

to simplification

turn ficunXfvs, ytpav, "Apa^,

we have got one scheme

dvfjp,

and decline them

into /3acriXeas, yepovras, "Apaftas, avdpas,

like Ta/itW,

Another

the tendency to metaplasms or secondary

From one

formations.
as

Homer

in

similar influence

all

of declension instead of

remains to be explained how such a form

as avdpas could arise from dvyp, Or /3ao-iAe'a? from /3a<nAevs.
If we turn to the Septuagint we shall find our answer.

But

five.

still

it

There such forms as rbv f3acri\cav, TT}V alyav are of frequent

occurrence, and it is plain that such forms postulate the
nominatives 6 fiacrtXeas,
Yet such forms are nowhere
alya.
fj

found

till

we

enter the confines of

modern Greek

(if

we

except a few names of animals and birds occurring in Aristotle's Natural History, as, for instance, dcrKaXcairas from d<rKaXcox//').

These metaplastic accusatives may have

first

existed

and the nominatives and other cases may have been

formed from them. Yet the fact that the original form of

alone,

was

yepwv, K.T.X.

only yfpovrs
the classical

ytpovrs, may explain why yepovras, which is

made pronounceable, is the vulgar equivalent of
yepw. For were yepovras simply metaplastic, we

should expect always to find only yepovra as the genitive, but

yepovros, dvdpos, Trarpos, &c. are the more usual forms even in
the vernacular.

In

all

likelihood the v

was added

to the old

accusative merely from euphonic reasons to avoid the hiatus.

It may be that it was almost silent, or seemed so to a Greek
ear,

when followed by

a consonant, even

essential part of the word.

day, and the explanation of

liarity

This
it

is

of Greek pronunciation.

is

when

it

formed an

the case in the present

to be

found

in the pecu-

All consonants are

pro-

nounced by the Greeks with the utmost force and distinctness of which they admit; and v, being incapable of emphatic
utterance,

is

by comparison scarcely heard except when

OF MODERN GREEK ACCIDENCE.

75

followed either by a vowel or some consonant, the pronunciation of which it affects and thereby preserves its own

Thus

existence.

whereas in
in

rrj(v)

in

TT)I>

2a^o(z>)

of rty is never lost,

completely evanescent ; while

v
AiyuTrro(v) the
it

is

rrfv 7r6\iv

Now

(pronounced r^-bolin) it is preserved.

where the v is so evanescent a letter, its presence

naturally imagined wherever

and

would soon be

it

would

facilitate

is

pronunciation,

be written, though not

sounded, even where there were no such reason for its
introduction.
There may however have been a special
it

to

liable

reason for accusatives like alyav and Qao-iXeav.

Comparative
v
teaches
us
that
a
in
accusahas
been
these
lost
philology
tives,

as also in the

if this

same

o-c

pronouns

and

f'p.e.

What wonder then

should have lived on in the mouth of the

common

people, and appeared in the Septuagint, the language of which is so evidently, as far as it departs from the
classical standard (a few Hebraisms of course excepted), the

This consideration suggests a

vulgar Greek of the period.
further explanation of the grammatical phenomena of later

and modern Greek.

and well-known

fact

This
that

nothing else than the simple

archaisms are constantly per-

is

petuated in the language of the vulgar which have long

since been lost to literature.
Our own dialects are sufficient

proof of

this, to

rechl, kie,

we

go no

do'n, for

further.

/ cannot,

Witness

can-na, he's no

he's not right, cows,

we

do

where we have sounds or grammatical forms preserved to

us which cultivated English ignores.
Now to speak first of
the language of the Septuagint, no mistake could be greater
than to imagine that it was an artificial dialect, the results of

an indiscriminate reading-up of the language. According to

this theory, as
recently enunciated by the Grinfield lecturer

on

Oxford (Michaelmas Term, 1868), the

Greek of the Septuagint is a farrago of words culled at
random from Epic poetry, Attic Prose, and every conceivable
the Septuagint at

ON THE ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT

76

and with a grammar, we are left to suppose, invented

by the writers themselves. With the utmost respect for the
learned lecturer, I would submit that such a theory is imdialect,

probable in

itself,

the Septuagint.

and does not explain the phenomena of

inconceivable that there should

is

it

First,

not have been found, even at the time when the earliest parts
of the translation were made, Jews at Alexandria perfectly

Greek

familiar with

translators

as a

spoken language.

had not been

if

Again,

familiar with the language,

the

it

is

impossible that they could have escaped grammatical slips

such as using an imperfect for an aorist. Finally, the pe-

forms and usages which are found are easily explained

a
to modern Greek and other unclassical Greek
reference
by
For example, 7riao> is not peculiar to Doric, but
writers.

culiar

occurs in the Revelation of

modern Greek.

'ESoAtoCo-az/

and

common

St.

John, and

is

an imperfect from

is

in

8oAio'o>

(3rd person plural),

explained by the consonantal
form e\eyocrat>, a Septuagint form, &c., and further illustrated
is

by the modern Greek forms

3rd person plural

We may

say

if

we

is

efioXtoCo-a, eVi/xoCo-a,

respectively

like that

c8o\iov<rav

such a form as

yotrav for eXfyov follows the

of which the

and

eVt/xovo-av.

eSoXiovarav

in

/, but

or eAe-

we must

conjugation
not forget that there was originally no other conjugation,
and that the a- in the 3rd person of c8o\iovo-av is, etymologically speaking, just as
arrao-ai/, erideaav.

its

much
the

<r

in

its

right place as in ISidoa-av,

does in

this position is

indeed

has no place in Sanscrit, and as far as I

But if it was
presence has not been explained.

a mystery, as

know

What

it

it seems to have been, convenient to insert it for

reasons
here, we can see that it would be especially
phonetic
so if the usage of the language at any period required the

found, as

Such a form as e'SoXioCa

imperfect to end in a instead of ov.
for
a
It is true that o- is in
would plainly clamour
sigma.
Greek more often left out than inserted ; but the tendency

OF MODERN GREEK ACCIDENCE.

fj

do the one, implies, as a general rule, the tendency to do

It is a moot point whether y and v in such cases
the other.
to

as

cv0i>-s, OVTCO-S, ales,

ativ

are ephelcystic or etymologic,

i.e.

added when found, or omitted when absent. With atis might

be compared in modern Greek TiVorey. In such cases the
force of analogy

must be taken

Now

into account.

that a

was, for the termination of the imperfect, at least as old as

ov,

is

as likely as

just

not.

aorist

as

Originally,

Sanscrit, the termination of the

ist aorist

we

see from

and of the 2nd

and imperfect were the same. In Homer we have

and r)a in Ionic both erjv and ea for rjv, I was.' In
'

eov,

order to account for the diphthong

contraction

however, we should

ov,

was changed to a
8oXiW from eSoXtW had taken place,

lave to suppose

either that v

case the accent in such a

word

as

e'SoXtoCo-a

after

in

the

which

would be a

mystery, or else, as appears to me to have been the fact,

there was a paragogic vowel slipped in between the o and
the a.
This seems to have been so in the case of fa for
ea,

erjv,

and

?jev

for

eev,

and

fjrjv,

which would appear to

present us with a pair of paragogic e's

that may be, we have the termination

However

(e-e-e-ev).

-a-a for the

imperfect
of contracted verbs in modern Greek, and of contracted
verbs only.
In the Septuagint we have the termination
.

-a-av

in the 3rd

know no

a-

has just as

person plural of

trace of the

a-

in

many

verbs, but as far as

any other person.

much

Yet the

to exist in

right (pace grammaticorum)

any other person as in the 3rd, and it is my belief that in
many parts of Greece where in the first person a was the
favourite termination (e?Sa for eldov, etna for euroi/, which we

have in the Septuagint and

o-ovo-a,

New

Testament),

e'SoXtoCo-a, e/u-

&c. would inevitably arise.

At any rate, it is important to remember that all the Greek

was spoken from Homer's day to the era of the Pto-

that

lemies

is

not to be found in books,

still

less in

Grammars,

ON THE ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT

78

above

and,

modern

that vulgar

all,

times

both of ancient and

dialects

should be expected to

contain

far

more

archaisms than innovations.

Let us see whether

the explanation of

modern Greek

First then as to

forms.

How

the nominative 86ais for 86ga.

the

us further in

this principle will carry

are

we

to account for

'

Schleicher, in his Comparative Grammar/ following

as I believe in the steps of Bopp, postulates 8oga-i~as or some
i

such form as the original plural of

Professor

state that

Max

It

86ga.

Miiller differs

from

is

but right to
but at

this view,

remarkable that the modern Greek form supplies exactly one of the stages of transition that the theory
of Bopp and Schleicher demands. As to the accusative rals

any

rate

is

it

dogms, that

is

archaism.

the Aeolic form,

and as such an acknowledged

be a representative of

Tats 86gais is ascertained to

ravs 86gavs, the modification of the

of the

vowel indicating the loss

v.

Turning next to the pronouns, we have already observed

and eVera for epe and o-e preserve the original v

that cpeva

(in Sanscrit

referred to
foe Is.
it

is

as the

As

m, mam, and tvdm] of the accusative.

Plato

by

to the

(except

for

'

TOVS,

article,

the accent in fhe latter case) the

Homeric usage,

dTrea-vXrjare

418 c)
and proclitic use of the

(Crat.

enclitic

'E/ms- is

as an older form for

e.g.

T6i/

he spoiled them.'

same

he killed him

'

eWoraxre,

Passing to the verbs,

find in Aeyovz/ or \eyowe the traces of the old

;'

we

form Aeyom

(exovi is quoted, I believe, by Hesychius as a Cretan form).

In the passive the forms Atyeo-m, 2nd person present, \fy6paorre or Aeytfyce vGa as well as fayopefav, are so plainly archaic
forms that they need no explanation. In St. Paul's Epistle

to the

Romans we have

already Kavxavai,

thou boastest/

In the imperative aorist active \fge for Aeo> is Homeric.

As to the imp. aorist passive A/ ou, I cannot but agree with
Dr. Mullach that

it

is

the classical middle

aor. imper.

of

OF MODERN GREEK ACCIDENCE.

erbs in
in

/it

79

used as a passive, there being no middle voice

modern Greek,

as there

Few who compare

sponding modern

was none

such forms as

vrdo-ov, Segov will

in the

KOIVTJ

8ia\(KTos.

with the

a-rda-o

be able to doubt

corre-

this.

The verb elp.cn (dpi), so far as it presents us really with

a middle form, has the precedent of the Homeric eo-o, which
is precisely the modern Greek imperative, not to speak of the
future eo-o/wu.

But nearer examination shows us

The

conjugated throughout as a middle.

singular

and

plural cwai or

five,

the latter being

that

ip.ai

is

third person

more

correct

in pronunciation the two forms are the

for emu and elvrai.
Now the formation
not
plainly

writing, while
is

same,
rf this
tiot

The

word we

are able to trace through

which

its

various stages.

which in the
appears
Doric dialect was the same for both numbers. This evrl
oldest shape in

is

it

eWi,

appears already in classical Greek as cvi in such phrases

It is not unlikely that it was the
as OI'K ew, evLOL for COTIV oi.

though known to
such short phrases as the above. In the
Acts of the Council of Constantinople (536 A.D.), we find
In Ptochopro(vi used simply for eWi, 'Tis *vi Neoroptoj.'

vulgar

word

in regular use for eWi or eWi,

literature only in

dromus, the first Romaic writer, we get eW, and soon

wards the present form elvm or five.

after-

One other principle which seems to have been at work in

the development of modern from ancient Greek is the principle of

From

extended analogy.

this

point of view

modern

Greek may be called the logical result of ancient Greek. In

ancient Greek the dual number was disappearing in modern
;

The
Greek, as already in the KOIVT) SiaXeim>?, it is gone.
middle voice as a separate formation was on the wane. In
the New Testament we have d-rrfKpidrj for dncKpivaro, much
earlier eftexfy f r

f^aro

in

modern Greek

the only relic of

the ancient middle appears in the passive imperative aorist.

In later Greek we have many instances of a
tendency to

ON THE ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT

8o

dispense with a separate form for the perfect, using the aorist
instead.
In modern Greek the perfect has disappeared,
leaving perhaps a trace of
aorist as efyjjKa for evprjKa.

and

cvprjKdv

f(i>pa.Kav,

for

its

former existence in such an

Already in the Septuagint we get

Verbs in fu
vpr)Kacri and ecopaKaori.

have entirely disappeared in modern Greek, leaving behind

them only such remnants as the participles
pevos

above noticed.

The

termination

q/ca

in

seems but a following out of the analogy of

e6w, e6r)Ka for edrjv, and so forth. Mr. Walker, High
Master of the Manchester Grammar School, has called my

<pr)Kct,

&c.,

for

attention to the fact that the termination

KO.

for perfects is

unknown to Homer.
Under the head of extensions of analogy we may place
the double or mixed declensions, as TO ypfyipov, TO. ypa\^ip.ara,
It is
with which we may compare TO oveipov, TO. oWpara, &c.
almost

worthy of notice that the plural ra

known
I

to the

common

people

(in

have been corrected myself by

man who

barely

knew how

oveipara is the

Athens

my

at

any

only one
rate),

landlord in that

and

city,

to read, for saying TO 6Vipa.

Phrynichus, the grammarian, notices the increasing use

of this termination -t/zoi/, and complains particularly of the

employment of

One cannot

TO yf\d<np.ov for TO yeXoioi/.

but

be glad that the forms prevailed in spite of Phrynichus, for

They constithey are a real gain to the Greek language.
tute a class of verbal substantives with a shade of

meaning

not accurately expressed by any other word.

Certainly

there

is

no adequate ancient Greek

translation of d^ovo)

The
irnigipov o-fraOiuv, I hear the clash of mingled swords.'
force of the termination -tjuoi/ is that it places the word to
'

added midway between concrete and abstract;

but TO Ko^ipov a
e. g. Ko\lfis would mean cutting, Ko/i/ia a cut
number of cuttings or stabbings, and is used to describe, as
which

it

is

no other word could, an

internal pain

German

Leibschnei-

OF MODERN GREEK ACCIDENCE.

81

In the plural, as well as in the oblique cases of the

which
singular, it is rather the concrete side of the meaning

den.

comes

Hence we have

into prominence.

priate to a concrete

meaning

may mean

either

The

ypa^t/xaros, ypa^ip-ara.

same explanation no doubt holds good

which

the endings appro-

dreaming

with regard to oveipov,

in the abstract, or a

dream

while ovcipara means always particular dreams.

It remains that we should notice the influence of dialects
in the forms

The

modern Greek.

of

KOIVT]

it

was
was

it

was

StaXe/cTos-

robably so called quite as much from the fact that

o dialect in particular but a mixture of all, as that

Pindar's language was called by grambecause they regarded it as a mixture of more

generally understood.

marians

Koivf],

han one

Now

dialect.

the fact that the

Greek of the Septuagint presents us

one reason for

with forms belonging to different dialects is

the false notion above referred
their

words

at

random from

to,

that the translators took

much as an
own day. We

the several dialects,

schoolboy might do in our

nndiscriminating
_ire apt to forget
to the

that the

Greek language was

just as familiar

the Septuagint, as their own

as
they adopted the language of stammerJust
in Babylon, so they spoke Greek under the Ptole-

Hebrews who wrote

'

tongue.
'

ing lips

both spoke and wrote that

language with greater ease than their sacred tongue. The
only natural explanation of the appearance of Doric forms
mies;

like

and, in

7riao>

Septuagint,
period,

and
is

all

likelihood,

rare

Homeric words

that they

nia^w

is

catch/ and in this

like

dyepw^oy

in the

were current in the vernacular of the

day the modern Greek for

sense it is that it is used in the Bible

to this

Latin opprimere), while dyepaxos

is

actually

'

to

(cf.

found in the

ballads collected by Passow.

We are conreminded
of
the
existence
the
tinually
throughout
history of
the Greek language (at any rate beginning with the time of

Romaic popular

ON THE ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT

82

Aristophanes), of a

common spoken

from the cultivated language of

As

to the surface.

often as

it

dialect quite distinct

literature,

but seldom coming

strove to raise

its

head,

some

tyrant grammarian, a Phrynichus, a Dionysius, or a Choeroboscus beat it down, till at last a poor monk, nicknamed

Ptochoprodromus, in the eleventh century, by his example

liberated Greek for ever from the shackles of the grammarians, and showed that a language has neither power nor

beauty except

it

be

free.

Meanwhile, of course, the language of literature, of the

schools, and of the law-courts was comparatively stationary,
while that of the people was continually developing and
changing, as must ever be the case with a living spoken lan-

guage.

No

doubt one of the

was

the popular dialects

in one.

Probably

it

changes that came over

became mixed and merged

first

that they

was only a very old Megarian who, even

would be heard in the Athenian

in the days of Aristophanes,

market-place expressing himself thus,

ap,/3aT

irorrav fJiaSdav at

Constant intercourse with

soon soften down

political

divisions

fvprjre

men from

TTO.

other parts would

dialectic distinctions, especially

were

Doubtless the Attic

lost in the

when

all

Macedonian monarchy.
most cultivated

dialect, as that of the

portion of the nation, would give the leading tone to the

now}) SiaXe/crof, but at the same time we should quite expect
This is actually the case
isolated provincialisms to survive.

not only in the language of the Septuagint, but also in the

The modern Greek, when
modern language of Greece.
speaking in the vernacular of his country, says p-ixpr) with the
lonians of Old, doas with the Dorians, raly rt/zaty for ras np.as
with the Aeolians, eo-o and $e{)e for lo-dt and 0eOoi/ with the

Epic poets.

Yet we may be well assured

or vine-dresser

who speaks

in this

way

is

that the shepherd

as ignorant of the

OF MODERN GREEK ACCIDENCE.

83

language of Dorians, lonians, or Epic poets, as a South- Sea

As peculiarly characteristic of the Boeotian variety
islander.

we may notice the preference of ov for v. So

modern Greek we have KovrdXiov for wrdXiov from

of Doric Greek
too in

KvrdXr], TpovTra for Tpvira.

as

a-ovcrdfjii

and

for

a-rjcrafjuov,

Sometimes

this ov represents

voviriais for (rrjiriai;

compare

an

77,

Kpovvos

Kprjwi.

With reference

to such forms as vodo> for

remind the reader,

on pronunciation,

that, as
da>

we have seen above

and

>

voea>,

we may

in the chapter

So too

were originally one.

eXfey for ?Xeas is only another instance of the equivalent

value of short a and *.
This again we see in ptXrepos, /3eXTiW, from /3eXi-o's, which means that which may be put, placed,
or thrown;

standing for

/SeXros

adjective of /SaXXcu

circumstances compare TraXra and

of fieXrepos &C. compare

the

regular verbal

and

/SaXroy,

(for the change of a

TreXr?/? ;)

under similar

for the

(pepraTos, (peprcpos,

from

etymology
(pepTos,

i.

e.

is bearable;
hence in the comparative degree more
The forms paXrbs and (peprbs are
bearable or preferable.
common verbal adjectives in modern Greek.

what

The

paragogic

tendency to become

in such
t;

most ancient form, as

words as

eXXoye'o>,

so &arda), the
I

believe, of

passed through the following stages

rayos,) fiiarayta), fitaray/co, Siarabo,

modern Greek and

Starao-o-o),

Siarayeo)

8ia.rd(T(Ta>.

had a

&c.,

must have
(I

Tayeco is

am

a 8z-

found in

Aesch. Persae, 764.

The disappearance of the dative case from the common

vernacular of Greece belongs rather to the head of Accidence
than Syntax, as I believe it is mainly attributable to pronunWe have seen already, that in the vulgar dialect
both a and ot tend to become ou. This will account for the
ciation.

fact that TO)

ewre,

p.ov

dire.

eltre

becomes

Add

especially the later

in

modern Greek

TOV eme,

to this the fact that the

and

/*ot

Greek idiom,

Greek idiom, often places the genitive as

G 2

84

ON THE ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT

a kind of gen. commodi, in which position

for the dative, as 'Edepaircwev avrov

rrjv

it

ETC.

really stands

Ovyarepa, a

mode

of

expression which meets us in almost every page of the New

Testament, and the wonder will rather be how the dative

should so long have maintained

have finally disappeared.

its

rights,

than that

it

should

CHAPTER

V.

The Origin and Development of Modern Greek

Syntax.

HAVING now,

as far as our time and space allow, disof

the
mere
posed
grammatical forms of the modern Greek
language, let us go on to examine

THE SYNTAX

OF

MODERN GREEK.

Here we have left the region of archaisms and dialectic

forms, and enter the territory of the history of the human
mind.
To the mere philologer the former part of the
inquiry may seem the more interesting; for the philosopher
the succeeding portion will present the greater attraction.
That we may obtain in the outset a general view of the
difference in structure

and expression, we

will

compare part

of the eighth chapter of Plutarch's Life of Caesar, as translated by Mr. Rangabes, with the
original as written by
Plutarch.

yvapr) \onrov avrrj e(pdvrj

Ot/rco

de -nyy

yvut^s

(pi\dv6pa>7ros, Kal l(rxvpbs 6 \6yos

6pa>7rov <pavi<TT]s Kal TOV

OOTIS fppedr) 7Tpl avrfjs.

dwarfs eV

At' 6

avrjj

(f>i\av-

\6yov

prjQevros

ov

THE ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT

86

avTov eycpdevres

p-ovov 01 /ifra TOVTOV

TTCtpeoexovro TTJV Trpdrao-ti/ O.VTOV,

7rpoo-(Tid(vro, TroXXoi

aXXa

?rpo

ov fiovov

of /tier'

KOI TroXXoi

ra>i>

7Tpoop,i\r)-

dpvovp,fvoi ray

TWV

iSt'ay

aurou ray

Kdrawoy

KOI TOV KarXov.

5'

f]vavrio)drjcrav

T)

p.fd'

Owroi

opp-rjs,

KOI

a>s 6 Karcov /ufra roD Xoyov ep-

<cai

virovoiav

/car'

avrov,

f^avecmj KOT* avrov

/3iat'a)y,

/cat

pi\^e

01 p.ei/

oTrcoy

av8pes Trapedodrjcrav

Kara 8e TOV Kai-

davaTcoduHTi'
ev

o~apos)

o>

X^y, TroXXoi

i/e'cai/

jSou-

riyy

ef-fjpxcTo
roil'

roif (ppov-

POVVTOJV TOV Ki/cepcova rore,

opp,r)-

ra ^i<p;

eorpr^av yv/j-va
'AXXa Xeyerat

o-avTfs,

Kar' avTov.
6

KouptW,
8ta

roi>

7Tpi/caXu\^ay rorf au-

r^y

f^rjyaye'

ort

rrj^fvvov

TOV

TOV,

Kai 6 RtKepcoi/, oraz/ 01

veot TTpoo-f^Xf^av eiy avTov,

on

evevo-fv a7ro0ari/ca)y, (po/Sf/^eiy roi/

drjpov,

KOI

f)

p.c-

Karcoi/a

ro

7rapdvop.ov

Se

rou'

6eV

decapuv.

Trepi

r^y

Kanjyope^To
<!)(pf\Tjdr)

rJTis apt'o-n;

roi/

veaviKws

T(ov, Kdrcoj/oy 5e /cat

TO)

ap.a

irepirfkBe.

fvavria>6fvTT^J/

VTTOVOIGV

o~vvf7rpio~avros

Xdya)

avTa> KOI o~vyKaTfavao~Tdvros ep-

aVSpey aTroda-

pco/iej/coy,

ot

vovp,evoi

irapedodrjcrav,

fie

y
7-77

p.i/

Kat'crapi

/SovX^y e^tdvri TroXXot

KiKepwva (ppovpovvrwv rdre

yvp.va ra
o-%ov.
777

^i^)j;

'AXXa

crai,

o-vv^pap-ovres tff-

Kovptooj/ rf Xeyerai

avTos T

vfavio-Koi

i/ec

7Tfpt/3aXa)v VTTff-aya-

TTjftevvo)

ytlv,

6 KtKepcoi/,

(poftrjdfls

TOV

a>y

of

dvavev-

7rpoo-^\-^av,
dr/p-ov,

TJ

TOV

KOI Trapdvopov
(povov oXcoy (idiKov

ToCro

f)yovp.fvos.

o?8a

oTrcoy

/nei'

KiKepcoi/,

GUI/

etTrep

ou/c

^v

Tovro
vcrrepov a>y apiora rai jcatpa) rdre
7rapao~xovTi

TOV

KarXov

KOI

TovTatv

7rt

TOV (povov oXcoy aftiKov

ir>s 6

(Is

yvotpas

aTrenrdp-fvoi irpos TTJV fKfivov

crcipa TOV

OTOV rjXdfv

reov

/cat

elprjp.evas

ea>s

TOV, ea>s

8c

VTrarti'ay

Xoyoi/

6' vorrtpov

Tore (K

on

TTJS cvKcitpias

Trapouo-iafero fty at>-

Kara rou Kaio"apoy, aXX'

\iao~fv ev&TTiov TOV

Kara

e'8et-

dyfjiov, OO~TIS

VTreprdrooy rjvvofi TOV Kat'crapa.

vov TOV Kato-apoy.

rov

KatVapoy

OF MODERN GREEK SYNTAX.

87

are all ancient Greek; but there is a

the old simplicity of expression,
from
strange departure
combined with a sort of effort to say a great deal, and a

Here the words

which

certain indescribable insincerity of language

The mere

a history.

same

words, the outer shell, are still the

himself, or even Thucydides, might in

as Plutarch

connections have

certain

is in itself

employed

change has

but

It is as though a new
passed over the spirit of the whole.
soul had taken up its abode in an old body, or as if, to take
a simile from an ancient story of Sacred Writ, the rough,

out-spoken, stalwart elder brother were being counterfeited

The hands are
and supplanted by a wily younger one.
'

the hands of Esau, but the voice

We

will

now proceed

the voice of Jacob.'

modern
we may follow

to consider the syntax of

Greek somewhat more

we

is

particularly,

and

that

begin with that part of syntax which

seems most nearly to enter into the accidence of the lana definite order

will

guage.

The compound

may

fairly

In modern Greek the future

attention.

first

three ways.

tenses of the verbs

By

is

claim our

formed

the particle 6a with the subjunctive

in

by the

used personally, and followed by the infinitive

and, thirdly, by the same verb used impersonally, followed

verb

0e' Aa>

Thus

by the subjunctive.
ypa\|m(i/)

for ypa\/^at(?)

but

such

analogy, and

$e'Xei

becomes

('"")

contraction

am much

particle, to speculate

on

6a

ypa\^(o.

as a contraction for

usually regarded
yprtyoo

or

ypd-^co

0e'Aei

6JeAa>

-ypa-^co,

Qa yp<tya> is
va = 6e va = 6a

would be quite without

upon 6a as a mere

disposed to look

the etymology of which

would be

hazardous, though
may be either a part or a fragment of
a
a possible dialectic form of which would be 6a-Ka cp.
rax
it

>

Kidav

and x iT

have

>

fvdevrev,

fvrevdev.

particle 6e or Ba in

this very
(We and aWe fWe e'X&u
:

is

in

cannot but think

we

the optative interjection

modern Greek eWe

va e\dy,

which

THE ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT

88

might be also written

force to

rax,

i'o-o)?,

tl

that, in

modern Greek,

without

Ba.

to

"", &c.,
*

rax

am

the

is equivalent in
evident from the fact

is

and

X^

In ancient Greek

eXdot.

ftTTcoy

That 6a

6e va e\6rj.

TS,

*e,

to-cos

e\Qrj

may be used

ci-0c e\6oi is
plainly

more

equivalent

inclined to regard 6a as a

simple particle because its use with the subjunctive corresponds to the use of <e in Homer, with the same mood, while

employment with

the imperfect, as 6a firfdvpow (vulg. 6a

eTTcdvpovo-a), answers precisely to the classical eirfQvp.ovv av\
only that this usage is more exact in modern Greek, it being

its

impossible to say 6a

would mean,
did wish.'
aorist

in

errfdvp-rjcra

same

the

This

sense.
'

should have wished,' but, I probably

not,
It is worth consideration whether av with the
'

Greek has not sometimes the

indicative in ancient

However that may be, with 6a, if it be a

we
have nothing at present to do. Qa TroXesimple particle,
e
MO-O) is just as much in the spirit of ancient Greek as
same meaning.

TroX 6/117 (rco.

But with 0\a>

ypd\l/fi

GcXo) ypityfi explains

to

and 0eX

grow discontented with

ypfya) the case

is different.

But what induced the Greeks

itself.

their simple future ypfya>?

seems to have been nothing

else

It

than a certain wastefulness

of speech always observable in the Greek language, as in

such phrases as ervxcv <*>v, /xc'XXtt Troieli/ (which latter is after all

but another kind of

compound

future)

but this tendency

words always increases in proportion as solidity

of character and depth of thought begin to wane.
Inanity

to waste

always vents

itself in

expletives

and

it

is

no wonder

that

we cannot
oaths.

write Cicero's Latin without swearing Cicero's

Now every needlessly forcible expression is only

another kind of expletive ; it fills up a proportionate void in

the mind of the speaker and the hearer, and may be com-

pared to a

still

printer's trick

more

of

feeble resource of

italicising.

modern

The Nemesis

times, the

of waste

is

want

OF MODERN GREEK SYNTAX.

and so we

come

to

mean,
'

phrase for
the

'

I shall write

mode

explicit

the need arises of a separate

This accordingly

I will write.'

more

still

of speech

'va ypfyco.

This use of

where

extremely common.

is

it

ee\o> ypcn/m having

find in the present case.

'

But

is

tfe'Xco

expressed by

Iva y/xtyco, $eX&>

New

Testament,

this leads

again to a

begins in the

Iva

89

ypd^a in this and other cases is to be

equivalent to ypfycu, what are we to do if we want to say
Iva ypfya in good earnest?
We must have recourse to a
This
further periphrasis, and say dia Va (Si' Iva) ypd^a).
need

further

like the career of a perpetually insolvent

is

process

if Iva

at

debtor

The same

interest.

prinborrowing money
compound
ciple may be seen at work in a vast number of words and

To

expressions.

becomes
too weak
(Vat'?)

diapearov, dva

any

grOWS

preposition &a, through,

is

dvdfjiea-ov, /iera

felt

to

be

and accordingly

6p.a8rj

pressed into the ranks of the prepositions.

Tis

nolos

and

New

T\S, /cany, Kavets,

and

one,

vvv; Trds

in the

into

to express the relation with,

is

becomes
one,

The

notice a few.

some.

enaaros

Tapa

become

or

Kafj-Troaos

= respectively some

&pa) supplants the simple

(rfj

KaQfls, first,

as most frequently

Testament, used only in the accusative

/ca0' ei/a,

but soon regarded and declined as one word, as already in

the epistles of St. Paul
quale, el cual,
TTOLOS

le

with quel,

TTOIOS TIS,

and the

quel,

c.).

os

oo-rt?

in Italian,

For the old

common

people

indeclinably, like wasfiir in

meant

and

become

6 owolos (cp. il

Spanish, French, as also

the Greeks often say

TTOLOS

ri \oyfjs

German).

(the rl being

Ti \oyrjs

used

must have

'

'

of what vintage or gathering ?

Examples of this kind might be multiplied without end ;
but the limits of our space warn us not to linger too long on
originally,

any one

'

Aristotle,

The

however full of interest. We would rather

and
draw the outlines which we think, with
way
any one may fill up for himself.'

subject,

point the

third or impersonal

form of the

future, &'X

ypfya,

we

THE ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT ETC.

90

prefer to consider a

little

later

on when we come

to

examine

Greek systems of thought upon the development of the language. We will say now a very few words
on the compound perfects. Of these there are two, ex (yf )
ypap,p,evov, which is simply a more explicit way of saying
yeypcxpa, and will be quite familiar to the classical scholar,
and f'xa ypfyfi from e^ 00 ypa^ai, which is difficult to explain,
the influence of

rather from the want of illustration

and analogy in ancient

Greek or other languages, than from any inherent unreason-

ableness in the thing itself: yet we may compare the use of

the German infinitive for the participle in phrases like ich
hale ihn sprechen wollen, &c.
Perhaps the idea present to
the minds of those
TO ypdfaiv,

mean

'

who

and even

if

used

first

it

may have

the case required

it

been, that as

TO ypfyai,

the writing,' so e^to ypd-^ai might be used for

'

might
have

a writing,' of anything as a deed done, yeypa^evov /zoi eV.

At any rate, he who is not scandalized at CKU>V emu need not

be offended
It

at ex

ypd\^ai.

might be worth some one's while to see whether in

certain cases OVK e^to ypd^at, OVK f^co

and the

like,

may

OVK

x fl <wro8ai,
not admit of a perfect sense, as used by

Herodotus and other

flirfiv,

With reference
modern Greek, it is

classical authors.

both the future and perfect tenses in

be observed that being duplicate, according as the

to
to

infinitive

aorist or imperfect

is employed, they give a greater precision

of meaning than the simple forms ypd^a> or yeypcxpa are
rpa\^o> in ancient Greek might mean
capable of expressing.

either 'I will write' (e.g. a letter), or, 'I will be an author.'
In the one case it would be in modern Greek, da ypa\//-a>,
0e Aa> ypd\l/i,
ypdfyci,

Or

or #e\fi ypa^o)

$e'Xfi ypd(pa>.

in the Other, da ypdfpa, 6t\a>

CHAPTER

VI.

The Origin and Development of Modern Greek

Phraseology.

LEAVING for the present the subject of

some changes in the meaning of words.

syntax,

let

us notice

In the language of Greece as it is in our own day, we

shall be surprised and interested to find the eminently Greek
tendency to euphemism carried out to a still further extent
than in ancient Greek.
but

'

means no longer murderer

'

AvQevrrjs

'

Possibly during the period of Turkish suprethe Greeks thought it came to much the same thing.

master/

macy

have put under the head of euphemisms, though it

appears to be a kind of inversion of the euphemistic ten-

This

dency, inasmuch as a bad meaning has given place to a

But in all probability it is a real euphemism.
A.vdevT7)s in the sense of murderer probably stands as a

better one.

separate

idiom from

avdevrrjs,

master.

Avdevrrjs,

meaning

according to its derivation the very doer,' was employed

to denote the doer of a particular crime.
This etymological
'

sense

'

real

doer

'

was most

likely

never

lost

among

the

common

people, and when, as especially under the Turkish

dominion, fieo-Tnm/s was felt to be an odious term, avQevrTjs
would be applied to the master, half to soften down the
bitterness

of the relation in the

mind of

the slave, half

THE ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT

92

and fawningly towards the master, as though the

meaning were he is the real doer of all that is done, we

flatteringly

'

are nothing but the tools/

more palpable instance of

'

euphemism may be found in such words as o-Koro'i/w, I

of an animal dying; compare the
darken/ for kill, ^o<a
French crever, and the German crepiren. The meaning is
literally

'

of course

to

Xdpav in the popular

make

a noise.'

dialect,

gically(?) 'the joyful God.'

Death

is

still

called

Xdpos or Xapuvras, etymolomeans 'the

BcunXevct 6 fj\ios

sun

sets.'
Such euphemisms are quite in the spirit of the
Greek language in all ages.
Who does not remember at
the sound of O-KOTOI/OO the grand Homeric periphrasis for

death,

O-KOTOS

oo-o-e

xaXu^ei/?

and who

that

gazes on the

Greek shepherd has so often done, from

some commanding height, but feels the majesty of the great
Ruler of the skies more sensibly as he lights up with his last
golden rays, ocean, islands, clouds and mountain tops, and
owns the fitness of the words put by Campbell into the
mouth of the Last Man' who sees the sun set never to rise
setting sun, as the

'

again

'

Yet mourn I not thy parted sway,

Thou dim discrowned king of day' ?

If there is a difference between the euphemisms of ancient

and modern Greece, it is perhaps that the modern ones are
more stereotyped and fixed that the language of poetry has
;

become the language of life.

Thus much of the euphemisms
There

in the

Greek of our own

however many a word which bears the

day.
impress of a deeper and harder kind of thought than that
which is content with softening stubborn facts into gentle
is

metaphors.

The biography

of a

new word and expression would

be a page from the history of philosophy.

often

OF MODERN GREEK PHRASEOLOGY.

The whole language

93

in its vocabulary, as well as in its

appears to have undergone a change from truth to

from Nature to Art. If it be asked, When did this

structure,
fiction,

With the beginning of specuthought an answer perhaps none the less true because

change begin
lative
it is

the answer

is,

indefinite.

What
what

has philosophy done for language generally, and

for

Greek

in particular

might prove no uninstructive

The most comprehensive

enquiry.

would seem
for

things.

to be, that

it

The main

reply to the question

gave terms for thoughts as well as
feature of a language before

the

beginning of speculative thought, is a kind of honest simMen call a spade a spade, not an agricultural
plicity.
implement.
Before philosophy,

human

a mere registration
PhiloIt asks only what is there ?
of given phenomena.
how
it
there
?
and
?
is
is
there
it
then,
lastly,
sophy asks, why
is it

there at

all

When new
given

research

questions are asked,

and new answers require

is

new answers must be

new words, or at least

words with new meanings.

Even
words

the Ionic philosophers have

to the colloquial

handed down a host of

language of to-day.

Such are

fao-is,

OTOIXOI>, e^drpia-is, dvadv^iaa-is, dvaXva-is, Kocrpos, aneipos,

Could any of these words write its own
TTVKVQHTIS, dpaitiMrig.
apX*},

Had any
biography, what a strange history that would be
of them been gifted with the tongue of a prophet, how it
would have amazed the sages of old
!

The

unlettered Athenian in the Cafe de la Belle Grece, as

he melts a lump of sugar in a cup of coffee, little dreams

that the name by which he calls the process (dvaXvais) meant,

mouths of the old Ionic philosophers, the dissolution

of the elements of created things in decay or death; and
in the

scarcely could Heraclitus, with

all

his

admiration of anti-

THE ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT

94

have divined that

pathies,

and

the divine order of nature,

should

void,

be wedded

ever

and mean a

one

in

together
'

formless

the

aTTfipov,

Kotrpos,

expression, Koa-pos airfipos,

countless multitude/ perhaps a disorderly rabble.

Anaxagoras have foreboded that

him

divine

XptjuaTd

TJV

KOO-^OS,

Could

which expressed

to

beauty and perfection of arrangement

should in a
6p.ov eiYa vovs e\6u>v avra 8iK.6(rp,r]<Tf

iravra

very few hundred years become the subject of the Christian

Who could
lament, the whole world lieth in wickedness ?
'

'

foresee

that TO SXoyov,

which would mean in the mouth

much

of matter as was untouched by the

of Heraclitus so

of reason, should come to signify in our own

or that araix* toi/, an element, should presently

fire

heavenly
day a horse

become a

of the ancient Greeks, haunting

or whispering groves, and terrifying the

ghost, the

murmuring

rills

Sm'/iooi/

shepherd as he tends his flocks upon the lonely

mountain side? Scarcely could Democritus and Leucippus
have guessed, that of their philosophical terms o-x^p-a, 0(<ris,
simple

and

rais, the

first

should

mean

in the present day,

'

a monk's

'

a place in a coach,' and the third,

a
class' in a steam-packet or a railway train, any more than
Pythagoras could have foreseen that his doctrine of the
habit,' the second,

Pilgrimage of Souls should have taken such firm root in

popular superstition and popular poetry, that those lines of

Xenophanes,

Km

TTOTf

&ao\v
Havo-ai,
"Vvxr}

jj.iv

OTV<f>f\lofl*VOV crKvXaKos irapiovra

KOI roSe (pdo-dai

(iroiKTelpai
p,r)8c

frjv

pcnri\

cyvw

cVfii^

firos'

(piXov dvepos eori

(p0y^ufj.fvr]s

mow'

should have found their echo in such words as these, uttered

by the hero Tsamados in the person of a bird of the air
:

'Eyoj TTOuXt (TOV (paivnp.ai

dXXd

TrovXi

Etr TO

fivat

rcav

vr)<rl

TTOV

ayvdvria

8ev

fip.ai'

Nafiapivcav,

OF

MODERN GREEK PHRASEOLOGY.

vareprjv TTVOTJV a(pr)o~a

rrjv

*O 'TtrajLtados

eya>

eip.ai

Kal

TOV

els

qXda

'2 TOVS ovpavovs irov Ka.6op.ai Kaddpta

Ma

To

95

va eras '&

COTO

dvai

KOVTO.

take another instance,

how

f]

Ko<rp.ov.

ads

ai>oiya)'

^Tndvp.td p.ov.

has the

common

language

of modern Greece reversed the judgment of the Eleatics,

when ro ov no longer means the most abstract but the most
concrete Being, as 6 avdpaTros OVTOS
TOV

Koo~p.ov

Even

etVai

TO dvo-TV^earraTov ov

and not the

the Sophists have a claim,

least, to

our

some would perhaps be

right to the name of
philosophers, it should still be remembered that they more
than any philosopher, not excepting Plato, who owed more
to them than he was aware, left their mark upon the Greek
Belanguage, a mark which has never since been effaced.
attention.

If these thinkers, or as

inclined to call them, talkers, have

little

men

were in the habit of saying what they

thought since they have rather inclined to think what they
should say, a tendency from which even genius cannot now
fore their time
;

wholly shake

itself free.
Before the Sophists, thought was
and
everything
expression as an end nothing; hence while
it was often
Since their
laborious, it was always unstudied.

has been too often either everything or

more than half the whole. Antithesis, emphasis, precision
age, expression

of language, nice distinctions, well-balanced sentences and

smoothly-rounded periods, these are the work of the Sophist

and the

delight

of the Rhetorician.

We

can mark

this

leaven working already in the speeches reported by

Thucydides, not so much as they were but rather as they ought
to have been spoken: we can trace it in the orations of

Demosthenes,

it

is

the

paramount feature in Isocrates and

and reaches a kind of climax in

the later orators of Greece,

the discourses of Chrysostom*

What

a gulf

is

fixed

between

THE ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT

96

a Chrysostom and a Nestor

And if we listen to any sermon or public address in Athens at this day, our ears are
!

same balancing of epithets, the same rounding

of sentences, which constituted in so great measure the art and
struck by the

the power of the early Rhetoricians.

Here
from a funeral oration on Lord Byron

is

a brief extract

Ti dv(\7ricrTOV

o-vp.j3ej3T]K6s

Tt diodpr]vT)Tov

8v(TTi>xi]fJ-ct

Kaipbs elvai, dfi ov 6 \abs TOV iroXviradovs 'EXXaSoy oXoy

dyaXkiacris f8f\6rj
not

(TT]p.pov

Kpe/3/3ari p.e

o\os 6\tyis Kai KaTT](peia

TTiKpoYaTa Saxpua,

Ilao-^a

TO.

*cai

x ^
61

eTrio~rip.ov

Kcrra/Spe'xfi

6 yXvxv-

eyeivev adapts TTJV f/nepav TOV

"

'EAX^WW xP ia rtav ^>v

'

...... Ae/cra /iJe/3ata,

SfKTOTepa de\fi
TT)V

fVyVli>p,OO~VVT)V

dfjiOi^rjv (Is TTJV

epya pas

&TCI

fita TTJV

OTTO Tjflds

15

Trarpifia'

TO.

daKpvd

aXXa

8i6ri fivai Sa/cpva TQ>V K\r)povop.a>v TTJS dyaTrrjs TOV'

rjvai TO.

K("

TO vcKpiKov TOV

dyarrrjToi p,ov "EXX^i'fS', TroXv SenTO. fivai els TTJV o~Kiav TOV

Has

X aP a

TOVTOV avdpa,

oSvperat drrapijyoprjTa.

XPI2TO2 'ANE2TH

TCITOS ^aipfrto-juos
i?

TOVS KO\TTOVS TOV TOV

els

6\iyos

avTr/v

7ro\i>

Kal \iovr\v

TOS (VfpyfO~iaS TOV, dVTTjV

TT]V

jrpbs f)p.as dyaTrrjv TOV, avTrjv TTJV e'Xa$pa>crii/ els TOS

TaXaiTTcopias TOV, avrfjv TTJV 7r\Tjp(op,f)v 8ia TOV \ap.bv TTJS 7ro\VTip.ov

TOV.

'

For the purpose of Sophists and Rhetoricians, which was

not to convince but to persuade,' new words were needed.

Such words,
being, in the

for

example, as

world of real

r<u

oW

existence (no

indeed,

literally

in

bad comment on

the consistency of a school whose leading axiom was that

was no such thing as Truth) Tov\dxio-Tov, KOT aX^eiai/,
children of the Sophists and
8rj\adr}, fjyow, are the true

there

day in fact, without them it would be

on a connected conversation, or pen an
a newspaper. On the other hand, the simpler and

have survived to

this

impossible to carry
article for

less explicit particles,

modern Greek

such as

/^i/, ye,

ovv. rot, yap,

either received: a restricted sense,

have in

and thus

OF MODERN GREEK PHRASEOLOGY.

made

97

was required, or have been supSo yap and ovv, which are very expres-

as explicit as

planted by others.
sive but not at all explicit, have been entirely displaced by
Std
and \oar6v, which are very explicit but not at all ex-

As

stage of the displacement of yap by

the frequent use of
by Xonrtv,
on for yap in the New Testament, which is I believe much
more frequent than is the case in the Septuagint, and the
pressive.

&oVt

and

the

first

we may observe

ovv

constant occurrence of Xonrov for ovv in Polybius, wherever

rather an emphatic ovv

To

is

required.

may perhaps be traced, or at any rate with

may be closely connected, the modern meaning

Socrates

his teaching

of such words as nadoXov, SidXou, oXoos (often emphatically

oXo>s Ka66\ov, oXcoy
joined for the sake of greater force
1

Xov), aperf], flpooveia, rjdiKos,

The

Cyrenaics appear

fTri(TTr)p.r) )

to

SiopKr/uds

have invented the word

particular (as in the phrase nepmal f)8oval), which in modern

Greek survives in the sense of certain, some, having degenerated from a philosophical term to a mere part of grammar.

So

true

is

one age

the remark above quoted that the metaphysics of

become the logic and finally the grammar of

will

like fate has befallen some terms

succeeding generations.
of the Platonic philosophy; as etducos from eldos, specific,

which

pronoun

now nothing more than

is

6 ddiKos pov, TO eldtKov

and

TT}S,

part of the

possessive

&c., mine, hers,

and so on.

somewhat complicated metaphysical significance in certain grammatical forms

is presented
by the history of the pronoun avros. This word
curious

interesting instance of a

expressed originally what may be called the feeling of subfor the subject as an idea had
jectivity rather than the idea
:

as yet

no

existence.

Nevertheless the subject appeared in

the world very often in an objective light, and in Homer this

is expressed by
putting together the objective particle I with
the subjective UVTOS in the oblique cases, as

avrov, of avro>, eo

THE ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT

98
v,

but

it

had never yet occurred

to the

join the two together as subject-object.

anticipation of philosophy occurs

first

Greeks actually

to

This by a kind of

in the

more thoughtful

age of Attic and Ionic literature, where we get cavrov. But

both in the Homeric and Attic age there was as yet nothing
but a kind of unconscious registration of metaphysical facts.
The subject never till the time of the Sophists, and probably
not until long afterwards, got so clear of itself that it could
be spoken of as an objective reality, as a thing. Yet such
must have been the case to a great extent before the modern

Greek

men
come

substitute for eavrov, epavrov, &c. could arise

before

could say TW cavrov p.ov, rbv cavrov rov, &c.

There may
a time perhaps when this tendency to objectivity in the

subject

may go

farther

still,

and men

will find

no

difficulty

an object, not only in its

objective relations (as in the oblique cases), but even in its
most subjective state, as the nominative. In this respect,
in contemplating the subject as

the English language

'

himself

'

he

'

a barbarism

ahead of the Greek,

the nominative, though

in

to help

is

it

out

whereas

6 i8tos

for

we can

we almost

say
require a

nm>s TOU in Greek would be

being used in such cases instead of the

classical avros.

In passing from Socrates and the Cyrenaics to Plato, we

must not forget the Cynics, who have left their stamp on the
language in such words as avrapn^s, avrdpKfia.
gave a new direction to language, to Plato
belongs the credit of having not inconsiderably increased its
power of utterance. In truth the Sophists and Plato toIf the Sophists

gether seem in great measure to have conquered the difficulties of expression, and by so doing to have given to
Greek one of the characteristics of a modern language. As

a mere matter of style Plato comes nearer to a modern

Greek writer than Polybius, or any Hellenistic or ecclesiastical writer.

We

seldom

reflect

what labour and

art

were

OF MODERN GREEK PHRASEOLOGY.

99

in beating out those convenient expressions,

once employed

those ways of turning a sentence, which make the flow of a

modern language so easy and its sense so clear and precise.

Here indeed other men have laboured and we have entered

into their labours.

Besides words to 'which the Platonic philosophy gave a

creator/ with all its derivatives,
sense, as 8r}[j.iovpy6$,
'

new

by the fact that many of his commonest

have established themselves in the colwords
and
phrases

one

struck

is

loquial language of the present day.

Upbs

modern

logues,

TTavrdiTCHTiv,

ureas, tfxuvfTCU,

fi^TTOTe,

and when one hears a common peasant say

for _yes, or

apd

ye,

common and

necessary helps to conversation

Greek, are the very hinges of the Platonic dia-

roiyap,

in

oTra>s

TOVTOIS,

8ev eida

7ra>y

TT&S OVK eldov

in

/uaAiora

emphatic affirma-

tion,

one cannot but be struck by such modernisms of Plato,

or

the reader

if

such Platonisms in modern Greek.

will,

But while modern Greek

its

form, to Aristotle

indebted largely to Plato for

owes much of its vocabulary. If we

it

is

would understand how such words as

VTrdp^eiv,

Seiyjua,

came
to

to have their present

to

go

for

Aristotle

Aristotle himself
TpacpiKr}
'

vTrdpxei,
'

v\r),

the

it is

irapd-

%opr]yelv

almost necessary

And

yet

how

modern employ-

at their
'

writing materials

oixn<adr]s

'

exists

o-ol

ev^ofi

'

'

a^a-os

irporaa-is,

an

'

v7roK.eip.evov

a subject of unexampled

was

eVSe^erat,

explanation.

wish you a good appetite

that every fool

vXij, vrroKeinevov,

ova'iwo'rjs,

meaning,

an essential difference

immediate proposal
1

would wonder
'

ment.

opfgw,

opei?

Trporacrts',

drrapadeiyp-ario'Tov

activity.'

He

his disciple, or that

all

would

evepyeias,

either think

his disciples

were

fools.

The Stoics were not much of independent speculators,

but perhaps there is one idiom in modern Greek which may
be an echo of Stoic resignation, namely the third form of the
H

THE ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT ETC.

IOO

compound
6avoi>n(u,

future already noticed,

as though

'

it

were,

0e'Xei

It wills that I

airo6dvo>

should

for d
die,' that

is, it is the will of that great unknown impersonal necessity,

whom we sometimes worship with the name of God.
As regards the philosophers, the history of innovations

may

almost be said to close with Aristotle and the Stoics.

Succeeding schools having

lost

the grain, continued to

thrash out the straw of Aristotle or of Plato, until words

had

little

meaning

left,

and men had

little

hope of anything

better.

of the deadness of philosophers, and the

active opposition of grammarians and pedants, the Greek

Yet

in

spite

language did not stand still. The conquests of Alexander

and the consolidation of Greece gave rise to what was called
the

CHAPTER
The

Historical

VII.

Development of Modern from

Ancient Greek.

HITHERTO we have sketched the outlines of what may be

modern Greek, of which the principal
elements seem to have been first as regards its accidence,
called the basis of

archaisms, preserved in the vulgar dialect from generation

to generation, a tendency to simplification or
regularity both

and conjugation, and the mixture of

in declension

dialects

previously distinct; secondly, as regards its syntax, and the

use and meaning of words, a change in the mode of thought

and expression.

Having now considered the

origin of

modern Greek,

let

us proceed briefly to trace its development,

beginning with
the so-called Hellenistic Greek.

To

the

longs the

or Macedonian age of the KOIVT/ 8ia\Kros beGreek of the Septuagint, though there is every

first

reason to believe that this translation was

times,
task.

made

at various

and by persons very variously qualified to fulfil their

And here I may be allowed to remark, how very im-

a knowledge of modern Greek for the study of the

Septuagint and I need not add of the New Testament also.

portant

is

So much

the

more

in the latter case as

we have

there to deal

with the meaning of an original instead of

only with a trans-

THE HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT

IO2
lation.

It is

will give

a mistake to think that classical Greek

+ Hebrew

us the Greek of the Septuagint.

very easy to explain everything as a Hebraism, and

It is

the less our knowledge of

Hebrew

the

more

readily does

Now there are Hebraisms in

the explanation suggest itself.
the Septuagint, and, though in a less degree, in the New
unusual phrases are not Hebraisms.
a
Polybius, certainly
contemporary of many of the translators of the Septuagint, may have many Latinisms in his

Testament; but

all

Whaton
ever light may be thrown on the Septuagint and
Polybius
be
more
Hebrew
and
Latin,
gained both
infinitely
may
by
by
from
a
of
modern
Greek.
and
the
other
for the one
study
writings, but all his peculiarities are not Latinisms.

And what

perhaps sounds still stranger, the Greek of the

present day affords a better commentary on the language of
Polybius, of the Septuagint, and of the New Testament, than
either the writings of

contemporary historians, rhetoricians,

grammarians, and philosophers, who for the most part wrote
a purely artificial Greek
or than from the many thousand
ponderous tomes which encumber the threshold of verbal
criticism.

To

speak

shown how
are

the

familiar

first

first

to

of the

Septuagint.

We

have already
of

its authors
grammatical peculiarities
appearance of the same forms which are

the

us

in

modern Greek.

the phraseology of the Septuagint

But more than

is

modern

to

this,

an extent

when compared with that of

and
only explicable by the assumpcontemporary writers,
tion that the writers are using the common vernacular, which
which

is

quite

marvellous,

had already become in its spirit and essence much what

modem Greek now is. For example, *Ee\Qe
TT)S yfjs a-ov,
Koi

(K TTJS irvyyfvdas (rov...iravTs (eK\ivav, ap.a Tjxpftto&ijo-av,...

rdfos di/cayyfieW 6 \dpvy

familiar phrases.

avrwv,

sound

just like

modern Greek

Let us mention a few well-known words,

FROM ANCIENT GREEK.

OF MODERN

common
'

'

I return

and

a leader

'

vpna-Kwco,

'

and

as

fvos,

7retpda>,

Trpo'oTKo/i/xa,

eTro/icu

Koi/iaj^iat

many

'

to

'

'

salute

'in the presence of;'

'

to

tempt

KO.TOIK o>,

KaBifa, for 'to sit;' ra i>cma, for

for
'

'

rrpoa--

d/coXov&M in prefer-

'

the supe-

or

worship

in preference to euSco

one

as

ricrrpe'(a>,

modern Greek

(in
'

monastery)

'

ea>s

(passive), 'I answer;'

'make ready;' cvumov,

eYoi/ida>,

ence to

'

f)yovp.evos,

rior of a

K07rTu>

and modern Greek.

to the Septuagint

'I visit;' airoKplvo^ai.

rofjLcu,

[03

0X0? for

to dwell

TTCLS

'

KaQefrpai

the clothes;'

t/Trdyco

for

Besides words of this kind, there are others, the pre-

tlpi.

sent usage of which dates from the Septuagint, words to

which Jewish ideas have given a new and higher meaning.
is

Ovpavbs

name

no longer the mere blue

one of many

for

sky, or a mythical
but
habitation of the
the
deities,

Ancient of Days. 'Ap-aprLa no longer a mistake, but the

fundamental error of mankind, estrangement from God, and
Ui<ms becomes the trusting
the breaking of his perfect law.
obedience of

faithful

Abraham, and of

Ada

the saints.

all

is

the glory, or sometimes the honour of the Almighty. O Kvpios

is no longer the man in authority, but the name of the Lord

of lords, and the King of kings.

Before going on to the New Testament the order of time

demands a few words

for Polybius.

It

cannot be said that

the general run of his sentences is so modern as the SeptuaMany of the novelties of this
gint or the New Testament.

For exauthor are equally found in the New Testament.

'av
orav
ore
for
he
for
and
and el.
Uses
dXXd,
irXrjv
ample,
Other modern usages are aKp^v
iv.

60.

Cf.
far

v,

in

meaning
<rvvelBr).

Anthologia, P.

more so than

one place
in

in

is

for en, as already Theocritus,

vii.

the

"ibiov frequently for

case in classical authors.

141.

the sense of same, the

modern Greek

'idiov

Here, however, the translation

the sense of worth or weight, as

most usual

Kai Trapcm-X^o-iov rats TrdXeo-t

OTTO

is

8e'/<a

doubtful.

'An-6

in

TaXdvrav, weighing

JC4

THE HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT

10 talents.

So the Greeks of to-day say

Ets TOVS xaff

XeTTTa, a;r6 p.ia Se/capa.

pletely

of

els,

modern Greek,

fjfids

xaipovs,

KU& r^as

for eV rots

ftoi

dnb

which

is

86s

ment.

now

I will

This use

xpovots.

as well as of Kmpos, belongs equally to the

com-

New

add one or two examples of the

Testa-

modern

phraseology of Polybius. 'O rrjs TrpaypariK^s io-Topias Tponos

i. e.
the method of actual history.
rjpny/zartKwy dtcyoq&Tow,

ii.

50. 5.

AiKctioSoo-ia,

Tpwyo/ifz/ for

Hell.

22,

*)

yap \^ts

already used in this sense by

Kara ras TreptTTdo-fis, according to
avru>v

^v

Testament,

TOV Trarpo?

i.

John

"iva

8.

continually for the infinitive, as

with the subjunctive

Matthew

OVTOI aproi ytvutvrai.

modern

Bpe'x ft for vti,

TJJV

as

K^d\co.
TTJ

ycevvrj.

p.ecrov,

we may

for

is

iv. 3, etVe Iva ol

among
Matth.

used
X/^oc

(i(pfs cKj3dXco,

v.

45.

"Evo%os

the
fls

Tlfpicra-orfpov for ir\iov,

'ETravoo opovs.

'

greater damnation.' Avtnco'Xcos for /uoyis

Avrbs for &s or
with difficulty/ Luke xviii. 24.

TTfpicra-oTfpov Kpl/j,a,

or

X^KUS,

'

ouros passim.

'Eo-Ta^i/ for

the dative as in

modern Greek. Ou eyu

oiVou rbv i/LuWa TOV

e'Sa>

Acts
o-r

"

ii.

to

fo f X aP lv

'tSe'rat.

modern.

eyyi'C<w,

to

The

passim.

'ifiov

OVTOL
7, OVK ISov irdvTfS

'

fill,'

eo-Ti/i/

{/TroS^juaroy.

for eKao-ros in
'

others,

Eis for eV, as fls rbv KoKnov

'Ava

yetvvav for

a
Id.

Etf (poftovs (TWf)(eis

among many

modernisms

as

rbv xpovov.

continual fear and distress.

New
St.

&a

e^e^cbpjyo-av

notice the following

,

'AmcrTraoyia,

Trpoatpeo-fts.

TOVTO rr^jnatW* /cvptwy.

avTT)

Ka\ rapaxds, into

In the

ras

'Ex roO

l8.

XI.

3. 8.

i.

Kara

circumstances,
diversion,

2vfi(f)a>vovvT(s, in

Eif dXrjOtvas tvvoias ayetv.

1 5-

i.

Xenophon,

xxxii. 17. 19.

2;

proverbial
Aonrbv avaynrj crvy^uipciv ras dpxas KOI ras virodeafis

of bargaining,

sense

the

xx. 6.

used, however, only in

fo-diofj-fv,

expression.
fivai TJsevbeis,

jurisdiction,

genitive for

OVK dp-ai agios Iva Xuo-o>

for

tlcriv ol

here,' the

modern

XaXovi/rej FaXiXaUMj

Lob. in Phryn. on the word.

xii. 5.
Such forms as yef"'(X

Cf.

Romans

approach/ are mostly Hellenistic and

OF MODERN FROM ANCIENT GREEK.

Romans

[n

the phrase T>V

receives considerable light

dialects of

many

'

r)fvpu>,

Many

105

TTJV d\t)0fiav ev ddiKiq

when

modern Greek

it

is

known

is

that KOTCX^ in

used for the more general

know/ formed from the aorist of

another phrase, which to the mere
I

e&vpla-Kv, rj&vpov.
classical scholar

appears dark and strange, and in which critics of the school

of Bengel think they hear the unearthly utterances of an
oracle,

would appear simple and natural

modern Greeks.

the vernacular of the

Testament we may remark

are to which

finally

how many words

the prevalent one, as 8ia/3oXoy,

al&vios.

Above

dyuTrrj

all is it

there

now

KoAacri?, 6\tyis, fMeravoeu,

and hardly occurs,

although the verb

how the biblical

epus. The word is

interesting to observe

has replaced the old expression

Hellenistic,

New

has given a peculiar meaning which has

it

become
word

one versed in

to

In leaving the

dycnru)

I believe, in classical

does.

Now

the verb

dyarrS)

Greek,
implies

noun aya?r^, which must therefore have existed in the

mouth of the common people long before it came to the
surface in the Greek Bible.
'AyaTnj being derived from the
root ayau-, as in dyafos, &c., is a far better word for Christian
purposes than epo>y, and indeed it would have served even
Plato better in his more religious moments.
Compare the
the

Platonic

observe

with the Pauline

epco?

how

this

'

love'

is

dycnrrj

in

Cor.

and

xiii.,

with Paul, as the epms with Plato,

not only the religious sentiment, but

more

generally

still,

upward and outward longing of the soul, a divine

principle of development, which is at once the only eternal

certain

element

in,

as

it is

the

common

all

knowledge

St.

Paul, from that which

alike,

substratum of

all

belief

and

mounting ever upward, according to

is in part to that which is
perfect,

as in Plato, from beautiful sounds to beautiful forms,

beautiful forms to beautiful
thoughts, from beautiful

from

thoughts

to that idea of

part beheld.

good which mortal eye of man never but

in

THE HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT

106

With Polybius and the

the
to

Roman

New

Testament we pass within

period.
any one desires to form an idea as
the state of the spoken language about 180 years after
If

no book

Christ,

be more useful than Lobeck's edition

will

of Phrynichus' 'Eclogae' and Epitome. It is really astonishing to see how nearly every un-Attic form, against which

Phrynichus protests, has established itself in the language

of our own day.
One may instance such forms as (payds

and
for

(paKas, vrjpov,
dtro

KpvTTTQ),

modern

now

vfpov, for vdwp, (p\ov8iov for (Xoioy, Kpvpco

uaKp66fv,

pleonasm,

Ai0aptoi/,

common New Testament and

oradepos,

(and similar derivatives),

<av(piov

/3ao-iAro-a,

fvtTfvfiv, Kopdo-tov,

for poidtov.

potftiov

Passing on to the age of Diocletian let us stop for a few

moments to read a Nubian inscription by a king Silco,
Corpus Insc. iii. p. 486, which may serve as a type of the

Greek spoken
StA/tob

'Eyw
els

time in Aethiopia
/Sao-tXi'oTKoy Nou/3a&eoj> (cat oXi> rwv
at that

Tf\uiv Kal Td<piv, airag dvo eVoXe^T/o-a

dfOS f8(OKV

p,0l

avrwv, fKaOecrdrjv p.(ra

VLKT](J-a at'TOlV

ttTTCl^

p-fra

TO viKTJpa p.TCl TOIV f^BpUiV OTTa^,

(Kpa.Tr)(ra rets TroXeis

TTp&TOV

T>V

per' avTcov KOI u^icxrav p,oi

TU>V

KOI O.VTOI rf^iOXTaV

TO. e'id(o\a

aXXa aK^v

(cf. dcpevvrai in

d(f)u>

T<!)v (I

KaToo

fp.rrpoo'dfv

/J.T)

fJ-fpr)

KiiTr)i(i)o-dt> p.

avTcov.

New

B\(p.p.vo)V, Kal 6

ox\a>v

ds ra ava

oi

yap

ra>j/

avTOVS

at^ flui.

fls

Kcidfo~6r)vai

vr^pnv

fls

TTJV

yvvaiK&v

Kal

fO~a>

TTJV

o~Kidv

et/m)

olniav avT&v.
TO.

iraibia

fJ^fprj

per

p.ov.

f^iov

x&pav av-

'Eyo)

yap

firo\fp.r]o-a /iera

dv<i)Tepa> firopflrjo-a ^copaj avTcav, tTrei&r) t(j)i\ovtiKr)o~av p.fT

fls

p.ev

tpT)Vr)V

fls

TWV

Kal oi aXXoi Nov/3a6aij/

B\/j.av(av Kal nptjuecos ecoj TeX[/x]ecof eV aira

d(p) avTuvs

KO.I

TO

aXXa)j/ ]3a(ri-

(pi\ov(iKOvo~tv

Testament)

p.(pi)

p.ov'

TTOir)O~a

fJi.

Kal TrapaKa\ov(TLV KaOfaOTJvai.

\f(DV flpl Kal fls avu>

TToXtV

fVLKT](Ta

OTf fyfyov6p.rjv /SaoriXiWo? OVK dnrf^dov oXtoy OTTiVto

OVK

rj\6ov

avrwv, KOI fatoTCWra TOV opKov

avTtov a)S xa\oi flo~iv avflpcaTroi' dva^a)pr]6r)V

Xeoov

Ai$io7ra>J>

fp-ov.

OVK

v7TOK\ivovcri fwi Kal OVK

ol

avT&v.

yap

(pi\ovfiKovo~i fioi

For wildneSS of

FROM ANCIENT GREEK.

OF MODERN

IOJ
the Re-

this inscription is not equalled even by

velation of St. John, while for childishness of expression
The chief modernisms are o\a>v for
stands unrivalled.

grammar

Tcav, fTToXep-rja-a /iera

dprjvrjv

airrSiV,

fj.fr

perfect like cvprjKav

cftTjKa

in

as passim in the Revelation,

and

a hybrid aorist-

d<j)>

for

and

cd>paicav in the Septuagint, evp^Ka

eiraxav,

d(pirjfja,

modern Greek, and

for

CO-CD els

it

in

eV,

and
modern Greek

fie(ra els.

Other Nubian
y

forms as

inscriptions

give,

as

in

Romaic,

such

lov\is for 'lovXios, with genitive tovXt, TOV as enclitic

for avTov, besides every possible extravagance in

and every conceivable error

grammar

in spelling, the latter class of

mistakes, however, invariably pointing to the identity of the

pronunciation of that age with that of the present day as
;

rj\Kva-e for

eiX/cuo-e,

ipeos for

dpxaicos,

From

TfKWS for

TCKVOIS, ucftxrt for eiKcoo-t,

ap^ewy for

leptos.

the age of Diocletian to the Byzantine Period

is

but

a step, and the history of the development of modern Greek

from that time is shortly told. Until the time of Ptochopro-

dromus, in the eleventh century

was

after Christ, artificial Attic

the language of literature

still

often referred to by authors, keeps

to the surface

especially in such

Nicodemus' (end of fourth

'Acts of the

Patrum,'

but the popular dialect,

coming from time to time
;

works as the

century), the

Council

'

Gospel of

'

Apophthegmata

of Constantinople,'

536,
and
Antecessor
Joannes Moschus/ 620, Jus'Theophilus
Constitutiones Novellae/ 565.
In the Gospel of
tinian's
'

'

Nicodemus' and
words, not

many

we have

in Justinian

number of Latin

of which, however, have survived.

One

of

arma, is a curious instance of

Greek ingenuity in disguising barbarisms for an armed
man' is in modern Greek dp^arwXos = oTrXiri/y, on the analogy
of ap.apTO)\6s. See Sophocles' Glossary of Later and Byzanthem, however,

app,ara

for

'

'

tine Greek,' p.

59 of the Introduction.

THE HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT

I08

The

chief

modernisms of
for

pi. ot dftpdbfs, KOTTciftiv

/coTrdStoi/,

TO. err),

eort

and the combination

beginning of a word

this is

6 d/3/3as, roO d/3/3a,

period are
the

modern

form of salutation

as a

TroXXu
:

this

KOTrdSt

a^^v

(a piece);

^^a, evi for

At the
as T&VIMS, rfayydpia.
found only in barbarisms but
;

for

probability the combination existed in certain words

even in classical times, as a necessary intermediate stage
between the old Attic double o- as in Koo-o-vfas, and the later

in

all

Attic rr as in Korrvrpos.

It is

I subjoin a short
this

period from the

Iva

irap avrov Traperedr] Kpeas

vop.fvoi KOI Xaftuiv

TO.

p.6a")(iov.

7TicrKO7ros cv

Konddtv

Koi

Ifpd.

Kat

TG> irXqcriov

\eya>v, 'l8ov TOVTO KaXov Kondbiv tortv, (pdyc dj3/3a.

ov/ceVt

rrpon-eQero

ov&e fls

el

avrov

Ot 5e

8e Kpeas

WTI

avrwv ytvaacrdai

strange improvement on the Apostolic precept,

The meanness of
ask no questions, for conscience' sake/

CIVTOV.
'

Kcu

rpct)yop.fv.

rot)

((

fj(r6iov jj.r)8ev

eficoKf

fVTfs finov, 'Hp.fls ews apri Xd^ai/a r)(r6iop.(v

ov

in

'

'AXe^dvSpeiav K\t]deiTS VTTO Qeo<pi\ov

fV^^I/ KCU Kddf\r]

7TOlT)(rr)

adopted

style

Apophthegmata Patrum

Trore Trarepes (Is

that the

KOTO-U$O?, or KOTV(J>OS,

specimen of the popular

'

know

interesting to

vulgar Greek of the present day gives us

sometimes pronounced almost Kochvfyos.

the language

is

harmony with the moral degradaof meats and drinks usurping the name of

in striking

tion of a religion
Christianity.

The next period in the history of the Greek language may

be reckoned from 622, the date of the Hegira, to 1099. We
have here before our eyes the transition in literature from
the language of the

grammarians

to the

language of the

people.

Theophanes (758-806)
nouns in -as, *As XaXTjo-cB/zev
tl(Te\66vra>v.
<Ti&r)p(0fj.fvos,

gives us -dfcs as the

for XaX;jo-&>/if>,

The

and

plural

of

&s fto-e'X&ao-t for

perfect participle without reduplication, as

dirb with the acCU/cuoreXXw/ifVof, 7rvpno\r]p.fvos
,'

sative, a-vv

OF MODERN FROM ANCIENT GREEK.

109

with gen.

Malalas,

with the genitive, as well as

dp.a

whose age cannot be determined with

addition

-fs for

from

plastic

77

modern Greek

certainty, gives us in

-a, as Hepo-es for nc'po-m, rals TrXaKdis,

meta-

7rXd, as though it were 77 TrXdKa; K&V in its

usage, ofcu K&V rjaav, 'whatsoever they were

Mera with the accusative in the sense of with, as the

like/

mutilated

modern

Armenius uses

The nameless biographer of Leo

/*e (?).

the

-ow for

ending

and

-ova-i

with the

CK

Leo

the Philosopher,
accusative,
evyevbs
evyevfjs.
886-91 1, has IdiKos =proprium, as in Romaic, and the ending
for

Constantine Por(second pers. sing, passive).

phyrogenitus, who wrote all his works, with the exception
of the Life of St. Basil, in a style purposely popular, gives
for

-ea-ai

us

-ei

aXXdt/*oi>,

gen.

a\\agip.a.Tos

demned by Phrynichus
yfvfjs

eras

for

cf.

the form TO

ycXdo-ifioz/,

povoycvf) for the vocative

con-

of povo-

the ending -KOS, proparoxytone (possibly a Latinism) ;

TO>I> for avrSjv, cva for ei>, etVe for el: cure is
t>/ieoz>,
prob-

ably from fWJ, just as

o-ov fjpepa,

from eWt

elve is

'good morning

for

crov

to you:' va for

tva,

o-ot,

and

as KO\T)
ecos

with

the accusative.

An anonymous

known

writer,

tinuatus, gives us "A\v gen. of

Theophanes Con-

as

XP V(T S for xP V(ro vs

Cedrenus, A.D. 1057, the numeral adverb eVrat for eirrdKis,
This would appear to be a relic of an old instrumental
ending.

Common

Scylitzes gives us the following

dialect,

modern Greek
used for

"A\vs,

#d)

<re

coi

e'ya>

ae exrura (f)ovpv,
ere

xaXdo-o).

e/cno-a

'ECO

dialectic form, as well as

(povpvf,

specimen of the
tre
^aXdo-co = in

eS>

Iva

eya)

ere

va

(sometimes

occurs in modern Greek as a

to>,

la>v.

Cf.

Boeotian

to>v,

l&vya.

Anna Comnena, who wrote a history of the Byzantine war

about the year noo, gives another example in the
following
verse

To

(rafifiaTOV TTJS

rvpivrjs,

THE HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT

IIO

Kat

TTJV

KaXcoy ycpaxiv

e,

Here we have
,

TO

the enclitic
for

common

o-a/3/3aroi/

TO,

devrepa,

TJ;

in Greece,

8fVTcpav TO Trpau
p.ov.

for

ra>

o-a]3/3ara>,

cvorjo-fs

for

x aP?7 r for X aP f ^ s used optatively, T^I/

KaXws as a form of salutation, still

and the diminutive yepduv

for yepovnov,

on

the analogy probably of o-KiAaKiov, diminutive of <TKV\OS,

or,

properly speaking, of

yepuKiov,

and, in

This closes

The

dialect

pular

who can be

writer

first

o-/<uXa.

is

repaK/

contracted for

modern Romaic, would appear as

the mediaeval period of Greek

in

its

said

ye/>a/a.

literature.

have used the po-

to

was Theodorus Prodromus,

entirety

nicknamed Ptochoprodromus
a monk who lived in the
of
the
Manuel
Comnenus, and addressed
reign
emperor
to him a series of popular verses, o-Tt^ot TroXmccoi, preserved
;

by the grammarian Coray in the first volume of his

'Atacta/
The burden of these verses appears to be the
of
learned
men. They are written with great spirit,
poverty
and remind us of Juvenal. The Greek language is now
to us

emancipated, and begins again to show its native power.

We subjoin an extract taken from Mr. Sophocles' book

above-mentioned
Trjv

*Ai>

cx<o yeirovdv

Na

TOV etna) Vi,

els

@acrt\cv,

(rov,

Ke(j)a\r)v

nvav

iraiftiv

Kf\r]

Ma0e TO

TOVTO

TOV

eiTTQ)

TfiTOvav

if^o)

eve

Evdvs TO

Na

TO,

va

7077

Traiftiv

o*ov.

7T(Ta)TT)v,

TTJV

ftpd(rrj

/u,ou,

*cai

avyrjv

TO *paa\v

ical

(3pdo-(iv TO dcpp.bv

Traibiv

Xe'yeis

ovofidarovv.

T^ayydprjv TO

KaXo^ovvio-TT)S, eve

yap Idy
Aeyei as

Ma$e TO

Vt,

p,e

dyopiv,

ypap-fjiariKov

Ila/m KpavtapOK(pa\ov rrdvrts va

Na

T'I

dyopao~e

/3aXf TO

Xf-ytt

Trpos TO

iraibiv

TOV

FROM ANCIENT GREEK.

OF MODERN

Kal BXo^tKov rvpiv aXXrjv

t>epe

Kai 80 s

'A<p' ov 8e

Kav

ora/uevapeav,

va irpoyevo~u>p.ai ) KOI ToYe va TTCT^OVW

p.*

fpddo~r]

Tecra-epa TOV

Kai irapevOvs

Ill

TO rvptv Kal ra xop5oKOtXrria,

diftovcriv

V7r68rjp.av

TO rpavbv

els

eTraipei

Kai TTfT^

Orai/ 8e TraXtv, /Sao-tXev, ye^aros copa

Pl7TTl TO K.a\a.7r6dlV TOV, pl7TTl KOI TO

Kai Xeyei TT^V -yvi/aiKa TOU, Kupa Kai 6es

Kai irpwTov \u.a<rov (Lat. MISSUS) CK&OTOV, dfVTepov TO
o~<povyya.Tov}

Kai Tpirov TO aKpLoiraGTOV 6<p6bv CLTTO

Kai reraproi/ fj.ovoK.vdpov, TrXrjV jSXeTre
'A<^'

ov 5

To

J3a(n\v KOI Tpio~avd6fp,d

Kai

o~Tpa<pa>

TOV

t'Sco

JJL

TO

Xotrroi'

TTOJ?

KaOifci,

araKO/OToVeTai va 77*0077 TO KOUTaXtv,

TTCOS

Kai

oufiev

Kai

e'yco

~Ev8vs

/Spcz^.

/LH)

o~ova iv Kai vtS/ferat Kai KaTCTT),

7ra.pa.de

A.va6fp,d p.e

Ovrav

p.epiov.
i/a

vTraya) K'

TOV

o~d\ia

TO.

Tpt\ovv

JLIOU,

ep^o/zat TroSas

cos

TO

r/je^et

?roTa/ztv.

p,Tp>v T&V orixwv'

yvpevw TOV o-Trovdflov'

Fvpeva) TOV Trvppi^iov KOI TO Xotrra TO /xeVpa^
AXXa TO p.GTpa TTOV '<^eXoi)v 's TT)V apfTpov /zov 7Tivav

IIoTC
>TT

r)Tw

yap 6K TOV

7TO)S

ESe

>

'utfj-ftov,

ta/x)3ov

va (pdyat Koap.OK.pa.TOp

>

6K TOV TTUppl^tOV TTOTC /MOV VO \OpTO.O~(i)

Tf^viTTjs cro(pio~Tr}5

fKelvos 6

TO Kvpie

rjp^aTO p

The language

'\(T)o-ov,

here

is

essentially

'

modern Greek, though

we have ?rpo-

the middle voice appears not quite extinct, as

yeuo-co/iai, JTP^OTO,

ephelcystic,

now

is

left out,

etymology of
8v.

&c.;

and

sometimes etymologic, sometimes

number of words where it is

written after a
as V7ro'%iav,
eS&>

The form

from

eve

TraiSiv.

I8ov.

we have

"Ebc for

Ovdev

is

i'8e

strengthens the

written for the

referred to

on

p. 79.

modern

THE HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT

112

For the subjoined translation

'

By your own

head,

meaning

king,

am

responsible
I

swear,

do

not

know your

Suppose I have a neighbour now, blessed with a boy in breeches,

"
Shall I go tell him, " Teach your son his letters for his living ?
Sure

the world

all

would dub me then a most consummate block-

head.
I

Nay,

should say, " Go, teach your son a bootmaker's profes-

sion."

One

of

make

neighbours cobbles shoes, perhaps pretends to

my

them;

Now there's a famous manager, who understands good living.

No sooner does he see the dawn streaking the sky to eastward,
Than straight he cries, "Let boil my wine, and sprinkle in some
pepper."
Scarce has the hot potation boiled, when thus he hails his servant
" Here
boy a shilling's worth of tripe go bring me from the
:

market

shilling's worth of cheese besides, Thessalian cheese, remember.

If I 'm to cobble shoes to-day, I first must have my breakfast."

And when

the cheese comes with the tripe in dainty little clusters,

fill him to the brim a
mug of vast dimensions.

Four times they

And

then he takes a shoe in hand and cobbles at his leisure.

But when the dinner-time comes round, why then, my lord and
master,

Away
"

with

Good

last

wife,"

and cobbling-board, the time has come for eating.

" come
cries,
lay the cloth, and get the dinner

he

ready?

Bring

me

the

broth,

that's

the

first

course,

the second

an

is

omelette,

The

third a

haunch of venison

mess of hotch-potch

for

pie,

browned

the fourth

nicely in the oven,

take

care

it

don't

boil

over."

When

all

is

served

and he has washed, and

seats

himself at

table,

Curse me, your gracious majesty, not once, but three times over
If as I look and contemplate the way he sits at dinner,

Unbuttoning his waistcoat first, to hold his spoon the easier

does not fill my hungry mouth with water like a river.

It

And

I; I

go and come again, and measure

feet for verses,

OF MODERN FROM ANCIENT GREEK.

and long, now

for two longs together

with
all
the other measures.
syllables,
Alas! what help the measures my unmeasurable hunger?
When, mighty prince, will shorts and longs provide me with a

low hunting

And now

for

for a short

two short

dinner ?

Or how with two

short syllables

am

I to

fill

my

belly?

Behold a shoemaker indeed, a skilful craftsman truly

A blessing asked, he straight proceeds to polish off the
;

victuals.'

CHAPTER

VIII.

Modern Greece.

Dialects of

PROFESSOR MULLACH divides the existing dialects of modern

six main varieties, besides Tsakonian and Albanian, whose claim to be considered Greek dialects will
Greece into

be separately considered. These six varieties he designates

2.
as follows:
i. That of Asia Minor, ai/aroAiK?) StaXocroy.
Chiotic.

3.

Cretan.

That of the Ionian

6,

and

for 6e\co,

unaspirated

6.

Peloponnesian.

Islands.

chief feature of this dialect

as TeX<

5.

DIALECT OF ASIA MINOR.

i.

The

Cyprian.

4.

tenues.

K for

The

is

dialect

the substitution of T for

general a preference for

of Trapezus seems to

have preserved us several Homeric forms, as adf = edtv, and

&pov = was for the substitution of v for s we may compare
CXPC S, *xop*v, &c., where the s is first dropt, and then its
:

place

filled

up by

In the same

v efaXtvariKov.

dialect,

i.

e.

has a very archaic sound.

eVrt.
"E\\vos = robuslus.
rrjp

as

Ba.ya.rtpa.

of Trapezus,
*Evi

and

SixXoTros for dirarriXos

*v still

stand for

tori,

i.

e.

'Egfrrdyrj appears as exTraycy, 6vyd-

'K stands for owe instead of the

modern

DIALECTS OF MODERN GREECE.

Greek

on

Ka =

*8ev.

/5a7rto-/u,a,

perhaps a blow

the mouth, possibly connected with maxilla, of which,

however, the

from

6ts, is

common modern Greek form is /zdyovXoi/.

modern Kptas 7rpo'/3ioi>, or ir
Hoamv = 8ep/xa, cf. TTCO-KOS. To Trpofiav =

in place of the

Ovs Stands for eW.

HoSe&ifa =

Trpoftarov.

Seo/^iat, cf.

KCS,

but

Homeric

which appears also in

have never been able to discover an

said to preserve the

Pontus as

TO

THE CHIAN DIALECT

2.
is

MaiXas =

Kara).

115

any of the Chian

<e,

poems which

example

in

'A8az/a is

Aa certainly stands
explained by Mullach 77877 vvv.
modern Greek, as eXa 8a = exactly aye 877, eXa being

for

877

in

have read.

imperative present from eXdw or eXafw, the root form of

= eXavvco.
So tOO Kcipe da, o^t 8d, (for ov^i 877).

3.

abounds

THE CRETAN DIALECT

and archaic usages.

In the
marked
most
feature is the sound of K as
ch in cherry before e and sounds.
'Yo-fTy is said to stand
for the modern crds, eVets = vpels.
The omission of the augTO as a relative
ment and the use of 6,
strongly remind us
in peculiar

forms

pronunciation the

77,

of the Epic and Ionic dialects

Ta Kap,av

In Epic,

TO.

e. g.
/cat

TO.

(pepav.

Kap.ov Kal

TO.

(pepov.

In Cretan we also get the dialectic form povOe for

4.

appears, in

many

THE CYPRIAN DIALECT

common

with that of Rhodes, to leave out in

instances the semivowels 8 and

I

y,

as /uedXos =

DIALECTS OF

Il6
for /xeyay,

well

to)

tv TO dAXa<T(ra>

compares

for eya)

X6//3o>,

and

Mlllhich

TO aXXa(rcro>.

Set'

Boeotic for

oX/op Sicilian for oXryo?, lav, lu>vya

Epic for

tycoye, ft/Sea

MODERN GREECE.

and

rot , rat for ro5i

n.

rafii

in the

6\iyos is a
'Corpus Inscript.'
Cyprian form. We have also the Pindaric opvtxa for opviQa,
and also ax oy for fiddos. In Meo-aFoupt'a, or M(ra,3oi>piu, the

Elian Rhetra.

digamma

is

as X^Pyu f

preserved,
r

termination

X^P

ioi>

At'oy

for

r stands for the consonantal

of diminutives appears as

iv,

Iwra,

The

o-apavrapya for [Teo-]o-a/ja[Ko]j/rapia.

1 **)

as in Ptochc*

prodromus and later Roman period (whereas in the common

dialect of Greece it appears as t)
e. g. fiowiv, iraidiv, p.e\io-<nv
also TOVTOV for TOVTO cf. in Attic ravrbv for Tdvro, and roiovrov
:

for

TOIOVTO

the latter form belonging also

to

Herodotus

and the Odyssee.

Aa/xyco stands for e\avva>, as vcpvos for
TT and p seem also
o-e/Si/o'y
interchangeable, as we get pXoiov
TrXoToi'
for
and ?r^/xa for /ii^/ia. Iloi) va pfopev rcopa whither
shall we now tend? peop.fv being connected with ope
:

We

get also the metathesis dapwa,

rpcn-vos, for Sdxpva,

re'/37ro/zai are possibly the same root, in which

alone would be referable to the Sanscrit trip,

Tpfnopai and

case

rpe'00)

This metathesis leads us

tripdydmi.

3eo, Tapfivfa with the

or

/<?

^c>

tion of

seems

az^av,

rap/3eo>.

modern Greek

to

connect rdp&os, rap-

rpa^'o), eY/i/3ia, /o

which doubtless was the original

/r

significa-

In Cyprus as well as in Crete the

enclitic

to be preferred to the proclitic construction, e?Sa TOV to

TOV e?6a.

5-

in general

as

seems

to prefer verbs in

Tt/tiao), Tip.dfis, Tt/uafi.

It

the accusative in such words as

this

may

an uncontracted form,

appears to use the nominative for

(<pr)p.fp\s

for efpTj^pifta, but

be a matter of pronunciation only.

metathesis

TO-J)

stands for

TT}S

By

as well as for TOVS.

a curious

This

is

DIALECTS OF MODERN GREECE.

117

also found, I believe, in the dialect of the Ionian Islands,

and

certainly in that of Crete.

In addition to these general divisions, Mullach notices

especially the dialect of Thera as peculiarly harsh and singing,

and draws attention

ovondfca-at.

as

in

Ai'Sw/zt,

Ta

Soj/co.

to the

archaism

modern Greek

ntis duoveis for ntis

Si'Sca

or StSowo, appears

TO,
This must
Trpay/nara, from TO Trpdros.
and
the
of
irpaKos,
strengthens
theory
philologers
TO wpdyos &C. are weakened for -npax.-.
Xpj/^araco

TrpaTT]

stand for TO
that rrpay,

= xp?7/iaTe&>, which

in the

common

dialect

employ myself, spend my

TO ypafalov row, I was employed two years

means

time/ &c., as exPW*TW a

'

'

only,

Mo

els

CTTJ

at his office/

idiomatically used, according to Mullach, for xpw-p-fvu,

is

among

the Theraeans.

In Cythnus, Psyra, and Chios, flvras, e/ra is used for TIS,

TI, which appears to be a transposition for rtW, metaplastic

(compare 6Wa[y] or 6Wa[i/] for 6Yaz>) ; and as such

should be written iWa?, iWa. Yet ovrav looks very like oire dv
= ore occurs,
[xpovov], especially when we remember that oire

from

TIS

In Cythnus too the termination

6Vai>.
be added on to certain words with no meaning

as well as 6Waz/ for

i>e

seems

at

all,

to

as xhp a ~ ve yivf-ve, p,avpa

(popfdjj,

where

it

(pope6r)-ve }

1.

e.

X*lP a ^y^vfTo,

pavpa

would seem we have the archaism of a

In Cythnus
neuter plural being used with a singular verb.
instead of rjpda or rj\da, an additional
fpxop.ai makes ^px a
>

for

ground
rjvQov, and

connecting in one root fpBovpat, epxopat,

rj\6ov,

rjpda.

In Siphnos, Naxos, and Thera, the forms exouo-t, ei^aa-i are

They are also common in
preferred to ex ovv an^ elx av
-

Crete.

In Amorgos, Calymnos, and Astypalaea, x palatal is pronounced as sh, e. g. ?x cshi. The augment is lengthened,
cf. the common form fjiria for eiriov.
as fjypafpa for eypcKpov
:

The same

thing occurs in ancient Greek in

0e'Xw, ij&e\ov

and

DIALECTS OF MODERN GREECE.

Il8

as r)6e\ov implies a form e'0eX&>, so probably eVti/co, eypdcpw are

obsolete forms from which fjypa^a and TJTHO. have arisen.
In

these islands

6\(vQcpos occur for eroi/xos

common form

the

Compare

tffpoy.

and

orot/xoy

In Patmos the Aeolic accent,

opaptpos for

aXrjdrjs,

Sei'^vo) (i. e. fietKi/vco),

and

o-wao) for yvwpifa

and

trvmyo)

i.

e.

and

Also yvupio
implying the forms yi>copi'5-<o

e'5fiej/,

o-vi>ao>,

ftx vo)) ec

SouXfi>(o.

by the insertion of teora =y, made

and hence yvapifa, crvvdfa.

afterwards,

into yvcopityo, trvvdyyo,

too, as in Asia, K appears to supplant x> as ea), oro-

Kdop.ai,

earlier

ep.op<f>os,

naipos,

In Rhodes, Carpathos, and Calymnos,

Here

eXeu-

obtains.

oxr],

Stand for

and

sound.

Tex

8io>Ki>o>,

may sometimes be

the

really aspirated from TfKvrj, compare

So in modern Greek SeiKi>&> becomes

"!

eTfKov.

Tifcro),

Here

TfKVLTijs.

epKOfjiai,

and

SKa^vco,

in ancient

Greek

^atrLvrjs is

con-

egaitpvrjs.
appears to have an aspirating influence on a preceding tenuis. At the beginning of a word x
sounds like h, as hdpts for xP ts

tracted to

In Carpathos we get rera-apes for Tfo-a-apes, an intermediate

form between reo-o-apes and rerrapcs, as KOT(TV<POS is between
K6o-o-v<pos

mination

between

and

Korrvcpos

tVo-a,
lo-o-a

and

common
and

trra,

in

In Rhodes, a

is

i.

cannot doubt the feminine

as seen in

standing the accent, which

a Doricized lonicism,

modern Greek,

may

/ue'Xto-o-a,

arise in

ter-

be intermediate

to

/ue'Xtrra,

notwith-

modern Greek from

e. tVo^, tVo-a.

often

weakened

to

*,

as

a-irepiv, o-cpoyyepiv

for a-irapiov, (nroyydpiov (here too notice the termination

/),
for avoige ; -yeXa^y appears in ancient Greek for yoAi/wk ;

means the
me fa, and
'

plainly
veXor,

nvfXov,

smile of the sea/

their

Compare too

corresponding forms voXos,

TrvaXov, TTidfa.

In Carpathos,

similarly,

we have

irevriKos

and

KadeXov for

DIALECTS OF MODERN GREECE.

and

TTOVTIKOS

"o\vp.7ros is called

KadoXov.

119

"EXvpnos at the pre-

sent day.

Professor Mullach

observes

fewer

that

found on the islands than on the mainland

rpdyos, ovcCXoy,

and

Kpios,

have not yielded to

diminutives
:

are

the old forms

rpayi, ovcuXi,

and

Kpidpi.

We

have now to consider a very singular phenomenon in

the shape of the Tsakonian dialect, the language of the inhacan at present do little
bitants of the ancient Cynuria.

We

more than
vagaries on

forms and grammatical

few peculiar

state

the authority of Professor Mullach.

we have undeniable Doricisms and

carry us back to
scarcely parted from Latin.

seem
let

US notice

(poova for

An

Homer.

ySou7ra> in

dwdpevos,

seems
tion,

Kcnrve,

KTOVTT>

when Greek had

for

(partly Boeotic)

KTVTTO),

cf.

ySovTros,

apparent tendency to use the vocafor Porpvs, dfvovp.fve for

&6r<rxv

xP*i which

derc,

period

As Doricisms

(poovrj,

for the nominative, as

tive

that

to

First, then,

antique forms which

in

the forms

vopo,

cro<po

to explain itself partly as a dislike to s as a terminais

by

paralleled

Compare

tWora,

certain

vecpeXj/yepeYa

forms in Homeric Greek.

with

the

Tsakonian

TroXiVa,

Other peculiar forms are as

=
=
endvov
follows
'iKava), an undoubted archaism
Kpcus,
Kpi'e
= yvvr], KOVC = KVCOV, viovra = VVKTO., i. e. vv, vi>x a = ovv^-f,
yovvauea
vavra, epip/ra, Tf^v/rn, Trpocp^ra.
:

cf.

i.

vvcrcTci),

archaism),

e.

Tcrxi

vv^yu),
ri:

Trdcrxa

Trotra,

=
(poovp.fvos

evdcrx*

<po/3ovp.evos,

= evQev

and

(another

<f)v(ovp.ev

(pvyuptv, cf. fyvfa. Zelos stands, according to Mullach, for 6dos,

but he does not inform us for which delos, whether in the sense

of uncle, or in the sense of divine. If it stand for the latter,

I should derive it not from QUos, but from dlos, and write
Io?, which might be compared with ap/jfoXos and dp/S^Xoy, &c.
Z stands in Tsakonian instead of K before e and i sounds,

which

is

only to be explained, so far as I see, by assuming

DIALECTS OF MODERN GREECE.

120
that <

was

first

found for

as

IT,

becomes

yal

*al,

y.

for

Kidva>

Aa/cruXo?

yXeoo-o-a.

Thus
maw. P

softened to

yie

'.

is

as ypovo-o-a for

for X,

SaruXo, 7rpd/3aTa npovara, the semi-

vowel changing to a vowel, n68a, -nova] 0eXo>, 6eov and rorxfov;

the tendency, noticed elsewhere in
&'3(o-/zi, Sioi; ( observe

Greek, to drop 8 and X)

becomes

KVVCS

Bvpovo) QrfjLovKOV, dya7rov(Ta dycnrova

appears as
i.

is

ciyovpa

e. dpTrayco

yd

for apror,

avdpvnos

is

which

/coOe, Kf<pa\r)

a^pcoTro, crxta ^ia, dpirdfa

for yaXa, like Kpl,

aXcpirov,

Mullach

in

therefore

dftpdya),

Sa>, epi, /3/n, aX^>i.

have above connected with

a\(vpov, &c.

foixpaXa,

apovpa (another archaism)

',

aX&'co,

from Professor

dissent

regarding avde as a word unkno\vn elsewhere in

Greek language, nopcvxf ( = ^)> to which Dr. Mullach

can assign no etymology, appears to me to be evidently

the

*/

i.

e.

common

the

in

Greeks say ra>pa

and the Germans nunmehr.
as

henceforth, further,

becomes

dialect,

and

eV&r^f,

would naturally become

$'Xo>

the

To-\eov,

TrdppWo-^ei',

therefore noppadev

while

o>

and

o,

as

we

have seen, readily become f, as in *o{5e, ttairve. We thus get

ir6pp(6(rxev, the v of which may of course be dropped at
pleasure

no doubt

and
in

near enough to nop^x* to leave

mind as to the derivation. The declension

this is quite

my

some very extraordinary

of the pronouns presents us with

phenomena

= eaov
jfj.a>v

fit
fju

fjfuv

vdpov

ep,e

ei/t'ou

fjfJ^ds

tp-ovvave

crv

fKiov,

PI. ffMOv,

Of

vp.ov

fp.oi

G.

G.

rt,

D.

viovpov,

vi,

A.

D.

KIOV.

viovpov,

A.

ep.ov.

the third person only the following cases are

G.

o-/,

D.

TJ,

A.

PL, G. and D.

<ri.

<rov.

known

DIALECTS OF MODERN GREECE.

Here euov
for
is

is

= nov = TV.
plainly for e-noO
&C.

Avo-i'nj,

for the

K,

Ktp.),

Ttivepe } fTftva'i,

exem.

declined as follows

N.
G.

121

Cf. the

Boeotian

&C.

eretvov, erfivapt, ereivov.

D. wanting.
A.
It is difficult to

<fivi.

ercivevi, erttvcan,

conceive

how

these words can be accented

No

as Professor Mullach writes them.

the change from r to K in the

The

Nom. and

less extraordinary
Ace. neuter.

formation of this declension, so far as

it

is

can be traced,

evidently barbarous, and proves to my mind that the

Tsakonian is no pure dialect, but a jargon or lingua franca

is

and

think

we

shall

be able to trace certain Semitic elements

in the structure of the conjugation.

me

to stand barbarously

conian cWvop

barously for fKcivap

fj.

for exflvos

enough

6 ereu/at for eVceiVa

and

17,

Yet the

Here

fTfivapt

may be

eYftWpe
6,

broad La-

in

still

seems to

more

bar-

in all these cases

merely the well-known demonstrative termination

and per-

haps in that case rmWpf should be erdvept.

For OVTOS we get the inexplicable form
:

N.

evrepij evra'i,

G.

fvrov, fvrapi, CVTOV.

t'yyi.

D. wanting.
A. evrevi, evTavi,
PI.

N.

evTfl for all

eyyi.

genders.

A. Masc.

and

TI

respectively

TI and res or

Tcr^i.

"Os,

fj,

o, is

ertivepi; where we have a clear case of barbarism,

inasmuch as the masculine and feminine endings e (for o?)
and a are added on to the modern Greek indeclinable relative
O7TOU.

DIALECTS OF MODERN GREECE.

122

EI/U is conjugated thus in the present,

ere, ivvi

and

in the imperfect,

ep.a, ea-a, e/a

evi,
;

tWi, ewi

epp.a'i, eraif,

These forms are hopelessly barbarous, but it is pretty

plain that C-KI is formed by adding a fragment of exdvos, *ei
on to the prevailing vowel of the root, while in Ki-a'i we have
two

suffixes,

one to show the third person, the other to mark

t, which runs all through the imperfect
plural,

the plural, viz.

and

probably nothing else than the article 01 added on.

is just what we should expect from a Semitic

is

This again

race trying to learn Greek.

The

further formation of tenses

eyaprfKa and epirolita are formed as a

equally remarkable
in
Greek fashion, but the present and
kind of aorist-perfects
is

imperfect are expressed by the participle and the substantive

verb joined by the letter p, which perhaps stands for o-, in

which case we must assume that to simplify matters ypd<pa>v

became ypd<pos, Laconian ypd<pop, and that p was written by
analogy after a, where however, agreeably to our theory, it
may be optionally left out. What is plain is, that these
foreigners who were trying to learn Greek looked at each
termination as a separate word, and probably regarded the
root ypa<p- as in itself the participle, in accordance with

Semitic

principles

is

ypd(f)a>

in

However

of grammar.

Tsakonian

that

may

ypa<p-ov-p-evi or ypaty-a-p-evi,

be,

accord-

ing as the subject is masculine or feminine, and so forth.

The substantive verb may also be prefixed, evi ypd(pov, evi
&C.

ypdtya,

So, tOO, the imperfect,

e/xa

ypd<f>ov,

Or

ypa</>ov-

pepa, &C.

The
Or

fi

ypa^ov/ifve, &C.,

The
va

present passive

Tjfj.ai

future

is

is

i.

similarly

e.

6c\a>

yp(i<f)op.fv6s e'ori,

thus expressed

instead of

formed ypo^ovpcycpat,

Beov va evi ypcxfrre,

flvdai ypanrds',

&c.,

&C.
i.e.

0e'Aa>

the verbal adjective

supplying the place of the perfect participle.

rt

With the

periphrastic present

and imperfect we cannot avoid

DIALECTS OF MODERN GREECE.

attenparing the Spanish estoy escribiendo, and drawing
the
and
that
the
fact
tion to
only NeoPortuguese,
Spanish
-L.C
Latin
languages which were subjected to Semitic influences,
In
the only ones in which this idiom is found.
likewise
e

H ebrew

is no present tense, and, properly speaking,

but
the meaning is given by the participle and
imperfect,
the pronoun, which are in force exactly equivalent to the

there

no

verb in
participle -f substantive
It is plain

an Indo-Germanic language.

Tsakonian language did not develope,

that the

other dialects of Greece, in a natural way.

like

It is

the

language of a foreign race, adopting and adapting the

materials of the Greek language, not once and for all, but
that Greek was still ancient
gradually, partly during the time

The old
Greek, and partly after it had become modern.
that
this
show
as
I think
Doric forms timora, a, &c.,
foreign,
Semitic, tribe
tions

was

had been

Cynuria before

settled in

obliterated

by

dialectic distinc-

the *om) SiaXexros

yet as

we

cannot with certainty assert that they ever were quite obliterated, it is hard to say how early or how late the settlement

may have been

old as
all

Homer,

Again, tTTTrora, &c. may not be so

may only be mutilated for 'nnroTas, as

formed.
for

words ending

it

in

dialect has preserved

for fldov,

ffjiiroiKa

are.

But

many

ancient Greek words, as &>paKa

for exa/za.

in the language of the

at

'Opaco

common

any

and

rate, the

TToie'cB

Tsakonian

are not found

people in the present day.

Again, the distinction between dative and accusative is still

The word endvov = wava seems to take
partially preserved.
us back nearly to Homer. To a>Xe for TO i'Aoi> and ayovpa
= apovpa point back to a time far anterior to the later period
of ancient Greek, certainly as far back as heathen times.

On

the other hand,

many

of the forms and constructions

are plainly corruptions of modern Greek.

That there has been then from time immemorial settled
in

Cynuria a foreign

tribe

which has mangled the Greek

DIALECTS OF MODERN GREECE.

124

language, and clung to

it

which

think I

is

astounding,

But what was

out.

people

who

done, and

in its

mangled form with a tenacity

may assume has been made

this foreign tribe

know

of but one

are capable of doing what the Tsakonians have

that people is the Jewish race.
They alone

choose by a natural

and harshest

instinct the very broadest

among whom

dialect of the people

they alone
seem capable of giving to each word the most barbarous and
mutilated form which the imagination can conceive ; they
they

settle

are the only race which, though they live for centuries among
strangers, will never learn to speak their adopted tongue

Some

correctly.

Semitic element must certainly be at the

dialect, and what Semitic race so

bottom of the Tsakonian

likely to

have founded inland colonies but the Jews

Tsakonian words

for brother

and

sister, d6\

and

In the

ddia, I

cannot

but recognise a genuine Hebrew formation.

Brother in
Hebrew is 'ns (in the construct form), and ^nx seems a
possible,

though not

the feminine of

T ^,

in classical

Hebrew an

actual form, for

In the plural of the

first pera
pronoun we
grotesque attempt to combine the vowels and consonants of the Hebrew and Greek.
1

'sonal

e. sister.

see, I think,

In the nominative
ffj-v,

i.

of which the

13 S

first

transcription of the

anu,

form

we have
is

Hebrew

little

the two forms fvv

more than an

and

iotacized

while the other has a

little

more resemblance to the Greek form. The genitive and

dative vd-p.ov, seem to be made up of the Hebrew fragmentary suffix 13, and a similar fragment of the Greek

We
,

knowing

have already seen by various examples, as ypdfov

KIHOV = rt/^wv, &c., that ov stands for -(ov, and

that a = ov, e.g. epi = fjpow,

we have no

difficulty in

In the
writing VU/JLOV into the required form vov-^v, at once.
accusative (povvave, which could scarcely have attained so
extraordinary a length except on some such theory as that
here advanced, we seem to have the elements t

DIALECTS OF MODERN GREECE.

softened

first

into

and

epdvavov.

then,

125
the

final

ov

becoming weakened into t, and compensated in the second

the i being weakened
iyllable, epovvavi, and hence epovvavc,
in

turn into

its

e,

as in Xe'yowe,

five,

&c., &c.

The

accusative

and the fragment ou,

is evidently ^N
which is either a part of eo-ov = in Tsakonian eyo>, i.e. cy^o>
= eWo>, or more probably is simply the ending of the
first person of verbs in o> which in Tsakonian = ov, and

singular

eviov

eVt

would of course by a Semitic race be regarded as a pronominal suffix, as indeed, in its original form, it really

The

was.

whose settlement

foreigners

we were

in Cynuria

supposing, seem to have been rather puzzled by the fact

unheard perhaps among the

that with the slight difference,

j

Greeks even in very early times, as now, and in any case

and v,
barely distinguishable to the Semitic ear, between
17

and second persons plural were the same, i.e. vpels

and fjpeis. Having formed epovvnve = fjpds, they left out the
vdve, which seemed to them the part of the word most clearly

the

first

indicative of the

first

person, and used the mutilated epov for

wels, the more so as

both the nominative and accusative of

epov

came nearer

The
lovpS>v

genitive

their pronominal fragment QD than did evi.

and dative viovpov, seem to be for lovp.lv and

= vplv and vp>v, but with some prefix,

probably

D = Xe and

pi

pi regularly

becomes

v in

Tsakonian,

t>

e.g.

and
via

= pia, &c. while X might very well become so.

In any
case the analogy of modernizing Greek would soon make
the dative take the same form as the genitive.
;

The way
tion
11

on

H in

to

in

which a

n)

is

added as a feminine termina-

an indeclinable base, as

in mrova, as well as

perhaps

erfiva'i,
correspondence of the frequently recur?
ring masculine termination e with ~t and ov with iKH, all
point to a complete confusion of Greek and Hebrew gram-

mar

the

phenomenon

held by Professor

the

Max

more

interesting, as I believe

Miiller to

be an impossibility.

it

is

DIALECTS OF MODERN GREECE.

126
I

copy out

for the perusal of the reader

one or two short

specimens of the Tsakonian dialect, given by Professor

Mullach in his 'Grammatik der Griechischen Vulgarsprache,'

emend

taking the liberty to

appears obvious.

where such emendation

his text,

i.

onova Kadapepa

Nt'a yovva-LKa

e^a via

Mia

ef^e \uav KOTTUV (opviv) fjns

yvvfj

cva avyo.

vop.la av

eia

cv avyov.

^e

d/ze'pa

8vo jSoXas Kaff

fjp.fpav Ka\
5ei/

vi
TTJ

'AXXa

&

cuape.

'AXXa

f]

TTO^OV

TroXXoO

ird\ovs 8ev fjfji7r6prf TT\COV va

The

translation underneath

that eiTTOife

errotKf,

as Kal

yevva

ACOTTO,

OTTO

opvis,

UTTO

va ycvvdr) naveva avyo.

TrX/a

Traor^ou

efiiropifc

cyevva

da yevvdei

Kpio~i

efJLTrolfc.

(TO)

yewova

TroXu Kpidiov da

opvidi

TTJ

Ki

Ka6r)p.epav

rav Korra Troo^e

vt8l

av do)(ry

eVo/nt^e

Kar*

5u/3oXai

KOTTO.

avyo.

modern Greek.

in

is

Kavev

yevva

Note

f.

2.

Hfpov

eva

Kovf

OTTO

TO

HfpS)V

ftff

KV60V

OTTO

TOV

Tao-ov

opov

(Heb. Taxa6

Kl

0-^aO-t

KOVC

TTjV flKOVa

if

(Ki

Kvcav OTTOV

*X OV KP'ie

ei^e

p.e

TTOTafJLOV

?)

TO

p.

TO

TO

uplc

*s

TO

TOV/ZO

KptaS

fls

TO

(TTO/iO

vo

TO

[rf] ?]

TOV vSaTOS

KOl 6pO)V VTrOKOTO)

O*KiaO~lV

Trora/Lio

Cv6fJilc
**

T0 T0vtla

TOTf

'

Kpeas (is TO oro/ia.

va irdpc TO opovpevc, Ka\

TO oujievov

Ka\

CKI
carrepfj&r)

6pOVp.l>

TO KOTO OpWpfVOV

770)9

aTTO-

TT)V

TO KOTO)

VOfllgoV 7TOV

va<66-

o^t*

TO

Kl
TfTO

aXXe
aXXoff

dXrjdivb

dia

TOTC afpr/ne TO dXrjdtvbv 8ia

e

OTTO

ica\

TU>V

TO.

dovo (rrcpovre.
8vo.

DIALECTS OF MODERN GREECE.

THE

3.

'A(/>eyya \_\v6tvra ?]
TI,

ovvop.dv
TOZ>

ovpave,

i/a

epov
e

[VLV ?] frdp.epe'

6f\r)fj.dv

cs rav

fyj}'

TO.

a<pe vdfj.ov

TOV ^peovc^tXTre vdpov,

ecri

j/aftot>, TT'

TO

ra$?7

LORD'S PRAYER.

i/a

p;

TI,

va

/ioX?/

ayiacrre TO

va. evi

a J3affi\ciav

-^pie vdfj.ov

Kadov

<pepifpc epovvavf

^e
'$

evv

or

va.fj.ov

vi

ffjLp.a(plvre

Kfipaa-pb,

Notice the archaism

the form

Vav

TI

TOV av&e TOV tirunxTUOf Si

fXevdepov va/iou OTTO TO KOKO.

remember seeing

VTOI/ ovpave,

dXXa

/zoXfl.

tytv as a

iyrjv
Judaeo-Greek
specimen of Hebraistic modern Greek, but where
I cannot think of any
I saw it I cannot now recall to mind.
Greek derivation for ffrov the first part may be the Hebrew

form

in a

TN.

Comparing Zfyov with Kadov,

cf.

epo>s:

also

t^N"i"TX

'

tolerated.

stands for

as in heaven, so afterwards
ToO/za for orc'/ua is also

the combination or at the beginning of a

being
or

it

for ITUS. *Epws would be the

= then first ; dann erst German, turn

demum Lat. the sense being,

The omission of o- in
earth/
istic,

see that

TTOV

above,

Greek writing of

we

on

Hebra-

word not

Observe no Spanish word begins with

st

sp.

On

a review of

all

the evidence,

we

find ourselves quite

'

Die Sprache der Zakonen

uns ein noch unentwickelter Zweig der altesten Gestaltung des Hellenismus (!) und ein Schliissel zu verschieunable to say with Dr. Mullach,
ist

fur

denen Erscheinungen sowohl der alten und heutigen Dialecte, als der verwandten Sprachen/
It is

true that

some

light

may be thrown on

other lan-

guages, especially those in a transition state or in a process

of amalgamation, by means of the Tsakonian dialect.
For

we

can be no primitive or undeveloped form of Greek, because we know that the greater

the rest

are sure that

it

Greek accidence was ready made before ever the

Greek nation rose into existence.

part of

DIALECTS OF MODERN GREECE.

128

cannot agree with the derivation To-a/tcoi/es from

K might become TO-, pronounced almost as ch in church,
before palatal vowels
but I know no instance in Greek of
I

such a change before a guttural vowel.

The

other deriva-

more improbable.

is

AaKwfs,
yet
In conclusion, I must leave the question to Semitic scholars.
I feel confident that the more the matter is investigated, the
tion,

more

clear

it

will

duction of Greek

Hebrew

become that Tsakonian is a hybrid proand some Semitic language

whether
;

or not I will leave to others to determine.

on

I will pass

to consider as briefly as possible the Al-

banian language in relation to Greek. The popular notion

of the Greeks themselves that the Albanians are the ancient
Pelasgians, may be after all not very far from the truth.
Certain it is, that in Albanian, in spite of its corrupt or
modernized state, as seen in the poverty of its case endings,
&c.,

we do undoubtedly
Albanian

Latin.

is

find the meeting point of

neither

more nor

less

Greek and

than modern

and no greater service could be rendered to

than an ideal reconstruction of anGrammar
Comparative
Graeco-Italic

cient Albanian.

can now do no more than barely indicate a few instances

of the connection of Albanian with Greek on the one hand,
I

and Latin on the other. First, then, the very alphabet is

mixed in Albanian. We have both d and 5 as well as / and
6
we have again both f and and b as well as /3. Besides
<?,

we

have, as in Sanscrit, a palatal v written h, and a palatal

=
in Sanscrit.
like
r r,
Again, the palatal y and K, which
in modern Greek are used only before palatal vowels, have
this

an independent existence, like ja and chd

which are only modifications of palatal g and

in Albanian
Sanscrit,

In a word, there

is

in
k.

a far greater wealth of both vowel and

consonantal sounds in Albanian than in Latin and Greek

and

it

is

plain that

when Graeco-Latin separated

into Latin

DIALECTS OF MODERN GREECE.

and Greek, the Greeks took along with them & j3 and 8, &c.,
the Latins b and d, &c., while many sounds, as for example
sh, zh, they left behind them as far as we know altogether.

The

we

fact that

find in Albanian the

Greek and Latin

sounds combined, proves the general identity of the

modern

with the ancient Greek pronunciation to something very like

demonstration.

To
us

proceed to the grammar. The first thing that strikes

the preservation in Albanian of the infinitive endings
dvai, and epev-ai, corresponding to the Latin substantive

is

evai,

terminations en-i or en-e, and men-i or men-e

cf.

pecten-e,

In Albanian we have these

nomen-e, specimen-e, &c.

sub-

Greek, but the infinitive mood is

expressed not by a case-ending or suffix, but a separate
= p, Bavow, \vcrep,ev-ai = jue \vo~ovp,ovv.
word
(pdv-ai
stantive

endings, as in

prefixed e.g.
termination -ovp.ow slightly varied actually appears in
Albanian as a substantive ending, e. g. apo'fp.fv = eXevo-t?,
;

The

7rpedLKip.iv

between

Albanian gives us again the transition

praedicatio.

-/u

and

o>,

in the

form

op., <prjp.\

= 66p,.

Albanian preserves the ablative termination

for the genitive case

Explanation

which

uses

it

e. g.

diTT

vde

m(de)

/,

te

p-ppertT

epodtt.

diebus TOV imp'ratav = imperatoris

rodis, with Greek termination y-s for

He-or.

T as the sign of the third person singular in verbs is likeBut this /

wise preserved in Albanian, as &or = $<m = (prjvi.
is often weakened into v, both in the third person singular
and

the second plural.

I will give a

few paradigms

illustrating the relation

between

the verbal terminations in Albanian and Greek.

Present.
Bop,

6oi>

6a>T

(pap.1

fpacrl

<paT\

=
=

(prjpl

Suva

(pfjs

Bovi

(prjcrl

6wv

<pap.ev

(pare
(paa\v, i.e. (pavri.

DIALECTS OF MODERN GREECE.

130

Aorist.

6ds

e(prjv (e(

6av = f<pacrav.

Imperfect.

form is to be compared with yvav, Albanian

With $ocrre = e^aovte compare i'crre = e<TKe.
classical r)\6ov;
*Ep8a = modern Greek
root,
in

rjpda,

haps Sanscrit ard-

'

apdovv = eXdelv,

t\0CTtt>*f

&c. =

Et/^i,

lap,,

te'j

come

to

i.e.

epdep.

;'

fp^dopev, fjpQanc

rja-iv.

perapOr =

\6efj.fV.

a<7T, tci/a, levi, lav.

Albanian explains to us the meaning of the termination

*a, which is so common in Greek both as an aorist and

we

perfect termination, as
in modern Greek in

see in e-d^-Ka, e-Sco-m,

Se'-Soo-Kcr,

and

(Tsakonian), eypd^Ka, &c.

of which one form seems to have

evpr/Ka, eopcka

In Albanian nap =
been

Now

the perfect in Albanian

Se-Scoxa,

infinitive,

thus formed

is

Kap.

ddvovv

Kfva ddvovv.

Ke

ftdvovv

Kfvi

ddvovv.

KO.

ddvovv

KCLV

ddvovv.

Literally ex

In

ex**,

and

and

&c., as in

Sovvai,
e-Scoica,

xa = ?x&>

The Albanian

for

modern Greek

the root of the verb

is

and

used as a
is

ede,

is

put for the

suffix.

plainly the

Homeric

Ide

and

$d*.

not)

and

TI

and
are

quis, &c.

irov

xl

are in Albanian KOV, the original form:

and Ka;

Sanscrit kah,

M,

kirn,

ris

Latin qui,

now

I will

illustrate the

tences and words

*Ep6e

fj.de

'HX0e

dfj.(pi

Ot
/-

language further by a few sen-

re

o-qyar,

SUa

TO.

eSe
r)8e

re

a-qyar VOVK

SUa

th

VTJ-OVK. e

e rrpirev.
7rape'Xa/3oi/.

^a.

*-JL

Oi

e<pa.

*Arot

= aurw.

Cf. ayrap

and

drap,

modern Greek

dros

and

*2*

Inde

ore, rjpQav.

(TKeTrrjv

ore ^X^oi/ ets r^v otxiav.

the Latin zW#-,

or

indi- t

=
w^; Greek d/z$t;
(
another form of the same word.
Latin

N(/e

z^-, and
eVi) is

appears to be
/i<5e

above, the

probably only

VoetreV, i-

Vop^)ei/, i.e.
;

=
la

Tropi/eia,

or

op(pai/o'y.

vdoKfv, edi

and would suggest an older form,

KopFveia.

The etymology is
<pavepa>.
paidfacie (palus = <#*, implied in palam).

Mda\a<pdi<e

eV r

MIKOV = amicus ;

vep.LK.ow, inimicum.
KovXovrc = aTrdXvrot
quasi aKo'Aovroi (?).
/XT)

Troifjs.

plainly

DIALECTS OF MODERN GREECE.

132

Ae'ou

yala,

ficua, y?y.

eVcei.

'Arte,

/3iabw.

Pidfrvcriv,

Kapa.

TlovX

In modern Greek

fyewrja-e.

nymic

TTOV\OS

Cf. Latin pullus,

termination.

a patro-

is

Greek

TroiXos,

also -pulus in disci-pulus, Albanian difreTrovXi.

The word

God

for

in

Albanian

same elements

The

view that

nepvdta nepvdi, gen.

Does

ncpvdie or Hfpvdur/, ace. nepvdive.

the

is

as Diespiter, reversed
SftXtvot/

and

17X10?

this

word contain

are connected

is

some-

what strengthened by the Albanian for Tpuor, which is

"ETOS is in Albanian Fir, cf. Latin vetus, Sanscrit vatsas.

becomes
.

Fir

FTS.

in the plural

It is interesting to find

eVt eros, the relic

di\i.

in the

modern Greek

<eYoy,

of the F in the form of the aspirate.

i.

e.

In

probably only transposed for Faros, and this

to
us
understand
Fehrev, the Albanian for avrov in
helps
f
I have written /3 here
Ffhrev being equal to t-avrov.
eavrov,

'EviaFros, dfro's is

and elsewhere

as F, because

present that letter.

But the

seems almost always to rechanges in Albanian seem

instance represents sometimes
it

literal

by no means regular h for

X, and sometimes
though
:

<j>,

it

these letters are interchangeable in Greek.

hip,

x^P ls ) h*p*,

fopds,

form

Two
re
<rf,

are-hep*

modern Greek

with root (paythis

<f)opd',

for

= airy

fit'?.

hiivypow, (payelv.

mind that
Thus we have

must be borne

in

(popa, i.e. vvv, dii hfpf 8vo

Also
(Is

ha.

rpa>ya>,

connected

hunger connected with

?)

Latin particles receive great light from Albanian,

and se.
means

'Pe in

Albanian means new, and

<r.

in

viz.

composition

= dftvvaroi, i.e.
not, e.g. ar'iiavvder, ov bvvarat, ffipawdt
vovovvres.

DIALECTS OF MODERN GREECE.

A
AD;
passive

verb

is

changed

prefixing the syllable ov,

The
Kap. (

tion

=
e'^co)

is

g.

into an active in Albanian by

ddvow = bovvai, ovddvow = doOfjvai.

formed, like the perfect, by means of

and the infinitive, but in the future the preposi-

future tense

fjie

e.

133

inserted

The pronouns
phenomena

in

is

examples,

Kap, jue Trep-yiairow, o/ioicotro), /or/*

Albanian present some very remarkable

Greek.

Albanian.
*

6VCOV. LO)V

A.

OVV.

G~
p.e

/Me

pov, p.io

peye,

D.

/AOt

With the

enclitic, p.ove

plural

it

is

better to

compare the Latin

N. nos
A.

In

nofa's,

vd.

nos, Sanscrit ndh

vd,

G. Sanscrit nah

D.

emphatic.

emphatic

vl.

ves.

Sanscrit nah

this veFe, written' also

ve're,

enclitic vd.

with the ablative termination

we have

the Latin bis or bus, the Sanscrit bhih, the Greek

<i; or rather we have the Sanscrit bhi, the common element
in -bkihj -bhyam, -bhyah, &c., for ve- has not
only a dative,

but more often an ablative,

Kfiva>v, re TtavdeftT, TOOV

Greek.

N.

i.

Albanian.

2v, TV

e.

genitive force, as in drtWft =

'l

Sanscrit.

TJ

ytiyam

A. 2e

re

G.

Tfye, reyeT

yushmdn
Qi\\. yushmdkam

Tflo

ra,

A.VTTJS

is

in

and

rtye

Albanian

often dative as genitive.

yov.

^^i.yushmabhy-am

ao-at,

which

Albanian.

in

yo\).
j/ovs.

yov-fe.

signification

is

as

This comes very near the San-

DIALECTS OF MODERN GREECE.

134
scrit

asydh (gen.), asyai

Sanscrit zyam.

The

The nominative

(dat.).

Kere, TOVTO

is

fyo, cf.

be compared with haec-rc,

may

possessive pronouns are extremely puzzling.

= &pa

seems straightforward enough but when we come

which the genitive is 'ATM- rod, we see that the
possessive pronouns have the peculiarity of taking the caseThis same caseendings as prefixes, instead of suffixes.
(

firj)

to "hriyovi, of

ending T appears

in the possessive
pronouns to be accusative,
as well as genitive or ablative in force.
Is not this so also

in the Latin personal

in

amples

Albanian

(TOV, d8f\<f>6v o-ou.

pronouns

But

not

this is

all

endings prefixed, but sometimes,

signs of gender also

pronoun but a
is

nosm-ef, vosm-et?

tete,

are, feXa UT, aSeX^dy

Ex-

T#r-feXd ddcXcpv

not only are the case-

at least, the

differentiating

so that nothing remains of the original

single consonant.

a feminine termination

Thatjyo
U we have in KUL =

o-ov,

OVTOS.

Thus fa = o-6s, y6te =

we have seen in ay$, she,
0-77.

Yore seems moreover to have

if we regard cp.e as = efu?-

a double feminine termination,

is

vv

plural, and, so far as I

can

'Efj-rjv is

rovyen

and

vvf

repe

vfjLerepav,

rjpfTepav, rcSv

see, for all

or ToVe

and
;

TOVI

fjfterfpa,

genders.
'

e'ficx,

r6va

e'/**

rj/jLeTepav,

TWV.

Internal changes of the vowel sound also take place, as

'
T
i
/
1/1-OT TTOTJ/p p.OV, Tf TlfJi-CT TOV TTdTpOS flOU, Tffl-OT TTtlTfpa JJ.OV.
v'

When, however,
it

has a

much

the possessive

pronoun

is

used substantively,

simpler form, as

yWe

TC

p.iar

lav

re

Trdvra

TO.

(pa

clcr\v

TO.

riar

ad.

For the oblique cases of o-dy, one form used is ravd and
The
ravde, of which rdvde appears to be the feminine.
difference

between rdvde and TUT seems to be that the one

is

used with a preposition, the other with a verb, as /ie T#r-feXu

(ue TOV a5eX0dv (TOV in modern Greek), but DoviffKivc rdvd, e8e

DIALECTS OF MODERN GREECE.

kl p,evl d

ravd, i.e.

Ames vicinum tuum

135

etoderis inimicum

tuum.

We

will

conclude

this

account of the Albanian language

with a few prepositions and numerals

Me =

modern Greek

with,

p.a

TOV

/ze

and

/*a,

ancient Greek pa,

Ai'a.

=from> Greek rcapa.

=
Ufp through, Latin per.
Upe'i

Kowdep = contra,
e = in, Latin mdu-,

and

utt

on,

Greek ei/So- and

Latin ambz'Q\ Greek a
z'ndo-,

= super.
I.

V\, f.

2.

dii.

3.

Tpt,

VI.

f.

rpi.

4. Karep.
5.
6.

TTf'a-f.

yidcrrf.

7. orare (Sanscrit sap fa).

8.
.

re're.

vavdfT.

II. vi/i^eSere, i.e.

ei? K.T. A. eVt'

12.

2O.

340.
50.

TreereSe're,

&C.

100. KtW, Latin centum.

1000.
It is

p.iy.

observable here that Latins, Greeks, and Albanians

count together as
sents

some

far as 10,

difficulty.

although the form vdvder pre-

Afterwards, however, the agreement

DIALECTS OF MODERN GREECE.

136

Latin and Greek coincide in

ceases.

and

12, but the

Where the ancient

coincidence goes no further.
Greeks said Tpeis<alKa the Romans said tri-dccem. The
agreement between Latin and Greek is, however, resumed
exact

in

viginti,

('IKOO-I

(IKOVTI

or

FIKOVTI

while

in

Albanian,

is plainly a different formation, and seems to be

compounded of vi-, one, and er, which must mean a score,

v'i-er

whatever
but

rpt

resumed

in

6eVe,

derivation.

its

Sere,

Afterwards,

&c. = not

Yet the coincidence

and so on.

<(vd - centum,

i-piSer*,

and

numerals after 10 afford no

piy

= milk.

historical

is

The

rpi'-f

again

fact

is,

evidence as to the

independence of different races, though their agreement,

however occasional, does supply most indubitable proof
of their having sprung from one stock.

The same

race may have two modes of counting beyond

and
one
10,
may be more fashionable than the other, or
The ancient Greeks
both may meet with equal favour.
themselves said SeKarreire as well as Trei>TKai8cKa, and the

modern Greeks say not only

SeKcnrevrf,

but SfKarpds, 8fKa-

In the Teutonic lan-

recrcrapes, SeKaeTrra, Se^ao/crco, deKaevvea.

guages ii and 12 exhibit a similar divergence, while in

English we say twenty-three, three and twenty, sixty or
French, Italian, and Spanish count to-

three score, &c.

gether as far as 60, after which they diverge, though only

The numerals, therefore,

again afterwards.
us
no
for
grounds
doubting our original hypothesis,
give
that Albanian presents us, in a mutilated shape, with the
coincide

to

Graeco-Italic language before

it

had

split into

Greek and

Italic.

With regard

to

vdvde or vdvdtr,

question whether

we

have not the same word in the Latin nundinae, -inae being
simply a termination.
v&vdet, I
less

would suggest

than twenty,

i.

With regard

to

the

derivation of

that as dnavim'sati in Sanscrit

e. nineteen,

means

so dnadasa might be another

DIALECTS OF MODERN GREECE.

form

for nine, of

which

m/Sere or aVSer

137

might be a contracted

The influence of the v would naturally convert d into

and we should then get aWer= 10, rendered more definite

form.
d,

in

Albanian by the prefix v\= i, hence mavder, vavdcr.

We have already seen that Albanian preserves many of

the Sanscrit forms which Latin and Greek have

we

will

conclude

ample.
In Sanscrit,
respectively in

this

rapid

sketch with

lost,

and

one more ex-

words anya and itara are used

the sense of 'the one' and 'the other,'
the

two

being combined in the compound anyatara, either.' Now

in Greek we have erepos, and in Latin caeterus, both of which
(

words may contain the same root as itara. But in Albanian

we have both, opposed to each other, in vi-dn, the one,'
'

and

indefinite,

find

'the other;' the prefix being in one

Ti-erpt,

vi

in the other the definite article.

actually

be added to

added

to

avi,

just as

case the

Here, too, we

we have supposed

it

to

CHAPTER
Modern Greek

WE

must

Greek

distinguish,

and the

literature

Literature.

the

in

IX.

outset,

literature of the

between modern

modern Greeks.

The name of modern Greek literati is legion, but the

names of those who wrote anything worthy of record in
modern Greek before the present century are very few.
It

with the latter alone that

is

we

are at

present con-

cerned.

The

first

modern Greek

writer

was Theodorus Ptocho-

prodromus, 'the heaven-sent poor forerunner* of modern

Greek

happiest

A
is

literature,

verses

satirist

mean power, whose

of no

were extorted by the pangs of hunger.

His date

specimen of his style concludes Chapter VII.

1180.
given by Mr. Sophocles as 1143

Almost contemporary with him was Simon

chronicler,

Next

in

who

is

order

Romania and

the first prose writer in

comes the

'

Book of

the Morea,' or To nS>s

Tonov TOV Mwpewf, supposed by

of

Buchon

Sethos,

modern Greek.
the Conquest

of

QpdyKoi e/cepfyo-av TOV

(in the

second volume

Recherches Historiques') to be a translation from a

French account of the same events. Elissen ably controverts
of his

this

'

opinion by a comparison of the two works, in which he

MODERN GREEK LITERATURE.

illy justifies

criticism.

139

the superior reputation of German over French

The 'Book of the Conquest' may be best

described as a rhyming chronicle, which might deserve the

name of poor verse were it not so prosaic, or of bad

prose were it not written

fourteenth century.

in

metre.

belongs to the

It

To the same period probably belongs the poem entitled

Belthandros and Chrysantza/ a romance of knight-errantry,
in which we can plainly trace the effects of the cru'

sades

Greece.

in

but

knights-errant,
to

The

Greek of the age is so far true

more susceptible of chivalrous than

enthusiasm.

prominent, while

background.

The

are henceforth

the

himself as to be

religious

heroes of Greece

The

is

kept

quite

is

very

in

the

'

Belthandros and Chrysantza' is

The hero is Belthandros (a Graec-

plot of

simple but imaginative.

of his heart

mistress

Mother Church

ism for Bertram), the son of Rhodophilus, king of Romania,

who has two sons, Bertram and Philarmus, one of whom
he

loves,

and the other of

the

whom

of

unfortunate

course

of his

he

hates.

disobject
takes
a
after
journey eastward, and
pleasure, accordingly
heroic exploits performed at the expense and on the persons of his father's men-at-arms, who are dispatched to bring

Belthandros,

him back, he reaches Armenia, and

father's

the fortress of Tarsus.

Riding by the side of a small stream, he espies a gleam

of light in the running waters, and follows up the course
It leads him to a magic
of the rivulet a ten days' journey.
building called the Castle of Love, built of precious stones,
and surrounded and filled with every imaginable form of

wonder

in the

way of automaton

birds

and beasts of gold,

reminding us of Vulcan's workmanship. Then follows an

introduction to the King of the Loves, the owner of the
enchanted palace, who gives him the task of choosing the

most

beautiful out of forty

women.

He

first

selects three,

MODERN GREEK LITERATURE.

140

and having thus equalized the problem to that which Paris

had solved of old, he proceeds to award the palm to
Chrysantza, who turns out to be the daughter of the King
of Antiochia, and whose subsequent appearance at the
Court of Rhodophilus "reconciles the father, and terminates
the story with the slaying of the fatted calf.
The following is an attempt to render the metre and the

meaning of some of the most

equalled
'

poem

beautiful lines

in this

un-

Thus then together journeying, they reached the Turkish border

This passed anon, they entered next upon Armenia's

And

last of all

frontier;

approached the town of Tarsus, and

its

strong-

hold.

And

while Belthandros wandered through the country with his

followers,

He

found a

rivulet,

and

lo

beheld

among

its

waters

sheen as of a falling star that leaves its track in heaven.

There in the water's midst it gleams, and he in haste pursues it
Stream-upwards he betakes him, if perchance he may discover

Whence

erst

was born that

liquid

flame

that

glitters

in the

streamlet.

Ten

days' full space he wandered on,

and when the tenth was

ended,

He

found a castle large and high, and goodly was the vision,

well hewn out, most cunningly proportioned.

high upon the summit of that fair and shining building,
In place of catapults were ranged a marvellous assemblage
Of heads of griffins carved in gold, full curiously fashioned,

Of pure sardonyx

And

Wrought by a cunning
wisdom

master's hand, with great and

wondrous

And from

their open jaws amain, most direfully resounded

Furious and terrible and shrill a grimsome noise of roaring;

And

thou wouldst say they moved as though the breath of

were

The

life

in them.'

imaginative power and mastery of language which

the author shows, bespeak a genius of the highest order.
Like many another genius, he is among the nameless dead.

MODERN GREEK LITERATURE.

14 [

His creative power reminds us sometimes of the 'Divina

Comedia/ sometimes of the second part of Faust.' Even
'

his sesquipedalia verba,

o-xoivorevel.?,

as the

or,

Greeks

call

them,

Xe'fts-

rather excite our admiration by the boldness

and

the beauty of their composition, than our impatience by their

'PO^OKGKKIVOS,

length.

trwjuaTovpy^o-e?,

(TTpoyyv\ofj.op(po7TT)yovvos,

6\oar(op.aTu>p.vrj, ovpav68pop.os,

p.ot,poypd<pr)p.a,

Kpv(j)OKap,<ap.a )

how-

ever they might raise the bile of a Phrynichus, have a power

of harmony and a perfection of taste for which that poor

pedant had neither eyes nor ears.

Did the modern Greek language possess but

Epic, to say that

it

is

this

single

were a calumny

destitute of literature

indeed.

The next writer we shall notice is Emmanuel Gorgilas,

who forms the bridge between the Byzantine and the Turkish
He was a native of
period of modern Greek literature.
Rhodes, and

The
1.

lived at the time of Constantinople's

following works are attributed to

Airjyrja-ts

ras

ei?

Trp:'t^is

TOV

him

fall.

crTparrjyov

irepiftorjTov

r<i>v

rw 1554 vrro
which
Belisarius
'Pap-miTcrfTov
4 TO'JUOVS),
appears as an almost mythical character, a kind of Alexander
redivivus, upon whom every kind of possible and impossible
jueyaXou

(fe$odr)

Ef\urapiov

exploit

is

fathered.

2.

To davartKov

3.

The

cv

Bei/en'a

in

els

The work

TT)S 'Pofiou

is

metrical.

(avfK$OTov ev

celebrated Qprjvos

rfj

Hapicriavfi /3t/3Aio-

TTJS Koovo-rai>rii>o7ro'Ae<,

which has

been compared by its admirers to the Iliad whether from

its length or from its merits, I am unable to
say. The latter,
;

and fortunately the former

of that great
of
original.
glow
patriotism, and a
of
are
its
prophetic yearning
hope,
only claims to be considered in any sense a poem, and even these features are

also, fall far short

certain well sustained

not sufficient to redeem

it

from wearisomeness.

For curio-

MODERN GREEK LITERATURE.

142
sity's

sake

give two short extracts, the one from the

and the other from the OavariKov TTJS
I will

'

Opfjvos,

I.

To? ToVpKOV CIV d(pT]KTe TTjV TToXtl/ VO. KpaTr)(TT),

QeXei yap TraXiv TO Qepibv Kal $eXei &vvap.d>cri,
Kai 6e\ft KaraTrVfi TTO\\OVS 6 erKvXos aerdv
Aonrbv Travv^TjXoTaTOi avQtvrcs
Aydnrjv 0X01

Kal TQV (rravpov arjKuxreTe

Nai/ev ep-Trpos Kai

Na /3yaX\Te

p.ov

prjyddes,

va Trdre VTOIT f\8povs

/ca/iere

iricrw

or'

crT)p,d8i

appard

eras,

eras cnjuddt 'ora Kopp.id

TOVS dcrefids diro ra yovtKa

Mccra aTro ra cnriria

eras,

eras,

airo

eras'

eras,

ra yovtKa

eras.

II.

At

TTiKpap.oS)

A.epr)K

K'

p.e

at

crv/JLepopa

ZTTIVOV, TTLVCO, Kal

Kai 5vo Kai

Tlatdia OTTO

Kai

icXat'co

-rpi'a

TO.

TTCOS

TeToiais (roias)

Atdrt

tuo-re

Trocrovf

TO KOKO

/xou'

TOV TtcopyiKdv Kal Tc<apyi TOV vlov

va

7ria>

6\ov<t>v

=
(

fiov.

oXeof) rais TriKpdftais'

opfpava OTTO Koprjv KO\ p-avaSfs,

p.e\r)

p.ov,

Kal dirb rats d8(\epdo'es.

eySe^ouj/rai
Sei>

fj,f)ves

Kal fftdop.do'fs.

dfXovv va diovv (va

Xu7n;^oCi',

iSaxri)

aXX' oi

fa

TroXXa va iriKpadoveri.

One scarcely knows whom most to commiserate, the man

or the poet.
In the sixteenth century we have no poet of eminence.
Jakobos Triboles is a writer of most wretched doggerel.
There were always plenty of preachers, like
Cyrillus
Lucaris, Meletius, &c., but their works have not for the
part come down to
modern Greek in the

us.

most

Almost the only examples of

sixteenth century consist of letters and

of
fragments
speeches, chiefly the utterances of ecclesiastics.

MODERN GREEK LITERATURE.

The

work of the seventeenth century is one which

unknown the work of one Chortakes, a Cretan

great

almost

is

143

'

It is
Erophile,' and written in the Cretan dialect.
the
and
a
with
of
Charon,
tragedy,
imperopens
monologue

entitled

who

sonation of Death,
'H

crypto

"OTTOV

eftyfJK

(rr)p.epov

Kelvos TO XotTroi/ air

veovs Kai

0X01

K'

3
,

T^

K' fKfl 7TOV

row

's

p.ia

p,e

7TO\V dvp.O

reave, by themselves

down

aXXous,

v6p,ara p.avpta>'
(pi\ials

^cBpt^o),

TT) \oyicrp.ovs dXXao-cra>,

Kai

T*

eyvoiais

Karardcrcroi'

TO.

TTOTC TOVS

the

;
:

p,UTia fJLOV

CTTpa(^)oo"t >

Kocrp.oi TroXXoi /SouXovcrt.

so irore

in

/xou,

my

life ;

p.6vos

fjiov,

by

a peculiar modern Greek idiom.

more common

irapaTrjpovffi.

TOVS PaaiXefs, contracted for TOVS QaaiKifas.

yiapcL OVTC, as soon as; etymology Si apa OVTC (xpovov).

TT) &a<n\evs,
TiafJicL,

T'

Kai davarova),

'

avvTTjpovcri, observe, for

p.yd\ovs,

T^J)

TTJ \povovs rovs T\fi6vo).

uepia,

Xcopais ^aXoi)j/ dXaKatpats

T$

Kai

myself; further

d<pevTCUS KOI rr) SovXous ,

o\ovs dvOpwirovs

Kai rip,als TO.

aypiais Kapftials Karajrova),

T^"' oXTTi'Se? pi^vo)

r*

&6ai$

8iKto<rvvais dtao-KopTrS),

T^r)

T'

T^J)

XaXoOo-t.

/ze

'p,Tropfp.vovs ov\ovs,

(pavy pL^ya

p.ov

p.tcrovcri,

p,e

K' els TOV ddo 5 TT) VIOTTJS

Avovo)

anovov

<ppovip,ovs Kai T^J) XcoXowy, K

ytap,a ovre

"AS?;,

crvvTijpovtn

yepovras, p,i<povs Kai

T^T)

6p.d8i,

^iiXta p.7ropovcri

ocrovs p.e

iovs K dvr)p.7ropovs,

ia,

yvp.vd p.ov

dorpanals

rj

dnov TOV

fii'^cas

ajrov TT) jSao-iXevs

TI

/xou,

Kai <rKV\oK.dpT] KOI rv(p\o

T}

TO.

***

(pavepaxTOW

'Eyoo/^iai

Kai ravra

TroXXat? fipovrals, K

rj

yr)V dvoiacri } K

TTJV

Qvpid

(TKOTfivrj

17

OTTOV jSaaroi,

Ilotof elp.cu p-ova^d ra>ve

Na

dveXinrrjTT)

f)

Kai TO SpfTraV
KoKKaXa, K

speaks as follows

i.

e.

'A06, the ancient dOrjp

with a different termination.

= evvoiai.
eyvoiais

a\dfcaipais,

Cretan for 6\6K\rjpai.

Italian

and Albanian both

offer

MODERN GREEK LITERATURE.

144
Uov

TOM/ 'EXX^vo)

flacriXfials

77

rrov

HXovo-iais Kal [mope o/xz/ais %<apais

SeV

Sv/LU/ats
10

*fl

TTQJS

/iepats

r^es

STTi'^a

eSid/S?;,

TO

fJitKpT)

Kai 8i^<as

Ta

KaXX?;

some analogy,

or?)

l<i

Kap.ia

\\nrrja-L

oro/ua

S/xeoy

/ne

Xiyd/a X^P- a

-yjy

'

6a>pov(ri

xpovovs

TTCOS

Trepvovcri

8ev dvio-Toparat,

rrXrjo

(TKOTfLva Xoyarat.

CTTOI

o"fjp.fpo

aj3vva>)

e.

T^J)

TO irpo^dts

eWz> dvoiyo(T(pdXiarp.a

'2'

TTOV

(vp<i)

XtyaiVoutrt,

11

To

/3ov/3ot

KciKoppitKoi KOI yiavra 8e

77X770-10

TTJ

.*

OTO Xd/cKo KdTotKovv,

rocratf -yvcocraiy

roams

'Pwuicov y

TU>

TTOV

TU>
?racr

op.op(po

g. wAatcy, K\d-fj,fv,

TT/JOO-COTTO

fie

14

Albanian Kidpovv, Latin cla-mare,

Italian chiamare.
8

compare the English without, and

London, mitaus, e. g. Ich gehe
aus, mitaus Sie zu mir kommen,' instead of ohne dass Sie zu mir komthe

St'x^s,

/^e

/*e

is

pleonastic;

vulgar German heard only

the

'

in

'

men.'
9

y5vfj.va.is,

If this be the oldest

for yvp.va.is.

form of the word,

it

points to the derivation 78^0;, vulgar modern Greek for tKSvca, being, in
for the accent, compare Se^a/if^ (a reserfact, a participial adjective
:

which

voir),

ydvco for

is

'itSvo}

nothing but a participle used as a substantive. With

one may compare yoovnos for KOOVITOS, i.e. teroviros =

KTVTIOS.

same root

10

TrXrjaia

fj.d\a,

as

m/j.rr\r)fju,

&c. KOKicoppi&KOi,

ill-fated.

TO fiiiKo is modern Greek for Fate, generally derived from riscbio Italian
but neither the accent, the form, nor the sense, agree with this deriva;

The

tion.

idea seems rather to be the same as in

that which

irirpa}(j.tvov, tlpfiap-

deep fixed like a root in the ground,' pifa.

11
TO tyes, yesterday evening ; formed on the analogy of x^ e $ th e root
being -^e, as in o^e, dirvtye, i>y/ifj.a6r)s, &c.
'

Hevrj,

is

'

>

12

dvoLyoatpd\ifffJ.a,

fast,

of

hence

from

0^0/70;

and

ff<jxi\ica,

e. &<T<pa\i<a, to

13

vdaa, for irdvTa, as -avt for -avTi, -ovai for -OVTI, &c.

11

ot, for Sev

8eis)

make

to shut.

oii

fv, 5i6\ov,

word Slv
modern Greek with

either contracted for ovotv, or the

used negatively, as

and

in

is

the case in

French withj'amou, du

tout,

&c.

(neuter
TtVore,

MODERN GREEK LITERATURE.

rcnrfivovs 8e XerjpovS),

Pot's

Tovs (pevyovv

15

6y\f)yopa} TOVS

<$>rdv

Kat 5/^o)f va

<pdovo-i a~v\va

fie

*
T*

<E>rco^oi

TOVS aypiovs

TO.

86a

'/*7raiV.

*
Trerovcn,

o~(j)iyyfT

TO.

eras,

TT\OVTT]

<ra$

tra

CTKOVT)

KOI rovopd eras \vovet

'SKopTToiHrrjve KOL ^dvovrat,

2a 16 varov

ydpovs

TO Kri^eTe ^aXovat.

(rKopTrovv,
TJ

<o/3oi/u.

farovv p.aKpaiva>,

apTrare (pevyovcri,

Ta TTfpp.aovT
2a <Tirl6a (rftvv

rfr)

/xe

145

TO ^epi <ras ypafip-evo els 7reptyid\i

p.e

6d\acr(ras,

T]

yrj

His apostrophe to Joannes Murmures, a celebrated lawyer

and a friend of the poet, is quite in the spirit of Dante or
of Lucretius

2* e'8iaXea evyej/eorare

V oXai?

'PrjTopa

Me

Tovopd

Kai \dpi

a?ro

Ftart ocro

<re

Me

T^' dpfTals KOI TT] Tipals ye/xdre,

TOVTO

7^7

-)(dpais

6a)pS)

TJ)J/

Tfj

(TKoreivfj,

Ma

riKra 19

/idi/o

i.e.

crov

TrXrjo-a

va o~ov

(re

/SXeTreo

/caXXo rdcro

^TJ\O,

KcipeTpr]

8e yevva Xd/3pa;

ous

feat

KO\OO~VVT).

paKpav TOV Kocrpov

*7rfpr)(pdvr)(n

TTOV

Tovs (pfvyovv,

TOV KOTTOV va

/xov

(TTrXdy^j/os dve^iicaKo,

Kflcrai

15

(rov

Movppovp* v

Keivrj

oufie

KUTTVO TO, Tpiyvpa

<f>fv-fovfft,

for ot <pfvyovai.

curious instance

of attraction, rare in ancient Greek, from the nominative to the accusative.

16

2$ = 'aav,

17

7^, Cretan (also Chian) for 77.

xdpai, Cretan for the modern x&pov, the ancient

18

i.

e.

'

wadv.

xa/- The

accent

need not perplex

us, as the reader will perceive the accentuation in Crete

is extremely variable and uncertain, and often
diverges from the usual
little
further
down
we
have
for
system.
avepot.
dvepoi

19

a curious corruption and metathesis for wife. Kvtfa

however, seems to be a mere onomatopoeic form, like sniff,
scbnupfen (Germ.), &c., and T#KVO. may be the same.
Ttficva,

itself,

snuff,

*****-

MODERN GREEK LITERATURE.

146

FiV

odrjyos TT)

T'

dvep.iK.als,

va (puyco rov

crTpdras p.ov,

K'

ebs

Tredvp-ca

Ftari oa-ais 6e\ovv rapa^aty,

crro

dpdf-co

Xi/^tcova,

dvep-oi va yepBoixri,

K'

K' ocra (pova-Koxrovv Ku/nara, oro /3pa^o?

HoTe TOVS va

p,e

ras p.6v

'/

"?

eivat

Ato,

T^7

MoO

T^"'

T'

/*'

ococra),

rocro,

dvatjSao-ouo-i

Kaipbv eKpdrov.

TO (pTfpa
TTOU

x|r^Xo

TTOV

crcova

r'

ovTa apxycrao-i Kal ^a/i

^' arro/Lietz/e

o-av TrpwTa?

/tovo,

K eVao-Q-e /^ou,

cftftxve,

ovpavovs (rv^vorara TO vovv dvaifia^

KTi^ti Trvpyovs

K'

TI

The

Kat

eppi^f,

Mow
o,

/at

Trda-a

7rfdvp.ia.ls

Ta Bdppfif K e\in^, K

Kai/Tts

Kets

T^I)

^a/nat

/COV/A'

KJ; ope^i

crou

8ei/

Soy TO (praia-ipo, KO\L TOV dekr^jidrov'

opoy va

*2'

i/a

^aptcr/ia

(r

Trpoo-coTro

Si'

21
en'^aive, KaXa

Tiarl ^7/Xaty
.Kfivrj

9O'

p.7ropovcri

^fticDtrou,

/ie

"Afrrpo pov Xafirrpo TO

KaTTOKOTrjira

/ca^co?

Ti>xr/s

Ma

aAXotw? va

y'

pt'^ouo-t,

a>s

ei>

T^V VVKTU

following

VTO

xdverai

p,epip,vS>,

an almost

is

p,ov,

yinXo Trep/SoXta O-TOV dtpa

literal

TTJV

fjp-epa.

translation, in which,

however, I have taken the liberty of shortening the metre by

one syllable, except in one or two cases
:

'

My
The
The

visage fierce and pitiless,

sickle

which

I carry;

my

my

dark and ghastly stare

bones and bare;

fleshless

lightning, with the thunder claps that shake the air around,

Forth bursting from the jaws of

These things may

Whoso

tell

me

but looks on

20

diroKorijtra

tlrXrjv

you who

to-day,

troK^rjaa,

and rending

hell,

all

the ground,

am it needs no words of mine

my name may soon divine.
;

cf.

Korea,

KortofMt, KOTOS.

The

notions of wrath and daring are not far removed from each other.
Compare fj.tvos with its cognate words, and kindred varieties of mean-

ing
21

in

fj.evi

Albanian means haired.

*a\a = Ta'xa,
'

'

perhaps

Iff (us

so dy/caXa, av Ka\d =

'

obwol,

although.'

tl

KOU:

cf.

German

wol,

MODERN GREEK LITERATURE.

am

Yes, I

whom

he

all

men

hate,

and

147

with one consent

call

Hound-hearted, blind, and pitiless, whose soul can ne'er relent.

I spare nor kings, nor potentates, the mighty of the earth,

The master and

The young, the

the slave alike

old, the

in plenty or in dearth

the

great,

small,

the

and the

simple

wise,

Whene'er

Even

I please I lay

them low, never again

in the flower of their

Glory and praise and fame

youth
I

to rise.

their fleeting years I

whelm

number

dark eternal slumber

in

The memory of righteous deeds swift to the winds I scatter;

The closest bonds that friendship knits, I sunder and I shatter;
The fiercest heart I quickly tame, sage counsels I confound
;

Fair

hopes

and

lofty

thoughts

lay

with

even

the

ground.
wheresoe'er

And

my eyes are turned with fell destructive power,

countries sink, whole worlds decay, and vanish in an hour.

Whole
Where

the

is

Rome
Of mighty
'

blight,

How

sovereignty

of Greece

where

is

the

wealth of

realms whilome the nurse, of wit the chosen

home?

dumb and

poor they dwell within the tomb, the

voiceless

dead,

In some small corner of the earth, a sod above their head,

Mere naked shades
Thrice wretched men
why do they not
!

behold

How

is

day

Yestreen

is

dwindling after day,

how

passed, the day before has

soon their years are told?

left

no trace

in sight;

reckoned but a span in yonder realms of night.

Swift as the twinkling of an eye, I come and drag away

To-day

My

is

victim to the grave, and all without compassion slay.

I quench, nor
lovely face can draw from me a tear

Beauty

To

meek

show no mercy, and the proud I do not fear.

Who shun me, them I overtake; who seek me, them I fly:
Unbidden at the wedding feast a frequent guest am I.
Wretches what ye would snatch escapes, and flies while scarce
the

embraced

Your gathered wealth is scattered soon, and what ye build effaced

Your glory in a moment quenched, your riches like the dust
Dispersed and gone; quick perishes the name for which ye lust;
Left to the mercy of the sea, as 'twere with idle hand
Inscribed upon the sounding shore, or in the drifting sand.'

MODERN GREEK LITERATURE.

148
'

Thee have

I chosen,

Of

most

orators

Thee have

And

Murmures, noblest and worthiest,

and famed, of virtuous men the best

skilled

I chosen, that thy

to thy ears full echo of

name my labours might adorn,

thy own deserts be borne.

For howsoe'er exalted, thou dost rise before my view,

By so much do I know thee kind, and good and patient too.
Far, far art thou from haughty mien, the proud world's atmosphere,

That gloom from whence no warmth

is

born, nor light

is

sent to

cheer,

But smoke and vapour dank and thick

Be
Of wintry

my

thou the guide of all

all

fill

way, that I

may

the region drear.

'scape the blast

storm, and safely reach the longed-for bourne at last.

Let tempest rage, let winds arise, let billows roar and swell,

Yet while I keep before

My
No
But

my

eyes, that face I love so well,

shall ever work me harm

my guiding
breakers then shall touch me, nor stormy waves alarm.
star,

one,

if

no rocks

the greeting which I bring shall haply chance to be

of my rash resolve than it is worthy thee,

More worthy

my fortune for the fault, and not my will, I pray.

heart would ever fain be borne on soaring wings away,
But Fortune casts it to the ground, and clips the pinions spread
To raise me high as Helicon to some tall mountain's head;
Oh, blame

My

as they begin their flight and skim above the ground

Barren desire remains, as when I first was outward bound.

Even

And now

in place of all she

weened and hoped and showed and

taught,
soul to lofty flight upon the wings of thought,
She builds me castles in the sand, and gardens in the air;

Moving my

And what by
This

last line
fi

night I meditate, day finds no longer there.'

seems suggested by the Sophoclean verse

TI

vi>

d(j>f),

we

TOVT

fir

qp-ap

is Franciscus Scuphos,
in Italy, in 1669 proeducated
born in Cydon in Crete, and
fessor at the Greek school in Venice, author of a work on

The

next writer

shall notice

Rhetoric 1681, from which we quote the following example

to show how completely the rhetoric of the ancients continues to live in the oratory of

modem

Greece

MODERN GREEK LITERATURE.

Me

TO

6f\a

o"\r]p,a TTJS dfrjo-fcos

149

irapaKaXecrei TOV fXfvflfpaTrjv TOV

Kocrp-ov Xpurrbv, va f\fv8fpd>o-r) p,iav (popav TO f\\rjviKov yevos oV6

o~ov\fiav

TYJV

KO.I

O.TTO

va fvpio~KO)VTai els

f'xovo~i

vnepr)(j)avov TrdSa

TOUS TTOT^

i/d

TOI>

x f ^P as TOV 'OTOfiaviKOv
"Ewy TTOTC ot rpicrddXioi

ras

<fr$ai>, KptTa StKateoTOTe, (pddvfi

Bpiapeooy.

EXX^ve?

T>V 'Ayaprjv&v,

TO.

8fo~p.a

SovXei'a?,

rfjs

roaov ev8oov Kal evyeviKov va TrpovKwa

TTOTf yevos

f<rv 6
(re

aopaToy, a7r6

(f)fyydpi

riais

T>V

fls TT)v

dev Bavaroveis

dfj,r)

fls rais

TO.

'

va ftaaiXfvcovrai

TfKva

<rov'

A,

Kal Trarrjp, Kal TTCOS

7rapa<caXa, Trcoy elcrai o^t povov KptTrjs, dpr)

TraiSevetSj

odfv av

'icrcos

TTJS

t8tas TaJv dvopias

crov

OTTOV fl(rai 6'Xoy fvcnr\ayxvia ; (rvyx<apr)crai Kal

dnfipov

TTJS

crov

'ureas

Kal

fxd\Kfvcrav ra da-rpoTTe-

\6Kia, 6ia va TOVS dfpavia-rjs OTTO TO Trpoacowov rrjs

TTfXayos

Kal $ dp,ap-

EXX^vcoi/ fTrapaKivrjcrav TTJV 8iKatav opyrjv vov, av

Kapivov

Kal fls dvdpwTrivrjv p,op(pfjv dverfiXas

fjXtos,
fj/j-Krv

/ie

ecoy

cirava) fls /3ao~tXi-

KOV dpovov eva adeov TOvXovTrdvi, KCU y x<apais fxetvais

dvaTf\\ei 6 oparos

Kal

Xai^ov 6 ftapQapos QpaKys

iiuum

(rj3vcrai

*Ev6vp,r](rov,

fXfTjfjLOcrvvrjs.

e&v

oiKOifJLevrjs,

fls

TO

6fdvdpa>7Tf

TTWS TO f\\r}viKov yevos f(TTddrj TO 7rp)Tov} OTTOV civot^e TOIS

*l7/o"ou,

ayKaXais, 8ia va Sf^Qfj TO Qflov o~ov fvayyeXhiov' TO Trp&Tov OTTOV

fi'ScwXa, Kal

TO.

fp(jif ^a/xai

as 6(6v TO

VT)o~fv

Too~a Kal Tocra j3do-ava fyvpfvav va

irio-TLv, Kal
fj.

dno Tat?

Kapo~iais

TMV

avrio-Taflr)

^pi.(TT(.avu)v

eKK\rjo~ia aov'

T)

ot

"EXX^^es

TOVTOI Kal uf

TTJS o-o(f)ias,

TTJV

errpoo-Kv-

CITTO

TO

TOV Koapov

6elov

aov

p.f

TTJV

oi'Op.a'

fjiov, fls

SXrjv TTJV OIKOV-

TTJV fir\ovTr]o-av p,f

TOVS drjcravpovs

cat p.e

yXcoo-o-ai/,

8ia<pfVTfvo-av

TTJV

<rf

Tvpdvvu>v, onov

TO>I>

fppia>o-ovv

TOVS lop&Tas TU>V 'EXXrjviov rjvav, XpicrTe

p.fvr]v

v\ov

Kpfp-dpfvov fls fva

irpSoTov, OTTOV

TOV KaXapov,

TpfxovTfs

\defenderunt\

p.e

TTJV

fj,

airfipov

Kal els Tals (f)v\aKals, Kal fls Tals

/xao-Ttyats, Kat fls

TOVS Tpo^ovs Kal

Trio-Q-ais,
TTICTTIJ/,

TTfi

fls

Tals foplais, Kal fls Tals <f)\6yais Kal fls Tals

p.ovov Sta va o-ftvo-ovv TTJV rrXdv^v,

Sta va

a7r\u>o-ovv TTJV

Sta va ae KJ)pvovv
6fdv6pa)7rov, Kal Sta va Xa/i\^j/ OTTOV

TOV o~Tavpov

6 rjXios,

ffTrXayxvos,

p.e

vybv TfToias

TTJV

df'iKrjv

fj

So|a

o~ov

Kal TO

p.vo'Trjpiov'

rravToo'vvap.iav

ftapfiapiKrjs alxp-aXaxrias'

KafJLf

odfv,

\du-

as

fv-

va (pvyovv TOV

as (piXoSopos

Kal -TrXovcrio-

MODERN GREEK LITERATURE.

150

ndpo)(os dvTaTrodoTrjs, dvoiyovras TOVS drjo~avpovs TCJV 6(ia)v crov

Td)i>,

TOV

fi?

ere

Nat,

ua TO x a *P f f<^o

irapaKoXa)
p.a

Kocrp.ov'

va (pavfjs

o-Tctvpbv OTTOV p.as

f8ti)K

TTJV

Koi

<i)T)v.

fls

ra ovpdvia.

(Is

o-7r\dyxvos, as

6'^fiaTa, Kai

pa

Kai av
<re

KOI

io~a>s

jrapaKiVTjo-ovv

dnb oXa ra

dp.apTiav' p.a TOV

CITTO TTJV

TOV

6a.va.Tov OTT^V /zas

cKfivTjv (ypo~iv, oTTOv p.ds ai/e/3a(Tf

TOVTUIS

<^>Goi>ats

rj

TTJV oirolav

TOVS av8pu>Trovs (pt\dv-

irapdo'fio-ov, /ua

(vdoov

TTJV

TCI

ftev o~e

daKpva, OTTOV p.ov

(av d(V (faddvovv Ka\ ravra,

ayitov o~ov, oirov

$u>va(i OTTO

avoie TOV

TTJV

ftacri-

x aP av

orrov e<pfpe TTJV

p.e

orXwe

TO /3a7mo7ia, OTTOV p.ds

p.a

OTTO

/cat,

Beiav crov (Keivrjv evcrdpKoxriv, (Is

TTJV

OVTCIS Qebs, fytvrjKfg (ii'dptanos, 8ia

dpamos'

TO yevos,

dos TOV TO crKTjTTTpov KOI TO

Koirpiav, (Is TTJV orroiav Ku$erai,

\(iov.

doav

TrdXtv (Is TTJV Trporepav

v\l/(t)crai

<pa)vals }

f)

pepr) TTJS Tpio-ad\ias

TrapaKivovo~iv

Tpe^ovv dirb ra

Trnpax

f/

'EXXaSo?

'

TT/V KpfjTTjv 6

Avftptus, KOI

7rapaAcaXf i va

o~f

TOVS AyapT)vovs XVKOUJ

O.TT

p.aV

(TOV

TTjS

XplO-TtoVVIJiOV

Tpos Kal
X^>v, els

(K(ivrj

HapBevoV

rj

<re

X">P a

(puivd^d

vet

irapaKaXd

P.TJV

*cal

'A&ffvas,

\(ovTas

OTTOV

TO.

(ride pa

2,irvpid<t)V(s

TOVS

OTTOV

TWV

(vo~Tr\ayxvtav

Kinrpov,
TOIS

(fa'pivav,

AXlpllCttV

Kal

(f)\6yais

(\7ri(ovo-i

7idXea>j>

Kal

ol
ol

dialect, entitled

'

Aio^fcriot

dd^vovTas
OTTOV
OTTO

O\TJS

Erotocritus/

is

?raXt va yvpio~Tj

'lyvarun drro
tirro

o~ov

TTJV

Tas
TOVS

TOVS (Kawav,
TIJV

aKpav

'EXXafioy

TTJS

Vincentius Kornaros, author of a popular

Cretan

TTJV

KVjncutTat drrb TOVS

Tpox^s

(pu>vdovo~iv

TTJV

e'(r^i(rai',

TOVS

OTTO

(f)(i)vdfl

8cix*ovTa o~ov TOV Tpo-

TTOpa/caXfT o

o~(

'A\(dvdp(iaV

drrb

C'TTOI-

orroC piav (popav d<pi(pa)6Tj TTJS MTJ-

'AvTioxfiav, ol Ho\vKap7Toi dirb TTJV 2/j.vpvTjv;

ol

TO onolov

(Is

TTpO^OTO'

AtKarepiVa,

TJ

TOV OTTOLOV ffiapTVpr)G(}

TTJS TVXIS 8ta TTJV

TO.

7TOIUVTJS

noXti* (vas ~Xpva6o-Top.os, KCU

(\dpovs TOV YtoO

TO BaatXftof,

fKflvo

poem

aov
TTJV

in the

generally reckoned

an author of the eighteenth century, for his work was first

It appears, however, that he
published at Venice in 1756.
was born in Sitia in Crete in the year 1620. The opening

as

lines of his

'

Erotocritus' are well worth quoting

MODERN GREEK LITERATURE.

ToC KVK\OV

TO.

TTOV

yvpicrfj-ara

151

dv

Kai TOV Tpoxov IT &pais i^Xa, K copai? ora J3a6r)

Kai ToO Kaipov TO. Trpayfiara, TTOV aVaTraupo Sei/
Ma crro KO\O Kels TO KO.KO irepnraTovv KOI Tp%ovv.
Kai

rail/

To{)

epcoToy

Avrai'a

N'

dp/xarcov

^t'

T;

Tapa^aiy, ai ^p^rais Kai ra

17

efj-Tropecres

fKivtyraffl

ava6r)f3aXc0

Kai

The ups and downs

Trrjaivovv,

rrjv

vairo)

KOI rrjs <pi\ias

rj

X aP l

arjufpov fjpepav
TO.

Kup.av Kai

ra (pcpav.

of fortune's wheel, whose ceaseless circling

motion

Now

scales the

heights

of heaven above,

now sounds

the depths

of ocean,

With

the changing things of time, whose current resting never,

for better, fast or slow, is stealing on for ever
troublous din of armed hosts, war's train of want and sadness,
all

For worse,

The
The ways and means
gladness

of desperate love, the charm of friendship's

These things have moved me to recount, and publish as I may,

The fortunes and the deeds of men while it is called to-day.'

we are met by the names of

an
educational
and religious missionKosmas the Aetolian,
ary, who founded schools throughout the length and breadth
In the eighteenth century

of Greece, and Rhegas of Pherae, the great forerunner of

Greek independence. Countenanced by Pasbanoglus, the

Bey of Venidi, whose friendship he had gained by saving his

life when threatened by Mavrogenes, governor of Wallachia,
he did all he could to incite the Greeks to rebellion, and
appeals to the European Courts to obtain a
their assistance in case of insurrection.
He
of
promise
was finally betrayed to the Turks at Belgrade by the

addressed

Austrian Government, and put to death by them on the

His two war-songs, beginning AeOrc nalfes T&V 'EXX^spot.
va>v

in

and

'fis

TTore

TraXX^rapm va

no small degree

to fire the

ovp.fv

Vra

oreva, contributed

Greeks with that enthusiasm

MODERN GREEK LITERATURE.

J52
for

which soon resulted

liberty

of

full

though

spirit

and

the insurrection

in

but

fervour, they are remarkably want-

and abound with sudden

ing in a sense of poetic fitness,

bursts of prosaic bathos which destroy in great

their effect

measure

e. g.,

'O

v6fj.os

o~

Na /3aXere
Na Ka^Tf
Tov

TTJV

apfj,d8a

KaTTiTav-iracra. (!)

honourably distinguished, among the many

glorious patriots of modern Greece, as being the only
one who seemed to understand that the faith of Islam
is

Rhegas

was

any respect.
Religious bigotry mars
the patriotism of almost every other Greek, and of the
larger number of Philhellenes with whom I have come in
to

entitled

contact.

In

of Rhegas'

illustration

Perrhaebus,

banoglus
*Eai>

who

eya),

&o~Tf

t?[jif6a

ecraxra TTJV

/Sf'q,

dioTi

/xou,

dod<d

TroXXovs vlovs, KOI 6

p.ev e

cvfKa

crou

TOV Qavarov, TOVTO %TO

OTTO

evas Qfos (7T\a(rev

ef-fjs'

/cat

o\ov TOV Koap-ov,

eVo^ei/cos ade\(f)oi'

OTCIV tis TTCITTJP yfvvr]o~T)

TOV Trarepa

rcoi/,

TTJS diacpopas TO>V eTrayytXyLtarcoi/

TOV GfoO out TOVTO

TraTTjp

vo.

/ca^'

vTr66fo~iv

avTtov yfvrj Sep/SiV?;?, (i\\os

^(u/xoTrcoXj/y, Kal aXXot pfTa^fipto-duxriv

/uara, dvvavrai OVTOI vapv^dwo-i

evw 6

quote

thus addressing Pas-

as

TrXao-juara KCU TeKva fvbs rraTpbs,

TO

aXXoy

fayv

OTI

a>s 7rapa5eiy/Aa
<f)cp<t)

TO>V,

XP*s

TT)S,

him

represents

tolerance

religious

cnroaTpefyfTai

avT&v ayarra oXou?

KOI 717^ a.8(\(po<rvvr)v

5t/caioOi/rat <ipa tvd>iriov

KaTciTpfxy 6

KCI\

fatoTJS

aXXa

*Eav

o~v

eis

TOV (iXXof,

Kav^ao~ai OTI

f)

'

O6(op.aviKT)

OTI

TTLO~TIS

fivai

Ka\\iTepa

d(^>'

oXay,

KOI

tya>

TrciXtv

(ppova>

V7>cpl3aivi oXas , Kara TOVTO o~(pu\\ofjLev Kal ol dvo

1

f)

fdiKT) p.ov

<pi\oveiKovvTS, 8inri 6 Qfbi,

,

StKatot,

a>s

KOIVOS iraTrjp, p.as StaTUTTft

<^)iXa^/3co7rot,

KOI

va

dyaTroop-fv

vu.

r/p.eda

TOVS VTTTJKOOVS,

MODERN GREEK LITERATURE.

Kal va

p)

KaTao~iKa(tip.ev

Se d(popa
a>p,ez>

e'idouev,

ra 6pr)o~KevTiKa }

els

Kal

T}TO

xpianavbs,

TO.

akz, Kaff oo~ov

aAoya

els

dvrjKovv

QeoV

TOV

eera-

fjaels

ovre

ovTe rjKovo-auev, ovre els Kavev ftijBXiov evpopev

Qeos

ort

u>s

$ev e^oaev eovo~iav va

fjfiels

otra

8ia<piXoveiK)p.ev

OTI

7TOfj,ev

avTovs avdp-cas

153

TOV

e7raiSev(re

KCI\

opens

Qeus

SeTi/a

diori

TOV delva Stort

rj

KCU

7T\d(rp.a TOV, TOVS doe\<povs

TovpKos,

fj

TOV delva

TJTO f)\iocre\r)vo\dTpr]s K. T. X. /3Ae'-

d.Kovop.ev, Kal els TO.

7rai8evo~e

TJTO

/3t/3Xt'a

rraiftevei

evpiaKOfiev ye-ypap.p.evov,

TTUVTOTC

TOVS TvpavvovvTas

TO

TCOV.

Speaking of the Sultan he uses the remarkable expression,

eeK\ive

TOV dpop,ov TOV Qeov } KOI (as if

UTTO

Synonymous)

Tas

VTO\as TOV Kopaviov.

That we may see

heartedness
tyranny,

its

we

by Rhegas
'Q,

will

to

side

by

side with this religious large-

natural counterpart, a deadly intolerance of

here give the oath which was administered

all

his confederates

Pa(Ti\v TOV KoafMov, 6pKtopai

Toil/

^TTJV

yvu>fjir]v

Mr]T

va TOVS SouXevo-o),

Tvpdvvcov

Ei? ra ra^i/LiaTa TO>V

Evoora)

a>

IIio-Toy

els

p-f]Te

els

p.rjv

ere,

e'X^co

Trore'

va

ar]

TOV Koo~p,ov} 6 p.6vos p.ov O~KOTTOS

Tov va TOVS

va.

va.

d(pavio~a>

Trjv

va

rjvai

ora^epoV

Trarp/Sa ovvrpi&v TOV

vyov,

Ki a^copttrroy va ^crca OTTO TOV crTpanjyov.

av 7rapn/3a

TOV SpKov, v

darpd^j} 6 ovpavos,

Kai va pe KaTaKavarj, va yeV

a>o~av

In 1777 was born at Larissa, in Thessaly, Constantine

Cumas, author of a great number of geographical, mathe-

and philosophical works

for the
Platonic spirit I give the following extract

matical,

sake

of

its

AXX

fii/at, rrpbs Albs, (ppoviuos TCKTOW OO~TIS

dyopdei aKeTrapviov
Kai Trpioviov ra oTrota euTro^i^ovTai dnb
TTJV xpvcra>o-iv Kal TOVS ciXXovs

MODERN GREEK LITERATURE.

154
i/a

TO.

KTr\T)paxr(i)O-i

a, TO Se eTepov va irpiovifa

8ia va aroX/a^ T^I/

name

greatest

eighteenth century
patriot

and

is

ev

va

aTrapaXXa/cra Trao^ft, vop,ia>, ocrrts

yeviKas drroXvTovs

p.e

TOVS aKovovras

(is

rjyovv TO

fpya,

dcrvveidicrrovs, KivdvvfVd

Xef-ets

dvdyKTjv

The

-yXaicrcrai/

OVTU>V

i'fiia

va.

/cai

SOTIKOS KOI

TTJV

KaTacrrfjcrr)

fj

that

appears

at

the

end

of the

Adamantios Coraes, the great

and one of the most

that of

reformer,

linguistic

celebrated literati of Europe.

a mistake to suppose that Coraes produced

any revolution in the language of modern Greece, or that
It is quite

it

an

is

artificial dialect

resuscitated from the grave.

The

modern Greek of newspapers,

novels, sermons, &c., is not

half so artificial or pedantic as the writings of the Atticists

of the paracme, or even as the Greek of Chrysostom and

All that Coraes did
other fathers of the Eastern Church.

an example to his countrymen in regard to style

and the choice of words, which they were not slow to follow.
His reform was a very simple one he proposed to use the
classical terminations, wherever these were not altogether

was

to set

obsolete,

in

preference

which prevailed

those

to

mouths of the common people; and

to banish as far as

had crept into the language, and

often

new compounds,

in

the

addition to this,

the foreign words which

all

possible

in

substitute

Greek words,

in their place.

Coraes was born in Smyrna on April 27, 1748, studied

in

Amsterdam

for six years,

and

for another six in France,

where he received the degree of Doctor of

In 1788 he came to Paris, and was there during

at Montpellier,

Medicine.

Here he spent the greater part of

the Revolution.

Here he wrote

letters to his

his

life.

countrymen, encouraging them

which Rhegas was already

in the struggle for freedom, to

instigating

them

and

here

he

pursued

those

literary

MODERN GREEK LITERATURE.

which have established

studies

his

fame as an European

scholar.

His published works are as follows

La

Me'decine Clinique.

Montpellier, 1787

(p-frdcppaa-ts

K TOV yepp-aviKov TOV Selle).

Introduction a

I'e'tude

de

la

Nature

et

de

la Me'decine.

Ibid.

Catechisme Orthodoxe Russe

Plato,

German

(from the

of

Archbishop of Moscow).

Vade-mecum du

Montpellier (from the Eng-

Me'd.ecin.

lish).

Esquisse d'une Histoire de

la Me'decine.

Paris,

1767

(from the English).

Pyretologiae Synopsis.
'A.Se\<ptKr)

8i8a<7KaXia,

Montpellier, 1786.

an answer

to

SiKacTKaXi'a,

IIcn-piK?)

forgery of the Turkish Government, published under

the name of Anthimus, Patriarch of Jerusalem, for
the purpose of allaying the tumultuary tendencies of
the Greek subjects of the Porte.

Les Caracteres de The'ophraste. 1799.

Traite* d'Hippocrate, des airs, des eaux

et

des lieux.

Paris, 1806.
Ibid.,

second

~BeKKapiov Trepi

edition, with
d8cKT]p,a.T(iov

2a\7noyza TroAe/iiaT^pioi/.

Greek

KOI TTOIV&V.

Title.

1816.

Paris, 1802, 1823.

Paris, 1803.

(On

the death of

Rhegas.)
'HXio&opou AlOioTTiKa

/3i/3Xia

dew.

Paris,

1804.

In two

volumes.

du Docteur Coray sur le testament secret des

dont parle Dinarque dans la harangue
centre Demosthenes.

Lettre

Athe'niens,

AidXoyo? dvo

Tpai<cci> KarotKOiV rrjs Bei/eria?.

1805.

"YSpa, 1825.
UpodpojJios 'EXXrjviKrjs jSt^Xio^KTjy.

18091827.

Kai ev

MODERN GREEK LITERATURE.

156

15 vols. (con
sisting of editions of classical authors, with notes).
T)

Udpepya 'EXA.

1807-1835.

Paris,

j3ip\iodr]Kii.

&tf3kio0r)Krjs.

9 vols.

18091827.

l8ll 1820.

'lAtaSoy pa-^to&im A.

Atarpi/3?) avrocrxcdios Trepi ro{} 7Tpi(3or)Tov

Paris,

1818-1825.

2 vols.

1831.

IfpariKos.

iepas KaTrjxTjareus.

1833.
Besides numberless articles in the
Ai>Tol3ioypa(pia.

Logics Hermes/ a Greek

periodical published in Vienna, on philological and political
'

subjects.

On

his death he left his library

nasium

at

Chios,

the

birthplace

and MSS.
of his

to the

Gym-

ancestors.

His

unpublished works are more numerous, if not more voluminous, than those which have been given to the world.
Besides

this,

the margins of

many

of his

books are crowded

with notes in his handwriting.

Few
such a

Leo

Germany, can show

Hercules as Adamantios Coraes, the second

countries,
literary

Allatius

none

certainly save

Would

of Greece.

that

some

enterprising

compatriot would undertake the complete publication

all his works.

of

As contemporaries of Coraes we may mention, out of

many literary men of no mean deserts, Constantine Oekonomos, whose turgid

style

formed as

striking a contrast to

the simplicity of Coraes as did, on the other hand, the

abandoned vernacular of Jakobos Rhizos Nerulos, the

unsparing

satirist

of the

'

Logics Hermes

'

and

its

promul-

gators.
I give three

short extracts to illustrate the above remark,

taken respectively from the

Ai/ro/3toypa0m

of Coraes, the

MODERN GREEK LITERATURE.

Oekonomos, and

treatise Hep} Trpocpopds of

satirical

157

the Ropa/ao-rim, a

comedy of Nerulos, in which I need hardly say the

are the foltowers of Coraes
:

"OOTIS

rbv

IcrTopii

TTJS fays TOV,

TO irpcoTa va p,ya\vvr],

p.r)T

xpeoooTel va

'iSiov ftiov

ra a/zaprjjp-ara

6<ap.aTa Kal

p,e

TOCTTJV

ra SevTepa va

p.rjT

KOI

o'rjp.eimo'rj

TCI

/rarop-

wore

aKpifteiav

o~p,iKpvvrj

fj

va

trteoTra

Travrdnao'L'

Trpaypa SutrKoXcorarov 5ia TTJV e/j.<pvTov els o\ovs

<pi\avTtav.

"Ocrns a^i^tjSaXXet

X aP<*fl $vo

p.6vov (TTLXOVS rrjs (3ioypa<plas rov

Cor(US

TTJV 8vcTKO\iav.

To

Trpo rpicov

fjdr)

f)u.as

TTJV ireipav

Kap.rj

va

Kal 6f\ei KaraX<z/3ei

Avro/3toypa0i'a.

Trcpl yvrjcrias ra>v e\\r)viK<Ji)v

7rpd/3Xj;/Lia

rovrou, ay

irepl

ala>vu>v

ypap-pdruv 7rpo<popds
els

Evpairrjv avacpvev, V

TTJV

iro\\aKis els TroXXouf 7ro\\S)v Kal p.fyd\u>v (rvfaTTjcre&v inrodecris.

Oekonomos,

The

Ilepl 7rpo(popas.

rhythm and

studied

inflated style

worthy of a

is

Prodikus.
Etrai dvo xpovia ro>pa OTTOU 6 Trare'pas

/LIOU

appcoo-ret

KOTO irados TO va 6ui\fj KopaKKTTiKa, KOI aXXo 8ev

va 7r\aTTrj

a^

/cart

5ta/3oXo^;apra

KOI va ypd<prj Kal va

6 idios.

Ti va

P.OV

va

8ev

yvpva

jj.

oXov

p.d6(t)
rj

Xeaty

/cafia)

dvr)Kov(TTais

rvrrco/ieVa,

XaX^

yXSxrcrd
cjretdr}

6/xiXo) rj) -yXaJo-o-a

TJV

Ka[j.vfi

K.a\

yXcoo'cra, OTTOV

p.id

p.ov

Kal

rou, Kal eis

v%r) TOV,

aura

TO.

Xarpeuei,

aXXd-

Ttapa va

7rapdfvais, va

TTJV

Karapa/zeVa
/Sta^o/aat

drjfjLtovpyfl

TOV CUVTOV

p oXov onov

<p\vapias} Kal

ra

*s

tv

ra 6vop.dovv Aoyiov

yia va TOV inroxpeucra), /3tao>

avTals Tals a^SeVrarais

roCro,

OTTOV

cm

KopaKia-TiKa,

Keyui

va

TOV

Ka6e Xe|i 'diKrjTov OTTOV fjdeXa irpoJVerulos, KopaKioTi/ea.

Modern Greece has produced but few authoresses of

these Angelica Palle, chiefly known by her ode on the
Death of Lord Byron/ which I shall here quote, belongs to
:

'

the beginning of the nineteenth century.

MODERN GREEK LITERATURE.

[58

I.

Tovs

\afjLirpovs

vpvovs

TTJS

f]pa>(*>v

dfpivav

VIKTJS

K\av6p.S)V

r}X f L

XuTroui/r'

HiKp&s

at

orparts'

^u^ai TWV

'E\\r)va>v,

aicodev <a

T' aKovfi

2.

Tj\0' 7T\T)V

(f)l\OS

fJ.6\lS

TOV

Cl

SfcaTTTOW K\aiovTs TOV rd(pov CLVTOV,

TO reXoy ev86a)v e\Tri8a)V,

Iftov

Kal TO Tpoiraiov 6avarov

crK\r)pov.

3-

HX^e va

ffnrvevo-ri

ElS Ka0
II\f)V,

(TTT]doS

(pev,

as oXXoj

TTO\fJLO)V

6pp,t)V'

BapSo? eXTTiVas

'l8ov p.Vfi els alaviov

a-iooTrrjv.

4Sis

devdpov

T^v

KeTr'

ocoaym

677'

Hapvacr&ov'

Kopv<pr)v p.ov(riKov

NiJi/

Tro8S)v

?rp6

Ilvor)

TO fppi^f

(pdfipov(rd TOV TO KaXXo?

dvffjiov

cr(f)o8pov

5-

'EXXa?

Na

cav TO crwfia TOV

^>epi7

EtTre,

eis

fii/^fia

Movcraii>

ff

'AyyXi'a

^V/ra

p.r)Tepa

TCKVOV p-ov 6 vlbs TU>V M.OWT&V,

6.
reov
[MT)V

f'pwTcoi/

UKOlXaV

TOVJ Qprjvovs,

TT}V

TOVS Kiv8vvovs,

Td(pov as fXV

*lpto<i>v

'y

TTJV

ytjv.

Angelica Palle compares very favourably indeed with Felicia

Hemans.

The metre

is

one peculiarly

liable to

run into

jingle,

from

MODERN GREEK LITERATURE.

which

is

it

159

only preserved by the retarding effect of a

word accent, and the frequent

of single syllables lengthened by TOM) for the
trochees which form the first part of the dactyls.

judicious irregularity in the

substitution

The

great lyrical poet of Greece

is,

however, Athanasios

who was born at Kastoria, in Macedonia, in

and
who
died in Moldavia, where he held the office of
1772,
He is sometimes called the modern
judge, in 1847.
Christopulos,

Anacreon, but

too

a poet to need

any such
metonym. Unfortunately, his undoubted genius was consecrated chiefly to the glory of the wine -bottle, yet he wrote
some love-songs of exquisite tenderness and beauty, which
have been copied without acknowledgment by various

modern
'

ingale
'

is

original

'

Consciously or unconsciously, the Nightof Christopulos is certainly at the foundation of the

poets.

Swallow

'

of Tennyson.
Inasmuch as the nightingale
sings, and the swallow only twitters, I confess I prefer the

Greek

to the English poet in this particular case.

For four of the following examples I am indebted to

Selections from Modern Greek Writers/

C. C. Felton's

'

OLD AGE.
Na

Tpi%s

f)

'kflavdaie v

Na
Na

ere

crov

dcnrpifrvv

daicpvwv

Xeyei Kal 6 "Ep

irXebv flcrai yepos,

'2 TO efjs KaXi)

Ta

<pi\f)p,(iT

TO,

a(pr)(T

S/^ao-e Ta Trapevdvs,

Kat ap%iva

Ta

rriKpa

p,e

TO.

vyeia

yeparcla

2 TO fr)S

va.

TO.

yfvdfjs.

]6o

MODERN GREEK LITERATURE.

A6i/

O~

TTiaVOVV

ere

irpeirovv

TO.

TO rpayovdia,

tKfivos 6

nij-y'

Totpa rd<f>os
Ta>pa

6a.va.TOs

Teopa Xapos

"Odev

TrXeoi/

eroi/zacrov,

'P^e oXa TO KaXd

He

\VTrr) pos

TOJ/

crou,

Kai ra 5d*cpua

/Sdcrra

Ets r^v

K'

XUTTT;I/

Mia

EXE TEIA

KOO-/XOV

rov TTOVOV

ets

/itK/3)7

povov

Traprjyoptd

ANSWER TO THE PRECEDING.

Ila

TTLKpifavV

Tt

\'

Totyap T
*

ao~7rpr)

7]

TOVS

a<nrpo 6ava.T6vci

(bi\cbvTas dyicvXovci,

Ta

^etXaKta

's

To Tpavrd<pv\\6 /nay,
To XovXovSt TO>J> 'Epoorwv
f

Eivai ao-npo Ka6ap6'

Kai TO KOKKIVO

17

To

eirio~r)s

<rvyKtpao~ev

(pixris

M* fva xP^f"
'H

fJLVpTia

TTJS

*A.(f)pOO'lTT]S

Els TO irpd<Tivo K\a8i

MeV
*OXa

Ta

do'irpov8fp6.

TO.

xarao-Trpa,

rrjs,

<pv\\a Ta ^Xo>a
crav ^'ow,

XouXoufiia T^y (pvrpovei

T* dv0T)pd, Kai Tpv(pcpd.

MODERN GREEK LITERATURE.

Kai 6 Atas 6
Fia T^S

TOV TO KaXXoy

A.r)8as

KVKVOS yivue

*A<rirpais

0e\

6 ^Epcay,

TOU KVKVOV ra

To \onrbv

oo'o

ei>

iravr

Tocro TrXeoj/
Too*

fieXet,

jue

Ilai^reXai?

(j)Tepd.

de\i

oo-o

Key'

dcnrpia> dev

Ort

(f)opd.

/ca^e pepos,

ets

Tpijftus

2ai/

As

/zta

'

N' aTroSei^

XVTTO'

/ne

atnrpifa,

i/oori/it^a),

6 epcoy

ayaTra.

^i'

LOVER'S LONGING.
*As yfvovfwvv Kadpe<pT7)sl
Not /3Xe7reo-ai

cya)

va

To KaXXos

As

i/'

crtya

cr*

ap^L^at

depaKrjs

fji

2 ra

i/a

Kivrjcr<o

va

crov

(rrf]0T)

rXu/ca va ra

Trecro),

(frvarrjcrci).

fjiiow reXos virvos

Na
Na

ecreva.

ra

Kat oXoy

As

K'

(rov,

^X'T"3 r" /iaXXta o-ov,

Na
As

ep,eva,

yevovp,ovv ^revaiu

2iya

^"

'$

Trai/ra

/SXeTrca

Sevco

ep^co/zat ro

ra

-yXv/ca

Mara/aa

's

/SpaSt;,

(rov

TO a/coraSt.

MODERN GREEK LITERATURE.

62

THE NIGHTINGALE.
KiV

drjftovaKi

Ka\6}

p.ov

Ktra Kai irdye VTO -ytaXo

Trjv aKpiftr) irov

Na
Kai

ca

Kat

or

yXvKa

ere

irdprj

oreXm

ere

p,

ri

fpu>Tr}(rrj

fvprjs'

KOI TTJV

(TKv^rj va

iroios

TTJV

p.e

<rav TTJV @pfjs

Na
*Av

va

Tray

'

ecru

TO vr\ai\

air

Troy eifiai fiaipo

EtTre,

novXt crrevayno<p6po

Has 6 d(f)fVTT]s pov

Me (rreXvfi va <re
Ta

TTQ^T;

Me

/Me'Xo?

e'Sai

/iou

pa

cr*

ra

Xe'ya).

"Yorepa tr/c^e TOTretva

Kat XaX^o-e

viyavd,

TT/V

Kat opKiv
2roi>

0a

Kop(po

drjbovoKi

*A.)(

rrjv

va

ra

(re

SeV

p.'

ro TTW, E?crat Trtoro

ere

'ETT/jSouXo

2rcW

/ij)

K^TTOJ'

ye'j/J/ff

TToO

tp-Traiveis.

TRANSLATION OF 'THE NIGHTINGALE.

'

Fly, nightingale, to yonder shore ;

Fly, fly, what need I tell thee more

Go

find

me

my
And when my
Go,

if

out

my

dearest,

prayer thou hearest.

dearest thou hast found,

Begin to sing thy sweetest sound,

That she may stoop and take thee,

And

her companion

make

thee.

MODERN GREEK LITERATURE.

And

make demand,

she then shall

if

Who

sent thee from the island strand,

" Hither come I
flying,
Say,

A
My

bird of saddest sighing;

me for a gift,
my voice may lift

master sends

That

I in

song

To tell how he doth languish,

And warble all his anguish."
Then

And

like a suppliant appear,

whisper softly in her ear,

And

plight thy master's duty,

Swearing by all her beauty.

Placed in the garden of her breast
Ah nightingale, I cannot rest,

Uneasy

fears

dismay me,

Lest there thou shouldst betray me.

BACCHI LAUDES.
"OTUV

TO Kpacrdu

iriva*

2ro xpuo-d

/xov

TTOTrjpaKi

Kai 6 vovf pMV

a\i(r6rj'

ToV

dp)(ia) Kal

Kat yeXai Kat

K^

far)

p!

ci>xapicrTcl.

Tort TTUVOVV

Tore

(ppovTidei

77

crftvvovv

y e\Tri8es

Tore (pevyovv

of Kairvoi.

KJ^

Kapdid P.OV ya\r)vici,

Kat ro
N'

o'r^^ds' fiou

dva<raivrj,

dvaTrvfj'

Yia TOV Kuafiov 8ev

'As

yvpt'tfl,

Kpao-a/a /^ou va

'H

xai/ara

N'

u.

oTTwy ^e'Xet,

To

ATT'

ap^t

j/a

ro ?rXayi

/i^
vet

d7roddva>p,

^.

o-ru\^

163

MODERN GREEK LITERATURE.

164

"Ooro e%u> TOVTOV) TOVTOV

Tov aKfMTov

irXovTov,

p.ov

Kocro mvo) Kdl pov<p)'

"OAa

o-Ky/3aAa ra e

Eiy Kaveva dev

Kat Kaveva 8ev

From

these examples

it

be

will

seen that Christopulos

common

people in literary comHe had a theory that the vernacular was nothing
position.
but Aeolo- Doric, and that it ought so to be called, and, as

adopted the language of the

Mr. Sophocles emphatically observes, 'it was called AeoloAfter which I think nothing further can be said on the
subject
except it be that Christopulos was the author of an

Doric.'

'

'

Aeolo-Doric

Grammar, and
the same dialect.

lations, &c., in

several other works, trans-

Before proceeding to our contemporaries in Greek literature I will say a few words on the popular poetry, the nameless

and numberless

ballads,

which

after all are the pride

modern as of ancient Greece.

However glorious and unparalleled
Odyssee may
brought them
origin 'and

the

forth remains a great

first

and

the

mind

that

Iliad

be, as works of genius, yet the

of

unknown, and

in their

publication they were just as much ballads

as the popular poetry of Greece.

has been already frequently remarked how curiously the

old mythology of Greece survives in the popular superstitions,
It

and yet
Charon

at

for

the

same time how strangely

example,

rather as the

as in

the

is

modified.

following poem, appears

the genuine Charon

Hermes Pompeios than

of the ancients.

it

MODERN GREEK LITERATURE.

165

CHARON AND THE GHOSTS.

Ti

pavpa ra

efrat

aW/xos ra rroXejaa;

Mfjv

K*

ot>8'

Move

avejjLos

TO.

5ta/3aiV 6

ot

Na
'

Tva>piovTai

am

T'

ol

ovde

ai>Spo'ywa,

KOI

ftpvcri,

\ov\ovdaKia*'

fjido~ovv

ya>,

xpva

va \i6apio~ovv,

vio\

els
TO.

vepd, yva>piovv

p.dvves yid

f]

els

KOVC^/

^wpio Kovevat

els

"EP^OPT*

Of

va

airfBap-^evovs'

rovs yepovras

veoi

ol

vepo,

',

fipv;

creXX'

ri^f

fiiKpa 7raido7rov\a

K* ov8'

TOWS'

/Lie

's

j3ovpKO>neva
TO.

ouSe /3po^^ ra depvei

K'

x^P ^

els

TTIOVV ol yepovres

Kai ra

jSpo^j)

ffjurpoo-rd,

yepovres,

Kove^

fJiov,

\ir\va.

Xapovra?

Tpvfpfpa TTatSoTrouXa
z/

OTfKOW

7roXe/ua,

Sepvei TOVS viovs dno

Ta

Kal

fiovvd,

^ajpio-juo

Kpva ftpvcrC
TratSid

TK>V'

8ev

the so-called Klephtic Ballads, the finest with which I

acquainted

is

THE BURIAL OF DEMOS.

'O fj\tos eftao-iXeve, K

6 &TJUOS fiiara^ei*

TO vepdv,

TraiSta juou,

StJpTe,

Kai

Na
Kal

AauTrpaKT)

<TV,
!

'?

uov

(ipfAaTa

o~els, TratSia

dvetyif,

TO eprjuo o~7ra6i

irdp'.Te

Ko^eTe K\a8id,

Ilpdo-iva

TOV

Kal Tcopa

ju,'

aTro^/e.

jjC

p.ov,

va Ka$ura>,

eop.o\oyT)crg'

Ta KpiaaTa jrov e^u> Ka/iw/^Va,

elrrS)

Tpiavra XP OV

p.ov

o~Tpa>o-T

Kai (pepre TOV Trvev^ariKo va

Na

va (par

c5a)

va foai

<p6peo~e,

p,ov,

"^cofju

KaBov

'-

daapTa)X6s,
rjp&e BdvaTos,

K'

e'iKoo~i

irevTe

Kai 6e\a>

K\e(pTr]s'

dnaiSdva).

Kdp.CTe TO Ki&ovpi ftov ir\aTi>, 1^)7X0 va yevrj,

Na

o"Te*c

6p6bs va TroXepw, Kai SiVXa va

ye^ii^ut.

K' OTTO TO uepos TO Sf^t d^rfO'Te Trapadvpi,

Ta ^eX(8dwa
Kal T

va 'p^tovTat,

TTJV

civoiiv va (pepovv,

dr)8ovia TOV /eaXov Mai' va

ue p.a6aivovv.'

MODERN GREEK LITERATURE.

66

I offer the following as a nearly literal translation

The sun was

Oh
And

from his throne when Demos thus commanded

falling

you to the stream, to eat your bread at even

thou, Lambrakes, kinsman mine, come near and sit beside me
There, take the armour which was mine, and be like me a captain.
And ye, my children, take in charge the sword by me forsaken;
Cut branches from the greenwood tree, and spread a couch to rest
'

children, get

me.

Go

fetch

me now

the

priest

that he

of God,

may come and

shrive me,

For I would tell him all the sins that I have ere committed,
While thirty years a man-at-arms, one score and five a robber.
And now to take me death has come, and I for death am ready.
Then make my tomb on every side right broad, and high above me,
That I may upright stand to fight, and stoop to load my musket
And on the right hand side, I pray, leave me a little window,
:

Where swallows

in the

may

early year

bring the springtime with

them,

And

of the merry

As a

month

of

May

to this I

accompaniment

fitting

the nightingales

may

would

tell

cite

me.'

another

beautiful ballad, entitled

BOH TOY MNHMATOZ.

'H
Sa/SjSaroi/

Kal

TTJV

o\ov

TTiVa/Ae,

TTJV

KVpiaK

devTtpav TO Trovpvov

*O Kairerdvos

etrraXf

/u.'

i/a

okrjpepav,

[Tr/jcotf]

irdot

eVadi? TO Kpacri pat.

Kpacri

va

rov
Ka

To

fioi/OTrdr*

at

p? fj3ya\

o\'

Aev
Eofjv

fifia, icai

(iKOvo)

TO

TraTrjtra

(va p.ovo7ra.Tta.

p.iav -^rrjXrjv

paxov\av~

OTTO

airavu 'OTO Ke(pd\i'

Kal (BpovTrjv OTTO TOV KCLTM Koa-fiov.

'

Tt fX fis

TO

TO

Kal /Soyyas Kal J3apvavao-Tevdfis

f^vfj/jia

x^ a
XPa

a
i

v
^

^ aP">
/^ a

P f '>

V^] va

^^^

^ fiavpij TrXaxa
*)

fjuivpi]

7rXa/ca,

MODERN GREEK LITERATURE.

MoV

To

ro^o) pdpav K

TT&S

KaTcKppovqcrfs,

8eV fjfiovv K

Ta^a
Aev

/xe

evrpOTrrjv

eya>

eVepTrarTjcra eya>

fie

veos

ryv

evens

irdrrjcrfs

8ev

VVKTO. p.e

Kav^iov

fjp.ovv

TO K(f)d\i'
7raX\r]K.dpi

fayydpt

',

ihe following is given to show how the notion of the

consciousness and, as it were, suppressed vitality of the dead
is further connected with the old superstition of daemons or
which belongs not only to Greece, but to Eastern
In
generally, as we see in the 'Arabian Nights.'

genii,

belief

modern Greece

seems always of a malevolent

and that that was the case in the early ages of
disposition
Christianity we may infer from the use of daipoviov in the
New Testament. Sad to say, this superstition has been
the

o-Tot^eToz/

known

to result in

human

sacrifice, as in the

case of the

Bridge of Arta, which, according to the popular ballad, could

not be built securely until the little daughter of the master-

had been sacrificed to the genius of the place, by

being thrown down and buried in the stones, which were to
form the foundation of the structure.

builder

Do we

not find traces of this dark superstition, which, like

other dark superstitions, the Greeks seem to have borrowed

from the East, in Joshua's curse pronounced over Jericho
(Josh.

vi.

26)?

'Cursed be the

man

before the Lord, that

up and buildeth this city Jericho he shall lay the

foundation thereof in his firstborn, and in his youngest son
See the fulfilment of this
shall he set up the gates thereof.'

riseth

curse in

Kings

xvi. 34.

And

is

it

that the story of the 'temptation' of

Isaac

is

associated with

not a significant fact

Abraham

Mount Moriah, one

to offer

of the

which, according to tradition, Jerusalem was built

TOY MOY2IKOY KAI TOY 2TOIXEIOY.

'Ei^eff

xiovt \|^i^aSiCT6 K

6 'idvvijs e

TdVoi/ rpayovSif y\vKa KOI i/dori/ia

hills

up
upon

MODERN GREEK LITERATURE.

68
Tov

dcpas

irr)p

'EftyfJK 6

TTJV

ApaKos

Ftan Apdxo,

ytart

(p(ovf)v

etire

TOV Apdnovros

TOV,

'lai/j/^,

yiari 6a

Ocpib,

6e va

TTJV
ere

<dya>,

crKoroocnjy

p.e

(pepei.

Ftari diaftaivfis irdpatpa KOI Tpayovftels

Travovpya'
SVTTVO.S

T*

drjBovi

rats

air

KOI

(pa>\iais

7rov\ia

TO.

TOUS

KafJLTTOVS.

SvTrvas K

A(pes

ep.e

TOV ApaKovra

ApaKo va

fJic

8ia@a>,

rr)v

p,e

a(pcs

Apa/coi/Ticr(ra p.ov,

va

fJ.e

Trepacrco'

e^et yia Trptorov UOVO-IKOV irp&rov Tpayovdiorfjv rov.

The forms
to

show

ApaKos nom., 8pd<ovTos gen., and 8pd<o voc., seem

that dpdKos is not a metaplastic form, but rather a

of the original form SpaKovrs, of which another modern

is dpdxovras, obtained
by the insertion of a vowel to

relic

form

facilitate

We

pronunciation.

will

conclude these examples of the popular poetry

first illustrative of the

of Greece with two more pieces, the

personification of Death as Xdpos
:

Et^e TO 0ccri rov orpa/3a Kai

Kai Xdpos TOV ayvdvrfvfv

Kai (Is (TTfvbv KaTfftrjKe K
Toflev
TO.

-IT

epxco-ai

para ep^ouai,

arro ^i\T)v

TO

<r

Tldyca va irdpw TO ^co/it,

K'

Ke/acVa p? eWftA' 6 Qebs va

*A<po-c uc Xdpe,

a<po~f fi,

Kav

7rp7raTr](TT)

irdpu)

Trrjyaivcis

TTJV

TrapaKoXS) va
TTJS

\fyovv TTWS &'X

Trcoy

X*IP a

irpfirft

avdpa,

Kapapovfi,

^E^o)

Tratfiia

Ko \dpos
Xdpe

ai/f/Xi/ca

*cat

opfpav

8ev TOV iJKovcrf,

<rav diro^do-ia-es

',

/iov Trrjyaivat'

va yup/crto.

oTTi'cra)

Xeyovv

rjo-vxa,

TTOV

o-TT^rt

"E^a> yuvaiKa Trdpa vtav na\ 8ev

*Ai> 7T(p7raTr}(TT] yXlycapa,

K\a>(rp.fva'

pa\ov\av,

(Kel TOV KapTcpovo-f'

\0fvnj

ua\\ia

TO.

dirop.VT)o~KOvv'

Ka\ fj0f\f va TOV

Kai ^'Xetv va pe
irdpys

'

MODERN GREEK LITERATURE.

Fta eXa va TraXe^cojue
Kaz>

jue

viKycrys

Kav

ere

vtKrjcra)

Xape

ere

eya>

KOVTO.

p.ov

Traipvfis TTJV

irrjyaivf

aV

'Errrjyav Kai eVaXei^av

KavTov

fw.ppapv

p,ov,

?raX'

169

TO Ka\6v aov.

'$

TO Trpan

a>s

TO yfvp.a }

TO 8ei\ivbv TOV Kara/Sai/' 6 Xapos.

The

following lines, sung from house to house at the

approach of spring, by children, are plainly a remnant of
the

^^oW/Aa of the

ancients

XeXt&ora ep^fTdi
'ATT'

KOI XaX^cre'

Ka^tre
Maprt,

Kai

ao-irpav 6d\ao~crav.

TT)V

fjidpTi

KaXe,

p,ov

(p\f(3dpr)

IlaXe

Before closing this chapter, a few words are due to our

The writings of many modern Greek prose
contemporaries.
authors, as for instance the

'lo~TOpia TTJS 'E\\rjviKTJs

7ravao~Tdo-a>s

by Spyridon Tricupes, and the namo-a-a 'Iwdwa of

are well known in England, and have been reviewed

Roi'des,
in

some

Professor Asopios is well known

by his Ela-ayayr) els uiv^apov, and Professor Damalas by his
Uepl apxtov.
Papparregopulos' history of Greece is remarkof our leading journals.

able for

its

clear

and simple

style,

and the unstudied purity

content myself with laying before

language.
the reader a few specimens of verse from the pens of living
of

its

I shall

or but lately deceased poets.

A. R. Rangabes, late Greek Ambassador in Paris, is

known not only as a scholar and archaeologist, but also as
a poet.

In his lighter moods, as a

satirist,

he recalls to our

minds something of the great Greek comedian

not unfair to suppose he imitates

whom

it

is

MODERN GREEK LITERATURE.

170

Kat ra^a

iroiovs
',

TTOV f3d(pfTf,

\6yovs ttr^vpovj,

a-ocpovs,

avrov TOV aW/zd/ivXoi/

's

irpOTfivfTf

d(nrpifTf,

/crej/i'ere,

oyovpaiverf KOI \d6os ovop.deTf

at

o~fls

va p,dda>p,ev

yvvaiKfs Kf(pa\r}v}

dev T)p.7Topovp,ev Trolos ai/fjuo?

(pvo-q

Tov
as

TOV virovpyiKOv TOV

K0(rp,ov

Trdv

-\jsd\7]

A.T\avra

crro/ua'

TTJV

evyevrj TOV Kopv<pr)v <pi\6doos

Tis

oifie

avdiTTei (payovpa.

dd<pvai av (pvTpovovv els avTrjv

"

'

AiTj/a

"Etv

j36o-KOVV

CVTOfAO.

T)

Kapftia

f]

KoiX/a TOU

KTJ

(po[3ov Tas

A.

&.v

KaTOpdd>o~r]s

va

TratSfia

XpfideTat

p.e

VTrovpyov

Ka^irjs

lacos

av avTo,

ofioXoyS) Trojy dev TTJV e^to.

B.

o^t 8a

Kaipos Sev elvat OTTOV elda imovpybv,

K

eK.pd.TCL

TO KOvdvXl TOV

eo~Ka7rrev viroypa(pf)v,

8lK\\aV

0)S

/cat

wpoiafav

ypa/i/zara TOV KaKorjOeiat p.via>v.

TO.

So much

the

for

of Athens.

politics

The newspaper

editor Sphecias describes himself as the editor of the 'Eatan-

might have done

swill Gazette'

fiVat 7r\fjV

IIoo?
els

Eii'e

eiv

Trapd (pv\\a 7Tpdo~iva.

aXX* OVK ev

TroXXa,

To (pv\\ov
KTJ

evdfit^a

Tas 'Adrjvas (pv\\a irtpKTO'OTfpa

c<f)T)fj.fpio'a>v

A.

vftpis

fiov

fiov

e^tdva,

five

five

ew

r<

iroXXai

KavTrjpiov

ev.

ov, ....

yvp.vr) KCU uvuio'i)s,

ep.7rpr)o~TT)pios

TO

8av\6s.

\aov

MODERN GREEK LITERATURE.

KCU

8t8d(rK(ov TO. pr/Ta.

Eiy

TTJS

opy^s

'O ylyas
rr]v

of Russia
TTJS

dixriv

A8dp,as

CIV

K
f)

r)

els

(pvo~r]p.a

vea (rov

thus finely described

is

'

ayied\as rov.

TO ore/i/ia TOV TOV IIoXou

WTO TO

TOV (rxL^ovr

/3^/Lia

%a>v arrpa>p.vr)V TOVS irayfrovs,

pas

itr^uos

KOL dvaroXfjv arvve^

Trarei

Tre'cr'

irov

CLVTT)

The power

dir6ppr)Ta

av&pomre, TO

fiov,

6k va

TO.

oi

XafiTrei

6 do-Trjp'

irdyoi TOV Ovpd\'

TOV CTTJ]6oV5 TOV VTTfpftopfia 6v\\CL.

TTVof)

The following appear from

German originals

the headings to be founded

DEPI2TEPA.

I.

OS;

Sag' an o lieber Vogel mein.

IIov

a7rXo))Lieva

/i'

ra irrfpa

TTfTas \(VKT) Trepio~Tfpa,

y

or'

e<j>

fji

fiapvs

TOVS Trayovy <ptpft TOV f3oppd

'"OTTOU

77

avoids yt\a,

Kai avpai rrvtovv &7ra\a

fKei

TTCTC!)

TO (pas
r)TG>

TO.

UTTJVOV
trots

av6rj

p.r)

TJT)
TO.

(pevyrjs,

p.ds

fld\TT6l

TO TTVp T&V Kap8t)t>.

',

on

MODERN GREEK LITERATURE.

KctpSia

r)

(pi\iKr]

TraXXei rravrov.

Aei> /iot

drravra,

fjids

yopyf] TTfra

evas OTCyOS

Kflg

NYKTEPINON.

IT.

Leise fliehen meine Lieder.

OS;
MrjV

^ (TfXjJw;

Kot/zaorat,

Xa/X7rei

dpyvpa,

KTlVl

Kdl TTjV KOp.T]V TT]S

<rTi\7rva

els

*Ej3ya' va
fls

fls

I8rjs'

TO

\apvyyi

TJ

vepd.

<pv\\a

XP vcr<*

(pa>s

^tXo/ij^Xa

da/ua ws rd

era.

AKOVCTOV ri \^ciXX'

yXaxTtra

p.ayfVTiKr).

17

2u TO

f)

(pwg)

KOI

(ri>

f)

a><ra

ci<rai

To

Trdv ir\rjpfs (ippovias

KOI Oepp-wv

7raXp.(0>v.

cyeipov
"

Avoi^nv
i/a

(t>paia
crKiprfjO''

Ka\ fvros

fjiov

TrdpifpooTos

At ^u^ai

v
fls

fias

77

yfj'

dvarclXr)
avyr).

8e,

wy TOVOS

dva/3ovv

rov ovpavov.

MODERN GREEK LITERATURE.

173

very popular poet in Greece is Zalacostas, who has

been dead some ten years or more, a voluminous translator

from

Italian poets,

and as an

original writer full of

and imagination, though rather unequal

power

He

in felicity.

has

if merit it be, of introducing a vast variety of new

He would appear
metres into modern Greek versification.
to have passed the greater part of his life in conversation

the merit,

with the

manes of Greek heroes and martyrs, indignant

the degradation of their country.

The following may serve as an example
Ely TOV Tvpftov eKelvov

pe irdrayov

r]ve<a^drj

Kai TTJS yrjs

eic

TO>V

at

irXrjo-iov,

%do~p.a'

T>V Kpvwv

o-ir\dy%v(i>v

eTivd^drj deKaTrrjxy (dcr/ia.

*A

dev TJTO TOV vov p.ov aTTUTrj,

(fipovftov

P-T]T

TOV

(f)6j3ov

fLOV

B\o(rvpbv TrepiecTTpecpe 'part,

Kai \ap,7rd8a (pXoywv
fj.e

aVap/ca

TTJV

eV apfTpov yvpov
6 aWrjp KOI
Kai

KOI ol \idoi,

KOVIS avrrj TO>V

fj

yrf

f]

papTvpav
*
*

Tovs ycvvaiovs pas fjAprvpas eiSa

ocroi

eTrccrov Tnoreoos

(plXot

5ia \iiav OavovTfs

Trarpida.
s,

(TKvdpatTrol Kai
.e\r)

/cat

7r\7]ya>v

opyiXoi

6\aap.eva

dia^aivovra

Aristoteles Valaorites writes for the

common

people in

vernacular Romaic.
f

'

EpvKoXaKas,

The Vampire/

is

thus described, or rather

MODERN GREEK LITERATURE.

174

addressed by the widow of the deceased Thanases Vagias, a

notorious wretch
:

Ties p.ov TI (rreK<rai Qavdo~r),

6pd6s,

Qavdcrrj pov, ftyaivcis TO /SpaSu

TIO.TI,

"Yirvos yia (rtvave

flv

ftfv

'crrbv

Ta>pa 7repd<rave

Ba$eta (/fppi^ave pecra 'or^

vya

cnr\a-)(yi<Tov

p.e.

yrj.

Qa

vdva.ira.v6S>

2ra<rou pcucpiirepa. ...... Tiari

fie

<riudcis

Qavd<rr) ri eca/ia Kal fie rpop.dfis

HS>s

eicrai

Ties fiou,

Trpdcrivos

',

pvpifis X^P*1

'

'

fiej/

eXuawrfs, QavdoTj, aKOfjui

Notice here the imperative ires for ewres, and compare

This is another relic of the verbs in /xt.

a$,

&c.

will

conclude

this

chapter with two anonymous frag-

ments of Greek popular songs. For the German rendering of the first, which is more successful than the

am

English, I

of Athens

indebted to

my

friend

Herr

ndvra vd

'

Tt p.fyd\T) eu

Tt iriKp&s 6
Ti

Ti

TTJV

6f\(i)

ri TTJV 8e\a> TTJV

AaKrvXi'8* OTTO /zaXXta

Julius

Henning,

MODERN GREEK LITERATURE.

AUTO

OTTO

MaKpav
Ti

not (Mapaivci

fj-evet

<re,

Ti

Ever to abide with thee

'

Were

the height of purest bliss

bitter, cruel parting,

But the

Where

When
What
'

match with this?

grief to

is

am

from

far

is life,

ah,

One memorial

thee,

what

still is

is life

me?

to

left,

ring from thy fair tresses braided;

Nothing else my soul can cheer.
This remains, but I am faded
:

And

How
'

thus forsaken here,

can

nay, I cannot live a

I,

life

so drear.'

Stets vereint mit dir zu sein

Ware Himmelsseligkeit
Ach du bitteres boses Scheiden
:

Ewig
Was,

flieht

Geliebte, fern von dir

Frommet wohl,
'

das Gliick mich weit

ja

frommet wohl das Leben mir?

Nur aus Locken noch

ein

Ring

Bleibet als Erinnerung mir:

Andrer Trost ist nicht zu finden

Dieser bleibt, ich bleiche schier.

Was, Geliebte,
Frommet, nein

von dir
frommet nicht das Leben

fern
es

mir.'

I know nothing in any language more beautiful of its

kind than the following, with which I gladly close a long
and laborious but not ungrateful task
:

Eiy TO pevpa

Ata
Ai'

TI
e/xe

va

rfjs

a>rjs

aTravrfjcro

a<' ov dev

Atari va &f

I8a>

rjcro

......

p.ov
',

MODERN GREEK LITERATURE.

176

Kai

aT

e KOfj.es

p.f

STfi/aypovs va

V7ro<pep<a,

Kat ye\ds diori

Aia a~e K.CU

/cXat'co,

va

va

Icras,

rravcrrj
\cru>s,

ot

eXo) fjiovov,

fays pov

TTJS

trrevaypo

orav
at

Eva (rrvayp.bv
Qs x aiP Tl(rlJ>bv
Kets

roi>

(rov

fiov'

rafov

/uou

flavrjv

Kapdiav crov v

TJV

"Ev

TTVOT]

TJ

<rrr)v

p,ov

f\Kvcrovv
crfivcrovv

arty/iOi,

v
fj.ov

8dicpv di

va

ffie.

have attempted the following German translation, finding

beyond my powers to render the sense and metre in
I

it

English

An dem

Strome meines Lebens

dir noch begegnen?

Ach wozu

Da

ich liebe dich vergebens

O warum

dich wiedersehn

Dir, Erbarmungslose, gelten

Unaufhorlich meine Seufzer,

Und du lachest, well ich weine,

Und verhohnst mein bitt'res Flehn.
Ach, genug! nun lass mich leben,
Oder sterben doch im Frieden
Ja vielleicht wenn ich geschieden,
Wirst du deinen Hohn bereun.
*
*
*
*
;

MODERN GREEK LITERATURE.

Nicht will ich dass meine Seufzer
Ein so kaltes Herz bewegen

Nur

wenn sich nicht mehr regen

Meines Odems matte Ziig',
dass

Eine jammervolle Klage

Abschied nach mir sendest,
Und an meinem Grabe spendest

Du zum

Eine Thrane noch

fiir

mich.

177

APPENDIX
On

I,

the Greek of the Gospels of

John and

Luke.

St.

MUST now hasten

St.

redeem a promise, made at the

work, by indicating, in however brief
and cursory a manner, what kind of light may be derived
from the study of modern Greek with regard to the respecI

commencement of

to

this

ages of documents of disputed authenticity.

confine my remarks principally to the Gospels of

tive

and

St.

Luke, only premising that the following is

St.

out merely as a kind of forerunner to a

one day

to accomplish,

and which,

if its

work which

ideal

is

shall

John
thrown
I

hope

ever realized,

will consist of a
comparison of the Greek of the various
books of the Septuagint, apocryphal or otherwise, and of

New Testament, with a view to determining

evidence of language confirms or weakens, and
an adequate criterion of, the results of modern

those of the

how
how

far the

far

it is

research.

For the present, I would remark

cautions must be borne in mind
evidence of this kind.

enough

to count

In the

first

in the outset that several

in

attempting to weigh
place, it is obviously not

up a number of modernisms

in

two docu-

APPENDIX

l8o

I.

ments, and balancing the number found in the one against

number found in the other, at once draw the hasty

the

conclusion that a majority of modernisms proves a later

For many other questions have to be taken into
origin.

and above

all that most important one, is the

of the authors such that they admit of this simple
comparison? Is there evidence of artifice and pedantry,
such as would lead us to expect the avoidance of modernisms ?

consideration,
style

are there signs, as in most of the Fathers, of a straining after

archaic expressions ? And if so, in what degree ? For there
are degrees of pedantry on the one hand, and degrees of

on the

other.
Plato is more popular in his
than
phraseology
Thucydides, Aristotle often more so than
familiarity

Plato.

Then, again, the frequent occurrence of a single modernism is more significant than the occasional occurrence
of

many

far

more

and again, there are some modernisms which are

striking and unquestionable instances than others.

Such are some of the considerations

to

be borne

in

mind

of language as an evidence of the

to which we may add another and
antiquity of documents
obvious
one
very
namely, the limits which the slow growth
in applying

the test

of language sets to any accuracy in determining the age of

any writing by the light of style and diction alone. Thirty
years is a scarcely appreciable interval, but a hundred years,
or even

two generations, may make a very marked

dif-

ference.

Let us

now approach

the subject a

little

more

in the

concrete.

The

New

first

thing that strikes us

is

Testament, however popular,

by no means so

that the
familiar,

Greek of the
and simple,

is

vulgar, so nearly a vernacular, as that of the

We

miss with few exceptions, and those to be

found chiefly in the Apocalypse, forms like (Ida, eXeyoo-ai/, XaSeptuagint.

APPENDIX
,

l8l

I.

of which

TreVc for Trecrov, &c., all

we know must have

New Testament, just because they

have been preserved in modern Greek, sometimes in a
What then
slightly altered shape, up to the present day.
existed in the age of the

may we

New

generally conclude with respect to the Greek of the

?
answer, that while it was

We

Testament as a whole

it was not vernacular; it

adopted the
but
let
did
not
as
a
rule
itself down
homely expressions,
to the grammatical level of the common people, in which

familiar

and popular

respect

it

may be compared

the

to

of a popular

style

modern Greek newspaper, which is familiar enough to be

neither
readily intelligible, but not enough so to be vulgar
;

altogether the spoken language of the common people, nor

yet by a long way the book-language of the learned.

But when we come to compare the books of the New

Testament among themselves, we do not find them exactly
the

same

classical

we miss

in style;

there

words and expressions

in

Luke and

the Acts which

may be looked

in other parts, while the Epistles

upon, for the most

feelings called forth

part, as

we should expect

familiar expressions in

Testament.

such simple utterances of the

on which they were

by the occasions

written, that, a priori,

New

a certain striving after semi-

is

them than

If therefore

we

the use of

more

in other writings of the

find

Trai/rore

for

aet,

and

does not argue

Ka6fls for exao-roy, in St. Paul's Epistles, this

their late date with anything like the force that the occurrence of the same words possesses in St. John, where the
theological speculative style would naturally lead us to look

for

an avoidance of too familiar expressions

their

when

presence
it

risen to

was

in St. John's

Gospel argues

and therefore

that, in the

time

same familiar expressions had

book -language, and were no longer

written, these

the level of

confined to conversation.

Now

let

us notice briefly what

are

the

most

striking

APPENDIX

i8a
modernisms

in the

fourth

i.

Gospel,

and see whether they

can be reasonably accounted for except on the hypothesis

of a very much later origin than that of the first two
Gospels.

The most

which lies on the surface of St.

immense frequency of certain modern-

significant fact

the

is

John's Gospel

For example, Tndfa (modern Greek iridva, eVtWa) occurs,

not sometimes but invariably, for <nj\\ap.fidva>.
Now there
is no doubt that indfa occurs in the Septuagint in the
isms.

but then the Septuagint was much

nearer the vernacular of the time but infrequent occurrence

modern Greek

sense,

Gospel shows it must have been written

time when mdfa had become the recognized word for
in the fourth

Xa/i/3ai><,

and

moreover

that

in a

more

at a
<rv\-

cultivated style than

which the Septuagint represents. And who can help

noticing that where the fourth Gospel says Tnafa, those of
Matthew and Mark say Kpara> or o-v\Xap,j3dvu ? And yet the
that

style

of Matthew and

but less so,

than that of

fydpiov for lx&vs

Mark

vi.

Mark

is

St.

not more refined or elevated,

compare John
no one denies

Now

35.

Again, St. John says

9 with Matthew xiv. 15,

John.
vi.

that fydpiov

is

as old as

Aristophanes, but he uses it as intentionally quoting the

vernacular, while the fourth Evangelist employs it as the

But more

natural word.

striking

still is

the use of rpwycD for

f<rdia>, not in a colloquial, but in the most solemn and mys6 Tpwya>v pov TTJV o-dpica, KOI rrivcov
terious connection possible
:

p.ov TO

at^ca,

6 Tpd>y<aV
fya>

fJLOV

fv avTw,

Here

%ti

Tpwyo*

U>T)V

TTjV

al&viov, 6 Tpa>ywv

(TOplCO.

6 Tpaycav
is

KOI TTlVtoV

fJiOV

TO

KaKtlvos ^crtrat dt

and

to 0ayo>.

eV0ia>

*/if,

V tp,ol fJLfVd KOI

CUjMa,

TOVTOV TOV apTOv ^TjafTai

invariably,

present, answering

p.f,

els

TOV al5>va.

not once, used as the

In modern Greek

rpavya) is

the

In Polybius, indeed, we have

only present of $oya> in use.
dvo Tpwyopfv d8fX0ot, but this is quoted as a proverb, a
familiar colloquial expression, just as fressen

and saufen are

APPENDIX

I.

183

used in German for essen and trinken.

Igarly

It is there-

an exceptional usage, which goes to prove the point

re

we desire to settle, namely, that rpuya as

human being in the sense of simply eating,

hich

applied
did not

language until the time of

perhaps be told that in chap. xiii.

stablish itself in the written

But

John.

shall

Psalm

quotes the Septuagint,

John

TOV

4.

eV

apTov, cirfipev

whether

fpe

TTJV

thus, 6

xli. 9,

TTTfpvav OVTOU.

rpwyw

St.
St.
/uer'

Let US See

Let us turn to the passage in

That St. John has actually
question, and what do we find ?
been at the pains of translating eV&W into rpnyav, thereby
a quotation.

this is

proving beyond the possibility of a doubt that he deliberately

preferred rpuyav to

does

vTrayo)

familiar

and more

intelli-

constantly, and indeed almost invariably,

John use

St.

Mark

how

Again,

gible.

more

as

eV&W,

for

vTrayw

effu

where

St.

Matthew and

frequently use /ScuW, rropeuopai, &c., and with whom

is of comparatively rare occurrence.
Again, the use

of &o>po>, the

modern Greek

as simply equivalent to

0o>pa>,

characteristic of St. John, and to some extent of St.

Notice too the continued recurrence of mo-reva els in

/3Xe7ra>, is

Luke.

John instead of ma-reva with the

St.

We

isms in

St.

array from

give a brief view of the remaining modernJohn, and challenge any one to produce a like

either St.

Mark

ElS TOV KO\7TOV TOV TTUTpOS

TOV

l/jidvTa

TOV

vTroSjyjLtaTOf,

stand for a dative

not

Iva (Saorao-oo.

is

or

'.

St.

OV

Matthew

y<0 OVK

flfjit

O.lOS

"(.VOL

\V(TO) O.VTOV

where one of these genitives must

observe that Matthew says &gto$

whereas in

fiaorao-ai,

modern Greek
compare
classical Greek this kind of
in

Ilpairds fiov yv,

P.OVOS p,ov, Trore /zov,

relation

dative.

now

will

expressed by the dative,

e. g.

ZSia

aur

modern Greek axrav ; trov

Thucydides
ri pe Sepetff, both familiar modern Greek
phrases
in
an
in
as
modern Greek,
aorist
TTJS o-vKr)s; <pep<-Te
sense,
in

a><r

for <$,

where the present

is

(pepva>

the continual use of apn for

APPENDIX

184
vvv,

I.

the

frequency of diminutives, as $pay<fXXtoi/,

(modern Greek equivalent of npros), WTLOV, &c.

for

f tort

TTOI

TTOV

the frequent use of periphrastic perfect

1

passives,

&C.

et/zt, rjv ftfl3\T]fj.fvos,

drreoTaX/nei'or,

eyevero

aTroo-raX/xei/o?,

rjv

aTrecrraX/ieVos

with the

eVavco TTOvrtov for eVt Tram, eVJ

accusative implying rest; dcp^e rfv 'lovdalav, in the modern

sense, instead of dvfx<*>pw V 7r
fKade^ro irpoaKwat, used now
;

'>

with the dative,

now

with the accusative

modern Greek a-vvdfci Kapirov;

common modern Greek word

as

XnXtd,

dvdpaKia

vernacular forms, as

a-waya Kapnov,

the frequent use of KOTTOS, a

the frequency of such forms

accent

the

itself

shows, though with some analogy (e. g. orpnrta) in classical

Greek.
In modern Greek as spoken by the common

people the termination

La

regularly appears as

id

the fourth

Evangelist says also ovcoria for CTKOTOS, preferring the form in ia

with the modern Greeks, who say a-KOTtd, 8po<rid, cfxand, for O-KOro?, SpoVoy, (pS>s

d0' tavTov for

e'(jf>'

the subjunctive
ciple,

5'Xos

frequently for TTOS, as in modern

the far more frequent use of
;

eavroG

Greek ;
iva

with

the comparative rareness of the aorist parti-

and frequency of the copulative

/cat

instance out of many), eyepdels apov

Here too observe
eyetpat apov, St. John.

for

example (one
Matthew

a-ov rfjv K\ivr)v,

modern
a.Trri\6f,

Kpdft&arov
St.

John

fj.avrov for

without
crdrjre,

fv

7T*

^pe TOV

(fj.avTOi>

and

avrdv

with dWo)f
p.

avrov KOI nepifirdrfi

ov fairiKaTc, 7rai8dpiov ev, for

and

t'^eo,

loss of

-n\oiov for vavs

;

all

fOT

tyv&KCUn,

',

OTT'

iratftiov

e^oprd-

the frequent repetidistinction

TT&S ovros ypdp.fuiTa ol8(,

between

modern Greek

7rS>s

ds Kadds, one by one ; rjvoi^f side by side

(h TO. orrtVo) J oTTtVo) f/xoG for

fU)tova for ovdfva

KO(Tp,OS

for

and the

John uses the

Matthew says eycpdds

common modern Greek word

OVTOS ypdpftar r)fvp(i

fJ.TCl

/cpd/S/Saroi/

et?

TrXotdptov for TrXoiov,

tion of avroG, avrov,

avrbv

St.

(Kptftfidriov)

St.

O^Xof
cf.

fitO

/i/CTOU

aVT&V for

modern Greek

nposcpdyiov, /SaoTa^ej,

passim for

evprjKav;
(pcpa>'f

8l

OUTOOJ/

<r/cop7rt^a>,

vndytis

et

APPENDIX
br

f Keure

evnW<Ttt, ycpifa, (yyifa

Stead of

pioro) tor X aP lv

Ol

ine

Greek

many

;)

eon o-v^^aa

^TO;

fivai

o~as

crvvr]6eLd

777 /xia

TOV 'ATrpiXi'ov

ia

put
v/x,Ti/

/^ep//

roO

*al avrol e'Xa/3oi/ for

^O^oy

;'

^v,

in
in

for ftco^arf,

in

ran/ o-a/3,3aTa>i>,

et/ni

modern and Byzan-

o(pfi\d airoQavfiv

ra Se^ta

6ty

TrapacrKevrj

modern
modern
without

modern Greek Trapamodern Greek rfj

so in

TrXoi'ou.

of these modernisms occur in the other Gospels ;

the frequency of their occurrence, the comparative

Many
but

wane

'

the article as a proper name, so

= Friday ;

the

OTTOV VTrcryco tor OTTOI

epcpavi&iv

/SaXe in the sense of

Greek ^v^os

Greek

monastery

on

is

is
(P.OVTJ

dwelling-places

for a

e'Xa/3oi/

fTOf)acv eavrov,

TO. ip.a.Tia

ovapiov,

.own TroXXai,
/it

enecrev fls TOVS rroftas avTOv

that the middle voice

showing

vToV,

avT<a Trpo 7roSa>z>

eVeo-ei/

185

7.

it is

and consistency

regularity

in the usage,

and above

all

the

presence of certain special modernisms of a very marked

character,

sionate

which make

impossible, I think, for any dispasavoid the conclusion that the fourth

reader to

it

Gospel must have been composed

at least two, or

perhaps

three, generations later than either the first or the second.

As to the Revelation of St. John, it can scarcely be compared with the Gospel, for it approaches much nearer the

vernacular,
that

is

it

home

and

in the

modernisms

grammar,
perfectly at

Therefore the very striking

eyxpi-o-ov TOVS 6<p6a\p.ovs o-ov,

KoXXovptoi/ eyxpio-e TOVS 6<f)6a\p.ovs o-ov, in

TO"IS 6(p6a\fjLols o-ov,

TOVS o(p6aXp.ovs

and

its

was written by one

as Ko\\ovpiov

it,

Ko\\vpiov eyxpio-ov

Sobo-wo-t,

it

Greek language.
in

modern Greek
crat

so wild and barbarous in

is

hard to believe

that for

in

ancient

Or, better, KoXXvpiop fyxpi-

Vcrr6? for Qeppos, dwar] for 5<S, Swo-ovo-t for

Sojo-t,

eVra&j for eWq, &c.,

do not enable

us to assert on philological grounds the later origin of the

Apocalypse, while the matter and spirit of the book point
rather to an earlier period.

The

Epistles of John, at least the

first

Epistle,

which alone

APPENDIX

1 86

/.

gives fair scope for judging, closely resembles the Gospel in

phraseology, but it is a kind of resemblance that looks like
imitation.

few words on the Gospel according to St. Luke. This,

we have already observed, betrays a certain pedantry of style.
There is a would-be classical ring about such phrases as
dvara^acrdai 81^77 crti/, Iva finyvws

an

o>v

Trepl

avvOev
iraprjKoXovdrjKOTL

fdoe Kapn

KaTrjxTjdrjs TTJV do-fpaXfiav,

iracriv

aKpij3a>s,

common

effort to struggle against the

which shows

familiar style of

writing prevailing among the early Christians, who were

All the more
mostly, as St. Paul says, ifowrai TW Xoya>.
in
St.
the
modernisms
are
therefore
Luke, which are
striking

continually cropping

most

effort is

troduction to the Gospel.

Again,

inform.

sustained, as in the in-

For example, T&V irfn\r)po^)opr]^tva)v

those things of which information

which probably means

has been given/ 7r\r)po<pop> meaning
'

fiSoTroio), to

in

modern Greek

f<pr)nfpias 'A/3/a is

modern expression, and hardly intelligible

in modern Greek efapepios means a priest.
all

in

most ambitious

in the midst of his

up

attempts, even when the

his Atticizing tendencies,

till

like

an extremely

we know

that

Notwithstanding
all but St.
John

Luke exceeds

modernisms, and some of these are of a very startling

For instance, eV avrfj rfj &pa, in that hour ; in

character.

modern Greek
St.

Matthew,

(1$ avrrjv rrjv

St.

&pav.

St.

Mark,

John,

all

have avrbs used with-

equivalent to OVTOS or
have discovered, uses
far
as
I
as
Luke,

out the article as

St.

and a noun

in this

Nor does any

sense.

but only
with the article

eKel>>os,
it

other use even

avros, especially with *m, so persistently as a simple demonstrative or personal pronoun. Other remarkable modernisms

are evXa^fjs for

for
TTJS

St.

Matthew

fiVf/S^s-, prjSfv
7r/;o<re7rf<re

oiKi'a?
J

for

17

for ov8tv,

cf.

TTTaxrtf

fiiKporepos

ir\r)v

for aXXa passim,

modern Greek pyx

for

tifpfs

KJ3a\a>

fXa^ioroy,

~ ^iWo)

he shares with
irfpia-fTOTepov

for

APPENDIX
modern Greek

are

Xebi>,

re; t/utmoyieW

187

so too are p?re

for ofce

fi^re

the very frequent use of oXoy for TTOS; the

employment of

i.

(common

vTrapx"

vTrrjpxf,

to

Luke and

St.

John) as simply equivalent to rjv, eWt; iropevov ei?

for ev elpfjvT]
QfXeis (*ura>p.fv ; Kara awyKvpiav (in modern
St.

also

KCLTO.

<rwTvxiav)

Els

vision.

fTT)

flpi'ivrjv

Greek

arrived simply; oTTTao-m for

a regular form of congratula-

f(pda<rev for

',

TToXXd, xii. 19, is

The phrase rich toward

God is hard we should rather say rich in God/ taking s as
O
equivalent to fv. Hoia u>pa for rivi &pa is modern Greek.
of
festive
Kavo-cav is also modern Greek.
Ev<ppaivoiJ.ai,
enjoy'

tion in Greece at the present day.

'

'

'

ment/
in St.

used in exactly the same connection in three places

is

Luke

modern Greek drinking-song

as in the

KepacrTf

<&e'/)re

BaXre vu

Na

The phrase
ring in

it

7riovp.e,

ev<

ev(ppaLv6p.fvos Kad

which

is

loquial Greek.

^tpav

'Qdwao-ai, <pdyca-at KOL

have, again,
irifo-ai

spelling

for

meaning

in the middle.

dwwreo-e,

for

chap.

Am

(TTO.S,

passim

xvii.

has a modern

one familiar with

rfv KOITTJV

for eV

rfj

col-

KOIT~J.

modern forms, com-

'Avdirea-ai is clearly

a false

as there could

be no

7,

pea-ov 2apap*las KOL

FoXtXauw,

p-era

with observation, a singularly modern phrase,

Svo-KoXus for ^aXeTroiy, TpvpaXias, cf. dvdpaiudy

&C., Kaipbs for xpovos, eyyifav,

larxy<0

els

are startling

ing as they do so close together.

\ap.rrp5>s

quite astounding to

We

for

tovvaftcu,

eirdvoa

for

eiri,

TraiSeuo-co

castigabo,

TO TTWS TrapaSoj, eixaipiav, \peiav

TO f fvamiov avrov, u>p.i\ovv for e'XaXow,

a-vgrjrf'iv,

e^o/uei/,

ev\oy),

simple ^avw, are other modernisms of St. Luke.

an
*EKpvfie
interesting form because condemned by Phrynichus, who, if the German critics be right, was almost a conis

temporary of the writer of

this

Gospel,

APPENDIX

88

There can be

little

I.

doubt that the Acts of the Apostles

an age as late as the Gospel according to St.

not later.
There is much general similarity in the

belongs to
if

Luke,

language, notwithstanding the difference in the spirit and

tendency of the whole; but one phrase claims our especial
notice, as a very decided

New

in the

Testament.

modernism not found elsewhere

This is the word yevcracrdai used in

the sense not of 'to taste/ but 'to eat/ in fact 'to dine;'
cytvcro

TrpoaTTfivos
is

Kai

fjQeXe

dinner, yfvop.m,

to

yevcrao-dai.

dine ;

In modern Greek

irpoyfi>op,ai,

to

breakfast ; TO

the afternoon.
I

need not remind those who are acquainted with the

investigations of Baur, Schwegler, and Hilgenfeld,

critical

which a purely philological examination seems likely to lead us are the same to which they
have arrived on other grounds, grounds quite strong enough
that the conclusions to

so readily admitted by most,

that they can altogether afford to dispense with even such
evidence as the present, which, while not altogether as conin

themselves, but

clusive as

still

some might

not

desire,

is

yet, as

think even this

meagre sketch has shown, not mere fancy or guess-work, but

subject to definite rules ; and capable of leading to definite
results.
Above all, I think it is an advantage when a question of this kind can be removed for a moment from the
heated arena of theological strife, and looked upon in the
'
clear dry light' of the passionless science of philology.

APPENDIX
A

II.

Short Lexilogus, containing a few of such words in

modern and ancient Greek as seem to derive additional light by comparison.
or a

"A/3aXe,
,

a>$eXe,

That

Callim. Fr. 455, Anth. P. 7. 699,

/3<iXe,

Alcman. Fr.

said to be equivalent in

2, is

and seems

&c.,

/3aXe,

or

to

should

/3aXe,

and

meaning

to

be an imperative from
grant' is not at all

mean

'

unnatural, but what an abundant confirmation of this theory

is

it

to find in

modern Greek

the derivative form /SoXeT-

licet.

;,

The probable radical identity of

The modern Greek
epwrtKos, seems to make this etymo-

ayavo'y, "Aya/3os.

these words has been noticed above.

dyavrtKos, or dya^riKos

logy

still

more

Ayye'XXco.

likely.

The

derivation of this

other than ai/a-xeXXoo;

KeAXco

Ke'Xo/zai,

and possibly

At any

rate the root of the

Professor

Max

Ke'Xofiai, Ke'XaSor,

word can hardly be any

being used in the

identical in root with

re'XX&>

sense

of

in eVireXXco.

second half of the word

is

(as

me) gar-, which appears in

and as the form ye'X- is not found

Miiller informs

and

KaXe'co

elsewhere in Greek, I think

result of the contact

of

we must assume

with the nasal.

that the y is the

APPENDIX

190
This

"Ayovpos.

is

interest attaching to

form

ya>pa for &pa,

modern Greek form of

the

The

aa>pos.

consists in the fact that

it

it

implies a

precisely what the cognate forms

German, &c., would lead us to

which

is

Zend, jahr in

in

ydre

II.

expect.

This word would mean,

'AypoiKoi.

found in ancient

if

Greek, 'to be boorish, rude, or ignorant;' in

on the other hand,

Kai

ocroi

means

it

TOV

to

7roXe/x,ou

know,
TTJV

modern Greek,

e. g.

rexvrjv dypoiKOvv.

War Song

Here

of Rbegas.

the signification which usage has sanctioned seems to

be the very reverse of the

original.

Perhaps we have an
'

intermediate stage in the aypouoo-o^of,

coarsely wise,' of
Philo, and the aypoi<os o-o^m of Plato's Phaedrus, 299 E.

We

too talk of being rough and ready.' What if we should

have in the history of this word the record of the popular
'

prejudice against philosophy, as a useless unpractical study

in the Republic of Plato ?

which we have described

Is

it

o-o^eTre,

not as though the honest farmer

de dypoiKoi),

<ryo>

i.

said, vpcls pev <f>i\o-

while you are star-gazing I am

To such a man <iAoo-o0/a is 'the

e.

'

working in my farm.'
would-be-wisdom,' aypoueia useful knowledge.'
This accords very well with the usage of
'

means

to

know an

art,

rather than a science;

example quoted above.

the boor, as

you philosophers

transitive use of dypoiKw in the

fully adopt Professor

originally have meant

'AXerpi

is

Max
'

call

me.'

example

likely a
'

it

were,

With regard

am

to the

cited above, I thank-

comparing

for aporpov.

the

in

Mailer's suggestion, that

to cultivate/

modern Greek

as

There was, moreover, very

sense of irony in this use of aypoiKu, as though

which

dypoiKa>,

it

may

oiKovopS>.

Does not

this

go

far

to establish the original identity of the roots dpo- and d\e- or

Petavius, Uranolog. p. 258, calls the constellation

APPENDIX
Orion

less

than a ploughshare.

the constellation in question

'A/IT),

is

modern Greek word

think be written

191

In modern Greek

d\Tpoir68iov.

more nor

II.

or

dfifj

&^

Its aptitude as applied to

striking.
'

'

however/ should I
which in classical Greek is

for

but/

hardly found save in the compound d^yenr) =

'

meanings,

in

neither

aAerpoTro'Sioi/ is

some way or another/ and

'

The

OTTOHTOVV.
'

anyhow/

how-

ever/ are very nearly allied.

"Atos

is

from

according to Liddell and Scott ; whether

'that which is esteemed.'

aya>,

which weighs' or

in the sense of 'that

This derivation prepares us to recognise in

Greek for

'solitude/

etymology

and

e. p.ovat;ia
(cf.o-rparta

i.

in povag or p,ovvd,

juoray-o-iaj

'

'

povagid,

modern

for orpaTta, &C.), the

Od.

417? povdy-s',

ii.

lead a lonely life.'

-ao>
It seems very likely that the termination
is often to be
thus explained, as standing for an original -dya>. So we have
in povafa, povdyu!)

I live lonely/

'
7mpao>, to lead an attempt/ i. e. to attack, tempt, or tease,
of which the aorist is in modern Greek eWpaa pointing to
;

an original

just as a-wdya>

ireipdyo),

metaplastic for dpds.

iveco,

cited

is

in

This word throws

The word

by Hesychius.

modern Greek means turn/ order/

'

modern Greek

'

'

light

on

dpdda

in

row.'

probably connected with the Sanscrit bdrbaras,

= stultus, and with the
which
vdrvaras,
according to Bopp
Latin lalbus, balbutio.

mering/

'

/3ep.3epia),

to

The modern Greek

stammer/

is

'

/3e'p/3epor,

stam-

a striking and obvious

confirmation of this etymology.

a very interesting word, because its

etymology involves so many others; and also because, while
it occurs in almost
every Greek writer from the age of
Ba<7Tao>.

This

's

APPENDIX

192

Homer

II.

New

Testament, we only find its deriBaordo> is plainly a compound

vation in modern Greek.
to that of the

standing for fiaora

OTCIKTOS,

and the modern

e/3d<rraa.

Baora

burdens.'

But what

the answer in

and

we may

as

aya>,

(really

see from /3doray/ia,

most ancient) Greek

can mean nothing

aya>

the etymology of

is

modern Greek,

in

which

than 'I bear

else

We

/3a<rrd ?

means

/3d<i>

fia-

aorist

'

have

I put/

in sense = /3dXXo>.

Baora means, accordingly, burdens,

loads, things placed on the back of the horse, mule, or ass.
word of cognate meaning is /3aW, which leads us to

connect /SaiW, /SaW,

Assuming, as

and

fiafa,

/3t/3a'o>.

we may,

I think

that this is the radical sig-

nification of the ancient /3aco in the

TrcTrvvpcva

fidgets,

Homeric, di/e/icoXia pd^is,

have
a
&c., we
striking analogy in the

word Xe'yoo, which originally meant to put,' the English lay

and the German legen being doubtless from the same root.
Here belong ep.irdfrp.at, modern Greek ep.7rdfrp.ai or ep.fidfrp.ai,
'

with the simple verb

= curae mihi

t'is

fidfrp.at

est,

i.

e.

'I put

With fidfrp,ai, ep.irdfrp.ai, cf. franca, ep,fiaTeo),

it.'
and in modern Greek fiaiva>, cpiraiva>. For the phonetic law
on which such changes depend, see p. 37.
myself into

more than
suspect this is a vulgar corruption, taken from the mouth of
the common people, of eVc/3a\Ao>, the modern Greek /SyoXXw,
which is by metathesis for ey/SoXXw. BydXXo> at/wi means I
So /SyoXXw ya'Xa, I
I am bled.'
bleed,' and /3ydXXo/iai alpa,
'

BSoXXo) means, in ancient Greek,

to milk.'

'

'

milk/ and

'

/3yaXXo/xai

ya'Xa,

fi8d\\ovrai ya'Xa, Arist.

fideu

from
i,

'

eK-fieat,

go ;'

for

yield
3,

put forth/

/35eXXa,

eK/3dXX<u,

H. A.
'

'I

'

i.

e.

21,
fie<a

milk.'
2.

being the transitive of

the vomiter/

whence

also

Compare fifes
The etymology of
from

/3SeXvo-o-o),

is

/35eXXto,

i.

e.

more than

probable.

or

fifKKos,

which Herodotus says

is

Phrygian, Hip-

APPENDIX

II.

for 'bread/ should

ponax Cyprian,

193

be compared with the

Here too belong,

Albanian dowa, which also means
as Professor Max Miiller reminds me, the German backen,
'

bread.'

Gebdck, the English bake.

and

form ydXavbs means,

modern,

'

in ancient

''

Greek,

another form for yvpivos;

Greek yvpvco and yepvu = yvpa>.
Tiepddvt for yiepddviov

He

tioris/ aquatile.

may

compare

modern

in

'

rightly connects

it

with dpbaiva.

Are

be Indogermanic) and
not connected with the same root ? This seems

names Jordan (supposing

We

likely.

sea, in

means, according to Passow, in the

Carmina popularia Graeciae recen-

to his

Glossary appended

'idpSavos

calm/ of the

blue/ of the sky.

Ttpivos is

the

The Doric

are said to be connected.

yaXfjvr}

must

stand for

TXrjyopa,

fit-,

it

not, however, forget that the yi- in yiepddvi

i.

yprjyopa,

e. Sid.

or 6y\r)yopa

eyprjyopa

',

a neuter plural,

used adverbially from ypfyopos (connected with eyeipa), lypi]The word ypfjyopos, though found only in modern
yopa).
Greek, plainly existed in the age of the Septuagint, as is
proved by the word yprjyopw, which is equivalent in force to
ypyyopos

tlfU.

rx/o-xpos, oXto-^aiVo), 6\i<r6r)p6s.

That these words are con-

nected seems probable from the modern Greek yXiarpda),

to slide/ yXiarepos = 6\i<r6r)p6s.
'co,
'

This word

mean

'

the

Grim

ing of yopyos
*

One.'

explained by Liddell and Scott to

is

The mediaeval and modern mean'

simply swift/
Xenophon uses yopybs of
and
Eustathius
of
a concise style.'
Is not
spirited horses/
is

'

yopybs connected with eyeipu, standing for yopios?

p. 1 1 6 ^wpya for x</3ta.
Aidfpopov in

pare Thuc.

modern Greek =

iv.

KepSos,

86.

TO.

8id(popa

See on

= TOKOS

com-

APPENDIX

194

II.

Clem. Al. 231, receives abundant

from the modern formations,

for

ira6alvu>

illustration

TTUO-^O), p.a&aiv<o

for Tvy\a.vu>, aTrodaivw for dTrodvrjo-Ka, K.

Are not these words connected with the

eiipus.

modern Greek

for

r. X.

fipup-T],

stink?

stench,

/3p<0fiao>,

If apw/xa be,
'

as Pott suspects, connected with the Sanscrit ghrd, to smell,'

that too must stand for an original yp5>p.a or /3payia.
Za/3a, lorica,

Does not

modern Greek word.

this

To

mean,

that which goes across/ i. e. Ata^a.

ai>a',3rt,
So too
occur in the sense of dvdpao-is and Kardpao-ts.
'

seems to be formed from

or

'slants'

meaning,

by

A
'

'

'

strange/

silly/

etymology
'

wrinkle/
fail

hardly
Qavfj

equally

and

furrow/

'

Zo/36s

which

Its derivative
diagonal.
be illustrated
well
foolish/ may

is suggested for
'

to wrinkle/

to detect the

that

compared with the German

the English 'queer/

similar

to

mean

as

'goes across/

'

and

Sia/3a-,

TO Kara/3a

p?>

to furrow/

etymology

quer.

tpoi>, fcp6va>

where we can

8i-dpos, 8i-dpov, 8i.ap6co.

is modern Greek for Odvaros, which is, however,

common.
Savr] is plainly a more primitive form,

ddvaros, like Ka^arof,

implied in r^iidavos, Bavfiv, &C.
being a derivative, and adjectival or participial rather than
is

substantival

"I.

in

we

form, as

This, the nominative of

Greek as the masculine

see

article.

dBdvaros]

cf.

appears in modem
In some parts of Greece/

e, "v,
'

in

or

u>,

'the
says Mr. Sophocles (Modern Greek Grammar, p. 65),
he
uneducated use for 6, as 8da-Ka\os, avdpas.' But
adds,
f)

17

'

f)

This peculiarity does not extend beyond the nominative

a most significant fact, and proves

beyond dispute that this (or i as I should write it) is certhe mascutainly not the feminine article used ignorantly for

singular.'

Surely that

is

f]

line.

Add

to this the fact that in

Albanian

or

appears

APPENDIX

II.

195

as the masculine nominative of the definite article,

is

any room

scarcely

modern and
ri

rtaa>

is

ancient

common

and there

doubt as to the identity of the

for

1.

in the

New

Testament and Septuagint

for

we have no example of this in modern Greek, but Ivameans to be obstinate ;' which, if the word be of Greek
'

derivation at

all,

must mean

'

to

keep asking why?'

form, but

we

only find the forms eyxdpo-toy, eVtKapo-ios in classical writers.

It

Hesychius and Suidas give

Kapo-*oy.

is

therefore

seem

K\QVCO,

too of the

xXavyco,

German

meet with

Cretan

Kpava>,

The modern

compared with

We

more

likely than not.

klagen and our cry.

Kpavyij,

should think

means the kernel of a pine-cone/ KOKKaXia,

In modern Greek TO. Ko<Ka\a stands for TO.
'

KoKKaXos
snails.'

With regard
oarrpciKov, and
KoXa.

pound

to

Is not this connected with K/mo>?

to render this

leech,'

modern Greek

in

fvavrlov.

KAmco.

Greek

interesting

this

association of ideas, compare

oorptHus = KOKKO\OS.
to the

Does not

this

word mean

perhaps connected with

/3pov-Ko'Xa,

/3pu*oXa, in

'

'

landoa-ra.

OO-TOVV,

one who sucks

like a

The com-

*o'XXa, KoXXaco?

modern Greek

means 'a

'

blood-sucker,' a vampire/
Epovs, according to Hesychius,
= ineiv ; and ftpvv flrceiv, Ar. Nub.
1382 = to cry for drink.'
The flatterer is called *oXa because he is a parasite.
'

Koj/ra in

tion?

If

modern Greek means

Donaldson (New Cratylus,

right in regarding *ca-Ta as a

What

'near.'

is its

deriva-

349, 3rd edit.) is

of *a = <ev and the

p.

compound

he points out, there must have been a form

case KOVTO. may very well be another form of

suffix TO, then, as

In
a,

this

the change of o and

being, as

o 2

we have

seen, almost

APPENDIX

1^6

= by/ or 'near/
short, which occurs already in

From

a matter of course in Greek.

we

II.

get the adjective KOVTOS,

'

KOI/TO

Byzantine Greek, and Kovrevu, 'to approach/ also

'

KOVTO.K.IOV,

a breviary/

is

In modern Greek

KpuoraXXof, Kpvepos.

common word

the

With these should be

dfjL<pi\vKrj, Xeucro-co, yXaixrcra).

?,

modern Greek

the

compared

<pva t

itpvos,

for

'

it

yXuKo^apa^ei,

y\vK.o$eyyfi,

dawns.'

In modern Greek

Mo.
tive

and

and

p.a

positive sense

TO vat,

which

appears to be a
being
also

this

word

used both

is

as in the formulas

latter

&eo\>.

fjif)v,

and the whole

modern Greek we have

'

with/ for

/xcTo.

p.f)v

for

This leads us

really for n^-va, just as

crit.

Now

is

to

Ma

7rapaaXo>
p.a

is
//a

as another

considering mere
also connects

t^e,

He

Now

it

is

be significant, that in
^.e in the sense of

^, and

to the further inference that

appears to be for fna, Sansactually found in modern Greek as an

P.TJV is

p.fjva

o-e

series with ^e in fif-ra.

and seems

certainly interesting,

for vaov.

Donaldson considers

form of M, and connects both with ^e,

subjectivity to be the primary notion.
with

TOV o-ravpov,

/xa

of heathen times, the obvious derivation

relic

TO vatov, vaiov

TOV dfbv for Trpbs TOV

a nega-

form of affirmation or negation

being a diminutive
used in formulas of supplication, as
p.a

in

r\v

interrogative particle.

This leads us

to consider the force of va,

which Donaldson

from the speaker.

As a termination he finds it in ai/, JW, and fjv, but nowhere
as a separate word.
But in modern Greek we have va
as an independent word in what, if Donaldson be right, is
everywhere regards as denoting remoteness

its

most primary form and

there/ voilh } va TO, le voila.

signification.
It is also

used

Na means
(like

vrj

in

'

see

APPENDIX
as a strengthening

II.

demonstrative

197
avrdva

e. g.

suffix,

and

not twice, though modified in the second place, in

once,
the forms epevave, etrevave.
if

In the vulgar, but we cannot doubt extremely ancient,

forms avTijvos, avrovvos, CLVTOVOS = avros, avrfjvr) = avrr], avTovoov =

we

avrcov, &c.,

find this objective particle

'Am occurs

middle of a word.

Greek

very

Miiller,

as in ancient

e. g. dvdfiados,

means, in modern Greek,

a

inserted in the

modern

in

for the shorter a privative,

v-

'

dvap.e\)

The

to fight.'

one, which, according to Professor

have under a great variety of forms ; which

be referred however

to

for

root

common
we

is

Max
may

two main heads, namely mar- or mal-

as their respective starting-points.

From it we get,
grind or crush.

The

original sense

is

to

other words, mri-

among

ndmi

Sanscrit, fj.dpvap.ai Greek, and I suspect also p.w\os,

as well as the modern Greek /uaAo'i/co, and p.a\fpbs, which

means 'quarrelsome/
root
in

Mola and

are from the

JJLV\OS

same

need hardly be added, the English mill/ which

secondary and vulgar employment bears the same
'

and,

its

it

sense as na\6va>.
Mrjyapr),

riyapr),

lent in sense to

riyap, i.e.

^.

p.a>v,

p.rj

The

yap

fj,

ri

yap

rlyap,

fj,

equiva-

force of the several particles

is very plain, and is

preserved intact, although the particles
themselves are for the most part obsolete in modern Greek.

Tap = ye ap is equivalent to
*
do not imagine/ and i) =
verb
[or]

so wyapr)

is

he

'

f'pxerai

In

'

German

'

why then/

'

w has

the force of

or/ introducing the following

surely then he

is

not coming

the form of expression

is

very

common, and wyapr) epxtrai might be almost literally translated thus, Er wird ja denn nicht kommen, oder ?
Similarly
riyaprj

forms

would mean
wyaprj,

'

What

riyaprj

are

then

?'

or

'

Is

interesting,

it

really so

inasmuch

?'

as

The
they

APPENDIX

198

II.

preserve the old conjunction yap which

planted by

and

Mvtjo-Ka

Compare

elsewhere sup-

is

diori.

are

pvaio-Kio

modern Greek forms

and the Doric

0j/jJo-Ko>

dvaia-KO)

for

peW

in ancient Greek.

are allowable.

Perhaps both ways of accenting this word

'OpoCo-e would then be an imperfect from the

root opo-, as in

modern Greek

'OpoCo-c, opovo-e.

while opova-e would be a

o-oi/ca),

modern Greek we seem

yiovpovcriov,

first

to have a derivative

6. diopovcriov

i.

from ^pvo-dw (xpvaorist from 6pova>.

In

e'xpuo-ovo-e

'

opp.Tjp.a,

form

opovo> in

a sally/

and ireraXov. These appear to be but different forms

of the same word, when we know that nfraXov in modern
ne'StXoz/

Greek
pare

is

the regular

Treftavpos

We may

for a horse- shoe.

The

ireravpos.

which

for

nTT)\ov,

and

word

neriXov,

com-

Ionic form of ircraXov

would

ireSiXov,

be

IS

natural

iotacism.

am

Trepaca.

inclined

sense of the
,

connect both these

to

words by means of the modern Greek

which has the

Trepi/aw,

latter.

This word

TTOU.

never as an enclitic

always written as a proclitic nov,

in modern Greek; but this can

is

TTOU,

hardly be more than a matter of writing, for

qualifying particle

though more

is

very similar to

tions as the following

that

Here
'

he

dvo-Tvxn?

is/ or ri SUOTU;^S TTOU

seems a connecting

it

que paresseux que vous

ing particle in ancient Greek,

TTOU,

come

Does

to be

'

And
e. g.

employment,

used in such exclama-

*lvai,

eivai,

use as a

i.

e.

'

unhappy man

how unhappy

like the
is it

French

is

he/

que, as

not also a connect-

in

ra>r TTOU,
ro^a TTOU,
so
we
'if
that'
in old
Just
say
not this help us to understand how irov has

fdv TTOV, ore irov

English.

KV

particle,

etes/

classical

its

It is chiefly

restricted.

its

used in modern Greek as an indeclinable

rela-

APPENDIX

II.

Let us see whether we have not

tive?

199
at least

something
which looks very like this vulgar usage in the colloquial
In the Knights,' line 203, the
language of Aristophanes.
'

d\\avT07ra\7)s puts the question

S'

fOTWj

d-yicuXo^TjX^f

which the answer

to

is

avTO TTOU Xeyet,

on

ayKvkais rat? x P (T ^ v apirdfav

<pep*i-

Here Adolph von Velsen (Aristophanis Equites, Leipzig, 1869)

being offended at avrbs used apparently as
a simple demonstrative. Mr. W. G. Clark (Journal of Philology,
vol. ii. p.
314) retains the reading of the MSS., but transreads TOUTO

lates

the

TTOV Xe'yei,

The

'

thing speaks for

must be translated

TTOU

itself;' in
'

take

which case, I presume,

But surely this is a

it.'

very stilted expression for so colloquial a style. With regard

meaning of avro, there are innumerable instances

to the

where
as,

it

plainly

means simply

for example, avrb owe

362 d; and

aui-6

av (fa TO

to say with Liddell

is

stood,

ment

'

that,'

eiprjrai,
fie'oi/

and Scott

efy,

even in

classical

e8,

fiaXiora

Xen. An.

that TOVTO or

Greek

Plat.

4. 7,
e'/mi/o

Rep.

7; where
is

under-

In the New Testavery like begging the question.

meets us at every turn in the sense of OVTOS or

avTos

cKdvos,

and indeed

it is almost a
necessary demonstrative,
holds a middle position between OVTOS and
just as O.VTOV, in modern and ancient Greek, holds a

inasmuch as
exelvos,

it

middle place between

Now

in

o>8e

modern Greek

should prefer to write

it,

and

c.

the sense of auro

avTb TTOV

TTOU

Xey,

or, as

we

Xry, would be very simple

indeed, and suit the passage exactly.

The
answer

question
is,

better than,

AUTO

is,

'What does

'Just what
'

it

says;'

dyKuXo^j/X^s

mean?' and the

co>r6 TTOU Xe'yei.

Surely this

is

imagine it speaks for itself.'

a very common phrase in modern Greek

TTOU Xe'yeis is

APPENDIX

2OO

II.

so common, that I have known and conversed

who invariably prefaced their remarks by this

means

with people
singular ex-

you say/ and implies either that the

words
have
been
speaker's
suggested by some remark which
It

pression.

'

as

the person addressed has let

rate

or

fall,

or that he reckons at any

on your agreement with what he

says.

This word means, as stated on page 94, a ghost

the modern Greeks.
Yet that is hardly a

demon among

sufficient definition of the

word.

Sroixflov

the popular belief, the principle of

which

lies

life

is,

according to

or spiritual power

concealed in every natural object, animate or

For a very striking and singularly felicitous

of
the origin of this superstition, see an essay
explanation
On the Origin of Animal Worship &c., in the Fortnightly
inanimate.

'

'

Review'

'

May i, 1870, by Mr. Herbert Spencer, who,

the
belief in the continued existence of an active
regarding
personality after death as the origin of all religious befor

supposes that the names of natural objects, as mountain/ 'bear/ lion/ &c., were first applied to the living in
'

lief,

default of abstract names, in order to indicate height, shagginess, fierceness,

and so

in

forth

that such

metaphors were

that

succeeding generations,
perpetuated
patronymics;
ignorant of the origin of the metaphor, interpreted it as
literal

fact,

and supposed

that they were really descended

from mountains, bears, or lions hence arose the belief that

other self, which continued to exist when the body
was dead, and needed to be propitiated, was to be looked
:

that

animate or inanimate natural objects. The belief in

monsters would arise from compound patronymics, such as
for in

would be formed when, for instance, 'a chief, nicknamed

away from an adjacent tribe a wife who is

the Wolf, carries

remembered
a

woman/

either

under the animal name of her

tribe,

or as

APPENDIX
Unite with

this

201

II.

once universally prevalent superstition, the

power of the Greek's poetic and vivid imaginaand w e seem at once to understand the secret of Greek

reserving
tion,

mythology and of Greek

The

superstition.

Christian

has succeeded to a great extent in supplanting the

it has left the second almost untouched.

The

vrjpfiftes,

among

dogma

first,

but

or water nymphs, still survive as vapaidfs or

the modern Greeks while Xdpwv, though de;

prived of his boat and his office of ferryman, conducts the

But in no respect
souls of the dead to "AS*?? on horseback.
is

the belief of ancient Greece

more

faithfully

preserved than

in regard to the da[p.oves or oroixa, the personified

powers of

According to the Greek belief, anything may become a o-roixflov, from a rock or a river to a bird or a beast.
Nature.

Often

conceived

this oroixeToz/ is

of, like

the ancient daip.wv, as

the spirit of some departed hero, with whose actions during

associated.
life this or that natural
object has been especially

Sometimes, on the other hand, and

this is

still

more com-

mon, the powers of nature are personified without being

identified with

any particular human being.

Achilles con-

versing with his horses, or with the river Scamander, is

exactly the kind of thing which meets us at every turn in

The question which we

popular modern Greek poetry.
have now to ask is, How old is the signification which the
modern Greeks
is

give to oroixetoi/,
the
force
of o-roi^t lov ?
really

and how did

In the

first

it

arise

place,

?
What
we must

from Liddell and Scott, who regard it

as a diminutive of o-roixos, a row/ and leave us to infer that

most decidedly

differ

'

because

means a row of
'

o-roi^or

poles' (or indeed of anything

else), that therefore the so-called

mean
of

'

'

little

o-roixflov,

sundial.
tive,

but

diminutive

pole ;
the upright rod which throws

But

O-TOI^OS-

a-roixiov, just

oroixetoi/

might

hence they give as the original

would not give us

its

meaning
shadow on the

O-TOIX^OV as a

as roixos gives us rotxiov

diminu-

-flov is

never

APPENDIX

II.

cause surprise
that, believing as we do in the general identity of the modern
and ancient pronunciation of the Greek language, we should
have so much difficulty in accepting an etymology which

used as a diminutive termination.

would simply require us

may

It

as another

to regard

way of

but here the modern Greek language itself enters

writing
a most emphatic protest against confusing a short t with the
diphthongal el, or even with I. Had oToi^elov stood for orott

a matter of absolute certainty, which no one

acquainted with the principles of modern Greek etymology
could doubt for a moment, that its Romaic form would have
is

Xiov,

it

been

a-rotxi

just as
fiov

pvT)p.tlov

and

lov

this

a-Tolxos,

as

mean a
There

come,

/ui^/ietd,

Si-o^eio?

cannot

little

rod ;

It

and the

regularly preserve the

it

is

not the case.

is

appears as

modern Greek.

in

it

But

it

no diminutive form of

is

stand for orotxiW.

if it

Nor,

would rather mean a

it

as regularly loses

o, lov

then

appears as aroixeio,
never lost

final o is

little

were, could

row.

no doubt about the derivation of

like orolxoy,

from

orei^a,

(rroixelov ; it must
which although only found in

the derivative sense of 'directing one's steps,' 'proceeding,' may

have meant originally to arrange.' Hence we see its con'

nection with

(m'xoff

and

force of the termination,

oroxab/Liai.

we

Bearing in mind the

see that as TO

/nz/i/^elov

means

(rroixtiov might mean 'that

which arranges,' marks out,' points.' The ovoixflov of the
sundial was the intelligent part of it, compared to a human
being who observes the progress of the sun in the heavens,

'that which reminds,' 'memorial;' so

'

'

and hence called also yvupw. Or, to get the meaning still
more simply from orei'x<>, may not orot^etov have signified
that which moves ?' referring of course to the shadow

'

of

the

upright

<rrotxeioi>

really

SfKuTrovv

o-Toixftov,

ten

feet

long.

rod,

had
i.

In

rather

than

the

rod

itself.

That

meaning appears from the phrase

supper time when the shadow was

this
c.

any

case,

the

idea

of

regular,

in-

APPENDIX
tentional,

403

motion indicative

intelligent

:ontained in the

II.

word

and

crm'x<<>

course the shadow to which

life

of intelligence

o-Toi^etoi/;

and

and

intelligence

it

is

was of

were

attri-

There must have been something awfully mysterious

in the regular progression of that shadow across the dial,
even to the inventor who had some dim perception of
buted.

and effect but how much more to the ordiThat little upright rod, he obnary man who had none.
a
shadow like his own, a second
had
with
served
amazement,
far more knowing (yvd>pa>v)
self; and this second self was
natural cause

rod which always stood still in the same place.

Then he would soon observe that rocks and trees and

than the

little

animals had also their

O-TOIX*

become with him a name

to
ality which he seemed

and

aToixeiov

would naturally

for that living or moving person-

behind
(TKia is

all

Do we not now understand why

natural objects.

used of the

spirits

more remarkable, how

it

of the departed ? and, what is still

that we have inherited the word

is

gnome, plainly connected with

or genie

spectively

or

yi/eb/ieoi',

to frighten/

to-Ktof,

from

'

O-KIU,

to

in the sense of spirit

modern Greek remeaning

fear/ and the masculine derivative

SKidfa, a-Kid&iwi,

?
'

a-Kios

connected with, and hidden

find

in

are sufficient indications of the ap-

palling sense of personality with

which the Greeks

still

con-

tinue to regard shadows.

But now, how are we to connect this meaning of aroix^ov

with the Platonic and subsequent philosophic usage of the
word in the sense of element?' This is not very difficult.
The shadow, the orotxeloi/, was the mysterious hidden self, the
'

shrinking away almost to

nothing in broad noonday, and slowly but regularly creeping
Therefore to the
out as the sun approached the horizon.
inner personality of

all

things,

popular mind, and more or less even to themselves, the

inquiry of the physical philosophers after the beginnings of
all

things

was a kind of necromancy, a search

for ghosts.

APPENDIX

204

Hence

II.

that for a long time the Ionic

philosophers
difficulty in enduing their oroi^eTa or dpxal with life

no

had

it is

and

motion, or rather they were unable to conceive of them as

divested of these attributes of personality.
It belonged
naturally to Plato, the great popularizer of philosophy, to
adopt the people's word a-roixflov, and give it a philosophical
meaning, thus combating in friendly guise the eW/xn KOI d\i-

387 c) of the popular superstition. What a

conception do we here obtain of the struggle between

pavTfs (Rep.
fine

Greek enlightenment and Greek superstition. To get at the

bottom of these vTotxela, these dreadful phantoms, to penetrate to their pt&paTa with
Empedocles, and show, as he
thought he could, that there were but four of them after
this was, as the
physical

philosophers vainly hoped, to

all
'

rob

the grave of victory, and take the sting from death/

The word orotxe fa, as applied by Plato to the letters of the
alphabet, indicated originally not the signs, but the 'living
voices/ the souls, so to speak, of the letters, just as litterae

and elementa

arum were distinguished by the Latin

this word o-roi^etov would inevitably conPlato's mind with his doctrine of ideas, is seen
litter

grammarians. That
nect itself in
at once,

the

and the

force of his polemical attitude towards

belief appears when we consider that the

popular
of the

oroi^eTa

own.

full

common

people were the antipodes of his

Shadows were with him the least real, with them

the most real, of

theirs

all

appearances.

were shadows and

His

oroi^eta

were

ideas,

reflections.

was the very essence of the popular notion of O-TOIX^OV

that it should exist independently of the object which first
It

suggested
sky

it.

among

traced.

So bears and rams were soon found in the

stars, where their outlines were fancifully

the

Hence we have

the signs of the Zodiac also called

used by
ecclesiastical writers, and by Manetho especially, of the
o-Tot^fia

(Diog. L.

vi.

102).

Hence,

too, orot^eTa is

APPENDIX
evenly bodies.
use of the word
iv.

(Gal.
drei

&c.

3,

Most

striking

beitungen

205

and conclusive

oroi^eta in phrases like

Col.

ii.

TO.

St.

is

Paul's

oroi^em TOV KOO-^OV

Baur (Christenthum der

20).

8,

ersten Jahrhunderte, p.

brief, p. 66,

II.

49) and Hilgenfeld (Galater-

Das Urchristenthum und

seine neuesten Bear-

Zeitschrift fur wissenschaftliche Theologie, erster

Jahrgang, Heft

i.

p.

expressly attribute

99)

sense to

this

words, and Hilgenfeld quotes Philo Judaeus (De

De Parentibus Colendis, 9, ed.
Humanitate,
3, p. 387
Tauchn. v. p. 62; De Vita Contemplativa,
i, p. 472), the
Clementine Homilies (x. 9. 25), and even a Sibylline fragSt. Paul's

ment

anterior to the time of Christ (Orac. Sibyll.

80, ed.

iii.

How too, he pertinently

support of this view.
Paul speak of the oroi^em TOV KOO-^OV as the
guardians or tutors of mankind before Christ, and of their
being enslaved or in bondage under them, and how could

Friedl.), in

asks, could

he so
to

St.

oppose them

directly

them a

real personality

the heavenly powers

by

Christ unless he attributed

to

That

St.

Paul means especially

o-roi^e?a TOV Koo-pov is plain

from the

connection in which he places them with the observance of

days and months and times and years.' How vivid his
'

between Christ and the

realization of the conflict

TOV Koo-p-ov
fj/.uv

may

TraXr)

f]

that ap;f7

is

be seen from Ephesians

Trpbs alp.a

KOI

synonym

crdpKa,

aX\a

vi.

12: "o

Trpbs TUS

OVK

ap^as (observe

for oroi^eioi'), Trpbs TUS

eowtaf,

TOVS KO(TfiOKpaTOpaS TOV CTKOTOVS TOV dltoVOS TOVTOV, TTpbs

p.(iTLKa TTJS irovrjpuu ev rots

We

are

now

in Byzantine

oW,

'

Greek comes

TiTdrj.

Trpbs
TTVfV-

enovpaviois.

in a position to understand

to haunt,' o-rotxaa>,

and

TO.

to
'

mean

to be

There

is

'

to

how

enchant/ and

haunted/ in modern Greek.

every reason to believe, with

Liddell and Scott, that these two forms are etymologically

connected.
The change of u and i, as well as the change of

APPENDIX

206
is

accent,

which we

'

come

is

In modern Greek,

&ddva>.
I

TO

;'

'

<pddo-i[j.ov,

be in time

to

steamer

this

:'

exact analogy as regards

supplied by the modern Greek /3dia,

cannot but regard as connected with pmos,

the meaning

'

An

perfectly regular.

II.

means simply

the arrival.'

as e<pda<ra TO

for,'

is,

<p6dva>

however,

its

It

'

'

nurse,'
'

little.'

I arrive,'

means, however, also

'

dTp.6ir\oiov,

transitive sense.

caught the

The

ordinary,

employment oftftddvv in classical Greek is represented

The modern
in modern Greek by the compound Trpocpddvco.
usage of <$>0dva> approaches most nearly to the ancient in the
phrase cpddvfi, it is enough.' Yet the fact that the compound
irpo(p6dva> is used by Aeschylus, Aristophanes, and Euripides,
is proof enough that (pddvw might mean in ancient Greek
absolute

'

simply 'I arrive,' 'I come,' 'I reach' (i. e.

wise Trpofpddva would be a pleonasm.
of

this, in

modern Greek

the

my destination), other-

The non-recognition
common, and, as we believe,

even in ancient Greek the original meaning of (frOd, has

caused much difficulty to the commentators on Thuc.
III. 49. 3,
OTTO)?

fjif],

KOI

evBvs

rpirjpr)

<pdacrdcrr}s

rrjs

a\\r)v

UTrforeXXoz/

devrepas, fvptocn

Kara

8ie(pdapp,evr}v

<r7rov8j}v,

TJ\V

TTO\IV

where we have only to disabuse our minds of the prejudice

that (pQao-doys must mean having first arrived,' translating
'

find
simply, lest, on the arrival of the second, they should
the city destroyed,' and all is clear.
'

Xdw.

and

This root appears in the modern x av(

in x aT nP

(from

x aT ^(0 ) =

>

<to

se /

TTO'^OJ.

word from ^dco,

termina^dXXco, ^add\\a>, ^aXdo-o-o), the -a<pda> being a mere
tion.' But even mere terminations must have some meaning,
and we will endeavour to suggest a more plausible and
complete etymology for ^Xa^eo than one which barely exVr}\a(f>>.

plains

To

Liddell

and Scott

derive this

one half of the word.

begin with what

is

most obvious:

a(pda>,

II. vi.

322,

APPENDIX
TO'

KOI ay/cuXa
77,

and means

means

'

20 7

II.

simply enough from

dcpovvra, is derived
'

to touch/ or

'

to feel

therefore ^r)\-a(pda>

plainly, to touch or feel in a particular manner,

implies an adjective
But
\}/T)\a>s or ^77X0.

^77X0'?,
I//T/XOS,

with

and

adverb

corresponding
is not found.

so written,

We

know, however, by the derivation of ^1X6? from tyda>, that

this word is merely an iotacism for ^rf\6s, and ought so to be
written

cf.

aTrarr/Xo'?,

from

Now

dirarda).

what does

^iXos-

or ^j/X6s according to its derivation mean ?

One signification is no doubt rubbed bare/ but an equally natural one,
and the prevailing one in modern Greek, is rubbed fine/
'

'

become powdery from

To distinguish this meaning

used, for instance, of tobacco that has

keeping, or of small

from the

coin.

preserving most faithfully the etymology from -v^ao), we may, if we like, write the word ^X6swhen used in this sense. Hence we have, as a matter of
classical,

'

course, ^77X0*07,
'

<ro(j5)&),

to

to split hairs/

'

to

mince matters

be over-subtle/ no doubt a play upon

<

\}sr)\oypd<pa>,

and an

as

to write fine;'

number

infinite

'
;

^77X0-

<^iXoo-o0w

^rj\oTpayov8>, 'to sing gently;'

besides,

for

the

modern Greek

language has an unlimited licence

multiplying such
compounds. Who, then, can resist the conclusion that
in

i^TjXa^aco

means

'

to touch lightly/

'

to feel about

one/ like
ancient Greek bears

German herumtappen. Its usage in

out this etymology most strikingly.
Xenophon, Eq. 2. 4,
uses it in the sense of stroking/ Latin palpare. In Aristhe

'

tophanes, Pax 691,

we have

fv

o-oYa> ^r/Xa^av Ta irpdynaTd

In Odyssee

comp. Eccl. 315, and

ix.

416,

we have

it

fie

Plato, Phaed. 99 b.
used of the blind Cyclops

\lrr)\a(f)6(aVj

AUTOS

5' eii/i

Ei' rivd

<rrfvdx<0v re Kai a>SiVa>i> 68vvr)<nv}

Xfptrt

djro

p.ev

\LBov eiXe dvpdcov,

Ovpycri /ca^e'^ero

TTOV p.fT oea-o-i XdjSoi

X f ^P

TTfao-trar

(rTfixovra

6vpae.

APPENDIX

208

also Acts Xvii. 27,

Compare
crfiav

rbv Kvpiov,

el

apa

avrov Kai fvpoifv.

is

and

r)Teiv

II.

used by Plutarch in the sense of

the essential condition of tickling

is,

as

'

tickling/

we know,

a light

touch.

This is one of those cases where a knowledge of modern

Greek enables us to pronounce with certainty for a derivation which it would seem has not so much as suggested itself
to philologers who have not made modern Greek their
study.
It is one of those extremely simple and obvious
etymologies
which,

when once

have so long
.

but

'

observed,

make

us wonder

how

they could

lain hidden.

In modern Greek, \^$a'o> means not

to care for

'

or

sense of cipher, as

'

'

we

regard
'

say,

apparently from

to reck not/

'

'

to vote,'

tyr/fos, in

reckless/ &c.

the

INDEX
OF

GREEK AND ALBANIAN WORDS.

e,

ov,

45.

p. 189.

107.
d|85eXXa, 12.
y,

105.

25.

afipdyw, 119.
af}pdfj.v\ov, 12.

",

12.

avai&aivca, 12.

35 I02<

9389.
, 136.
14436, 120.
)

Il6.

aitovfis,

93-

ava.6viJ.iaff is,

103.

a/SpoVai'OJ', 12.

113-

avdfiaOos, 190-

25.

aXaKaipais, 143.
60w, 36.

30.
29, 104,

16.

137.

190.

189.
a.yyfX\<a, 189.

117.

07705, &y/cos, 29.

190.

',

oAAa< uoi', -OTOS,

d\\ l/J-aTtov, 26.

1 08.

144-

103.

^10?, 191.
&ireipov, 93.

31.

&yKovpa, 2O.
&yovpa, 122.
&youpos, 189.
aypoiKw, 190.
aSava, 114.

1 08.

cbrd,

aflfa, 001,

dpataffis, 93.

'Apairta, 30.

37.

a, 37.

at av, 25.

&pSf/j.v, 129.

107.

aper)/, 96.

35.

"Ap77, 71-

35.

a?7a, afyay, 71, 74, 75at'et, 12.

12.

apaSa, 191.

30.

IO2.
,

Hpficav,

123.

at'ep, otes,

"ApojSas, 74apd" 7e, 99,

/C6Tos, 25.

28.

dere, 1 1 8.
006, 113.

OTrJ)

36.

aua, 12.
e/c,

77-

&/j.(ros irp6ra.ffis,

o/i^, a/i^,

IO2, 104.
146.
/jLa.Kp60ev, 105.

airoK6Ti]ffa,

35.

a/JLaprla,
t,

'A.tre\\<av, 24.

93.

a/yKouXa, 2O.

190.
a/j.o\yw, 35.
afiopyn, 20, 35.

fy>0T,

99.

130.

ap(n\os,

1 1 8.

apfiaOia, 12.

Sp/xora, 1 06.
,

106.

INDEX.

210
apow, 191.

192.

Sprt, 183.

107.

a>y,

A.

29.

/BeArepos,

78ua?, 144.
117.
So, 105, 108.

,83-

)S

w, 189.

/8jU)3pdy, 30.

d<7/mAa>7ray, 74.

jSepeflpoi/,

&<nra,K, 132.

/3er,

dtrrcuply, 12.

II.

ytpaKiv, 109.

192.
^^, 18.

yepwos, 193.

drdp, 131.
dre-fope, 132.
a-ne, 132.

76pj/w, 193.
yepovrs, 7432.
lS8.

16.

!,

192.

^132.

^27.

BiAapay, 30.

y(<f>vpa, 32.

BiAiTTTroy, 30.

7^?.

avrdva, 196.

3-

12.

r,

145-

777761/^5, 1 6.
7'a, 3 2 -

31.

avriov, 24.
aSrty, 38.

yiaivca, 32.

16.

)8oi', jSorjfleTv,

avros, parbs, 132.

ai^a--, 29.
S^ey, 103, 186.
d(p' oS,

fi>3,

118.

)8ovA77,

40.

yiovpovariov, 198.

fidyya, 24.
/3a{,ci), 192.

19.

103.

205.

3aAe, 185.

j8apu0w, 22.

fipiOca,

192.
fidp&apos, 191.
Bapiw^a, 24.

>,

74-

92.
143ro, 1 06.
jSaaTd,

31.

30.
c,

II 5

24.

i>,

192.

117.
30.

701)1',

2O.
1 1 8.

18.

7<ju'a?Ka,

30-

7oS7ro, 29.

1,31.

,33-

Vw, 192.

ta),

yopybs, 193.
7ouAia, 31.

184,
i,

2O2.

ya, 119.
1

193-

193.
31.

24.

70!,
"

)8aTe?j/,

>,

3-

*.

a^a>,

y\e<pff(0, \tvff &&>, 31.

12.

30.

71, 74.

192.

7AeTrw, 29.
y\t<papov, 29.

195193-

/Java),

.f'ay,

yXaKta, 31.
7Aapoy, 31.

y\-f)yopa, 193.

29.

5,8 3

32.

yia>K(*>,

'*.

6.

7/70?,

yivvos, 30.

115.
29
29
37-

134.

y,

31.

15

jSii'a, fiaibs,

145.
135.

'.45;u ,

24.

32.

jSoAe?, 189.

(fty,

105.

j8e'a>,

arfiOTrXovv,

73.

131.

&<pvpa, 29.
)37j,

at^v,

192

jSeA^ca, 12.

D/ia,

O.T p.6ir\oiov ,

187.

)8e/c^y, fitKKos,

93-

193.
&y, 103, 107.
do-di, 133.
,

29.

ydpyvpa, 29.

192.

33-

197.

yovpyovpas, 29.
ypdfJL/jiara olSe,

184.

ypdcpop, 121.
t

121.

INDEX.
ypacpovpevi, 121.

121.

',

103.

Si.

Siopifffj-bs,

ypov(T(ra, 119.

8(ou,

193.

119.

e/co>,

129.
ftlWKW, 32.

e\ e'x^Tj

1 1 6.

8a, 114.

5<5rcu,

Aa$i8, 29.
SayKavw, 31.

S^as, So^ats, 71, 78, 82.

94, 2OI.
Sdvovv, 130.
SdpKva, 31.

Spditos, 1 68.

IjUepa, 1 8.

97. 132122.

103. 185.
143tyvwKav, 184.
fy&v, ^o.
e'Se, IIO, 130.

Sepets, 183.

Aei/s, 31.

34.
SKO/J.CU, 38.

at,

194.
105.

s,

1 1 8.

8iai<pvpa, 32.

^a>,

36.
127.
38.
, 37.
iW, 37, 7 2
187.

6t'8t/cbs,
:,

89.

>,

Sidpos, 194.
8/ara, 12.

!,

97.
106.

26.

<t>vr)s,

71, 108.

eft/ray, f?vra,

149.

',

1936.

eis,

8t8a>, 8t5($j/w, 1 1 6.

32.

187.

108

26.

93.
103, 184, 187.

:,

1 1 8.

1 6.

97.

24.
u, 109.
,

1 1 8.

93.
.1, 35.

117-

97103, 187.
71, 108.
118.
i,

efx^w,

slvai, five, 79>

83-

o,

1 1 6.

184.

38.

119.
119.

i,

87.

eTfle,

32.
8id\fKTos now)), 115.

37.

edr)Ka, 80.

Sia/ctov,

',

1 1 8.

evoi%,

f&ov, 127.

37.

37.

/,

',77-

32.

185.

28.

va),

80.

!,

t|ei/,

16.

103.

98.

y,

Sia/j.fffov,

f/j.iro'iKa,

13-

16.

192.

37122, 123.
36.

f,79S(ra, 76.

24.
.?]/uas, 16.
t'^w,

17.

'

Sere, 135.

y,

30.

e>eVa, 71, 78.

5eou, 132.

AiSu^os,

37.

^e, 134.

25.

Sefoi', 79*

C,

122.

y, 185-

72.

j,

80.

>

6>as, 71.

72.

5evov[j.eve, 1 1 8.

i/a,

e/*a,

184.
132, 135.

rfii,

119.
8e, Sev, 144.
Setx^w, 1 1 8.

72

:a,

eAAej/os, 113.

*E\ufAiros, 24.

Spoffia,

ScfcruAo,

Sia

20.

I,

8ai/ua>v,

72, 83.

?Ac-7ci,

lAefes, 72, 83.

>

ITJ/CTJ,

1 1 8.

\a, 115.

i&X vu> JI 8.

i,

187.

15-

2O.

j,

122.

Kl,

97.

193*

yvaXov, 32.

SfW,

1.

S,

132.

i,

yprjyopos, 193.
ypu>u.ct)

IIO, 123.

SiKaiov, Siaibv, 26.

"3ypdfyi/u.ov,

211

I O6.

INDEX.
*,

*'

9-

74

epiv,

36,

',
185.
33.
^Tjraei, 12.
CTo, 120.

ep/co/iai, 1 1 8.

^Tos,

epos, cpor, 74V

C/tepSaAe'oy,

fpffTJV,

II.

72.
w, 105.

^,,

,^, ^.
ZfJLVpVtt,

f/J.tl/VTf],

33-

129.
129.
0d^i, 129.
0OOTT6, I3O.
,

opKa8iov, 31.

*Ve, 13.
eVels, 71.

;,

lo-eVa, 71, 78.

',

fs<, 117.
ecro, 79, 82, 107.
ecrov, 1 20, 125.

185.
eVrafljjj/, 103.

l(rra0T7,

Bpiyyos, 87.
0VfJ.OVKOV, 1 2O.

20.

12, 1 06.

IT, 197-

24.
129.
'> 143144, 183.
duo- tv, 130.
0ar, 129.
'

fiyov/Atvos, 103.

^7po0a, 117^5e, 16, 130.

13.

121.

e,

'HAl, 30.

C", 103.

y,

107.

eros, 29, 132.

104.
IO2.

D,

31-

119.

/CpOS,

104.
eVa, 122.
epo>s,

eVi/,

6r)Kapiov, 32.

Zei/s,

30.

24

',

3712.

32.
32.

IO.KIOV,

,31.
^774, 121.

',37.
',

94

72.

',

24-

tafj/a),

35-

127.
121.

4777, tyiV)

fvKaiplav, 187.
euAajS^y, 1 86.

105, 184.
tf-ma,
117.
~
^
Tlpua, 36.
ijp^aro, III.
r;|eupcc,

ev\oya>, 187.
1 06.

0p7j/caj/,

21.

f,

D,

24.

>,

24.

107.
25.

fupctKav,

1 06.

194.

,33-

45-

26.

\TJ,

60,87,88,90, 130.

JfAAw, 26.

dayarepa, 114.
0aV, 130.
0a^, 194, 175.
0d$, 130.
0e, 8 7 .

1/j.dTia,

elVrtDjue*',

tVarl, iVaTtd^co, 194.

122.

Vi/i/oy,

187.

117.

iov/*iv, IOV/JLUV,

125.

iVep, 22.
fpTjv, 26.

194.

dfais, 94.

5f^oy,

0cw, 24.

lw,

^w, ^4.
2O, 122.

dfcapw, 183.

30.

Jf^ray, Jf^ra,

0fAa) ya, 87.

y ,
t/'a),
0e'oy, I

8.

89, 104, 109.

frj/i,

0?oy, 119.
06'Aet va, 87.
06Aets

103.
1

t/xepa,
'/I'a,

35.

107.

f/caxri,

194.
3333-

119.

119.

iK/j.du, iK/j.as,

eroy, 39, 132.

tSov, 104.

//cai/a),

TJUpOV, 14.

103, 106.

3713.

16.

f0iy, 24.

14.

187.

23-

t'Se,

/epoy, 32.

23y,

2f7/cai',

22.

itbj/,

116.

idcvya,

109,

INDEX.
Kls,

Kpdfa, 195

K\pQS,

104.

\dpos, 31.
Xavpos, \dfipos, 24.
XrydfJ-evos, 72.
\fjfffat, 72.

34-

/cAafa),

/cafle'Aov, 1 1 8.

213

23.

/cAe?s, K\fjs,

15

\fjovTas, 7 2
A7ouj/, \eyovve, 72.

103.
a,

Ka06\ov, 97, II 8.
KOI, re, 25.
25.

y,

22.

12.

Kaipios, 34.

Aeutrffo!,

Koipavos, 34.

Aeo>,

KaKOppiiKOi, 144.
KoAa, 146.
8.

1 1

/caAos,

KaAcSs,

no.

130.

K<yt,
Kd/j,i\os, 17.

Ko/ccoAa, 195.

;,

8.

I 1

Ae'|ov, 72, 78.

103.

/COU^ f5tcA6KTOS, 21, IOI.

naipos, 109.
KCUJOOS,

Af|e, 72, 78.

rC&ci'a, 145-

KoifJ.&tJ.ai,

31.

30.
1

ATJO-T^S,

6.

\iyvpbs, 22.
Xiddpiov, 1 06.

35-

195105.
/coAAovpa, 2O.

AIOJ, 30, 1 1 6.

f,

Atotmas, 21, 121.

Ko\\ovpioV) 185.
KOVTO., 195, <Wa,
KOTtaSi, 108.

Aoyrjs, 89.
1

8.

KOTre'Ao, 35.

\oi/j.bs, \ifjibs,

28.

\onrbv, 97, 104.

\vK6(po}S, 31, 196.
'

89.

Kd/JLTTOffOS)

Kopdffiov, 106.

109.

/cay,

119.
39-

*95- f

129.

Kovppfvia t 131.

/carets, 99.

KopaKiffTiica, 157.

KaOTeAAa^eVoS, IO8.

;ua,

jj-dyovXav, 115.

K6T(TV<t>OS, 37, I

8.

25.

KOTajSJflpa, 12.

KoCe, 119.
/couAAbs, 2O.

tcarat/Saiiw, 1 2.

KOVt/Sfp,

KaTfp, 135.
/carexco, 105.
103.

KouTaAioj/, 20, 83.

,J,

6,

Kpidpi,
/cpte,

1 1

8.

Kepiov, 15.

Kptie,

K6S, 115.

KTOVTTW, 119.

30.

144.

Ki.dfj.ovv,

KiaVco, 199.

Kl&OVpl, 2O.
KlO&V, 40.
24.

KIHOU,

Kt/XWJ',

34.
,

21.

34-

99.
197115.
71.

37.

131.
135.

1,

KpVOS, 195.
Kpv(f)VKd(J.ci>iJ.a,

134.

(j.d\t<TTa,

199.
KpovvbS) Kp"f)vrii 33KpV&W, 1 06, 187.

KcAo^at, 189.

/cere,

/xaAepbs, 197.

38.

KpfftfiaTlOV, 12.

78.

OT**

7.

fj.aifj.ov,

KovQos, 15.

20.

25, 88, 115.

196.

Kop6/*r]\o, Kop6fj.Tr\o, 37.

Kopvo-crw, 37.

14!.

132.

fj-tyer,

fj.ed\os,

40.
KVK\OS, 12.

/j.e\i(r<Ta, 1 1

Kvirpos, 21.

/j.f \iff8o},

KVptOS, IO3.

fj.e\iffffiv,

39.

KitOpa,

Kxoi'Sia'Taj', 38.
/cai/co,

/ccoAe,

35.
123.

Kcos, 71.

ActyU'&j, 1 1 6.

8.

32.
1

1 6.

30.

97.

15.

Mecrapovpia, 116.
i'y,

Aa^o^ai, 29.

133.

115.
, 41, 46.

106.

107.
105.

INDEX.

214
..

^u/crbs a/xoA745, 35.

197-

nr)i', fjitjva,

96, 196.

116.
, 181.

/,

119.

/"?, 185.

99.

131.
12.

*?,

uetr,

06.

Trapal, 12.

|77p5s, 15.

1 6.

irapaK\r]Tos,

103.

v,
1 1

p.\oiov,

6.

y7/cos, t77oy, 36.

146.

z,

oSui'Scrai,

Aios, 21.
I

/u^a^a
Hov-)i,

9I

143.

185.

6\fv9fpos,

83.

215.
191.
45-

Trarfpas, 71.
n-fHiAoj', TrcraAoy, 198.
Trej/Tj/cos, 1 18.

c^Aos,

^Aajj/,

8.

135-

TTfpyioitTovv, 133.

103,

184,

irepnra.Ta.Tf, 12.

187.
97141.

ruifjifvt],

86.

20.

iridvo), iriaivci), Trtdfa,

TTlffa, TTldfa, 1 1 8.

bvdpiov, 185.

33-

109.

81.

o/uop<pos, 1 1 8.

27.

yuottra,

80, 8t.

oj/ei'para,

187.

i,

UCO

30.
,

/LtTJKCtOyUOl,

22.

22.

/uOcroy, /xTtroy,

/J.vffTa, fj.d<TTa, 1 2.

Mapos,

103.
109.
7rA6fw, II, 23,29.
TrAV, 103.
7T\r]po<popa>, 1 86.
TrAci/ca,

12.

OI/CO,

21.

',

fj.avpos, 24.

taps, 131.

foray,

185.

ir\-f](ria,

OTTT^S, 38.

vo, 87, 196.

07T<|)is,

vdvdeT, 135, 136.

vapa'/'Ses, i/epe'/'Sey,

33-

O6,

S,

'#,

7TOT

8.

vf]<JTr)s,

2O.

183.

/iOU,

184,

TTOliA,

TToOAOS,

132.

2O.

TToC jtieVety, 183.

2O.
33'

^
irpay/j.a.TiKias,

1/^70;, 33.

ovpavdSpo/jLos, 141.

irpajjia,

30.

*
i/iTfT,
131;.
O
i>i?

ovpavbs, 103.

Trparr;,

117.

!l

ri9.

104.

99.

j/ioCra, 119.

vodca, 83.

TTOUa, I 2O.

133-

O&doVK, 131.
14.

34.

Trdita,

7TOU, TTOU,

31.

31-

120, 126, 135, 136.

i/tow, 137.
If),

132.
',

yi>((f>os,
.

1 1

Sroi/uos,
I

118.
y,

115.
^0*0?, 89.

OpOV(T, 197.
STJ, 97.

131.

Vfpbf, I'tpOV, VTtpbv,

144.
1 1 6.

38.

2OO.

"t. "fff, "^, 133VtfJiiKOVV)

99.

vditKiv, 131.

183.
22.

IS,

irvffTis,

2.

37-

/*0>p6,

/ua>j

6Wa, cJi'Te, 117.

iWas, 72.
oi>v,

1 86.

104.

eVe, 135, l8l.

31-

',

104,

^ /JllKpOTfpOS,

s,

7ra<rxa, 119.

6.

oA/os,

p.ovpya, 20.
fj.o fifMyyi, 20.

MoGVa,

iraaa, 144.

22.

115.
ofos, 27.

Movo7i'7y, 73.
ol,

187.

OOl^l'T?, cc5il^

4 97olv&piv,

Ta>i/e,

71.

',38.

115.

irp?(rTs, Trpfo-rr/y,
irpofffppr)tv, 1 86.

6.

12,

INDEX.

215

113.
99.
Trpovara, 1 20.

(rrafleiy,

83.
187.
ffradfpbs, 1 06.

ToSt, 134.

irpovKU, 27.
irva\ov, irve\ov,

ardirov, 79.
cmfrre, 135.

TOUS

99-

ffovffa.ij.1,

j.a,

1 1 8.

TOJ/, I 1 6.

22.

ffTfp^e, 176.

7rvpiro\tj/j.fvos,

Io8.

TTO\ITIKOI, IIO.

99.

93, 99, 200.

*,

ffvyKvpiav, 187.

ii 6.

priyfj.a, p-f]x vw j 1

0/'C.

86.

pi&Kbv, 144.

TWV, IO9.

94,

pvyxos,

Tvpavvos, Koipavos, 34.

TUS, 27.
TUT, 134.

143.
118.

epii',

141.

22.

p"?s,

f>V7TTCa, p'iirTto),

pus, 129.

115, 145.

20.

32.
16.

uf, vT\via.)

116.

ffa.fj.fpf, 127.
ffapavrapya, Il6.

eras,

pa TrAeov,

134.
94.

131, 145.

(TO,

TW/>, ToVe, ToVa, 134.

Toipa, 89.

= a,
3,

22.

SovKavrj, 2O.

vr],

o-y^irye, 22.

9-

33119, 121.

<,

ffv&iTfiv, 187.

peTravt, pafpdviOf, 12.

P"*C<

rpovira, 83.

vos, 141.

II, 23, 29.

pf%0fj.fi>,

rpfirvbs, Tfpirvds, Il6.

W, 182.

132.

pe'fa>,

rpayi, 118.
T ^, 135-

29.

145.

1 1 6.

Totty^, 134.

(TTuAos, 22.
vpa, 22.

cr-n-jAT?,

30.
,

= OVS,

TOVTOV,

TrvKvcaats, 93.

TVActs,

126, 127.

rovfj,a,

t>tos,

TapTTjcrcros, 1 6.

71, 109.

U'AT?,

#o, 126.

37.

ffayar, 131.

28.

21, 99.

1 1 6.

re, 129, 133.

uTroyw, 103, 183.

virapxo, 99, 187.

crffias, 29.

Tfitvr), 1 1 8.

VTraTos, 25.

2ej87jpos, 29.

TfKVVS, IO7.
re/i-ar, 134.
T6^te, 134.

virevdwos, 45.

TeV crapes,

115.
MT, 134.

fff,

V,

ffe/j.ovi'dfT,

132.

(T)8o/xa<, <Tfvo/j.ai, 29.

CTiTeptV, 1 1 8.
0~KO,(pOS,

i',

1 1 8.

12.

in.

V7r68r)/j.ai>,

99.

133.

pm, 108.

A)s, 39.

s,

25.

rial', ffKiirav, 1 6.

fc, 203.
.

145.

39-

3429ffKO\fib, 39.
ffKorta, 184.
ffKOTOVto),

92.

ffKV\O,KlOV,

1 1 6.

(TKV(pOS, 12.
^,

80.

29.

^,83.

T^?,

rV,

108.

(pdyecrai, 187.

(paivfrai, 99.

75-

(paivca, <peyyca }

34.
120, 133.

TTJI/OS,

T(,

t,

25.

TI Ao-yTjs, 89.

127.

TteVpt, 137.

(pfpros, (pfprepos, (pfpraTOS, 83.

T^-lr, 134.
TtOV, 121.
Tii/as,

25.
(pe@yu, 29.

u|e, 82.

117.

TiTTOTa, I

rfjJfiyp.a,

33.

30.

i/w,

24, 187.

2l6

INDEX.
1

29.
<pi\oaro<pia,

<pirpov, (pvrpa, 22.

MS'

<f>\vvds, 22.

ovvi, 30.

<p\i!3p&v t 33.

(poov/j.fvos } 1 19.

27.

132.

.V*T,

15.

37-

hdpis,

3721.

206.

206.
W, 208.

1 1 8.

Xdpos, Xapwi/ray, 92.

ll/1/J.fJLvOlOV,

Aepe, 132.

^o^wiet,

117.
132.
40.
21.
,

22.

92
21.

24.
t

40.
1

>a>,

27,

xj

(poped five, 117.

', </)i)^<x!,

^5, 144.

hdvypovv, 132.
206.
Xava>,

XP'S,

^XouStoi/, 27.
4>o/3acra<, 12.

tyavrepiv, 31.

25.

(pKvdpiov, (prvdpiov, 34.

6.

132.

(pKeidvw, <pTidv<a, 34r,

196.

0)6l/,

19.

21.

pa, 189.
I S*

40.

dipa/ca,

128.
24.

28.

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