OBJECT-BASED IMAGE ANALYSIS:

STRENGTHS, WEAKNESSES, OPPORTUNITIES AND THREATS (SWOT)

G.J. Hay a, *, G. Castilla a
a

Foothills Facility for Remote Sensing and GIScience, Department of Geography, University of Calgary, Earth
Sciences 454, 2500 University Dr. N.W. Calgary, AB, Canada, T2N 1N4 - (gjhay, gcastill)@ucalgary.ca
Commission VI, WG VI/4

KEY WORDS: object-based image analysis (OBIA), Strengths, Weakness, Opportunities, and Threats (SWOT)
ABSTRACT:
As an emerging discipline, we propose a formal definition of OBIA, describe how OBIA came into existence, and as a road map to
future research propose a fundamental objective. In order to provide potential strategies to meet this objective, we undertake a
tentative SWOT Analysis to identify current Strengths, Weakness, Opportunities and Threats that OBIA faces, and discuss the results.
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 What is OBIA?
If you do not know where you are going, any road will take
you there

Sterling Holloway, (1904 - )

In the absence of a formal definition, we propose that ObjectBased Image Analysis (OBIA) is a sub-discipline of GIScience
devoted to partitioning remote sensing (RS) imagery into
meaningful image-objects, and assessing their characteristics
through spatial, spectral and temporal scale. At its most
fundamental level, OBIA requires image segmentation,
attribution, classification and the ability to query and link
individual objects (a.k.a. segments) in space and time. In order
to achieve this, OBIA incorporates knowledge from a vast array
of disciplines involved in the generation and use of geographic
information (GI). It is this unique focus on RS and GI that
distinguishes OBIA from related disciplines such as Computer
Vision and Biomedical Imaging, where outstanding research
exists that may significantly contribute to OBIA.
1.2 Why is OBIA?
OBIA exists in response to a series of drivers that have
transpired over the last decade (Hay et al., 2005):

A dramatic increase in commercially available highresolution remote sensing imagery (< 5.0 m) and the need
to develop new markets from these multi-billion dollar
investments.
An ever-growing sophistication of user needs and
expectations regarding GI products.
Recognition of limitations with pixel-based image approaches (i.e., that pixels are not true geographical objects,
that pixel topology is limited, that current remote sensing

image analysis largely neglects the spatial photointerpretive elements (i.e., texture, context, shape), and that increased variability implicit within H-res imagery confuses
traditional pixel-based classifiers resulting in lower classification accuracies).
Increasingly affordable, available and powerful computing
tools and a maturing of object-oriented programming.
Increasing awareness that object-based methods can make
better use of neglected spatial information implicit within
RS images, and provide greater integration with vector
based GIS.
Recognition of the need for multiscale approaches in the
monitoring, modelling and management of our
environment, for which object-based methods are
especially suited. In addition, object-based methods
represent viable solutions to the modifiable areal unit
problem (MAUP), of which remote sensing data are a
special case.

1.3 OBIA: Key Objective

Based upon these conditions we suggest:

a key objective of OBIA is to develop appropriate theory,

methods and tools sufficient to replicate (and or exceed
experienced) human interpretation of RS images in
automated/semi-automated ways, that will result in
increased repeatability and production, while reducing
subjectivity, labour and time costs.
2. SWOT ANALYSIS

2.1 Background**
In order to provide a better understanding of the current state of
OBIA, and potential strategies to achieve the stated objective, a
SWOT Analysis can be undertaken. SWOT Analysis is (one of

* Corresponding author.
** Unless otherwise stated, this section is based on information from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SWOT_Analysis
*** A wiki is a type of website that allows users to add, remove, or otherwise edit and change all content very quickly and easily,
sometimes without the need for registration

OBIA, 2006: The International Archives of the Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Spatial Information Sciences

many possible strategic planning tools) used to evaluate the

Strengths, Weakness, Opportunities and Threats involved in a
project, or any other situation requiring a decision.
Consequently, our objective is to apply this method of planning
early in the life cycle of OBIA with the intent that concepts
described here can be used to strengthen and guide this
emerging discipline.

The following sections represent a number of SWOTs identified

as we considered the past, present and future of OBIA. They
are by no means the only possible items, and in several cases
depending on ones perspective individual items could exist
in more than one category.
2.2 OBIA Strengths

In practice, once an objective has been established, a

multidisciplinary team representing a broad range of
perspectives should carry out SWOT analysis; which is
typically presented in the form of a matrix (Table 1). Thus, we
invite interested individuals to participate immediately
following this presentation, and or to contact the author with
comments by email. Ideally we envision the creation of a
Wiki*** to facilitate further discussion and development.

Internal
(attributes of
the organisation)
External
(attributes of
the environment)

Helpful
to achieving
the objective

Harmful
to achieving
the objective

Strengths

Weaknesses

Opportunities

Threats

Table 1. SWOT matrix (adapted from Winer, 2006)

SWOTs are defined based on the following criteria:

Strengths are internal attributes of the organization that

are helpful to the achievement of the objective.
Weaknesses are internal attributes of the organization that
are harmful to the achievement of the objective.
Opportunities are external conditions that are helpful to
the achievement of the objective.
Threats are external conditions that are harmful to the
achievement of the objective.

2.3 OBIA Weaknesses

In theory, SWOTs are used as inputs to the creative generation

of possible strategies, by asking and answering the following
four questions numerous times:

How can we Use each Strength?

How can we Stop each Weakness?
How can we Exploit each Opportunity?
How can we Defend against each Threat?

To reap the full benefits of SWOT analysis it is important to

use this tool correctly. Firstly, the analysis should provide
information that helps in decision making. Consequently,
laundry-lists of strengths, weaknesses, etc are not in themselves
very useful. It is only when the potential implications of this
information on the organization/discipline are assessed that
meaningful analysis emerges. Secondly, it is most beneficial to
look at the strengths and weaknesses originating within (i.e.,
internal to) the discipline or organization. For example, what do
we do better than anyone else, what/where could we improve,
what are others likely to see as weakness? Conversely,
opportunities and threats should be externally focused i.e., what
trends could you take advantage of, how can you turn your
strengths into opportunities, what trends could do you harm?
(MindTools, 2006).

Partitioning an image into objects is akin to the way

humans conceptually organize the landscape to
comprehend it.
Using image-objects as basic units reduces computational
classifier load by orders of magnitude, and at the same
time enables the user to take advantage of more complex
techniques (e.g. non-parametric).
Image-objects exhibit useful features (e.g. shape, texture,
context relations with other objects) that single pixels lack.
Image-objects are less sensitive to MAUP (Openshaw
1984) than units that do not keep a correspondence with
the structure of the phenomenon under study.
Image-objects can be more readily integrated in vector
GIS than pixel-wise classified raster maps.
Several OBIA methods/commercial software packages
build upon the powerful object-oriented (OO) paradigm.

Under the guise of flexibility current commercial objectbased software provides overly complicated options.
There are numerous challenges involved in processing
very large datasets. Even if OBIA is more efficient than
pixel-based approaches, segmenting a multispectral image
of several tens of mega-pixels is a formidable task
(efficient tiling/multiprocessing solutions are necessary).
Segmentation is an ill-posed problem, in the sense it has
no unique solution, e.g., (i) changing the bit depth of your
heterogeneity measure can lead to different segmentations.
(ii) Remember, even human photo-interpreters will not
delineate exactly the same things.
There is a lack of consensus and research on the
conceptual foundations of this new paradigm, i.e., on the
relationship between image-objects (segments) and
landscape objects (patches). For example, (i) what is the
basis to believe that segmentation-derived objects are fine
representations of landscape structural-functional units?
(ii) How do you know when your segmentation is good?
(iii) Is there a formally stated and accepted conceptual
foundation?
There exists a poor understanding of scale and hierarchical
relations among objects derived at different resolutions.
Do segments at coarse resolutions really emerge or
evolve from the ones at finer resolutions? Should
boundaries perfectly overlap (coincide) through scale?
Operationally its very appealing, but what is the
ecological basis for this?

2.4 OBIA Opportunities

Object-Oriented concepts and methods have been

successfully applied to many different problems, not only
computer languages, and they can be easily adapted to
OBIA. This integration not only includes OO
programming, but all the corpus of methods and
techniques customarily used in biomedical imaging and

OBIA, 2006: The International Archives of the Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Spatial Information Sciences

computer vision that remain unknown to most of the

remote sensing community.
While further research is needed, interesting integrative
object-based proposals already exist that offers ontological
foundations (Castilla 2003).
There are new IT tools (e.g. wikis) that may accelerate
consensus and cohesion of OBIA.
There is a steadily growing community of RS/GIS
practitioners that currently use image segmentation for
different GI applications. Thus, as OBIA matures, new
commercial/research opportunities will exist to tailor
object-based solutions for specific fields, disciplines and
user needs i.e., forestry, habitat mapping, urban mapping,
mineral exploration, transportation, security, etc.
Symmetric multiprocessing, parallel processing and grid
computing are recent technologies that OBIA methods
may build upon to tackle problems related to the analysis
of large datasets.

2.5 OBIA Threats

OBIA is far from been an operationally established

paradigm, yet many users of commercial OBIA software
do not recognize this fundamental fact. OBIA is not one
specific research or commercial software. Much remains to
be solved.
Trying to make distinct OBIA from other OO concepts and
methods (e.g. by using based instead of oriented) may
contribute to insulation (of users in an esoteric world of
objects) and isolation (of the concept) rather than to
consolidation.
The visual appeal of image-objects, their easy GISintegration and the enhanced classification possibilities
have attracted the attention of major RS image processing
vendors, who are increasingly incorporating new
segmentation tools into their packages. This provides a
wider choice for practitioners, but promotes confusion
(among different packages, options, syntax, etc) and
makes it more difficult to reach a consensus on what OBIA
is all about. Will a lack of protocols, formats, and
standards lead to a segmentation of the field rather than a
consolidation?
3. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

The objective of this paper has been to provide an early attempt

at formally defining Object-Based Image Analysis (OBIA),
outlining a key objective of this new field, and identifying a
number of Strengths, Weakness, Opportunities and Threats
(SWOT) that OBIA faces, with the intent that items described
here can be used to strengthen and guide this promising new
field. We suggest that a key issue faced by OBIA will be to
ensure that an integrative, well understood, and easily defined
ontology is developed and integrated within the research and
commercial software that is being developed for object-based
image analysis. As a sub-discipline of GIScience, we suggest
that this ontology can draw upon the strong theoretical and
application based components that already exist in the
established fields of remote sensing, image processing,
computer vision, computer science, and landscape ecology. We
propose that a way to achieve this is by developing a living
document an OBIA guide book - to which practitioners can
turn to for understanding and direction. We also propose that
Wikis may be the ideal vehicle to develop such a device. As
such, we cordially invite interested parties to contact the author
so that this project may be initiated and developed from a user

community and scientific perspective, rather than solely from

commercial drivers.
3.1 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We express our appreciation to Thomas Blaschke, Stefan Lang,
Elisabeth Schpfer, and the other members of the organization
committee for their efforts in developing and hosting the 1st
International Conference on Object-based Image Analysis, and
look forward to future generations of this conference. This
research has been generously supported in part by a University
of Calgary Start-up Grant, and an Alberta Ingenuity New
Faculty Grant to Dr Hay. The opinions expressed here are those
of the Authors, and do not necessarily reflect the views of their
funding agencies.
4. REFERENCES
Castilla, G., 2003. Object-oriented analysis of Remote Sensing
images for land cover mapping: conceptual foundations and a
segmentation method to derive a baseline partition for
classification. Ph.D. Thesis, Polytechnic University of Madrid.
http://www.montes.upm.es/Servicios/biblioteca/tesis/GCastilla
TD_Montes.pdf (accessed 23 June, 2006)
Hay, G.J., Castilla, G., M. Wulder, M.A., and Ruiz, J.R., 2005.
An automated object-based approach for the multiscale image
segmentation of forest scenes. International Journal of Applied
Earth Observation and Geoinformation, 7, pp 339-359.
MindTools, 2006. www.mindtools.com, (accessed 23 June,
2006)
Openshaw, S., 1984. The Modifiable Areal Unit Problem, In:
Concepts and Techniques in Modern Geography (CATMOG),
No. 38, 40 p. GeoBooks, Norwich, United Kingdom.
Winer, L, 2006. http://www.flickr.com/photos/51072101@N00
/91829174/ (accessed 23 June, 2006).