Physiology of Reproduction

Chapter 20
The Reproductive System
Human Physiology by Lauralee Sherwood 2010 Brooks/Cole, Cengage Learning
The reproductive system does not contribute to

homeostasis but exerts other important effects
Hypothalamus
Reproductive
organs
Reproductive
C
Capability
bilit
Sex
hormones
Anterior
pituitary
Target
cells
Homeostasis effects on
reproductive capability
Reproductive
p
System
y
Includes gonads, reproductive tract, and
accessory sex glands
Reproduction
Depends on union of male and female gametes
to form new individual
Male and female reproductive systems designed
t enable
to
bl union
i off genetic
ti material
t i l
Chapter 20 The Reproductive System

Reproductive
p
System
y
Primary reproductive organs (gonads)
Consist of
Pair of testes in male
Pair of ovaries in female
Functions of mature gonads

Producing gametes (gametogenesis)
Spermatozoa (sperm) in male
Ova (eggs) in female
Secreting sex hormones

Testosterone in males
Estrogen and progesterone in
females
Reproductive
p
System
y
Reproductive tract
System of specialized ducts that transport or
house gametes after they are produced
Accessory sex glands
Empty supportive secretions into reproductive tract
External genitalia
Externally visible portions of reproductive system
Secondary
S
d
sexuall characteristics
h
t i ti
External characteristics not directly involved in
reproduction
d ti th
thatt distinguish
di ti
i h males
l and
d ffemales
l
Body configuration and hair distribution
Control
C t lb
by ttestosterone
t t
in
i male
l and
d estrogen
t
in female.
Male Reproductive Functions and Organs
Functions
Production of sperm (spermatogenesis)
Delivery of sperm to female
Organs
Testes
Sperm-producing organs
Suspended outside abdominal tract
in skin
skin-covered
covered sac (scrotum
Accessory sex glands

Seminal vesicles, prostate gland,
bulbourethral glands
Secretions provide bulk of semen (liquid
substance that is conducive to sperm viability)
Penis
Organ used to deposit semen in female
Male reproductive tract

Epididymis,
ejaculatory
E idid i ductus
d t (vas)
(
) deferens,
d f
j
l t
duct empty into urethra (canal running length
of penis that empties into exterior)
Male Reproductive
p
System
y

Female Reproductive
p
Functions and Organs
g
Functions
Production of ova (oogenesis)
Reception of sperm
Transport of sperm and ovum to common site for
union (fertilization or conception)
Product of fertilization is known as an embryo.

After first two months of development,
development embryo is known
as a fetus.
Maintenance of the developing fetus until it can survive in outside
world (gestation or pregnancy)
Giving birth to the baby (parturition)
Nourishing infant after birth by milk
production (lactation)
Female Reproductive
p
Functions and Organs
g
Organs
Female reproductive
p
tract
Oviducts (uterine or Fallopian tubes)
In close association with ovaries
Pick up ova on ovulation
Serve as site for fertilization
Uterus
Responsible for maintenance of fetus during
development
Responsible for expelling fetus at end of pregnancy
Vagina
Muscular, expandable tube that
connects uterus to external environment
Lower p
portion is cervix
Cervical canal
Single, small opening that serves as pathway
for sperm
Serves as passageway for delivery of baby
from uterus
Female Reproductive Functions and Organs

Vagina
V
Vaginal
i l opening
i
Located in perineal region between urethral opening and anal opening
Partially covered by thin mucous membrane, hymen (typically disrupted
by first sexual intercourse)
Labia minora and labia majora
Skin folds that surround vaginal
and urethral openings
Clit i
Clitoris
Small erotic structure located at
anterior end of folds of labia minora
Vulva
Collective term for female external
genitalia
Female Reproductive System
Reproductive
p
Cells
Human chromosomes: 2n=40
Body (somatic) cells

Contain 46 chromosomes (diploid number)
Can be sorted into 23 homologous pairs
Gametes (sperm and egg)

Have 23 chromosomes (haploid number)
Contains only one member of each homologous pair
of chromosomes
Gametogenesis is accomplished by meiosis
Pig chromosomes:
2n=38
Autosomes
22 pairs which code for general human
characteristics and specific traits such as eye color
Sex chromosomes
Remaining pair of chromosomes
Two genetically different types
Larger X chromosome
Smaller Y chromosome
Mouse chromosomes:
2n=40
2n
40
Cow chromosomes:
2n=60
2n
60
Chromosomal
Distribution in
Sexual Reproduction
Sex Determination
Sex determination
Depends on combination of sex chromosomes
Genetic female
Has two X chromosomes

Genetic male
Has an X and a Y chromosome

Y chromosome
Responsible for all the anatomic
d ffunctional
i
l di
i i
and
distinctions
between males and females
Genetic sex
Determined at time of conception
Depends on which type of sex
chromosome is contained within the
fertilizing sperm
Sexual Differentiation

Sexual Differentiation
z Three levels of differences
between males and females
Genetic
Depends on combination of
sex chromosomes at time of
conception
Gonadal
Whether testes or ovaries develop
Presence or absence of Y
chromosome determines gonadal
differentiation
Phenotypic
Apparent
pp
anatomic sex of
individual
Determined by gonadal sex
Male Reproductive
p
Physiology
y
gy
Testes
Descent is usually complete by
seventh month of gestation
Descend into scrotum
Location provides cooler environment
essential for spermatogenesis
Perform dual function

Produce sperm
p
Occurs within seminiferous tubules
Secrete testosterone
Produced by Leydig (interstitial) cells that lie
in connective tissue between seminiferous
tubules
Male Reproductive
p
Physiology
y
gy
Testosterone
Steroid hormone derived from
cholesterol precursor molecule
Five categories of testosterone effects
Reproductive system before birth

Sex-specific tissues after birth
Other reproductive
reproductive-related
related effects
Secondary sexual characteristics
o ep oduc e ac
actions
o s
Non-reproductive

Effects of Testosterone

Spermatogenesis
p
g
Results in many highly specialized, mobile sperm
p
p
process by
y which undifferentiated diploid
p
Complex
primordial germ cells (spermatogonia) are converted into
haploid spermatozoa (sperm)
Three major stages

Mitotic proliferation
Sperm-forming daughter cell divides mitotically twice more to form
four identical primary spermatocytes
Meiosis
Each primary spermatocyte forms two secondary spermatocytes
yielding four spermatids after the second meiotic division
Theoretically, sixteen spermatozoa result from each
spermatogonium that goes through process
Packaging
Spermiogenesis
Spermatogenesis
p
g
Spermatozoa
Remains closely associated with Sertoli
cells throughout development
Consists of four parts
Head
Consists primarily of the nucleus
(contains DNA)
Acrosome
Enzyme-filled vesicle that caps tip of
the head
Used to penetrate ovum
Formed by endoplasmic reticulum and
Golgi complex before these organelles
are discarded
Midpiece
Area where mitochondria are concentrated
Tail
Provides mobility for spermatozoan
Spermatogenesis
The relationship between Sertoli cells and the developing sperm.
The modification of a germ cell to form a

mammalian sperm
The modification of a germ cell to form

a mammalian sperm
Acrosome
Nucleus/
Mitochondria/
Mictotubule/
Spermatogenesis

Spermatogenesis
p
g
Functions of Sertoli cells located in seminiferous tubules
Form blood-testes barrier
Provide nourishment
Phagocytic function
Secrete seminiferous tubule fluid which flushes released
sperm from tubule into epididymis for storage and
additional processing
Secrete androgen-binding
g
gp
protein
Site of action to control spermatogenesis
Release inhibin
Acts in negative-feedback fashion to regulate FSH secretion

Spermatogenesis
p
g
Epididymis and ductus deferens
Store and concentrate sperm
p
Increase sperm motility and fertility prior to ejaculation
During ejaculation
Sperm are mixed with secretions released by accessory
glands
Seminal vesicles
Supply fructose for energy
Supply prostaglandins
Promote smooth muscle motility in both male and female
reproductive tracts (enhances sperm transport)
Provide
P id more than
th h
halflf th
the semen
Secrete fibrinogen
Prostate gland
Contributes alkaline fluid that neutralizes acidic vaginal secretions
Provides clotting enzymes and fibrinolysin
Bulbourethral glands
Release lubricating mucus

Hypothalamic
yp
&p
pituitary
y Control on Testicular Function

Location and Functions of the Components of the Male

Reproductive System

Action of Prostoglandins

Sexual Intercourse Between Males and Females

Coitus or copulation
Male sex act involves two components
Erection
Ejaculation
Sexual response cycle
Excitement phase
Includes
I l d erection
ti and
dh
heightened
i ht
d sexuall awareness
Plateau phase
Characterized by steadily increasing heart rate, blood
pressure, respiratory
i t
rate,
t and
d muscle
l ttension
i
Orgasmic phase
Includes ejaculation
j
and other responses
p
that are collectively
y
experienced as intense physical pleasure
Resolution phase
Return of g
genitalia and body
y systems
y
to p
prearousal state
Sexual Intercourse Between Males and Females

Female sexual cycle is similar to male cycle
Also experience same four phases of the sexual cycle
Excitement
Initiated byy either p
physical
y
or p
psychological
y
g
stimuli
Plateau
Changes initiated during excitement phase intensify
Systemic
S t i responses similar
i il tto th
those iin male
l occur
Orgasm
Experience in females is similar to that in males except
No female counterpart to ejaculation
Do not become refractory following an orgasm
Resolution
Pelvic vasocongestion and systemic manifestations gradually
subside
Time of great physical relaxation
Female Reproductive Physiology
More complex than male reproductive

physiology
Characterized
Ch
t i db
by complex
l cycling
li
Ovaries
Primary female reproductive organs
Corpus
luteum
Ruptured
follicle
Primary
oocyte
Produce ova (oogenesis)

Secrete female sex hormones
Estrogen
Essential for ova maturation and release
Establishment of female secondary sexual
characteristics
Essential for transport of sperm from
Secondary
vagina to fertilization site in oviduct
oocyte
Contributes to breast development in
Ovulation
anticipation of lactation
Progesterone
Important in preparing suitable
g a developing
p g
environment for nourishing
embryo/fetus
Contributes to breasts ability to produce
milk
Oogenesis
g
Identical steps of
chromosome replication
and division during
gamete production in both
sexes
Timing and end result
are very different
Mature
follicle
Ovary
Spermatogenesis
Oogenesis
Accomplished within
t
two
months
th
Take anywhere from

12 tto 50 years tto
complete on cyclic
basis from onset of
puberty until
menopause
Postpubertal male can

produce
d
severall
hundred million sperm
each day
Female born with

li it d llargely
limited,
l
nonrenewable
supply of germ cells
Each primary
spermatocyte yields
four equally viable
spermatozoa
Each primary oocyte

yields only one
cytoplasm-rich
cytoplasm
rich ovum
and three
cytoplasm-poor
polar bodies that
p
disintegrate

Oogenesis
g
Oogonia
Undifferentiated primordial germ cells in fetal
ovaries
Divide mitotically to give rise to 6 million to 7
million oogonia by fifth month of gestation
During last part of fetal life begin early steps of
first meiotic division but do not complete it
Now known as primary oocytes
Contain diploid number of 46 replicated chromosomes
Remain
R
i iin meiotic
i ti arrestt ffor years until
til th
they are prepared
d
for ovulation

Oogenesis
Primary oocyte
Surrounded
S
d db
by single
i l llayer off granulosa
l
cells
Oocyte
O
+ granulosa cells primary follicle
f
Primary follicle
After development starts there are two
possible fates
Reach maturity and ovulate
Degenerate to form scar tissue (atresia)
Between puberty and menopause

Follicles develop into secondary (antral)
follicles on cyclic basis
Oogenesis
Just before ovulation
Primary oocyte completes its first meiotic division
y
yielding
g
First polar body
Secondary oocyte
Ovulated
Sperm entry triggers second meiotic division which
produces
Secondary polar body (haploid)
Mature haploid
p
ovum which unites with haploid
p
sperm cell during fertilization

Oogenesis

Oogenesis (egg)
Before birth
Follicle development in ovary
2n
Oogonium (Stem cell)
Follicle cells
oocyte
2n
Primary oocyte
Primordial follicle
Mitosis
Growth
Primary oocyte
(arrested in prophase
I present at birth)
2n
Childhood
Primordial follicle
(Ovary inactive)
Puberty
Primaryy oocyte
y
(still arrested in
prophase I)
4n
Growing follicle
Meiosis I
2n (Maturated
oocyte)
2
First polar 2n
body
Vesicular follicle
Ovulation
M i i II
Meiosis
of polar body
(may or may
not occur)
Polar bodies n
(all degenerate)
Primary follicle
Sperm
2n
Sperm
Meiosis II
completed
l d
(only if sperm
penetration occurs)
Ovulated secondary
oocyte (arrested at
in metaphase II)
Ovarian Cycle
Average ovarian cycle lasts 28 days

Normally interrupted only by pregnancy
Finally terminated by menopause
Consists of two alternating phases
Follicular phase
Dominated by presence of maturing follicles
Luteal phase
Characterized by presence of corpus luteum

Ovarian Cycle
y
Follicular phase
Operates first half of cycle
Granulosa cells of some primary follicles proliferate
Oocyte
O
t inside
i id each
h ffollicle
lli l enlarges
l
Theca cells in follicle secrete increased amounts of
estrogen
Rapid follicular growth continues during follicular phase
One follicle usuallyy grows
g
more rapidly
p y and matured about 14
days after onset of follicular development
Follicle ruptures to release oocyte from ovary
Event is called ovulation
Released oocyte enters oviduct where it may or may not be
fertilized

Ovarian Cycle
y
Luteal phase
Last 14 days of ovarian cycle
Old follicular cells undergo structural
transformation to form corpus luteum
Becomes highly vascularized
Becomes fully functional within four days after
ovulation
Continues to increase in size for another four or
five days
If released ovum is not fertilized and does not
implant, corpus luteum degenerates within about
14 days after its formation
Development of the Follicle, Ovulation, and Formation

and Degeneration of the Corpus Luteum
Ovarian Cycle
y
Hormonal interactions
During
g follicular p
phase,, rise in FSH signals
g
ovarian follicle
to secrete more estrogen
Rise in estrogen feeds back to inhibit FHS secretion which
declines as follicular phase proceeds
LH rises in follicular phase
As it peaks in mid-cycle, it triggers ovulation
Estrogen output decreases and mature follicle is converted

to a corpus luteum
Corpus luteum secretes progesterone and estrogen during
luteal phase
Progesterone output inhibits release of FSH and LH
Low LH corpus luteum degenerates
Progesterone levels decline
FSH can start to rise again,

again initiating new cycle
Correlation
C
l ti
Between
Hormonal Levels
and Cyclic
Ovarian and
Uterine Changes
Ovarian Cycle

Uterine Cycle
Menstrual cycle
Reflects hormonal changes during ovarian cycle
Averages
g 28 days
y
Outward manifestation of cyclic changes in uterus is
menstrual bleeding
g once during
g each cycle
y
Consists of three phases
Menstrual phase
Proliferative phase
Secretory or progestational phase

Uterine Cycle
Menstrual phase
Characterized by discharge of blood and endometrial
debris from vagina
First day of menstruation is considered start of new cycle
Coincides with end of ovarian luteal phase and onset of
follicular phase
Release of uterine prostaglandin
Causes vasoconstriction of endometrial vessels
Disrupts blood supply
Causes death of endometrium
Stimulates mild rhythmic contractions of uterine myometrium

Help expel blood and endometrial debris from uterine cavity out
through vagina (menstrual flow)

Uterine Cycle
y
Proliferative phase
Begins concurrent with last portion of ovarian
follicular phase
Endometrium starts to repair itself and proliferate under
influence of estrogen from newly growing follicles
Estrogen-dominant proliferative phase lasts from

end of menstruation to ovulation
Peak estrogen levels trigger LH surge
responsible for ovulation

Uterine Cycle
y
Secretory or progestational phase
Uterus enters this phase after ovulation when
new corpus luteum is formed
Corpus luteum secretes large amounts of
progesterone and estrogen
Progesterone
g
Converts endometrium to highly vascularized, glycogenfilled tissue
Endometrial glands actively secrete glycogen

If fertilization and implantation do not occur
Corpus luteum degenerates
New follicular phase and menstrual phase begin once
again
Menopause
Cessation of womans menstrual cycle
Usually occurs between ages of 45 and 55
Midlife hypothalamic change may trigger onset of
menopause
Preceded by period of progressive ovarian failure
Increasingly irregular cycles
Dwindling
g estrogen
g levels
Loss of estrogen primarily affects skeleton and
cardiovascular system
Period of transition called the climacteric

Fertilization
Oviduct is site of fertilization
Normally occurs in upper third of oviduct (ampulla)
Must occur within 24 hours after ovulation
Sperm usually survive about 48 hours but can
survive up to 5 days in female reproductive tract
Sperm deposited in vagina travel through cervical
canal, uterus, and to upper third of oviduct
Female
F
l reproductive
d ti ttractt aids
id iin sperm migration
i ti
Contractions of myometrium
Upward contractions of oviduct smooth muscle
Allurin released by mature eggs

Fertilization
First sperm to reach ovum
Fuses
F
with
ith plasma
l
membrane
b
off ovum
Triggers chemical change in ovums surrounding
membrane that makes outer layer impermeable
to entry of any more sperm
Head of fused sperm gradually pulled into ovums
cytoplasm
Within hour, sperm and egg nuclei fuse
Fertilized ovum now called a zygote

Embryonic Development
Fertilized
e t ed o
ovum
u d
divides
des mitotically
tot ca y
Within week grows and differentiates into
blastocyst capable of implantation
Blastocyst implants in endometrial lining by means
of enzymes released by trophoblasts
Enzymes digest endometrial tissue
Carve hole in endometrium for implantation of
blastocyst
Release nutrients from endometrial cells for use by
developing embryo

Early
y Stages
g of Development
p
from
Fertilization to Implantation

Implantation of Blastocyst
Development
p
After implantation
Placenta
Pl
t d
develops
l
Organ of exchange between maternal and
fetal blood
Acts as transient, complex endocrine organ
that secretes essential p
pregnancy
g
y hormones
Human chorionic gonadotropin
Maintains corpus luteum until placenta
t k over function
takes
f
ti in
i last
l t two
t
trimesters
ti
t
Estrogen
Essential for maintaining normal
pregnancy
Progesterone
Essential for maintaining normal
pregnancy

Secretion Rates of Placental Hormones


Gestation
Pregnancy
About
Ab t 38 weeks
k ffrom conception
ti
Physical changes within mother to meet demands
off pregnancy
Uterine enlargement
B
Breasts
enlarge
l
and
dd
develop
l ability
bili to produce
d
milk
ilk
Volume of blood increases 30%
Weight gain
Respiratory activity increases by about 20%
Urinary output increases
Kidneys excrete additional wastes from fetus
Nutritional requirements increase
Parturition
Labor, delivery, birth
Requires
Dilation of cervical canal to accommodate
passage of fetus from uterus through vagina and
to the outside
Contraction of uterine myometrium that are
sufficiently
y strong
g to expel
p fetus
Exact factors triggering increase in uterine
contractility
y and initiating
gp
parturition not fully
y
established

Parturition
Once contractions begin at labor onset, positivefeedback cycle progressively increases force
Pressure of fetus against
g
cervix reflexlyy increases
oxytocin secretion
Role of oxytocin
y
Causes stronger contractions
Positive
Positive-feedback
feedback cycle progressively increases
until cervical dilation and delivery are complete

Parturition
Stages of labor
Cervical dilation
Longest stage
Lasts from several hours to as long as 24 hours in a first
pregnancy
Delivery of baby
Begins when cervical dilation is complete
Usually lasts 30 to 90 minutes
Delivery of placenta
Second series of uterine contractions separates placenta
from placenta
Shortest stage usually completed within 15 to 30 minutes
after baby is born
After delivery,
y uterus shrinks to p
pregestational
g
size ((involution))
Stages
g of Labor

Lactation
During gestation
Elevated placental estrogen and progesterone promote
development of ducts and alveoli in mammary glands
Prolactin
Stimulates synthesis of enzymes essential for milk
production by alveolar epithelial cells
Withdrawal of placental steroids at parturition initiates
lactation
Sustained by suckling
Triggers
gg
release of oxytocin
y
and p
prolactin
Oxytocin
Causes milk ejection by stimulating cells surrounding alveoli
q
secreted milk out through
g ducts
to squeeze
Prolactin
Stimulates secretion of more milk to replace milk ejected as
baby nurses
Mammary Gland Anatomy

Sucking Reflexes

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Chapter 20

The Reproductive System

Human Physiology by Lauralee Sherwood 2010 Brooks/Cole, Cengage Learning

The reproductive system does not contribute to

Chapter 20 The Reproductive System

Functions of mature gonads

Secreting sex hormones

Male Reproductive Functions and Organs

Accessory sex glands

Organ used to deposit semen in female

Male reproductive tract

Chapter 20 The Reproductive System

Product of fertilization is known as an embryo.

Female Reproductive Functions and Organs

Female Reproductive System

Human chromosomes: 2n=40

Body (somatic) cells

Gametes (sperm and egg)

Has two X chromosomes

Has an X and a Y chromosome

Chapter 20 The Reproductive System

Perform dual function

Reproductive system before birth

Chapter 20 The Reproductive System

Chapter 20 The Reproductive System

Results in many highly specialized, mobile sperm

Three major stages

The relationship between Sertoli cells and the developing sperm.

The modification of a germ cell to form a

The modification of a germ cell to form

Chapter 20 The Reproductive System

Chapter 20 The Reproductive System

Chapter 20 The Reproductive System

Chapter 20 The Reproductive System

Location and Functions of the Components of the Male

Chapter 20 The Reproductive System

Chapter 20 The Reproductive System

Sexual Intercourse Between Males and Females

Sexual Intercourse Between Males and Females

Female Reproductive Physiology

More complex than male reproductive

Produce ova (oogenesis)

Take anywhere from

Postpubertal male can

Female born with

Each primary oocyte

Chapter 20 The Reproductive System

Chapter 20 The Reproductive System

Between puberty and menopause

Chapter 20 The Reproductive System

Chapter 20 The Reproductive System

Follicle development in ovary

Oogonium (Stem cell)

Average ovarian cycle lasts 28 days

Chapter 20 The Reproductive System

Chapter 20 The Reproductive System

Development of the Follicle, Ovulation, and Formation

Estrogen output decreases and mature follicle is converted