Ped CL April2015

The Healthy and Sick
Newborn
Editor
DAVID A. CLARK
PEDIATRIC CLINICS
OF NORTH AMERICA
www.pediatric.theclinics.com
Consulting Editor
BONITA F. STANTON
April 2015 Volume 62 Number 2
The Healthy and Sick Newborn
Contents
Foreword: The Healthy and Sick Newborn
xiii
Bonita F. Stanton
Preface: The Problem Baby: Too Much Information
xv
David A. Clark
Erratum
xvii
Transition from Fetus to Newborn
329
Jonathan R. Swanson and Robert A. Sinkin

The fetus to newborn transition is a complex physiologic process that requires close monitoring. Approximately 10% of all newborns require some
support in facilitating a successful transition after delivery. Clinicians
should be aware of the physiologic processes and pay close regard to
the newborns cardiopulmonary transition at birth to provide appropriate
treatment and therapies as required. Trained Personnel in the Neonatal
Resuscitation program should be available at the delivery for all newborns
to ensure that immediate and appropriate care is provided to achieve the
best possible outcomes for those babies not smoothly transitioning to
extrauterine life.
Initial Assessment and Management of the Newborn
345
Julie R. Gooding and Richard E. McClead Jr

This article summarizes the initial assessment of normal newborns and describes a few of the common variations that may occur. These variations
require a pediatric provider to reassure anxious new parents and provide
follow-up communication with the subsequent primary care provider.
Sensory Development
367
Melinda B. Clark-Gambelunghe and David A. Clark

Sensory development is complex, with both morphologic and neural components. Development of the senses begins in early fetal life, initially with
structures and then in-utero stimulation initiates perception. After birth,
environmental stimulants accelerate each sensory organ to nearly complete maturity several months after birth. Vision and hearing are the best
studied senses and the most crucial for learning. This article focuses on
the cranial senses of vision, hearing, smell, and taste. Sensory function,
embryogenesis, external and genetic effects, and common malformations
that may affect development are discussed, and the corresponding sensory organs are examined and evaluated.
Metabolic Screening and Postnatal Glucose Homeostasis in the Newborn
David H. Adamkin
Although individual metabolic diseases are relatively uncommon, inherited
metabolic diseases collectively represent a more common cause of disease
385
viii
Contents
in the neonatal period than is generally appreciated. Newborn screening is

among the most successful public health programs today. Every day, newborns considered to be at risk for hypoglycemia are screened. The definition
of clinically significant hypoglycemia remains among the most confused and
contentious issues in neonatology. There are 2 competing methods of
defining hypoglycemia that suggest very different levels for management:
one based on metabolicendocrinologic hormones and another that uses
outcome data to determine threshold levels of risk.
Common Genetic and Epigenetic Syndromes
411
Darius J. Adams and David A. Clark

Cytogenetic anomalies should be considered in individuals with multiple
congenital anomalies. DNA methylation analysis is the most sensitive initial
test in evaluating for Prader-Willi and Angelman syndromes. The timely
identification of cytogenetic anomalies allows for prompt initiation of early
intervention services to maximize the potential of every individual as they
grow older. Although many of these conditions are rare, keeping them in
mind can have a profound impact on the clinical course of affected individuals. This article reviews some of the more common genetic syndromes.
Neonatal Nutrition
427
Scott C. Denne
Optimal nutrition in infancy is the foundation of health in later life. Based on
the demonstrated health benefits of human milk, breastfeeding should be
the primary means of nutrition for most infants. Although many mothers
experience some problems with breastfeeding, health professionals can
use simple strategies to overcome most of these problems. For infants
who cannot breastfeed, standard infant formulas support adequate nutrition and growth. Gastroesophageal reflux is a common feeding-related
event and occurs in most infants; it is part of normal physiology and requires no intervention. Gastroesophageal reflux disease occurs in a small
number of infants necessitating the use of an algorithm-based evaluation
and management strategy.
Management of the Late Preterm Infant: Not Quite Ready for Prime Time
439
Michael J. Horgan
Preterm births account for 12.5% of all births in the United States. The preterm birth rate has increased by 33% over the last 2 decades. Late and
premature infants do not develop the serious and chronic conditions of
the extreme premature infant. However, there is growing evidence that
these infants are not as healthy as previously thought and do in fact
have an increase in morbidity and mortality compared with term infants.
This article summarizes the epidemiology of late preterm infants and the
associated morbidities associated with their prematurity.
Neonatal Respiratory Distress: A Practical Approach to Its Diagnosis
and Management
Arun K. Pramanik, Nandeesh Rangaswamy, and Thomas Gates

Respiratory disorders are the most frequent cause of admission to the
special care nursery both in term and preterm infants. Pediatricians and
453
Contents
primary care providers may encounter newborn infants with respiratory

distress in their office, emergency room, delivery room, or during physical
assessment in the newborn nursery. The authors have proposed a practical approach to diagnose and manage such infants, with suggestions
for consulting a neonatologist at a regional center. Their objective is that
practicing pediatricians should be able to assess and stabilize such infants, and transfer to or consult a neonatologist, cardiologist, or pulmonologist after reading this article.
Cardiac Evaluation of the Newborn
471
Donald J. Fillipps and Richard L. Bucciarelli

The physical examination of the term newborns cardiovascular system is
reviewed detailing the normal and abnormal variants that can be found
within the first few days after birth. The authors discuss the pathophysiologic changes that occur in the presence of congenital heart disease and
how these changes affect the clinical presentation. The major common
cardiac defects are described and discussed. Pulse oximetry screening
is reviewed in detail indicating its value in the early detection of most cases
of critical congenital heart disease. Finally, the reader is given several suggestions on diagnosis, stabilization, and when to refer to specialists.
A Practical Guide to the Diagnosis, Treatment, and Prevention of
Neonatal Infections
491
Roberto Parulan Santos and Debra Tristram

Neonatal infections continue to cause morbidity and mortality in infants.
Among approximately 400,000 infants followed nationally, the incidence
rates of early-onset sepsis infection within 3 days of life are 0.98 cases
per 1000 live births. Newborn infants are at increased risk for infections
because they have relative immunodeficiency. This article provides
evidence-based practical approaches to the diagnosis, management,
and prevention of neonatal infections.
Common Hematologic Problems in the Newborn Nursery
509
Jon F. Watchko
Common red blood cell disorders encountered in the normal newborn
nursery include hemolytic disease of the newborn and resultant hyperbilirubinemia, anemia, and polycythemia. A less frequent clinically relevant hematologic issue in newborns to be covered herein is thrombocytopenia.
Neonatal Medications
Robert M. Ward, Justin Stiers, and Karen Buchi

Neonatal abstinence syndrome (NAS) is reaching epidemic proportions
related to perinatal use of opioids. There are many approaches to assess
and manage NAS, including one we have outlined. A standardized
approach is likely to reduce length of stay and variability in practice.
Circumcision is a frequent, painful procedure performed in the neonatal
period. The rationale for providing analgesia is presented as well as a review of methods. Pharmacogenomics and pharmacogenetics have
expanded our understanding of diseases and their drug therapy. Some
525
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Contents
applications of pharmacogenomics to the neonatal period are presented,

along with pediatric challenges of developmental expression of drugmetabolizing enzymes.
Discharge Planning
545
Brian M. Barkemeyer
Hospital discharge is a time of transition for infants and families that requires oversight of common postnatal adaptations, screening tests, and
establishment of necessary follow-up care. Preterm infants face additional
medical problems that vary in complexity by the degree of prematurity. Infants born at lowest gestational ages are at highest risks for complicated
neonatal course and adverse long-term outcomes. Successful transition
from hospital to home care is essential to improved outcomes for highrisk infants.
Index
557
Foreword
Bonita F. Stanton, MD
Consulting Editor
Few times in the life of parents are associated with as much anticipation, excitement,
and anxiety as pregnancy and the newborn period. Likewise, a stunning number of
advances have been made over the last several decades in our understanding of
and ability to treat and prevent disorders identified during these two critical periods.
Practicing pediatricians must be knowledgeable about this new information as they
will often be the first to be questioned by a parent, the first to have the opportunity
to identify a potential problem, and/or the first to reassure a parent that a condition
is a normal variant. For the parents of a neonate who needs additional care, the articles
on current approaches to common illnesses, medications, and diagnostic procedures
will enable the pediatrician to offer comfort through knowledge-based explanation.
This thoughtful and carefully compiled issue thoroughly reviews normal fetal and
neonatal growth and development, screening procedures, and the identification of
abnormalities. This is a must read issue for pediatricians who have contact with
families during the prenatal period and/or with neonates and their families. Written
in a practical manner, the issue carefully reviews established procedures and
approaches as well as describes new diagnostic approaches and criteria.
A careful reading of these articles will well equip you to make a substantial difference
in the life of young parents as they welcome their newborn into the world!
Bonita F. Stanton, MD
School of Medicine
Wayne State University
1261 Scott Hall
540 East Canfield, Suite 1261
Detroit, MI 48201, USA
E-mail address:
[email protected]
Pediatr Clin N Am 62 (2015) xiii

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.pcl.2015.01.002
0031-3955/15/$ see front matter 2015 Published by Elsevier Inc.
pediatric.theclinics.com
Preface
T h e P r o b l e m B a b y : To o M u c h
Information
David A. Clark, MD
Editor
The medical care of acutely ill neonates has become increasingly complex. Advances in virtually every basic science discipline have refined our understanding
of the basic physiology underpinning the ever more complex therapy. This is especially true of breakthroughs in the subtleties of brain development, genetic and
metabolic disease, epigenetic influences on fetal and early childhood organ maturation, pulmonary physiology, and the gastrointestinal tract, including nutrition, to
name a few.
The medical literature has mushroomed beyond the capability of even the most
avid reader to fully master. A search for the term newborn or neonate in PubMed
yielded 378,177 citations, and a similar search in Google Scholar (the academic
subset of the massive search engine) resulted in 411,0001 citations for neonate
and 1,580,0001 hits for newborn. Even a limited topic such as neonatal necrotizing
enterocolitis produced over 2800 PubMed responses. The most useful reference
textbooks on Neonatology exceed 1500 pages written in the ever more technical
language of neonatologese.
The authors of the articles in this issue were challenged to distill the vast amount of
information to a subset of practical and useful concepts to assist the primary care
provider. They bring over 300 years of combined experience in caring for critically
ill newborns. In addition, they have authored over 1000 peer-reviewed publications,
trained more than 3000 pediatricians, and have been mentors to at least 400
neonatal-perinatal fellows.
Pediatr Clin N Am 62 (2015) xvxvi

0031-3955/15/$ see front matter 2015 Published by Elsevier Inc.
xvi
Preface
I thank the authors and their colleagues for their willingness to devote time
from their hectic schedules to share their insights and experience in order to provide a handy, quick reference to the many front-line physicians evaluating
neonates.
David A. Clark, MD
Albany Medical College
Childrens Hospital at Albany Medical Center
MC88, 43 New Scotland Avenue
Albany, NY 12208, USA
E-mail address:
[email protected]
Tra ns ition f ro m F et u s to
Newborn
Jonathan R. Swanson,
MD, MSc,
Robert A. Sinkin,
MD, MPH*
KEYWORDS
Neonate Transition Resuscitation Physiology Neonatal resuscitation program
Fetal circulation
KEY POINTS
The fetus to newborn transition is complex and depends on several factors, including
maternal health and chronic medical conditions, the status of the placenta, gestational
duration, presence of fetal anomalies, and delivery room care.
Although the vast majority of infants do well, approximately 10% require intervention to
facilitate the transition from fetus to newborn.
Clinicians caring for newborns should be well-versed in the recommendations of the
Neonatal Resuscitation Program.
INTRODUCTION
The adaptation from the intrauterine to extrauterine environment is complex and likely
among the most remarkable and difficult physiologic transitions known, all the more
noteworthy because it is also a normal and required process for our species. Although
all systems of the human body undergo extensive changes, the initial and most crucial
adaptations occur in the pulmonary and cardiovascular systems (Box 1). Clinicians
who take care of newborns during this transition must be prepared to help neonates
having difficulty during this changeover. Maternal medical and fetal conditions can
have a profound effect on a successful transition. Understanding how these issues
affect a neonates ability to adapt ex utero are essential for informing a clinicians ability to shepherd a newborn through this process. Up to 10% of newborns require some
clinical intervention during birth, and approximately 1% require more extensive resuscitation.1 It is imperative that clinicians be prepared to provide needed interventions
and understand why some neonates have difficulty transitioning.
Disclosures: None.
Division of Neonatology, Department of Pediatrics, University of Virginia Childrens Hospital,
Box 800386, Charlottesville, VA 22908, USA
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: [email protected]
Pediatr Clin N Am 62 (2015) 329343
0031-3955/15/$ see front matter 2015 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
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Swanson & Sinkin
Box 1
Requirements for a normal fetal to newborn transition
Fetal lung fluid resorption
Expansion of lungs and establishment of functional residual capacity
Increased systemic vascular resistance
Decreased pulmonary vascular resistance and increased pulmonary blood flow
Closure of right to left shunts
FETUS TO NEWBORN TRANSITION PHYSIOLOGY
The fetus to newborn physiologic transition begins in utero. This transition depends on
several factors, including maternal health and chronic medical conditions, the status
of the placenta, gestational duration, and the presence of fetal anomalies. The physiology of this transition is complex and requires an understanding of the cardiovascular and pulmonary systems in utero and ex utero.
Fetal Cardiopulmonary Physiology
In utero, the fetus depends on the placenta for all gas exchange and nutrient delivery
from the maternal circulation. The placenta has low vascular resistance and receives
approximately 40% of fetal cardiac output.2 Because the fetal lungs are not required
for gas exchange, only approximately 10% of cardiac output passes through the pulmonary circulation.3 Blood flows through the umbilical artery to the placenta, where it
is oxygenated and then delivered back to the fetus through the umbilical vein with an
oxygen saturation of approximately 80% (PaO2 3035 mmHg).4 Blood in the umbilical
vein is mixed with portal venous blood from the fetus, and reaches the right atrium via
the inferior vena cava with an oxygen saturation of about 67%.4 Owing to the
dynamics of blood flow and the anatomic location of the foramen ovale, this relatively
well-oxygenated blood is preferentially shunted across the foramen into the left atrium
and subsequently pumped from the left ventricle into the aorta. This fetal shunt allows
for the favored delivery of more highly oxygenated blood to the brain (carotid arteries)
and heart (coronary arteries). Similarly, blood returning to the heart via the superior
vena cava is directed to the right ventricle, where it is pumped into the pulmonary
artery. Owing to relative fetal hypoxia, the pulmonary arteries are vasoconstricted,
resulting in high pulmonary vascular resistance. Secondary to this high resistance
and the low systemic resistance (secondary to the placenta), the majority of red blood
cells traverse the ductus arteriosus to the descending aorta where they are delivered
to the placenta for reoxygenation.
Fetal lung growth and maturation revolve around fetal lung fluid. This fluid is
detected as early as the first trimester, although secretion depends on gestational
age until its significantly reduced production before labor.5,6 The active transport of
chloride has been elucidated as the mechanism of fetal lung fluid secretion.7 Owing
in part to closed vocal cords, the secretion of fetal lung fluid results in increased bronchoalveolar intraluminal pressure, allowing developing lung airway structures to stay
open while also contributing to elevated pulmonary vascular resistance.
Fetus to Newborn Cardiovascular and Pulmonary Changes
Many textbooks promote the incorrect belief that the fetus to newborn transition begins when the umbilical cord is clamped or cut; however, transition is initiated before
the onset of labor. The successful transition begins with fetal lung fluid clearance.
Cortisol production, which plays a role in multiple organ systems preparing the fetus
for transition to ex utero, increases dramatically at the end of the third trimester as the
fetal adrenal gland matures. One mechanism by which cortisol prepares the fetus is
via its effect on pulmonary maturation. Surfactant production increases, which allows
for a reduction in alveolar surface tension while maintaining alveolar expansion.8
Cortisol likewise increases b-adrenergic receptors within the lung and increases the
transcription of genes that produce epithelial sodium channels.6,9 Epithelial sodium
channels transform the lung from a chloride-secreting organ into one that reabsorbs
sodium, thereby pulling fetal lung fluid out of the alveolar air spaces and into the interstitium and intravascular spaces. Studies in sheep have demonstrated that this transition begins before the onset of labor, but then significantly increases during labor.
Bland and colleagues10 found that sheep delivered after labor had 45% less lung fluid
than those delivered without going through labor.
After delivery, the remainder of the fetal lung fluid is resorbed via several mechanisms. Increased blood oxygen concentration increases epithelial sodium channels
gene expression, which improves the ability of the epithelium to transport sodium
and water into the interstitium.11,12 The initial breaths of the infant also generate
elevated intrapulmonary pressure, which drives alveolar fluid into the interstitium.
Pressures between 50 and 70 cm H2O have been measured in term infants in the delivery room.13 Finally, although it was previously believed that the thoracic squeeze
while the fetus travels through the birth canal cleared fetal lung fluid, it is now thought
that this mechanism plays a very minor role.14
In the near-term fetus, cardiac output is approximately 450 mL/kg per minute with
two-thirds of the output performed by the right ventricle.15 Soon after birth, however,
there is a marked increase in cardiac output by both the right and left ventricles,
increasing blood flow to the lungs, heart, kidney, and intestines.9,16 Although this
marked increase is secondary to multiple factors, the increased levels of cortisol, as
described, likely plays a major role.
Another cardiovascular change after delivery includes the closure of several
vascular shunts (Table 1). Once an infant starts to breathe, oxygen content within
the blood is higher than it is in utero. This reduction in hypoxia leads to vasoconstriction of the umbilical artery and, because oxygen is a potent pulmonary dilator,
Table 1
Fetal vessels and cardiovascular shunts
Vessels
In Utero Function
Response to Delivery
Umbilical artery
Blood from descending

aorta to placenta
Vasoconstrict with increased oxygenation
Umbilical vein
Blood from placenta to

inferior vena cava
Collapse with absent blood flow
Ductus arteriosus
Shunt from pulmonary

artery to descending aorta
Functionally closes with increased

oxygenation and loss of prostaglandin
E2 from placenta
Ductus venosus
Shunt from umbilical

vein to inferior vena cava
Collapse with absent blood flow
Foramen ovale
Allows blood flow between

right and left atria
Closes when systemic pressure is greater

than pulmonary pressure
Pulmonary arteries
Minimalvasoconstricted in
hypoxic environment
Vasodilate with elevated oxygen levels
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Swanson & Sinkin
pulmonary vascular resistance falls. This allows for an increase in pulmonary blood
flow, further increasing oxygen delivery throughout the body. In a duration of approximately 10 minutes, a newborns oxygen saturation increases from a fetal level of
approximately 60% to well over 90% (Box 2).1,17 Additionally, as oxygenation improves, calcium channels are activated in the smooth muscle of the ductus arteriosus
leading to ductal constriction, limiting blood flow and functionally closing the ductus
arteriosus. As systemic vascular resistance increases and pulmonary vascular resistance decreases, the pressure gradient at the atrial level changes and the foramen
ovale physiologically closes, stopping the right-to-left atrial shunt.
The timing of umbilical cord clamping also plays a role in the success of this transition and recent data suggest that transition may be adversely effected by premature
cord cutting or clamping. Charles Darwins grandfather, Erasmus Darwin, a British
physician, noted in 1801:
Another thing very injurious to the child, is the tying and cutting of the navel string
too soon; which should always be left till the child has not only repeatedly
breathed but till all pulsation in the cord ceases. As otherwise the child is much
weaker than it ought to be, a portion of the blood being left in the placenta, which
ought to have been in the child.18
Although the umbilical artery constricts with increasing oxygenation, preventing
further blood flow to the placenta from the newborn, the umbilical vein remains dilated,
allowing blood to continue to flow from the placenta in the direction of gravity. There is
increasing evidence that delaying cord clamping until the onset of respirations is
important and beneficial in newborn transition. In preterm lambs, Bhatt and colleagues19 demonstrated that delaying cord clamping for 3 to 4 minutes until ventilation
was established resulted in improved cardiac function. Lambs whose cords were
immediately clamped had a significant, although transient, increase in pulmonary
and carotid artery pressures and blood flow, and a significant decrease in right ventricular output and heart rate. Lambs whose cords were clamped after establishing ventilation had no change in heart rate and ultimately a much more stable cardiovascular
transition at birth. In a cohort study of more than 15,000 infants in Tanzania, neonates
were more likely to die or require hospital admission when cord clamping occurred
before or immediately after onset of spontaneous respirations compared with infants
who were breathing before cord clamping.20 For every 10 seconds cord clamping was
delayed after initiation of spontaneous respiration, the risk of death or admission
Box 2
Targeted preductal oxygen saturation after birth
1 minute: 60%65%
2 minutes: 65%70%
3 minutes: 70%75%
4 minutes: 75%80%
5 minutes: 85%90%
10 minutes: 85%95%
From Kattwinkel J, Perlman JM, Aziz K, et al. Part 15: neonatal resuscitation: 2010 American
Heart Association guidelines for cardiopulmonary resuscitation and emergency cardiovascular
care. Circulation 2010;122:S90919; with permission.
decreased by 20% across birth weight groups. This evidence suggests that the
cardiopulmonary transition of a neonate is much smoother and more stable when
cord clamping occurs after the establishment of ventilation. Several trials evaluating
this process are currently registered at Clinicaltrials.gov.
NEONATAL PROBLEMS OF TRANSITION
As previously cited, although the majority of infants successfully transition from intrauterine to extrauterine life, approximately 10% require some resuscitation at birth
owing to difficulty in adaptation.1 The issues surrounding these difficulties can be
divided into several categories, of which the clinician should be aware to anticipate
the potential need for resuscitative support both in the delivery room and in the early
hours and days after birth.
Maternal Conditions Affecting the Newborn Transition
Maternal conditions can significantly affect a newborns ability to transition effectively;

clinicians should be aware of them whether they are chronic medical conditions, or
issues that arise during prenatal screening or over the course of the pregnancy
(Box 3). Although it is beyond the scope of this article, clinicians should be well aware
of chronic medical conditions that require early initiation of therapy to the newborn.
This includes several chronic infections, such as maternal human immunodeficiency
virus and hepatitis B virus infection. Other conditions include Rh incompatibility, which
can lead to hemolytic disease of the newborn, and immune thrombocytopenic purpura, which may lead to cerebral and other organ bleeding, secondary to thrombocytopenia. Additionally, prenatal screening results may require the clinician to manage
the newborn differently. The prenatal findings of fetal hydronephrosis or echogenic
cardiac foci may suggest further imaging is needed. Therefore, clinicians caring for
the newborn should be knowledgeable of the entire maternal medical history, both
prepregnancy and prenatal.
Certain, more acute maternal medical conditions may also cause difficulties in transition for the newborn for which the newborn clinician should be aware and anticipate
the need for resuscitative measures. Hypertensive disorders in pregnancy including
gestational hypertension, preeclampsia, eclampsia, hemolysis, elevated liver enzymes, low platelets (HELLP syndrome), or previously diagnosed chronic hypertension, are not uncommon worldwide.21 Preeclampsia complicates up to 10% of
pregnancies in the United States alone and is thought to be even greater in underdeveloped countries.22 This spectrum of hypertensive disorders can all contribute to
intrauterine growth restriction (decreased birth weight/small for gestational age status)
Box 3
Fetal to newborn transition difficultiesmaternal conditions
Hypertensive disorders (primary [essential] and secondary hypertension, preeclampsia,
hemolysis, elevated liver enzymes, low platelets [HELLP])
Diabetes mellitus
Perinatal substance abuse
Lupus
Myasthenia gravis
Advanced maternal age
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Swanson & Sinkin
likely secondary to decreased uteroplacental blood flow and ischemia. Fetal intrauterine growth restriction is a significant risk factor for fetal demise and neonatal
death.2225 Associated with these hypertensive disorders are 2 common hematologic
manifestations in the neonate: neutropenia (absolute neutrophil count <500/mL) and
thrombocytopenia (platelet count <150,000/mL). Newborns of mothers with preeclampsia have up to a 50% incidence of neutropenia, but it is generally thought to
be self-limited.26,27 Although the pathogenesis of neonatal thrombocytopenia in preeclampsia is unknown, it may be clinically significant, necessitating 1 or more platelet
transfusions.28 Therefore, newborns of preeclamptic women should be monitored
closely with examination of a complete blood count with differential even if asymptomatic. Finally, if low birth weight, clinicians should monitor the neonates ability to
tolerate feedings and maintain thermoregulatory homeostasis while transitioning;
such difficulties are not infrequent and often require admission to special care
nurseries.29,30
Maternal diabetes mellitus can also have a profound influence on the fetus to
newborn transition. Glucose levels in the fetus are entirely dependent upon facilitated
diffusion across the placenta from the maternal serum. When the fetus lives in a
chronic state of abnormally elevated glucose levels (poorly controlled diabetes), fetal
insulin levels increase and glucagon levels decrease. This can result in hyperinsulinsim
in the fetus. At birth, after the maternal glucose supply is acutely interrupted, newborn
insulin levels decrease and glucagon levels increase. However, insulin levels may not
decrease quickly enough in the setting of the acute glucose shortage, resulting in
hypoglycemia. Frequent checking of blood glucose levels in the newborn is warranted
to detect hypoglycemia and to ensure appropriate response to treatment.31 Early
breastfeeding (within 1 hour of delivery) to prevent hypoglycemia has been studied
and should be encouraged.32 Additionally, when hypoglycemic events do occur,
dextrose gel therapy may be considered to prevent recurrent events.33
Other conditions associated with maternal diabetes are not insignificant. Uncontrolled diabetes results in increased risk of newborn hyperbilirubinemia, polycythemia,
asymmetric septal hypertrophy, and hypocalcemia, all of which must be anticipated
by the clinician responsible for the newborn to treat or prevent long-term morbidity.34
Macrosomic neonates of diabetic mothers are also at greater risk of birth injuries and
hypoxicischemic encephalopathy.35 Focusing on ensuring adequate cardiorespiratory transition at birth, infants of diabetic mothers are at higher risk of developing respiratory distress syndrome (RDS) compared with similarly aged infants of nondiabetic
mothers.3638 The pathogenesis of RDS in infants of diabetic mothers stems from a
relative surfactant deficiency. In a study examining more than 3000 deliveries after
34 weeks gestation, gestational diabetes was identified as an independent risk factor
for admission to a neonatal intensive care unit or the need for ventilator support at
24 hours of age with an adjusted odds ratio of 11.55.38 Although the authors did not
evaluate the immediate need for aggressive resuscitation, it is likely that many of
the neonates receiving ventilator support required significant respiratory support in
the delivery room.
Clinicians should also be aware of other maternal conditions that can affect a neonates ability to transition effectively from the in utero environment. Mothers of
advanced maternal age (>35 years) are at greater risk not only for maternal morbidities, but their newborns face greater risks for neonatal morbidities and mortality.
The risks of preterm birth, small for gestational age stature, low Apgar score, fetal
death, and neonatal death increase as maternal age advances over the age of 30.39
There is also increased risk of gestational diabetes and hypertensive disorders in
mothers over the age of 45 years.40
Maternal substance abuse is another significant contributor to increased perinatal

morbidities. In a single-center study of 85 pregnancies complicated by illicit drug
abuse, premature delivery, congenital anomalies, low birth weight, and Apgar scores
of less than 7 were all increased in neonates of mothers abusing drugs.41 In addition,
there was an increased risk of maternal hepatitis infections and neonatal abstinence
syndrome. Clinicians should be well aware of the potential need for closer observation
in these infants.
Another chronic medical condition that can affect neonatal management is myasthenia gravis. Antibodies to acetylcholine receptors (typically immunoglobulin G,
which crosses the placenta) are found in up to 90% of mothers with myasthenia gravis.
Approximately 10% to 20% of newborns born to these mothers can present with
sequelae, including arthrogryposis, respiratory distress, and poor feeding.42,43 Symptoms typically occur 12 to 48 hours after birth and can last for several weeks, although
earlier symptomatology can occur. Finally, maternal lupus is the most likely cause of
fetal heart block that can cause significant cardiopulmonary disease at birth owing to
poor cardiac output. It is paramount that clinicians understand and are knowledgeable
about the maternal medical history of the newborns that are under their care.
Fetal/Newborn Conditions Affecting Transition
Several conditions in the fetus and newborn can adversely affect the transition from
intrauterine to extrauterine life (Box 4). The most problematic transitional medical condition for the clinician is persistent pulmonary hypertension of the newborn (PPHN,
formerly called persistent fetal circulation). PPHN is characterized by elevated pulmonary vascular resistance that results in extrapulmonary shunting across the ductus
arteriosus and continued right-to-left shunting through the foramen ovale, leading to
significant hypoxemia. Risk factors that are independently associated with PPHN
include late preterm or postterm birth, large for gestational age, and cesarean delivery.44 Maternal risk factors include black or Asian race, diabetes, and asthma.44
Although direct causation has not been shown with these risk factors, clinicians
need to be alert to the increased susceptibility to developing PPHN and the need
for close monitoring and interventions required in the immediate neonatal period for
these newborns to minimize its potential morbidity.
Box 4
Fetal to newborn transition difficultiesfetal/infant conditions
Congenital anomalies
Heart defects
Diaphragmatic hernia
Airway anomalies
Pulmonary hypoplasia
Sepsis/pneumonia
Persistent pulmonary hypertension
Prematurity
Intrauterine growth restriction/small for gestational age
Large for gestational age
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Swanson & Sinkin
Respiratory distress in the newborn period can also present as a result of poor respiratory effort, airway malformations, and impaired lung function. Poor respiratory
effort in the newborn can result in delayed clearance of fetal lung fluid, as described
previously. This respiratory depression can be secondary to a variety of factors,
including maternal analgesia, congenital neuromuscular disorders, and neonatal encephalopathy. Congenital anomalies of the airway, although rare, may mechanically
block the bronchi or trachea, preventing adequate lung inflation and resulting in
continued elevations in pulmonary vascular resistance. Some causes include choanal
atresia, laryngeal webs, and, more commonly, the presence of meconium or mucus in
the airway. Routine oral or nasopharyngeal suctioning of infants is no longer recommended because it can be associated with cardiorespiratory complications.45 Current
practice and recommendations in the Neonatal Resuscitation Program (NRP) for
infants born through meconium-stained fluid includes tracheal suctioning in nonvigorous infants.1 However, the evidence available for even this scaled-down intervention
does not support or refute this activity; it is likely that this recommendation may
change in subsequent editions of the NRP.45
Impaired lung function in the neonate results from several mechanisms, including
the presence of air leaks, pulmonary hypoplasia (secondary to prolonged oligohydramnios or congenital diaphragmatic hernia), and intrinsic lung disease. Congenital
pneumonia is rare but typically presents immediately after delivery. It is acquired either
through aspiration of infected amniotic fluid or via vertical transmission from maternal
vaginal or blood infections. More commonly affecting the neonatal transition are RDS
and transient tachypnea of the newborn. RDS is associated with decreased lung volumes, air bronchograms, and ground glass appearance on radiographic studies. Clinically, infants present with grunting, retractions, and tachypnea. If left untreated, the
reduced lung volumes and hypoxemia may lead to continued elevation of pulmonary
artery pressures. Transient tachypnea of the newborn is more commonly associated
with inadequate or delayed clearance of fetal lung fluid. As described, transient
tachypnea of the newborn can be seen in neonates delivered without labor (scheduled
cesarean section) or born precipitously. Tachypnea typically resolves within the first
48 hours but may persist beyond 72 hours of age. Radiographic findings include perihilar streaking and intralobar fluid.
Fetal conditions may also affect where and when delivery should take place. Newborns with conditions discovered prenatally that require early surgical correction
should be delivered at a tertiary facility equipped to handle emergencies and complications. Such conditions may include congenital diaphragmatic hernia, congenital
heart defects, airway anomalies, gastroschisis, omphalocele, and renal agenesis.
The most advanced neonatal intensive care units typically have the capability to
provide cardiopulmonary bypass and extracorporeal membrane oxygenation for
these neonates should they be necessary.
Delivery Issues Affecting the Newborn Transition
Clinicians taking care of newborns should work with their obstetric colleagues to eliminate elective deliveries before 39 weeks gestation (Box 5). Respiratory morbidity,
including RDS and transient tachypnea, are increased if delivery is electively done
before this gestational age.46,47 The American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists has endorsed the elimination of nonmedically indicated deliveries before
39 weeks owing to these morbidities and this proactive recommendation has also
become a National Quality Forum project.48,49
Additionally, elective cesarean deliveries are accompanied by an increased risk of
newborn respiratory distress. Term infants delivered electively in this manner have
Box 5
Fetal to newborn transition difficultiesdelivery issues
Maternal analgesia
Meconium-stained amniotic fluid
Instrumentation (forceps, vacuum)
Cesarean delivery
Complex and breech fetal presentations
almost twice the incidence of RDS (2.1% vs 1.4%; P<.01) and transient tachypnea
(4.1% vs 1.9%; P<.01) compared with infants born vaginally after a prior cesarean
birth.50 Other studies have corroborated these findings in other populations.51,52
Due to the risks of retained lung fluid, surfactant deficiency, and subsequent pulmonary hypertension, some authors have argued for administration of antenatal corticosteroids to women undergoing elective cesarean delivery even at term gestation.53,54
Maternal administration of magnesium as a therapy for preeclampsia, as a tocolytic,
and/or to prevent neurodevelopmental impairment in premature infants can also affect
the transitioning neonate. Side effects of maternal magnesium administration in the
neonate include poor respiratory effort, and delayed peristalsis and gastric emptying.
Similar to the effects of maternal general anesthesia at cesarean deliveries, comparable side effects in the neonate may be manifested including respiratory depression
and hypotonia. In 1 study, although the 5-minute Apgar scores were similar, the
need for resuscitation was more common in neonates exposed to general
anesthesia.55
NEWBORN RESUSCITATION
Although the vast majority of newborns do not require resuscitation at birth, with an
annual US birth number of approximately 4 million, up to 400,000 babies will need
help in the transition to extrauterine life each year. Three risk assessment questions
by the clinician can generally affirm whether or not newborn resuscitation will be
needed: (1) Is the baby term? (2) is the baby crying or breathing? and (3) does the
baby have good muscle tone?1 If the clinician can answer yes to all 3 of these questions, the baby should be placed skin to skin on the mother as soon as possible with
continued observation recommended. If the answer to any of these questions is no,
then the clinician should closely monitor the baby or begin the initial steps in stabilizing
and/or resuscitating the baby with the appropriate equipment (Box 6) as indicated.1
Thermoregulation
The goal for any infant should be normothermia. Several therapies have been recommended by the NRP, American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists, and the
American Academy of Pediatrics including prewarming the delivery room to 26 C, using plastic wrap around the infant, placing the infant on an exothermic mattress, and
placing the baby under a radiant warmer.1,56 It should be noted that for newborns
requiring resuscitation secondary to hypoxicischemic encephalopathy, the goal
should be to avoid iatrogenic hyperthermia, which has been shown in animal studies
to increase the progression of neuronal damage.57 Clinicians should work with their
tertiary referral centers to determine the optimal ways to reduce hyperthermia and
potentially induce mild hypothermia.58
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Box 6
Recommended newborn resuscitation equipment
Respiratory equipment
Oxygen supply
Masks (assorted sizes)
Neonatal bag and tubing or other oxygen delivery device
Endotracheal tubes (size 2.54 mm)
Laryngoscope (blade sizes 0 and 1)
Carbon dioxide detector
Tape and scissors
Suction equipment
Bulb syringe
Suction device
Suction catheters (size 610 French)
Meconium aspirator
Fluids/medications
Epinephrine (1:10,000 concentration)
Intravenous catheters
Normal saline solution
10% Dextrose in water solution
T-connectors
Syringes (120 mL sizes)
Other equipment
Umbilical catheters (2.5 and 5 French)
Sterile procedure trays (forceps, scalpel, hemostat, etc)
Airway Clearance
Routine suctioning of term infants without evidence of obstruction or meconium is not

recommended.1 Suctioning of the nasal passage or oropharynx can cause bradycardia and infants may take longer to reach targeted oxygen saturation; there is
also limited evidence that suctioning provides any respiratory benefit.59,60 In nonvigorous infants who are born through meconium-stained fluid, endotracheal suction is still
recommended, as noted previously. Gastric suctioning is of limited value. In a study of
more than 300 infants randomized to either suctioning or no suctioning, no benefit and
possible adverse effects with suctioning were demonstrated.61
Supplemental Oxygen
Insufficient or excessive oxygen can be harmful to neonates during resuscitation.

Several randomized, controlled studies have been performed comparing 100%
oxygen with room air during resuscitation. Two meta-analyses of these studies have
demonstrated that neonates resuscitated with room air have increased survival; there
is also growing evidence that even brief periods of too much oxygen have adverse
effects well beyond the neonatal period.62,63 No studies have been published to date
examining resuscitations started with different oxygen concentrations. The NRP recommends that preductal oxygen saturations be targeted in all neonates based on how
many minutes old they are (see Box 2).1 In centers where blended oxygen is not available, the recommendation is to start resuscitations with room air. In centers where
blended oxygen is available, titrating the oxygen concentration to the targeted saturation levels using pulse oximetry is recommended.
Assisted Ventilation
If, after 30 seconds of warming, drying, and stimulating, a neonate needing resuscitation has a heart rate below 100 beats per minute or has apnea/gasping, positive
pressure ventilation is indicated.1 Other newborns who may benefit from positive
end-expiratory pressure include those with tachypnea, grunting, retracting, or persistent cyanosis. To deliver adequate distending pressure to create a functional residual
capacity, initial pressures should be high enough to provide chest expansion; 20 cm
H2O may be effective, although some neonates may require up to 40 cm H2O.1 The
best measure of adequate ventilation is a rapid improvement in heart rate. Clinicians
should be aware of the amount of pressure used and should be ready to adjust pressures based on the newborns response. There is no current recommendation on what
type of oxygen delivery device should be used, but no matter which device a clinician
chooses, knowledge of its proper use and ability to troubleshoot is mandatory. Finally,
there are limited data on the use of laryngeal mask airways, but they may be considered if facemask ventilation is unsuccessful and endotracheal intubation is either not
feasible or unsuccessful.
Chest Compressions
Once an airway is established or secured and the heart rate remains below 60 beats
per minute despite effective ventilation for at least 30 seconds, chest compressions
should be initiated. The NRP recommends the 2 thumb-encircling technique (vs the
2-finger technique) on the lower one-third of the sternum providing compressions to
a depth of one-third of the anteriorposterior diameter of the chest.1 Proper technique
also involves coordination between ventilation and compressions, avoiding their
simultaneous delivery at a ratio of 3 compressions to every ventilation, yielding
approximately 120 events per minute.
Medications and Volume Expansion
The only medication currently recommended in neonatal resuscitation is epinephrine.

If the heart rate remains at less than 60 with adequate ventilation and 100% oxygen,
chest compressions, epinephrine, and volume expansion with isotonic saline should
be considered.1 Intravenous administration of epinephrine should be used as soon
as venous access is obtained at a dose of 0.01 to 0.03 mg/kg per dose. If venous
access cannot be established or while access is being obtained, doses of 0.05 to
0.1 mg/kg via the endotracheal tube can be attempted, although there is limited evidence of its effectiveness by this route.1 Placement of an emergency umbilical venous
catheter should be used for intravenous administration of epinephrine or volume
expansion. The catheter should be placed only to the point where blood flow is
returned. Volume expansion with 10 mL/kg of normal saline can be given when the
babys heart rate has not responded adequately to resuscitation or when blood loss
is known or suspected.
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Special Considerations
It is always difficult to know when resuscitative efforts should be withheld or discontinued. Practice and attitudes vary based on available resources and location. In a neonate
who has been provided adequate resuscitation but whose heart rate remains undetectable for 10 minutes, it is appropriate and acceptable to consider stopping resuscitation
efforts.1 When withholding resuscitation, decisions should be made with regard to
regional outcomes. There remains controversy on initiating and/or withholding resuscitation at extremely young gestational ages. Recently, a joint workshop between the
American Academy of Pediatrics, American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists, the Society for Maternal-Fetal Medicine, and the National Institute for Child Health
and Development on periviable birth recommended aggressive resuscitation for infants
greater than 23 weeks gestation unless the neonate is considered to be nonviable
based on individual circumstances, such as having a lethal genetic disorder.64 Infants
born between 22 0/7 and 22 6/7 weeks could be resuscitated after antenatal counseling
between clinicians and the family and if there is a potential for error in gestational age
assessment. Clinicians should remember that obstetric dating may be quite variable,
depending on the technique and timing of the dating calculation used. Parental desires
regarding initiation of resuscitation should always be taken into consideration in neonates born before 25 weeks gestation.1
SUMMARY
The fetus to newborn transition is a complex physiologic process that requires close
monitoring. Approximately 10% of all newborns require some support in facilitating a
successful transition after delivery. Clinicians should be aware of the physiologic
processes and pay close regard to the newborns cardiopulmonary transition at birth
to provide appropriate treatment and therapies as required. Personnel trained in the
NRP should be available at the delivery for all newborns to ensure that immediate
and appropriate care can be provided to achieve the best possible outcomes for those
babies during this period of vulnerability.
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29. Jadcherla SR, Kliegman RM. Studies of feeding intolerance in very low birth
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30. Parry M, Davies MW. The low birthweight, term infant and the need for admission
to special care nurseries. J Paediatr Child Health 2013;49:101924.
31. Rozance PJ. Update on neonatal hypoglycemia. Curr Opin Endocrinol Diabetes
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32. Maayan-Metzger A, Schushan-Eisen I, Lubin D, et al. Delivery room breastfeeding for prevention of hypoglycemia in infants of diabetic mothers. Fetal Pediatr
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33. Harris DL, Weston PJ, Signal M, et al. Dextrose gel for neonatal hypoglycemia
(the Sugar Babies Study): a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial.
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34. Barnes-Powell LL. Infants of diabetic mothers: the effects of hyperglycemia on
the fetus and neonate. Neonatal Netw 2007;26:28390.
35. Das S, Irigoyen M, Patterson MB, et al. Neonatal outcomes of macrosomic births
in diabetic and non-diabetic women. Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed 2009;94:
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36. Hay WW Jr. Care of the infant of the diabetic mother. Curr Diab Rep 2012;12:
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37. Badran EF, Abdalgani MM, Al-Lawama MA, et al. Effects of perinatal risk factors
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38. Vignoles P, Gire C, Mancini J, et al. Gestational diabetes: a strong independent
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39. Waldenstrom U, Aasheim V, Nilsen AB, et al. Adverse pregnancy outcomes
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40. Carolan M. Maternal age >45 years and maternal and perinatal outcomes: a review of the evidence. Midwifery 2013;29:47989.
41. Vucinovic M, Roje D, Vucinovic Z, et al. Maternal and neonatal effects of substance abuse during pregnancy: our ten-year experience. Yonsei Med J 2008;
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42. Barlow CF. Neonatal myasthenia gravis. Am J Dis Child 1981;135:209.
43. Varner M. Myasthenia gravis and pregnancy. Clin Obstet Gynecol 2013;56:
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44. Hernandez-Diaz S, Van Marter LJ, Werler MM, et al. Risk factors for persistent
pulmonary hypertension of the newborn. Pediatrics 2007;120:e27282.
45. Perlman JM, Wyllie J, Kattwinkel J, et al. Part 11: neonatal resuscitation: 2010 international consensus on cardiopulmonary resuscitation and emergency cardiovascular care science with treatment recommendations. Circulation 2010;
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46. Ertugrul S, Gun I, Mungen E, et al. Evaluation of neonatal outcomes in elective
repeat cesarean delivery at term according to weeks of gestation. J Obstet Gynaecol Res 2013;39:10512.
47. Clark S, Miller D, Belfort M, et al. Neonatal and maternal outcomes associated
with elective delivery. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2009;200:156.e14.
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49. National Quality Forum. NQF #0469 PC-01 elective delivery. Perinatal and Reproductive Health Project Bulletin. October 24, 2008.
50. Jain L, Eaton DC. Physiology of fetal lung fluid clearance and the effect of labor.
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51. Werner EF, Savitz DA, Janevic TM, et al. Mode of delivery and neonatal outcomes
in preterm, small-for-gestational age newborns. Obstet Gynecol 2012;120:5604.
52. Werner EF, Han CS, Savitz DA, et al. Health outcomes for vaginal compared with
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53. Ramachandrappa A, Jain L. Elective cesarean section: its impact on neonatal
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54. Riley CA, Boozer K, King TL. Antenatal corticosteroids at the beginning of the
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55. Dasgupta S, Chakraborty B, Saha D, et al. Comparison of neonatal outcome in
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56. Lockwood CJ, Lemons JA, editors. Guidelines for perinatal care. 6th edition. Elk
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57. Zhu C, Wang X, Xu F, et al. Intraischemic mild hypothermia prevents neuronal cell
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58. Fairchild K, Sokora D, Scott J, et al. Therapeutic hypothermia on neonatal transport: 4-year experience in a single NICU. J Perinatol 2010;30:3249.
59. Gungor S, Kurt E, Teksoz E, et al. Oronasopharyngeal suction versus no suction
in normal and term infants delivered by elective cesarean section: a prospective
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61. Kiremitci S, Tuzun F, Yesilirmak DC, et al. Is gastric aspiration needed for
newborn management in delivery room? Resuscitation 2011;82:404.
62. Davis PG, Tan A, ODonnell CP, et al. Resuscitation of newborn infants with 100%
oxygen or air: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet 2004;364:132933.
63. Rabi Y, Rabi D, Yee W. Room air resuscitation of the depressed newborn: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Resuscitation 2007;72:35363.
64. Raju TN, Mercer BM, Burchfield DJ, et al. Periviable birth: executive summary of a
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J Perinatol 2014;34:33342.
343
Initial Assessment and

Management of the
Newborn
Julie R. Gooding,
MD,
Richard E. McClead Jr,
MD, MHA*
KEYWORDS
Newborn assessment Physical examination Normal variation Gestational age
Birth trauma Congenital anomalies
KEY POINTS
It is important for primary providers to recognize normal variations and reassure anxious
parents when these common variants are present.
When a newborn practitioner is not providing the subsequent follow-up care, communication with the infants primary care provider regarding these findings as well as the pertinent
perinatal history is critical.
The after-visit or discharge summary provided to a parent may not be adequate to
conveying findings. A phone call, especially when an infant remains at risk for hyperbilirubinemia or group B streptococcal disease, is the most efficient means of communication.
It is evident that the physical findings obtained at single examinations during the
first six hours of life in health neonates may vary considerably.
Murdina M. Desmond and colleagues1
INTRODUCTION
Birth is an exciting time for new parents. It is also a time of great anxiety and concern:
Is my baby healthy? How much does my baby weigh? Can my baby stay with
me? Will our baby go home with us? For many new parents, this is their first
encounter with the health care system as a family. Many parents may not have thought
about the need to choose a pediatrician. Some parents think their obstetrician will care
for the baby. Some parents may have a pediatrician, but their pediatrician is not
on staff at the hospital where they delivered. Instead, an unfamiliar pediatrician or
Disclosure: Neither author has any conflicts or financial relationships to disclose.

Department of Pediatrics, Nationwide Childrens Hospital, The Ohio State University, 700 Childrens Drive, Columbus, OH 43205, USA
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Gooding & McClead Jr
neonatologist provides care for the infant when in the well-baby nursery. Physicians
providing care for well newborns need to be aware and sensitive to these parental
concerns.
As noted by Warren and Phillipi,2 care of the family should be accessible, continuous, comprehensive, family-centered, coordinated, compassionate, and culturally
effective. The ability of pediatricians to meet these ideals might be limited, however,
by demands and expectation for families and by the health care system. For instance,
families may want to be discharged before the newborn has had a sufficient period of
observation. Although most major problems present in the first 12 hours of life, problems, such as significant hyperbilirubinemia, certain ductal-dependent cardiac
lesions, and gastrointestinal disorders, may take longer to present. The hospital
stay of the mother and her healthy term newborn infant should be long enough to allow
identification of early problems and to ensure that the family is able and prepared to
care for the infant at home.3 Although regulations permit healthy term infants to
remain hospitalized 48 hours after a vaginal birth and 96 hours after a cesarean delivery, it is uncommon for families with healthy newborns to want to stay the allotted time
for observation. This might be a problem when an infant must be observed for 48 hours
per group B streptococcal disease prevention guidelines.4
The normal variations that newborns exhibit can also create anxiety for new parents.
These variations result from a variety of factors, including mode of delivery, medications administered during labor and delivery, and changes related to transition from
an intrauterine to extrauterine environment. It is the pediatricians role to identify
abnormal clinical findings that may have implications in a newborns course as well
as to reassure parents of normal newborn variations.
This article discusses some of these variations related to gestational age assessment, sizing, and physical examination not discussed elsewhere in this issue. Some
of the common physical findings that may require additional evaluation and treatment
are also discussed.
INITIAL ASSESSMENT OF THE NEWBORN
The initial assessment of a normal, healthy newborn by a pediatrician should take

place in the first 24 hours after birth. Attention should be paid to the maternal record,
including antenatal history, labor and delivery course, postpartum record, and
parental interview, to evaluate for risk factors or pregnancy complications that can
affect an infants well-being and subsequent development. A thorough examination
of each organ system should be performed and any variation of normal identified
and discussed with the parents.
Assessing Gestational Age and Growth
Assessing newborn infants includes determining the gestational age of infants and
obtaining measurements that include weight, length, and head circumference. Using
a systematic method to assess the gestational age of infants is important when the
dates are uncertain or if prenatal care was not obtained in the first trimester. The
Ballard scoring system is a gestational age assessment tool that uses standardized
physical examination findings to score infants in the areas of physical and neurologic
maturity (Fig. 1). Scores in each area are combined and a maturity rating score is
assigned that approximates infant gestational age in weeks. In general, this gestational assessment is accurate to within approximately 2 weeks. These results can
be compared with results determined from last menstrual period dating or by prenatal
ultrasound if available.
Fig. 1. New Ballard scoring tool to assess gestational age. Scores from neuromuscular
and physical domains are added to obtain total score and estimate gestational age. (From
Ballard JL, Khoury JC, Wedig K, et al. New Ballard core, expanded to include extremely premature infants. J Pediatr 1991;119(3):41723; with permission.)
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348
The American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists (ACOG) and the Society
for Maternal-Fetal Medicine have proposed new terminology to describe infants previously considered term. New designations have been established because
research shows that infants between 39 0/7 and 40 6/7 weeks of gestation have lower
morbidities than infants delivered before or after this gestational age5:

Early term (37 0/7 weeks of gestation through 38 6/7 weeks of gestation)
Full term (39 0/7 weeks of gestation through 40 6/7 weeks of gestation)
Late term (41 0/7 weeks of gestation through 41 6/7 weeks of gestation)
Post term (42 0/7 weeks of gestation and beyond)
Once gestational age has been determined, an infants weight, length, and head
circumference measurements are plotted on a growth chart to determine the percentile compared with other infants of the same gestational age. Recommendations from
the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) in 2010 are to use the World
Health Organization (WHO) growth chart for infants 0 to 24 months of age.6 The
WHO growth charts are recommended because they are based on infants who
were predominantly breastfed for the first 4 months of life and were still receiving
breast milk at 12 months. Thus, these growth charts represent infant growth under
optimal conditions. Charts based on weight for age, length for age, weight for length,
and head circumference for age are available for boys and girls from birth until
24 months of age (Figs. 2 and 3).
Infants who fall outside the normal weight range (or 2 SDs above or below the mean)
for gestational age are considered large for gestational age (LGA) (>90th percentile) or
small for gestational age (SGA) (<10th percentile) (Fig. 4). Intrauterine growth restriction occurs when the fetus is unable to reach its growth potential due to maternal, uteroplacental, or fetal factors that prevent adequate gas exchange or nutrient delivery.
These infants are at greater risk of morbidity and mortality than constitutionally SGA
infants.7 Causes of IUGR are shown in Box 1.
Identification of IUGR in pregnancy by an obstetrician should alert pediatricians that
an infant is at higher risk of complications than other infants of the same gestational
age. Infants who are constitutionally SGA may be admitted to the well-baby nursery.
These small infants are at risk, however, for a variety of problems, including

Abnormal temperature regulation due to decreased fat stores

Poor feeding due to decreased muscle tone and stamina
Hypoglycemia due to decreased glycogen stores
Polycythemia from chronic in utero hypoxia
Hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy due to uteroplacental insufficiency and intolerance to labor
Meconium aspiration syndrome due to perinatal stress
Complications of SGA extend past the immediate neonatal period with recent evidence suggesting that SGA infants may be at higher risk of lower IQ, obesity, diabetes,
and cardiovascular disease in early adulthood and should be closely monitored for
these conditions by a primary care physician.810
LGA infants most commonly result from maternal diabetes or are caused by genetic
predisposition to large size or large maternal weight gain during pregnancy (Fig. 5).
Infants who are LGA are at risk for birth trauma, increased rate of cesarean delivery,
hypoglycemia, and respiratory distress.
Over the last quarter of the twentieth century there was an increase in the mean birth
weight of infants born in the United States and other Western countries.1113 A study of
Canadian infants indicates that this finding is associated with an increase in maternal
Fig. 2. Growth chart for boys birth to 24 months of age: length-for-age and weight-forage percentiles (Figure is in the public domain and includes appropriate attributions).
(From Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Available at: http://www.cdc.gov/
growthcharts/data/who/grchrt_boys_24lw_100611.pdf. Accessed January 8, 2015.)
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350
Fig. 3. Growth chart for girls birth to 24 months of age. Weight for length and head circumference for age. (Figure is in the public domain and includes appropriate attribution). (From
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Available at: http://www.cdc.gov/growthcharts/
data/who/grchrt_girls_24lw_9210.pdf. Accessed January 8, 2015.)
prepregnancy body mass index, gestational weight gain, and gestational diabetes and
a decrease in maternal smoking and post-term deliveries.14 As a consequence, the
proportion of LGA infants has increased whereas that of SGA infants has decreased.
Infants whose birth weights exceed 4500 g have significant increased risk of morbidity
Fig. 4. SGA and appropriateforgestational age discordant twin infants. SGA twin due to
abnormal placentation compared with appropriately grown twin. (From Brozansky BS, Riley
MM, Bogen DL. Neonatology. In: Zitelli BJ, McIntire SC, Nowalk AJ, editors. Atlas of Pediatric
Diagnosis, 6th edition. Philadelphia: Elsevier Saunders, 2012; with permission.)
Box 1
Causes of intrauterine growth restriction
Maternal factors
High blood pressure (chronic or pregnancy induced)
Chronic kidney disease
Advanced diabetes (class F or higher)
Cardiac or respiratory disease
Malnutrition
Infection (toxoplasmosis, other viruses, rubella, cytomegalovirus, herpes viruses)
Substance abuse (alcohol, illicit drugs, tobacco)
Clotting disorders
Autoimmune disease
Chronic exposure to high altitudes
Uterine or placental factors
Abnormal placentation
Chronic placental abruption
Abnormal cord insertion or cord anomalies
Fetal factors
Multiple gestations
Infection (cytomegalovirus, rubella)
Birth defects
Chromosomal anomalies
Data from Gabbe S. Intrauterine growth restriction. In: Gabbe S, editor. Obstetrics: normal and
problem pregnancies. 6th edition. Philadelphia: Saunders; 2012. p. 70641.
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352
Fig. 5. LGA infant of a diabetic mother. (From Brozansky BS, Riley MM, Bogen DL. Neonatology. In: Zitelli BJ, McIntire SC, Nowalk AJ, editors. Atlas of Pediatric Diagnosis, 6th edition.
Philadelphia: Elsevier Saunders, 2012; with permission.)
and mortality. Birth trauma is more likely and their mothers are at increased risk for
genitourinary injury and other intrapartum and postpartum complications.12 LGA
infants may also be at risk for long-term health effects.15
PHYSICAL EXAMINATION OF THE NEWBORN
The first physical examination performed by a pediatrician should be performed in the

mothers room to limit separation of mother and infant. The room should be warm and
quiet with ample lighting. Initial impressions of the infant in a quiet state should be
recorded followed by a systematic examination. Gestational age assessment information is important because premature infants have special considerations.
BIRTH TRAUMA
Most newborn infants tolerate delivery with little to no physical trauma. Occasionally,
temporary or permanent trauma to a newborn occurs. Recognition of trauma necessitates a careful physical and neurologic evaluation of the infant to establish whether
additional injuries are present. Symmetry of structure and function should be
assessed; the cranial nerves should be examined; and specifics, such as individual
joint range of motion and scalp/skull integrity, should be evaluated.
Risk factors for birth trauma include the following:

LGA infants, especially infants who weigh more than 4500 g

Instrumental deliveries, especially forceps or vacuum
Vaginal breech delivery
Abnormal or excessive traction during delivery
EXTRACRANIAL INJURIES
Caput Succedaneum
Scalp edema that results from the normal process of a vertex vaginal delivery is called
caput succedaneum (Fig. 6). This edema is seen most commonly over the presenting
part of a newborns head, crosses suture lines, and resolves without intervention
within several days. Bruising may accompany scalp edema especially in cases of
vacuum extraction (Fig. 7).
Fig. 6. Layers of scalp/skull. Sites of extracranial hemorrhages in the newborn. (From Brozansky BS, Riley MM, Bogen DL. Neonatology. In: Zitelli BJ, McIntire SC, Nowalk AJ, editors.
Atlas of Pediatric Diagnosis, 6th edition. Philadelphia: Elsevier Saunders, 2012; with
permission.)
Cephalohematoma
Cephalohematomas are caused by rupture of vessels and collection of blood under

the periosteum of the calvarial bones. In contrast to caput succedaneum, most cephalohematomas are unilateral, involve the parietal or occipital bones, and do not cross
suture lines. The incidence of cephalohematomas is 1% to 2% of all deliveries but are
more common in vacuum- or forceps-assisted deliveries.16 Cephalohematomas are
fluctuant on palpation and the lesions resolve over months as the hematoma is broken
down (Fig. 8). Complications of cephalohematomas include elevated bilirubin levels
and should be considered risk factors when evaluating infants for jaundice per American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) Clinical Practice Guideline and Bhutani
nomogram.17,18
Subgaleal Hemorrhage
Subgaleal hemorrhage (SGH) is a rare but often lethal complication of the birth process and results from tearing or shearing of the emissary vessels between the dural
sinuses and the scalp veins as a result of traction to the scalp during delivery. Blood
accumulates in the loose areolar tissue in the space between the periosteum of the
skull and the epicranial aponeurosis. The injury occurs when the emissary veins
between the scalp and dural sinuses are sheared or severed as a result of traction
on the scalp during delivery.
Fig. 7. Caput succedaneum. Infant with significant scalp edema secondary to passage
through the birth canal. (From Brozansky BS, Riley MM, Bogen DL. Neonatology. In:
Zitelli BJ, McIntire SC, Nowalk AJ, editors. Atlas of Pediatric Diagnosis, 6th edition. Philadelphia: Elsevier Saunders, 2012; with permission.)
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354
Fig. 8. Cephalohematoma. Infant with bilateral cephalohematomas. Note that the palpable
sagittal suture confirms the periosteal location of the hematomas. (From Brozansky BS,
Riley MM, Bogen DL. Neonatology. In: Zitelli BJ, McIntire SC, Nowalk AJ, editors. Atlas of Pediatric Diagnosis, 6th edition. Philadelphia: Elsevier Saunders, 2012; with permission.)
SGH presents as a boggy, fluctuant swelling of the head often with accompanying
fluid wave that extends forward to the orbital margins, backward to the nuchal ridge,
and to the level of the ears laterally. In term babies, this subaponeurotic space may
hold as much as 260 mL of blood.19 An infants head circumference can increase
rapidly. Affected infants may appear normal at birth but then develop tachycardia
and pallor in the well-baby nursery where they can decompensate quickly due to
hypovolemic shock. Early recognition and volume expansion are essential for survival.
The incidence of moderate to severe SGH has been estimated to occur in 1.5 per
10,000 births and although it can occur spontaneously, it is more commonly caused
by vacuum extraction and forceps delivery.20,21
SOFT TISSUE INJURIES
Lacerations
Fetal laceration has been reported as the most common birth injury associated with
cesarean delivery (Fig. 9). Lacerations occur most often on the presenting part of
the fetus, typically the scalp and face. Most lacerations are minor and repaired with
thin adhesive strips. Some lacerations, however, especially those involving the face,
may require consultation from plastic surgery.
Bruising and Petechiae
Superficial bruising and petechiae found on the presenting part are common and selflimited and occur after difficult deliveries. Extensive bruising places newborns at risk
for severe hyperbilirubinemia and should be followed closely for progressive jaundice.
Infants who are delivered in the breech position can present with severe vaginal or
scrotal edema and bruising (Fig. 10). A urology consultation in cases of severe scrotal
swelling for the drainage of a hematoma surrounding the testes may be needed in rare
cases.
No additional work-up is needed in cases of petechiae present at birth that do not
progress and are not associated with other bleeding. Appearance of new petechiae
should alert the pediatrician for the need to evaluate for a possible bleeding disorder.
Fig. 9. Facial laceration. The female newborn, weighing 3.25 kg, accidentally sustained a
laceration over the right side of the face and temporal region. (From Saraf S. Facial laceration at caesarean section: experience with tissue adhesive. ePlasty 2009;9:e3. Epub 2009 Jan
9; with permission.)
Torticollis can result from manual stretching of the neck that causes bleeding into
the sternocleidomastoid muscle after delivery. A hematoma of the muscle may be
noticeable at birth. Infants with torticollis present in the 4th week of life with tilting of
the head toward the side of the affected muscle and rotation toward the opposite
side. Treatment with stretching exercises results in a 90% rate of recovery.22
Fig. 10. Severe bruising of the perineum secondary to breech presentation. (From Brozansky
BS, Riley MM, Bogen DL. Neonatology. In: Zitelli BJ, McIntire SC, Nowalk AJ, editors. Atlas of
Pediatric Diagnosis, 6th edition. Philadelphia: Elsevier Saunders, 2012; with permission.)
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356
Subcutaneous Fat Necrosis
It is common for infants delivered with the aid of forceps to have forceps marks after
delivery. Most commonly, these marks fade within 1 to 2 days without additional complications. Occasionally, subcutaneous fat necrosis results at the site as a wellcircumscribed, discolored, firm nodule (Fig. 11), which is the result of ischemia to
the adipose tissue. Typically, these nodules resolve by 6 to 8 weeks of age. Infants
diagnosed with severe subcutaneous fat necrosis require long-term follow-up for
the development of hypercalcemia, which can occur up to 6 months after the initial
presentation of the skin lesions.
Nasal Deformities
Abnormalities of the nose are common after delivery, particularly if infants are delivered vaginally. Most deformations of the nose are transient and resolve within 48 hours
after birth. In cases of true dislocation of the triangular cartilage of the nasal septum,
closed reduction by an otolaryngologist in the newborn nursery can be accomplished
and prevents permanent deformity as well as nasal and systemic complications from
an impaired airway.23
NEUROLOGIC INJURY
Brachial Plexus
Neonatal brachial plexus palsy results from traction to the brachial plexus that results
from the forces of labor, fetal position and maternal pushing, or by the provider during
delivery. Most cases are unilateral and involve the following nerves:
C5 to C7 injury (Erbs palsy).
Fig. 11. Subcutaneous fat necrosis. Discolored nodular lesion on the cheek characteristic of
subcutaneous fat necrosis secondary to forceps trauma. (From Brozansky BS, Riley MM,
Bogen DL. Neonatology. In: Zitelli BJ, McIntire SC, Nowalk AJ, editors. Atlas of Pediatric
Clinically, the infants presents with adduction and internal rotation of the upper arm,
extension and pronation of the forearm and flexion of the wrists and fingers. This
involvement gives the classic waiters tip posture (Fig. 12).
Severe damage to all C5 to T1 roots is characterized by a flail arm and Horner
syndrome.
C8 to T1 injury (Klumpke palsy) is the most infrequent pattern and manifests as
isolated hand paralysis and Horner syndrome.
In most cases of brachial plexus injury, a full recovery occurs over several months;
physical therapy may be beneficial to improve function. In a study of 1383 infants with
a brachial plexus injury, 94.4% without an ipsilateral clavicular fracture had complete
resolution. In addition to the palsy had even better recovery rates than those who did
not have a fracture. This retrospective study assumed, however, that infants that never
returned to the brachial plexus injury clinic had a full recovery.24
Facial Nerve Palsy
Injury to the facial nerve is attributed most commonly to compression of the nerve secondary to a forceps assisted delivery or via a prominent maternal sacral promontory.
Infants present with diminished movement on the affected side of the face, inability to
fully close the eye, and an inability to contract the lower facial muscles. During crying,
the mouth is drawn to the unaffected side. Spontaneous resolution occurs within the
first 2 weeks of life.
Diaphragmatic Paralysis
Infants with brachial plexus injury can have associated phrenic nerve involvement and
injury. Infants present with respiratory distress on the first day of life and chest radiograph demonstrates decreased diaphragmatic excursion on the side of the injury.
Most cases resolve spontaneously with supportive care within the first 6 to 12 months
of life, but occasional plication of the diaphragm is necessary for recovery.
Laryngeal Nerve Injury
Laryngeal nerve injury during birth may cause vocal cord paralysis. Symptoms include
stridor; respiratory distress; hoarse, faint, or absent cry; dysphagia; and aspiration.
Otolaryngology consultation and visualization of the vocal cords by direct
Fig. 12. Brachial plexus injuries. (A) Traction injury to C5, C6, and C7 spinal cord segments
results in characteristic waiters tip abnormality of Erbs palsy. (B, C) Injuries to segments
C7 and T1 result in the claw hand of Klumpkes palsy. (From Brozansky BS, Riley MM,
Bogen DL. Neonatology. In: Zitelli BJ, McIntire SC, Nowalk AJ, editors. Atlas of Pediatric
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358
laryngoscopy are necessary for diagnosis. Treatment depends on the severity of the
injury, with most cases of paralysis resolving over time.
OTHER ASSOCIATED INJURIES
Fractured Clavicle
The evaluation of newborns for suspected clavicular fracture includes

History of difficult delivery (LGA infant, cephalopelvic disproportion)

Physical examination with crepitus along clavicle
Radiograph demonstrating fracture
Evaluation for other injuries (brachial plexus)
Clavicular fractures heal spontaneously with no long-term sequelae. For comfort,

the arm on the affected side can be placed in a long-sleeved garment and pinned
to the chest with the elbow at 90 flexion. Clinical assessment is usually satisfactory
to assess healing, but repeat radiograph 2 weeks after birth confirms diagnosis.
Fractured Humerus
Humeral fractures are rare in newborn infants but are the most common long bone
fracture, with a reported incidence of 0.2 per 1000 deliveries.25 Most fractures occur
at the proximal third of the humerus and are transverse and complete. Infants with
humeral fractures present with decreased movement of the affected arm, decreased
Moro reflex, localized swelling, and an increased pain response on palpation. Because
brachial plexus injuries often accompany humeral fractures, clinicians should perform
a thorough neurologic examination. An orthopedic consultation and immobilization of
the arm are required for treatment. Radiographs of the affected arm should be
followed at 3 to 4 weeks to ensure healing.
Skull Fracture
There are 2 types of skull fractures that result from birth trauma:
Linear
Secondary to pressure on the fetal skull against maternal structures
Rarely associated with neurologic sequelae
Plain film of the skull for diagnosis
No specific therapy indicated
Depressed (Fig. 13)
Most commonly due to forceps delivery
Increased risk of intracranial bleeding and cephalohematoma
CT scan of the head to evaluate for intracranial lesions
Neurosurgery consultation for intracranial processes
NEUROLOGIC ASSESSMENT
A comprehensive neurologic assessment of newborns is essential in determining the

presence and location of a disturbance, the diagnosis, and long-term outcomes.
Factors influencing the neurologic examination
Gestational age of infant
Various aspects of examination change with maturity
Assess gestational age using New Ballard Score2628
Level of alertness
Fig. 13. Depressed (ping pong) skull fracture in the left temporoparietal region due to birth
trauma. (Courtesy of Prof. Dr. med. Thomas M. Berger, Case of the Month (COTM) series of
the Swiss Society of Neonatology [COTM: November 2006 at www.neonet.ch. Accessed
January 8, 2015.])
GENERAL ASSESSMENT
Level of alertness
Level 1: quiet sleep
Level 2: active sleep
Level 3: quiet awake (optimal time for assessment)
Level 4: alert and active
Level 5: crying
The level of alertness is one of the most sensitive indicators of neurologic injury in
newborns. Gestational age, timing of last feeding, and frequency of disturbances all
must be taken into consideration when assessing infants.29
MOTOR FUNCTION
The evaluation of motor function in term infants should include muscle tone and limb
posture, motility, deep tendon reflexes, and the plantar response.
Muscle Tone and Posture
Muscle tone should be assessed with an infants head in midline position while in an
optimal alertness state. Tone should be measured by the resistance of passive movement of the limbs and should be symmetric in all 4 extremities. Flexion of all 4 limbs is
the normal posture in a full-term infant and varies with gestational age.
Primitive Reflexes
The list of primitive reflexes is extensive. A sampling of a few with descriptions of the
maneuvers to illicit the reflexes and the expected responses are listed in Table 1 (see
video of normal and abnormal components of the neonatal neurologic examination at:
http://library.med.utah.edu/pedineurologicexam/html/newborn_n.html).
CONGENITAL ANOMALIES OF THE EXTREMITIES
Digits
Supernumerary digits
- Typically located lateral to the fifth digit on the hand or foot
- Attached by a pedicle and contains no bones
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Table 1
Primitive reflexes
Reflex
Examination Maneuver
Infant Response
Moro/startle
Elicited by sudden dropping of the

head in relation to the trunk.
(Examiner should catch head.)
Opening of hands and extension

and abduction of the upper
extremities followed by anterior
flexion of the upper extremities
and an audible cry.
Tonic neck/
fencing
position
Place infant supine and turn his or

her head to one side.
Extension of the upper extremity on

the side to which the face is
rotated and flexion of the opposite
extremity.
Stepping
Hold infant upright and place

dorsum of feet to a flat surface.
Infant makes alternating stepping

movements.
Sucking
Touch or stroke babys lips.
Mouth opens and sucking

movements begin.
Rooting
Stroke infants cheek and corner of

the mouth.
Infants head turns toward the

stimulus and the mouth opens.
Palmar grasp
Finger placed in infants open palm.
Infant grasps the finger and holds

tighter with attempts to withdraw.
Full-term neonate can support full
body weight if lifted slightly.
Truncal
incurvation
or Galant
reflex
Hold infant prone, in suspended

position, with palm of hand
against infants chest. Apply firm
pressure with the thumb or cotton
swab parallel to the spine in the
thoracic region.
Infant flexes the pelvis toward the

side of the stimulus.
Descriptions of the examiner maneuvers and the infant responses were drawn from the PediNeuroLogic Exam Web site and are used by permission of Paul D. Larsen, MD, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, NE and Suzanne S. Stensaas, PhD, University of Utah School of Medicine, Salt
Lake City, UT. Additional materials were drawn from resources provided by Alejandro Stern, Stern
Foundation, Buenos Aires, Argentina; Kathleen Digre, MD, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT;
and Daniel Jacobson, MD, Marshfield Clinic, Marshfield, WI. The movies are licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommerical-ShareAlike 2.5 License. (Available at: http://library.
med.utah.edu/pedineurologicexam/html/newborn_n.html; Accessed January 8, 2015.)
- Resolve with suture ligation after approximately 1 week
Polydactaly
- Duplication of digits
- More common on lower extremities
- May be familial or associated with other malformations
Syndactaly
- Common
- Fusion of soft tissues between digits
- Surgical correction after 3 years of age to allow for function of digits
Amniotic bands (Fig. 14)
Structural disruption most commonly involving the limbs but can affect trunk
and craniofacial region
Constriction rings of amnion can lead to amputation
Most cases sporadic with low recurrence risk
Club feet (talipes equinovarus)
Can involve 1 or both feet
Fig. 14. Amniotic bands. Note amputation of toes and constriction of lower extremity by
amniotic bands. (From Zitelli BJ, McIntire SC, Nowalk AJ, editors. Zitelli and Davis atlas of
pediatric physical diagnosis. 6th edition. Amsterdam: Mosby, Elsevier; 2012. p. 61 [Fig. 252]; with permission.)
Physical examination
- Foot in plantar flexion
- Hindfoot in fixed inversion
- Forefoot adducted and supinated
Occur in 1 to 3 per 1000 white infants
2:1 Male-to-female ratio
May be idiopathic or genetic
Congenital hip dysplasia30
Displacement of femoral head from acetabulum
Incidence 1 in 1000 live births
More common in female infants
Presents with limited hip abduction, asymmetric gluteal folds, or leg length
discrepancy
Positive Ortolani sign or Barlow maneuver on physical examination (See video
at: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v5imhI6PLtGLc produced by Nabil
Ebraheim, MD, University of Toledo Medical Center, Toledo, Ohio.)
Diagnosis: physical examination and/or ultrasound of the hip
Asymmetric gluteal folds (Fig. 15)
Treatment: splinting with Pavlik harness (Fig. 16)
UMBILICAL CORD
At delivery, the clamped umbilical cord is inspected to detect any alterations of the
normal characteristics (thickness, length, and coiling) of the cord, which can be associated with an increased risk of significant pathology in newborn infants.
Abnormalities of the cord
2-Vessel cord
The prevalence of a single umbilical artery is 0.6% of live births.31
Associated anomalies include IUGR, chromosomal, renal, and cardiac.
Current evidence suggests no further evaluation of renal system necessary
unless other defects are recognized.32
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362
Fig. 15. Asymmetric gluteal folds. Unevenness of the gluteal folds is suggestive of congenital
hip dislocation. Additional evaluation by ultrasound or radiograph needed to confirm. (Courtesy of International Hip Dysplasia Institute, Orlando, FL; with permission.)
Umbilical hernia
Umbilical hernias are caused by a defect in the central fascia beneath the
umbilicus. It is important to distinguish umbilical hernias from other pathologies, such as omphalocele, in which the defect in the anterior abdominal
wall contains bowel. Incidence is highest in infants who are African American,
are preterm, or have a congenital thyroid deficiency. Umbilical hernias are
easily reducible and typically resolve without intervention over the first 5 years
of life. Surgical repair is recommended for patients with incarcerated bowel,
large defects (>1.5 cm in diameter) that fail to decrease, or persistent hernia
beyond age 5.
Umbilical granuloma
Granulomas are the most common umbilical mass
Granulomas are most frequently identified after cord separation due to persistant drainage from the umbilicus
Resolution of umbilical granulomas occur after treatment with topical silver
nitrate
Fig. 16. Application of a Pavlik harness. Front and back views of a properly positioned Pavlik
harness. (Courtesy of Nationwide Childrens Hospital, Columbus, Ohio; with permission.)
CORD CARE
Recommendations for umbilical cord care depend on the type of health care setting. In
a clinical setting of low resources where aseptic technique is not standard, the use of
antiseptic agents, such as chlorhexidine, alcohol, triple dye, salicylic sugar powder, or
green clay powder, for cord care is effective to reduce neonatal morbidity and mortality due to omphalitis. In developed countries, however, where aseptic care is routine in
the clamping and cutting of the umbilical cord, additional topical care beyond dry cord
care has not shown added benefit in the prevention of omphalitis.33
PLANNED HOME BIRTH
Another variation that has an impact on the assessment of normal newborns is delivery
outside the health care system. Although the AAP and ACOG believe that a hospital or
a birthing center is the safest setting for the delivery of a healthy term infant in the
United States, they support the rights of a woman to make a medically informed
decision about home delivery.34 According to their joint policy statement, however,
every newborn infant deserves health care that adheres to the standards highlighted.
Any infant born outside the safety standards of hospitals and birthing centers burdens
primary care providers with the responsibility for assuring that all components of the
assessment and care of the newborn are completed.34 The joint statement regarding
a planned home birth addresses 2 essential elements of newborn care: resuscitation
and assessment. These elements are outlined by American Academy of Pediatrics
in the Pediatrics article available at http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/
131/5/1016.full. Readers are referred to this document for a detailed review of the
elements.
SUMMARY
This article tries to focus on a few of the common variations that may be seen in
otherwise healthy newborns. It is important for primary providers to recognize normal
variations and reassure anxious parents when these common variants are present.
When a newborn practitioner is not providing the subsequent follow-up care,
communication with the infants primary care provider regarding these findings as
well as the pertinent perinatal history is critical. The after-visit or discharge summary
provided to a parent may not be adequate to convey this information. A phone call,
especially when an infant remains at risk for hyperbilirubinemia or group B streptococcal sepsis, is the most efficient means of communication.
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editor. Neurology of the newborn. 5th edition. Philadelphia: Saunders; 2008.
p. 12153.
30. Goldberg MJ. Early detection of developmental hip dysplasia: synopsis of the
AAP Clinical Practice Guideline. Pediatr Rev 2001;22(4):1314.
31. Hua M, Odibo AO, Macones GA, et al. Single umbilical artery and its associated
findings. Obstet Gynecol 2010;115(5):9304.
32. Thummala MR, Raju TN, Langenberg P. Isolated single umbilical artery anomaly
and the risk for congenital malformations: a meta-analysis. J Pediatr Surg 1998;
33(4):5805.
33. Imdad A, Bautista RM, Senen KA, et al. Umbilical cord antiseptics for preventing sepsis
and death among newborns. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2013;(5):CD008635.
34. Watterberg KL. Policy statement on planned home birth: upholding the best interests of children and families. Pediatrics 2013;132(5):9246.
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Sensory Development
Melinda B. Clark-Gambelunghe,
MD,
David A. Clark,
MD*
KEYWORDS
Neonate Sensory Vision Hearing Oral development Taste Smell
KEY POINTS
Sensory development begins in early fetal life responding to in utero stimulation.
Sound transmission from the mothers speech, heartbeat, and external noise stimulates
fetal hearing development prior to birth.
Color vision is absent in babies less than 34 weeks gestation and the first color perceived
by newborns is red.
Taste and smell in the newborn correlates with maternal dietary components in amniotic
fluid.
Primary care providers are poised to detect anatomic and sensory abnormalities and coordinate early intervention.
INTRODUCTION
Sensory development is complex, with both morphologic and neural components. The
senses begin to develop well before birth based on in-utero stimuli. They all mature
rapidly in the first year of life. This article focuses on the cranial senses of vision, hearing, smell, and taste. Tactile development and pain perception are not addressed.
Sensory function, embryogenesis, external and genetic effects, and common malformations that may affect development are discussed, along with the corresponding
sensory organ examination and evaluation.
VISION
Eye Development
The eye is derived from an outgrowth of neuroectoderm of the forebrain.1,2 By the

32nd embryonic day, a distinct optic cup with a ventral groove is detectable. The
optic cup further invaginates to form the globe with anterior and posterior chambers.
Disclosure: The authors have no conflicts of interest relevant to this article.

Department of Pediatrics, Albany Medical Center, MC88, 43 New Scotland Avenue, Albany, NY
12208, USA
368
Clark-Gambelunghe & Clark
Surface ectoderm is pulled in to form the lens, iris, and other associated structures to
separate the 2 chambers. The cornea is formed from surface ectoderm and a fine
layer of mesoderm between the neuroectoderm and surface ectoderm. The eyelids
and lacrimal glands are formed from surface ectoderm. The retina forms from the internal walls of the optic cup. A thick neuroepithelium differentiates into rods and
cones. Myelination is incomplete before birth at term but, after light exposure for
approximately 10 weeks, myelination is complete. This process is markedly delayed
in babies born prematurely and may be disrupted significantly in retinopathy of
prematurity.3
Examination of the Eye
The eyelids meet and adhere by the tenth week of gestation.2,4 They remain adherent
until approximately 26 weeks gestation. Although uncommon, babies born vaginally
with a face presentation may have everted eyelids, which readily reduce with few complications and normal eyes otherwise (Fig. 1). An eyelid coloboma (notched lid) is a
rare defect limited to the upper eyelid that requires surgery to protect the cornea
and conjunctiva.
Conjunctival hemorrhage, often associated with a difficult delivery, is absorbed
within several weeks. The sclera may be discolored yellow with significant jaundice
and may appear bluish in inherited collagen vascular diseases because of scleral thinning and visualization of the underlying retina. Newborn eye prophylaxis to prevent
bacterial infection often produces a transient chemical conjunctivitis. Conjunctival
discharge may be caused by an infection, with gonorrhea and chlamydia being the
most serious infections (Fig. 2). Obstruction of the nasolacrimal duct results in excessive tearing. Cloudy or protruding cornea indicates glaucoma (Fig. 3). The increased
pressure of the aqueous humor in the anterior chamber is an emergency requiring immediate consultation and intervention by a pediatric ophthalmologist.
The iris color at birth is bluish in most infants. Pigmentation often progresses to a
darker color, with the final iris color achieved by 4 months. Lack of pigmentation
with a pink iris is a primary feature of albinism. Aniridia, complete lack of irises, is
caused by an arrest of development of the rim of the optic cup at the eighth week.
A failure of the ventral groove to fuse in early development leads to an iris coloboma,
seen as a keyhole defect of the iris, which may extend into the ventral retina. The ciliary
body is similarly affected, resulting in the inability to constrict the pupil and subsequent
photophobia.
Fig. 1. Everted eyelids.
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Fig. 2. Gonococcal purulent conjunctivitis.
The classic newborn eye test is the red reflex, elicited by shining a light into the eye,
and the reflecting light off the highly vascular retina appears red. Any color but red may
indicate anterior chamber disease (glaucoma), cataract, or retinal disorder such as detached retina or retinoblastoma (Fig. 4). Premature babies with immature retinas at
birth may develop retinal scarring and detachment, a condition termed retinopathy
of prematurity,3 which can also cause abnormal red reflex.
Examination of the extraocular muscles is difficult at birth. It is common for newborns to have discordant muscle movement because their ability to focus and the
resultant conjugate gaze take several months to mature. In addition, unusually long
eyelashes can be an indication of a genetic syndrome, the foremost being Cornelia
de Lange syndrome.
Early Vision
Neonatal vision is limited, such that term infants can only focus approximately 25 cm
(10 inches) shortly after birth.2,46 At less than 34 weeks gestation, neonates do not
have sufficient cone development to see color and can discriminate between dark
and light only at a limited distance. The initial color humans see is red, presumably
because of low light exposure from transillumination of the red color of maternal
oxygenated hemoglobin into the uterus. With continued exposure to various
Fig. 3. Glaucoma.
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Fig. 4. Absent red reflex caused by retinoblastoma.
wavelengths of light, the retinal cones of other colors develop. The progression of eye
function development is summarized in Table 1.
HEARING
Normal Development of Hearing
The most important aspects of the auditory system development take place during the
second half of gestation.7,8 Babies born prematurely and exposed during this period to
multiple potential adverse effects of life-sustaining therapies are at great risk for hearing deficits and secondarily speech delay. Among neonatal intensive care unit (NICU)
graduates, the incidence of hearing impairment is estimated to be at least 10-fold
greater than in their term counterparts.9,10
Structure and Function
The auditory system comprises 3 related sets of structures: the peripheral components, including the outer, middle, and inner ears; the auditory nerves (cranial nerve
VIII); and the auditory regions of the brain located primarily in the brainstem and left
temporal lobe.
The outer ear of neonates features a narrow canal with thin cartilage, which is readily
blocked and compressed. The shape, position, and peripheral tissue of the ear may
provide clues to dysfunctional development. The classic low-set or malformed ear
Table 1
Visual development
Characteristic
Gestational Age (wk)
Blink/squint in response to a bright light
26
Pupils constrict to light
30
Ability to fixate vision on a large object in close proximity
32
Track large moving objects
34
Color perception; red at first
34
Data from American Academy of Pediatrics, Section on Ophthalmology, American Academy of

Ophthalmology. Screening examination of premature infants for retinopathy of prematurity. Pediatrics 2013;131:18995; and Moore LM, Persaud TV. The developing human. Clinical oriented
embryology. 8th edition. Philadelphia: Saunders; 2008. p. 42932.
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Fig. 5. Low-set, posteriorly rotated, malformed ear.
is found in more than 120 well-characterized syndromes.11 For the ear to be considered low set, the entire ear must be below an extended line drawn from the inner
canthus of the eye to the outer canthus (Fig. 5). A second criterion for low-set ear is
the ear canal below an imaginary line drawn from the outer canthus to the base of
the occiput. Posteriorly rotated ears or preauricular skin tags are more commonly
seen in babies with syndromes.
The fluid-filled middle ear reaches adult size by 20 weeks gestation, but the middle
ear ossicles remain cartilaginous until 32 weeks gestation. Cochlear structures,
including inner and outer hair cells, are fully developed by 25 weeks gestation. This
process extends to myelination developing from the brainstem to higher level auditory
pathways. The cochlea transduces acoustic wave energy into electrical impulses,
which occurs in the inner hair cells. Outer hair cells adjust reflexively to sound input
by producing frequency-specific echo sounds called otoacoustic emissions (OAE).
Hearing is the first sense exposed to stimulation that promotes development of the
neural pathways. Functional hearing in human fetuses develops at 25 to 27 weeks
gestation. Low-frequency sounds, such as the mothers heartbeat and speech, elicit
physiologic responses that are consistently detectable. Maturing fetuses respond to
a wider range of sound frequencies progressing through the third trimester and shortly
after birth. The functional maturation of hearing in the newborn is caused by structural
changes in the outer and middle ears. Progressive myelination of auditory axons results in a maturing brainstem evoked response (auditory brainstem response [ABR])
test because of increased conduction velocities and wave amplitudes.
The incidence of permanent hearing loss in neonates ranges between 1.4 and 3 per
1000 births in the United States.1214 With progressive or new-onset hearing loss, the
prevalence of permanent sensorineural hearing loss increases during childhood to
estimated rates of about 2.7 per 1000 in 4-year-old children and 3.5 per 1000 in
adolescents.10,14
Types and Causes of Hearing Impairment
Causes of hearing impairment
Based on the anatomic location of the hearing dysfunction, hearing loss can be classified as conductive, sensorineural, or neural1519:
Conductive hearing loss: blockage of sound transmission in the outer or middle
ear caused by permanent conditions like anatomic malformations or transient
problems such as fluid or debris.
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Sensorineural hearing loss: failure of sound transduction in the inner and outer
hair cells of the cochlea, and of transmission through the auditory nerve.
Neural hearing loss, also known as auditory neuropathy: dysfunction of the inner
hair cells and auditory nerve, but OAE from the outer hair cells remain intact.
Mixed hearing loss: combination of conductive and sensorineural hearing
deficits.
In addition to the neurophysiologic classification described earlier, hearing loss can
be further categorized according to severity (ie, mild, moderate, severe, or profound),
based on the sound pressure level of the individuals hearing threshold. In addition,
hearing loss can be unilateral or bilateral.18,20
About two-thirds of congenital hearing loss has an underlying genetic cause.10,14
Mutations in the connexin 26 gene (GJB2), predominantly the 35delG point mutation, account for 20% of congenital deafness. An additional 44% of congenital deafness has other genetic causes; one-third of these being related to recognizable
syndromes and two-thirds being nonsyndromic. Most nonsyndromic hearing loss
cases follow an autosomal recessive inheritance pattern (DFNB), whereas a minority
are autosomal dominant (DFNA); X-linked and mitochondrial inheritance is rare.
Although many gene mutations have been associated with hearing loss, about
95% of congenitally deaf infants are born to parents with normal hearing, so a negative family history of deafness does not exclude the possibility of hereditary hearing
loss. A newly diagnosed infant may serve as the index case to prompt genetic evaluation for the family.
The underlying pathophysiology of hearing dysfunction is complex. The 2007 Position Statement of the American Academy of Pediatrics Joint Committee on Infant
Hearing21 outlined causes of hearing loss that can be congenital, delayed onset,
and/or progressive. These categories include:
Infections
Fetal: cytomegalovirus (CMV), varicella, syphilis, rubella, toxoplasmosis, and
others
Postnatal infections: meningitis, otitis media, encephalitis
Environmental and therapeutic toxicity:
Perinatal asphyxia, anoxia
Ototoxic medications (aminoglycosides, loop diuretics)
Mechanical ventilation, extracorporeal membrane oxygenation, sustained
metabolic or respiratory acidosis
Severe hyperbilirubinemia requiring exchange transfusion
Trauma: perinatal, child abuse, temporal bone fracture
Familial hearing loss
Craniofacial anomalies/syndromes:
Malformations of craniofacial structures derived from the first and second
branchial arches, even without genetic associations, are embryologically
related to the development of the inner ear, and are thus a risk factor for
hearing loss. The many syndromes with craniofacial involvement include
Waardenburg type I and II (white forelock), neurofibromatosis, and Alport.
Familial syndromes associated with progressive hearing loss include:
Pendred syndrome accounts for only 3% of deafness diagnosed from birth, but
comprises 12% of the cases of deafness in the preschool population.10,11
Although deafness occurs early, the other clinically obvious component of the
syndrome is goiter, which does not present until late childhood.
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Mitochondrial mutations or other neurodegenerative disorders, such as Friedrich

ataxia, may first manifest beyond early infancy.
Usher syndrome is a familial disorder characterized by progressive hearing loss
and progressive retinitis pigmentosa leading to blindness.
Jervell and Lange-Nielsen syndrome presents with cardiac dysrhythmias caused
by a prolonged QT interval and should prompt reevaluation of hearing function.
Even if the newborn hearing screen is normal, a family history of hearing loss should
trigger continued monitoring of the infant and formal audiologic assessment should be
repeated by 24 to 30 months of age.
Medical screening systems cannot detect hearing loss in many children in a timely
manner. Concerns by the family members regarding hearing, speech, language, or
developmental delay must be addressed to improve early detection of hearing loss.
Despite early hearing screening, more than two-thirds of children with subsequent
hearing loss were diagnosed following parental concern and school hearing
screens.15,22,23
Conditions with combined auditory and visual impairment, such as Usher
syndrome, are particularly devastating to development of communication and
psychosocial function. Increased association exists with autism spectrum disorder,
which occurs in about 7% of 8-year-old children with visual or auditory impairment.
The clinical diagnosis of hearing or visual deficits resulted in a substantial delay in
the diagnosis of the coexisting autism spectrum disorder.16
Functional Consequences
Congenital or neonatally acquired permanent hearing loss adversely affects expressive and receptive language development, resulting in diminished academic achievement and social development. These sequelae can be mitigated by diagnosis and
appropriate therapeutic intervention within the first 6 months of life.10,18 Therefore,
the age of 6 months represents a critical target for initial interventions in infants with
hearing loss to optimize functional outcomes.19
The functional consequences of hearing loss depend on the age of onset and the
specific subcategory of the hearing loss described earlier. Although bilateral deafness
is most incapacitating, even unilateral hearing loss may affect language and educational performance.20 Minimal information is available regarding the persistent effects
of milder transient or reversible hearing dysfunction, such as that related to external
ear debris in newborns, persistent otitis media with effusion, or auditory neuropathy
in severe hyperbilirubinemia.
Screening in Newborns and Young Children
Intervention for hearing loss is most effective when initiated early to salvage speech
and language development. Because of vigorous advocacy by the American Academy
of Pediatrics, newborn hearing screening is performed in most individual birthing hospitals in the United States. There is great variability in accuracy because of multiple
testers. Table 2 summarizes the most useful hearing tests.
In newborn hearing screening, neither ABR nor OAE require an active response from
the infant. The tests are more accurate when they are they performed on sleeping
infants in a quiet environment. Both tests are cost-effective for early universal
screening, given the high incidence and consequences of neonatal hearing loss.22,23
Automated auditory brainstem response screening uses scalp electrodes to
detect the eight cranial nerve and auditory brainstem pathway responses to sound
stimuli, applying automated algorithms to define hearing thresholds. ABR screening
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Table 2
Neonatal hearing tests
Test
Loss Detected
Significance
Tympanometry
Conductive only
By changing pressure in the external ear canal,

evaluates the intactness of the tympanic membrane
and mobility with middle ear ossicles
Acoustic reflex
Conductive
Sensorineural
Neural
Measures stiffness of the middle ear

Loud sounds trigger contraction of the tensor tympani
and stapedius
ABR
Conductive
Sensorineural
Neural
Sound impulses of selected wavelengths generate

electrical impulses that travel the auditory pathways
to the brainstem and are reflected to the sensor
is sensitive to abnormalities in conductive, sensorineural, and purely neural hearing

losses.
OAE tests detect the reflected echoes produced by the cochlear outer hair cells
when stimulated by clicks across specified frequencies. These tests are abnormal in
conductive and sensorineural hearing loss. However, they may be normal (ie, falsenegative) in cases of purely auditory neuropathy. Because many of these cases are
most likely to be found in the NICU setting, it is recommended that only ABR screening
be used in NICUs.21 Because OAE testing is easier and less expensive to perform, it is
often used to screen healthy newborns. Some hospitals use a 2-stage protocol with
ABR screening following OAE test failures to minimize the rate of false-positive
screens.
The Joint Committee on Infant Hearing promotes the 1-3-6 principle of screening,
diagnosis, and therapy for neonatal hearing loss, recommending that all infants undergo hearing screening by 1 month of age and those who fail their screens should
have a diagnostic evaluation by an audiologist no later than 3 months of age. Infants
whose hearing loss is confirmed should receive therapy appropriate to their diagnosis
by age 6 months.21 Neonatal hearing screening program failure rates range from 0.5%
to 4%. Although false-negative neonatal hearing screens are exceedingly uncommon,
such tests cannot detect progressive or later-onset hearing loss in childhood, which is
as common as neonatal hearing loss.
The primary obstacle to neonatal hearing screening effectiveness in the United
States is the 46% loss to follow-up of infants who fail their neonatal screen.13 Primary
care providers in the medical home have a critical role in ensuring that these infants
receive the appropriate diagnostic testing in a timely manner. Major barriers to
follow-up include ineffective communication of screening results, inadequate education of families regarding the importance of screening failures (which may have been
deemed referrals), and lack of access to hearing diagnostic services for infants.
Early hearing detection and intervention (EHDI) programs, promoted and driven by
professional organizations such as the American Academy of Pediatrics and supported by state and federal health agencies, have been implemented by many state
health departments in association with early intervention programs. EHDI programs
serve as coordinating centers for gathering data (shared with the Centers for Disease
Control and Prevention), communicating with major stakeholders, and providing resources to maximize the success of the screening programs. A major focus of EHDI
programs presently is the minimization of losses to follow-up in screening programs.
Follow-up could be improved using currently available technological solutions,
including documentation of hearing screening results in electronic medical records,
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and automated communication of test results from hospitals to the medical homes
and EHDI programs (preferably coordinated with other neonatal screening test results); also, teleaudiology could expand the availability of diagnostic testing for infants
and their families.23
The Joint Committee on Infant Hearing of the American Academy of Pediatrics has
emphasized the need for a risk factorbased rescreening, even if the infants at risk
passed the universal newborn screen.17 Although the timing and number of hearing
reevaluations should be individualized, infants with a risk factor should have at least
1 postneonatal diagnostic audiologic evaluation by 24 to 30 months of age. Syndromic
children or those infected with CMV may need more frequent reevaluation. Diagnostic
services should be provided by audiologists with expertise and equipment appropriate for evaluating infants. When permanent hearing loss is confirmed, the primary
care provider should coordinate further diagnostic evaluation, to define the cause of
the hearing loss and possible comorbidities. This process should include consultation
with genetics, an otolaryngologist experienced in pediatric hearing loss, and an
ophthalmologist with expertise in evaluating infants.
Medical and Educational Interventions
Following diagnostic testing, the primary care provider needs to coordinate referrals
for appropriate medical and surgical therapies, as well as community-based interventions. Input from multiple professionals, including audiology, speech-language pathology, and otolaryngology (ear, nose, and throat), as well as awareness of local
community and school-based early intervention program resources, is needed to
help families choose communication goals and interventions required to achieve
them. Development of an individual family service plan is a first step in ensuring that
the infant receives appropriate services no later than 6 months of age.22 In addition
to preventing loss to follow-up before diagnosis, the medical home must also promote
timely therapeutic follow-up, given that only 39% of infants with hearing loss were
fitted with hearing aids by 6 months.23 It is important to establish appropriate initial
therapy during the sensitive period for hearing development, to take advantage of
plasticity of the auditory cortex, and to optimize cross-modal (eg, auditory and verbal)
input of language acquisition. Aside from the coordinating functions, the medical
home must provide continued surveillance for common conditions such as otitis media with effusion, which may affect hearing acuity and necessitate unplanned audiologic reevaluation, adjustments to existing amplification, or tympanostomy tubes.
Close monitoring of developmental milestones is also essential.
Medical and Surgical Interventions
Ganciclovir
Detection of a CMV infection early allows the use of this antiviral medication to limit
potential damage caused by the progressive CMV infection.
Surgical Implants
Bone-conducting miniature implants
SoundBite is a bone-conducting hearing aid inserted into the mouth.

BAHA Attract is a magnet-based bone-conduction device inserted behind the ear.
Cochlear Implant
Electric and acoustic stimulation
Cochlear implants transduce sound waves into frequency-specific electrical signals

that are delivered to residual functioning auditory nerve fibers.24 They can be placed
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in children as young as 1 year of age with profound hearing loss and after 18 months of
age in children with severe to profound bilateral sensorineural hearing loss, when
amplification alone is inadequate. The device produces the greatest benefits in speech
development when inserted by 7 years of age. Hearing loss caused by auditory
neuropathy does not respond well to amplification alone, so early cochlear implantation may be advantageous in these situations.24,25 Patients with cochlear implants are
at increased risk for bacterial meningitis, particularly with Streptococcus pneumoniae,
and should be immunized according to a high-risk schedule and monitored for early
signs of meningitis associated with otitis media or other infections.
Modes of Communication
The familys choice of mode of communication may change over time, depending on
the childs functional hearing, development, available interventions, and social environment factors.2630 Five options are currently available. The goal for the first 3
communication modes is spoken language, and the remaining 2 use sign language,
with or without speech:
Auditory verbal communication uses only optimized listening skills.
Auditory-oral communication uses residual hearing with amplification, supported
visually by speech reading.
Cued speech combines listening with visual cues from 8 hand shapes near the
face.
American Sign Language (AMESLAN) can be learned by deaf children, with
English or any other language as a second language.
Total communication combines all modes of communication toward simultaneous use of speech and sign language.
Continued Interventions: Family and School
Parents and educators (including an expert in education of students with hearing loss)
must develop an individualized education plan or section 504 plan to optimize student
achievement, with support from the primary care medical home.28,29 Adaptations in the
learning environment may involve the student, teachers, modes of communication,
physical design of the classroom, and curricular modifications, including supplemental
instruction. Examples of such adaptations include an optimal amplification system,
visual assistive devices (eg, telecommunication device for the deaf), optimal seating
arrangements, individualized communication with the student, use of an interpreter,
assistance with asynchronous learning (eg, new vocabulary provided in advance of
the session or a buddy system for note taking), and alternative testing methods. In addition, there are various options for supplemental instruction, including sign language and
support from a deaf or hard-of-hearing role model. Continuous evaluation is essential
for optimal adjustment and coordination of the educational accommodations over time.
Because hearing disorders and related comorbidities have varied causes, the
outcome of an individual child is difficult to predict. Children with isolated auditory
neuropathy treated by cochlear implantation performed comparably with agematched peers with sensorineural hearing loss, but those with auditory neuropathy
associated with a cognitive or developmental disorder had significantly less benefit
and continued to rely on nonauditory modes of communication.25
SMELL, TASTE, ORAL STRUCTURES, AND FUNCTION
The ability of a baby to smell is an important component of the early infant-mother

interaction. Components of the maternal diet reach the amniotic fluid, are swallowed,
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and become familiar to the fetus. They may contribute to the scent of the mother,
including her breast milk.31 By 5 to 6 days of life, babies preferentially choose the
breast pad of their mother rather than that from another mother or an unused
pad.32,33 Although the progressive development of smell is less well defined
compared with vision and hearing, a few general observations have been made.
Term babies prefer sweet odors such as lavender and vanilla and have a rapid avoidance response to foul odors like rotten eggs. Babies with choanal atresia or a tracheostomy have blunted development of smell, presumably caused by minimal airflow
through the nose.34
Taste development is likewise poorly understood compared with the other
senses.35 Taste is supplied by the chorda tympani branch of the facial nerve (cranial
nerve VII) on the anterior two-thirds of the tongue and by a branch of the glossopharyngeal (cranial nerve IX) over the posterior one-third of the tongue. Fetuses in the
uterus continually swallow the components of amniotic fluid with proteins, carbohydrate, fat, and small molecules to initiate digestive enzymatic activity, so taste likely
begins to develop in utero. Human neonates prefer sweet foods and can detect
sour and bitter. Babies may not be able to detect salt until 3 to 4 months of age.36
They prefer breast milk to infant formula because the bovine alpha casein protein is
more bitter than human beta casein. Hydrolyzed protein formulas are less savory.
Sucrose in soy formulas is sweeter than lactose, thus soy formula should not be
used as an adjunct to breast feeding.
The structures of the oral cavity derive from the first branchial arch. By the end of the
fourth week of development, the frontonasal, 2 maxillary, and 2 mandibular processes
are discernible. These tissues eventually fuse midline to form the face and palate at
between 6 and 12 weeks gestation. Remnants of, and failure of, fusion can readily
be detected on examination of newborns.
An appropriate neonatal oral examination includes both inspection and palpation.
The provider should visually inspect the jaw and mouth size and shape, lips, gingiva,
dentoalveolar ridge, palate, and mouth and tongue appearance and mobility. A gloved
finger should be used to evaluate the sucking reflex and to palpate the hard and soft
palates for a defect.
Drooping of the corner of the mouth at rest can result from facial nerve paralysis
(Fig. 6). Normal appearance at rest, but failure of the affected side to move with
crying, indicates hypoplasia or aplasia of the depressor anguli oris muscle. Facial
nerve palsies are more like to occur with prolonged labor and compression of the
facial nerve against the sacral bone or by use of forceps during delivery. The paralyzed side will have loss of the nasolabial fold, drooping of the mouth, and the mouth
drawn to the normal side. It is important to determine whether there is branch 1
involvement of the facial nerve paralysis, because of the risk of corneal injury with
improper eyelid closure. Most facial nerve palsies resolve spontaneously within
days, but may persist weeks to months. Asymmetric crying facies caused by hypoplasia or aplasia of the depressor anguli oris muscle can be part of a genetic syndrome, the most significant association being congenital cardiac defects (Cayler
syndrome).
Congenital soft tissue lesions of the oral cavity are common and practitioners must
be able to distinguish normal findings from those that require intervention. There are
3 common types of oral inclusion cysts, which are epithelial tissue remnants. Inclusion cysts are small white or translucent papules or cysts37 noted in 75% of newborns, although the prevalence of inclusion cysts in premature infants is less than
that of their term counterparts.38 Inclusion cysts are generally asymptomatic and
require no further evaluation or management except for reassurance. Most cysts
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Fig. 6. Facial nerve palsy.
resolve spontaneously by 3 months of age. Three types of inclusion cysts can be

seen in newborns:
1. Epstein pearls are the most common of the congenital inclusion cysts, occurring in
75% to 80% of all neonates.37 They are found scattered along the midline raphe of
the hard palate (Fig. 7).
2. Bohn nodules are heterotopic salivary gland remnants located on the buccal or
lingual mucosal surface of the alveolar ridge (not the crest) or on the hard palate,
away from the raphe (Fig. 8).
3. Dental lamina cysts are heterotopic salivary gland remnants located on the crest of
the alveolar ridge.
Fig. 7. Epstein pearls.
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Fig. 8. Bohn nodules.
Failure of midline fusion during embryogenesis can result in the spectrum of cleft lip,
cleft palate, cleft lip and palate, or submucosal cleft palate. Lip closure occurs during
week 5 to 6 of embryonic development, the hard palate forms during week 6 to 10, and
the soft palate fuses during week 10 to 12. Cleft lip and palate are among the common
congenital abnormalities, with a prevalence of 17 in every 10,000 live births,39 and cleft
lip with palate is more common than isolated cleft palate (Fig. 9). Cleft lip can be unilateral, bilateral, or median, but midline lip cleft is rare.
The cause of clefts remains poorly understood, with genetic, syndromic, and environmental factors all being implicated. Teratogen exposures linked to cleft development include viral infections, metabolic abnormalities, medications, and drugs. Of
inherited forms, the most common familial cleft lip and palate with no other anomalies
is Van der Woude syndrome. Cleft lip and/or palate can be associated with genetic syndromes having other anomalies, including the spectrum of chromosome 22q11, oralfacial-digital syndrome, and Treacher-Collins syndrome. Micrognathia caused by
mandibular hypoplasia can be isolated or associated with cleft palate, through the mechanical interference of the embryonic tongue with fusion of the 2 halves of the palate
midline. This condition is termed the Robin sequence or Pierre Robin syndrome.
Care of neonates with cleft lip and/or palate requires aggressive feeding support
and evaluation for airway concerns. Surgical primary lip repair is often undertaken
at 3 months of age and primary palatal repair around 6 months. Management after
discharge is often best coordinated through a multidisciplinary cleft and craniofacial
team composed of experienced members of the medical, surgical, dental, and allied
health disciplines.
Fig. 9. Cleft of soft palate.
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Submucosal cleft palate is a milder or incomplete form of cleft palate. Examination

may reveal a bifid uvula, muscular defect with overlying membrane, or a bluish
mucosal line the length of the soft palate. This form is often clinically challenging to
detect in the neonatal period. However, submucosal clefts are often functionally significant, because the levator muscles do not interdigitate across the cleft to form the
normal levator sling. If the levator muscle cannot elevate and retract the posterior soft
palate to divide the nasal and oral pharynxes, the result is velopharyngeal incompetence, which can affect both feeding and speech development.
Humans are usually born edentulous, with the first primary teeth emerging between
6 and 8 months of age. However, tooth eruption occurs before birth (natal teeth) or
within the first month of life (neonatal teeth) at a rate of 1 in 2000 to 1 in 3000 live
births.40 Central mandibular incisors are the most likely to erupt early and these are
most often the primary dentition, not extra teeth,41 so should not be extracted without
cause. Natal teeth are most commonly an isolated finding (Fig. 10), but can be associated with genetic syndromes such as chondroectodermal dysplasia (Ellisvan Creveld syndrome) and oculomandibulofacial syndrome (Hallermann-Streiff syndrome).42
Management is most often observation, although extraction may be considered if
teeth are mobile and present an aspiration risk, interfere with breastfeeding, or lead
to Riga-Fede ulceration.40
Ankyloglossia (tongue-tie) is anchoring of the tongue anteriorly causing limited
tongue movement, which occurs in 4% to 10% of babies. Ankyloglossia varies in
severity and clinical consequence with considerable debate regarding optimal management.43 Restricted tongue movement can lead to a variety of problems in infants
and children, such as inability to latch with breastfeeding, improper speech development, and compromised oral health.44,45
Initial symptoms of ankyloglossia include maternal nipple pain with breastfeeding,
loss of suction or a clicking sound while feeding, and poor latch.46,47 On examination,
there is a frenulum inserted near the tip of the tongue, inability to extend the tongue to
the lips or to the roof of the mouth, and notched or heart-shaped tongue on extension.
Although interference with breastfeeding is the most common sequela, significant
ankyloglossia is also associated with articulation difficulty,45 but not delay in onset
of speech.46 Difficulty with oral hygiene increases the risk of dental caries and periodontal disease. Inability to lick and perform other activities that require tongue extension may have social consequences.
Fig. 10. Natal tooth.
Sensory Development
Management of breastfeeding difficulties should include consultation with a lactation specialist, but frenectomy improves feeding for mother and baby significantly better than the intensive support of a lactation consultant.44 Indications and timing of
surgical division for ankyloglossia have been investigated and in 1 randomized, prospective, but unblinded trial of neonates with feeding concerns and ankyloglossia,
and feeding improved in all of the infants who received immediate division of the frenulum, but in only 1 infant who received intensive lactation support. Frenotomy was
then offered and performed for the infants in the control group and all but 1 baby
improved and fed normally after the procedure.48 Frenotomy (also called frenectomy)
can be performed with blunt scissors, cautery, or laser if a simple membrane is present, but more complex anatomy should be referred for frenuloplasty. Absence of
the inferior labial frenum is strongly correlated with infantile hypertrophic pyloric stenosis49 and absence of the inferior labial frenum and lingual frenulum is commonly
noted in Ehlers-Danlos syndrome.50
More recently, discussions have arisen around clinical consequence and management of a constricted maxillary frenum. The maxillary frenum normally extends over
the alveolar ridge to form a raphe and persistence of this raphe during dental eruption
may lead to widely spaced central incisors, termed a diastema. In addition to a
cosmetic effect, there is concern that a prominent maxillary labial frenum can result
in difficulty with plaque control and perhaps increased risk for dental caries caused
by liquid trapping under the upper lip. Additional research is needed to better understand the appropriateness of performing preventive maxillary frenectomy on young
children. At present, treatment is indicated in the rare cases in which the frenum
attachment exerts tension on the gingiva of a permanent tooth or if the cosmetic
appearance is unacceptable following orthodontic closure of the diastema.51,52
SUMMARY
The development of each sense is crucial to successful interaction of babies with their
mothers, ranging from bonding to feeding and eventually to capacity to learn. Primary
care physicians have the greatest opportunity to detect visual and hearing deficits, to
intervene, and to improve lifelong development and intellectual achievement.
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23. Spivak L, Sokol H, Auerbach C, et al. Newborn hearing screening follow-up:
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24. McConkey RA, Koch DB, Osberger MJ, et al. Effect of age at cochlear implantation on auditory skill development in infants and toddlers. Arch Otolaryngol Head
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31. Varendi H, Porter RH, Winberg J. Does the newborn baby find the nipple by
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40. Cunha RF, Boer FA, Torriani DD, et al. Natal and neonatal teeth: review of the literature. Pediatr Dent 2001;23(2):15862.
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42. Hattab FN, Yassin OM, Sasa IS. Oral manifestations of Ellis-van Creveld
syndrome: report of two siblings with unusual dental anomalies. J Clin Pediatr
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Pediatr Otorhinolaryngol 2000;54(23):123.
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tongue-tie in infants with feeding problems. J Paediatr Child Health 2005;
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M e t a b o l i c S c re e n i n g an d
Postnatal Glucose
Homeostasis in the Newborn
David H. Adamkin,
MD
KEYWORDS
Newborn metabolic screening Tandem mass spectrometry
Hypoglycemia screening and management
KEY POINTS
Among 4 million newborns screened each year, approximately 12,500 are identified with
heritable disorders, many of which are associated with severe effects if not identified
before symptoms develop.
Acute metabolic decompensation with inborn errors of metabolism occurs when there is
an accumulation of the toxic metabolites associated with the newborn error.
An acute clinical presentation of a multisystem decompensation strongly suggests an association with an inborn error of metabolism.
There is no consensus for a specific value or range of glucose values in newborns that
specifically defines hypoglycemia or when and how treatment should be provided.
The American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) guideline on postnatal glucose homeostasis
aims to provide guidance where evidence is lacking.
Newborn screening has been among the most successful public health programs of
the 21st century. The year 2013 was the 50th anniversary of newborn screening.
Approximately 4 million infants are screened per year under newborn screening programs that are mandated in most states. About 12,500 infants are identified each
year with heritable disorders. Many of these are associated with severe effects if
not identified before the onset of symptoms.1 Therefore, the goal of newborn
screening programs is to detect these disorders that cause harm to life or threaten
long-term health before they become symptomatic. Conditions like endocrine disorders, hemoglobinopathies, immunodeficiencies, cystic fibrosis, and critical congenital heart defects, as well as inborn errors of metabolism are among those that can
Disclosure Statement: D.H. Adamkin, MD, is a consultant and investor in Medolac Laboratories.
He does not discuss any off-label use and/or investigational use in this article.
Division of Neonatal Medicine, Department of Pediatrics, University of Louisville, 571 South
Floyd Street, Suite 342, Louisville, KY 40202, USA
386
Adamkin
be screened for. Early treatment may significantly improve outcome and improve
survival.
Although individual metabolic diseases are relatively uncommon, inherited metabolic diseases collectively represent a more common cause of disease in the neonatal
period than is generally appreciated. For example, the estimated incidence of
inherited metabolic disease in the general population varies from 1 per 10,000 live
births for phenylketonuria to as few as 1 per 200,000 live births with homocystinuria.
Currently, there are approximately 100 such inheritable disorders that can be diagnosed in the neonatal period. The overall incidence for metabolic disease is about
1 per 2000 persons.2 Newborn screening programs have found an incidence of about
1 in 4000 for a subset of these diseases.2 It is also possible that this is an underestimate of the incidence of these disorders, because many with metabolic disease go
undiagnosed.
New technologies have expanded the capabilities of newborn screening programs.
Presently, 31 conditions are recommended to be screened on state newborn
screening panels by the Discretionary Advisory Committee of Heritable Disorders
in Newborns and Children. It all began in 1960 when Robert Guthrie developed a
bacterial inhibition assay that detected elevated levels of phenylalanine after birth
from infants blood. Population studies for screening for phenylketonuria began in
1963 when Massachusetts became the first state to actually mandate newborn
screening. This same technique, where a blood specimen contains greater than
normal quantities of an amino acid or metabolite is associated with a large growth
of bacteria, has been used to detect other conditions, including maple syrup urine
disease, homocystinuria, tryosinemia, and histidinemia.
The new technologies that have expanded newborn screening included a radioimmunoassay for thyroxine, making possible screening for congenital hypothyroidism.3
Isoelectric focusing and liquid chromatography have allowed for hemoglobinopathy
screening. The polymerase chain reaction allowed screening for mutations in
hemoglobin genes in DNA extracted from dried blood samples.4,5 Tandem mass
spectrometry (also known as MS/MS) as well as some other techniques now allow
expanded possibilities for mass screening of many disorders.69 This spectrometry
detects molecules by measuring their weight and is a series of 2 mass spectrometers.
They sort the samples and identify and weigh the molecules of interest in screening. It
is best suited for inborn errors of organic acid, fatty acid, and amino acid metabolism.
Newer methods have allowed this technique to also be used to detect lysosomal
storage disorders.10 New biochemical and genetic tests have recently allowed
screening for cystic fibrosis11 and severe combined immunodeficiency.12 Tandem
mass spectrometry because of its availability and its cost effectiveness has allowed
expansion of newborn screening that can be provided and remains the strategy
used to detect the majority of conditions that are screened for today.
PRINCIPLES OF SCREENING
Newborn screening tests are administered to healthy populations to detect infants

who may have a serious disorder. They do not always provide definitive results, but
they identify which infants require further testing.13,14 The medical requirements of
an acceptable mass screening program for a particular disease include the following,
which are reviewed by Zinn2:
The availability of a reliable screening test with a low false-negative rate;
A test that is simple and inexpensive, because many tests will be performed for
each case identified;
Metabolic Screening and Glucose Homeostasis
A rapid screening test that can provide results quickly enough to permit effective
intervention;
A definitive follow-up test that is available for unambiguous identification of true
positive results and elimination of false-positive results;
A disorder of a sufficiently deleterious nature that, if untreated, would result in
significant morbidity or death; and
An effective therapy that significantly alters the natural history of the disease.
Unfortunately, few metabolic diseases satisfy all of these requirements. Certain
principles also apply to all newborn screening programs and include the following2:
Genetic heterogeneity, biologic variation, and error lead to false-positive results
in any screening test. Thus, a definitive method must be available to confirm a
positive screening result.
Positive results must be acted upon on an emergent basis so that timely testing
and intervention can be accomplished.
Patients with positive screening tests should be referred to a pediatric specialist
experienced in the diagnosis and management of the specific condition for definitive diagnosis and treatment, if needed.
TANDEM MASS SPECTROMETRY
The current MS/MS techniques allow analysis of large numbers of metabolites

that may belong to a particular category of disease. Therefore, many disorders
can be screened in every sample. Literally, hundreds of samples can be analyzed
and studied each day. These devices are sensitive, accurate, and allow multiple
metabolites to be identified simultaneously. Computerization allows pattern recognition using several related metabolites and thereby increases the reliability of the
testing.
Normal ranges must be determined for the MS/MS screening programs for the
different metabolites that are studied. Cut-offs are set, and values above or below
those levels identify a potential case as an at-risk situation. It is important for these
values to be accurate; if a cut-off is set too high, then there may be inordinately great
number of false-negative results. Conversely, if cut-offs are set too low, there is an
unacceptable rate of false-positive results. The onus is on the practitioner to decide
whether a particular result is truly positive or is false positive as quickly as is possible.
As mentioned, newborn screening programs have found that about 1 in 4000 newborns have a diagnosable error of metabolism.
It should also be appreciated that most programs do not screen for inborn errors
that are associated with low concentrations of the specific amino acids. The organic
acidemias and fatty acid oxidation disorders are detected by analyzing for
increased blood concentrations of specific acylcarnitines, namely, the esters
formed between carnitine and the acids that accumulate with the organic acidemias
and fatty acid oxidation disorders. However, screening for the plasma membrane
carnitine uptake defect looks for a reduced (rather than increased) concentration
of free carnitine.
Table 1 provides the basics about inborn errors of metabolism that can be diagnosed by MS/MS used in newborn screening programs. The table from Zinn2 names
each disorder and provides information about the underlying enzymatic defect and
the clinical features and natural history of the disorder. There is also an approach
to treatment and what the prognosis may be. As discussed, some 4 million infants
are screened each year in the United States and approximately 12,500 are diagnosed
387
388
Adamkin
Table 1
Inborn errors of metabolism diagnosable by tandem mass spectrometry
Disorder
Defect
Clinical Features and Natural History
Homocystinuria
Cystathionine
b-synthetase
deficiency
Generally asymptomatic at birth

Dietary protein restriction
Developmental delay, dislocated lens, Selective amino acid restriction
skeletal deformities, and
(methionine) vitamin B6
thromboembolic episodes
supplementation plus betaine,
folate, and vitamin B12
Treatment
Prognosis with Treatment
Maple syrup urine

disease
Branched-chain
a-keto acid
dehydrogenase
deficiency
Improved intellectual outcome

Emergent treatment might be
Patients might present before
can be expected if treatment is
indicated for symptomatic neonates
newborn screening results are
initiated before first crisis, but
Chronic care includes dietary protein
available
there is developmental delay in
restriction, selective branched-chain
Difficulty feeding, vomiting, lethargy
severe cases
amino acid restriction (leucine,
progressing to coma, opisthotonic
Recurrent episodes of ketoacidosis
isoleucine, valine), and thiamine
posturing, and possibly death
supplementation for thiamineKetoacidosis
responsive patients
Nonketotic
hyperglycinemia
Glycine cleavage
enzyme deficiency

available
Hypotonia, apnea, intractable
seizures, and lethargy progressing
to coma
Burst-suppression
electroencephalograph pattern
Hiccups (characteristic)
Transient forms very rare
Patients with vitamin B6responsive form of disease have

fewer complications and later
age onset of complications than
do patients with vitamin
B6-nonresponsive form
Various drugs can lower plasma

Intractable seizures and poor
glycine, but none lower CSF glycine
intellectual development in
or improve clinical outcome
patients who survive the
Dextromethorphan for seizures
neonatal period, except in rare
instances
Phenylketonuria
Phenylalanine
hydroxylase
deficiency
BH4 biosynthesis or
recycling defect

Generally asymptomatic at birth
Selective amino acid restriction
After a few months, microcephaly,
(phenylalanine)
seizures, and pale pigmentation
develop, followed in later years by
abnormal posturing, mental
retardation, and behavioral or
psychiatric disturbances
Patients with BH4 defects have
Biopterin defects require special care
additional problems secondary to
dopamine and serotonin deficiency
Normal development can be

expected (although a mild
decrease in IQ and behavioral
difficulties relative to
nonaffected siblings might be
seen) if diet is instituted early
Patients with biopterin defects
have a more guarded prognosis
Emergency treatment might be

Liver disease could progress
Fumarylacetoacetate Patients might present before
despite dietary treatment
hydrolase
Chronic care includes dietary protein NTBC treatment improves liver,
deficiency
available
kidney, and neurologic function,
restriction, selective amino acid
Severe liver failure associated with
restriction (phenylalanine and
but it does not eliminate risk for
jaundice, ascites, and bleeding
HCC
tyrosine), administration of
diathesis
selective enzyme inhibitor (NTBC), Liver transplantation might still be
Peripheral neuropathy and seizures
required
and liver transplantation when
can develop
indicated to prevent HCC
Renal Fanconi syndrome leading to
rickets
Survivors develop chronic liver disease
with increased risk of HCC
Tyrosinemia type II
Tyrosine
aminotransferase
Corneal lesions and hyperkeratosis of Selective amino acid restriction

the soles and palms
(tyrosine)
Good
Urea cycle disorders

Argininosuccinic
acidemia
Argininosuccinic acid Patients might present before

lyase deficiency
could be expected if treatment
available
is initiated early, but there is
Anorexia, vomiting, lethargy,
restriction, essential amino acid
developmental delay in the
seizures, and coma, possibly leading
supplementation, arginine or
severe cases
to death
citrulline supplementation, and
Recurrent hyperammonemic
Hyperammonemia
alternative pathway drugs for
episodes
removing NH3 (sodium benzoate
and phenylbutyrate)
Tyrosinemia type I
(continued on next page)
389
390
Adamkin
Table 1
(continued )
Disorder
Defect
Treatment
Arginemia
Arginase deficiency
Rarely symptomatic in neonatal

period
Progressive spastic diplegia or
tetraplegia, opisthotonus, seizures
Low risk of symptomatic
hyperammonemia

(arginine)
Alternative pathway drugs for
removing NH3 (sodium benzoate
and phenylbutyrate)
Uncertain but might improve

neurologic outcome
Citrullinemia
Argininosuccinate
synthetase
deficiency

can be expected if treatment is
available
initiated early, but there is
restriction, essential amino acid
Anorexia, vomiting, lethargy,
supplementation, arginine or
seizures, and coma, possibly leading
severe cases
citrulline supplementation, and
to death
Recurrent hyperammonemic
alternative pathways drugs for
Hyperammonemia
episodes
removing NH3(sodium benzoate
and phenylbutyrate)
Organic acidemias
Glutaric academia Glutaryl-CoA
type I
dehydrogenase
deficiency

Rarely symptomatic in neonatal
period, although macrocephaly
(lysine, tryptophan)
may be present
Riboflavin and carnitine
Progressive macrocephaly, ataxia,
supplementation
dystonia and choreoathetosis,
developmental regression, seizures,
and stroke like episodes, possibly
exacerbated by infection or fasting
Improved intellectual outcome if

treatment is initiated early, but
poor neurologic outcome if
treatment is started after acute
neurologic injury occurs
Treatment might slow neurologic
deterioration
Treatment for neonatal-onset

ETF deficiency or ETF Commonly manifests in neonatal
forms invariably unsuccessful
dehydrogenase
period
deficiency
Hypotonia, hepatomegaly, abnormal Chronic care includes dietary protein Dietary fat and protein restriction
and riboflavin and carnitine
odor, with or without congenital
supplementation might help
restriction (isoleucine, methionine,
anomalies, including facial
patients with late-onset disease
threonine, and valine), and
dysmorphism and cystic kidney
carnitine supplementation
disease
Metabolic acidosis and hypoglycemia
Generally lethal
Late-onset forms variable, rarely
have structural birth defects
3-Hydroxy-3methylglutaric
aciduria
3-Hydroxy-3methylglutarylCoA lyase
deficiency
Generally does not manifest in

neonatal period
Episodic hypoglycemia leading to
developmental delay

(leucine)
Low-fat diet

may be expected if treatment is
initiated early, but there is
severe cases
Recurrent hypoglycemic episodes
decrease in frequency and
severity over time
Isobutyric
acidemia
Isobutyryl-CoA
dehydrogenase
deficiency
Uncertain because number of cases

is small

(valine)
Unknown
Isovaleric
acidemia
Isovaleryl-CoA
dehydrogenase
deficiency

available
Vomiting, lethargy and coma,
possibly death
Abnormal odor
Thrombocytopenia, leukopenia,
anemia
Ketoacidosis
Hyperammonemia

diagnosed and treated early
Chronic care includes dietary protein If treated appropriately, most have
normal development
Recurrent metabolic episodes
restriction (leucine), and glycine
and carnitine supplementation
Glutaric acidemia
type II
391
392
Adamkin
Table 1
(continued )
Disorder
Defect
Treatment
b-Ketothiolase
deficiency
Mitochondrial
acetoacetyl-CoA
thiolase deficiency

available
Vomiting, lethargy, and coma,
possibly death
Abnormal odor
anemia
Possible basal ganglia damage
Ketoacidosis
Hyperammonemia

Selected amino acid restriction
(isoleucine)
Avoidance of fasting
Bicarbonate therapy and intravenous
glucose in acute crises
Carnitine supplementation
Highly variable clinical course

If treated appropriately, some
patients have normal
development
2-Methylbutyric
acidemia
2-Methylbutyryl-CoA Uncertain because number of cases is Dietary protein restriction

dehydrogenase
small
deficiency
3-Methylcrotonyl- 3-Methylbutyryrlglycinuria
CoA-carboxylase
deficiency
2-Methyl-3hydroxybutyric
academia
Neonatal form: Hypoglycemia and

metabolic acidosis
Maternal form: Transplacental
transport of 3-methylcrotonyl
glycine form generally
asymptomatic mother to fetus
Uncertain
Neonatal form: Generally good

Neonatal form: Dietary protein
Maternal form: Mother might
restriction; selected amino acid
benefit from carnitine
restriction (leucine); carnitine and
supplementation
glycine supplementation
Maternal form: Mother might benefit
from carnitine supplementation if
she has carnitine sufficiency
2-Methylbutyryl-CoA Uncertain because number of cases is Dietary protein restriction

dehydrogenase
small
deficiency
Uncertain

If treated appropriately, most have
normal development
Renal failure often develops
despite appropriate therapy
Emergent treatment might be

Methylmalonyl-CoA Patients might present before
mutase deficiency
or vitamin B12
available
restriction (isoleucine, methionine,
(cobalamin)
Vomiting, lethargy and coma, possibly
threonine, and valine), carnitine
metabolism defect
death
supplementation, antibiotic
Seizure and risk of basal ganglia
suppression of gut flora
infarcts
(metronidazole), liver and/or kidney
transplantation might be
anemia
considered
Ketoacidosis
Cobalamin defects require special
Hyperammonemia
treatment
Propionic
acidemia
Propionyl-CoA
carboxylase
deficiency

Chronic care includes dietary protein If treated appropriately, most have
available
normal development
Vomiting, lethargy and coma, possibly
restriction (isoleucine, methionine, Recurrent metabolic episodes
death
threonine, and valine), carnitine
Seizures and risk of basal ganglia
supplementation, antibiotic
infarcts
suppression of gut flora
(metronidazole and neomycin)
anemia
Liver transplantation might be
Ketoacidosis
considered
Hyperammonemia
Biotinidase
deficiency
Biotinidase
deficiency

Biotin supplementation
neonatal period
Skin rash and alopecia, optic atrophy,
hearing loss, seizures, and
developmental delay
Metabolic ketoacidosis
Excellent if diagnosed and

deficiency treated before
irreversible neurologic damage
occurs
Methylmalonic
acidemia
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Table 1
(continued )
Disorder
Multiple
carboxylase
Defect
Holocarboxylase
synthetase
deficiency
Biotin supplementation
Commonly manifests in neonatal
period
Lethargy leading to coma and possibly
death
Skin rash, impaired T-cell immunity,
seizures, and developmental delay
Metabolic ketoacidosis and
hyperammonemia
Treatment

Most patients respond to some
degree to biotin supplemental,
but others show poor or no
response to biotin
supplementation and have
significant residual neurologic
impairment
Fatty acid oxidation

Carnitine
transporter
deficiency
Carnitine transporter Commonly manifests in neonatal

Avoid fasting
deficiency
period
Cardiomyopathy, skeletal myopathy, Low-fat diet
and inability to tolerate prolonged
fasting
Carnitine/
acylcarnitine
translocase
deficiency
Carnitine/
acylcarnitine
translocase
deficiency

period
Lethargy leading to coma,
hepatomegaly
Cardiomyopathy with ventricular
arrhythmia, skeletal myopathy, and
early death
Hypoketotic hypoglycemia and
hyperammonemia
Avoid fasting
High-carbohydrate, low-fat diet
Nightly cornstarch supplementation
Good response to treatment,

often associated with reversal of
cardiomyopathic changes
Severe neonatal cases generally

have a poor outcome and early
death
Patients with later onset might
respond to treatment, but they
often succumb to chronic
skeletal-muscle weakness or
cardiac arrhythmias
CPT II deficiency
CPT II deficiency
LCHAD deficiency LCHAD deficiency
Avoid fasting
supplemented with MCT oil

have a poor outcome and early
death
Patients with late-onset disease
generally do well
Sometimes manifests in neonatal

period
Cardiomyopathy, hypotonia, hepatic
disease, and hypoketotic
hypoglycemia
Patients later develop
rhabdomyolysis, peripheral
neuropathy, and pigmentary
retinopathy and are at risk for
sudden death
Heterozygous pregnant women are at
risk for acute fatty liver of
pregnancy if they are carrying a
homozygous fetus
Avoid fasting
Early diagnosis and treatment

generally leads to improved
outcome, but no change in risk
of peripheral neuropathy and
visual impairment

period
Coma, cardiomyopathy and
ventricular arrhythmias, hepatic
disease, and congenital
malformation (brain and cystic
renal disease)
Hypoketotic hypoglycemia
Late-onset forms (child or adult)
characterized by weakness and
exercise-induced rhabdomyolysis
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Table 1
(continued )
Disorder
Defect
Treatment
MCAD deficiency
MCAD deficiency

neonatal period
Recurrent episodes of vomiting,
coma, seizures, and possibly sudden
death associated with prolonged
period of fasting
Cardiomyopathy not generally seen
Hypoketotic or nonketotic
hypoglycemia
Avoid fasting
(controversial)
Excellent intellectual and physical

outcome generally seen if
treatment is initiated before
irreversible neurologic damage
occurs
SCAD deficiency
SCAD deficiency

neonatal period
Highly variable presentation primarily
associated with failure to thrive,
developmental delay
Hypoglycemia uncommon
Many patients detected by newborn
screening program have been
asymptomatic
Avoid fasting
Efficacy of treatment is unknown

and metabolic acidosis
Avoid fasting

period
Lethargy leading to coma,
hepatomegaly, cardiomyopathy
with ventricular arrhythmia,
skeletal myopathy, and early death
Hypoketotic hypoglycemia
Later-onset forms (childhood or adult)
characterized primarily by weakness
and exercise-induced
rhabdomyolysis
Galactosemia
Early onset characterized by lethargy, Strict dietary galactose restriction

must be started immediately
poor feeding, jaundice, and
possible sepsis (especially with
Escherichia coli)
Chronic problems include growth
failure, cirrhosis, cataracts, seizures,
mental retardation and (in females)
ovarian failure
Galactose-1phosphate
uridyltransferase
deficiency

have poor outcome
Patients with late-onset disease
respond to treatment and do
well

and milder problems if
Ovarian failure develops despite
appropriate therapy
This table does not provide a complete listing of all the inborn errors that have been identified or might be identified by tandem mass spectrometry. The last inborn
error listed, galactosemia, is not detected currently using tandem mass spectrometry, but it is included in the table because it is part of current screening programs.
All these disorders are characterized by considerable clinical variability and that treatment must be individualized for each patient.
Abbreviations: BH4, tetrahydrobiopterin; CoA, coenzyme A; CPT II, carnitine palmitoyl-transferase type II; CSF, cerebrospinal fluid; ETF, electron transfer flavoprotein; HCC, hepatocellular carcinoma; LCHAD, long-chain-3 hydroxyacyl-CoA dehydrogenase; MCAD, medium-chain acyl-CoA dehydrogenase; MCT, medium chain
triglycerides; NTBC, 2-(2-nitro-4-trifluoro-methylbenzoyl)-1,3-cyclohexanedione; SCAD, Short-chain acyl-CoA dehydrogenase; VLCAD, very-long-chain-acyl-CoA
dehydrogenase.
Adapted from Zinn AB. Inborn errors of metabolism. In: Martin RJ, Fanaroff AA, Walsh MC, editors. Neonatal-perinatal medicine: diseases of the fetus and infant,
vol. 2. 9th edition. St Louis (MO): Elsevier Mosby; 2011; with permission.
VLCAD deficiency VLCAD deficiency
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with 1 of the 29 core conditions on the screening panel. This means that 1 in 4000 live
births are detected. The top 5 diagnosed conditions are:

Hearing loss,
Primary congenital hypothyroidism,
Cystic fibrosis,
Sickle cell disease, and
Medium-chain acyl-coenzyme A dehydrogenase deficiency.
ACUTE METABOLIC DECOMPENSATION WITH INBORN ERRORS OF METABOLISM
Metabolic crises with inborn errors of metabolism occur when there is an accumulation of the toxic metabolites associated with the newborn error. Certain events, like
infection, need for surgery, trauma, or even just being born, are triggers that cause
increased catabolism or increase consumption of a food component (eg, protein
intake when switching from human milk to cow milk) can all act as triggers. The acute
metabolic deterioration typically follows a period of well-being. The period of being
symptom free can range from as little as hours to months and even years. Acute metabolic decompensation requires prompt recognition and intervention to prevent death
or a poor outcome. The acute clinical presentation of a multisystem decompensation
strongly suggests that this may be associated with an inborn error of metabolism. The
initial clinical picture may include15:

Vomiting and anorexia,

Lethargy that can progress to coma,
Seizures, particularly intractable,
Rapid deep breathing that can progress to apnea, and
Hypothermia (related to illness, not specific to a particular metabolic pathway).
Of 53 patients who presented to the emergency department and then were subsequently diagnosed as having an inborn error of metabolism, 85% demonstrated
neurologic symptoms and 58% with neurologic plus gastrointestinal signs.16 Neurologic symptoms included hypotonia, lethargy, coma, seizures, and evidence of psychomotor delay. The gastrointestinal symptoms were vomiting, and evidence of
liver disease.
METABOLIC ACIDOSIS
Acidosis is a frequent problem in critically ill neonates. Acidbase disorders may occur
in most types of inborn errors of metabolism, with the exception of lysosomal storage
diseases and peroxisomal disorders. Metabolic acidosis (low serum bicarbonate and
low arterial pH) is usually present in organic acidemias. It may also be present with
amino acid disorders, disorders of pyruvate metabolism, mitochondrial disorders,
and disorders of carbohydrate metabolism.17,18
The metabolic acidosis in these disorders is usually accompanied by an increased
anion gap. This gap results from the presence of abnormal metabolites that are unable
to be metabolized, such as ketoacids, lactic acid, or the organic acid. Abnormal oxidative metabolism causes lactic acidosis in the mitochondrial disorders, glycogen storage disorders, and gluconeogenesis disorders.
A respiratory alkalosis (low arterial partial pressure of carbon dioxide PCO2 and
low arterial pH) is suggestive of hyperammonemia, which is a characteristic of the
urea cycle disorders.19 The respiratory alkalosis is caused by hyperpnea, which is
induced by hyperammonemia. Respiratory alkalosis is also seen with Leigh syndrome

(mitochondrial disorder) and other disorders associated with hyperammonemia.
Hyperammonemia is characteristic of the urea acid cycle defects and organic acidemias (eg, propionic and methylmalonic acidemias).20 There are other diseases that
have hyperammonemia, including other amino acid disorders such as lysinuric protein
intolerance and with the fatty acid oxidation defects. Lesser elevations of ammonia are
less frequent in mitochondrial disorders or with hepatic dysfunction alone.
The highest levels of ammonia are with the urea cycle disorders and are only
moderately elevated or even normal with organic acidemias. It should be noted
that ammonia levels can even be normal in patients with the urea cycle disorders
if they are not ill at the time of testing and other times be greater than 1000 mmol/L
in organic acidemias. Finally, the ammonia level is usually normal in disorders of carbohydrate metabolism, lysosomal storage disorders, or peroxisomal disorders.17
Hypoglycemia is seen with disorders including ketogenesis, fatty acid oxidation
(medium chain acyl-coenzyme A dehydrogenase deficiency), glycogen storage
diseases, and disorders of gluconeogenesis and hereditary fructose intolerance.
Hypoglycemia may also be seen with amino acid disorders, organic acidemias,
and mitochondrial defects. Persistent hypoglycemic syndromes and hyperinsulinemc disorders are discussed in the section on Postnatal Glucose Homeostasis.
The detection of inborn errors of metabolism requires a high index of suspicion and
red flags include patients who present with hypoglycemia and hyperammonemia.
Those patients with extreme presentations should be evaluated for other conditions
that are life threatening, such as sepsis or cardiac disease.
It is imperative to do testing when symptoms are most pronounced in such situations. Laboratory values may become normal when the same patient is well. Blood,
urine, and cerebrospinal fluid in those patients who have persistent seizures, dystonia,
or focal neurologic signs should be obtained at the time of initial presentation with
symptoms. A list of basic tests that are routinely available can be obtained before
more of the specialized metabolic investigations. These include the following in a patient with a suspected inborn error of metabolism15:
Complete blood count: Helps to denote errors in any of the cell lines or provide
clues about sepsis, which itself can be the reason for the crisis related to the
metabolic disorder
Arterial blood gas: Allows determination of acidbase problems. Looking for an
increased anion gap suggesting organic acidemias or respiratory alkalosis
seen with urea cycle disorders.
Blood glucose: Hypoglycemia with ketogenesis associated with fatty acid oxidation abnormalities, or glycogen storage diseases and problems with carbohydrate metabolism.
Ammonia: This sample must be obtained from an artery or vein without the aid of
a tourniquet. It must be placed on ice for transport to the laboratory. It must also
be analyzed immediately. Any level greater than 100 mmol/L should be repeated
for confirmation immediately. As mentioned, these elevated levels may be diagnostic for urea cycle disorders and some of the organic acidemias. Levels greater
than 120 mmol/L are neurotoxic for the newborn and those greater than 80 mmol/L
are dangerous for older infants and children. These must be treated as a metabolic emergency.
Electrolytes, blood urea nitrogen, and creatinine: Allows calculation of the anion
gap. Metabolic acidosis with an increased anion gap is seen with organic
acidemias.
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Uric acid: High in patients with glycogen storage diseases. It is decreased in patients with defects in purine metabolism, but increased in patients with Lesch
Nyhan disease.
Examination of the urine: Including color, odor, dipstick, and presence of ketones
are also helpful.
Optimal outcomes for children with inborn errors of metabolism depend on recognition of the signs and symptoms of these metabolic disorders. Prompt evaluation and
referral to a center familiar with the evaluation of these disorders is important.21 Delay
in diagnosis may result in acute metabolic decompensation, progressive neurologic
injury, or death.
POSTNATAL GLUCOSE HOMEOSTASIS
The definition of clinically significant hypoglycemia remains among of the most

confused and contentious issues in neonatal medicine. Untoward long-term outcomes in infants with 1 or 2 low blood glucose levels have become grounds for
litigation and for alleged malpractice, even though the causative relationship
between the 2 is tenuous at best.22 At birth, the normal newborn infants plasma
glucose concentration falls below levels that were prevalent in fetal life. This
decrease is part of the normal transition to an extrauterine existence through a series
of triggers and events that activate endocrine and metabolic responses associated
with successful adaptation. When this adaptation fails, perhaps secondary to immaturity or illness, there may be a limitation of substrate supply, which may disturb
cerebral function and potentially result in neurologic injury. A low plasma glucose
may be indicative of this process, but is not diagnostic per se. These are the questions that remain without answers:
What is meant by too low?
How low is too low?
At what glucose level does hypoglycemia result in irreversible changes in brain
structure of function?
In 2009, a workshop with world experts in glucose metabolism and clinicians with
expertise in management of hypoglycemia in newborns was convened by the Eunice
Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development and led to a publication of the proceedings in the Journal of Pediatrics.23 The experts focused on
gaps in knowledge and suggested areas of research needed for understanding and
treating hypoglycemia. Conclusions from the workshop included the following:
There is no evidence-based study to identify any specific plasma glucose concentration (or range of glucose values) to define pathologic hypoglycemia.
Monitoring for and prevention and treatment of neonatal hypoglycemia remain
largely empirical.
At present, data are insufficient to produce definitive guidelines.
Maintenance of glucose homeostasis by initiation of glucose production is among
the most critical transitional physiologic events that takes place for a fetus to adapt
to extrauterine life. It is not usual for this transition to run into difficulties and result
in alterations in glucose homeostasis and therefore an infant with a low plasma
glucose level.23
The fetus depends on the maternal supply of glucose transplacentally as well as
amino acids, free fatty acids, ketones, and glycerol for its energy supply from the
placenta. For most of gestation, the lower limit of fetal glucose concentration is
approximately 54 mg/dL (3 mmol/L). The fetus does not produce glucose under
normal conditions.
The ratio of insulin to glucagon in the fetal circulation plays a critical role in regulating
the balance between glucose consumption and energy storage. A high ratio results in
activation of glycogen synthesis and a suppression of glycogenolysis through hepatic
regulatory enzyme pathways (Fig. 1).24 This system means that fetal glycogen synthesis and storage is promoted and glycogenolysis is minimized. This development is
accompanied by a rapid increase in hepatic glycogen during the last 30% of gestation.
There is also an increase in cortisol and circulating insulin. Finally, the high ratio of
insulin to glucagon in the fetus suppresses lipolysis, which allows for energy to be
stored subcutaneously. The subcutaneous and hepatic reservoir establishes a ready
substrate supply for the fetus to transition metabolically and establish postnatal
glucose homeostasis (see Fig. 1).
At birth, the dependence of the fetus on the maternal supply of glucose necessitates
significant changes in regulation of glucose metabolism after the abrupt cessation of
umbilical glucose delivery (Fig. 2).24 A number of changes allow the newborn to maintain glucose homeostasis. These alterations include a surge in catecholamines, which
stimulates glucagon secretion and reverses the insulin/glucagon ratio in favor of
glucagon.
When glycogen synthase is inactivated and glycogen phosphorylase is activated,
this leads to stimulation of glycogenolysis and inhibition of glycogen synthesis.25
This shift is the exact opposite of the fetal environment. The release of glucose from
the glycogen stores provides a rapidly and readily available source of glucose for
the neonate for the first few hours of life. The estimates include that hepatic glycogen
stores for the term infant provide enough glucose for the first 10 hours of life. Other
mechanisms also come into play to maintain postnatal glucose homeostasis (see
Fig. 2).
The next important pathway is the initiation of gluconeogenesis for maintaining
postnatal glucose homeostasis. The glucagon predominance after delivery includes
Fig. 1. Fetal maintenance of anabolic state promoting energy storage.
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Fig. 2. Adaptations around delivery and over the first 24 hours of life to establish postnatal
glucose homeostasis. AA, amino acid; FFA, free fatty acids.
enzymes required for gluconeogenesis.25 Substrates available for gluconeogenesis

that are associated with the surge in catecholamines at delivery include free fatty
acids, glycerol, and amino acids from the circulation. By 4 to 6 hours of age, the
term infant is capable of significant gluconeogenesis.
Therefore, until an exogenous supply of glucose is provided either enterally or intravenously, hepatic glucose production is the most significant source of glucose to meet
the needs of postnatal glucose homeostasis. To maintain normal levels of hepatic
glucose production, the infant must have the following:
Adequate sources of glycogen and gluconeogenic precursors (fatty acids, glycerol, amino acids, and lactate);
Concentrations of the hepatic enzymes necessary for glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis; and
A normally functioning endocrine system (counterregulatory hormones, human
growth hormone, and cortisol).
If any of these systems are not in place, then there is a disruption of glucose homeostasis and increases the chances that a low plasma glucose will result. As for preterm
infants, a long thought premise that they had lower levels of glucose the first days of
life than term infants and were suited in some way to tolerate these lower levels is not
true. This misconception came from observations of lower levels in these infants
because they were commonly starved the first few days of life. These low levels are
no longer observed in these infants because of early intravenous nutrition and/or
enteral feedings. In fact, these preterm infants have a significantly greater decrease
in glucose than term infants do the first hours of life. Also they have limited gluconeogenic ability because of limitations in there enzymatic pathways, which means that
they are less able to adapt to the cessation of intrauterine nutrition.
DEFINITION OF HYPOGLYCEMIA
Around the time of birth, there is a transient increase in fetal glucose concentrations
from glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis. This increase is followed by a rapid
decrease in neonatal glucose concentrations after birth and loss of the placenta to
a nadir at 1 to 2 hours of age and then a low an increase to levels that are similar to
late gestation fetal glucose levels (about two-thirds of normal values) by 2 to 4 hours
of age. Neonatal glucose values remain less than adult levels until around 3 to 4 days
of age. They do trend up slowly after the nadir.
A consistent definition of hypoglycemia does not exist for these first 2 days of life.
When the first neonates were recognized as having significant hypoglycemia in the
mid 1950s, the infants had striking clinical manifestations, often seizures, and the
blood sugar values were consistently below 20 to 25 mg/dL (1.11.4 mm/L). The
abnormal signs cleared quickly after increasing the blood glucose concentration to
(>40 mg/dL [2.2 mmol/L]). Now, some 60 years later, after hypoglycemia was first
described and 40 became a classic standard for defining hypoglycemia, our understanding of the metabolic disturbances and genetic disorders underlying alterations in
postnatal glucose homeostasis has increased dramatically.21,23,26 However, this
growth of knowledge, if anything, has led us further from what we need to know about
the blood glucose concentrations in the newborn: How low is too low?
At birth, the blood glucose concentration is about 70% of the maternal level. It falls
rapidly to the nadir by 1 hour or so to as low as 25 to 30 mg/dL (1.8 mmol/L). These low
levels are common in healthy neonates and are seen in all mammalian newborns.
These levels are transient and the infants are asymptomatic. This decrease is considered to be part of the normal adaptation for postnatal life that helps to establish postnatal glucose homeostasis.2729 Why does this low blood glucose after birth happen
in all mammals? Are there advantages to having a lower blood glucose concentration
compared with adults for the first few days of life? There are some speculations30:
The decrease in glucose concentrations right after birth seem to be essential to
stimulate physiologic processes that are required for postnatal survival, including
promoting glucose production through gluconeogenesis.
The decrease in glucose concentration may stimulate appetite and help adapt to
fastfeed cycles.
The decrease in glucose may enhance oxidative fat metabolism.
Persistently lower neonatal glucose concentrations might be the result of mechanisms that were vital for the fetus to allow maternal-to-fetal glucose transport
and cannot be quickly reversed after birth.
There is little consensus regarding the significance of transient and asymptomatic
low glucose concentrations. Most data suggest that adverse outcomes do not occur
with such levels in asymptomatic infants.30 However, transient asymptomatic low
glucose concentrations may herald metabolic disorders that can cause serious
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neurologic injury. Therefore, vigilance to look for further low glucose levels is warranted and there must be careful scrutiny for the development of clinical signs of
serious hypoglycemia and the clinician must be certain these infants with persistently
low glucose levels not go home from the newborn nursery without proving that they
can maintain glucose levels of greater than 65 to 70 mg/dL through several normal
fastfeed cycles after 48 to 72 hours of life.30
Therefore, we have no consensus for a specific level or range of values that specifically define hypoglycemia or when and how much treatment should be provided.
More important, a number of methods have attempted to identify the threshold blood
glucose concentration at which there is substantial likelihood of functional impairment,
particularly of the brain. These methods can be categorized as:

Epidemiologic,
Clinical,
Metabolicendocrinologic,
Neurophysiologic, and
Neurodevelopmental
The epidemiologic approach defines blood glucose concentrations in cohorts of

healthy infants and uses either the mean or empirically derived cut-off such as less
than 2 standard deviations below the mean. Any single value is unlikely to represent
a threshold of abnormality, because the data represent a continuum from normal.22,31
Most important is that a statistical abnormality does not imply a biologic impairment.
This method reveals that the vast majority have blood glucose concentrations of
greater than 40 mg/dL during the first 48 hours of life with actual mean values approximating 54 mg/dL (3.0 mmol/L) in healthy newborns.22,23,31
The clinical approach is based on the importance of glucose levels when signs of
hypoglycemia manifest. However, jitteriness is just as likely among normoglycemic infants and those with a variety of other conditions. Also, equally low blood glucose
levels are found in infants with no signs (asymptomatic hypoglycemia). Therefore,
the presence of absence of signs and symptoms cannot be used to discriminate between normal and abnormal blood glucose levels.
The neurophysiologic approach has attempted to measure neurophysiologic
changes in relation to various blood glucose concentrations. Studies used somatosensory evoked potentials. The studies have small numbers and have failed to
show effects of hypoglycemia on evoked responses. Changes in cerebral blood
flow with very low blood glucose levels have been studied in premature infants. However, the practicality of this technology and application remains unclear.
Two of the methods competing for the one that is best suited to be followed for
screening and management of postnatal glucose homeostasis are the metabolic/
endocrinologic, which analyzes data on transitional neonatal hypoglycemia with the
goal of understanding the mechanisms underlying this transitional hypoglycemia.
The second method is the neurodevelopmental approach, which has been used by
the United Kingdom, Canada, and the United States to define significant hypoglycemia and produce algorithms for screening and management.24
The endocrine-based mechanism, which leads to critical levels of 55 to 65 mg/dL
are based on observations that the low glucose concentrations in the first 48 hours
are accompanied by evidence of hyperinsulinism, suppressed plasma levels of
ketones (b-hydroxybutyrate and acetoacetate) and inappropriately large glycemic
responses to glucagon or epinephrine.3234 The endocrinologists use reports
providing information about fasting fuel and hormone responses to identify the common underlying mechanism of hypoglycemia. The endocrine approach focuses on
mean levels of glucose being most representative of the group of normal newborns.
The evaluation in this fashion suggests that the transitional neonatal hypoglycemia
most closely resembles a known genetic form of congenital hyperinsulinism, which
causes a lowering of the plasma glucose threshold for suppression of pancreatic insulin secretion.32,33 This transitional neonatal hypoglycemia in normal newborns using
this approach is a hypoketotic hypoglycemia.
Using mean values instead of nadir values this explanation describes the nadir value
as 55 to 60 mg/dL, not 25 to 30 mg/dL at the 5th percentile at 1 to 2 hours of age. This
value is followed by a steady increase over the first few days of life to return to the
range of 70 to 100 mg/dL (3.05.6 mmol/L), which is normal for infants, children,
and adults.34 Therefore, the metabolic and endocrine profile of transitional hypoglycemia indicates that this is a form of physiologic hyperinsulinemic hypoglycemia in which
the glucose set point for suppression of insulin secretion is set at 55 to 65 mg/dL (2.8
3.6 mmol/L). Using this method, endocrinologists conclude that this range is similar to
the glucose thresholds for neuroendocrine responses to hypoglycemia found in adults
and older children, and implies that this threshold for activating neuroendocrine defenses against hypoglycemia in newborns may be similar to the threshold in older
ages.35 Finally, studies in adults that are important in developing this strategy that
the threshold is in the range of 55 to 65 mg/dL is that older children and adults develop
neuroglycopenia (impaired brain function) at around 50 mg/dL (2.8 mmol/L).3537
The neurodevelopmental approach was established by a very influential article in
1988 that reported an observational study among 543 infants weighing less than
1850 g enrolled in a nutritional study that reported seriously impaired motor and cognitive development at 18 months in those with recurrent, asymptomatic hypoglycemia
(plasma glucose level <45 mg/dL [2.5 mmol/L] on more than 3 days).38 This
threshold of 47 mg/dL as alluded to in the paper profoundly influenced the neonatal
care of the preterm infant across the developed world ever since. It was not long
before clinicians were extrapolating from this single observational study on preterm infants and assuming that the healthy term infant could be equally at risk from similar
blood glucose levels, even when the infant seemed normal on clinical examination.39
Recently, and also from England, another study was initiated looking at all children
born at less than 32 weeks in the north of England in 1990 and 1991 and had laboratory
blood glucose levels measured daily for the first 10 days of life.40 Those who survived
to 2 years of age and had a blood glucose level of less than 45 mg/dL on more than
3 days were assessed at age 2. No differences in developmental progress or physical
disability were detected versus hypoglycemia-free controls adjusting for appropriate
confounders.40
The children were seen again at 15 years of age and 81% of the original children
were studied. Findings in the 2 groups were nearly identical (mean full-scale IQ 80.7
versus 81.2). Nearly identical outcomes were also found for behavioral and emotional
status and their adaptation to daily living.40 The authors of this trial agree with the late
Marvin Cornblath, who believed that the adaptive fluctuations occurring the first days
of life after birth.should not be designated as hypoglycemia with its connotation of
disease.41
The English study, therefore, found no evidence to support the belief that recurrent
low blood glucose levels (<45 mg/dL) in the first 10 days of life usually pose a hazard to
preterm infants.40 This study does not imply that low blood glucose levels cannot be
damaging in the preterm infant, even in the absence of overt and recognizable signs.
However, the data suggest that the danger threshold must be lower than many had
come to think it was. Indeed and in fact, these data and the reviews by Cornblath
were instrumental in the Screening and Management of Postnatal Glucose
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Homeostasis that was published in Pediatrics in 2011 from the Committee on Fetus
and Newborn of the AAP.42
As with normal infants with transient asymptomatic low glucose concentrations,
there is no evidence that improved outcome follows identification and treatment of
low glucose levels in infants of diabetic mothers, late preterm, small for gestational
age, and large for gestational age screened infants.29 The AAP recognized that
screening and management of asymptomatic low glucose levels in these populations
is a controversial issue for which evidence is lacking but guidance is needed.42 This
led to the publication of the updated guidelines in 2011. The guideline recognized the
normal 1- to 2-hour nadir in glucose concentration and proposed operational thresholds for action based on age (Fig. 3).42
The AAP guideline stresses the need to measure blood glucose levels as soon as
possible (minutes not hours) in any infant who manifests clinical signs consistent
with a low blood glucose concentration (ie, the symptomatic infant). The decision
was to feed within 1 hour of birth and to screen after this feed. Making a decision to
act on an early blood glucose concentrationin the first hour of life in an asymptomatic infantdid not seem appropriate, because normal cannot be distinguished from
abnormal and no data suggested any untoward outcome associated with these lower
values reached at the nadir in an asymptomatic infant.31 Fortunately, even in the
absence of any enteral nutrition intake, blood glucose concentrations increase by
Fig. 3. Screening and management of postnatal glucose homeostasis from the American
Academy of Pediatrics committee of fetus and newborn.
3 hours of age. Even in the infant at risk for hypoglycemia, blood glucose measurement is best avoided during the first 2 hours after birth.31 Because the purpose of
blood glucose monitoring is to identify the lowest blood glucose level, it makes sense
to measure a value immediately before the next feeding.24 Blood glucose concentrations show a cyclic response to an enteral feed, reaching a peak by about 1 hour after
the feed, and the nadir just before the next feed is due.
The plasma glucose concentration at which intervention is indicated needs to be
tailored to the clinical situation and the particular characteristics of the infant. The
AAP clinical report on postnatal glucose homeostasis applies only to the first 24 hours
after birth and should not be used beyond this period, and certainly not after 48 hours.
It considers symptoms, mode of feeding, risk factors, and hours of feeding in a
pragmatic approach for these infants (see Fig. 3).42 Operational thresholds are an
indication for action but not diagnostic for a disease. The 2 ranges in the guideline25 to 35 mg/dL for the first 4 hours and 35 to 45 mg/dL for the next
20 hoursare the operational thresholds the clinician can use to make decisions
about management suggested in the guideline (see Fig. 3).42 One uses the available
clinical and experimental data for these infants using conservative estimates for designating the lower level of normoglycemia. The belief is that the neonate can safely
tolerate these levels at specific ages and under established conditions.31 Values below
the operational threshold level are an indication to increase the plasma glucose levels
and do not imply neuroglycopenia or neurologic injury.31
It is not possible to define a plasma glucose level that requires intervention in every
newborn infant because there is uncertainty regarding the level and duration of hypoglycemia that causes damage, and little is known of the vulnerability of the brain at
various gestational ages for such injury.30,31 Therefore, as reiterated in the AAP statement significant hypoglycemia is not and can never be defined by a single number
that can be applied universally to every individual patient. Rather it is characterized
by a value(s) that is unique to each individual and varies with their state of physiologic
maturity and the influence of pathology.42 Treatment should be guided by clinical
assessment and not by glucose concentration alone.31
A recent editorial addressing the continued controversy that is neonatal hypoglycemia states that, what is clear is that the higher ones glucose threshold and the more
often one tests for it, the more often asymptomatic patients with low glucose concentrations will be identified.29 What clinicians do with this information depends on how
they view any particular glucose concentration in an asymptomatic infant.29 So, 50
years after Cornblath first proposed 40 mg/dL for defining hypoglycemia, the questions remain the same.43
REFERENCES
1. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). CDC grand rounds; newborn
screening and improved outcomes. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2012;61(21):
3903.
2. Zinn AB. Inborn errors of metabolism. In: Martin RJ, Fanaroff AA, Welsh MC,
editors. Chapter 50 in neonatal-perinatal medicine disease of the fetus and infant, vol. 2, 9th edition. St Louis (MO): Elsevier Mosby; 2011.
3. Dussault JH, Laberge C. Thyroxine (T4) determination by radioimmunological
method in dried blood eluate: new diagnostic method of neonatal hypothyroidism? Union Med Can 1973;102:2063 [in French].
4. Githens JH, Lane PA, McCurdy RS, et al. Newborn screening for hemoglobinopathies in Colorado. The first 10 years. Am J Dis Child 1990;144:466.
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5. Shafer FE, Lorey F, Cunningham GC, et al. Newborn screening for sickle cell disease: 4 years of experience from Californias newborn screening program.
J Pediatr Hematol Oncol 1996;18:36.
6. Chace DH, DiPerna JC, Naylor EW. Laboratory integration and utilization of tandem mass spectrometry in neonatal screening: a model for clinical mass spectrometry in the next millennium. Acta Paediatr Suppl 1999;88:45.
7. Naylor EW, Cace DH. Automated tandem mass spectrometry for mass newborn
screening for disorders in fatty acid, organic acid and amino acid metabolism.
J Child Neurol 1999;14(Suppl 1):S4.
8. Bartlett K, Eaton SJ, Pourfarzam M. New developments in neonatal screening.
Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed 1997;77:F151.
9. Meikle PJ, Ranieri E, Simonsen H, et al. Newborn screening for lysosomal storage
disorders: clinical evaluation of a two-tier strategy. Pediatrics 2004;114:909.
10. Scott CR, Elliot S, Buroker N, et al. Identification of infants at risk for developing
Fabry, Pompe, or mucopolysaccharidosis-I from newborn blood spots by tandem
mass spectrometry. J Pediatr 2013;163:498.
11. Gregg RG, Simantel A, Farrell PM, et al. Newborn screening for cystic fibrosis in
Wisconsin: comparison of biochemical and molecular methods. Pediatrics 1997;
99:819.
12. Chan K, Puck JM. Development of population-based newborn screening for
severe combined immunodeficiency. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2005;115:391.
13. Evans MI, Krivchenia EL. Principles of screening. Clin Perinatol 2001;28:273.
14. Khoury MJ, McCabe LL, McCabe ER. Population screening in the age of genomic
medicine. N Engl J Med 2003;348:50.
15. Sutton VR. Up to date. Philadelphia: Wolters Kluwer; 2014. p. 127.
16. Calvo M, Artuch R, Macia E, et al. Diagnostic approach to inborn errors of metabolism in an emergency unit. Pediatr Emerg Care 2000;16:405.
17. Wappner RS. Biochemical diagnosis of genetic diseases. Pediatr Ann 1993;
22:282.
18. Gibson K, Halliday JL, Kirby DM, et al. Mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation
disorders presenting in neonates: clinical manifestations and enzymatic and molecular diagnosis. Pediatrics 2008;122:1003.
19. Maestri NE, Clissold D, Brusilow SW. Neonatal onset ornithine trandcarbamylase
defiency: a retrospective analysis. J Pediatr 1999;134:268.
20. Broomfield A, Grunewald S. How to use serum ammonia. Arch Dis Child Educ
Pract Ed 2012;97:72.
21. Champion MP. An approach to the diagnosis of inherited metabolic disease. Arch
Dis Child Educ Pract Ed 2010;95:40.
22. Cornblath M, Ichord R. Hypoglycemia in the neonate. Semin Perinatol 2000;24(2):
13649.
23. Hay W, Raju TN, Higgins RD, et al. Knowledge gaps and research needs for understanding and treating neonatal hypoglycemia: workshop report from Eunice
Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development.
J Pediatr 2009;155(5):6127.
24. Adamkin DH. Glucose metabolism. In: Polin RA, Yoder MC, editors. Workbook in
neonatology. Philadelphia: Elsevier; 2014.
25. McGowan JE. Neonatal hypoglycemia. Pediatr Rev 1988;20(7):615.
26. Heck LJ, Erenberg A. Serum glucose levels in term neonates during the first 48
hours of life. J Pediatr 1987;110:11922.
27. Srinvasan G, Pildes RS, Cattamanchi G. Plasma glucose values in normal neonates: a new look. J Pediatr 1986;109:1147.
28. Adamkin DH. Update on neonatal hypoglycemia. Arch Perinat Med 2005;11(3):
135.
29. Rozance P, Hay NW. Neonatal hypoglycemia answers but more questions.
J Pediatr 2012;161(5):7756.
30. Boluyt N, van KA, Offringa M. Neurodevelopment after neonatal hypoglycemia: a
systematic review and design of an optimal future study. Pediatrics 2006;117:
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31. Cornblath M, Hawdon JM, Williams AF, et al. Controversies regarding definition of
neonatal hypoglycemia: suggested operational thresholds. Pediatrics 2000;
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32. Stanley CA, Baker L. Hyperinsulinism in infants and children: diagnosis and therapy. Adv Pediatr 1976;23:31555.
33. Glaser B, Kesavan P, Heyman M, et al. Familial hyperinsulinism caused by an
activating glucokinase mutation. N Engl J Med 1998;338(4):22630.
34. Hoe FM, Thornton PS, Wanner LA, et al. Clinical features and insulin hyperinsulinism. J Pediatr 2006;148(2):20712.
35. Cryer PE. Hypoglycemia in diabetes: pathophysiology, prevalence, and prevention. Alexandria (VA): American Diabetes Association; 2009.
36. Amiel SA, Simonson DC, Sherwin RS, et al. Exaggerated epinephrine responses
to hypoglycemia in normal and insulin-dependent diabetic children. J Pediatr
1987;110(6):8327.
37. Jones TW, Boulware SD, Kraemer DT, et al. Independent effects of youth Diabetes and poor diabetes control on responses to hypoglycemia in children. Diabetes 1991;40(3):35863.
38. Lucas A, Morley R, Cole TJ. Adverse neurodevelopmental outcome of moderate
neonatal hypoglycemia. Br Med J 1988;297:13048.
39. Cornblath M, Schwartz R. Outcome of neonatal hypoglycemia in infancy: the
need for a rational definition. A Ciba Foundation discussion meeting. Pediatrics
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40. Tin W, Bruuskill G, Kelly T, et al. 15 year follow-up of recurrent hypoglycemia in
preterm infant. Pediatrics 2012;130(6):e1497503.
41. Cornblath M. Reminiscence of a 50-year adventure. Neoreviews 2006;90(2):
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42. Adamkin DH, Committee on Fetus and Newborn. Clinical report-postnatal
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Common Genetic and

E p i ge neti c Syn d ro mes
Darius J. Adams,
MD
a,b,
*, David A. Clark,
MD
KEYWORDS
Syndrome Genetic Microdeletion Epigenetic Imprinting
KEY POINTS
Cytogenetic anomalies should be considered in individuals with multiple congenital
anomalies.
DNA methylation analysis is the most sensitive initial test in evaluating for Prader-Willi and
Angelman syndromes.
The timely identification of cytogenetic anomalies allows for prompt initiation of early intervention services to maximize the potential of every individual as they grow older.
Although many of these conditions are rare, keeping them in mind can have a profound
impact on the clinical course of affected individuals.
Newborns with large genomic anomalies tend to have a pattern of malformations. If an

isolated anomaly is noted, it is less likely a large genomic anomaly but could still be
related to single gene mutations. There are exceptions as in the case of Turner syndrome; the only presenting sign at birth in some cases is lymphedema. The common
large-scale chromosomal and genomic anomalies are reviewed.
LARGE-SCALE GENOMIC ANOMALIES
Down Syndrome
Down syndrome is one of the most common large-scale genomic anomalies with a
prevalence of approximately 1 in 700 births.15 Infants born with Down syndrome
are typically hypotonic and consequently have feeding difficulties. Cardiac anomalies
are present in approximately 40% of individuals with Down syndrome. Most
commonly, an atrioventricular canal or endocardial cushion defect is noted; however,
isolated ventricular septal defects, auricular septal defect, and aberrant subclavian arteries have also been noted less frequently. Additional findings include the following:
Low-set ears
Up-slanting palpebral fissures
Disclosure statement: Speakers Bureau/grants from BioMarin.

a
Atlantic Health System, Morristown, NJ, USA; b Albany Medical Center, Albany, NY, USA
* Corresponding author. 100 Madison Avenue, Morristown, NJ 07690.
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Brushfield spots
Flat facial profile
Short neck
Hypotonia/poor Moro reflex
Mental retardation (Figs. 14)
Early intervention services can be beneficial and can help maximize potential. An
increased risk of leukemia and Alzheimer disease has been noted in older individuals.
Trisomy 13 (Patau Syndrome)
Trisomy 13 has a prevalence of approximately 1 in 7000 births.6 This condition can

present on the holoprosencephaly spectrum, with some individuals having severe
midline anomalies of the brain and other structures including a single nostril and
pronounced hypotelorism (closely set eyes). Additional findings are as follows (Figs.
5 and 6):

Cutis aplasia (usually of posterior scalp)

Polydactyly
Microphthalmia, coloboma of iris
Cleft lip and/or palate
Abnormal ears that are low set
Cardiac anomalies
Severe neurologic involvement
Life span is typically limited to weeks or months; however, there have been cases
that have been described with individuals living years. Individuals with mosaicism
can have milder manifestations and live much longer.
Trisomy 18 (Edwards Syndrome)
Trisomy 18 has a prevalence of approximately 1 in 4500 births.6 Individuals with this

syndrome have a characteristic clenched hand appearance with a tendency for overlapping of the index finger over the third digit and the fifth finger over the fourth digit.
Additional findings include the following:

Short sternum
Low-set malformed ears
Micrognathia
Clenched hands with overlapping fingers (Fig. 7)
Fig. 1. Single transverse palmar crease noted in trisomy 21. (Courtesy of D. Clark, MD, Albany, NY.)
Fig. 2. Brachydactyly with single transverse palmar creases in Down syndrome.
Fig. 3. Wide space between first and second toes in Down syndrome.
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Fig. 4. (A). Typical facial features in Down syndrome with bilateral epicanthal folds, small
mouth and depressed nasal root. (B). Brushfield spots, seen most often in individuals with
lighter eye pigment in Down syndrome. ([A] Courtesy of D. Clark, MD, Albany, NY.)
Fig. 5. Cleft lip/palate in trisomy 13 (top) and low-set ears in trisomy 13 (bottom). (Courtesy
of D. Clark, MD, Albany, NY.)
Fig. 6. Spectrum of posterior scalp cutis aplasia in trisomy 13. (Courtesy of D. Clark, MD, Albany, NY.)
Short sternum
Cardiac anomalies
Severe mental retardation and neurologic dysfunction
Like trisomy 13, life span is typically limited to weeks or months; however, there
have been cases that have been described with individuals living years. Individuals
with mosaicism can have milder manifestations and live much longer.
Fig. 7. Typical overlapping fingers in trisomy 18. (Courtesy of D. Clark, MD, Albany, NY.)
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Turner Syndrome
Turner syndrome has a prevalence of approximately 1 in 3500 births.7 The development of a cystic hygroma during fetal development can be pronounced. In many
cases, the cystic hygroma interferes with the development of head and neck structures to such a degree that it results in a miscarriage. The fetuses that survive the
cystic hygroma have the characteristic neck webbing seen in many individuals with
Turner syndrome. Additional findings are as follows (Fig. 8):

Lymphedema in the newborn period

Neck webbing
Short stature
Subtle cognitive issues
Shield chest
Wide-spaced nipples
Coarctation of the aorta
Individuals with Turner syndrome can have mild difficulties in school. Many are
picked up when being evaluated for delayed menarche. Life span is normal. If a mosaic
state is noted with some 46, XY cells, streak gonads may be present, which must be
addressed immediately because of the high risk of gonadoblastoma formation.
Klinefelter Syndrome
Individuals with Klinefelter syndrome do not have any clinical findings in the newborn
period. They tend to present with infertility and gynecomastia. Typical findings include
the following:
Hypogonadism
Small testes
Fig. 8. (A, B) Neck webbing and (C) dorsal lymphedema in extremities in newborn with
Turner syndrome. ([B, C] Courtesy of D. Clark, MD, Albany, NY.)
Azoospermia
Oligospermia
Hyalinization and fibrosis of the seminiferous tubules
Gynecomastia in late puberty
Psychosocial problems
Endocrinologic findings include the following:

Low serum testosterone levels

High luteinizing hormone and follicle-stimulating hormone levels
Frequently elevated estradiol levels
Progressive decline in testosterone production during the life span, and not all
men suffer from hypogonadism
MICRODELETION SYNDROMES
Several of the more common microdeletion syndromes that present with multisystem
involvement are reviewed.
22q11.2 Syndrome (DiGeorge/Velocardiofacial Syndrome)
Velocardiofacial syndrome or 22q11.2 syndrome can present with a broad range of

findings that can be primarily cardiac, which has been referred to as DiGeorge syndrome, or with learning delays and velopalatal insufficiency as the only findings. Dysmorphic facial features occur in greater than 90% of cases; however, they can be
subtle and include a long, narrow face, a tubular nose with a bulbous tip, narrow
palpebral fissures, ear anomalies, and a small mouth. Developmental and learning disabilities also occur in greater than 90% of cases, with math skills and social judgment
the 2 areas most likely to be involved. Metal retardations can occur in 35% of cases.
Hypernasal speech and velopalatal insufficiency are also seen in greater than 90% of
cases, with cleft palate being a rare manifestation. Hypocalcemia and hypoparathyroidism occur in 65%, psychiatric disorders in 60%, recurrent seizures in 40%, and
cardiac defects in 30% to 40% of cases.810
Williams Syndrome
Williams syndrome is the result of a microdeleted segment on chromosome 7q. It has

been noted to involve multiple systems, including the cardiovascular, neurologic, and
endocrine systems. The cardiovascular involvement is an elastin arteriopathy that can
involve any artery. Manifestations include narrowing of the arteries, but the most clinically
significant and most common cardiovascular finding is supravalvular aortic stenosis.
Supravalvular aortic stenosis occurs in approximately 75% of affected individuals. Peripheral pulmonic stenosis is common in infancy but is not specific to Williams syndrome.
The neurologic manifestations can include cognitive deficits; however, these deficits
can be masked by their exceptional language skills. Some have average intelligence.
Strengths also include verbal short-term memory; extreme weakness in visuospatial
construction is typical. The Williams syndrome cognitive profile is independent of the
intelligence quotient (IQ). Their personality tends to include overfriendliness, empathy,
generalized anxiety, and attention deficit disorder.
Individuals with Williams syndrome also have distinctive facial features: bitemporal
narrowing, a broad brow, a stellate or lacy pattern to the iris, periorbital fullness, strabismus, a short nose, a full nasal tip, malar hypoplasia, long philtrum, full lips, wide mouth,
malocclusion, a small jaw, and prominent earlobes can be observed at any age. Younger
children have been noted to have transient findings that include epicanthal folds, full
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cheeks, and small and widely spaced teeth. Adults generally have a gaunt appearance
with a long face and neck that tend to be more pronounced by sloping shoulders.
Endocrine manifestations include idiopathic hypercalcemia (15%), hypercalciuria
(30%), hypothyroidism (10%), and early (but not precocious) puberty (50%). An increased
frequency of subclinical hypothyroidism, abnormal results in oral glucose tolerance tests,
and diabetes mellitus has been observed in adults with Williams syndrome.
Growth is characterized by prenatal growth deficiency, failure to thrive in infancy
(70%), poor weight gain, and linear growth in the first 4 years; a rate of linear growth
that is 75% of normal in childhood; and a brief pubertal growth spurt. The mean adult
height is less than the third percentile.
They can also have connective tissue involvement that includes a hoarse voice,
inguinal/umbilical hernias, bowel/bladder diverticulae, rectal prolapse, joint limitation
or laxity, and soft, lax skin.
Wolf-Hirschhorn Syndrome
Wolf-Hirschhorn syndrome is associated with a microdeletion of the 4p region. The

facial features tend to evolve over time. Early in life, patients tend to have a broad nasal
root that gives a Greek warrior helmet appearance. As they approach puberty, this
nasal root prominence tends to become less noticeable. Individuals with WolfHirschhorn syndrome also have microcephaly, a high forehead, prominent glabella,
ocular hypertelorism, epicanthal folds, highly arched eyebrows, a short philtrum,
downturned mouth, micrognathia, and unusually formed ears with tags or pits.
Growth delays are typical and can be noted prenatally. The poor growth continues
postnatally in all individuals.
Neurologic involvement includes developmental delays and cognitive deficiency of
a variable degree but is present in all. Gross motor delays are also seen and are associated with hypotonia.
Cri du Chat Syndrome
Cri du chat syndrome is so named because of the characteristic finding of a high-pitched

catlike cry. This sound leads one to strongly suspect cri du chat syndrome. The condition is the result of a microdeletion in 5p. There are some individuals who also have a
catlike cry without any other findings. These individuals can have a smaller deletion in
the 5p region, and it tends to be confined in the 5p15.3 region. Additional clinical features
include microcephaly, a round face, ocular hypertelorism, micrognathia, epicanthal
folds, low-set ears, hypotonia, and severe psychomotor and mental retardation.
Miller-Dieker Syndrome
Miller-Dieker syndrome is associated with a microdeletion in 17p. Lissencephaly is the

characteristic MRI finding. Typical features include a characteristic furrowing of the
forehead and microcephaly, and the pregnancy may be complicated by polyhydramnios. Life span is limited, with death occurring by 2 years of age in most children and a
few reaching 10 years of age. The oldest known individual with Miller-Dieker syndrome
lived to 17 years of age.
In lissencephaly, the cerebral gyri are absent or abnormally broad. The cerebral cortex is also thick, ranging from 12 to 20 mm, with a normal cerebral cortex being 3 to
4 mm thick. Classic lissencephaly findings also include the following:
Cavum septi pellucidi et vergae
Mild hypoplasia of the corpus callosum (the anterior portion often appears
flattened)
Mild vermis hypoplasia in some individuals with a normal brain stem and
cerebellum
The lateral ventricles are enlarged posteriorly
Subcortical band heterotopia can also be seen as a subcortical band of heterotopic
gray matter, present just beneath the cortex. It is separated from the cortex by a thin
zone of normal white matter. The subcortical bands are most often symmetric and
diffuse, extending from the frontal to occipital regions; however, they may be asymmetric. Subcortical bands restricted to the frontal lobes are more typically associated
with mutations of the DCX gene. Subcortical bands restricted to the posterior lobes
are more typically associated with LIS1 mutations. The gyral pattern is normal or demonstrates mildly simplified shallow sulci; a normal cortical ribbon is present.
Smith-Magenis Syndrome
Smith-Magenis syndrome is associated with a deletion of 17p11.2. In the infantile

period, mild to moderate hypotonia that can result in feeding difficulties has been
noted and this may result in failure to thrive. Minor skeletal anomalies, brachydactyly,
and short stature can be seen. Congenital cardiac defects and structural renal anomalies have been reported. Hearing loss is variable, but speech delays are a more
persistent finding. A peripheral neuropathy with decreased pain sensitivity, cognitive
impairment (IQ 2078), and developmental delays are also typical findings.
The most striking feature of Smith-Magenis syndrome is the distinct neurobehavioral phenotype, which includes a sleep disturbance whereby they tend to sleep during
the day and remain awake at night. Abnormal melatonin regulation seems to be the
cause. Patients also tend to engage in self-mutilation, pulling out fingernails and
constantly picking at the skin. Insertion of foreign bodies into body orifices and eating
nonfood items can also be typical manifestations. Many of the features may not be
apparent in infants and young children, so a clinical diagnosis can be difficult in those
age groups. Single-nucleotide polymorphism genomic microarray analysis detects
90% of cases. RAI1 gene sequencing and deletion/duplication analysis detects 5%
to 10% of cases.
Wilms Tumor-Aniridia-Genital Anomalies-Retardation
Wilms tumor-aniridia-genital anomalies-retardation (WAGR) syndrome is associated

with a deletion of the 11p13 region. There are 2 critical genes in the region, PAX6 and
WT1. There can be up to a 50% risk of developing a Wilms tumor with an increased incidence of bilateral involvement compared with those with isolated Wilms tumor. Those
with WAGR also have an earlier age of diagnosis, but they have more favorable tumor
histology and a better prognosis than those with isolated Wilms tumor.
Aniridia is almost always present in individuals with deletions encompassing the
PAX6 gene and is typically severe. There have been cases of deletions in the 11p13
region that do not include the PAX6 gene and aniridia does not occur.
Up to 60% of male patients can have cryptorchidism. Additional genitourinary
anomalies include uterine abnormalities, hypospadias, ambiguous genitalia, streak
ovaries, urethral strictures, ureteral abnormalities, and gonadoblastoma.
Cognitive delays can be seen in 70% of individuals with IQ scores less than 74.
Behavioral abnormalities can also be seen and include attention deficit hyperactivity
disorder, autism spectrum disorders, anxiety, depression, and obsessive compulsive
disorder. Up to one-third can have neurologic involvement, including hypertonia or hypotonia, epilepsy, enlarged ventricles, microcephaly, and agenesis of the corpus
callosum.
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End-stage renal disease risk is significant; Wilms tumor, focal segmental glomerulosclerosis, and occasional renal malformations can contribute to the increased risk.
With unilateral Wilms tumor, the rate of end-stage renal disease is 36%, and it is
90% in those with bilateral Wilms tumor formation. Twenty-five percent of individuals
can have variable proteinuria that can be overt nephritic syndrome in the more severe
cases.
Obesity can also be a frequent manifestation of WAGR syndrome. Individuals can
also have hemihypertrophy, facial dysmorphisms, growth delays, scoliosis, kyphosis,
and, occasionally, polydactyly and diaphragmatic hernia.
A cytogenetically visible deletion can be observed in approximately 60% of affected
individuals. An additional 14% have a microdeletion in the region, with an unknown
percentage having smaller contiguous gene deletions of the PAX6 and WT1 genes.
Alagille Syndrome
Approximately 7% of individuals with Alagille syndrome have a deletion of the entire

JAG1 gene detectable by genomic microarray analysis. Sequence analysis of JAG1
DNA detects mutations in about 88% of individuals with Alagille syndrome. Less
than 1% of individuals have been noted to have mutations in the NOTCH2 gene. Clinical criteria have been established for the clinical diagnosis of Alagille syndrome. The
histologic finding of bile duct paucity (an increased portal tract-to-bile duct ratio) on
liver biopsy has been considered to be the most important and constant feature of Alagille syndrome; however, bile duct paucity is not present in infancy in many individuals
ultimately shown to have Alagille syndrome. In the newborn, a normal ratio of portal
tracts to bile ducts, bile duct proliferation, or a picture suggestive of neonatal hepatitis
may be observed. Overall, bile duct paucity is present in about 90% of individuals.
Of the following 5 major clinical features, 3 features in addition to bile duct paucity
establish a clinical diagnosis of Alagille syndrome:
Cardiac defect (most commonly stenosis of the peripheral pulmonary artery and
its branches)
Characteristic facial features
Cholestasis
Ophthalmologic abnormalities (most commonly posterior embryotoxon)
Skeletal abnormalities (most commonly butterfly vertebrae identified in anteroposterior chest radiographs)
In addition, abnormalities of the kidney, neurovasculature, and pancreas are important manifestations. The diagnosis of Alagille syndrome may be difficult due to the
extreme range of expression of the clinical manifestations. The diagnosis of Alagille
syndrome should be considered in individuals who do not meet the full clinical criteria
but do have an affected first-degree relative. If an affected first-degree relative is identified, the presence of one or more features establishes a clinical diagnosis.
EPIGENETIC/IMPRINTING DISORDERS
Imprinting (repression) is the determination of the expression of a gene by its

parental origin.
Imprinting results in monoallelic gene expression.
Mechanism of imprinting is unclear.
Methylation of DNA seems to play a major role in imprinting.
For some genes, imprinting is confined to certain tissues or certain stages of
development (see Fig. 8; Fig. 9).
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Fig. 9. (A) Uniparental disomy. Trisomy rescue with loss of the paternal chromosomes. The
two maternal chromosomes with the same imprint results in uniparental disomy. (B) Normal
germ line imprinting on chromosome 15. (C) Angelman syndromepaternal UPD 15. (D) Angelman syndromematernal deletion 15q11q13.
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Angelman Syndrome
Individuals with Angelman syndrome appear normal at birth but begin manifesting
developmental delays by 6 to 12 months of age. This cognitive impairment progresses
to severe mental retardation. One of the hallmark features of Angelman syndrome, in
addition to microcephaly and seizures, is the absence of speech. Individuals with
Angelman syndrome do not acquire more than 6 words throughout their life. The brain
is generally structurally normal on MRI or computed tomography; however, they may
have mild cortical atrophy or dysmyelination. Another significant feature is their ataxia
and tremors of the limbs. Individuals with Angelman syndrome have a unique behavioral phenotype that includes frequent laughter and smiling, a happy demeanor, excitability with hand flapping, and other hypermotoric behaviors.
Most patients have microcephaly and seizures. The microcephaly is seen by 2 years
of age and is acquired. Seizure also typically presents between 1 and 3 years of age.
Some patients also have the following:

Attraction to/fascination with water

Feeding problems during infancy
Hyperactive tendon reflexes
Hypopigmentation of the skin and eyes
Hypotonia
Increased sensitivity to heat; sleep disturbance
Strabismus
Tongue thrusting, sucking and swallowing disorders, frequent drooling, excessive chewing and mouthing
Uplifted, flexed arms during walking
Wide mouth, wide-spaced teeth, prominent mandible
Those with hypopigmentation typically have a deletion of the Pigment gene
(15q11.2-q13) The Pigment gene encodes a tyrosine transporter (P protein) important
in melanin synthesis. In rare cases, the hypopigmentation can be so severe that a form
of albinism is suspected.
Genetic counseling in Angelman syndrome
The risk to sibs of an affected child who has a deletion or uniparental disomy
(UPD) is typically less than 1%.
A standard or high-resolution chromosome analysis should be offered to all sibs
to detect a chromosomal rearrangement, which alters the recurrence risks.
The risk to sibs of an affected child who has an imprinting defect with deletion of
imprinting center (IC) or a mutation of a gene is as high as 50% (ie, UBE3A).
Chromosome rearrangement depends on whether it is inherited or de novo.
Mothers of patients with deletions should be tested for a possible balanced chromosomal rearrangement. Germ line mosaicism for large deletions has been described.
Prenatal testing is possible when the underlying genetic mechanism is known.
Unknown causes may be undetected mutations in the regulatory regions of gene
(UBE3A) or other unidentified mechanisms or genes involved.
Prader-Willi Syndrome
Prader-Willi syndrome has characteristic neonatal manifestations that include severe

neonatal hypotonia with poor feeding. In rare cases, the hypotonia may be mild and
improves with age. Because of the feeding difficulties, failure to thrive is common in
infancy. From 6 months to 6 years of age, there is a dramatic onset of weight gain
and these individuals develop obesity. They also tend to have short stature; however,
there have been cases of individuals who have been in the normal range for height.
The characteristic behavioral manifestation is an obsession with food. Patients
break into refrigerators and cabinets to eat and wake up to eat overnight. Stealing
food off the plate of other individuals is also commonly seen.
As individuals with Prader-Willi syndrome grow older, they have noticeably small
hands and feet. Major findings include the following:

Mild to moderate mental retardation (w90%)

Learning disabilities
Normal neuromuscular studies
Seizures
Poor gross motor coordination
Poor fine motor coordination
Global developmental delay
Behavioral problems
Sleep disturbances
High pain threshold
Male patients have the following:

Hypogonadotropic hypogonadism
Small penis
Scrotal hypoplasia
Cryptorchidism
Even though the SNRPN gene has been used as a marker in the critical region for
Prader-Willi syndrome, it is not thought to be causative for some forms of PraderWilli syndrome, unlike the UBE3A gene in Angelman syndrome (Table 1).
Genetic counseling in Prader-Willi syndrome
The risk to sibs of an affected child who has a deletion or UPD is typically less
than 1%.
A standard or high-resolution chromosome analysis should be offered to all to
detect a chromosomal rearrangement, which alters the recurrence risks.
The risk to sibs of an affected child who has an imprinting defect with deletion of
IC is as high as 50%.
Chromosome rearrangement depends on whether it is inherited or de novo.
Table 1
Testing for Prader-Willi syndrome
Test Methods
Mutations Detected
Percentage of Individuals
Methylation analysis
Methylation abnormality
99
FISH/Quantitative PCR
Deletion of PWCRa
70
Uniparental disomy studies
UPD of PWCR
25
Sequence analysisb
Imprinting center defect
<1
Abbreviations: FISH, fluorescent in situ hybridization; PCR, polymerase chain reaction; PWCR,
Prader-Willi critical region.
a
Deletion varies in size but always includes the PWCR.
b
Sequence analysis detects small deletions that account for about 15% of imprinting center mutations. Most imprinting defects are epimutations (ie, alterations in the imprint, not the DNA).
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Fathers of patients with deletions should be tested for a possible balanced chromosomal rearrangement. Germ line mosaicism for large deletions has been
described.
Prenatal testing is possible when the underlying genetic mechanism is known.
Unknown causes may be unknown genes or other unidentified mechanisms or
genes involved (Fig. 10).
Beckwith-Wiedemann Syndrome
Beckwith-Wiedemann syndrome (BWS) is another disorder that has been associated

with imprinting defects. A consensus for clinical criteria has not yet been established;
however, having 3 criteria would be consistent with the diagnosis.
Criteria include the following:
Positive family history (one or more family members with a clinical diagnosis of
BWS or a history or features suggestive of BWS)
Macrosomia (traditionally defined as height and weight >97th percentile)
Anterior linear ear lobe creases/posterior helical ear pits
Macroglossia
Omphalocele (also called exomphalos)/umbilical hernia
Visceromegaly involving one or more intra-abdominal organs including liver,
spleen, kidneys, adrenal glands, and pancreas
Embryonal tumor (eg, Wilms tumor, hepatoblastoma, neuroblastoma, rhabdomyosarcoma) in childhood
Fig. 10. Prader-Willi syndrome. (A) Maternal UPD 15. (B) Paternal deletion 15q11q13.
Hemihyperplasia (asymmetric overgrowth of one or more regions of the body)

Adrenocortical cytomegaly
Renal abnormalities including structural abnormalities, nephromegaly, and
nephrocalcinosis
Cleft palate (rare)
In regards to management, up to 7.5% of individuals with BWS develop a tumor during the first 8 years of life and can include the following:

Wilms tumor
Hepatoblastoma
Adrenal carcinoma
Gonadoblastoma
Tumor incidence decreases after 8 years of age and is equivalent to population risk.
BWS is primarily a syndrome of childhood. As they become older, the clinical findings
disappear and they tend to grow into their macroglossia and macrosomia. Intelligence and development are normal. Molecular genetic testing can account for up
to 75% of cases without a family history and up to 99% of cases with a family history.
Russell-Silver Syndrome
Individuals with Russell-Silver syndrome can be noted to have intrauterine growth

retardation. Consequently, in the neonatal period, they are small for gestational age
and have persistent failure to thrive. Additional findings include the following:

Normal head circumference with height and weight less than 5th percentile
Lateral asymmetries
Fasting hypoglycemia
Occasional growth hormone deficiency
Frontal bossing and micrognathia resulting in triangular face
Cardiac defects
Hypospadias, posterior urethral valves
Wilms and other tumors
Russell-Silver syndrome has multiple causes like many conditions associated with
epigenetic causes. The following causes have been established:
UPD7 7% to 10%
H19 locus on chromosome 11% to 35%
Genetic heterogeneity
As noted earlier, current testing is able to confirm a cause using molecular genetic
testing in less than 50% of cases.
ETHICAL DILEMMASTHE GENOMIC ERA
As the ease of genomic sequencing continues to increase, ethical challenges have

arisen that are unique to the ability to sequence tens of thousands of genes on a single
blood specimen. Specific challenges have arisen in regards to information that has
been discovered that the patient or family may not have wanted to know about. For
example, a pediatric patient could undergo genomic sequencing to determine a cause
of developmental delay when it is discovered that the patient has a pathogenic mutation in the BRCA gene. This finding could have implications to the patients mother
who may have the same mutation noted in her childs sample. However, the patients
mother may not have wanted to know that she could be at increased risk for breast
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cancer. Many laboratories are now allowing families to opt out of certain gene categories if they feel that the information is not desirable. However, the American College
of Medical Genetics has recommended that laboratories report medically actionable
genetic information that can have a major impact on the health of the individual being
tested. Panels of genes that are medically actionable are being reported unless the
family specifically states that they do not want that information revealed to them during
the consent process. These scenarios are starting to be encountered, which is why it is
essential that families who choose to have genomic sequencing have genetic counseling so that issues like this can be discussed.
REFERENCES
1. Girard J. Metabolic adaptations to change of nutrition at birth. Biol Neonate 1990;

58(1):315.
2. Owen OE, Reichard GA Jr, Patel MS, et al. Energy metabolism in feasting and
fasting. Adv Exp Med Biol 1979;111:16988.
3. Ward Platt M, Deshpande S. Metabolic adaptation at birth. Semin Fetal Neonatal
Med 2005;10:34150.
4. Arnoux JB, Verkarre V, Saint-Martin C, et al. Congenital hyperinsulinism: current
trends in diagnosis and therapy. Orphanet J Rare Dis 2011;6:63.
5. van Gameren-Oosterom HB, Buitendijk SE, Bilardo CM, et al. Unchanged prevalence of Down syndrome in the Netherlands: results from an 11-year nationwide
birth cohort. Prenat Diagn 2012;32:103540.
6. Savva GM, Walker K, Morris JK. The maternal age-specific live birth prevalence
of trisomies 13 and 18 compared to trisomy 21 (Down syndrome). Prenat Diagn
2010;30(1):5764.
7. Gregor V, Spek A, Spek A Jr, et al. Prenatal diagnostics of chromosomal aberrations Czech Republic: 1994-2007. Ceska Gynekol 2009;74(1):4454 [in Czech].
8. Kapadia RK, Bassett AS. Recognizing a common genetic syndrome: 22q11.2
deletion syndrome. CMAJ 2008;178(4):3913.
9. Morris CA. Williams syndrome. In: Pagon RA, Bird TD, Dolan CR, et al, editors.
GeneReviews. Seattle (WA): University of Washington, Seattle; 2006. Available
at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK1249/.
10. Dagli AI, Williams CA. Angelman syndrome. In: Pagon RA, Bird TD, Dolan CR,
et al, editors. GeneReviews. Seattle (WA): University of Washington, Seattle;
2011. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK1144/.
Neonatal Nutrition
Scott C. Denne,
MD
KEYWORDS
Infant nutrition Breastfeeding Infant formula Gastroesophageal reflux
KEY POINTS
There is good evidence of the clinical benefit of breastfeeding to infants and mothers, and
it should be the primary nutrition source for most infants.
The breastfed infant is the normative model for infant growth, and the WHO growth curves
should be used for all term infants.
All standard term infant formulas are clinically equivalent and adequately support growth
for the small proportion of infants who cannot breastfeed.
Soy and other specialized formulas should be reserved for particular circumstances and
conditions and should not be used routinely.
Gastroesophageal reflux occurs in most infants and does not require intervention. Gastroesophageal reflux disease occurs in a small proportion of infants and an algorithm-based
evaluation and management strategy should be used.
NEONATAL NUTRITION
There is accumulating evidence that nutrition and growth in early life can have
substantial influences on adult health.1 This article reviews the current knowledge,
recommendations, and approaches to feeding the normal newborn. The current understanding and approach to the common and sometimes difficult problem of gastroesophageal reflux (GER) in normal infants is also discussed.
BREASTFEEDING
Based on the many demonstrated benefits for babies and mothers, the World Health
Organization (WHO), the American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP), and Institute of
Medicine recommend the exclusive use of human milk for healthy term infants for
the first 6 months of life, and continued breastfeeding for at least 12 months.2
The public health goal for Healthy People 2020 is for 82% of mothers to initiate breastfeeding, 60% of mothers to be breastfeeding at 6 months, and 34% to be breastfeeding at 1 year.3 The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) tracks these
Disclosure Statement: Nothing to disclose.

Department of Pediatrics, Indiana University, 699 Riley Hospital Dr, RR 208, Indianapolis, IN
46202, USA
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breastfeeding rates and issues a breastfeeding report card yearly.4 Significant progress has been made toward achieving these breastfeeding goals, and in 2011 79%
of women initiated breastfeeding. However, additional progress is necessary in the
duration and exclusivity of breastfeeding. The most recent data on breastfeeding rates
and the goals of Healthy People 2020 are shown in Fig. 1.
To support higher breastfeeding rates, additional objectives of Healthy People 2020
include increasing the proportion of employers that have worksite lactation support
programs, reducing the number of breastfed newborns who receive formula supplementation within the first 2 days of life, and increasing the proportion of live births
that occur in facilities that provide recommended care for lactating mothers and their
babies.3
Although there has been progress in overall breastfeeding rates, these gains have
not been uniform across all populations and geographic regions.5 Breastfeeding rates
are lower for black infants, infants of mothers with lower incomes, and mothers with
less education.57 Breastfeeding rates are lower in the southern United States and
in rural areas.5,8 Health care workers should be aware of these disparities so that
they can focus their attention on these groups to educate about and support breastfeeding, and help others overcome barriers to breastfeeding.
Breastfeeding and Clinical Outcomes
There is growing evidence that breastfeeding conveys important benefits during childhood and in later adult life, and to breastfeeding mothers.9 However, the evidence
for these benefits comes almost entirely from observational cohort studies and not
randomized clinical trials; randomized controlled trials of breastfeeding are widely
Fig. 1. US breastfeeding rates in 2011 (red bars) and Healthy People 2020 goals (green bars).
BF, breastfed. (Data from National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion. Breast feeding report card. Atlanta, GA: CDC, 2014. Available at: www.cdc.gov/pdf/
2014breastfeedingreportcard.pdf. Accessed November 3, 2014.)
Neonatal Nutrition
considered to be impractical and unethical.2,9 Observational trials of clinical benefit

have not always been consistent and can be subject to bias and contain multiple
confounders. However, careful evaluation of multiple studies evaluating breastfeeding
effects in clinical outcomes has been conducted, and meta-analyses performed.9
Based on these meta-analyses, there is convincing evidence of the beneficial effects
of breastfeeding on a variety of infant and maternal clinical outcomes. A list of those
significant outcomes is provided in Box 1.
Several other benefits associated with breastfeeding have also been reported, but
the evidence has been inconsistent and/or less convincing. This includes associations
between breastfeeding and cognitive development, obesity in later life, cardiovascular
mortality in adulthood, and postpartum depression.9
Composition of Human Milk
Human milk is a complex and dynamic fluid that supports ideal infant growth and immune function development.10 The composition of human milk changes over time, and
contains live cells along with macronutrients and micronutrients and bioactive factors.
Colostrum is the first fluid secreted by the breast following delivery, and has
an intense yellow color because of the high concentration of carotenoids. Colostrum
is produced in low quantities for the first few days, and contains bioactive components
including secretory IgA, lactoferrin, leucocytes, and epidermal growth factor.
Compared with later milk, colostrum contains relatively low concentrations of lactose,
potassium, and calcium and higher levels of sodium chloride and magnesium.10 As
lactose secretion becomes more efficient and milk lactose concentration increases,
the colostrum/milk sodium concentration decreases proportionally.
Transitional milk appears at 5 to 14 days and contains increased amounts of
lactose, fat, and total calories along with lower concentrations of immunoglobulins
and total proteins. At 2 to 4 weeks, human milk is considered mature and the
Box 1
Reduction in disease/condition associated with breastfeeding
Infant
Otitis media
Recurrent otitis media
Respiratory tract infection
Asthma
Atopic dermatitis
Gastroenteritis
Type 1 and 2 diabetes
Leukemia
Sudden infant death syndrome
Mother
Breast cancer
Ovarian cancer
Data from Ip S, Chung M, Raman G, et al. A summary of the Agency for Healthcare Research
and Qualitys evidence report on breastfeeding in developed countries. Breastfeed Med
2009;4 Suppl 1:S1730.
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composition remains stable for the next several months.11 The change in macronutrient concentration in human milk over time is shown in Fig. 2.
The macronutrient mineral, vitamin, and micronutrient concentration of mature human milk is shown in Table 1. It must be pointed out that Table 1 lists average composition values; there is substantial variability in the nutrient content of human milk
across individual mothers. Furthermore, aliquots of milk from one mother can also
be quite different in composition. However, the mother-infant dyad seems to successfully adapt to these variations, and successful breastfeeding and normal infant growth
is achieved for most mothers and infants.
Human milk contains live cells and a large variety of bioactive substances.5,10 Macrophages, T cells, and lymphocytes are all found in human milk, with macrophages being the predominant cell type. These cells most likely perform an important host
defense function for the infant. Multiple bioactive factors are present in human milk
including immunoglobulins, growth factors, cytokines, and other small molecules. A
partial list of bioactive substances contained in human milk along with their proposed
function is shown in Table 2.
Growth and Growth Standards
The WHO conducted a well-designed, longitudinal study of healthy term breastfed infants accurately measuring growth from birth to 2 years of age.12 Data were obtained
from 903 infants who were exclusively or predominantly breastfed for 4 to 6 months
and who continued breastfeeding for at least 12 months. The study was conducted
in six diverse geographic areas (Brazil, India, Ghana, Norway, Oman, and the United
States). The resulting growth charts contain extensive information including weight
for age, length for age, head circumference for age, and weight for length and body
mass index for age. These WHO growth curves are considered the normative model
for growth and development regardless of infant ethnicity or geography, and reflects
optimal growth of the breastfed infant. The CDC and AAP recommend the use of the
Fig. 2. Change in macronutrient composition of human milk over time. (Data from Gidrewicz DA, Fenton TR. A systematic review and meta-analysis of the nutrient content of preterm and term breast milk. BMC Pediatr 2014;14(1):216.)
Neonatal Nutrition
Table 1
Concentrations of selected nutrients in mature (2 wk) human milk
66 9 kcal
Energy
Protein
1.3 0.2 g
Fat
3.0 0.9 g
Lactose
6.2 0.6 g
Calcium
28 7 mg
Phosphorus
15 4 mg
Sodium
18 4 mg
Potassium
53 4 mg
Chloride
42 6 mg
Iron
0.03 0.01 mg
Vitamin D
2.2 0.4 IU/100 mL
All concentrations per 100 mL; mean SD.

Data from Kleinman R. Pediatric Nutrition Handbook. 7th edition. Elk Grove Village (IL): American Academy of Pediatrics; 2014; and Gidrewicz DA, Fenton TR. A systematic review and metaanalysis of the nutrient content of preterm and term breast milk. BMC Pediatr 2014;14(1):216.
WHO growth curves for all children younger than 24 months. These growth charts are
readily available on the CDC Web site (www.cdc.gove/growthcharts/who_charts.htm).
Supplements for Breastfed Infants
Although human milk is uniquely suited to support normal infant growth, human milk
is low in vitamin D and iron, and deficiency can occur. Therefore, the AAP recommends 400 IU/day vitamin D supplementation for all breastfed infants.5 Vitamin D
supplementation should begin in the first few days of life and continue until the infant
is weaned to at least 1 L/day or 1 quart/day of vitamin Dfortified formula or whole
milk. Supplementation of 1 mg/kg/day of oral iron should start at 4 months of age
and continue until the infant consumes adequate oral iron from foods.
Table 2
Selected bioactive compounds in human milk
Compound
Proposed Function
Immunoglobulins (IgA, IgM, IgG)
Infection prevention
Cytokines
Infection prevention, reduce inflammation
Oligosaccharides
Promote beneficial flora
Nucleotides
Promote beneficial flora
Lactoferrin
Intestinal growth, immunomodulation
Epidermal growth factor
Intestinal maturation and repair
Insulin-like growth factor 1 and 2
Tissue growth
Erythropoietin
Prevention of anemia, intestinal development
Vascular endothelial growth factor
Regulation of angiogenesis
Data from Kleinman R. Pediatric nutrition handbook. 7th edition. Elk Grove Village (IL): American
Academy of Pediatrics; 2014; and Ballard O, Morrow AL. Human milk composition: nutrients and
bioactive factors. Pediatr Clin North Am 2013;60(1):4974.
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Duration of Breastfeeding
The AAP, WHO, and Institute of Medicine recommend exclusive breastfeeding for
about 6 months, with continuation after complementary foods have been introduced
for at least the first year of life.2,5 Breastfeeding can be extended beyond the first
year of life as mutually desired by the mother and child. It is important to point out
that the definition of exclusive breastfeeding includes the administration of vitamin
D and iron.
Contraindications to Breastfeeding
There are a limited number of medical circumstances where breastfeeding is contraindicated. These include some maternal infections, particular inborn errors of metabolism in infants, and a few maternal medications.
Maternal medical conditions that preclude breastfeeding include human T-cell lymphotropic virus (type 1 and 2), untreated brucellosis, active pulmonary tuberculosis
without 2 weeks of completed treatment, and active herpes simplex lesions on
the breast.2,5 In the industrialized world, breastfeeding is also contraindicated for
HIV-positive mothers. Because the primary carbohydrate of breast milk is lactose, a
disaccharide composed of glucose and galactose, infants with the inborn error of
metabolism of galactosemia should not be breastfed. Although most maternal medications are compatible with breastfeeding, certain medications are a contraindication
to breastfeeding, such as mothers receiving antineoplastic drug therapy. Because of
the rapidly changing information on medications relative to breastfeeding, it is advisable to consult the drugs and lactation database (LacMed) before making a determination. LacMed is easily accessible from the US National Library of Medicine Web site
(http://docsnet.nlm.nih.gov).
Supporting Breastfeeding
Providing support to the breastfeeding mother requires appropriate institutional policies and the knowledge and attention of health care providers. To ensure that breastfeeding is supported in the hospital, the World Health Organization has provided 10
steps to successful breastfeeding (Box 2). The 10-step program has been effective
in increasing rates of breastfeeding initiation, exclusivity, and duration.13
Following hospital discharge, the primary care physician should see all breastfeeding newborns at 3 to 5 days of age or within 48 to 72 hours after discharge from the
hospital.2 At this visit, the physician should evaluate body weight and establish that
weight loss is no more than 7% from birth, and that there is no further weight loss
by Day 5. If weight loss is of concern, feeding should be assessed and more frequent
follow-up should be scheduled. Infant elimination patterns should be discussed and
hydration evaluated. One feeding should be observed and any other maternal and infant issues discussed.
Common Breastfeeding Problems
Common problems of breastfeeding mothers include nipple pain, engorgement, and

mastitis.14 Nipple pain is common in the first few days of breastfeeding. This can usually be addressed with good positioning, optimal attachment of the infant at the breast,
and removal from the breast when the infant is satisfied. A lactation expert may be
useful in helping mothers achieve proper attachment and removal.
Breast engorgement and tenderness often occurs at 3 to 5 days. More frequent
breastfeeding and breast massage after feeds are helpful. Mastitis is characterized
by a painful red swollen and hard area of the breast, fever, and malaise; mastitis
Neonatal Nutrition
Box 2
World Health Organization ten steps to successful breastfeeding
1. Have a written breastfeeding policy that is routinely communicated to all health care staff.
2. Train all health care staff in the skills necessary to implement this policy.
3. Inform all pregnant women about the benefits and management of breastfeeding.
4. Help mothers initiate breastfeeding within the first hour of birth.
5. Show mothers how to breastfeed and how to maintain lactation even if they are separated
from their infants.
6. Give newborn infants no food or drink other than breast milk, unless medically indicated.
7. Practice rooming-in (allow mothers and infants to remain together) 24 hours a day.
8. Encourage breastfeeding on demand.
9. Give no artificial nipples or pacifiers to breastfeeding infants.a
10. Foster the establishment of breastfeeding support groups and refer mothers to them on
discharge from hospital.
a
The AAP does not support a categorical ban on pacifiers because of their role in sudden infant death syndrome risk reduction and their analgesic benefit during painful procedures.
From World Health Organization. Evidence for the Ten Steps to Successful Breastfeeding.
Geneva, Switzerland, 1998. Available at: www.who.int/nutrition/publications/evidence_ten_
step_eng.pdf. Accessed November 3, 2014.
can occur in 10% to 20% of mothers. Treatment consists of frequent and effective milk
removal and sometimes antibiotics.
FORMULA FEEDING: INDICATIONS
Although breastfeeding is preferred for most normal healthy term infants, formula
feeding can support nutrition and growth. The indications for the use of infant formulas
include (1) as a substitute (or as a supplement) for human milk in infants whose
mothers choose not to breastfeed or not to do so exclusively, (2) as a substitute for
human milk in infants where breastfeeding is medically contraindicated, and (3) as a
supplement for breastfed infants whos intake of human milk does not support
adequate weight gain.5 It must be noted that the supplementation should be instituted
only after interventions to increase milk supply have been ineffective.
Infant Formulas
Infant formulas are regulated by the Food and Drug Administration and manufacturers
must ensure by analysis the amount of 29 essential nutrients in each batch of formula.15 All commercially available standard term infant formulas in the United States
support normal growth and development of healthy term infants. Although products
from different manufacturers may vary slightly in their nutrient composition, the products are much more similar than different. At present, there is no clinical evidence that
differences in term infant formulas have any important measurable clinical effects, and
there is no medical reason to prefer one brand over another.
Infant formulas are available in ready to feed, in concentrated liquid, and in powder.
Proper preparation of the liquid concentrate and the powder forms is essential, and
detailed instructions are found on each manufacturers Web site. Standard infant formula contains 19 or 20 calories per ounce, which is similar to the average caloric content of breast milk (recognizing the previously discussed variability of human milk).
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However, infant formula contains about a 50% higher amount of protein than human
milk (approximately 1.4 g/100 mL protein in infant formula). The amount of fat in infant
formula is similar to human milk (approximately 3.6 g/100 mL); the fat is provided primarily by mixtures of vegetable oils. Most infant formula manufacturers have added
very long chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (arachidonic acid and docosahexaenoic
acid) to their formulas. These compounds may help to promote brain and visual development, although the long-term benefit of these additives seems to be minimal or
nonexistent.16 There are, however, no safety concerns by the addition of docosahexaenoic acid and arachidonic acid to infant formulas. The carbohydrate concentration
in infant formula (approximately 7.5 g/100 mL) and composition (predominantly
lactose) is similar to human milk.
All standard infant formulas contain iron, ideally at a concentration of 12 mg/L. This
concentration of iron prevents development of iron deficiency and anemia. However,
low-iron infant formulas continue to be available based on a perception of gastrointestinal (GI) symptoms (colic, constipation) with the use of higher-iron formulas. However,
multiple well-controlled studies have consistently failed to demonstrate any difference
in GI symptoms between higher and lower iron-containing formulas. It is the position of
the AAP that there is no role for low-iron formulas in the feeding of healthy term infants.5
Other Nutrients in Infant Formulas
The composition of infant formulas is constantly changing, often with the intent to
become closer in composition to human milk. Many available commercial infant formulas now contain nucleotides and oligosaccharides (prebiotics). Although there
are no concerns about the safety of these additions, there is currently no compelling
clinical evidence demonstrating benefit.
Several infant formulas contain probiotics, nonpathogenic microorganisms that may
promote healthy colonic microflora. Although these probiotics seem to be safe for
use in healthy term infants, there is currently insufficient evidence to recommend
routine use of these formulas.5
Soy Formulas
Although the routine use of soy formulas is not recommended, current commercially
available soy formulas adequately support growth and bone mineralization of healthy
term infants.17,18 All soy formulas are lactose free, and can be used to feed infants who
cannot tolerate milk protein or lactose. The specific conditions where soy formula is
recommended and not recommended by the AAP is shown in Box 3.5,19
Infant Formulas with Extensively Hydrolyzed Protein
These specialized infant formulas are expensive and have a bitter taste, and should
not be used for healthy term infants. The extensively hydrolyzed protein formulas
are lactose free and often contain a large amount of medium chain triglycerides,
and can sometimes be useful in selected infants with malabsorption syndromes
(eg, cystic fibrosis, short gut syndrome, biliary atresia, cholestasis, and protracted
diarrhea). These formulas can also be useful for infants who are severely intolerant
to intact cow milk protein. The use of extensively hydrolyzed protein formulas should
be limited to these indications.5
GASTROESOPHAGEAL REFLUX AND GASTROESOPHAGEAL DISEASE
GER occurs in most infants (70%85% within the first 2 months of life), and is often
seen as a problem by parents and physicians. However, it is clear that GER is part
Neonatal Nutrition
Box 3
AAP recommendations for the use of soy formula in term infants
Recommended for the following conditions or situations:
1. Galactosemia or hereditary lactase deficiency
2. Documented transient lactase deficiency
3. Documented IgE-associated allergy to cow milk without allergy to soy protein
4. Desired vegetarian diet
Not recommended for:
1. Preterm infants with birth weights less than 1800 g
2. Prevention treatment of colic
3. Prevention of atopic disease
4. Infants with cow milk proteininduced enteropathy or enterocolitis
Data from Kleinman R. Pediatric nutrition handbook. 7th edition. Elk Grove Village (IL): American Academy of Pediatrics; 2014; and Bhatia J, Greer F. Use of soy protein-based formulas in
infant feeding. Pediatrics 2008;121(5):10628.
of normal physiology and occurs multiple times a day in healthy infants, children, and
adults. Most infants have uncomplicated GER (happy spitters) and require no more
than parental education and reassurance. However, it is important to identify the small
portion of infants who have gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD) who require additional evaluation, monitoring, and sometimes treatment. These issues are briefly discussed here; a variety of excellent and comprehensive recent reviews of GER and
GERD are available.1924
Symptoms of Gastroesophageal Reflux Disease
Distinguishing between GER and GERD can be difficult in infants. Symptoms associated with GERD include feeding refusal, poor weight gain, irritability, dysphasia, arching of the back during feedings, sleep disturbance, and respiratory symptoms.
However, no single symptom or group of symptoms can reliably diagnose GERD in infants, or predict which infants will respond to therapy.23 However, there is a validated
questionnaire for documenting and monitoring of parent report of GERD symptoms in
infants that may be useful to clinicians.25
Evaluation and Management of Gastroesophageal Reflux/Gastroesophageal Reflux
Disease
Evaluation of GER/GERD in infants primarily consists of a comprehensive history

and physical examination. In addition to eliciting a history of GERD-associated
symptoms, it is important to ensure the absence of other concerning symptoms:
bilious vomiting, GI bleeding, forceful vomiting, abdominal tenderness or distention,
bulging fontanel, macrocephaly and microcephaly, and seizures.20,23 The presence
of any of these symptoms should prompt additional evaluation based on the particular symptom. With a normal physical examination, appropriate weight gain, and the
absence of GERD-associated and other concerning symptoms, no additional diagnostic evaluation is necessary. Education and reassurance should be provided to
the parents. In some cases, thickened feedings could be considered. If thickened
feedings are to be used, they can be provided by adding up to 1 tablespoon of
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dry rice cereal to 1 ounce of formula or by using a commercially thickened full term
infant formula.23 Thickened feedings are likely to have little effect on the actual number of reflux episodes but rather reduce the number of observed regurgitations.
There is no information on the long-term effects of thickened infant feedings. There
is a possible association between thickened feedings and necrotizing entercolitis in
preterm infants, and therefore commercial thickened infant formula should not be
used in infants born before 37 weeks gestation who have been discharged from
the hospital in the past 30 days.
Voming/regurgitaon with poor weight gain
History and physical exam
Yes
Concerning symptoms present?

(Bilious voming, GI bleeding, etc)
Evaluate
further
No
Yes
Adequate caloric intake?
Educaon, Close follow up
No
CBC,U/A, electrolytes, creanine, urea, celiac screen (> 6mos)

Consider: Upper GI series
Yes
Abnormal?
Manage accordingly
No
Dietary management:
Maternal exclusion diet if breased; Protein hydrolysate if formula fed
Thickened feedings; Increased caloric density
Yes
Improved?
Educaon, Close follow up
No
Consultaon with Pediatric GI

Consider: acid suppression therapy and/or prokinecs
Consider: Observe parent child interacon
Consider: NG or NJ feeds
Fig. 3. Algorithm for the evaluation and management of infants with vomiting/regurgitation and poor weight gain as developed by the North American Society for Pediatric
Gastroenterology, Hepatology, and Nutrition and endorsed by the AAP. CBC, complete
blood count; GI, gastrointestinal; NG, nasogastric; NJ, nasojejunal; U/A, urinalysis. (Adapted
from Vandenplas Y, Rudolph CD, Di Lorenzo C, et al. Pediatric gastroesophageal reflux clinical practice guidelines: joint recommendations of the North American Society for Pediatric
Gastroenterology, Hepatology, and Nutrition (NASPGHAN) and the European Society for
Pediatric Gastroenterology, Hepatology, and Nutrition (ESPGHAN). J Pediatr Gastroenterol
Nutr 2009;49(4):498547, with permission; and Lightdale JR, Gremse DA. Gastroesophageal
reflux: management guidance for the pediatrician. Pediatrics 2013;131(5):
e168495.)
Neonatal Nutrition
Although most infants with GER need only routine evaluation and minimal if
any intervention, infants with poor weight gain along with regurgitation and/or vomiting
require additional evaluation and possible treatment. An approach to the infant with
recurrent regurgitation and poor weight gain, as proposed by the North American Society for Gastroenterology, Hepatology and Nutrition, is shown in Fig. 3.20 After
ensuring that there are no significant concerning other symptoms and caloric intake
is adequate, evaluation consists of some screening blood work along with possibly
an upper GI tract series. An upper GI series is useful for evaluating a possible malrotation or duodenal web. If there is persistent or forced vomiting in the first few months
of life, pyloric ultrasonography should be performed to evaluate for pyloric stenosis. If
these screening tests are normal, a trial of dietary management can be initiated. For
breastfeeding mothers, a 2- to 4-week trial of a diet that restricts milk and egg is recommended; this is to address a potential milk protein allergy. For formula-fed infants,
some extensively hydrolyzed protein formula may be appropriate. In addition, thickened feedings may also be useful.
If these interventions result in clinical improvement, they should be continued with
additional close follow-up. If there is no improvement, consultation with a pediatric
gastroenterologist should be strongly considered. Some consideration may be given
to acid-suppression therapy. Although treatment with a prokinetic (eg, metoclopramide) may be considered, the risks of this therapy may outweigh the benefits.26
Indeed, metoclopramide carries a Food and Drug Administration black box warning
regarding its adverse effects. In general, use of pharmacologic therapy for infants
with GERD should be uncommon and likely requires comanagement with a pediatric
gastroenterologist.
REFERENCES
1. Robinson S, Fall C. Infant nutrition and later health: a review of current evidence.
Nutrients 2012;4(8):85974.
2. Breastfeeding and the use of human milk. Pediatrics 2012;129(3):e82741.
3. Healthy People 2020. Gov. Available at: http://www.healthypeople.gov/2020/
topics. Accessed November 3, 2014.
4. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Breastfeeding Report Card, United
States, 2014. Available at: www.cdc.gov/pdf/2014breastfeedingreportcard.pdf.
Accessed November 3, 2014.
5. Kleinman R. Pediatric nutrition handbook. 7th edition. Elk Grove Village (IL):
American Academy of Pediatrics; 2014.
6. Fein SB, Labiner-Wolfe J, Shealy KR, et al. Infant feeding practices study II: study
methods. Pediatrics 2008;122(Suppl 2):S2835.
7. Ryan AS, Wenjun Z, Acosta A. Breastfeeding continues to increase into the new
millennium. Pediatrics 2002;110(6):11039.
8. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. The Surgeon Generals Call to
Action to Support Breastfeeding. Washington (DC): U.S. Department of Health
and Human Services, Office of the Surgeon General; 2011.
9. Ip S, Chung M, Raman G, et al. A summary of the Agency for Healthcare
Research and Qualitys evidence report on breastfeeding in developed countries.
Breastfeed Med 2009;4(Suppl 1):S1730.
10. Ballard O, Morrow AL. Human milk composition: nutrients and bioactive factors.
Pediatr Clin North Am 2013;60(1):4974.
11. Gidrewicz DA, Fenton TR. A systematic review and meta-analysis of the nutrient
content of preterm and term breast milk. BMC Pediatr 2014;14(1):216.
437
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12. de Onis M, Garza C, Onyango AW, et al. Comparison of the WHO child growth
standards and the CDC 2000 growth charts. J Nutr 2007;137(1):1448.
13. World Health Organization. Evidence for the Ten Steps to Successful Breastfeeding. Geneva, Switzerland, 1998. Available at: www.who.int/nutrition/publications/
evidence_ten_step_eng.pdf. Accessed November 3, 2014.
14. Bergmann RL, Bergmann KE, von Weizsacker K, et al. Breastfeeding is natural
but not always easy: intervention for common medical problems of breastfeeding
mothers. A review of the scientific evidence. J Perinat Med 2014;42(1):918.
15. Drugs Fa. 21 CFR 107. 2009. Available at: http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/CFR2009-title21-vol1/content-detail.html. Accessed November 3, 2014.
16. Simmer K, Patole SK, Rao SC. Long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acid supplementation in infants born at term. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2011;(12):CD000376.
17. Lasekan JB, Ostrom KM, Jacobs JR, et al. Growth of newborn, term infants fed
soy formulas for 1 year. Clin Pediatr 1999;38(10):56371.
18. Venkataraman PS, Luhar H, Neylan MJ. Bone mineral metabolism in full-term infants fed human milk, cow milk-based, and soy-based formulas. Am J Dis Child
1992;146(11):13025.
19. Bhatia J, Greer F. Use of soy protein-based formulas in infant feeding. Pediatrics
2008;121(5):10628.
20. Vandenplas Y, Rudolph CD, Di Lorenzo C, et al. Pediatric gastroesophageal reflux clinical practice guidelines: joint recommendations of the North American Society for Pediatric Gastroenterology, Hepatology, and Nutrition (NASPGHAN) and
the European Society for Pediatric Gastroenterology, Hepatology, and Nutrition
(ESPGHAN). J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr 2009;49(4):498547.
21. Forbes D. Mewling and puking: infantile gastroesophageal reflux in the 21st century. J Paediatr Child Health 2013;49(4):25963.
22. Czinn SJ, Blanchard S. Gastroesophageal reflux disease in neonates and infants:
when and how to treat. Paediatr Drugs 2013;15(1):1927.
23. Lightdale JR, Gremse DA. Gastroesophageal reflux: management guidance for
the pediatrician. Pediatrics 2013;131(5):e168495.
24. Rosen R. Gastroesophageal reflux in infants: more than just a phenomenon.
JAMA Pediatr 2014;168(1):839.
25. Kleinman L, Revicki DA, Flood E. Validation issues in questionnaires for diagnosis
and monitoring of gastroesophageal reflux disease in children. Curr Gastroenterol Rep 2006;8(3):2306.
26. Craig WR, Hanlon-Dearman A, Sinclair C, et al. Metoclopramide, thickened feedings, and positioning for gastro-oesophageal reflux in children under two years.
Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2004;(4):CD003502.
M a n a g e m e n t o f t h e La t e
P re t e r m In f a n t
Not Quite Ready for Prime Time
Michael J. Horgan,
MD
KEYWORDS
Late preterm Near term Respiratory immaturity Feeding difficulties
Hypoglycemia Body temperature regulation
KEY POINTS
Appropriate resources and personnel should be available to manage the late preterm
infant.
Late preterm infants are increasingly at risk for disorders of prematurity with decreasing
gestational age.
Parents, staff, and providers need to be aware that feeding problems are common and
related to immaturity and gestational age.
DEFINITION
Late preterm or early term infants are those that are born between 34 0/7 to 36 6/7 weeks
of gestation. The now accepted term is late preterm infant and is the result of a
consensus workshop convened by the National Institute of Health in 2005.1 This definition better reflects the problems and outcomes of infants born prior to term compared
with the term infant.
EPIDEMIOLOGY
There has been a steady increase in the rate of preterm births in the United States
over the last several decades. Preterm births account for approximately 12.5% of
all births, and late preterm births account for 72% of the preterm births (Fig. 1).2
This problem is not limited to the United States alone; emerging data suggest that
the rate and number of preterm births are increasing in all races and in countries
around the world.3
Disclosure: None.
Division of Neonatology, Department of Pediatrics, Childrens Hospital at Albany Medical
Center, Albany Medical College, MC-101, Albany, NY 12208, USA
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Horgan
Fig. 1. Gestational age distribution of singleton premature births in the United States 2002.
(From Davidoff MJ, Dias T, Damus K, et al. Changes in the gestational age distribution
among U.S. singleton births: impact on rates of late preterm birth, 1992 to 2002. Semin Perinatol 2006;30(1):815; with permission.)
The reason for the increase in late preterm births is not clearly understood; however,
several causes have been theorized. These include better risk assessment of
maternal/fetal disorders, increase in elective inductions, increased elective caesarian
sections, increasing maternal age, and increasing rates of multiple gestations (Figs. 2
and 3).4 The increase in inductions and caesarean sections has been described as a
significant factor in the downward shift in gestational age at birth. As a result, both the
American Congress of Obstetricians and Gynecologists (ACOG) and the March of
Dimes have begun campaigns to raise awareness in both patients and providers on
the importance preventing nonindicated preterm deliveries (No infant before
39 weeks and Healthy babies are worth the wait).5 This effort appears to have
stopped the increase in late preterm births and brought the late preterm birth percentage of all births back to 2003 levels (Fig. 4).
Multiple gestations have elevated the rates of late preterm births compared with singletons (Fig. 5). The increase in multiples is believed to be related to the delay in first
pregnancies and the increased use of assisted reproductive technologies (ARTs).6 The
contribution of ART to multiples is approximately 50%, but the effect on national preterm birth rates is more limited.6
Maternal age plays a significant role in late preterm births, with the highest rates in
women younger than 20 and older than 35 years of age (see Fig. 3). Maternal comorbidities are also age related, with hypertension, diabetes, and use of or need for ART
being associated with advanced maternal age, and lower socioeconomic status and
behavioral risk factors higher in the younger women.4
Management of the Late Preterm Infant
Fig. 2. Trends in singleton preterm birth rates, United States. Centers for Disease Control
and Disease Prevention, National Center for Health Statistics 2011.
CONSEQUENCES OF LATE PRETERM BIRTH

Hospital Course
Neonatal intensive care unit admission
The incidence of neonatal intensive care unit (NICU) admission for the late preterm infants depends on gestational age, comorbidities, and each institutions organization of
care (well baby, intermediate care, special care, and intensive care nurseries).7 It has
been estimated that 33% of NICU admissions each year are greater than 34 weeks of
Fig. 3. Percent of live births born moderate and late preterm by maternal age. Centers for
Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Health Statistics 2011.
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Percent of live births

10
8.6
8.8
8.9
9.1
9.1
9.0
8.8
8.7
8.5
8.3
8.1
6
4
2
0
2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012
Fig. 4. Incidence of late preterm births: United States 20022012 National Center for Health
Statistics 2012.
gestational age.8 Infants born at 34 weeks gestation require NICU admission more
than 50% of the time, with a decline in admission rates with increasing gestational
age at birth (Fig. 6). Admission to the NICU should be for infants requiring supplemental heat, cardiorespiratory monitoring, care giver assessment of transition adaptation, and management of the complications of prematurity. Associated with the
increased need for NICU admission is the increased overall morbidity and mortality
associated with late preterm birth compared with term births (Box 1 and Table 1).
The appropriate placement of these late preterm infants should be according to specific admission criteria for each type of nursery. An understanding of the issues of prematurity in late preterm infants is essential to the determination of the resources
needed to take care of these infants.
Percent of live births

40
36.3
30
20
10
8.1
7.1
Singletons
Multiples
Total
Fig. 5. Late preterm births by plurality: United States 2012. National Center for Health Statistics 2012.
100
90
80
Percent (%)
Admitted to
the NICU
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
33 wks
and less
34 wks
35 wks
36 wks
37 wks
38-39 wks
>40 wks
Fig. 6. Incidence of neonatal intensive care unit admission: late preterm versus term
neonates. (From Pradeep VM, Bailey S, Hendricks-Munoz KD. Clinical issues in the management of late preterm infants. Curr Probl Pediatr Adolesc Health Care 2010;40:21833; with
permission.)
Hospital length of stay
A recent report suggests that 66% of the late preterm infants are discharged 4 or more
days after birth. A report from Kaiser noted that the mean length of stay for a 34-week
gestational age infant was 5.9 days compared with 1.8 days for term infants.9 The
increased length of stay is also associated with higher birth hospitalization costs
compared with term infants (56 fold higher).
Respiratory
Respiratory distress syndrome/transient tachypnea of the newborn
Preterm infants are at higher risk for respiratory morbidities (respiratory distress syndrome [RDS] and transient tachypnea of the newborn [TTN]) than term infants. These
diagnoses account for a significant portion of the reason that late preterm infants are
admitted to the NICU.10,11 Fetal lungs are filled with fluid, and that fluid must be
absorbed. Traditional explanations such as vaginal squeezing and starling forces account for only some of the fluid reabsorption needed. Epithelial sodium channels
(ENaCs) play a significant role in the transepithelial fluid movement in the lung
(Fig. 7). ENaC expression is gestational age dependent, with the highest expression
in term gestations.12 Late preterm infants therefore have lower levels of ENaC expression, and this limits their ability to clear lung fluid at birth.
Birth in the absence of labor contributes to the pulmonary dysfunction seen in late
preterm infants. Labor is associated with surges in steroids and catecholamine secretion, which is related to the maturation of the pulmonary system at birth. With the increase in caesarean deliveries in late preterm births and its depressive effect on
neonatal pulmonary transition at birth, late preterm infants are at increased risk for
acute respiratory issues in the immediate newborn period.
The incidence of respiratory distress increases with decreasing gestational age
(Fig. 8). Recent studies report a eight- to nine-fold increase in respiratory distress
occurring in late preterm infants compared with term infants (Table 2). Respiratory
support is needed in 23% to 30% of late preterm infants, and 3% to 4% require
some form of mechanical ventilation (Fig. 9).13 Respiratory distress therefore is one
of the most common adverse outcomes of late preterm infants. Recognition of the
increased risk of respiratory compromise in late preterm births is an important factor
in planning both the place and timing of their delivery (Table 3). Appropriate resources
and personnel need to be available for the birth and during the initial hospitalization.
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Box 1
Management of late preterm and early term infants: guidelines from a single institution
Admission criteria
Infants born at 35 weeks completed gestation or greater with a birth weight of at least 1800 g
can be admitted to regular nursery.
Infants born at <35 weeks completed gestation or less than 1800 g will be admitted to the
special care nursery.
Temperature regulation
Late preterm infants have a higher risk of hypothermia in the first days after birth.
Temperature maintenance is improved with use of a hat.
Temperature should be taken and recorded every hour for the first 6 hours after birth, then
every 6 hours until discharge.
If the temperature is found to be <36.0 C, the infant should be swaddled, and a hat should be
placed on the head. If at 30 minutes the temperature remains <36.0 C, the infant should be
placed under a radiant warmer for rewarming. A second failure of maintaining
temperature >36.0 C will necessitate transfer to the special care nursery.
Feeding
Late preterm infants are at a greater risk of poor feeding and subsequent dehydration during
the first days after birth. Therefore, they require close observation and documentation of their
feeding skills.
Intake and output should be recorded for all newborns. Weights should be recorded daily.
Obtain special care nursery consultation for weight loss of greater than 3% daily or total of 7%
of birth weight
At least 1 feeding every 12 hours for the first 2 days after birth should be observed by a trained
caregiver to document feeding ability. If the infant is breast-feeding, a lactation specialist
should observe the feeding for position, latch, and milk transfer.
If the infant is not capable of adequate feeding, consultation with the special care nursery staff
is warranted before beginning a supplementation strategy.
Glycemic control
Late preterm infants born to mothers who are on medication for diabetes (type 1, type 2, or
gestational) will follow the policy for infants of diabetic mothers.
Late preterm infants are at higher risk of hypoglycemia because of immature glycogenolysis,
immature gluconeogenesis, and hormonal dysregulation.
Blood glucose levels should be checked at 1 hour after birth and every 4 hours until greater
than 50 mg/dL twice consecutively.
If blood glucose levels are less than 50 mg/dL, refer to hypoglycemia protocol.
Jaundice
Late preterm infants are at higher risk of jaundice requiring intervention because of hepatic
immaturity and potential feeding difficulties.
Transcutaneous bilirubin measurements should be obtained and documented daily. Refer to
American Academy of Pediatrics guidelines on treatment of hyperbilirubinemia for the
threshold for intervention.
Adapted from Engle WA. Morbidity and mortality in late preterm and early term newbornsa
continuum. Clin Perinatol 2011;38:49356; with permission.
Table 1
Neonatal mortality versus gestational age in a 2001 cohort from the United States
Neonatal Mortality per 1000 Live Births
Weeks of Gestation
Rate
Relative Risk (RR) (95% CI)
34
7.1
9.5 (8.410.8)
35
4.8
6.4 (5.67.2)
36
2.8
3.7 (3.34.2)
37
1.7
2.3 (2.12.6)
38
1.0
1.4 (1.31.5)
39
0.8
1.00 (reference)
40
0.8
1.0 (0.91.1)
41
0.8
1.1 (0.91.2)
Adapted from Engle WA. Morbidity and mortality in late preterm and early term newbornsa
continuum. Clin Perinatol 2011;38:49356; with permission.
Metabolic Concerns
Temperature regulation
Late preterm infants have decreased brown adipose tissue and the hormones necessary for its breakdown.14 They are at increased risk for heat loss because of an
increased body surface area to body weight ratio and decreased insulation from white
adipose tissue. Hypothermia is one of the leading reasons for admission to the
NICU.15
Cold stress
Cold stress is an important stressor that can potentially hinder a successful transition
to the extrauterine environment. Late preterm infants are especially prone to cold
stress because of their immature epidermal barrier, increased surface area to weight
ratio and the more frequent need for interventions following delivery.15 Cold stress can
lead to poor respiratory transition and exacerbate hypoglycemia. Recognition of the
increased risk of cold stress in late preterm infants following birth can lead to
Fig. 7. Epithelial sodium (Na) absorption in the fetal lung near birth. CFTR, cystic fibrosis
transmembrane conductance regulator; CLC, chloride channels; ENaC, epithelial Na channels; HSC, highly selective channels; NSC, nonselective channels. (From Jain L. Respiratory
morbidity in late-preterm infants: prevention is better than cure! Am J Perinatol
2008;25:758; with permission.)
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Horgan
Fig. 8. Respiratory morbidity according to gestational age. (Data from Hibbard JU, Wilkins I,
Sun L, et al. Consortium on safe labor, respiratory morbidity in late preterm births. JAMA
2010;304:41925.)
prevention strategies such as plastic wrap, warm blankets, and skin-to-skin contact
with the mother (even following caesarean deliveries).
Hypoglycemia
The incidence of hypoglycemia in late preterm infants is 2 to 3 times greater than that
seen in term infants. Postnatal decreases in plasma glucose concentrations are much
greater than those seen in term infants, implying a poor adaptation to extrauterine life.8
Most late preterm infants who develop hypoglycemia require dextrose infusions to
maintain normal plasma glucose concentrations.11 The reason for the increased risk
of hypoglycemia in late preterm infants is likely due to a delay in activity of hepatic
glucose-6-phosphate coupled with poor enteral intake due to gastrointestinal immaturity and poor suckswallow coordination.
The increased risks for cold stress and hypoglycemia are not limited to the immediate newborn but continue into the first 1 to 2 days of life. The presence of additional
transitional problems, such as respiratory compromise, increases the likelihood that
Table 2
Late preterm infants and neonatal morbidities
Morbidity
Late Preterm vs Term Infants
Respiratory issues
Higher incidence of transient tachypnea of newborn, respiratory

distress syndrome, pulmonary hypertension, and respiratory failure
Resuscitation at birth
Almost twice the chance of need for any resuscitation at birth
Jaundice
24 times likely to develop severe jaundice
Metabolic
Greater susceptibility to cold stress, more often requires

phototherapy for jaundice, more likely to have feeding problems
Cognitive
development
Higher risk for developmental delay and school readiness issues
Adapted from Mally PV, Bailey S, Hendricks-Munoz KD. Clinical issues in the management of late
preterm infants. Curr Probl Pediatr Adolesc Health Care 2010;40(9):21833.
Fig. 9. Gestational age and rates of respiratory treatments and admission to neonatal intensive care unit. (From Gouyon JB, Iacobelli S, Ferdynus C, et al. Neonatal problems of late and
moderate preterm infants. Semin Fetal Neonatal Med 2012;17(3):14652; with permission.)
hypoglycemia may extend beyond the initial few hours of life. Standardized clinical
management guidelines for the transitioning late preterm infant should address these
issues. Box 1 is an example of such a set of guidelines from a single institution.
Gastrointestinal and Feeding Maturation

Suck/swallow
Late preterm infants have a poor suck and swallow coordination because of neuronal
immaturity and decreased tone overall but especially oromotor tone compared with
term infants. This leads to improper latch-on for the breast-feeding infant and inadequate intake in the bottle-fed infant. Sucking, swallowing, and breathing must all be
synchronized and coordinated to allow safe and efficient oral feeding. Feeding difficulties occur in 30% to 40% of late preterm infants and decrease with increasing
Table 3
Risk of respiratory morbidities in late preterm and term neonates
Diagnosis/Intervention
Late Preterm (n 5 138)
Term (n 5 303)
Odds Ratio (95%

Confidence Interval [CI])
RDS
23%
4%
8.0 (3.916.5)
TTN
20%
15%
1.3 (0.82.2)
Nasal cannula
35%
31%
1.2 (0.81.9)
NCPAP
35%
6%
9.0 (4.916.4)
Ventilator
13%
3%
4.9 (2.111.2)
Surfactant
12%
0.3%
42.2 (5322)
Adapted from Mally PV, Bailey S, Hendricks-Munoz KD. Clinical issues in the management of late
preterm infants. Curr Probl Pediatr Adolesc Health Care 2010;40(9):21833.
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gestational age (Fig. 10).16 Using feeding readiness cues that are gestational agederived will improve the feeding success of the late preterm infant (Box 2).
Gastrointestinal motility
Feeding intolerance is common in late preterm infants due because of several aspects
of intestinal motor function. Suckswallow incoordination as noted previously is not
fully developed until after 34 weeks of gestation. Motility and gastric emptying maturation are also gestational age dependent. Deglutition, peristaltic function, and
sphincter tone in the esophagus, stomach, and intestines are less mature compared
with the term infant.17,18 This may result in a significantly longer time period to achieve
normal feeding patterns and a potential prolonged hospital stay and delayed
discharge.
Hyperbilirubinemia
Jaundice in the late preterm infant results from an increased bilirubin load and
decreased bilirubin elimination. The exaggerated hepatic immaturity contributes to
the greater prevalence, severity, and duration of neonatal jaundice in the late preterm
infant.8 Hyperbilirubinemia in late preterm infants is often more prevalent, severe and
prolonged than that observed in term infants. The suckswallow immaturity noted previously also plays a role in the increased risk for hyperbilirubinemia. Inadequate breast
milk intake resulting in varying degrees of dehydration can increase the enterohepatic
circulation of bilirubin leading to an increased bilirubin load. One of the consequences
of this increase in bilirubin load is an increased risk for developing bilirubin neurotoxicity or kernicterus.19
Breast-feeding issues
Breast-feeding the late preterm infant presents a significant challenge not found in
term infants. Fewer awake periods, less stamina, and less efficient sucking all lead
Fig. 10. Feeding difficulties by gestational age. (From Cooper BM, Holditch-Davis D,
Verklan MT, et al. Newborn clinical outcomes of the AWHONN late preterm infant researchbased practice project. J Obstet Gynecol Neonatal Nurs 2012;41:77485; with permission.)
Box 2
Feeding issues for the late preterm infant
Feeding challenges
Late preterm neonates may have immature suck and swallow reflexes.
These infants may have altered sleepwake cycles and decreased endurance, which can inhibit
breast-feeding.
Inadequate nutritional intake is a risk factor for hypoglycemia.
Determine gestational age to assess risk for poor suck and swallow.
Obtain assistance of lactation consultant to assess infants ability to latch; also discuss the
benefits of breast-feeding and breast milk for preterm newborns.
Assess adequacy of feedings, including weight loss, dehydration, and hypoglycemia.
If the infant is stable, arrange for mother to initiate breast-feeding within the first hour of life,
as well as unlimited skin-to-skin contact.
Teach mother early feeding cues.
Obtain blood glucose levels according to hospital guidelines.
Signs of feeding readiness and infant cues include alertness and rooting.
Parents must learn how to assess their infants feeding adequacy.
Stress the importance of frequent follow-up with pediatrician or infant care provider after
discharge.
Nursing, the lactation consultant, and the infant care provider should create a feeding plan for
the late preterm neonate.
From Cleaveland K. Feeding challenges in the late preterm infant. Neonatal Network
2010;29(1):3741; with permission.
to an inadequate job of stimulating and emptying the breast.20 This results in poor milk
production and an increased risk for inadequate nutrition. Poor feeding places these
infants at increased risk for dehydration and delayed discharge. Parents and nurses
may assume that when the late preterm infant falls asleep at the breast, they have
ingested an adequate volume of milk. However, in reality, the infant may have
exceeded his or her energy stores and stopped feeding well short of adequate caloric
intake. There are few published guidelines addressing the specific problems with
feeding late premature infants. Generally they are fed on the basis of institution protocols or prescribers orders without any regard to the readiness of the infant. One such
guideline from the Academy of Breastfeeding Medicine counsels parents and caregivers on the need to use the infants cues in determining the need for and duration
of breastfeeding.21
Central Nervous System Maturation
Brain development
Late preterm infants have many risks that are associated with less mature neuronal
control compared with term infants. Brain development continues through gestation
and beyond. There is, however, a critical period of brain growth that occurs in late
gestation, which allows for the development of various neural structures and pathways. Nearly 50% of the increase in cortical volume occurs between 34 and 40 weeks
(See Late Preterm Brain Development Card. Available at: www.marchofdimes.org),
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Horgan
and the growth is linear. The late preterm brain at 34 weeks of gestation weighs only
65% of the term infants brain.22 This immaturity of the late preterm brain and its rapid
growth between 34 and 40 weeks underscores its vulnerability to the extrauterine
environment. The volume of the cerebellum constitutes a larger relative percentage
of the total brain volume with increasing gestational age. Approximately 25% of the
cerebellum volume develops after the late term birth.23 The late preterm period is
one of proliferation and migration of the cerebellar granule cells. Impairments in blood
flow during this time as the result of the problems associated with late preterm birth
can lead to cerebellar injury and subsequent neurologic sequelae (cognitive, motor,
and behavioral).8
SUMMARY
The numbers of late preterm births are increasing throughout the world and account
for more than 70% of preterm births. Late preterm infants have increased risks for
the development of respiratory morbidities including RDS and transient TTN. Due to
their developmental immaturity, these infants are prone to disorders of adaptation
cold stress and hypoglycemia. Feeding difficulties present early, persist, and impact
on the discharge readiness of the infant.
A comprehensive understanding of these issues by primary care providers (physicians and nurses) is essential in determining the resources necessary to care for
this group of infants in whom the risks of significant morbidities are often overlooked.
As many as 1 in 5 late preterm births can be avoided by implementing guidelines and
strategies to limit the number of births less than 39 weeks gestation while maintaining
a safe fetal, maternal, and neonatal environment. Families need to be involved in the
discussion of the proper placement of the infants (NICU vs regular nursery), what
adaption issues these infants may have, and the risks associated with late preterm
birth. Just because these infants are born near term and admitted to a regular nursery
does not mean that they act like term infants or have the risk of neonatal morbidities
similar to those of infants born at term.
PRACTICE POINTS
Appropriate resources and personnel should be available to manage the late preterm infant
Late preterm infants are increasingly at risk for disorders of prematurity with
decreasing gestational age
An individualized approach to care (expecting different infants to respond
differently)
Standardized admission and initial evaluation guidelines based on gestational
age and not birth weight
Individual review of metabolic maturation should be used to maximize nutrient
intake and weight gain
Healthy late preterm infants should be fed using feeding readiness cues
Parents, staff, and providers need to be aware that feeding problems are common and related to immaturity and gestational age
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22. Huppi PS, Warfield S, Kikinis R, et al. Quantitative MRI of brain development in
premature and mature brain. Ann Neurol 1998;43:22435.
23. Limperopoulos C, Soul JS, Gauvreau K, et al. Late gestation cerebellar growth is
rapid and impeded by premature birth. Pediatrics 2005;115:68595.
451
Neonatal Respiratory
D i s t re s s
A Practical Approach to Its Diagnosis and
Management
Arun K. Pramanik, MDa,*, Nandeesh Rangaswamy,
Thomas Gates, MDa
MD
KEYWORDS
Respiratory distress syndrome Transient tachypnea of newborn
Meconium aspiration syndrome Bronchopulmonary disease
Interstitial lung disease Congenital lung disorders
KEY POINTS
Respiratory disorders are the most frequent cause of admission to the special care nursery both in term and preterm infants.
In critically ill infants or when the diagnosis in unclear, a neonatologist, cardiologist, pulmonologist, or ear, nose, and throat (ENT) surgeon must be promptly consulted.
The need for referral to a tertiary perinatal-neonatal center for fetal intervention or early
neonatal intervention, such as congenital diaphragmatic hernia, other congenital malformations, or delivery of very low-birth-weight (BW) infants is of paramount importance.
Respiratory disorders are the most frequent cause of admission to the special care
nursery both in term and preterm infants. Pediatricians and primary care providers
may encounter newborn infants with respiratory distress in their office, emergency
room, delivery room, or during physical assessment in the newborn nursery. Often
these infants may be in distress because of the failure of transition from fetal to extrauterine environment due to retained lung fluid commonly seen in neonates born by
cesarean delivery, being immature with relative surfactant deficiency, or having meconium aspiration syndrome (MAS).14 In some instances, the cause of respiratory
distress may pose a diagnostic challenge, especially in differentiating from cardiac
diseases.5 Significant advances have been made in fetal diagnosis, pathophysiology,
Disclosures: none.
a
LSU Health, 1501 Kings Highway, Shreveport, LA 71130, USA;
western, Dallas, TX, USA
University of Texas South-

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and early management of these diseases.68 Therefore, referral to a tertiary perinatalneonatal center for fetal intervention or early neonatal intervention for congenital
diaphragmatic hernia, other congenital malformations, or delivery of a very low-BW
infant is of paramount importance.
In this article, the authors have proposed a practical approach to diagnose and
manage such infants with suggestions for consulting a neonatologist at a regional center (Box 1). For an in-depth review, the reader is encouraged to preview a text on the
subject.9 The authors objective is that practicing pediatricians should be able to asses
and stabilize a newborn infant with respiratory distress, and transfer to or consult a
neonatologist, cardiologist, or pulmonologist after reading this article.
PHYSIOLOGIC CHANGES AT BIRTH
Before birth, the lung is fluid filled, receiving less than 10% to 15% of the total cardiac
output, and fetal oxygenation occurs by the placenta. The transition from intrauterine
to extrauterine life requires establishment of effective pulmonary gas exchange.2,10
This complex process entails rapid removal of fetal lung fluid controlled by ion transport across the airway and pulmonary epithelium with varying roles of catecholamines,
glucocorticosteroids, and oxygen-regulating sodium uptake in alveolar fluid clearance.10 During fetal life, the high pulmonary vascular resistance directs most of the
blood from the right side of the heart through the ductus arteriosus into the aorta.
At birth, clamping the umbilical vessels removes the low-resistance placental circuit
with increase in systemic blood pressure and relaxation of the pulmonary vasculature.2,10,11 Adequate expansion of the lungs and increase in PaO2 values results in
an 8- to 10-fold increase in pulmonary blood flow and constriction of the ductus arteriosus. The cardiopulmonary transition takes approximately 6 hours, resulting in rise in
PaO2 values and decrease in PCO2 values as the intrapulmonary shunt decreases, and
the functional residual capacity (FRC) after crying establishes adequate lung volume.
Initially the respiratory pattern may be irregular but soon becomes rhythmic modulated
by chemoreceptors and stretch receptors, with rates of 40 to 60 breaths per minute.12
Respiratory distress is common in preterm infants because of poor respiratory drive,
weak muscles, compliant chest wall, and surfactant deficiency.3,9,12
Clinical presentation involves tachypnea (rate>60 breaths per minute), cyanosis,
expiratory grunting with chest retractions, and nasal flaring. The underlying disease
may be due to pulmonary, cardiac, infectious, metabolic, or other systemic disorders.
Peripheral cyanosis or acrocyanosis is often observed in normal newborn infants or in
ill infants with poor cardiac output. Central cyanosis is assessed by examining the oral
mucosa and suggests inadequate gas exchange signifying more than 3 to 5 g/dL of
desaturated hemoglobin. Clinical determination of central cyanosis may be unreliable
Box 1
When to call a neonatologist for respiratory distress in an infant
Inability to stabilize or ventilate infant, or requiring vasopressors
Suspect cardiac disease
Meconium aspiration with and without pulmonary hypertension
Sepsis with pneumonia
Pulmonary hemorrhage
Pneumothorax or pneumomediastinum
Neonatal Respiratory Distress
(ie, not observed) in severely anemic patients despite low PaO2 values; in contrast,
polycythemic infants may appear cyanotic despite normal values of PaO2. Hence,
oxygen saturation measured by pulse oximetry (arterial oxygen saturation [Sao2]) is
recommended by the American Academy of Pediatrics to screen infants for hypoxemia, and Sao2 values less than 90% after 15 minutes of age are considered
abnormal.11 Decrease in O2 saturation, apnea, or both may be present in infants
with respiratory distress.5,1113 Irregular (seesaw) or slow respiratory rates of less
than 30 breaths per minute if associated with gasping may be an ominous sign.
Chest retractions occur because the neonatal chest wall is compliant making it
susceptible to alterations in lung function resulting in substernal, subcostal, or intercostal retractions. The retractions result from negative intrapleural pressure generated
by the contraction of diaphragm and accessory chest wall muscles along with impaired
mechanical properties of the lungs and chest wall. Retractions are observed in lung
parenchymal diseases such as respiratory distress syndrome (RDS), pneumonia,
airway disorders, pneumothorax, atelectasis, or bronchopulmonary dysplasia (BPD).
Nasal flaring is caused by contraction of alae nasi muscles decreasing the resistance in the nares with resultant reduced work of breathing. Neonates primarily
breathe through the nose, hence nasal resistance contributes significantly to total
lung resistance, which occurs in choanal atresia or obstruction due to secretions.
During resuscitation, suction of mouth is followed by suctioning the nose to prevent
aspiration of secretions, blood, or meconium. Occasionally, nasal flaring is observed
during feeding or active sleep in normal infants.
Grunting is a compensatory effort made during expiration by closure of the glottis,
increasing the airway pressure and lung volume with resultant increased ventilation
perfusion (V/Q) ratio. Unlike normal breathing, wherein the vocal cords abduct to
enhance inspiratory flow, expiration through partially closed vocal cords in some
respiratory disorders produces a grunting sound. Depending on the severity of lung
disease, grunting may be either intermittent or continuous. Grunting can maintain
FRC and values of PaO2 equivalent to those during the application of 2 or 3 cm H2O
of continuous distending pressure.
Accessory respiratory muscles also assist in optimizing upper airway functions. The
genioglossus muscle protrudes the tongue and maintains pharyngeal patency, whereas
the laryngeal muscles move the vocal cords regulating airflow during expiration.
Assessing a Neonate with Respiratory Distress
It is not surprising that incomplete cardiopulmonary transition results in respiratory

distress with approximately 10% of neonates requiring respiratory support immediately after delivery and up to 1% requiring intensive resuscitation.11 Therefore, the
American Heart Association and the American Academy of Pediatrics recommend
that the personnel attending to the newborn in the delivery room should be Neonatal
Resuscitation Program (NRP) certified.11 The cause of respiratory distress can be
either pulmonary or nonpulmonary in origin.
The initial approach in assessing an infant with respiratory distress involves physical
examination and rapid assessment to identify any life-threatening conditions such as
tension pneumothorax, chylothorax, congenital diaphragmatic hernia, or upper airway
anomalies. Infants with significant respiratory distress and hypoxia should be initially
stabilized. When attending a high-risk delivery, antenatal history of oligohydramnios
suggests hypoplastic lungs, whereas polyhydramnios may be present in infants with
tracheoesophageal fistula (TEF). Infants of diabetic mothers are at risk for RDS, transient tachypnea of newborn (TTN), or cardiac anomalies causing respiratory distress;
fetus in distress with meconium-stained amniotic fluid are at risk for developing
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meconium aspiration pneumonia, pneumothorax, and persistent pulmonary hypertension (Box 2). History of chorioamnionitis may give a clue to the infant developing pneumonia or sepsis. Repeating physical examinations after initial stabilization for
temperature instability with worsening clinical status suggests infection; tachycardia
may indicate sepsis or hypovolemia. Stridor is often associated with upper airway
obstruction. A scaphoid abdomen with bowel sounds auscultated in the left side of
chest indicates congenital diaphragmatic hernia. Asymmetric breath sounds suggest
tension pneumothorax or inadvertent placement of endotracheal tube in the main
stem bronchus.
DIFFERENTIAL DIAGNOSIS
Breathing occurs because of movement of air in and out of the lungs. Impairment of
airflow because of disease states leads to respiratory distress (Box 3). However, it
is important to remember that parenchymal lung disease may also lead to obstruction
as seen in pneumonia, where the obstruction of airways can be due to increased
secretions requiring suctioning. The signs and symptoms of airway obstruction in
the neonates are characteristic of the site. Irrespective of the cause of the obstruction,
respiratory distress results in hypoventilation with an increase in the PCO2 value and a
decrease in the PO2 value. Differentiation from congenital cyanotic heart disease can
be challenging. By placing the infant on fraction of inspired oxygen (FiO2) equal to 1.0
(hyperoxia test), in lung diseases the PaO2 value usually increases over 150 torr,
whereas in cyanotic congenital heart disease, it is below 120 torr. If the patient has
ductal-dependent cyanotic heart disease, intravenous prostaglandin may have to be
administered to keep the ductus arteriosus patent and the patient has to be transferred to a tertiary center (preferably where a cardiac surgery can be performed) to
confirm the diagnosis by echocardiogram and manage the cardiac diseases.
UPPER AIRWAY ANOMALIES
Some neonates diagnosed with choanal atresia may require consultation from
a geneticist to rule out anomalies, such as CHARGE (Coloboma, Heart defect, Atresia
choanae, Retarded growth and development, Genital abnormality and Ear
Box 2
Maternal history giving a clue to neonatal respiratory distress
Diabetes mellitus: RDS, cardiomyopathy, CHD, hypoglycemia, polycythemia
Polyhdramnios: tracheoesophageal fistula
Oligohydramnios: hypoplastic lungs
Drug withdrawal
Anesthesia causing neonatal depression
Antepartum hemorrhage: anemia
Meconium-stained amniotic fluid: aspiration syndrome
Hydrops fetalis: pleural effusion
Premature labor: RDS
PROM and chorioamnionitis: pneumonia, sepsis
Abbreviations: CHD, congenital heart disease; PROM, prolonged rupture of membranes.
Box 3
Differential diagnosis of respiratory distress in the newborn
Upper airway obstruction: choanal atresia, nasal stenosis, nasal stuffiness (? congenital
syphilis), Pierre Robin anomaly, cleft palate, glossoptosis, laryngeal stenosis or atresia,
hemangioma, vocal cord paralysis, vascular rings, tracheobronchial stenosis, cystic hygroma.
Pulmonary diseases
a. Congenital: hypoplasia, congenital diaphragmatic hernia, chylothorax, pulmonary
sequestration, congenital cystic adenomatous malformation of lung, arteriovenous
malformation, congenital lobar emphysema, congenital alveolar proteinosis.
b. Acquired: TTN, RDS, aspiration pneumonia, other pneumonia (bacterial, viral, fungal,
syphilis), air leak syndrome (pneumothorax, pneumomediastinum), atelectasis,
hemorrhage, BPD, PPHN, diaphragmatic paralysis.
Chest wall deformities: asphyxiating thoracic dystrophy.
Cardiac diseases: cyanotic and acyanotic heart diseases, congestive heart failure,
cardiomyopathies, pneumopericardium.
Metabolic: hypoglycemia, inborn errors of metabolism.
Hematologic: polycythemia, severe anemia, hypovolemia.
Neuromuscular diseases: hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy, hemorrhage, hydrocephalus,
seizure, narcotic withdrawal, muscle and spinal cord disorders.
Miscellaneous: asphyxia, acidosis, hypothermia or hyperthermia.
Abbreviation: PPHN, persistent pulmonary hypertension of the newborn.
abnormality) association. Regardless of the cause of obstruction, establishing a

secure airway is paramount. In the absence of underlying lung disease or laryngotracheal abnormalities, placement of an oral airway may be sufficient, along with supplemental oxygen. Alternatively, oral endotracheal intubation with ventilator support may
be required. In any infant with airway obstruction, failure to maintain adequate ventilation and/or oxygenation with an endotracheal tube in place may signify progressive
pulmonary disease, hence neonatology consultation should be obtained (see
Box 1). Although the larynx is the most common site of stridor, neonates with supraglottic or glottis laryngeal abnormalities often present with a combination of problems
involving respiration, phonation, and/or deglutition. The clinical presentation of the abnormalities is variable and includes stridor, abnormal cry, snorting during sleep, retractions and coarse inspiration. These symptoms could be due to laryngomalacia, cysts,
hemangioma, stenosis, stricture due to prolonged intubation in premature infants, or
laryngeal web. In severe cases, suprasternal and intercostal retractions may be
seen. Aspiration may occur, and feeding may be difficult in patients with a mass lesion
or severe obstruction. Laryngomalacia is the most frequent cause of stridor and often
worsens in the supine position, with feeding, or due to agitation. Rarely, laryngospasm
may occur secondary to gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD), sometimes leading
to apnea, bradycardia, or desaturation, and it should be considered when the cause of
obstruction is obscure.3,14 In addition, GERD has been identified frequently in patients
with apnea, chronic cough, laryngomalacia, recurrent croup, and subglottic stenosis,
although 1 study did not find a temporal relationship between gastroesophageal reflux
and apnea of prematurity.14 Examination of the oropharynx may reveal macroglossia,
glossoptosis, retrognathia, cleft palate (Pierre Robin anomaly), or cyst. Flexible endoscopy may be required to diagnose lingual thyroid, dermoid, hemangiomas, or lymphangioma. Computed tomography (CT) or magnetic resonance imaging has been
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used to confirm the diagnosis of complex upper airway anomalies in some patients. If
no obvious anatomic abnormality can be identified by examination, video fluoroscopy
may be used to diagnose glossoptosis, pharyngeal wall collapse, or laryngomalacia.
All infants should have cardiorespiratory monitoring including pulse oxymetry.
Tracheobronchial abnormalities causing respiratory distress in the neonates
include tracheal rings, tracheomalacia, tracheal stenosis, hemangioma, and
tracheo-esophaeal fistula. The clinical presentation of these abnormalities may be
expiratory stridor, wheezing, or brassy cough. Anterolateral radiograph of the chest
and barium esophagogram may be used for diagnosis in addition to endoscopy. Endotracheal intubation with assisted ventilation is used in severe cases to stabilize them. A
pediatric ENT surgeon should be consulted if upper airway disease is suspected, and
the parents should be informed that severe cases may require tracheostomy.
Transient Tachypnea of Neonate
This condition occurs in near-term, term, or late preterm infants, affecting 3.6 to 5.7
per 1000 term infants and up to 10 per 1000 preterm infants. Risk factors include
cesarean delivery, and it may occur in mothers with diabetes, asthma, prolonged
labor, and fetal distress requiring anesthesia or analgesia. Clinical presentation is
rapid shallow breathing with occasional grunting and rarely respiratory failure.1,15,16
Arterial blood gases show varying degrees of hypoxemia with normocarbia or hypercarbia. The chest radiograph shows perihilar streaking, patchy infiltrates, increased
interstitial markings, and fluid in interlobar fissures (Fig. 1). It can be difficult to differentiate TTN from neonatal pneumonia or meconium aspiration in the presence of risk
factors for these disorders. There may be a wet silhouette around the heart as well as
signs of alveolar edema.17 Treatment of TTN is supportive.1,15,16 However, a definitive diagnosis of TTN is usually made on retrospection once the symptoms resolve
within 1 to 5 days after minimal therapeutic intervention. Hence, it takes time to
differentiate TTN from other causes of neonatal respiratory distress. Until then, the
overall management of the neonates with respiratory distress should cover all the
diagnostic possibilities. The disorder usually responds to oxygen therapy, but maintaining appropriate oxygen saturation may require continuous positive airway pressure (CPAP), which increases the distending pressure of the alveoli and aids the
absorption of the extra lung fluid. Very rarely is mechanical ventilation necessary.14
Fig. 1. Radiograph of chest showing transient tachypnea of newborn; note patchy densities
and fluid in the horizontal fissure (arrow).
Although TTN is a common pathologic diagnosis designated to the neonates presenting with respiratory distress due to delayed clearance of fetal lung fluid, these
neonates almost invariably show complete recovery with no long-term sequelae.15
Differential diagnosis includes pneumonia and cerebral hyperventilation in patients
with perinatal asphyxia. The neonates are tachypneic without changes in chest radiograph apart from mild cardiomegaly related to asphyxia.
Pneumonia
Pneumonia is a significant cause of respiratory distress in newborns and may be classified as either early-onset (7 days of age) or late-onset pneumonia (>7 days of age).
The routes of acquiring infection and the pathogens commonly associated with them
are listed in Table 1.
Congenital pneumonia is a severe disease that frequently results in either stillbirth or
death within the first 24 hours after birth. Signs typically present in the first several
hours after birth unless the pneumonia is acquired postnatally.1,9 Pneumonias that
are acquired later present most often as systemic disease.9 The clinical signs in
neonatal pneumonia mimic other conditions like TTN, RDS, or MAS, thus making it
difficult to distinguish from them. Nonrespiratory signs and symptoms may include
lethargy, poor feeding, jaundice, apnea, and temperature instability. If pneumonia is
suspected, initial screening tests, including complete blood cell with differential count
and blood culture, should be obtained before beginning antibiotic therapy. Ampicillin
and gentamicin, or amikacin, are the antibiotics used most frequently in the neonatal
period for treating infection. Findings from chest radiograph are variable, depending
on the cause.17 In utero infection typically manifests as bilateral consolidation or
whiteout. Other pneumonias can manifest as lobar consolidations on chest radiograph
(Fig. 2). It should be borne in mind that 50% of infants who have group B beta Streptococcus pneumonia have radiographic findings indistinguishable from those of RDS
or TTN.17 When present, pleural effusion or mild heart enlargement in the absence of
cardiac anomalies suggests the diagnosis of pneumonia. Treatment of pneumonia focuses on supportive care of the infant and administration of antibiotic medications that
target the causative organism. Oxygen therapy, mechanical ventilation, and vasopressor administration may be necessary. Oxygen should be used to maintain saturations in the normal ranges for gestational age.
Table 1
Modes of transmission and the pathogens causing neonatal pneumonia
Intrauterine
Perinatal
Postnatal
Rubella
Herpes simplex virus
Cytomegalovirus
Adenovirus
Mumps
Toxoplasma gondii
Varicella zoster virus
Treponema pallidum
Mycobacterium tuberculosis
Listeria monocytogenes
Human immunodeficiency
virus
Group B streptococcus
Escherichia coli
Klebsiella
Syphilis
Neisseria gonorrhoeae
Chlamydia trachomatis
(usually occurs for >2 wk)
Respiratory viruses
(adenovirus, respiratory
syncytial virus)
Gram-positive bacteria (Groups
A, B, and G streptococci or
Staphylococcus aureus)
Gram-negative enteric bacteria
(Klebsiella, Proteus,
Pseudomonas aeruginosa,
flavobacteria, Serratia
marcescens, and E coli)
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Fig. 2. Radiograph of chest showing pneumonia of right middle lobe and left lower lobe
(arrows).
Respiratory Distress Syndrome
RDS is seen soon after birth and worsens over the next few hours. RDS is commonly
seen in premature infants and occurs because of surfactant deficiency. The risk of
RDS increases with decreasing gestational age with approximately 5% of near-term
infants affected, 30% of infants of gestational age less than 30 weeks affected, and
60% of premature infants of gestational age less than 28 weeks affected.3,9,18 Surfactant is a complex mixture of 6 phospholipids and 4 apoproteins produced by the type II
pneumocytes in the lung epithelium. Functionally, dipalmitoyl phosphocholine or lecithin is the principal phospholipid, which along with surfactant protein A and B lowers
the surface tension at the air-liquid interface in vivo.3,9,18 With decrease in surfactant
or its function, alveolar surface tension increases and collapses at the end of expiration. The disease progresses rapidly with increase in work of breathing, intrapulmonary shunting, V/Q mismatch, and hypoxia with eventual respiratory failure. Factors
contributing to RDS are male sex in Caucasians, infants of mothers with diabetes,
perinatal asphyxia, hypothermia and multiple gestations, born via cesarean delivery
without labor, or presence of RDS in a previous sibling.
On physical examination, infants have grunting, retraction, cyanosis, and tachypnea. Radiograph of the chest shows reticulogranular appearance, air bronchogram,
or ground glass appearance of the lungs because of microatelectasis and poor expansion (Fig. 3). Arterial blood gases show respiratory acidosis, hypoxia, and eventually
metabolic acidosis. Mothers with extremely premature infants should be managed
at a perinatal center if not in labor. Amniocentesis should be performed to assess
lung maturity for elective cesarean delivery and in mothers with diabetes. Management involves antenatal corticosteroids to increase fetal lung maturity, preventing
preterm labor with use of tocolytic agents, and use of antibiotics for chorioamnionitis.19 At birth, after resuscitation by skilled personnel, avoiding hypothermia and stabilizing the infant, intratracheal surfactant is administered.11 Babies that do not have
significant chest retraction and require FiO2 values less than 40% may be placed on
nasal CPAP of 6 to 7 cm H2O. If infant has labored breathing, assisted ventilation is
provided. Surfactant is administered via endotracheal tube, umbilical vessels are
catheterized, and the ventilator and FiO2 values are adjusted to keep the pH between
Fig. 3. Radiograph of chest showing respiratory distress syndrome. Note diffuse granularity
of lung fields, air bronchogram, and decreased lung volume.
7.25 and 7.40, PaO2 value between 50 and 70 torr, PCO2 value at 45 to 65 torr, and base
deficit less than 10.3,9,18,20,21 Studies comparing use of various types of surfactant
preparations, timing of administration, and various modalities of ventilation are discussed in several publications.3,9,17,19,20 Care should be taken to optimize V/Q by
using minimally invasive ventilation and optimal positive end-expiratory pressure.
Supportive therapy involves maintaining fluid and electrolyte balance and avoiding
hypoglycemia and hypothermia.3,9,18,20 Blood cultures are obtained along with total
white blood cell and differential count along with C-reactive protein estimation. Antibiotics (ampicillin and gentamicin or amikacin) are administered and withdrawn after
48 hours if the infant is stable. Nutrition is provided and trophic feeding commenced
as soon as possible, preferably using mothers milk. Blood gases and chest radiographs are repeated as clinically indicated. The neonatal intensive care unit (NICU)
staff should encourage maternal-infant bonding and family support.
Complications seen early in the course of RDS are air leaks, apnea, intraventricular
hemorrhages, anemia, hypoglycemia, hypernatremia, patent ductus arteriosus, necrotizing enterocolitis, as well as renal and growth failure.9,22,23 Outcome is improved by
avoiding complications.
Late complications include gastroesophageal reflux, feeding intolerance, growth
failure, apnea, sudden death, BPD, as well as developmental and neurologic deficits
including visual and auditory handicaps.14,22 After discharge, they are followed up by a
team composed of developmental pediatrician, nutritionists, social worker, physical
therapist, and other medical and surgical consultants.9,18,24
Meconium Aspiration Syndrome
Most infants born to mothers with meconium-stained amniotic fluid are asymptomatic.
MAS occurs in term or postterm infants born through meconium-stained amniotic
fluid; these infants have in utero hypoxia and are at increased risk for respiratory
distress.1,4,15 Although meconium-stained amniotic fluid occurs in 10% to 15% of
deliveries, MAS is seen in 4% to 5% of them. Passage of meconium in utero is a
sign of fetal distress occurring because of relaxation of anal sphincter. The resultant
hypoxia and gasping breathing leads to aspiration of meconium before birth. Maternal
risk factors include preeclampsia, diabetes, chorioamnionitis, and illicit substance
abuse. Evidence suggests that patients with severe MAS have chronic in utero
hypoxia. Severe MAS is associated with alterations in the pulmonary vasculature,
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including remodeling and thickening of the muscle walls. This process results in pulmonary vascular hyperreactivity, vasoconstriction, and high resistance and pressure.
Meconium consists of desquamated cells from the gastrointestinal tract, skin, lanugo,
hair, bile salts, pancreatic enzymes, lipids, mucopolysaccharides, and water. Chemical pneumonitis occurs from the bile salts and other components deactivating pulmonary surfactant. This phenomenon along with particulate matter in the meconium
results in atelectasis. Meconium also activates the complement cascade, which leads
to inflammation and constriction of pulmonary veins.
Infants with MAS develop respiratory distress within a few hours of birth. On clinical
examination, they may have staining of nails and umbilical cord, barrel-shaped chest
on inspection, and signs of respiratory distress along with crackles (rales) and rhonchi
on auscultation.4 The chest radiographic findings are variable and are composed of
patchy atelectasis due to terminal airway obstruction, areas of overinflation due to
air trapping; in severe cases, widespread involvement of all lung fields are seen with
whiteout lung fields (Fig. 4).17 There may also be evidence of air leak, such as pneumothorax, pneumomediastinum, or interstitial or subcutaneous air (Fig. 5). The last of
these is uncommon because of improved resuscitation techniques at birth.
Management: Although in the past amnioinfusion and suctioning of oropharynx
before delivery at birth was practiced widely, it has been abandoned because
meta-analysis of randomized controlled studies did not show their benefit. At present,
the Neonatal Resuscitation Textbook of the American Academy of Pediatrics recommends to suction the trachea after intubation only in apneic infants, even though no
controlled studies have confirmed its benefit. It is recommended that if there is no
meconium after 1 attempt to suction the trachea in apneic infants, they should be intubated, ventilated, oxygenated, and stabilized immediately.4 If the infant is vigorous as
defined by strong respiratory effort, heart rate greater than 100 beats per minute, and
good muscle tone, bulb syringe suctioning should be done, followed by standard procedures described in the NRP manual. Cord blood gases should be obtained to determine the degree of acidosis, and if the pulse oximeter shows Sao2 values less than
90% after 10 minutes, arterial blood gases should be obtained, particularly if the infant
requires resuscitation. Management in most patients is supportive. Infants who
develop respiratory distress should be admitted to the NICU. Oxygen therapy may
be delivered via oxygen hood, and arterial blood gases are monitored after placing
umbilical vessel catheters. CPAP at 5 to 6 cm of H2O should be provided if oxygen
requirement exceeds 0.4 to 0.5.4,25 In patients with respiratory acidosis, assisted
Fig. 4. Radiograph of chest showing meconium aspiration syndrome; note bilateral patchy
infiltrates (arrows).
Fig. 5. (A) Radiograph of chest showing pneumomediastinum borders shown by arrows.

Note thymic silhouette. (B) Radiograph of chest showing tension pneumothorax (arrows).
Marked collapse of the right lung with large lucency peripherally. Depression of the right
hemidiaphragm and shift of the cardiothymic silhouette to the left.
ventilation may be required to maintain pH between 7.3 and 7.5, PCO2 values at 30 to
50 torr, and PaO2 values above 100 torr.4 Infants developing severe MAS should be
cared for at a tertiary center with the ability to administer surfactant, high-frequency
ventilation, inhaled nitric oxide (iNO), and extracorporeal membrane oxygenation
(ECMO), because of their predilection to suddenly develop hypoxia due to their labile
pulmonary vasculature. Surfactant therapy should be administered cautiously in infants and requires moderately high settings and oxygen on conventional ventilator
because the surfactant is inactivated by the aspirated meconium, and this is considered a standard therapy. Recent studies have suggested that early use of highfrequency ventilation to optimize V/Q along with early use iNO therapy may decrease
the use of ECMO and improve outcome.4 These infants should be followed up longitudinally, and despite appropriate interventions, they may have sequelae, such as
learning disability or neurodevelopmental or hearing handicaps due to perinatal
asphyxia and their NICU course, hence, should be followed up.4,24
Bronchopulmonary Dysplasia
BPD develops in low-birth-weight infants weighing less than 1500 g, particularly those
weighing less than 1000 g. In 2001, a National Institutes of Health workshop developed a consensus on definition of BPD based on gestational age at birth, time of
assessment, and severity of disease.26
In 1967, Northway and his colleagues described BPD classifying it into 4 stages in infants with RDS. The form that occurs in neonates receiving high inspired oxygen and
developing ventilator-induced injury is termed old or classical BPD and is rarely seen
these days. With the use of antenatal steroid, surfactant therapy, caffeine therapy, and
gentler modes of ventilation as the new standard of care for RDS, smaller infants who survive develop a milder form of BPD that is termed by Jobe as new BPD, and this is associated with disruption of lung development, specifically an arrest of alveolar septation
and vascular development in the distal part of the lung and impaired pulmonary function
in later years of life.3,9,2629 Some extremely preterm infants develop lung disease after an
initial period without oxygen or mechanical ventilation, and this form has been labeled as
chronic lung disease (CLD) of prematurity. CLD is similar to what Dr Peter Auld described
as chronic pulmonary insufficiency of prematurity, which usually developed after the
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second week of life in premature infants after apnea and/or bradycardia for which the infant required oxygen and assisted ventilation. Thus it is unclear whether the new BPD
represents a single different disease entity or is a group of entities with complex epigenetic, environmental (especially antenatal and postnatal infections), and inflammatorymediated dysregulation of lung maturation or other factors.
The incidence of BPD varies with gestational age, respiratory illness severity, duration of oxygen, and ventilator support requirement, the FiO2 value required to maintain
Sao2 value greater than 90%. In a 2007 study by Fanaroff and colleagues,9 the incidence of BPD when defined as oxygen requirement at 28 days was 42% (BW 501
750 g), 25% (BW 7511000 g), and 11% (BW 12511500 g), respectively, with majority
occurring in infants with BW less than 1250 g. Application of a definition to asses the
adequacy of oxygenation and ventilation at 36 weeks postmenstrual age and the level
of the infants need for supplemental oxygen and/or ventilator assistance reduces the
incidence by 10%. BPD has a multifactorial cause.2629 Within a few days of premature birth, inflammatory biomarkers (chemokines, adhesion molecules, proinflammatory and antiinflammatory cytokines, proteases, and growth factors) have complex
interactions that alter subsequent lung maturation. An imbalance between proinflammatory and antiinflammatory cytokines released because of various factors leads to
apoptosis in the lung with varying degrees of repair. This condition leads to impaired
alveolaraization and angiogenesis, which lead to larger, more simplified alveoli and a
dysmorphic pulmonary vasculature, the pathologic hallmark of BPD.26 The multifactorial insults to the developing lung include intrauterine and postnatal infections, inflammation in the immature lung, effects of resuscitation techniques, patent ductus
arteriosus, as well as ventilator- and oxygen-induced injury. Inadequate nutrition
may also impair alveolar development and surfactant production and inhibit lung
growth and repair.22 The uneven damage to the airways and lungs results in marked
V/Q mismatch. Bronchomalacia increases airway resistance because of inflammation
and partial collapse of small and large airways during expiration. Lung compliance is
also reduced secondary to edema and fibrosis.2830 As the disease progresses, atelectasis with areas of hyperinflation are seen on chest radiograph (Fig. 6).
Management includes judicious use of oxygen to maintain Sao2 value between 90%
and 94%, use of noninvasive ventilation to minimize further pressure-induced lung
Fig. 6. Radiograph of chest showing bronchopulmonary dysplasia with hyperexpanded lung

fields with cystic areas showing air trapping. Note clip showing ligation of patent ductus
arteriosus.
damage, and fluid restriction.2629 Some patients may transiently respond to diuretics,
bronchodilators, and inhaled steroids, hence their prolonged use is not recommended.28,31 Adequate nutrition with micronutrients and macronutrients is essential to
optimize lung and somatic growth and should be monitored closely.22 Patients with
severe BPD are at risk of developing pulmonary hypertension diagnosed by echocardiogram in consultation with cardiologist. These patients are at risk of sudden death
because of pulmonary hypertension or bronchospasm. Use of iNO to prevent BPD
has not been validated across clinical trials. Oral slidenifil has been used in some
studies to treat pulmonary hypertension; its response is variable perhaps because
of inconsistent absorption.28 Before discharge from the NICU, careful planning should
be done.24 Home environment should be checked because there is an increased
chance of rehospitalization (up to 50%) in them. If the infant is discharged on oxygen
and receives medications or feeding via gastrostomy tube, parents should room-in
and learn how to administer medications and feeds under nursing supervision. Use
of home oxygen and ventilator should be coordinated by specially trained staff and
home health services conversant with care of infants with BPD.24 All immunizations
should be up to date before discharge. The respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) prophylaxis is recommended within 6 months of the RSV season for all infants younger
than 2 years. Influenza vaccine is administered to all care providers, siblings, and
infants with BPD older than 6 months. Parents should be counseled to avoid
second-hand smoke, to keep people with cold away from the infant, and to not
take these infants to day care facility. Growth and nutrition should be monitored.
Some infants have gastroesophageal reflux requiring therapy. Respiratory symptoms
may persist beyond infancy into childhood. Patients with BPD may have delayed
development, learning disorders, and neurologic problems.2830 Hence it is important
for the pediatrician to work with subspecialist and community support agencies to
help the family. Although most patients with BPD do well, patients with severe disease
develop worsening respiratory failure, pulmonary hypertension, and cor pulmonale
requiring repeated hospitalization in the intensive care unit, which may prolong
suffering and death. Hence, end-of-life care should be discussed with parents
including withdrawing assisted ventilation.
Interstitial Lung Disease
On rare occasions, neonates and infants have other chronic respiratory disorders. This
category encompasses a group of diseases called childhood interstitial lung diseases
(chILDs) or diffuse lung disease (DLD).32 The American Thoracic Society has published
an official clinical practice guideline for classification, evaluation, and management of
childhood interstitial lung disease in infancy.33 Causes include surfactant function
abnormalities, persistent tachypnea of infancy or neuroendocrine cell hyperplasia of
infancy, alveolar capillary dysplasia associated with misalignment of pulmonary veins,
and pulmonary interstitial glycogenosis (Box 4, Fig. 7).
All neonates and infants (<2 years of age) with DLD should have common diseases
excluded, which include GERD, cystic fibrosis, congenital or acquired immune deficiency, congenital heart disease, BPD, pulmonary infection, H-type TEF, primary
ciliary dyskinesia presenting with newborn respiratory distress, and recurrent aspiration. After they have been eliminated, a neonate or infant with DLD is regarded as having chILD syndrome if at least 3 of the following are present: (1) respiratory symptoms
(cough, rapid and difficult breathing, or exercise intolerance), (2) respiratory signs
(tachypnea, rales, retractions, digital clubbing, failure to thrive, or respiratory failure),
(3) hypoxemia, and (4) diffuse abnormalities on a chest radiograph or CT. Newborns
who present with chILD syndrome and severe disease, or family history of adult or
465
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Pramanik et al
Box 4
Disorders causing severe neonatal childhood interstitial lung disease syndrome
Acinar dysplasia
Pulmonary hypoplasia/alveolar simplification
Alveolar capillary dysplasia with misalignment of the pulmonary veins (FOXF1 mutations)
PIG
Surfactant protein B deficiency (homozygous SFTPB mutations) ABCA3 gene mutations
TTF-1 (NKX2.1) mutations
Pulmonary hemorrhage syndromes
Pulmonary lymphangiectasia
Abbreviations: PIG, pulmonary interstitial glycogenosis; TTF, thyroid transcription factor.
Data from Kurland G, Deterding RR, Hagood JS, et al. An official American Thoracic Society
clinical practice guideline: classification, evaluation, and management of childhood interstitial
lung disease in infancy. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2013;188:37694.
chILD, should be tested for genetic diseases, such as mutation in genes SFTPB,
SFTBC, and ABACA3, which encode proteins SP-B, SP-C, and ABCA3. Newborns
presenting with chILD syndrome, congenital hypothyroidism, and hypotonia should
be tested for NKX2.1 (ie, thyroid transcription factor).
Congenital Lung Diseases
Various congenital malformations of the lung such as congenital diaphragmatic

hernia (Fig. 8), TEF (Fig. 9), sequestration of lung, congenital cystic adenomatous
Fig. 7. Genetic approach to chILD diagnosis. Possible genetic mechanisms are listed on the
right, ordered depending on age of the patient at presentation (top to bottom), as well as
selected phenotypic characteristics. Arrows point to initial gene or genes to be analyzed; if
results of initial studies were negative, arrows on right indicate additional genetic studies to
be considered. PAP, pulmonary alveolar proteinosis; PPHN, persistent pulmonary hypertension of the newborn. (From Kurland G, Deterding RR, Hagood JS, et al. An official American
Thoracic Society clinical practice guideline: classification, evaluation, and management of
childhood interstitial lung disease in infancy. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2013;188:37694;
with permission.)
Fig. 8. Radiograph of chest showing congenital diaphragmatic hernia (Bochdalek). Note

stomach bubble in the left side of chest (arrow) and cardiothymic silhouette displaced
into the right side of chest.
malformation of lung, congenital lobar emphysema, lymphangiectesis, or mass in the

chest may present with respiratory distress either in the newborn period or during
infancy.58,3436 If these are diagnosed antenatally, the patient should be transferred
to a perinatal center for further management. A pediatric surgeon should be
consulted.
Fig. 9. Tracheoesophageal fistula. Note upper blind pouch (radio opaque tube) with fistula
(air in stomach and intestines).
467
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Pramanik et al
SUMMARY
Respiratory distress presents with varying degrees of tachypnea, grunting, chest

retractions, nasal flaring, and/or cyanosis. After initial stabilization, followed by history
taking and physical examination, chest radiograph, as well as blood gases, a diagnosis should be made in most instances,1,9 which includes TTN, RDS, MAS, pneumonia, CLD of prematurity, interstitial lung disease, or upper airway disorders.
Cyanotic heart disease should be suspected if Sao2 value is less than 90% after 15 minutes of age.5 In critically ill infants or when the diagnosis in unclear, a neonatologist,
cardiologist, pulmonologist, or ENT surgeon must be promptly consulted.
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1. Edwards MO, Kotecha SJ, Kotecha S. Respiratory distress of the term newborn
infant. Paediatr Respir Rev 2013;14:2937.
2. te Pas AB, Davis PG, Hooper SB, et al. From liquid to air: breathing after birth.
J Pediatr 2008;152(5):60711.
3. Sweet DG, Carnielli V, Greisen G, et al. European consensus guidelines on the
management of neonatal respiratory distress syndrome in preterm infants-2010
update. Neonatology 2010;97:40217.
4. Dargaville PA, Copnell B, for Australian and New Zealand Neonatal Network. The
epidemiology of meconium aspiration syndrome: incidence, risk factors, therapies and outcomes. Pediatrics 2006;117(5):171272.
5. Johnson LC, Lieberman E, OLeary E, et al. Prenatal and newborn screening for
critical congenital heart disease: findings from a nursery. Pediatrics 2014;134:
91622.
6. Lee HJ, Song MJ, Cho JY, et al. Echogenic fetal lung masses: comparison of prenatal sonographic and postnatal CT findings. J Clin Ultrasound 2003;31(8):
41924.
7. Duncombe GJ, Dickinson JE, Kikiros CS. Prenatal diagnosis and management of
congenital cystic adenomatoid malformation of the lung. Am J Obstet Gynecol
2002;187(4):9504.
8. Ankerman T, Oppermann HC, Engler S, et al. Congenital masses of the lung,
cystic adenomatoid malformation versus congenital lobar emphysema.
J Ultrasound Med 2004;23:137984.
9. Martin RJ, Fanaroff AA, Walsh MC. The respiratory system in Fanaroff and
Martins neonatal-perinatal medicine. In: Diseases of the fetus and infants.
10th edition. Elsevier, Mosby; 2014. p. 1075206.
10. Bland RD. Lung fluid balance during development. Neoreviews 2005;6(6):
e25565.
11. Special report-neonatal resuscitation: 2010 American Heart Association Guidelines for Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation and Emergency Cardiovascular Care.
Circulation 2010;122:S90919.
12. Mathew OP. Apnea of prematurity: pathogenesis and management strategies.
J Perinatol 2011;31(5):30210.
13. te Pas AB, Wong C, Kamlin CO, et al. Breathing patterns in preterm and term
infants immediately after birth. Pediatr Res 2009;65(3):3526.
14. Peter CS, Sprodowski N, Bohnhorst B, et al. Gastroesophageal reflux and apnea
of prematurity: no temporal relationship. Pediatrics 2002;109(1):811.
15. Yurdakok M. Transient tachypnea of the newborn: what is new? J Matern Fetal
Neonatal Med 2010;23(Suppl 3):246.
16. Clark RH. The epidemiology of respiratory failure in neonates born at an estimated gestational: age of 34 weeks or more. J Perinatol 2005;25:2517.
17. Morris SJ. Radiology of the chest in neonates. Curr Paediatr 2003;13:4608.
18. Pramanik AK. Respiratory Distress Syndrome. 2012. Available at: http://emedicine.
medscape.com/article/976034-overview. Accessed October 2014.
19. Roberts D. Antenatal corticosteroids in late preterm infants. BMJ 2011;342:d1614.
20. SUPPORT Study Group of the Eunice Kennedy Schiver NICHD Neonatal
Research Network, Finer NN, Carlo WA, et al. Early CPAP versus surfactant in
extremely preterm infants. N Engl J Med 2010;362:19709.
21. Engle WA. American Academy of Pediatrics Committee on Fetus and Newborn.
Surfactant-replacement therapy for respiratory distress in the preterm and term
neonate. Pediatrics 2008;121:41932.
22. Ehrenkrantz RA, Dusick AM, Vohr BR, et al. Growth in the neonatal intensive care
unit influences neurodevelopmental and growth outcomes of extremely low birth
weight infants. Pediatrics 2006;117:125361.
23. American Academy of Pediatrics Committee on Fetus and Newborn. Apnea, sudden infant death syndrome, and home monitoring. Pediatrics 2011;111(4 Pt 1):
9147.
24. American Academy of Pediatrics Committee on Fetus and Newborn. Hospital
discharge of the high-risk neonate. Pediatrics 2008;122(5):111926.
25. Goldsmith JP. Continuous positive airway pressure and conventional mechanical
ventilation in the treatment of meconium aspiration syndrome. J Perinatol 2008;
28(Suppl 3):S4955.
26. Jobe AH, Bancalari E. Bronchopulmonary dysplasia. Am J Respir Crit Care Med
2001;163(7):17239.
27. Ehrenkranz RA, Walsh MC, Vohr BR, et al. Validation of the National Institutes of
Health consensus definition of bronchopulmonary dysplasia. Pediatrics 2005;
116(6):135360.
28. Baraldi E, Fillipone M. Chronic lung disease after premature birth. N Engl J Med
2007;357:194655.
29. Allen J, Zwerdling R, Ehrenkranz R, et al. Statement on the care of the child with
chronic lung disease of infancy and childhood. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2003;
168(3):35696.
30. Vollster M, Roksund OD, Bide GE, et al. Lung function after preterm birth:
development from mid-childhood to adulthood. Thorax 2013;68(8):76776.
31. Slaughter JL, Stenger MR, Reagan PB. Variation in the use of diuretic therapy for
infants with bronchopulmonary dysplasia. Pediatrics 2013;131:71623.
32. Deterding RR. Infants and young children with childrens interstitial lung disease.
Pediatr Allergy Immunol Pulmonol 2010;23(1):2531.
33. Kurland G, Deterding RR, Hagood JS, et al. An official American Thoracic Society
clinical practice guideline: classification, evaluation, and management of childhood interstitial lung disease in infancy. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2013;188:
37694.
34. Truitt AK, Carr SR, Cassese J, et al. Perinatal management of congenital cystic
lung lesions in the age of minimally invasive surgery. J Pediatr Surg 2006;
41(5):8936.
35. Stanton M, Davenport M. Management of congenital lung lesions. Early Hum Dev
2006;82(5):28995.
36. Ozcelik U, Gocmen A, Kiper N, et al. Congenital lobar emphysema: evaluation
and long-term follow-up of thirty cases at a single center. Pediatr Pulmonol
2003;35(5):38491.
469
C a rdia c Eval u at i o n o f th e
Newborn
Donald J. Fillipps,
MD
, Richard L. Bucciarelli,
MD
b,c,
KEYWORDS

Term newborn cardiovascular examination

Term newborn with congenital heart disease (CHD)
Common types of neonatal congenital heart disease Pulse oximetry screening
Critical congenital heart disease (CCHD)
KEY POINTS
Although congenital heart defects can be diagnosed using fetal cardiac ultrasonography,
some defects can be challenging to identify.
Even with a careful complete physical examination, some infants seem normal and are
discharged home undiagnosed.
The persistence of fetal channels can mask the presence of critical congenital heart disease, and the rather short postpartum hospital stay contributes to the diagnostic
challenges.
It is essential for the examiner to use all physical examination skills, including inspection,
palpation, and auscultation, and to perform more than one physical assessment before
discharge or shortly thereafter.
The recent introduction of Pulse Oximetry Screening has been an extremely helpful adjuvant in assisting with the diagnosis of CCHD.
CARDIAC EVALUATION OF THE NEWBORN
The approach to the cardiac evaluation of a newborn can be challenging. As a result,

many pediatricians report that they often feel uncomfortable when it comes to differentiating the normal from the abnormal state with regard to a newborns
Declaration of conflict of interest: Both R.L. Bucciarelli, MD and D.J. Fillipps, MD attest that
they have no conflicts of interest to declare in relation to the materials and information provided in this article.
a
Division of General Pediatrics, College of Medicine, University of Florida, 1701 Southwest
16th Avenue, Building A, Gainesville, FL 32608, USA; b Division of Neonatology, College of
Medicine, University of Florida, 2400 Archer Road, Gainesville, FL 32610, USA; c Division of Pediatric Cardiology, College of Medicine, University of Florida, 2400 Archer Road, Gainesville, FL
32610, USA
* Corresponding author. Division of Neonatology, College of Medicine, University of Florida,
2400 Archer Road, Gainesville, FL 32610.
0031-3955/15/$ see front matter Published by Elsevier Inc.
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Fillipps & Bucciarelli
cardiovascular examination. It is the authors goal for this article to provide the reader
with the background knowledge that will make the cardiac evaluation of newborns
less intimidating and assist the general pediatrician in understanding, detecting, and
treating a newborn with congenital heart disease (CHD).
CHD is the most common congenital disorder in newborns, occurring in approximately 8 out of 1000 live births, and is responsible for almost 30% of infant deaths
related to birth defects. Of those children with CHD, about 1 in 4 (25%) babies born
with a heart defect will have critical CHD (CCHD), defined as needing intervention
within the first year of life.13
Although CHD can be diagnosed using fetal cardiac ultrasonography, some
defects can be challenging to identify. Similarly, even with a careful complete
physical examination, some infants seem normal and are discharged home undiagnosed. The persistence of fetal channels can mask the presence of CCHD,
and the rather short postpartum hospital stay contributes to the diagnostic challenges. Thus it is essential for the examiner to use all physical examination
skills, including inspection, palpation, and auscultation, and to perform more
than one physical assessment before discharge or shortly thereafter. The recent
introduction of pulse oximetry screening (POS) has been an extremely helpful adjuvant in assisting with the diagnosis of CCHD before signs of decompensation
occur.4
Initial Evaluation
The first step in the assessment of the newborn infants cardiovascular system is a
careful review for conditions that are associated with an increased risk of CHD
(Table 1). The presence of any of these factors should raise the index of suspicion,
but a complete physical examination should be performed regardless.57
Inspection and Palpation of the Skin and Mucous Membranes
The color of the skin and briskness of capillary refill can be indicators of the adequacy
of oxygenation and cardiac output. The mucous membranes of a normal newborn
should be pink. This is usually checked by looking at the tongue and lips. When light
Table 1
Common conditions associated with CHD
Maternal
Perinatal
Diabetes
TORCH infection
Obesity
Premature delivery <37 wk
Hypertension
Genetic/chromosomal disorders
Systemic lupus erythematosus
VACTERL
Epilepsy
Omphalocele
Influenza or flulike symptoms
Congenital diaphragmatic hernia
First-trimester smoking
Maternal thyroid conditions
Maternal CHD
Maternal alcohol/medication use
Multifetal pregnancy
Abbreviations: TORCH, toxoplasmosis, other agents, rubella, cytomegalovirus, herpes simplex;
VACTERL, vertebral, anal, cardiac, tracheal, esophageal, renal, and limb.
Data from Refs.13,5
pressure is applied to the skin or nail beds, normal color should return within 3 to 4 seconds after the pressure is released (capillary refill time).
Acrocyanosis is usually described as cyanosis of the distal portions of the extremities but can be seen around the mouth and in the nail beds. However, the mucous
membranes generally remain pink. Acrocyanosis is common in newborns and is
normal. It can be caused by vasomotor instability, vasoconstriction caused by cold,
or polycythemia. The degree of acrocyanosis can be related to the level of hematocrit
and is most obvious with a central hematocrit of 65% or greater.7 Acrocyanosis is
increased with crying and fades when sleeping. It is usually uniformly distributed in
the arms and legs but may have an asymmetric pattern being more obvious in certain
extremities. However, distinct differences in appearance between upper and lower
parts of the body should raise concern and be investigated. Determination of a central
hematocrit and peripheral hemoglobin saturation can be helpful. With acrocyanosis
caused by polycythemia, the hematocrit will be elevated and hemoglobin saturation
will be 90% to 95%. A normal hematocrit and/or abnormal hemoglobin saturation
should prompt further investigation.
Central cyanosis is always abnormal. This condition may be caused by primary
pulmonary disease or CCHD, which restricts pulmonary blood flow (PBF) (Box 1).
Cyanosis caused by pulmonary disease is often responsive to the administration of
oxygen. Central cyanosis caused by CCHD does not change significantly when patients are placed in an oxygen-enriched environment.
Mottling or pallor can be a sign of diminished cardiac output as blood is shunted
away from the skin to support more central organs and tissues. The capillary refill
time is prolonged, and a significant metabolic acidosis may be present. There are
both common cardiac and noncardiac causes of compromised cardiac output, and
they must be investigated (Box 2).
Assessment of Peripheral Pulses
Palpation of the brachial and femoral pulses is an essential element of the cardiovascular examination of the newborn. On first palpation, the examiner should assess the
pulse rate (normal between 100 and 160 beats per minute) and rhythm (consistent
rhythm without irregular beats). Although it is acceptable to palpate the pulses in
each extremity separately, it is a good practice to also palpate one femoral pulse
simultaneously with each of the brachial pulses. This practice gives one the opportunity to not only assess the pulse amplitude but also the timing of the pulses in the arms
and the legs. Delays in the timing of the pulses between the upper and lower extremities is suggestive of abnormality in the aortic arch.8
Box 1
Congenital heart lesions producing a decrease in PBF
PS with intact ventricular septum
PA with intact ventricular septum
Tetralogy of Fallot (PS/PA with VSD)
Tricuspid atresia
Hypoplastic right heart syndrome
Epstein anomaly of the tricuspid valve
Abbreviations: PA, pulmonary atresia; PS, pulmonary valve stenosis; VSD, ventricular septal
defect.
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Box 2
Common causes of compromised cardiac output
Sepsis
Hypoplastic left heart syndrome
Myocardial dysfunction with tricuspid regurgitation caused by asphyxia
Great vein of Galen aneurysm
Sustained supraventricular tachycardia
Inborn errors of metabolism
After noting the rate and timing of the pulses, their amplitude and character should
be noted. Amplitude of the peripheral pulses is frequently graded as 0 to 41, with 0 being not palpable and 41 being bounding.
Assessment of the Breathing Pattern
The normal respiratory pattern of a term neonate is regular and effortless. The breath
sounds are usually very quiet and distant and may frequently be detected only with
close observation and auscultation. Babies generally show an abdominal breathing
pattern because of their weak chest wall muscles and diaphragm-directed breathing.
A common additional pattern known as periodic breathing may also be noted. Periodic
breathing is a normal variation of breathing found in premature and full-term infants.
The examiner will notice pauses in breathing for less than 10 seconds, followed by
a series of rapid, shallow breaths. Breathing then returns to normal without any stimulation or intervention.8
Changes in respiratory rate and effort are frequently the result of changes in lung
compliance, a reflection of the stiffness of the lung and its ability to change volume
in relation to a change in pressure.9 Various types of CCHD can have a profound effect
on pulmonary compliance, leading to predictable signs on physical examination.
When PBF is reduced, there is less blood in the lungs and compliance increases.
Breathing becomes easier. Diminished PBF also produces hypoxemia, which stimulates the respiratory center in the brain stem and results in hyperpnea, effortless
tachypnea with increased tidal volume. The baby seems cyanotic but has no significant respiratory distress. Because of the hyperpnea, PaCO2 is often low. Effortless
tachypnea in a cyanotic baby is the hallmark of CCHD caused by right heart obstructive lesions.6,8
CCHD that increases PBF increases the amount of blood in the lungs, leading to pulmonary edema and congestive heart failure (CHF). Pulmonary compliance is reduced;
work of breathing is increased leading to tachypnea, grunting, alar flaring, and intercostal retractions. Because cardiac output is frequently diminished, the skin is mottled
with increased capillary refill time. Often a mixed metabolic and respiratory acidosis is
present. The possibility of CCHD should be considered in any term infant presenting
with significant respiratory distress but whose history and initial evaluation does not
support primary pulmonary disease.10
Inspection, Palpation, and Auscultation of the Heart
Similar to the examination of the lungs, the normal cardiac activity in the term neonate
is barely visible with inspection and the precordium is usually quiet to palpation. A
slight parasternal lift can usually be seen and palpated along the left sternal boarder,
secondary to the normal right ventricular dominance seen in term newborns.
Auscultation of the heart should be performed using a high-quality stethoscope with

a small bell and diaphragm. The examination is best performed by starting at the base
of the heart (second left and right intercostal spaces), moving down the sternal
boarder to the apex. Both the bell and diaphragm should be used while the examiner
concentrates on heart rate, rhythm, cardiac sounds, and any murmurs heard.8
The normal heart rate of a term neonate is usually between 100 and 160 beats per
minute. However, heart rates may exceed 180 when the baby is crying and can go as
low as 70 when in a deep sleep. The rhythm should be regular without extra or skipped
beats. The examiner may notice a predictable change in rate associated with respirations, the sinus arrhythmia, which is entirely benign.6
Normal heart sounds are generated by closure of the tricuspid and mitral valves (S1)
and by closure of the pulmonary and aortic valves (S2). As PBF increases after birth,
the pulmonary valve closes later causing audible splitting of S2. A split S2 indicates
the presence of 2 normally positioned great vessels, suggests that the pulmonary
vascular resistance is low, and indicates the presence of 2 normal ventricles separated
by a ventricular septum. Thus the presence of splitting strongly suggests normal cardiac anatomy; however, its absence does not imply the presence of CHD. Occasionally extra heart sounds (S3, S4, or a summation S3/S4) can be heard. Although these
sounds can be heard in some normal situations, their presences should prompt further
evaluation.
Cardiac Murmurs
Murmurs are caused by turbulent blood flow, either by increased flow through normal
vessels and valves or normal flow through abnormal valves, vessels, or septal defects.
Murmurs are graded 1 to 6 and described as to whether they occur in systole or diastole.
Attention should be also given to the quality of the murmurs (harsh, smooth, or vibratory)
and whether or not they are only heard in a small area or radiate more widely throughout
the chest. There are numerous common innocent murmurs that can be detected in newborns. The pulmonary flow murmur is probably one of the most common. It is heard best
in the upper left sternal border (ULSB) and transmits well to both sides of the chest, axilla, and the back. It is usually soft and generally not louder than grade 2/6 intensity.
Another innocent murmur is the transient systolic patent ductus arteriosus (PDA)
murmur, which is audible at the ULSB and in the left infraclavicular area during the first
days of life. It is thought to be caused by a closing ductus arteriosus and usually disappears shortly after the first day. Frequently a transient grade 1-2/6 murmur of tricuspid
regurgitation can be heard in the fourth intercostal space to the right of the sternum.
Transient tricuspid regurgitation is most commonly heard in stressed newborns with
mild to moderate pulmonary hypertension and generally resolves before discharge as
pulmonary vascular resistance falls.11,12 Finally a soft, vibratory, low-frequency murmur
is often best heard at the left lower sternal boarder, which may persist for some time.
This murmur is also benign and often referred to as merely a functional murmur.
Pathologic murmurs heard in the neonatal period are often of grade 3 to 6 intensity.
They are usually harsh in quality, occur in systole, and can be heard all over the chest
and into the back. These murmurs are frequently associated with CCHD.5,10
Examination of the Abdomen
When assessing for CCHD, it is also important to inspect and palpate the abdomen.
A neonate with cyanosis most likely will have a normal abdominal examination. However, infants with overcirculation of the lungs and respiratory distress may develop
abdominal distention caused by aerophagia, which can further compromise respiratory mechanics. These infants would benefit from gastric decompression. Infants
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with CHF may have liver enlargement and, if a metabolic acidosis is present, may
develop an ileus with diminished or absent bowel sounds on auscultation.
Blood Pressure
Determination of blood pressure in both arms and at least one leg is important in the
evaluation of an infant suspected of having CCHD. The pattern of variation in pressure
between the extremities can suggest the presence of significant CCHD (Table 2).13
COMMON CONGENITAL HEART DEFECTS
In this section, the authors discuss only the most common congenital heart defects. It
is not important that the examiner arrive at the correct anatomic diagnosis in their
assessment of a newborn with suspected CCHD. Rather, it is important to recognize
the general presenting signs of CCHD and how to stabilize the infant until further evaluation can be accomplished.
Uncomplicated Congenital Heart Defects
Simple atrial septal defects (ASD), ventricular septal defects (VSD), endocardial
cushion defects, and a patent ductus arteriosus (PDA) do not significantly affect the
cardiopulmonary physiology of the newborn and, although possible, are not usually
associated with symptoms in the first few days after birth. The blood crossing these
defects is usually small in volume and nonturbulent, producing little to no murmur.
With simple ASDs, even very large ones, the amount of blood that goes from the
left atrium to the right atrium is very limited until several months after birth, when
the right ventricular muscle becomes thinner, more compliant, and can accommodate
additional blood. With VSDs, flow depends on the reduction in pulmonary vascular
resistance, which occurs over the first 3 to 6 weeks after delivery.13,14 This evolution
in the pulmonary vascular bed occurs more rapidly in premature infants, leading to
earlier identification and an increased likelihood of symptoms.15 One exception to
this rule is a very small muscular VSD that may be heard within the first days of life
because flow through the defect is turbulent.13,16 Although the murmur may be a
grade 2-3/6, it is very short in duration, smooth in character, and mid to high frequency. These infants should be asymptomatic.
Lesions Causing Decreased Pulmonary Blood Flow
The lesions discussed in this section and presented in Box 1 all have a significant degree of obstruction of blood flow into and/or out of the right ventricle.
Pulmonary valve stenosis and pulmonary valve atresia with an intact ventricular
septum
In pulmonary valve stenosis (PS), the pulmonary valve is thickened and only allows a
jet of blood to pass into the lungs. Because this jet is turbulent, it creates a loud,
Table 2
Pulse and blood pressure patterns with left-sided obstructive lesions
Site of Obstruction
Right Arm
Left Arm
AA/AS
Diminished
Diminished
Legs
Diminished
Long segment COA
Normal
Diminished
Diminished
Isolated COA
Normal
Normal
Diminished
Abbreviations: AA, aortic valve atresia; AS, aortic valve stenosis; COA, coarctation of aorta.
harsh systolic murmur at the base of the heart in the second intercostal space along
the left and right sternal boarder. The murmur is also well heard along the back.
Because the valve does not close properly, S2 is single and diminished. With severe
pulmonary stenosis, there is often massive tricuspid regurgitation, producing a grade
3 to 6 (murmur plus a thrill) at the third to fourth intercostal space along the right sternal margin. If there is no opening to the valve at all (pulmonary atresia [PA]), the
obstruction is complete. The pulmonary valve and the main pulmonary arteries are
underdeveloped. The baby is deeply cyanotic, but no murmur is heard over the precordium. There may be a faint (grade 2-3), smooth systolic murmur of a PDA heard
along the ULSB and under the left clavicle. In this instance, the infants entire PBF
depends on the ductus. Because the tricuspid valve is competent, the pressure in
the right ventricle is greater than systemic levels. Blood flow into the ventricle is minimal and leaves the chamber through the myocardium sinusoids, which drain into the
coronary system. As a result, the right ventricle is small, underdeveloped, and
nonfunctional. This combination of lesions is also known as the hypoplastic right
heart syndrome (Fig. 1). However, when PS or PA exists in association with tricuspid
valve incompetence, the pressure in the right ventricle is very low, allowing blood to
enter during ventricular diastole and then flow retrograde into the right atrium during
ventricular systole. This antegrade/retrograde flow creates enough volume variation
to allow near-normal development of the right ventricle. Babies with PS/PA may
Fig. 1. Hypoplastic right ventricle with pulmonary atresia. An infant with severe PS or PA
and a competent tricuspid valve (A) may have a severely underdeveloped and nonfunctional
right ventricle. The infant is deeply cyanotic with little to no audible murmur. However, if
the tricuspid valve is better developed and incompetent (B), there is both antegrade and
retrograde flow into and out of the right ventricle, which remodels the ventricular wall, resulting in a much larger, functional chamber. In this situation there will be a loud murmur
(grade iv/vi) along the right lower sternal boarder. A palpable thrill may also be present.
Ductus A, Ductus Arteriosus; LA, left atrium; LV, left ventricle; RA, right atrium; RV, right
ventricle. (Adapted from Krovetz LJ, Gessner IH, Schiebler GL. Handbook of pediatric cardiology. 2nd edition. Baltimore: University Park Press; 1979. p. 301; with permission.)
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develop a large right atrium and are at risk for developing supraventricular tachycardia (SVT), which is briefly discussed later.
Pulmonary valve stenosis/pulmonary valve atresia with a ventricular septal defect
This combination of lesions is one of the most common types of CHD and is also
known as tetralogy of Fallot (TOF). The 4 elements of TOF are PS or PA, VSD, overriding aorta, and right ventricular hypertrophy (RVH) (Fig. 2). RVH is not obvious
because right ventricular dominance is common in the term neonate. The presenting
signs depend on the degree of pulmonary obstruction. Severe obstruction produces
deep cyanosis, whereas minor degrees of stenosis may affect color only slightly,
hence the term Pink Tetralogy. In addition to PS, there is usually narrowing below
the pulmonary valve, which is called muscular infundibular stenosis. S2 is single
because of PS and subvalvular stenosis. The VSD is always large with little restriction
of flow such that blood flows easily from the right ventricle to the left ventricle with little
turbulence, generating no murmur and allowing normal ventricular development. The
aorta straddles the ventricular septum (overrides) and receives blood from both ventricles. The murmur heard in an infant with TOF is similar to the murmur of the PS. If
tetralogy exists with pulmonary atresia, there may be no murmur at all or only the faint
murmur of a PDA, which supplies all of the PBF.
Dextro-transposition of the great vessels
D-transposition of the great vessels (TGV) is one of the more common defects. In this
case, the main pulmonary artery arises from the left ventricle and the aorta from the
Fig. 2. Cyanotic TOF. Note the presence of PS with additional muscular narrowing in the
infundibular region. The aorta is overriding the ventricular septum and receives blood
from both the right and left ventricle. A, aorta; LA, left atrium; LV, left ventricle; PT, pulmonary trunk; PS, pulmonary valve stenosis; RA, right atrium; RV, right ventricle. (Adapted from
Krovetz LJ, Gessner IH, Schiebler GL. Handbook of pediatric cardiology. 2nd edition. Baltimore: University Park Press; 1979. p. 288; with permission.)
right ventricle. The volume of PBF is normal; but because the origin of the great vessels is switched, oxygenated blood merely recirculates to the lungs and deoxygenated
blood recirculates to the body. Mixing of the circulations only occurs across the atrial
septum and the PDA. There are usually no murmurs because there is no turbulent flow.
S2 is single because the pulmonary artery is malpositioned and hidden by the aorta.
Most frequently TGV occurs with an intact ventricular septum, presenting with deep
cyanosis. However, it can also be associated with a VSD or a VSD and PS. It then
takes on the characteristics of the other lesions described throughout this section.
Lesions Causing Increased Pulmonary Blood Flow
Lesions that cause increased PBF almost always involve obstruction to flow on the left
side of the heart (Box 3). These lesions can quickly produce severe CHF because they
often involve pressure overload of the left ventricle associated with the obstruction
and volume overload of the right ventricle caused by an associated ASD and VSD.
It is important to consider the possibility of left heart obstruction in any term neonate
who has a period of well-being and then develops respiratory distress, a mottled
appearance of the skin, with hypotension and shock. Unlike defects associated with
right-sided lesions, left-sided lesions create turbulent flow and demonstrate increased
heart activity with loud systolic murmurs. Careful attention to the pattern of blood
pressure and pulse can give the examiner insight into the location of the lesion (see
Table 2).
Aortic valve stenosis
Patients with mild, uncomplicated aortic valve stenosis (AS) usually do not have difficulty as newborns. However, more significant degrees of stenosis, so-called critical
AS, cause symptoms at an early age. They present with a loud harsh systolic murmur
at the base of the heart to the right of the sternum, radiating well into the carotids.
Blood pressure and pulses are normal with mild disease but are uniformly diminished
in all extremities with critical AS. S2 is single because of delayed aortic valve closure.
Extra sounds (ejection clicks and S3S4) may be heard. CHF can develop quickly in infants with critical AS.
Coarctation of the aorta and coarctation of the aorta with a ventricular septal defect
A discrete, isolated coarctation of the aorta does not usually cause symptoms in the
first few days of life. It is often detected on follow-up examination when upper
Box 3
Congenital heart lesions producing an increase in PBF
Atrial septal defect
Ventricular septal defect
Endocardial cushion defect
Aortic valve stenosis
Aortic valve atresia
Discrete coarctation of the aorta
Long segment coarctation of the aorta with VSD
Total anomalous pulmonary venous return
Single ventricle, double inlet left ventricle, and double outlet right ventricle
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extremity hypertension is noted in both arms and diminished blood pressure and
pulses are present in the legs. The coarctation itself does not produce any audible
murmurs; however, an abnormal aortic valve is often associated with coarctation
and could be the cause of an AS murmur.
However, a coarctation of the aorta associated with a VSD frequently produces
symptoms within the first few days after birth. The coarctation produces pressure
overload of the left ventricle, and blood flowing through the VSD causes volume
overload of the right ventricle leading to early CHF. Coarctation with a VSD often
has a long segment narrowing of the aorta, which classically occurs after the origin
of the left common carotid artery and before the origin of left subclavian artery. This
area can be so hypoplastic that it is completely obstructed, creating an interruption
of the aortic arch. There is a marked increase in precordial activity. Loud murmurs
and signs of CHF with significant respiratory distress are obvious. There is usually
a profound metabolic acidosis. Significant hypocalcemia can be present because
the area of the aortic arch hypoplasia is also associated with the embryologic origin
of the parathyroid glands, which are important in calcium homeostasis (Di George
syndrome).
The pulse pattern in long segment coarctation may be helpful. The right arm blood
pressure and pulse will be normal to elevated, whereas the left arm and lower extremity pulses and blood pressures are diminished or absent (see Table 2).
The counterpart to the hypoplastic right heart syndrome is the hypoplastic left heart
syndrome (Fig. 3). It may involve severe mitral stenosis or atresia, hypoplastic or absent left ventricle, severe AS or atresia, hypoplastic aortic arch, and long segment
coarctation of the aorta. The entire systemic blood flow is supplied through a PDA.
When the PDA is functioning, symptoms may be minimal. But when the PDA constricts, CHF with shock and metabolic acidosis occurs suddenly. Intervention must
be quick and decisive.
Fig. 3. Hypoplastic left heart syndrome. Note the atretic aortic valve and the hypoplastic,
nonfunctional left ventricle. Ductal closure results in severe limitation of systemic blood
flow, leading to profound shock. Coronary Art, coronary artery; Ductus Art, Ductus arteriosus; LA, left atrium; LV, left ventricle; PDA, patent ductus arteriosus; RA, right atrium; RV,
right ventricle. (Adapted from Krovetz LJ, Gessner IH, Schiebler GL. Handbook of pediatric
cardiology. 2nd edition. Baltimore: University Park Press; 1979. p. 346; with permission.)
With total anomalous pulmonary venous return, the pulmonary veins do not attach to
the left atrium directly. Rather they take one of 3 persistent fetal pathways to return to
the right atrium. Once in the right atrium, oxygenated blood then crosses the foramen
ovale into the left atrium and then out the left ventricle to the body. When the persistent
fetal channels are nonrestrictive, signs may be minimal and presentation can be
delayed for days to weeks. However, when there is obstruction within these fetal pathways or within the pulmonary venous system, pulmonary venous hypertension and
CHF develops rapidly.
SPECIAL CONSIDERATIONS
Conditions Causing Central Cyanosis Without Congenital Heart Disease
Several common conditions can mimic CHD by causing central cyanosis and should
be considered in the evaluation of the cyanotic newborn (Box 4). Infants with neurologic depression can be cyanotic because of central nervous systeminduced hypoventilation. In addition to hypoxemia and cyanosis, the PaCO2 is frequently elevated.
Patients with rare hemoglobinopathies are cyanotic because the abnormal hemoglobin cannot load oxygen.7 Because PaCO2 is a measure of oxygen dissolved in plasma,
it is normal. However, hemoglobin saturation, a measure of the oxygen contained
within the red cell, is extremely low. Inborn errors of metabolism can also cause
cyanosis, acidemia, or CHF.17
Arteriovenous Malformation of the Great Vein of Galen
The vein of Galen is located under the cerebral hemispheres and drains the anterior
and central regions of the brain into the sinuses of the posterior cerebral fossa. A
vein of Galen aneurysmal malformation (AVM) is formed early in gestation, and the
amount of blood crossing the AVM can become massive.18,19 The vein dilates and obstructs the third ventricle, causing significant hydrocephalus. Because CHF secondary
to the AVM occurs in utero, babies with this AVM can present as nonimmune hydrops
fetalis with cardiomegaly, pleural effusions, and ascites at delivery. Auscultation for a
bruit over the anterior fontanel and over the temporal bones in term infants with CHF
within the first hours after delivery can help make the diagnosis.
Box 4
Conditions mimicking CHD
Sepsis
Asphyxia neonatorum
CNS depression/apnea/seizures
Primary pulmonary disease
Pulmonary hypertension
Hypoglycemia
Methemoglobinemia
Nonimmune hydrops fetalis
Inborn errors of metabolism
Abbreviation: CNS, central nervous system.
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DYSRHYTHMIAS
Sinus tachycardia and sinus bradycardia are common in term neonates and are
benign. All ventricular complexes are preceded by a normal P wave originating at
the sinus node and are positive in the electrocardiogram in lead I. Sinus tachycardia
can have rates close to 200 beats per minute during crying. Sinus bradycardia can
have rates as low as 70 beats per minute during sleep. Although these rates are concerning to the observer, they are benign as long as they change with activity and the
pulse oximetry during the variations is normal. Sometimes with deep sleep and bradycardia, the P wave on an electrocardiogram (ECG) or cardiac monitor will have a
different appearance or may be absent. This is an escape rhythm, usually junctional
or low atrial in origin, and is usually a normal variant. In cases of concern, consultation
with a specialist could be considered.
Premature Beats
The most common cause of an irregular rhythm in a term neonate is the presence
of premature atrial contractions (PAC). Most often they are benign and will resolve
in a matter of days.20 The ECG shows an early beat preceded by a normal or
inverted P wave and a pause following the premature beat. If the interval between
the sinus beat and PAC shortens, the premature electrical activity from the atrium
finds the ventricles in their relative refractory period and the beat is conducted with
aberration, making the beat look like a premature ventricular contraction (PVC) but
the complex is preceded by a P wave. If the interval shortens even further, the
ventricular response may be dropped entirely, leaving a long pause (Fig. 4). The
variation in QRS morphology may lead one to think that there is a combination
Fig. 4. PACs with varying coupling intervals. The tracings (A, B) are simultaneous. Note PACs
(gray arrows) followed by a long pause. The PAC occurs during the refractory period of the
ventricles and is not conducted. If the PAC occurs a bit later, it finds the ventricles in their
relative refractory period and the PAC is conducted with aberration, looking like a PVC in
strip (B) (black and white arrow), but the beat is clearly preceded by a P wave. When the
PAC occurs even later, it is conducted normally (solid black arrow). (Adapted from Scagilotti
D, Deal BJ. Benign cardiac arrhythmias in the newborn. In: Emmanouilides GC, Riemenschneider, TA, Allen HD, et al, editors. Moss and Adams heart disease in infants, children, and
adolescents. 5th edition. Williams and Wilkins; 1995. p. 629; with permission.)
of PACs and PVCs, but that is not the case.21 All are isolated PACs and are
entirely benign.
PVCs are less common unless the patient is on cardiac drugs, postoperative from
cardiac surgery, or has significant hyperkalemia. Isolated PVCs are usually also benign
and will resolve within a few days. However, obtaining serum electrolytes and an echocardiogram could be considered to rule out pathologic causes.
Congenital Third-Degree Heart Block
With congenital third-degree heart block, the atria beat at their inherent rate, 110 to
150 beats per minute, and the ventricles beat at their rate of 60 to 70 beats per minute
with no relationship between the two (Fig. 5).21 Congenital third-degree heart block is
frequently seen in babies born to women with systemic lupus erythematosus; if not
already known, the diagnosis should be suspected when the dysrhythmia is discovered. Because this condition can be present for quite some time in utero, the infants
cardiovascular system can compensate for the low rate by increasing stroke volume
to maintain cardiac output. It is uncommon for a neonate to be symptomatic and need
pacing, but consultation with a specialist is advised.
Supraventricular Tachycardia
SVT is not uncommon in the neonate and must be distinguished from sinus tachycardia (Fig. 6).21 Most times it occurs in the absence of structural heart disease but
can be associated with lesions that produce a large right atrium, such as PS/PA
with massive tricuspid regurgitation. SVT in utero is also a common cause of nonimmune hydrops fetalis, caused by CHF, which may resolve when the SVT breaks.
SVT is also frequent in instances of the various pre-excitation syndromes (ie, WolfParkinson-White). Heart rates are in the range of 210 to 220 beats per minute and do
not change with activity of the infant. SVT in the presence of a normal heart can be
tolerated for several hours; unless the baby is symptomatic, with signs of CHF and
metabolic acidosis, there is usually sufficient time to diagnose and treat the infant
safely. Although maneuvers that produce vagal stimulation, ice to the forehead, and
Fig. 5. Complete heart block (third-degree heart block). Atrial rate is 145 beats per minute
(P-P interval 0.42 seconds) and regular. Ventricular rate is 60 beats per minute (R-R interval
1.0 second) and regular. P waves and QRS complexes are independent of each other. (From
Artman M, Mahony L, Teitel DF. Neonatal cardiology. New York: McGraw-Hill; 2002. p. 165;
with permission.)
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Fig. 6. SVT (A) and sinus tachycardia (B). SVT (A) with rate of 315 beats per minute. QRS
complexes are normal, but no P waves are seen. With sinus tachycardia (B) rate is 230 beats
per minute. P waves (arrows) are visible preceding a normal QRS. Running the paper at 2
speed helps to uncover and identify the P waves. (From Artman M, Mahony L, Teitel DF.
Neonatal cardiology. New York: McGraw-Hill; 2002. p. 166, 171; with permission.)
painful stimuli can break the SVT, their benefit is questionable because SVT frequently
recurs until maintenance medication is administered. When used in excess, these
interventions have their own inherent risks. Consultation with a specialist is usually
indicated.
PULSE OXIMETRY SCREENING
Universal newborn screening is the process by which newborns are tested shortly after birth for conditions that can cause severe illness, disability, or death. Through early
identification and treatment, newborn screening provides an opportunity to reduce

morbidity and mortality. Babies with CCHD are at significant risk of disability or
even death if their condition is not timely diagnosed and treated. With the vast improvements in fetal cardiac ultrasonography and the addition of POS, great strides
are being made in our diagnostic abilities for detecting CCHD. However, even when
prenatal ultrasounds are performed by those with specific training in CHD, fewer
than 50% of cases of proven CHD are identified. Further, it has been estimated that
up to 30% of infants with unrecognized CCHD may be discharged each year from
newborn nurseries in the United States.22,23 The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) estimates that each year about 1200 more newborns with CCHD could
be identified at birth hospitals using POS.23
Universal POS was added to the federally recommended uniform screening panel
through endorsement by the Secretary of Health and Human Services (HHS) in
September 2011.24,25 In December 2011, the American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP)
published their endorsement of the HHS recommendations for POS for CCHD in the
January issue of the journal Pediatrics.26 POS for CCHD has now become a national standard of care and is part of most but not all state newborn screening panels. Data regarding
US state participation in POS for CCHD can be found online on the AAP Web site.27 The
method of using POS for CCHD as a compliment to existing practices of care has been
shown to be cost-effective and associated with improved detection and outcomes for babies. Estimated costs run from about $5 to $14 per newborn screened.4,2731
In a 2012 meta-analysis of 13 studies with data for 229,421 newborn infants, the
overall sensitivity of pulse oximetry for detection of CCHD was 76.5% (95% confidence interval [CI] 67.783.5) and specificity was 99.9% (95% CI 99.799.9).32
A recommended standard protocol for POS of well newborns and best-practice
advice regarding implementation are now readily available to newborn health care
providers. Utilization of the AAP-endorsed CCHD POS algorithm is recommended
(Fig. 7).26
Newborn POS is most successful in identifying 7 primary and 5 secondary cardiac
lesions (Table 3).26,30 Obtaining both preductal and postductal pulse oximetry measurements is essential because defects with right-to-left shunting of desaturated
blood through the ductus arteriosus will not be detected with only preductal readings.
It is recommended that the probes be placed on both the right hand and one foot.
Screening at least 24 hours after delivery substantially reduces the false-positive
rate (0.05% after 24 hours vs 0.5% before 24 hours).32
Table 3
Screening targets for pulse oximetry
Primary Screening Targets
Secondary Screening Targets
Coarctation of the aorta
Pulmonary atresia
Interrupted aortic arch
Tetralogy of Fallot
Ebstein anomaly of the tricuspid valve
Double outlet right ventricle
Transposition of the great vessels
Single ventricle
Tricuspid atresia
Persistent truncus arteriosus
It is important to remember that the current POS protocol will not detect all forms of CHD whether
they are critical lesions or not.
Data from Refs.26,29,30
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Fig. 7. Algorithm for POS. Effect of altitude: It is important to note that the oxygen
saturation thresholds for a positive screening result may vary at high altitude. Appropriate studies need to be performed at higher altitudes to establish reliable thresholds.
(Adapted from Kemper AR, Mahle WT, Martin GR, et al. Strategies for implementing
screening for critical congenital heart disease. Pediatrics 2011;128(5):e1267; with
permission.)
Pulse Oximetry Clinical Assessment
Babies with saturation less than 90% in the right hand or foot should be immediately
referred for clinical assessment (see Fig. 7). Babies with 3 failed readings (pulse oximetry <95% in the right hand and foot OR >3% difference between the right hand and
foot) should receive
Clinical assessment (infectious and pulmonary pathology should be excluded)
Echocardiogram
Referral to pediatric cardiology, immediately if symptomatic, expeditiously if
asymptomatic
1. Passed Screens
A screen is considered passed if:
The oxygen saturation is 95% or greater in the right hand and foot with less
than 4% difference between the two readings; screening would then be
complete.
2. Failed Screens
A screen is considered failed if:
Any oxygen saturation measure is less than 90% (in the initial screen or in
repeat screens).
Oxygen saturation is less than 95% in the right hand and foot following 3 measurements, each separated by 1 hour.
A greater than 3% absolute difference exists in oxygen saturation between the
right hand and foot on 3 measurements, each separated by 1 hour.
Any infant who fails the screen should have a diagnostic echocardiogram performed
and be referred to a pediatric cardiologist for further management.
It is important to remember that it is possible for a baby to have a normal POS and
still have a congenital heart defect.
EVALUATION AND STABILIZATION WHEN CRITICAL CONGENITAL HEART DISEASE IS
SUSPECTED
After careful review of the history and physical examination, the physician must decide
about the need for further intervention. If the term neonate seems well and has passed
POS but has a benign dysrhythmia or has a grade i to ii mid- to high-frequency murmur
that is localized, a follow-up examination in 24 hours should be sufficient to decide on
the need for further referral. However, if the baby does not pass POS, obtaining both
an echocardiogram and consulting with a pediatric cardiologist would be prudent.
When the infant seems ill, general interventions should be initiated. Obtain a serum
glucose to screen for hypoglycemia. Check 4 extremity blood pressures. Screening for
sepsis and the initiation of antibiotics should also be considered. A chest radiograph
can be obtained and may show cardiomegaly or abnormal pulmonary vascularity.
However, in many instances, the chest radiography will be normal even in the presence of a CCHD lesion. The real value of the chest film is not to support or dismiss
the diagnosis of CHD but rather to identify other causes of distress in the newborn,
such as a pneumothorax or primary pulmonary disease. Unless a dysrhythmia is present, an ECG is usually not helpful.
If the infant is extremely ill, early control of the airway and placement of umbilical artery
and venous catheters would be strongly advised. When the index of suspicion of CCHD
is high, consideration should be given to initiating an infusion of prostaglandin E2 (PGE2).
PGE2 stabilizes a PDA and will usually reopen a constricted or closed ductus,
providing a reliable means of PBF in patients with CCHD and improvement in
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CHF. PGE2 is infused at 0.02 to 0.1 mg/kg/min.33 The infusion is usually begun
at 0.05 mg/kg/min and can be titrated depending on the changes in oxygenation, increase in blood pressure, and decrease in acidosis. Ideally PGE2 is infused into a reliable peripheral intravenous line; however, administration through an umbilical venous
catheter or an umbilical artery catheter will suffice at least temporarily. Apnea can
occur when initiating therapy, especially at higher doses. Therefore, it is important
to be ready to establish a stable airway when initiating therapy.
Taking these measures should aid in stabilizing the newborn allowing for subsequent transport to an appropriate critical care unit while awaiting further
interventions.
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congenital heart defects in asymptomatic newborn babies: a systematic review
and meta-analysis. Lancet 2012;379(9835):245964.
33. Allen HD, Gutgesell HP, Clark EB, editors. Moss and Adams heart disease in infants, children, and adolescents. 6th edition. New York: Lipincott Williams & Wilkens; 2001. p. 1462.
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A Pr a c t i c a l G u i d e t o t h e
D i a g no s i s , Tre a t m e n t , an d
P re v e n t i o n o f N e o n a t a l I n f e c t i o n s
Roberto Parulan Santos,
MD, MSCS
a,
*, Debra Tristram,
MD
KEYWORDS
Neonatal infections Newborn sepsis Early-onset sepsis Late-onset sepsis
Respiratory viral infections in infants Antibacterial therapy Antiviral therapy
Neonatal antimicrobial stewardship
KEY POINTS
Neonatal infections continue to cause morbidity and mortality in infants. Group B streptococcus and Escherichia coli are the most common agents of early-onset sepsis, whereas
coagulase-negative Staphylococcus is the predominant cause of late-onset sepsis.
Other important agents include Listeria monocytogenes, syphilis, Staphylococcus aureus,
herpes simplex virus, cytomegalovirus, and Candida spp.
There is increasing recognition of respiratory viral infections contributing to ruling out
sepsis in very young infants whose presentations are similar to bacterial infections.
Initial work up for neonatal infection consists of complete blood count and blood culture,
with the option of performing cerebrospinal fluid analyses and culture if clinically indicated. Serial determinations of biomarkers (C-reactive protein, procalcitonin, or neutrophil CD64) may be used adjunctively in the diagnosis and management of neonatal
infection.
Ampicillin and gentamicin remains the cornerstone of initial antimicrobial regimen for
neonatal infections. Third-generation cephalosporins should be used judiciously.
The use of antiviral (acyclovir, ganciclovir, valganciclovir, and oseltamivir) and antifungal
agents (fluconazole, amphotericin B, and voriconazole) may reduce mortality and
morbidity due to specific viral and fungal disease.
Different strategies, such as group B streptococcal prophylaxis, hand hygiene, immunization and immunoprophylaxis, antimicrobial stewardship, probiotics, and prebiotics, and
care bundles may be used in preventing infections in neonates.
Disclosures: None.
a
Pediatric Infectious Diseases, Bernard & Millie Duker Childrens Hospital, Albany Medical Center, 47 New Scotland Avenue (MC88), Albany, NY 12208, USA; b Pediatric Infectious Disease,
Department of Pediatrics, Albany Medical Center, 47 New Scotland Avenue (MC88), Albany,
NY 12208, USA
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INTRODUCTION
Neonatal infections continue to cause morbidity and mortality in infants. Among

approximately 400,000 infants followed nationally, the incidence rates of early-onset
sepsis (EOS) infection within 3 days of life were 0.98 cases per 1000 live births.1
More than two-thirds of the frequently isolated organisms were associated with group
B streptococcus (GBS) (43%) and Escherichia coli (29%). Although 20% of the term
infants were treated in the newborn nursery, 77% of the infected infants required
intensive care management. Of those who survived beyond 3 days of life, about
21% had an episode of late-onset sepsis (LOS) infection after 3 days of life. The overall
mortality rate of infected infants was 16%.
Newborn infants are at increased risk for infections because they have relative immunodeficiency. This may be due to decreased passage of maternal antibodies in preterm infants and to immaturity of the immune system in general.2,3 The innate immune
functions in infants are impaired with decreased production of inflammatory markers
(interleukin 6 and tumor necrosis factor)4 and with decreased dendritic and neutrophil
functions.5 The adaptive immune system is less than optimal with decreased cytotoxic
functions,2 decreased cell mediated immunity,6 and delayed or lack of isotype switching.2,3 Complement is important in opsonization and bacterial killing. In term infants,
complement levels are approximately half compared with adults.2 Taken together,
these predispose infants to severe, prolonged, or recurrent infections associated
with bacterial, viral, or fungal infections.
Suspected sepsis, presumed infection, and ruling out sepsis remain the most common diagnoses in the nursery intensive care unit (NICU). The American Academy of
Pediatrics (AAP) Committee on Fetus and Newborn7 has published a clinical report
extensively discussing clinically relevant challenges: identifying newborns with signs
of sepsis with high likelihood of EOS requiring antimicrobial regimen and identifying
healthy-appearing newborns with high likelihood of EOS requiring antimicrobial
regimen. The committee concluded that, although these guidelines are evidencebased, they may be modified by the clinical judgment of the provider. The primary
reason is that the clinical presentation of neonatal infection may be subtle and nonspecific, and may overlap with noninfectious causes.7,8 Many clinicians empirically start
broad spectrum antimicrobial regimen for infants considered at risk for sepsis but antibiotics are occasionally continued despite a negative blood culture. This practice
may be detrimental to the infant8 because it increases the risk of invasive fungal infections,9 necrotizing enterocolitis (NEC), or death,10,11 which increases the pressure for
selecting multidrug-resistant organisms12 and even the risk of LOS.11
The purpose of this article is to provide evidence-based practical approaches to the
diagnosis, management, and prevention of neonatal infections.
MICROBIOLOGIC AGENTS
The timing of transmission is one of the factors contributing to the cause of neonatal
infections. Different pathogens may be acquired during pregnancy (prenatal), during
delivery (perinatal), or after delivery (postnatal). Table 1 shows the different periods
of transmission of various neonatal pathogens.
The introduction of new molecular-based assays, such as quantitative real-time
polymerase chain reaction (PCR),13 has paved the way for increasing recognition of
respiratory viral infections contributing to ruling out sepsis in late-onset infections.14
Table 1 includes respiratory viral infections (coronavirus, enterovirus, human metapneumovirus, influenza, parainfluenza virus, respiratory syncytial virus [RSV], and
rhinovirus) as possible causes of postnatal infections in infants.1416
A Practical Guide to Neonatal Infections
Table 1
Periods of transmission in neonatal infections
Pathogens
During Pregnancy
During Delivery
After Delivery
Chlamydia trachomatis
1a
GBS
11
11
11
Enterococcus spp
Enterobacteriaceae
11
11
Listeria monocytogenes
Neisseria gonorrhea
Staphylococcus spp
11
Treponema pallidum
Ureaplasma urealyticum
Coronavirus
Cytomegalovirus
Enterovirus
Hepatitis B virus
Herpes simplex virus
Human immunodeficiency virus
Human metapneumovirus
Influenza
Parainfluenza virus
Parvovirus B19
Respiratory syncytial virus
Rhinovirus
Rubella virus
Varicella-zoster virus
Candida spp
Aspergillus spp
Bacteria
b
Viruses
Fungi
Protozoa
Toxoplasma gondii
a
b
common.
most common.
Data from Refs.1,8,1418
CLINICAL PRESENTATIONS
Early-Onset Infections
EOS is arbitrarily defined as infection within the first 3 days of life. The most common
organisms associated with EOS include GBS and E coli.1,19 In general, the risk of
bacterial infection in a healthy-appearing newborn remains relatively low.20 The
most common clinical findings include hypoglycemia (<40 mg/dL, 22%) and hypo
thermia (<36.5 C, 20%), followed by hyperglycemia (>140 mg/dL, 19%) and apnea
(18%).19
Edwards and Baker21 summarized that newborn infants with sepsis manifest similar
clinical signs as those with meningitis, including hyperthermia; hypothermia;
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respiratory distress; anorexia or vomiting; jaundice; and lethargy. Hypotension may be

more frequently found in infants with sepsis, whereas irritability, convulsions, and
bulging or full fontanel is found in those with meningitis. However, they cautioned
that absence of any of the aforementioned signs do not exclude central nervous system involvement. Furthermore, it was suggested to evaluate infants for various foci of
infections such as acute otitis media, conjunctivitis, osteomyelitis, pyogenic arthritis,
and skin soft-tissue infections.
Late-Onset Infections
LOS is arbitrarily defined as infection after 3 days of life. The most common organisms
isolated with LOS include coagulase-negative staphylococci in more than a third of the
cases, which may or may not be associated with a medical device.19 Yeast or Candida
spp infection is another important pathogen.19 Also, there is increasing recognition of
viral respiratory infections as a possible cause in LOS.14 The most common clinical
findings include hypothermia (41%), hyperglycemia (38%), apnea (38%), and bradycardia (30%).19
There are several factors that may increase the risk for LOS. There are significantly
more infants with LOS who have an indwelling central vascular catheter at the time of
infection than those infants with EOS (78% vs 10%, P<.0001).19 Additionally, there are
more infants with LOS who had a surgical procedure before infection (8% vs 1%,
P<.0001).
DIAGNOSTIC EVALUATIONS
The clinical presentations of infections may overlap with noninfectious causes in newborns. It has been previously demonstrated that relying on symptoms alone may not
be sufficient in diagnosing neonatal infections.22 Bacteremia has been reported in infants without clinical signs of sepsis.23 There are several diagnostic tests and principles that may guide clinicians in evaluating infants with infections.
Algorithm-Based Guideline
The AAP Committee on Fetus and Newborn have published a clinical report on the
evaluation of asymptomatic infants (<37 and 37 week gestation) with risk factors
for sepsis.7 Evaluation of asymptomatic preterm infants (<37-week) with risk factors
for sepsis is shown in Fig. 1.7 Similar algorithms for the evaluation of asymptomatic
term infants (37 week gestation) are available from the AAP Committee on Fetus
and Newborn. (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22547779).7
Additional principles in the evaluation of infants with risk factors for sepsis7 follow:
Major risk factors for neonatal sepsis include chorioamnionitis, prolonged
rupture of membrane 18 or more hours, and colonization of GBS with inadequate
intrapartum antimicrobial prophylaxis (IAP).

Chorioamnionitis usually presents as maternal fever greater than 38 C (100.4 F)
and its diagnosis should be discussed with the obstetric providers. Maternal fever may be the only abnormal finding in chorioamnionitis.
Adequate IAP means maternal treatment with penicillin, ampicillin, or cefazolin at
or earlier than 4 hours before delivery.
At least 1 mL of blood may be sufficient for a single blood culture from a peripheral vein. Blood culture from umbilical artery catheter or umbilical vein may be a
reliable alternative following aseptic techniques
Screening blood cultures have not been proven of value and are not
recommended.
Risk Factors
Diagnoscs
Anbiocs
Chorioamnionis, or
Inadequate intrapartum anmicrobial prophylaxis, or
Premature rupture of membranes 18 hours
Blood culture (BCx) at birth

Complete blood count/dierenal with or without C-reacve protein at 6-12 hours of life
Ampicillin
Gentamicin
If BCx posive, connue anbiocs & obtain lumbar puncture

If BCx negave, infant remains well, with abnormal lab values then, connue anbiocs if mother
received anbiocs during delivery
Managementt If BCx negave, infant remains well, with normal lab values then, may disconnue anbiocs
Fig. 1. Evaluation of asymptomatic preterm infants (<37-week gestation) with risk factors
for sepsis. (Adapted from Polin RA, Committee on Fetus and Newborn. Management of
neonates with suspected or proven early-onset bacterial sepsis. Pediatrics 2012;129(5):
100615.)
Complete blood count with differential has poor positive predictive value and it is
suggested waiting 6 to 12 hours after birth to avoid falsely normal values at birth.
Platelet counts remain low days to weeks after sepsis; thus this cannot be used in
following response to treatment.
The sensitivity of C-reactive protein (CRP) improves if done 6 to 12 hours after
birth. Bacterial sepsis is unlikely if CRP remains normal.
Lumbar puncture may be indicated in infants whom sepsis is highly suspected,
those infants with bacteremia, and in infants who fail to respond to antimicrobial
therapy.
Urinary tract infection in newborns is associated with episodes of bacteremia;
thus urine culture should not be part of routine sepsis workup.
Microbiologic evaluation using gastric aspirates, tracheal aspirates, or superficial
body sites cultures are of limited value and are not routinely recommended for
sepsis.
Biomarkers
Several acute-phase reactants or biomarkers (neutrophil CD64 [nCD64], procalcitonin

[PCT], or CRP) may be used adjunctively in the evaluation and management of
neonatal infection. The diagnostic usefulness of the various surrogate markers depends on the phases of neonatal sepsis: early phase or 2 to 12 hours (nCD64), mid
phase or 1224 hours (PCT), and late phase or greater than 24 hours (CRP).24
nCD64 is a high-affinity Fc receptor that increases with exposure to bacterial or
fungal agents.2,24 The usefulness of nCD64 is related to its high negative predictive
value as well as decreasing concentration on serial determinations on infants undergoing antimicrobial treatment of bacteremia.24 However, there is a scarcity of medical
evidence to recommend nCD64 for routine evaluation of neonatal infection and this
may not be readily available.
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Procalcitonin released from tissues increases with infection at around 2 hours and
peaks at 12 hours.7 It may also increase with noninfectious causes such as in respiratory distress syndrome and a physiologic increase during the first 24 hours of birth.7
PCT may not be readily available and the turnaround time varies in different institutions
from 20 minutes to 5 hours.24
CRP increases around 6 hours associated with an inflammatory response with
release of interleukin-6 and peaks at 24 hours.7 CRP has been used in the
algorithm-based guideline from the AAP Committee on Fetus and Newborn for the
evaluation of asymptomatic term and preterm infants with a risk factor for sepsis.7 It
is best used as part of a group of diagnostic tests2 together with blood culture and
white blood cell with differential in the evaluation of neonatal infection.7 However,
there is not enough medical evidence at this time to recommend serial determinations
of CRP in guiding duration of antimicrobial therapy in infants.7,24 Further studies are
needed to evaluate the usefulness of sequential determination of CRP and biomarkers
for an antimicrobial stewardship program (ASP) in the NICU setting.
Molecular-Based Tests
In 2013, the Infectious Disease Society of America, in collaboration with the American
Society for Microbiology, affirmed the importance of close collaboration and positive
working relationships between clinicians and microbiologists25 to better serve patients. The most up-to-date edition of the Red Book provides contact information
for expert advice and national collaborative study groups that give guidance on diagnostic assays regarding specific agents causing mother-to-child transmission. It is
important to know the various microbiologic resources available locally, which include
but are not limited to PCR and matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization-time of flight
mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF).
Rapid antigen tests for respiratory viruses may lack sensitivity,25 which is important
in the NICU setting in controlling local outbreaks. There are several nucleic acid amplification test platforms currently available that differ in the number of analytes
detected.25 It is important to obtain adequate specimens and to use suitable viral
transport media following manufacturer instructions.
MALDI-TOF is a valuable alternative to the conventional microbiologic assays; however, it may not be a readily available resource for diagnostic testing in most institutions. However, if it is available, it has several practical applications that may benefit
clinical management even in the NICU settings:
Earlier and accurate diagnosis of neonatal sepsis due to various bacteria26
Rapid identification of highly virulent GBS that causes meningitis and LOS in
infants27
Identification of maternal-to-child transmissions (chorioamnionitis and neonatal
infections) of opportunistic pathogen28
Accurate identification of bloodstream infection associated with fungal infections
in the NICU29
Identification and monitoring the spread of nosocomial outbreak (eg, methicillinresistant Staphylococcus aureus [MRSA]30 and Candida parapsilosis31 in the NICU).
THERAPEUTIC MANAGEMENT
When appropriate specimens for diagnostic evaluations are collected in clinically stable patients, then empirical antimicrobial therapy should be initiated for neonatal
sepsis. It is recommended to discuss complicated cases, such as multidrug resistant
organisms and infants not improving while on therapy or those requiring
unconventional dosing regimens and antimicrobial agents, with pediatric infectious

disease specialists.
Antibiotic Treatment
Ampicillin and gentamicin remains the cornerstone of initial antimicrobial regimen for
early-onset neonatal infections. The combination of such broad-spectrum antibiotic
regimens cover the most common cause (GBS and E coli in more than 70%)1 of
EOS and has synergistic activity (against GBS and Listeria monocytogenes).7,32 The
dosing regimen for ampicillin may change over time based on the chronologic age
of the infant and body weight.32 For example, an 8-day-old infant weighing greater
than 2000 g may need dosing adjustment of ampicillin from 150 mg/kg/d intravenous
(IV) divided every 8 hours to 200 mg/kg/d IV divided every 6 hours.
Once-daily dosing of gentamicin (4 mg/kg IV qd)32 has been used in the term
newborn for more than a decade. The pharmacodynamic characteristics of aminoglycosides that allow the use of once-daily dosing include concentration-dependent
killing (peak concentration to minimal inhibitory concentration [peak/MIC] ratio),33,34
postantibiotic effect with leukocyte enhancement,35,36 and prevention of adaptive
resistance.37
Third-generation cephalosporins should be used judiciously. There is significant association between the use of third-generation cephalosporins and invasive candidiasis in preterm infants.9 Cefotaxime has excellent penetration to the cerebrospinal
fluid and its therapeutic use should be limited to Gram-negative meningitis.7 Routine
use of cefotaxime for EOS may lead to rapid development of drug-resistant organisms.38 Ceftriaxone is contraindicated in neonates for 2 reasons: (1) it is highly protein
bound and may displace bilirubin progressing to hyperbilirubinemia7 and (2) concurrent administration with calcium-containing solutions may produce insoluble precipitates (ceftriaxone-calcium salts) leading to cardiorespiratory complications.39
The AAP periodically updates the dosing regimens and recommended therapy for
selected neonatal infections through Nelsons Pediatric Antimicrobial Therapy.32 It
provides various antimicrobial regimens (antibiotic, antiviral, and antifungal agents)
based on body weight of infants and their chronologic age or gestational and postnatal
age. Between new editions, a monthly update of short and interesting reports related
to pediatric antimicrobial therapy is posted at www.aap.org/en-us/aap-store/Nelsons/
Pages/Whats-New.aspx. Suggested durations of antibiotic therapy for EOS adapted
from 2014 Nelsons Pediatric Antimicrobial Therapy32 and the AAP Committee on
Fetus and Newborn7 are shown in Table 2.
Antiviral Therapy
There are several antiviral agents that can be used for the treatment of neonatal viral
infections. Acyclovir (60 mg/kg/d IV divided every 8 hours) is the treatment of choice
for term infants with herpes simplex virus (HSV) and varicella-zoster infections.32
There are several topical agents (0.15% ganciclovir ophthalmic gel, 0.1% iododeoxyuridine, or 1% trifluridine) that may be added to systemic antiviral regimen if there
is eye involvement.32 After parenteral therapy with acyclovir, it is recommended to
give HSV suppressive regimen (300 mg/m2/dose po tid), which improves neurodevelopmental outcomes of infants with central nervous system involvement.40 There is
currently no dosing regimen for valacyclovir in infants younger than 3 months of
age.32 The AAP Committee on Infectious Diseases and the Committee on Fetus and
Newborn recently published an algorithm-based guideline on the evaluation and treatment of asymptomatic infants born to mothers with active herpes lesions41 (http://
www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23359576).
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Table 2
Duration of antibiotic therapy for early-onset sepsis
Conditions
Duration & Comments
Newborns with early onset pulmonary

infiltrates (within 3 d of life)
4 d, may be sufficient based on limited data with no

additional risk factors, including
No chorioamnionitis
No bacteremia
Does not require O2 >8 h
Asymptomatic at 48 h of treatment
Mild or presumed sepsis
5 or 7 d, no prospective controlled studies; remains

controversial
Bacteremia without a focus
10 d
Uncomplicated GBS meningitis and

other gram-positive bacteria
1421 d
Gram-negative meningitis
21 d or 14 d after a negative cerebrospinal fluid

culture, whichever is longer
Data from Polin RA, Committee on Fetus and Newborn. Management of neonates with suspected
or proven early-onset bacterial sepsis. Pediatrics 2012;129(5):100615; and American Academy of
Pediatrics. Antimicrobial therapy for newborns. In: Bradley JS, editor. 2014 Nelsons pediatric antimicrobial therapy. Elk Grove Village (IL): American Academy of Pediatrics; 2014. p. 1736.
Oral valganciclovir (16 mg/kg/dose po bid) is the drug of choice for infants with
symptomatic congenital cytomegalovirus (CMV) disease with or without central nervous system involvement.32,42 The treatment of congenital CMV should be initiated
in the first month of life. Kimberlin and colleagues42 concluded from the phase III
randomized double-blind placebo-controlled multinational study that 6 months of valganciclovir regimen for symptomatic congenital CMV disease significantly improves
hearing and neurodevelopmental outcomes. There is significant improvement in language and receptive communication at 2 years of age. There was less grade 3 to 4
neutropenia at 6 weeks oral valganciclovir (w19%) compared with 6 weeks of IV
ganciclovir (63%) reported previously.
IV ganciclovir (6 mg/kg/dose bid) can be used initially for infants with symptomatic
congenital CMV disease if oral valganciclovir is contraindicated due to extreme prematurity or NEC.32 The same dosing regimen is the treatment of choice for perinatally
or postnatally acquired CMV disease associated encephalitis, hepatitis, pneumonitis,
or persistent thrombocytopenia.
Oral oseltamivir (3 mg/kg/dose bid) remains the treatment of choice for term infants
with influenza infections.32,43 Oral suspension formulation is available (6 mg/mL) and
should be offered to young infants with suspected or confirmed influenza infection
regardless of severity because they are at higher risk for complications.43 Limited
data are available for the weight-based dosing regimen for preterm infants using postmenstrual age (ie, gestational age plus chronologic age):
Less than 38 weeks postmenstrual age, 1 mg/kg/dose po bid
38 to 40 weeks, 1.5 mg/kg/dose po bid
Greater than 40 weeks, 3 mg/kg/dose po bid.
There is currently no dosing regimen for inhalational zanamivir for young infants.
Suggested durations of antiviral therapy, prophylaxis, and suppressive regimen for
congenital and perinatal or postnatally acquired viral infections adapted from 2014
Nelsons Pediatric Antimicrobial Therapy32 and the AAP Committee on Infectious Diseases and the Committee on Fetus and Newborn41 are shown in Table 3.
Table 3
Duration of antiviral therapy and suppressive regimen for congenital and perinatal or
postnatally acquired viral infections
Conditions
Duration & Comments
HSV: central nervous system or

disseminated disease
Acyclovir IV for 21 d, continue treatment until

repeat cerebrospinal fluid HSV PCR negative
HSV: skin, eye, or mouth disease
Acyclovir IV for 14 d
HSV suppressive regimen after IV therapy
Acyclovir po for 6 mo, monitor for neutropenia
Congenital CMV disease
Valganciclovir po for 6 mo
Perinatally or postnatally acquired

CMV disease associated encephalitis,
hepatitis, pneumonitis, or persistent
thrombocytopenia
Ganciclovir IV for 1421 d, monitor for relapse

after treatment completion
Influenza A and B viruses therapy
Oseltamivir po for 5 d
Influenza A and B viruses prophylaxis
Generally not recommended because of

limited safety and efficacy data, discuss with
pediatric infectious disease specialist
Data from Refs.32,4043
Antifungal Treatment and Prophylaxis
For candidiasis, IV amphotericin B deoxycholate (1 mg/kg/d) and IV fluconazole

(loading dose 25 mg/d on day 1, then 12 mg/kg/d on day 2) may be used for susceptible isolates.32 Lipid-based amphotericin (35 mg/kg/d) can be used if there is no
renal involvement because of inadequate kidney penetration. For aspergillosis, voriconazole (loading dose 18 mg/kg/d divided every 12 hours on day 1, then 16 mg/kg/d on
day 2) is the drug of choice. Local debridement may be needed for cutaneous aspergillosis. However, if there is clinical deterioration and if the infant is unstable for surgical intervention, consultation with pediatric infectious diseases specialists is
recommended.18 Fig. 2 shows an extensive cutaneous aspergillosis on a preterm infant who was a poor surgical risk successfully treated with combination antifungal
agents.
Fig. 2. 4 6 cm necrotic black eschar on the back of a preterm infant due to Aspergillus fumigatus and the residual scarring after several weeks of combination antifungal agents.
(From Santos RP, Sanchez PJ, Mejias A, et al. Successful medical treatment of cutaneous
aspergillosis in a premature infant using liposomal amphotericin B, voriconazole and micafungin. Pediatr Infect Dis J 2007;26(4):3646; with permission.)
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Fluconazole prophylaxis (6 mg/kg/d twice a week) may be indicated in high-risk

infants with birth weight of less than 1000 g from institutions with high incidence of
candidiasis (ie, above 10%).32 Fluconazole prophylaxis (25 mg/kg once weekly) may
be offered to young infants younger than 4 months old on extracorporeal membrane
oxygenation.
Suggested durations of antifungal treatment of candidiasis and aspergillosis adapted from 2014 Nelsons Pediatric Antimicrobial Therapy32 are shown in Table 4.
SURGICAL TREATMENT OPTIONS
Surgical interventions may be indicated for the source control of neonatal infections. In
a single-center 20-year retrospective study, NEC-associated blood stream infection
(BSI) occurred within 3 days of NEC diagnosis and was noted in approximately
43% (69 out of 158 infants with one episode of BSI). Infants with NEC-associated
BSI had higher odds (adjusted odds ratio 3.51; 95% CI 1.986.24) of having surgical
interventions compared with those without BSI.44 It is of utmost importance to correspond with pediatric surgery regarding source control of infection if clinically indicated
because NEC-associated BSI had higher odds of death (adjusted odds ratio 2.88;
95% CI 1.395.97).44
The following includes disease-specific conditions that may require surgical interventions for adequate source control of infections if the infant is clinically stable. Pediatric providers are encouraged to discuss with their surgical colleagues the following
surgical treatment options32:
Early debridement of cutaneous lesions with disseminated aspergillosis
Surgical drainage of peritonitis with bowel rupture
Wound cleaning and debridement rapidly spreading cellulitis (S aureus), necrotizing fasciitis (group A or B streptococci), tetanus neonatorum
Surgical drainage of pus in osteomyelitis and suppurative arthritis
Thoracostomy drainage of empyema
Surgical drainage of breast abscess may be needed to minimize damage to
breast tissue.
Surgical interventions for primary diseases in infants may also increase the risk for
neonatal infections. Higher rates of surgical site infection defined as superficial, deep,
and organ infections within 30 days of surgical procedures were noted among infants
following closure of gastroschisis.45 It is important to closely monitor infants with surgical site infection because they require significantly longer hospital stay.45
Table 4
Duration of antifungal treatment regimen for candidiasis and aspergillosis
Conditions
Duration & Comments
Candidiasis
Usually 3 wk, depending on disease; persistent disease requires:

Removal of infected catheters
Dissemination studies (eg, lumbar puncture if stable, cardiac echo, eye
examination, ultrasound of abdomen)
Antifungal susceptibility assay
Aspergillosis
Depends on disease and local debridement
Data from American Academy of Pediatrics. Antimicrobial therapy for newborns. In: Bradley JS,
editor. 2014 Nelsons pediatric antimicrobial therapy. Elk Grove Village (IL): American Academy
of Pediatrics; 2014. p. 1736.
PREVENTIVE STRATEGIES
There are various measures that can be used, depending on the availability of local
resources, to prevent neonatal infections. These include but are not limited to GBS
prophylaxis, hand hygiene, immunization and immunoprophylaxis, ASP, probiotics
and prebiotics, and care bundles.
Group B Streptococcal Prophylaxis
IAP is the only preventive strategy that substantially reduces the incidence of earlyonset GBS.7,46 The following are indications for IAP:
Previous infant with invasive GBS disease
GBS bacteriuria during the current pregnancy
Positive GBS vaginal-rectal screening (at 3537 week gestation) except for
cesarean delivery without labor or ruptured membrane
Unknown maternal GBS status with delivery at less than 37 weeks, rupture of

membrane at or before 18 hours, or fever equal to or greater than 100.4 F

(38 C).
Adequate IAP means receiving penicillin, ampicillin, or cefazolin for at least 4 hours
before delivery. Cefazolin may be used if with nonserious b-lactam allergy. If there is
history of serious b-lactam allergy (anaphylaxis, angioedema, respiratory insufficiency,
or urticarial rash) and if GBS isolate is susceptible, clindamycin may be used. Otherwise, vancomycin is an alternative. Because of high resistance rates, erythromycin is
not recommended.
The Center for Disease Control and Prevention has an extensive online resource on
GBS for clinicians, including the algorithm-based guidance on secondary prevention
of EOS in newborns.47 The Web page also provides an application, Prevent Group
B Strep, which includes guidance on various patient scenarios in collaboration with
different medical societies, such as the AAP and the American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists (http://www.cdc.gov/groupBstrep/guidelines/index.html).
Hand Hygiene
There is no doubt that hand hygiene remains the cornerstone in decreasing health
careassociated infections in different hospital settings, including the NICU. In fact,
there are various educational programs, multidisciplinary quality-improvement teams,
and guidelines on the proven effectiveness of hand hygiene in decreasing infection;
however, this is significantly affected by compliance.48,49 The Center for Disease
Control and Prevention has a Web site (http://www.cdc.gov/handhygiene/) containing
resources for hand hygiene in health care settings including an application, iScrub, for
monitoring hand hygiene compliance using an iPhone or iPod Touch.50 Thus, hand
hygiene guidelines are effective in reducing infections only if we use it.
Soap and water is recommended for decontaminating visibly soiled hands by rubbing
hands together vigorously for 15 seconds.48,49 Alcohol-based gel or foam or an antiseptic soap may be used for routine hand hygiene if not grossly contaminated.48,49
Hand hygiene compliance is improved if with available alcohol-based products at the infants bedside.48 Antimicrobial-impregnated towelettes or wipes are considered alternatives but not substitutes for washing with soap and water or alcohol-based gel or foam.49
Immunization and Immunoprophylaxis
The development of a safe and effective vaccine is arguably one of the greatest medical interventions in the last century.51 Hepatitis B vaccine is the only agent in the
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United States recommended to be administered at birth. The various brands available

in the United States have an efficacy of 90% to 95% in preventing hepatitis B virus
infection and disease.52 Additional information regarding recommended dosages of
hepatitis B vaccines are available in the most recent edition of the Red Book52 and
in the annual publication from the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices.53
The first dose in the primary series of the subsequent vaccines (diphtheria and tetanus
toxoids and acellular pertussis vaccine [DTaP], Haemophilus influenza type B, inactivated polio, pneumococcal, or rotavirus vaccine) can be administered at a minimum
age of 6 weeks.53
Care givers at home should be advised on the importance of immunizing family
members to protect infants who are too young to be vaccinated. This is called
cocooning54 and prevents vaccine-preventable diseases, such as pertussis and influenza, in young infants. Educational materials on cocooning for parents and clinicians
are available at the AAP Web site http://www2.aap.org/immunization/families/
cocooning.html.
In October 2012, the use of tetanus toxoid, reduced diphtheria toxoid, and acellular
pertussis vaccine (Tdap) during every pregnancy was recommended because of
increasing cases of pertussis in young infants in the recent years.55 The mothers protective antibodies against pertussis are short-lived and a dose of Tdap in a previous
pregnancy may not be protective to the infants of subsequent pregnancies.56
Young preterm infants (<1 year of age born at <29 weeks and 0-day gestation)
should receive palivizumab during the RSV season for immunoprophylaxis.57 Five
monthly doses of palivizumab at 15 mg/kg given intramuscularly will provide adequate
protection for 6 months. Other indications during the RSV season include preterm infants (<1 year of age born at <32 weeks and 0-day gestation) with chronic lung disease
of prematurity who required greater than 21% oxygen for at least the first 28 days of
life and young infants (<1 year of age) with certain hemodynamically significant heart
disease.57 Clinicians should consult the most current guidelines or policy statement
from the AAP regarding palivizumab prophylaxis among young children at increased
risk for hospitalization for RSV infection.
Antimicrobial Stewardships
Injudicious use of antibiotics can alter the neonates microflora that increases exposure and pressure that leads to antimicrobial resistance. The NICU milieu and interventions are permissive for the development of antibiotic-resistant organisms.48,58
The AAP Committee on Fetus and Newborn48 have listed ASP strategies that may
be useful in the NICU setting based on the guideline from the Infectious Diseases Society of America and the Society for Healthcare Epidemiology of America (Box 1).59
Probiotics and Prebiotics
There is some medical evidence supporting the use of probiotics in the prevention of
NEC in preterm infants. Probiotic is an oral supplement containing sufficient amount of
viable microorganisms that alters the host microflora with potential for health benefits.60 A meta-analysis based on 9 randomized control trials involving approximately
1400 infants born before or at 37 weeks gestation and/or weighing less than or equal
to 2500 g at birth showed that enteral use of probiotic significantly decreased the incidence of severe NEC and mortality.61 There were no severe adverse events or systemic infections directly related to the probiotics used were reported.
The AAP Committee on Nutrition,60 however, cannot recommend the use of all probiotics in young infants until further studies are done to resolve problematic issues.
They noted the large heterogeneity of the studies included in the review, the different
Box 1
Antimicrobial stewardship strategies in the nursery intensive care unit
Audit antimicrobial use and provide feedback to providers
Formulary restriction and preauthorization requirements for selected antibiotics
Education of care providers regarding antibiotic use or misuse and the development of
resistance
Development of clinical guidelines for selected medical conditions
Antimicrobial order forms
Specific plans for streamlining (broad-to-narrow spectrum antibiotic agents) and deescalation (elimination of redundant or unnecessary) antibiotic agents
Optimize dosing regimen based on individual patient characteristics such as weight, renal
status, or drug-drug interactions
Change from parenteral to oral antibiotic agents when appropriate and feasible
Data from Polin RA, Denson S, Brady MT, Committee on Fetus and Newborn, Committee on Infectious Diseases. Strategies for prevention of health care-associated infections in the NICU. Pediatrics 2012;129(4):e108593; and Dellit TH, Owens RC, McGowan JE Jr, et al. Infectious
Diseases Society of America and the Society for Healthcare Epidemiology of America guidelines
for developing an institutional program to enhance antimicrobial stewardship. Clin Infect Dis
2007;44(2):15977.
mixture of probiotics used, and that the combinations of probiotics used in the studies
are not available in the United States. Further, there remains some gap in knowledge
on which probiotic bacteria species to use, the microbial dose, as well as the duration
of administration.
In 2014, an updated review of the aforementioned meta-analysis of randomized
controlled trials continues to support a change in practice of supplementing preterm
infants with probiotics. The review provided similar results involving more than 5000
infants in whom probiotics significantly reduced severe NEC and mortality.62 However, the previously mentioned gap in knowledge remains, as well as the need for
comparative studies.
There is scarcity of medical evidence to recommend the addition of prebiotics such
as oligosaccharides in infant formula. Prebiotics are nondigestible food ingredients that
occur naturally or as dietary supplements that enhance growth of probiotic bacteria
such as Bifidobacterium spp.60 Several studies had reported that the addition of prebiotics in infant formula significantly increased the bifidobacteria counts in their stool
without adverse effects noted. However, clinical efficacy as well as cost-benefit analyses regarding the addition of oligosaccharides to infant formulas is lacking.60
For infants, human milk remains the best source of naturally occurring prebiotics
and probiotics, and immunoprotective compounds known to decrease the incidence
of respiratory and gastrointestinal infections.48,60
Nursery Intensive Care Unit Care Bundles
There are invasive procedures that may increase the infants risk of health careassociated infections in the NICU setting. These infections include central lineassociated
BSIs (CLABSIs), pneumonia, skin, and soft tissue infections; and, occasionally,
vaccine-preventable diseases and outbreak of respiratory viral infections. Care bundles are sets of interventions aimed at reducing health careassociated infections in
the NICU.48
503
504
Santos & Tristram
The most common cause of CLABSI48 and LOS8 are coagulase-negative staphylococci. Several randomized clinical trials on the use of low-dose vancomycin in parenteral solutions in preterm infants did not show significant decrease in the length of stay
and mortality.48 There is an antibiotic-lock therapy done in neonates that significantly
decrease CLABSI however it was not powered to answer whether vancomycin resistance occurred. Both are currently not recommended because of the lack of long-term
efficacy evidence as well as concern for development of drug-resistant organisms.
Infection control intended to decrease CLABSI in the NICU should include measures
to decrease extraluminal and intravascular catheterrelated infections. Various techniques and guidelines in the prevention of CLABSI in infants adapted from the AAP
Committee on Fetus and Newborn are shown in Box 2.48
There are specific practices that may be adapted in the local setting for preventing
vaccine-preventable diseases and outbreaks of respiratory viral infections. These
include but are not limited to vaccination of health care providers against influenza
and pertussis (Tdap), visitation guidelines to screen ill or symptomatic visitors, and
cohorting in cases of clustering of infections or in outbreak situations.48 Cohorting
may only be possible if early screening procedures, such as the use of PCR-based assays, are in place if available in cases of clustering of respiratory viral infections.1416
Further, appropriate isolation (eg, contact precautions for MRSA, droplet precautions
for influenza, and airborne precautions for measles) should be observed if the infant is
Box 2
Techniques and guidelines in the prevention of central lineassociated bloodstream infections
in the nursery intensive care unit
Techniques in the prevention of extraluminal catheter contamination
Hand hygiene
Aseptic catheter insertion and the use of maximal sterile barrier for catheter insertion and
care
Use of topical antiseptic
Use of sterile dressing
Guidelines in the prevention of intravascular catheter infection
Remove and do not replace umbilical artery catheters if signs of CLABSI, thrombosis, or
vascular insufficiency in the lower extremities are present.
Remove and do not replace umbilical venous catheters if signs of CLABSI or thrombosis are
present.
Clean the umbilical insertion site using an antiseptic such as povidone-iodine before catheter
insertion.
Avoid using topical antibiotic ointment or creams on insertion sites to prevent fungal
infections and antimicrobial resistance.
Use low doses of heparin (0.251.0 U/mL) to the fluid infused through umbilical arterial
catheter.
Remove umbilical catheters as soon as no longer needed or if signs of vascular insufficiency
to the lower extremities (for umbilical artery access) are present; they may be replaced if
malfunctioning. Umbilical artery catheters should not be left in place for more than 5 days.
Umbilical venous catheters may be used up to 14 days if managed aseptically.
Data from Polin RA, Denson S, Brady MT, Committee on Fetus and Newborn, Committee on
Infectious Diseases. Strategies for prevention of health care-associated infections in the
NICU. Pediatrics 2012;129(4):e108593.
colonized or infected with a pathogen requiring additional protection beyond standard

precautions.63
SUMMARY
Neonatal infections continue to cause morbidity and mortality in infants. GBS and E
coli are the most common agents of EOS, whereas coagulase-negative Staphylococcus is the predominant cause for LOS. There is increasing recognition of respiratory viral infections contributing to ruling out sepsis in very young infants whose
presentations are similar to bacterial infections. Blood culture at birth and white blood
cell with or without CRP has been used in the algorithm-based guideline for the evaluation of asymptomatic term and preterm infants with risk factors for sepsis. Ampicillin
and gentamicin remains the cornerstone of initial antimicrobial regimen for neonatal
infections. Third-generation cephalosporins should be used judiciously. The use of
antiviral (acyclovir, ganciclovir, valganciclovir, and oseltamivir) and antifungal (fluconazole, amphotericin B, and voriconazole) treatment and prophylactic regimens may
reduce mortality and morbidity to specific viral and fungal disease in infants. There
are various strategies, such as GBS prophylaxis, hand hygiene, immunization, and
immunoprophylaxis, ASP, probiotics, and prebiotics, and NICU care bundles, which
may be used in preventing infections in infants.
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39. Bradley JS, Wassel RT, Lee L, et al. Intravenous ceftriaxone and calcium in the
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Common Hematologic
P ro b l e m s i n t h e N e w b o r n
Nursery
Jon F. Watchko,
MD
KEYWORDS
Hyperbilirubinemia Hemolysis Anemia Polycythemia Thrombocytopenia
Rh disease G6PD deficiency
KEY POINTS
Early clinical jaundice or rapidly developing hyperbilirubinemia are often signs of hemolysis, the differential diagnosis of which commonly includes immune-mediated disorders,
red-cell enzyme deficiencies, and red-cell membrane defects.
Knowledge of the maternal blood type and antibody screen is critical in identifying nonABO alloantibodies in the maternal serum that may pose a risk for severe hemolytic disease in the newborn.
Moderate to severe thrombocytopenia in an otherwise well-appearing newborn strongly
suggests immune-mediated (alloimmune or autoimmune) thrombocytopenia.
INTRODUCTION
Hematologic problems often arise in the newborn nursery, particularly those related to
the red blood cell (RBC), the primary focus of this review. Their timely identification is
important to ensure appropriate care of the neonate. Common RBC disorders include
hemolytic disease of the newborn, anemia, and polycythemia. Another clinically relevant hematologic issue in neonates to be covered herein is thrombocytopenia. Disorders of white blood cells will not be reviewed.
RED BLOOD CELL
Clinical signs of an RBC disorder in the immediate newborn period are jaundice (hemolysis), pallor (anemia), and plethora (polycythemia). Of these RBC disorders, hemolysis is the most frequently encountered and often heralded by early-onset jaundice
Disclosure Statement: Dr J.F. Watchko reports providing expert testimony in legal cases related
to neonatal jaundice. No other potential conflict of interest was reported.
Division of Newborn Medicine, Department of Pediatrics, Magee-Womens Hospital, 300 Halket
Street and Childrens Hospital of Pittsburgh, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, 4401
Penn Avenue, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, USA
510
Watchko
(24 hours of age).1 In the current era of birth hospitalization, bilirubin screening using
total serum bilirubin (TSB) or transcutaneous bilirubin (TcB) measurements,2,3 an
elevated hour specific bilirubin greater than 75% on the Bhutani nomogram also is
a marker for hemolysis.4 Although there are many diagnostic considerations in the
interpretation of RBC disturbances in the neonatal period,5 a systematic approach
based on mechanism(s) of disease highlighted herein make this process more
straightforward.
HEMOLYTIC DISEASE OF THE NEWBORN
Catabolism of RBC-derived heme produces bilirubin that results in jaundice, the most
prevalent clinical condition requiring evaluation and management in neonates.68
Although hepatic and gastrointestinal immaturities that limit bilirubin clearance
contribute to neonatal jaundice, it is increasingly clear that accelerated RBC turnover
(hemolysis) plays a pivotal role in the risk for subsequent severe hyperbilirubinemia.4,811 Moreover, hemolysis potentiates the risk of bilirubin neurotoxicity912 and
treatment interventions are therefore recommended at lower TSB levels when hemolysis is present.13,14 Pediatricians must therefore have a strong working knowledge of
hemolytic disorders to properly care for the jaundiced neonate. These conditions are
outlined in Box 1 and include immune-mediated disorders, red-cell enzyme defects,
red-cell membrane abnormalities, and, for completeness but exceedingly rare in neonates, hemoglobinopathies.79
Immune-Mediated Hemolytic Disorders
Immune-mediated disorders are the most common cause of hemolysis in neonates

and should be suspected when there is (1) a heterospecific mother-infant pair in which
Box 1
Hemolytic conditions in the neonate
1. Immune-mediated (positive direct Coombs test)
a. Rhesus blood group: Anti-D, -c, -C, -e, -E, CW, and several others
b. Non-Rhesus blood groups: Kell, Duffy, Kidd, Xg, Lewis, MNS, and others
c. ABO blood group: Anti-A, -B
2. Red blood cell (RBC) enzyme defects
a. Glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase (G6PD) deficiency
b. Pyruvate kinase deficiency
c. Others
3. RBC membrane defects
a. Hereditary spherocytosis
b. Elliptocytosis
c. Stomatocytosis
d. Pyknocytosis
e. Others
4. Hemoglobinopathies
a. alpha-thalassemia
b. gamma-thalassemia
Common Hematologic Problems in Newborn Nursery
the infant expresses a red-cell antigen(s) foreign to the mother, (2) the presence of a
maternal antibody directed to the infant RBC antigen, (3) and a positive direct Coombs
test in the neonate indicating maternal antibody bound to the infant RBC. An initial priority in evaluating every newborn is therefore knowledge of the maternal blood type
and the maternal antibody screen. The latter deserves specific comment and
emphasis.
The maternal antibody screen is a routine test performed at maternal registration on
pregnancy diagnosis. The goal of screening is to identify non-ABO alloantibodies in
the maternal serum that may pose a risk for hemolytic disease in the newborn. A standard screening panel for alloantibodies is shown in Table 1. In addition, women who
are Rh-D negative and have a negative antibody screen at registration will have a
repeat screen at 24 to 28 weeks gestation before Rhogam (RhD-Ig) administration,
and another screen at delivery along with a type and Coombs on the infant to determine the need for postpartum Rhogam. Interpreting the results of the maternal antibody screen by pediatricians is critical in identifying mothers who carry a non-ABO
alloantibody, several of which can cause moderate to severe hemolytic disease of
the newborn as detailed in Table 2.15,16
Indeed, in addition to the classic Rhesus hemolytic disease of the newborn secondary to Rh-D isoimmunization, alloantibodies directed to non-D Rhesus antigens and a
broad range of non-Rhesus blood group antigens are seen. Increasingly, the latter 2
categories comprise a clinically relevant proportion of hemolytic disease of the
newborn. Identical maternal and infant blood grouping with respect to the ABO system
and Rh-D status (Rh positive or Rh negative) does not preclude the presence of a
clinically significant maternal alloantibody. Only a review of the maternal antibody
screen and the direct Coombs test on the infant will uncover such cases.1517 Indeed,
a type and direct Coombs test are indicated at delivery (cord or infant blood) on all
infants born to women with potentially significant alloantibodies.17
Table 3 outlines several clinical scenarios in which the maternal antibody screen is
positive, accompanied by the likely clinical explanation for the positive screen. It
should be readily apparent that the clinical details outlined in each case must be
sought out and appreciated by caretakers to identify infants at risk for non-ABO
immune-mediated hemolytic disease. The only scenario shown that does not indicate
maternal sensitization is that secondary to Rhogam administration. The latter positive
anti-D maternal antibody screen finding must be distinguished from the rare occurrence of late Rh-D sensitization by confirming that the mother was anti-D antibody
Table 1
Standard maternal antibody screening
Alloantibody
Blood Group
D, C, c, E, e, f, CW, V
Rhesus
K, k, Kpa, Jsa
Kell
Fya, Fyb
Duffy
Jka, Jkb
Kidd
Xga
Xg
Lea, Leb
Lewis
S, s, M, N
MNS
P1
Lub
Lutheran
511
512
Watchko
Table 2
Non-ABO alloantibodies reported to cause moderate to severe hemolytic disease of the
newborn
Within Rh system
Anti-D, -c, -C, -Cw, -Cx, -e, -E, -Ew, -ce, -Ces, -Rh29, -Rh32, -Rh42, -f, -G, -Goa,
-Bea, -Evans, -Rh17, -Hro, -Hr, -Tar, -Sec, -JAL, -STEM
Outside Rh system
Anti-LW, -K, -k, -Kpa, -Kpb, -Jka, -Jsa, -Jsb, -Ku, -K11, -K22, -Fya, -M, -N, -S, -s,
-U, -PP1pk, -Dib, -Far, -MUT, -En3, -Hut, -Hil, -Vel, -MAM, -JONES, -HJK,
-REIT
Data from Liley HG. Immune hemolytic disease. In: Nathan DG, Orkin SH, Look AT, et al, editors.
Nathan and Oskis hematology of infancy and childhood. 6th edition. Philadelphia: WB Saunders;
2003. p. 5685; and Eder AF. Update on HDFN: new information on long-standing controversies.
Immunohematology 2006;22:18895.
negative before Rhogam administration, and that she did indeed receive the Rhogam.
At times, the infant also will have a positive direct Coombs test secondary to maternal
Rhogam administration.1820 This finding is generally not thought to indicate a hemolytic risk,1820 albeit one recent case report suggests in rare circumstances it may.21
The latter has yet to be confirmed.22
It is also important to note that infants who are Rh-D positive and delivered to
women who are Rh-D negative during the first isoimmunized pregnancy (conversion
from negative to positive maternal antibody titer in that pregnancy) are at an approximately 20% risk of developing hemolytic disease of the newborn requiring treatment,
including the possibility of an exchange transfusion.23 This risk likely holds true for all
non-ABO alloantibodies. An infant born of a pregnancy during which maternal antibody conversion occurs will by definition carry the foreign antigen and may have a
positive direct Coombs test. Such infants are at risk of hemolytic disease of the
newborn, should be monitored closely for the development of severe hyperbilirubinemia with serial TSB measurements, and should not be discharged early from the birth
hospital.
ABO HEMOLYTIC DISEASE
Hemolytic disease related to ABO incompatibility is generally limited to mothers who

are blood group O and infants of blood group A or B.1,79,24 Although this association
exists in approximately 15% of pregnancies, only a subset of such infants will develop
significant hyperbilirubinemia.1,79,24 Defining which infants will be affected is difficult
to predict using standard laboratory screening tests.1,79,24 Ozolek and colleagues24
observed that of infants who are type A or B born to mothers who are blood group
O, approximately one-third had a positive direct Coombs test, and of those with a positive direct Coombs test, approximately 15% had peak serum bilirubin levels greater
than 12.8 mg/dL. Others have reported a higher percentage (approximately 50%) of
hyperbilirubinemia (defined by an hour specific TSB >95% on the Bhutani nomogram)
in infants who are type A or B who demonstrate a positive direct Coombs test born to
mothers who are type O.9,25 Regardless, only a subset evidence symptomatic hemolytic disease.1,79,24,25
Infants born of ABO-incompatible mother-infant pairs who have a negative direct
Coombs test as a group appear to be at no greater risk for developing hyperbilirubinemia than their ABO-compatible counterparts24 and the development of significant
hyperbilirubinemia in such neonates should prompt an evaluation for a cause other
than isoimmunization.26 Similarly, infants who are group A or B born to mothers who
Table 3
Interpreting maternal antibody status in Rh-D negative women at delivery
Maternal
Antibody Status
at 2428 wk
Before Rhogam
Negative
Negative
Infant at Risk
for Hemolytic
Disease of the
Newborn
Was Rhogam
Administered?
Maternal
Antibody Status
at Delivery
Maternal
Antibody
Negative
Yes
Positive
Anti-D
Passive anti-D; Rhogam effect
Unlikelya
Negative
No
Positive
Anti-D
Late sensitization to Rh-D
Yes
Diagnosis
Negative
Positive
No
Positive
Anti-D
Early sensitization to Rh-D
Yes
Positive
Positive
No
Positive
Anti-D
Sensitized pregnancy to Rh-D
Yes
Negative
Negative
Yes
Positive
Non-D antibody
Late sensitization to non-D antigen
Yes
At times, the infant will also have a positive direct Coombs test secondary to maternal Rhogam administration.1820 This finding is generally not thought to indicate a hemolytic risk,1820 albeit one recent case report suggests in rare circumstances it may.21 The latter has yet to be confirmed.22
Maternal
Antibody Status
at Beginning of
Pregnancy
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514
Watchko
are, respectively, incompatible group B or A, are not likely to manifest symptomatic

ABO hemolytic disease and fewer than 1% will have a positive direct Coombs test.24
Despite the difficulty in predicting its development, symptomatic ABO hemolytic
disease does occur.1,79 Hyperbilirubinemia seen with symptomatic ABO hemolytic
disease is often detected within the first 12 to 24 hours of life9,25 along with jaundice
(icterus neonatorum praecox)27 and accompanied by microspherocytosis on peripheral blood smear and an increased reticulocyte count.1,79,28 Indeed, of infants
who were ABO-incompatible direct Coombs positive who developed a TSB greater
than 95% on the Bhutani nomogram, 67% did so within the first 24 hours of life and
only 1 of 85 such infants developed hyperbilirubinemia after 48 hours.25 Hyperbilirubinemia in symptomatic ABO hemolytic disease is more often than not controlled with
intensive phototherapy alone. Only a few affected infants will develop hyperbilirubinemia to levels requiring exchange transfusion, albeit this must be monitored for.
Some ABO heterospecific mother-infant pairs hold potential for more severe hemolytic disease than others. O-B heterospecificity is associated with greater hyperbilirubinemia risk than O-A,9,25 in particular in mothers and neonates of African origin.1,2931
Although there is some conflicting literature regarding the latter,1 our recent institutional experience and other reports31,32 support the assertion that O-B heterospecificity poses some risk in African American individuals. The last 6 double-volume
exchange transfusions we performed for symptomatic ABO hemolytic disease have
all been in the context of O-B incompatibility and an African American mother. In
each case there were markedly elevated maternal immunoglobulin G (IgG) anti-B titers
in the range of 1:1024 to 1:2048, as contrasted with the more typical 1:8 to 1:32 titers in
mothers who are type O. None of the affected neonates had coexistent glucose-6phosphate dehydrogenase (G6PD) deficiency. High-titer anti-B IgG also has been
reported in the rare case of ABO hemolytic disease in mothers who are group A.33
During robust hemolysis of any cause, the TSB may continue to rise despite intensive phototherapy. Indeed, if not previously considered, failure of phototherapy to produce a prompt decline in TSB should raise the possibility of an underlying hemolytic
condition.34 It follows that in hyperbilirubinemic newborns with symptomatic ABO
hemolytic disease, TSB should be monitored during phototherapy to ensure the
TSB does not rise to levels that merit exchange transfusion.
Routine screening of all ABO-incompatible cord blood has been recommended in
the past and remains common practice in many nurseries. The literature, however,
suggests that such screening is not warranted given the cost and low yield,24,35,36
consistent with the tenor of recommendations of the American Association of Blood
Banks,17 the American Academy of Pediatrics,13 and the implementation of universal
newborn bilirubin screening during the birth hospitalization.14 A blood type and direct
Coombs test is indicated, however, in the evaluation of any newborn with early jaundice (<24 hours of age) and/or clinically significant hyperbilirubinemia, including those
treated with phototherapy.
Red Blood Cell Enzymopathies
G6PD9,3740 and pyruvate kinase (PK)41 deficiency are the 2 most common red-cell
enzyme disorders associated with marked neonatal hyperbilirubinemia. Of these,
G6PD deficiency is the more frequently encountered and it remains an important
cause of kernicterus worldwide, including the United States, Canada, and the United
Kingdom,9,3740,42,43 the prevalence in Western countries a reflection in part of immigration patterns and intermarriage. The risk of kernicterus in G6PD deficiency also
relates to the potential for unexpected rapidly developing extreme hyperbilirubinemia
in this disorder associated with acute severe hemolysis after exposure to oxidative
stress.9,40,4244 Reported hemolytic triggers in neonates include among others naphthalene (moth balls), methylene blue, antimalarials, sulfonamides, maternal ingestion
of fava beans (favism by proxy), and infection.9,3740,44 This mode of G6PD-deficiencyassociated hazardous hyperbilirubinemia can result in kernicterus that may
not always be preventable.9,40,44
More than 20% of neonates in the United States pilot kernicterus registry, a database of voluntarily submitted information on 125 infants who developed kernicterus
between 1992 and 2004, had G6PD deficiency, as contrasted to an estimated 4%
to 7% background population prevalence.43 African American neonates comprised
the most (73%),43 reflecting the high prevalence of this condition (12.2% for boys;
4.1% for girls)45,46 and risk for hazardous hyperbilirubinemia (TSB 30 mg/dL) in
newborns of black race.47 The latter belies the fact that black race is associated
with a lower risk of TSB in the ranges of 13 to 15 mg/dL, 16 to 19 mg/dL, and
20 mg/dL.44 This apparent discrepancy is best explained by G6PD deficiency itself
and its potential to predispose to acute hemolysis, resultant rapid rise in TSB, and hazardous hyperbilirubinemia.9,3740,44
G6PD deficiency is an X-linked enzymopathy affecting hemizygous males, homozygous females, and a subset of heterozygous females (via X chromosome inactivation).
Hemolysis in G6PD deficient neonates, however, may be self-limited and overt anemia
not necessarily noted, masked by other factors that modulate hemoglobin concentration in the immediate newborn period.9,3740 Severe jaundice rather than anemia may
predominate in the clinical presentation.48 In other neonates, the combination of G6PD
deficiency with hepatic bilirubin conjugation defects of Gilbert syndrome significantly
increases the risk of hyperbilirubinemia.44,49 Pediatricians must have a high index of
suspicion for G6PD deficiency in populations with increased risk (Mediterranean
region, Africa, the Middle East, Asia), and in particular the African American neonate,
with significant hyperbilirubinemia.9,13,3740,44
PK deficiency typically presents with jaundice, anemia, and reticulocytosis.41 Such
jaundice may be severe, as reflected by one series in which a full third of affected infants
required exchange transfusion to control hyperbilirubinemia50 and kernicterus in PK deficiency, and is well described.41,51 The diagnosis of PK deficiency is often difficult, as the
enzymatic abnormality is frequently not simply a quantitative defect, but in many cases
involves abnormal enzyme kinetics or an unstable enzyme that decreases in activity as
the red cell ages.41 It is inherited as an autosomal recessive disorder, but notably,
most affected individuals are compound heterozygotes; that is, they express 2 different
disease-causing alleles: 1 maternal and 1 paternal in origin.41 The diagnosis of PK deficiency should be considered whenever persistent significant hyperbilirubinemia and a
picture of nonspherocytic, Coombs-negative hemolytic anemia is observed, particularly
in populations in which consanguinity is prevalent, including newborns of Amish
descent52 and in other remote communities where intermarriage is prevalent.53,54
RED BLOOD CELL MEMBRANE DEFECTS
Establishing a diagnosis of RBC membrane defects is classically based on the development of Coombs-negative hyperbilirubinemia, a positive family history, and
abnormal RBC smear, albeit it is often difficult because newborns normally exhibit a
marked variation in red-cell membrane size and shape.7,55 Spherocytes, however,
are not often seen on RBC smears of hematologically normal newborns and this
morphologic abnormality, when prominent, may yield a diagnosis of hereditary spherocytosis (HS) in the immediate neonatal period.7,28 Given that approximately 75% of
families affected with hereditary spherocytosis manifest an autosomal dominant
515
516
Watchko
phenotype, a positive family history can often be elicited and provide further support
for this diagnosis.7 More recently, Christensen and Henry56 highlighted the use of an
elevated mean corpuscular hemoglobin concentration (MCHC) (36.0 g/dL) and/or
elevated ratio of MCHC to mean corpuscular volume, the latter they term the neonatal
HS index (>0.36, likely >0.40)28,57 as screening tools for HS. An index of greater than
0.36 had 97% sensitivity, greater than 99% specificity, and greater than 99% negative
predictive value for identifying HS in neonates.57 Christensen and colleagues28 also
provided a concise update of morphologic RBC features that may be helpful in diagnosing this and other underlying hemolytic conditions in newborns.
The diagnosis of HS can be confirmed using the incubated osmotic fragility test
when coupled with fetal red-cell controls7 or eosin-5-maleimide flow cytometry.28
One must rule out symptomatic ABO hemolytic disease by performing a direct
Coombs test, as infants so affected also may manifest prominent microspherocytosis.26 Moreover, HS and symptomatic ABO hemolytic disease can occur in the
same infant and result in severe hyperbilirubinemia and anemia.58
Of other red-cell membrane defects, only hereditary elliptocytosis, stomatocytosis,
and infantile pyknocytosis have been reported to exhibit significant hemolysis in the
newborn period.7,5961 Hereditary elliptocytosis and stomatocytosis are both
rare.7,59 Infantile pyknocytosis, a transient red-cell membrane abnormality manifesting
itself during the first few months of life, is more common. The pyknocyte, an irregularly
contracted red cell with multiple spines, can normally be observed in newborns,
particularly premature infants, in whom up to approximately 5% of red cells may manifest this morphologic variant.7,61 In newborns affected with infantile pyknocytosis, up
to 50% of red cells exhibit the morphologic abnormality and this degree of pyknocytosis is associated with jaundice, anemia, and reticulocytosis.7,61 Infantile pyknocytosis can cause hyperbilirubinemia that is severe enough to require control by exchange
transfusion.61 Red cells transfused into affected infants become pyknocytic and have
a shortened life span, suggesting that an extracorpuscular factor mediates the
morphologic alteration.7,61 Whatever the mechanism underlying infantile pyknocytosis, the disorder tends to resolve after several months of life. Pyknocytosis also may
occur in other conditions, including G6PD deficiency and hereditary elliptocytosis,
and these must be excluded before a diagnosis of infantile pyknocytosis is made.7
HEMOGLOBINOPATHIES
Defects in hemoglobin structure or synthesis are rare disorders that infrequently manifest themselves in the neonatal period. Of these, the alpha-thalassemia syndromes
are the most likely to be clinically apparent in newborns. Each human diploid cell contains 4 copies of the alpha-globin gene and, thus, 4 alpha-thalassemia syndromes
have been described reflecting the presence of defects in 1, 2, 3, or 4 alpha-globin
genes. Silent carriers have 1 abnormal alpha-globin chain and are asymptomatic.
Alpha-thalassemia trait is associated with 2 alpha-thalassemia mutations and in neonates is not associated with hemolysis. Alpha-thalassemia trait, however, is common
in black populations and can be detected by a low mean corpuscular volume of less
than 95 m3 (healthy infants 100 to 120 m3).62 Hemoglobin H disease results from the
presence of 3 thalassemia mutations and can cause hemolysis and anemia in
neonates.63 Homozygous alpha-thalassemia (total absence of alpha-chain synthesis)
results in profound hemolysis, anemia, hydrops fetalis, and almost always stillbirth or
death in the immediate neonatal period.
The pure beta-thalassemias do not manifest themselves in the newborn period
and the gamma-thalassemias are (1) incompatible with life (homozygous form), (2)
associated with transient mild to moderate neonatal anemia if 1 or 2 genes are

involved that resolves when beta-chain synthesis begins, or (3) in combination with
impaired beta-chain synthesis, associated with severe hemolytic anemia and marked
hyperbilirubinemia.64
DIAGNOSIS OF HEMOLYSIS
It is increasingly apparent that the diagnosis of hemolysis in neonates remains problematic and hemolytic conditions as a result are underrecognized. Several reports
demonstrate that the etiology of extreme (>25 mg/dL) or hazardous (>30 mg/dL) hyperbilirubinemia is often unclear and not identified,10,43,65 when almost assuredly a hemolytic process is an important contributor to its genesis in many if not most cases.4,9,66
Indeed, Christensen and colleagues66 recently reported that when an exhaustive
search, including next-generation sequencing of a panel of hematologic and hepatic
gene variants involved in neonatal hyperbilirubinemia was performed, a specific diagnosis was made in all infants with extreme hyperbilirubinemia (TSB >25 mg/dL) and
without exception in this cohort was hemolytic in nature. Because the catabolism of
heme derived from red-cell hemoglobin produces equimolar amounts of carbon monoxide (CO) and bilirubin, the point-of-care measurement of end-tidal CO corrected for
ambient CO (ETCOc) may prove a useful adjunct in identifying infants with hemolysis at
risk for subsequent severe hyperbilirubinemia and in further stratifying phototherapy
and exchange transfusion treatment criteria.67,68
HEMOLYSIS AND NEUROTOXICITY RISK
Although bilirubin-induced brain injury is complex and multifactorial in nature,69 the

clinical impression that hemolysis potentiates bilirubin neurotoxicity in neonates is
long-standing, dating back to the early work on Rh isoimmunization70 and subsequent
debates on the TSB treatment thresholds for exchange transfusion in hemolytic and
nonhemolytic hyperbilirubinemia.71,72 The neurotoxicity intensifying effect of hemolysis has recently been reaffirmed.1012 In one such study, Gamaleldin and coworkers11
showed that the TSB threshold for identifying 90% of infants with bilirubin encephalopathy was 25.4 mg/dL (434 mmol/L) in infants with neurotoxicity risk factors (n 5
138; primarily hemolytic disorders) as contrasted with 31.5 mg/dL (539 mmol/L) in
those without (n 5 111).11 The presence of Rh hemolytic disease alone greatly
increased the risk for bilirubin encephalopathy (odds ratio 48.6; 95% confidence interval 14168).11
Other risk factors that might increase the risk of brain damage in an infant who has
severe hyperbilirubinemia are shown in Box 2.14 Treatment is recommended at a
lower TSB when any of the neurotoxicity risk factors is present.13,14
Jaundice Evaluation and Management
The identification, evaluation, and management of neonatal jaundice are outlined in

detail in the 2004 American Academy of Pediatrics hyperbilirubinemia practice guideline and is beyond the scope of the current review.13 An update with clarifications published in 2009 highlighted the utility of universal bilirubin screening before birth
hospitalization discharge and provided an algorithm for management and follow-up
according to the predischarge bilirubin measurement(s), gestation, and risk factors
for subsequent severe hyperbilirubinemia.14
Phototherapy and exchange transfusion remain the mainstays of treatment with
intervention thresholds based on hour specific TSB measurement, gestation, and
risk factors for neurotoxicity.13,14 Phototherapy can be effectively administered in
517
518
Watchko
Box 2
Risk factors for bilirubin neurotoxicity
Isoimmune hemolytic disease
G6PD deficiency
Asphyxia
Sepsis
Acidosis
Albumin less than 3.0 g/dL
Data from Maisels MJ, Bhutani VK, Bogen D, et al. Hyperbilirubinemia in the newborn infant
> or 535 weeks gestation: an update with clarifications. Pediatrics 2009;124:11938.
the newborn nursery, including during rooming-in, skin-to-skin contact, and breastfeeding.73 Szucs and Rosenman73 recently highlighted this family-centered method
of phototherapy delivery in the mothers room, another example of which is shown
in Fig. 1. Exchange transfusion, on the other hand, because of attendant risks and
the need for intensive monitoring during the procedure, must be performed in the
neonatal intensive care unit (NICU).34,74
ANEMIA
The causes of neonatal anemia (defined here as a hematocrit at birth <39)75 are
numerous and diagnostically categorized as those secondary to hemolysis, hemorrhage, and impaired RBC production. In the newborn nursery, hemolytic disorders
Fig. 1. Infant receiving family-centered care phototherapy delivery in mothers room and in
skin-to-skin contact with father. Protective eye cover is worn by both the infant and parent.
are the most frequently encountered cause for anemia and any hemolytic condition
can lead to anemia. In this regard, practitioners must monitor for progressive anemia
in alloimmune-mediated disease and subsequent later need for packed RBC transfusion in the weeks after birth hospitalization discharge.1
Impaired RBC production is a rare cause of neonatal anemia, with the most frequent
current etiology being fetal infection with parvovirus B-19; an important cause of fetal
anemia and hydrops fetalis. If the degree of fetal anemia is modest and chronic in
nature, such infants may appear otherwise well at birth. Pure RBC aplasia (Diamond-Blackfan anemia) is exceedingly uncommon.
Perinatal hemorrhage is the third diagnostic category and a commonly observed
cause of neonatal anemia, particularly that secondary to fetomaternal hemorrhage
and twin-twin transfusion syndrome. Like other etiologies, if the degree of anemia is
modest and chronic in nature, such infants will not be compromised from a cardiorespiratory standpoint and will appear well without pallor . If fetal-neonatal blood loss is
extensive and/or acute (regardless of cause), infants will be ill-appearing and
managed in the NICU. The diagnosis of fetomaternal hemorrhage is made using
Kleihauer-Betke testing on maternal blood. This test is based on the property of fetal
hemoglobin (as opposed to adult hemoglobin) to resist elution from the RBC by strong
acid to detect fetal RBCs in the maternal circulation. Twin-twin transfusion syndrome
should be suspected in monochorionic twins and is often diagnosed in utero.
POLYCYTHEMIA
Polycythemia (venous hematocrit 65%) in seen in infants across a range of conditions

associated with active erythropoiesis or passive transfusion.76,77 They include, among
others, placental insufficiency, the infant of a diabetic mother, recipient in twin-twin
transfusion syndrome, and several aneuploidies, including trisomy 21.76,77 The clinical
concern related to polycythemia is the risk for microcirculatory complications of hyperviscosity. However, determining which polycythemic infants are hyperviscous and
when to intervene is a challenge. Microviscometer measurements on blood are often
not clinically available and the generalizability of normative data limited by several variables, including the site and time of sampling. Clinicians therefore screen for the presence of abnormal signs of hyperviscosity several of which are nonspecific and seen in
other clinical contexts76 and include lethargy, hypotonia, jitteriness, respiratory
distress, hypoglycemia, and cyanosis. A hematocrit measurement should be part of
the evaluation of infants with these signs to rule out the presence of polycythemia.
The management of the polycythemic neonate remains highly controversial
because of the lack of evidence showing that aggressive treatment improves longterm outcome.76,77 Most recent recommendations suggest limiting partial exchange
transfusion to those polycythemic neonates with abnormal signs.76,77 Partial volume
exchange transfusion, if indicated, should be performed as early as possible and
done so in the NICU with intensive monitoring. Polycythemia also is associated with
increased risk for hyperbilirubinemia.
THROMBOCYTOPENIA
Thrombocytopenia (platelet count <150,000/mL) occurs in fewer than 1% of all newborns and is far more common in sick neonates in the NICU than the otherwise
healthy-appearing term or late-preterm neonate in the newborn nursery. Analogous
to anemia, the causes of thrombocytopenia can be grouped into (1) increased destruction, (2) loss (consumption), and (3) decreased production. For the otherwise healthyappearing full-term neonate in the newborn nursery during the birth hospitalization,
519
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Watchko
the most common etiology is immune-mediated destruction secondary to alloimmune

and autoimmune-mediated mechanisms.78,79 Indeed, the classic presentation of such
disorders is a term neonate who appears well but manifests petechiae or bruising and
has isolated thrombocytopenia.78,79
Neonatal alloimmune thrombocytopenia (NAIT) is often severe (median 19,000/
mm3, range 100051,000 mm3)78 and affected newborns are frequently firstborns.78
Fetomaternal incompatibility for human platelet antibodies 1a, 5b, and 15b account
for 95% of NAIT with HPA-1a the most common.78 Such infants are at risk for intracranial hemorrhage and should have neuroimaging to rule out this complication. Monitoring and treatment will require transfer to the NICU.
In contrast, autoimmune-mediated thrombocytopenia results from the passage of
maternal antibodies directed to both maternal and infant platelet antigens and is associated with a history of or concurrent maternal thrombocytopenia and the diagnosis of a
maternal autoimmune disorder, including among others maternal immune thrombocytopenic purpura, lupus, or other collagen vascular disorder.79 In some cases, the maternal
diagnosis is first made during the evaluation of her thrombocytopenic neonate.79
Other etiologies of thrombocytopenia encountered in the newborn nursery include
congenital intrauterine infection and consumptive processes, such as vascular tumors
in Kasabach-Merritt syndrome and renal vein thrombosis.78,79 Inherited etiologies
include those associated with aneuploidies (eg, trisomy 21), Fanconi anemia, thrombocytopenia absent radii syndrome, and congenital amegakaryocytic thrombocytopenia.78,79 Thus, all thrombocytopenic infants in the healthy-infant nursery should
have a careful examination for splenomegaly and lymphadenopathy (congenital infection), limb abnormalities, and cutaneous hemangiomas.78 Infants with severe thrombocytopenia should be referred to the NICU for evaluation, monitoring, and management.
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Coombs testing in the newborn nursery. J Perinatol 2012;32:9669.
36. Maisels MJ, Watchko JF. Routine blood typing and DAT in infants of group O
mothers. J Perinatol 2013;33:57980.
37. Beutler E. G6PD deficiency. Blood 1994;84:361336.
38. Luzzatto L. Glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase deficiency and hemolytic
anemia. In: Nathan DG, Orkin SH, Look AT, et al, editors. Nathan and Oskis hematology of infancy and childhood. 6th edition. Philadelphia: WB Saunders; 2003.
p. 72142.
39. Valaes T. Neonatal jaundice in glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase deficiency.
In: Maisels MJ, Watchko JF, editors. Neonatal jaundice. Amsterdam: Harwood
Academic Publishers; 2000. p. 6772.
40. Watchko JF, Kaplan M, Stark AR, et al. Should we screen newborns for glucose-6phosphate dehydrogenase deficiency in the United States? J Perinatol 2013;33:
499504.
41. Mentzer WC. Pyruvate kinase deficiency and disorders of glycolysis. In:
Nathan DG, Orkin SH, Look AT, et al, editors. Nathan and Oskis hematology of infancy and childhood. 6th edition. Philadelphia: WB Saunders; 2003. p. 685720.
42. Bhutani VK, Johnson LH, Maisels MJ, et al. Kernicterus: epidemiological strategies for its prevention through systems-based approaches. J Perinatol 2004;
24:65062.
43. Johnson L, Bhutani VK, Karp K, et al. Clinical report from the pilot USA Kernicterus Registry (1992 to 2004). J Perinatol 2009;29(S1):S2545.
44. Watchko JF. Hyperbilirubinemia in African American neonates: clinical issues and
current challenges. Semin Fetal Neonatal Med 2010;15:17682.
45. Nkhoma ET, Poole C, Vannappagari V, et al. The global prevalence of glucose-6phosphate dehydrogenase deficiency: a systematic review and meta-analysis.
Blood Cells Mol Dis 2009;42:26778.
46. Chinevere TD, Murray CK, Grant E Jr, et al. Prevalence of glucose-6-phosphate
dehydrogenase deficiency in US Army personnel. Mil Med 2006;171:9057.
47. Wickremasinghe AC, Kuzniewicz MW, Newman TB. Black race is not protective
against hazardous bilirubin levels. J Pediatr 2013;162:10689.
48. Kaplan M, Hammerman C, Vreman HJ, et al. Severe hemolysis with normal blood
count in a glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase deficient neonate. J Perinatol
2008;28(4):3069.
49. Kaplan M, Renbaum P, Levy-Lahad E, et al. Gilbert syndrome and glucose-6phosphate dehydrogenase deficiency: a dose-dependent genetic interaction
crucial to neonatal hyperbilirubinemia. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 1997;94:
1212832.
50. Matthay KK, Mentzer WC. Erythrocyte enzymopathies in the newborn. Clin Haematol 1981;10:3155.
51. Oski FA, Nathan DG, Sidel VW, et al. Extreme hemolysis and red-cell distortion in
erythrocyte pyruvate kinase deficiency. I. Morphology, erythrokinetics and family
enzyme studies. N Engl J Med 1964;270:102330.
52. Rider NL, Strauss KA, Brown K, et al. Erythrocyte pyruvate kinase deficiency in an
old-order Amish cohort: longitudinal risk and disease management. Am J Hematol 2011;86(10):82734.
53. Christensen RD, Eggert LD, Baer VL, et al. Pyruvate kinase deficiency as a cause
of extreme hyperbilirubinemia in neonates from a polygamist community.
J Perinatol 2010;30:2336.
54. Christensen RD, Yaish HM, Johnson CB, et al. Six children with pyruvate kinase
deficiency from one small town: molecular characterization of the PK-LR gene.
J Pediatr 2011;159:6957.
55. Stockman JA. Physical properties of the neonatal red blood cell. In: Stockman JA,
Pochedly C, editors. Developmental and neonatal hematology. New York: Raven
Press; 1988. p. 297323.
56. Christensen RD, Henry E. Hereditary spherocytosis in neonates with hyperbilirubinemia. Pediatrics 2010;125(1):1205.
57. Yaish HM, Henry E, Baer VL, et al. A simple method of screening newborn infants
for hereditary spherocytosis. J Appl Hematol 2013;4:2732.
58. Trucco JI, Brown AK. Neonatal manifestations of hereditary spherocytosis. Am J
Dis Child 1967;113:26370.
59. Oski FA. The erythrocyte and its disorders. In: Nathan DG, Oski FA, editors.
Hematology of infancy and childhood. Philadelphia: W.B. Saunders; 1993.
p. 1843.
60. Caprari P, Maiorana A, Marzetti G, et al. Severe neonatal hemolytic jaundice
associated with pyknocytosis and alterations of red cell skeletal proteins. Prenat
Neonatal Med 1997;2:1405.
61. Tuffy P, Brown AK, Zuelzer WW. Infantile pyknocytosis: common erythrocyte
abnormality of the first trimester. Am J Dis Child 1959;98:22741.
62. Schmaier A, Maurer HM, Johnston CL, et al. Alpha thalassemia screening in
neonates by mean corpuscular volume and mean corpuscular hemoglobin concentration. J Pediatr 1973;83:7947.
63. Pearson HA. Disorders of hemoglobin synthesis and metabolism. In: Oski FA,
Naiman JL, editors. Hematologic problems in the newborn. Philadelphia: W.B.
Saunders; 1982. p. 24582.
64. Oort M, Heerspink W, Roos D, et al. Haemolytic disease of the newborn and
chronic anemia induced by gamma-beta thalassemia in a Dutch family. Br J
Haematol 1981;48:25162.
65. Christensen RD, Lambert DK, Henry E, et al. Unexplained extreme hyperbilirubinemia among neonates in a multihospital healthcare system. Blood Cells Mol Dis
2013;50:1059.
66. Christensen RD, Nussenzveig RH, Yaish HM, et al. Causes of hemolysis in neonates with extreme hyperbilirubinemia. J Perinatol 2014;34:6169.
67. Tidmarsh GF, Wong RJ, Stevenson DK. End-tidal carbon monoxide and hemolysis. J Perinatol 2014;34:57781.
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68. Stevenson DK, Vreman HJ, Wong RJ. Bilirubin production and its measurement.
In: Stevenson DK, Maisels MJ, Watchko JF, editors. Care of the jaundiced
neonate. New York: McGraw-Hill; 2012. p. 2939.
69. Watchko JF, Tiribelli C. Bilirubin-induced neurologic damagemechanisms and
management approaches. N Engl J Med 2013;369:202130.
70. Hsai DY, Allen FH, Gellis SS, et al. Studied of serum bilirubin in relation to kernicterus. N Engl J Med 1952;247:66871.
71. Watchko JF, Oski FA. Bilirubin 20 mg/dL 5 vigintiphobia. Pediatrics 1983;71:
6603.
72. Watchko JF. Vigintiphobia revisited. Pediatrics 2005;115:174753.
73. Szucs KA, Rosenman MB. Family-centered evidence-based phototherapy delivery. Pediatrics 2013;131:e1982.
74. Watchko JF. Exchange transfusion. In: Maisels MJ, Watchko JF, editors. Neonatal
jaundice. Amsterdam: Harwood Academic Publishers; 2000. p. 16976.
75. Brown MS. Physiologic anemia of infancy: normal red-cell values and physiology
of neonatal erythropoiesis. In: Stockman JA, Pochedly C, editors. Developmental
and neonatal hematology. New York: Raven Press; 1988. p. 24974.
76. Mimouni FB, Merlob P, Dollber S, et al. Neonatal polycythaemia: critical review
and a consensus statement of the Israeli Neonatology Association. Acta Paediatr
2011;100:12906.
77. Remon JI, Raghavan A, Maheshwari A. Polycythemia in the newborn. NeoReviews 2011;12:e20.
78. Blanchette VS. Neonatal alloimmune thrombocytopenia. In: Stockman JA,
Pochedly C, editors. Developmental and neonatal hematology. New York: Raven
Press; 1988. p. 14568.
79. Fernandez KS, de Alarcon P. Neonatal thrombocytopenia. NeoReviews 2013;14:
e74.
N e o n a t a l Me d i c a t i o n s
Robert M. Ward,
MD
a,
*, Justin Stiers,
MD
, Karen Buchi,
MD
KEYWORDS
Neonatal abstinence syndrome Opioids Circumcision Analgesia
Pharmacogenomics Single nucleotide polymorphism
KEY POINTS
Maternal substance use and abuse during pregnancy is dramatically increasing in North
America.
Despite increasing frequency of neonatal abstinence syndrome (NAS), high-quality evidence and treatment guidelines remain limited and there is wide interinstitution variability
in treatment strategies.
Newborns show physiologic responses to painful stimuli. Untreated or undertreated pain
in the newborn period may have effects on future response to pain and anxiety.
Current available evidence for nonpharmacologic and pharmacologic approaches to pain
management for common medical procedures (including circumcision) are described.
Single nucleotide polymorphisms contribute to diseases and differences in drug metabolism (pharmacogenomics/pharmacogenetics) and must be distinguished from developmental differences in the level of activity of drug-metabolizing enzymes.
MATERNAL DRUG ABUSE AND NEONATAL ABSTINENCE SYNDROME
The American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) Committee on Drugs and the Committee
on Fetus and Newborn recently updated their Clinical Report on Neonatal Withdrawal.1,2 This was an extensive review of the topic. In it, they recommended that
every nursery have a policy for assessing maternal substance abuse and have a standardized plan for the evaluation and management of infants at risk for or showing withdrawal. In this article, we work through an example of such a standardized plan.
Fig. 1 provides an algorithm that can be used by the nursery team to assess the
newborn with in utero drug exposure and to make management decisions regarding
neonatal abstinence syndrome (NAS). It represents a starting point for the organization
of care and decision making regarding nursery management of in utero drug
exposure.
Disclosure: The authors have no conflicts of interest related to the content of this article.
a
Division of Neonatology, Department of Pediatrics, University of Utah, 295 Chipeta Way, Salt
Lake City, UT 84108, USA; b Division of General Pediatrics, Department of Pediatrics, University
of Utah, 295 Chipeta Way, Salt Lake City, UT 84108, USA
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Ward et al
Fig. 1. Algorithm for assessment and treatment of neonatal abstinence syndrome (NAS).
The numbers refer to sections in the text with discussions.
Assessment of the Drug-Exposed Newborn

1. Confirm the maternal history of prenatal drug use
It is important to know all of the drugs taken by the mother, because that will help to
determine the risk to the newborn of developing withdrawal symptoms. It is also often
the first opportunity for the pediatrician to meet the mother and start forming a positive
relationship around the care of her infant.
2. Perform drug testing
Each nursery should have a uniform policy regarding which infants to test for drug
exposure. Oral and Strang3 surveyed drug screening practices in Iowa and compiled
a list of maternal and neonatal characteristics that are used to determine which
motherinfant dyads should undergo drug testing (Table 1). Other nurseries have a
universal screening policy, for example, 7 hospitals in the greater Cincinnati area
began universal drug testing on all expectant mothers in 2013.4
The most common type of drug testing is performed on urine and meconium, but
umbilical cord analysis is gaining more acceptance. A drugs of abuse screen for urine
reflects only recent exposure (within the last 72 hours). It is best to collect the first void
after delivery, which is easily missed. Meconium analysis has become the gold standard for detection of in utero drug exposure because a positive test indicates exposure sometime after the 18th week of gestation. The first stool after birth is the best to
use because it has been there the longest. Umbilical cord analysis also reflects exposure from 18 weeks gestation onward and has been shown to be similar to meconium
in sensitivity.5 It requires a cord segment, which can be collected at the time of delivery. This assay is commercially available and is gaining favor because the cord can be
collected at delivery and there is no need to wait until passage of stool.
3. Start discharge planning and assess the safety of the home environment
The concern that a mother of a newborn has a substance use problem is a red flag that
the home environment may not be safe. Many newborns exposed to drugs of abuse in
utero are medically stable and may not require a lengthy in-hospital stay. It is imperative to involve the social work team as soon as possible to help assess the mothers
ability to care for her newborn at home. Child protective services may need to be
involved, depending on state law. It is equally important to identify the medical
home, especially if discharge management involves medications and close follow-up.
4. Is the newborn at risk for developing clinically significant neonatal abstinence
syndrome?
After assessing the type of in utero drug exposure, the pediatrician needs to assess
whether this infant is at risk to develop clinically significant NAS. This step is important
in medical decision making for the newborn.
Table 1
Factors to be considered in perinatal illicit drug screening
Maternal Risk Factors
Infant Risk Factors
Report of illicit drug use

Maternal or paternal incarceration
Prostitution
Domestic violence
Multiparity (>3)
Children removed from home owing to child abuse
Poor prenatal care
Tobacco/alcohol use during pregnancy
Depression
Unexplained acute hypertension
Unexplained stroke, myocardial infarction
Abruptio placenta
Precipitous labor (<3 h)
Sexually transmitted diseases (human
immunodeficiency virus, hepatitis B, hepatitis C,
and syphilis)
Signs of withdrawal or drug influence, intravenous
drug use
Signs of withdrawal
Unexplained low birth weight
Unexplained small head circumference
Unexplained prematurity (<37 wk)
Congenital anomalies
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Withdrawal,
neurobehavioral
dysregulation,
and
neonatal
abstinence
syndrome There remains a lack of consistency in the literature and in pediatric prac-
tice in the use of the term NAS. The term neonatal abstinence syndrome (NAS) has
been principally used to describe neonatal symptoms occurring after in utero exposure to opioids.5 This is because the majority of those newborns exposed to in utero
opioids display a consistent neurobehavioral pattern, therefore qualifying as a syndrome. The pattern of neonatal neurobehaviors attributed to other substances such
as cocaine or methamphetamine, as discussed herein, is not nearly as consistent
and usually decreases progressively after birth. Non-narcotic drugs can cause
neonatal psychomotor behavior that are consistent with withdrawal (often referred
to as discontinuation signs), but rarely require pharmacotherapy when they are not
used in conjunction with other drugs that affect the central nervous system. These
include alcohol, barbiturates, caffeine, benzodiazepines, nicotine, selective serotonin
reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), serotoninnorepinephrine reuptake inhibitors (SNRIs) and
other antidepressants.
5. Stimulants, selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors, serotoninnorepinephrine
reuptake inhibitors, and benzodiazepines can cause discontinuation signs of
neurologic irritability, but rarely require pharmacotherapy
Methamphetamine
There are no identifiable patterns of neurobehavior that are consistent with a
methamphetamine exposure syndrome.6
The Infant Development, Environment, and Lifestyle (IDEAL) Study found that
methamphetamine had a small but measurable impact on birth weight and
gestational age, and that heavy methamphetamine use was related to lower
arousal, more lethargy, and increased physiologic stress in the newborn.
This is similar to the effects of cocaine and can be termed neurobehavioral
dysregulation.6
These subtle neurobehavioral findings are consistent with previous findings in
cocaine- and nicotine-exposed children.
Cocaine
There is no cocaine withdrawal syndrome because the neonatal presentation
is not consistent. Both depressed and excitable profiles have been observed,
which may be related to the dose and exposure.7
The Maternal Lifestyle Study (MLS) is a longitudinal cohort study focusing on
cocaine-exposed children. It enrolled motherinfant dyads from 1993 to
1995 and has been providing longitudinal developmental follow-up ever since.
The MLS found that cocaine-exposed infants showed more soft signs and
behavioral effects in the newborn period.7
As with methamphetamine exposure, the most pressing management issues
are those concerning the safety of the home environment
Antidepressants: SSRIs and SNRIs
SSRIs and SNRIs are 2 of the most commonly prescribed classes of drugs
in pregnancy, yet not much is known about their potential for adverse
effects
They cross the placenta and accumulate in the fetus to varying degrees, depending on the specific drug and its pharmacologic properties.
It is uncommon to need pharmacotherapy to treat neonatal symptoms of withdrawal from SSRIs or SNRIs. It is important to be aware that clinical signs like
irritability can develop over the first week of life. This is something to communicate with the parents and the medical home provider.8,9
Given that methamphetamine, cocaine, SSRIs, SNRIs, and benzodiazepines rarely

require pharmacotherapy, the algorithm presented herein recommends observation,
nonpharmacologic treatment and heightened awareness in the medical home of the
infants developmental risk.
6. Marijuana, a special case
There are changing attitudes regarding marijuana use in the United States. Twenty
states have laws legalizing some form of marijuana use, and 2 states (Colorado and
Washington) have legalized its recreational use. This means that the nursery provider
will be encountering the marijuana-exposed neonate with increased frequency. The
clinician should not anticipate that the marijuana-exposed newborn will develop clinically significant neonatal withdrawal signs requiring pharmacotherapy with exclusively gestational marijuana exposure.10 The need to report to child protective
services for marijuana positivity is state dependent.
7. Provide nonpharmacologic care and developmental follow-up in the medical home
Provision of nonpharmacologic care does not usually require use of a scoring tool.
Some clinicians do decide to start using a scoring system (see step 10) to evaluate
signs and symptoms of withdrawal in newborns exposed to these nonopioid drugs.
This is an area that needs more research to assess the costbenefit ratio of using a
scoring system and requiring a predetermined length of stay.
All infants born to a mother who used drugs that affect the central nervous system
should undergo periodic developmental assessment in the medical home. It is not only
the direct exposure to these drugs that may place the infant at risk, but the myriad of
other environmental factors that may accompany drug use that also may impact early
development.
8. Short-acting opioids
If the newborn is exposed to opioids, then she is at risk for developing clinically significant NAS. The significant increases in NAS that we are all seeing in our nurseries is
owing, for the most part, to the increase in prescription pain medication misuse and
abuse across the country. Most of these are short-acting opioids. There is a difference
in the risk to the infant in developing clinically significant NAS when exposed to shortacting opioids compared with those exposed to long-acting opioids, such as methadone and buprenorphine. Kellogg and colleagues11 in 2011 reported a retrospective
review from Mayo Clinic. Out of 26,314 deliveries from 1998 to 2009, they found
167 women who used prescription narcotics during pregnancy and NAS was seen
in only 5.6% of the infants. The reasons for the mothers to be on these potent analgesics included headaches, chronic pain, genitourinary pathology (stones), and orthopedic issues. The AAP 2012 Clinical Report states that if it has been longer than 1 week
since the mother last took the opioid, then the incidence of neonatal withdrawal is relatively low. This statement is based on an observation made by a pediatrician in a 1957
paper and referred to heroin exposure.12 Despite the surge of short-acting pain medication use in pregnant women over the past decade, there has been no systematic
analysis of the risk of NAS in relationship to the time of the last use of a narcotic analgesic before delivery.
9. Long-acting opioids
It is important to recognize when a newborn has been exposed to long-acting opioids

in utero to evaluate the risk of developing NAS and determine the length of observation. Methadone is a long-acting opioid that remains the standard of care for narcotic
addiction management in pregnancy in the United States. The elimination half-life in
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neonates is longer than 24 hours; thus, the exposed newborn may not start manifesting signs of NAS for up to 3 days. Buprenorphine alone (Subutex) or in combination
with naloxone (Suboxone) are also long-acting opioids whose use is increasing for
opioid dependency in pregnancy. Newborns exposed to these long-acting opiates
are very likely to develop clinically significant NAS.
10. Start neonatal abstinence scoring
The standard of care for the in-patient management of NAS begins with the use of an
abstinence scoring tool to measure the severity of the withdrawal and help to guide
treatment as it increases or decreases. The goal of NAS scoring tools is to quantify
the severity of symptoms to determine the need for pharmacotherapeutic intervention.
The scoring tools help to provide uniform assessments of newborns at risk for clinically
significant NAS. Nurseries should establish a consistent method to train and periodically assess the use of the scoring system by the nursing staff to maximize interrater
reliability for the score that physicians use to determine pharmacologic intervention.
Several scoring systems are available; the most common are the modified Neonatal
Abstinence Scoring System, The Lipsitz tool,13 and the Neonatal Withdrawal Inventory.14 Each of these tools uses a different number as the threshold for determining
the need to initiate pharmacotherapy.
Length of observation The length of observation for the newborn at risk for developing
clinically significant NAS should be standardized in nurseries.15 Prenatal care providers

need to be aware that NAS occurs in 55% to 94% of opioid exposed newborns1 and that
early discharge for the newborn may not be indicated medically. It is generally accepted
that an infant born to a mother who took a low dose of a short-acting opioid during pregnancy may be safely discharged if asymptomatic after 3 days of observation.1 Smirk
and colleagues16 at the University of Melbourne conducted a 10-year retrospective
analysis of babies treated pharmacologically for NAS and found that 94% of the 142 infants exposed to long-acting opioids (methadone or buprenorphine) developed NAS
symptomatology requiring treatment by day 5 of life.
11. Provide nonpharmacologic care
The goal of NAS treatment is to relieve symptoms that are interfering with physiologic
stability, weight gain, the ability to be consoled, and sleep. There is also a paramount
need to educate the mother (who in most cases will be involved with the ongoing care
of her infant) about her newborns neurobehavioral dysfunction and the best ways to
interact with her newborn. Box 1 lists common nonpharmacologic techniques. Velez
and Jansson17 wrote an in-depth article for physicians and nurses about the
complexity and vulnerability of the opioid-dependent pregnant and post partum
woman and her infant that offers practical advice to nursery staff to better understand
these dyads.
Breastfeeding issues It is safe to breastfeed with methadone and other opioids if the
mother is negative for the human immunodeficiency virus, and she is not using other
substances of abuse, such as cocaine or methamphetamine. Methadone concentrations in breast milk are low and not related to maternal dose of the opioid.18 A 2010
retrospective study looking for independent predictors of response to treatment for
NAS found that infants born to mothers on methadone who were breastfed had a
shorter median duration of pharmacotherapy for NAS and that the favorable response
correlates with the volume of the breast milk ingested as a proportion of total intake.19
Sudden cessation of breastfeeding by mothers treated with methadone has been
Box 1
Nonpharmacologic treatment
Nursing support
Swaddling with soft blankets
Quiet, dark environment
Frequent small feedings of hypercaloric formula
Try a pacifier with simple syrup
Skin care
High degree of suspicion for other disease processes
Organize care to minimize handling
Swings; helpful for some
Determine level of stimulation infant can tolerate
Data from Velez M, Jansson LM. The opioid dependent mother and newborn dyad: nonpharmacologic care. J Addict Med 2008;2(3):11320.
associated with recurrence of NAS.19 The physician and mother should both be aware
of this risk.
Rooming-in Some nurseries are allowing newborns with NAS to room in with their
mothers. Hunseler and colleagues20 in Germany found that infants with opioidinduced NAS required less pharmacotherapy for NAS and had shorter hospital stays
when placed with their mothers in the postnatal unit compared with infants admitted to
the neonatal unit.
12. Start pharmacotherapy if scores reach treatment threshold
There are numerous pharmacologic treatment strategies published. Reviews have, in

general, concluded that there is a lack of strong evidence on the relative efficacy of the
different drug regimens for the treatment of NAS.1 Morphine remains the most widely
used initial medication for treatment of NAS. Nurseries should establish dosing regimens for morphine based on their chosen scoring system to standardize the
approach. Treatment algorithms available on-line specify initial dosing, escalation,
and weaning parameters.21,22 Treating NAS with methadone is also used in some
nurseries. The Vermont Childrens Hospital guidelines specify a dosing and weaning
schedule.21 No longer recommended for treatment of NAS are diazepam, paregoric,
and diluted tincture of opium.
13. Adjunctive pharmacotherapyconsider with polydrug exposure
When morphine or methadone alone is not controlling symptoms to enable the

newborn to sleep and eat adequately, adjunctive treatment may be considered. If
the newborn has been exposed to multiple drug classes or has significant neurologic
hyperirritability, oral phenobarbital can be considered. It is important to remember that
phenobarbital does not control gastrointestinal symptoms. A neonatal loading dose of
16 mg/kg per day is recommended with a maintenance dose between 2 and 8 mg/kg
per day, titrated to the symptoms.
Clonidine is also used for adjunctive and, at times, primary treatment for NAS.23 It
reduces the signs and symptoms of NAS while the newborns neurons are reversing
their tolerance to opioids. Because of its potential to cause hypotension, blood
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pressures and heart rates should be closely monitored before each dose for 24 hours
after initiation or change in dosing.
14. Discharge issues: medication weaning, safety of the home environment, and
establishing a medical home
The discharge of newborns treated for NAS depends on a number of factors. Although
many treatment algorithms specify that the scores must be below the treatment
threshold, it is more important to assess the goals of treatment and determine if the
newborn is (1) gaining weight appropriately, (2) getting adequate sleep, and (3) has
behavior that a nonprofessional caretaker can manage. Scoring helps to direct the uniform and consistent care given, but these characteristics, not a number on a scoring
system, are what determines readiness for discharge.
As stated in step 3 of the algorithm, the safety of the home environment and assessment of support systems for the home care provider need to be determined. In addition, a medical home for the newborn needs to be established, with direct
communication to the primary care provider about the out-patient management.
One of the most important issues is the out-patient management of the drug(s)
used to treat NAS. The decision to send the newborn home on NAS medications
with a plan to wean the medication over time varies across the country. Medication
options for home weaning include phenobarbital24,25 and methadone.26 There are
no published studies on the outpatient weaning of clonidine. As with the in-patient
management of NAS, the out-patient management has not been rigorously studied
to assess the success of different weaning regimens.
The goal of out-patient pharmacologic management should be to wean the infant off
the medications as efficiently as is safely possible while still maintaining adequate
weight gain, sleep, and the ability to be consoled. This process can be challenging
for both the medical home provider and the caregivers, especially when assessing infant behavior at 4 to 6 weeks of age. This is the age when all term newborns become
fussier as a part of normal development. There is a risk that parents and medical care
providers will perceive that any discomfort or annoying behavior in the infant needs to
be treated with medications. This needs to be taken into consideration when assessing the infant exposed to opioids in utero and it should not be presumed that all irritability is owing to withdrawal. Nonpharmacologic intervention as described herein can
be used. The medical home should also provide developmental surveillance of infants
with NAS, as with other high-risk newborns.
Summary
The newborn exposed to a drug in utero is best managed with a standard team
approach with flexibility to consider each infant individually and utilize outpatient management in the medical home.
PAIN
Pain Perception
All newborns have the ability to perceive pain during medical procedures after birth.
However, the newborns ability to perceive and remember painful experiences has
not always been appreciated.27,28 Before the 1980s, it was incorrectly believed that
a newborns nervous system was too underdeveloped and immature to perceive
pain. Embryologic studies identified the presence of neuroanatomic, neurophysiologic, and neurochemical substrates for pain perception appearing as early as the
7th week of gestation and developing fully by 20 to 24 weeks gestation.29,30 These
findings were further supported by clinical studies demonstrating improved outcomes
of operative procedures when anesthesia was provided.31 Not only do newborns

experience pain, but more recent studies suggest that pain perception may actually
be heightened in newborns compared with older children and adults.32 There is
growing evidence that untreated or undertreated pain in the newborn period has
long-term negative consequences, including hypersensitivity to future pain as well
as future emotional, behavioral, and learning disabilities.3235 These long-term consequences and altered pain sensitivity can be reduced or eliminated when adequate pain
relief is provided.36,37
Inadequate Treatment of Pain in Newborns
Given what is now known about neonatal pain perception and the consequences of
untreated pain, the AAP Committee on the Fetus and Newborn policy states, Every
health care facility caring for neonates should implement an effective painprevention program, which includes strategies for routinely assessing pain, minimizing
the number of painful procedures performed, effectively using pharmacologic and
nonpharmacologic therapies for the prevention of pain associated with routine minor
procedures, and eliminating pain associated with surgery and other major procedures.38 Multiple tools have been validated for the assessment of pain in newborns
and many proven and safe therapies are available for treating pain in neonates.38
Despite heightened awareness of neonatal pain and drastic improvements in the ability to recognize and treat pain in newborns, pain is underrecognized and undertreated
for an alarming number of routine, minor and major, painful procedures.39,40
Nonpharmacologic Interventions for Pain
Developmentally appropriate swaddling, nonnutritive sucking, skin-to-skin contact,

attention to behavioral cues, and breastfeeding have all been shown to reduce pain
scores in neonates undergoing minor procedures.38 The simple act of skin-to-skin
contact can reduce crying and grimacing during minor procedures by as much as
82%.41 The addition of breastfeeding with skin-to-skin contact nearly eliminates clinical symptoms of pain from a heel stick with reduction of crying by 91% and grimacing
by 84% compared with swaddling alone.42 Breastfeeding or breast milk feeding during painful procedures should be encouraged whenever feasible.43,44
Pharmacologic Interventions for Pain
Sucrose
Although breastfeeding provides superior analgesia compared with oral sucrose,4446

multiple studies have shown oral sucrose to be an effective analgesic for term and preterm neonates undergoing a minor procedure.4753 Although the optimal dose and
formulation have not been defined, sucrose, glucose, and even artificial sweeteners
at a variety of doses all have similar analgesic effects compared with placebo.48,5456
Guidelines were recently published with expert consensus for sucrose indications,
dosage per painful procedure, age-related dosage over 24 hours, method of delivery,
and contraindications.57 Outside of the immediate newborn period, oral sucrose analgesia remains an effective pain management strategy for immunizations up to
6 months of age and venipuncture up to 3 months age.47,52,56,58
Further studies are needed to determine the mechanism of action, optimal dosing,
and safety of repeated doses of oral sucrose (or glucose). Although the mechanism of
action for analgesic sweets is unknown, it seems to be related to gustaoception,
because intragastric sucrose administration does not have any effect on pain.59
Studies in rodents suggest that sucrose analgesia is mediated through opioid and
serotonin receptors.60,61 However, opioid antagonists do not reduce the effect of
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glucose in term neonates, suggesting other neuronal pathways may be involved.62

Neither the optimal dose nor safe cumulative exposure has been established for
sucrose analgesia. Wide variability exists in sucrose dosing with studies utilizing a
range of doses from 0.1 to 0.5 mL of 7.5% to 50% sucrose (or glucose) solutions.53,63
In 1 study, the lower dose of 7.5% sucrose did not reduce the duration of crying and
may be below the lowest effective dose.64 Although single doses of glucose or
sucrose are safe, well-tolerated, and recommended as an important component of
routine newborn care, the safety of multiple doses, particularly in very preterm neonates, has been questioned.65 Further study is needed on the long-term and developmental effects of repeated sucrose doses, as well as the safety and efficacy of using
oral sucrose in very preterm, unstable, and/or ventilated infants.53
Topical anesthetics
Topical anesthetics, typically EMLA cream (a eutectic mixture of 2.5% lidocaine/2.5%

prilocaine), are effective anesthetics for venipuncture, lumbar puncture, and starting
an intravenous line.6670 EMLA cream has several limitations to its routine clinical
use. EMLA must be applied at least 30 minutes (ideally 6090 minutes) before a procedure,71,72 has less pain attenuation compared with oral sucrose,73 and is ineffective
for heel sticks because the pain results primarily from squeezing the heel and not the
heel lance itself.74 EMLA cream also can result in skin irritation and blistering, particularly in preterm neonates.52,72,75,76 Systemic absorption of EMLA increases methemoglobin levels, although rarely to a degree that is significant clinically.71,72 Case
reports of methhemoglobinemia have been reported in premature infants with prolonged exposure and should be considered when using EMLA in neonates.7779
Circumcision
Currently approximately 60% of male infants in the United States undergo circumcision as newborns.80 Although nonpharmacologic interventions (padded, developmentally appropriate swaddling/restraints and oral sucrose) improve patient comfort
during circumcision,81 they alone are insufficient as the sole method of treating pain
associated with this surgical procedure.82,83 Similarly, acetaminophen may be a useful
adjunctive therapy, but is insufficient alone to treat the pain associated with circumcision.84 Analgesic topical creams (EMLA and 4% lidocaine) are effective at reducing
circumcision pain compared with placebo. Topical creams are less effective than dorsal penile nerve block (DPNB) or subcutaneous ring block85 and may be less than ideal
as the sole anesthetic for circumcision.
Dorsal penile nerve block and subcutaneous ring block
DPNB is performed by injecting 0.4 to 0.5 mL of 1% lidocaine without epinephrine on

both sides (10 oclock and 2 oclock positions) of the base of the penis. This technique
reduces behavioral and physiologic responses of pain, and has a low failure rate and
few complications.86 Peak serum lidocaine levels are well below toxic ranges87 and
we found no reported evidence of lidocaine toxicity (seizures or cardiovascular effects)
from this technique.80 The most common complication from DPNB is bruising and
hematomas, reported to occur in 11% to 43% of cases using DPNB for circumcision.86
In all cases, the bruising and hematomas were self-resolved.75,86 Subcutaneous ring
block is performed by injecting 0.8 mL of 1% lidocaine without epinephrine circumferentially in the subcutaneous tissue at the base or mid shaft of the penis.80 This technique
provides effective anesthesia for circumcision and may provide improved anesthesia
compared with DPNB.85,88 No complications of ring block have been reported; however, a failure rate of 5% has been reported.80 Whether using DPNB or subcutaneous
ring block, it is critical to use lidocaine without epinephrine and not to exceed the appropriate dose based on weight. Epinephrine can cause vasoconstriction, which may lead
to distal ischemia and potentially necrosis of the penis.
Circumcision Technique
Circumcision is primarily performed utilizing one of the following 3 techniques: Gomco

clamp, PlastiBell device, or Mogen clamp. Few studies have directly compared these
techniques and there is no evidence that 1 technique results in less pain than the
others. A moderate sized study of 350 neonates showed a slightly greater risk of infection and adhesions with Gomco clamp compared with the PlastiBell device89; however, this result has not been replicated in other studies and the AAP Task Force on
Circumcision does not recommend 1 technique over another.80 Regardless of the
technique used, there is no evidence of persistent pain beyond the period of the procedure and, therefore, the routine use of analgesics after the local anesthetic dissipates is not necessary.80
Summary
Multiple nonpharmacologic and pharmacologic interventions are safe and efficacious

for the reduction, and in some cases elimination, of pain in neonates, especially related
to circumcision. All painful procedures, even routine minor interventions, should
include a consideration, evaluation, and treatment of pain.
PHARMACOGENOMICS AND PHARMACOGENETICS
Inherited Variation in Pharmacology and the Human Genome Project
Inherited variations in the pharmacology of medications have been recognized for

many decades and the history of their discovery was described recently by pioneers
in this field.90 In 1957, Motulsky recognized that inheritance might explain why many
individuals differ in drug efficacy and in experiencing adverse drug reactions. Two
years later, Friedrich Vogel first coined the term pharmacogenetics, defined as the
study of the role of genetics in drug response.90 Pharmacogenomics is often used
to refer to the broad spectrum of genetic variations that influence drug actions sometimes with comparisons between ethnically diverse populations (Table 2, discussed
herein). A wide array of pharmacologic processes demonstrates inherited variations,
ranging from drug receptors to transporters to enzymes involved in drug biotransformation. Although pharmacogenetics is usually used to describe inherited pharmacologic variations in individuals, the boundaries between pharmacogenomics and
pharmacogenetics blurred until these terms have become interchangeable.91
The Human Genome Project (HGP) contributed many insights into pharmacogenetics/pharmacogenomics. Among the 20,000 to 25,000 genes discovered by the
HGP, many related to pharmacologic processes that helped explain diseases and responses to drug therapy.92 Comparison of genomes among individuals, revealed only
a 0.1% difference among the DNA in their genes, but this variation can increase,
decrease, or leave a pharmacologic process unchanged.
Single Nucleotide Polymorphisms
The HGP opened the door to discovery of many changes in DNA, termed single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs), in which a single nucleotide change in DNA causes a single nucleotide change in the message RNA (Fig. 2). Message RNA is translated into
proteins by reading every 3 nucleotides as a codon, which identifies an amino acid
or gives a signal to start or stop reading the RNA (see Table 3). A mutation in a single
nucleotide in DNA (an SNP) can ultimately change the protein structure, change the
535
536
Ward et al
Table 2
Differences in the frequency of single nucleotide polymorphisms between races in the genes
for the b1-adrenergic receptor (ADRB1) and the G receptor protein kinase 5 (GRK5) that
change the proteins, and their activities
Minor Allele
Frequency
(%)
Nucleotide Position and

Gene Name Common Name Change
Amino Acid Changes White Black
ADRB1
b1AR
145 (A to G)
49 (Ser to Gly)
15
13
ADRB1
b1AR
1165 (C to G)
389 (Arg to Gly)
27
42
ADRB1
b1AR
1166 (G to T)
389 (Arg to Leu)
<0.1
0.9
GRK5
GRK5
122 (A to T)
41 (Gln to Leu)
1.3
23
GRK5
GRK5
840 (G to A)
304 (Arg to His)
<0.01
GRK5
GRK5
1274 (C to T)
425 (Thr to Met)
0.02
GRK5
GRK5
1624 (C to G)
542 (Pro to Ala)
<0.01
Amino acid abbreviations are shown in Table 3.

Data from Dorn GW, Liggett SB. Mechanisms of pharmacogenomic effects of genetic variation
within the cardiac adrenergic network in heart failure. Mol Pharmacol 2009;76(3):46680.
-G in mRNA
G
Arg
C
Pro
Fig. 2. Examples of single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in DNA (not shown) that have
been transcribed into a different nucleotide sequence in message RNA, which in turn
changes the nucleotide sequence of that change the amino sequence in a protein. The
amino acid abbreviations are described in Table 3. The SNP at the top involves loss of guanine (blue) at position 8 in the message RNA, which shifts the reading sequence. The SNP at
the bottom is a DNA substitution leading to a substitution cytosine (blue) for guanine (blue)
in the original message RNA. This codes for a different amino acid, proline, rather than arginine. The key to the codons for specific amino acids is shown in Table 3.
Table 3
The sequences of 3 nucleotides in the message RNA (mRNA) comprise codons that code for
each amino acid as well as some of the codes for starting and stopping translation of the
amino acid into a protein
Amino Acid
Nucleotide Sequences
Amino Acid
Nucleotide Sequences
Alanine/A
Ala
GCU, GCC, GCA, GCG
Leucine/L
Leu
UUA, UUG, CUU, CUC,

CUA, CUG
Arginine/R
Arg
CGU, CGC, CGA, CGG,

AGA, AGG
Lysine/K
Lys
AAA, AAG
Asparagine/N
Asn
AAU, AAC
Methionine/M
Met
AUG
Aspartic acid/D
Asp
GAU, GAC
Phenylalanine/F
Phe
UUU, UUC
Cysteine/C
Cys
UGU, UGC
Proline/P
Pro
CCU, CCC, CCA, CCG
Glutamine/Q
Gln
CAA, CAG
Serine/S
Ser
UCU, UCC, UCA, UCG,

AGU, AGC
Glutamic acid/E
Glu
GAA, GAG
Threonine/T
Thr
ACU, ACC, ACA, ACG
Glycine/G
Gly
GGU, GGC, GGA, GGG
Tryptophan/W
Trp
UGG
Histidine/H
His
CAU, CAC
Tyrosine/Y
Tyr
UAU, UAC
Isoleucine/I
Ile
AUU, AUC, AUA
Valine/V
Val
GUU, GUC, GUA, GUG
START
AUG
STOP
UAA, UGA, UAG
Data from Rodin AS, Szathmary E, Rodin SN. On origin of genetic code and tRNA before translation. Biology Direct 2011;6:124.
activity of an enzyme or a receptor, and even contribute to a disease, such as asthma or

heart failure (see Table 2). Variations in the distribution of SNPs among populations can
help to explain their increased or decreased frequencies of diseases and ethnically
distributed changes in drug metabolism. For example, several SNPs in the b1-adrenergic receptor have been correlated with asthma and heart disease (see Table 2).
Another unexpected effect of SNPs was recently identified by Stockmann and colleagues.93 They found that an SNP that inactivates CYP3A4, CYP3A4*22, identified
pediatric patients with asthma whose symptoms were better controlled with inhaled
fluticasone, a substrate for CYP3A4. Presumably the drug persists longer in the airway
and creates more anti-inflammatory effects because of reduced metabolism.
Phenotypic Variations in Pharmacogenetics
Codeine is demethylated to form morphine by CYP2D6, which has undergone extensive genetic study.94 Not only are there many different SNPs that can reduce its activity, some persons inherit multiple copies of genes for CYP2D6 producing supernormal
activity.9597 In the perinatal period, mothers who are breastfeeding during treatment
with codeine and who have supernormal activity of CYP2D6 can produce enough
excess morphine to suppress respirations in their nursing newborn.9597 Warnings
have been publicized about this potentially harmful or even lethal pharmacogenetic
variation.
537
Ward et al
Developmental Expression of Drug-Metabolizing Enzymes
Pediatricians are used to developmental changes in growth and behavior. Developmental variations in the expression of genes related to pharmacologic processes
affect therapeutic decisions.98,99 CYP3A4 metabolizes more drugs in humans than
any other enzyme. At birth, CYP3A4 activity to metabolize fentanyl varies 40% from
the extremely premature newborn to the full-term newborn.100 Some drugmetabolizing genes do not reach full adult levels of activity for several years, whereas
others exceed adult activity for several years during childhood until adolescence,
when they decrease to adult activities (Fig. 3). The maturation of drug metabolism
in newborns and children does not follow a single pattern, and therefore requires
knowledge of the individual patterns of clearance for specific drugs.
Personalized Medicine Reinterpreted
The HGP was expected to allow identification of single genetic changes (usually SNPs)
that would identify causes of diseases as well as the best medical treatment for a disorder. This silver bullet for drug selection is unrealistic because of the multiple factors
that can influence responses to drugs, including enzyme induction or inhibition and the
effects of illness and maturation. Some health care systems are incorporating pharmacogenetic data within their electronic health records to assist prescribing physicians in
avoiding drugs or for adjusting dosages in individuals with inactivating SNPs.101
Although more progress was expected after completion of the HGP in 2000, genetic
variations are now beginning to explain some diseases and guide drug treatment in
specific situations. Nebert and colleagues90 caution, however, that personalized medicine will seldom provide unequivocal direction to optimal drug therapy. Rather, many
pharmacogenomic discoveries provide guidance to optimal drug therapy that must be
tempered by other conditions that influence drug metabolism and modulate responses to therapy. Within some health care organizations, however, pharmacogenetic data are associated with an individuals records to provide guidance to health
CYP2C19, 2C9
CYP2D6
CYP1A2
250
% Adult Activity
538
200
150
100
50
0
Fetus
1-3 mo
6 mo.
yr
3-5 Yr
Puberty
Age
Fig. 3. Developmental changes in the activity of the cytochrome P450 (CYP) enzymes,
CYP2D6 (black columns), CYP2C19 and CYP2C9 (vertical stripes), and CYP33A4 (horizontal
stripes) with age after birth. (Data from Leeder JS, Kearns GL. Pharmacogenetics in pediatrics. Implications for practice. Pediatr Clin North Am 1997;44(1):5577.)
care providers.101 For example, a prescription for codeine to a female on the post partum floor may trigger an alert based on her previous pharmacogenetic testing that she
lacks active CYP2D6 to activate codeine to morphine so it will be minimally effective or
that she is an ultra-metabolizer with multiple CYP2D6 copies that will produce excessive amounts of morphine, placing her breastfeeding newborn at risk.
Summary
Pharmacogenomics can help to identify disease susceptibility and explain responses

to drug therapy, but in neonatology it must be distinguished from the development of
drug-metabolizing enzymes.
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83. Brady-Fryer B, Wiebe N, Lander JA. Pain relief for neonatal circumcision.
Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2004;(4):CD004217.
84. Howard CR, Howard FM, Weitzman ML. Acetaminophen analgesia in neonatal
circumcision: the effect on pain. Pediatrics 1994;93(4):6416.
85. Lander J, Brady-Fryer B, Metcalfe JB, et al. Comparison of ring block, dorsal
penile nerve block, and topical anesthesia for neonatal circumcision: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA 1997;278(24):215762.
86. Snellman LW, Stang HJ. Prospective evaluation of complications of
dorsal penile nerve block for neonatal circumcision. Pediatrics 1995;95(5):
7058.
87. Maxwell LG, Yaster M, Wetzel RC, et al. Penile nerve block for newborn circumcision. Obstet Gynecol 1987;70(3 Pt 1):4159.
88. Hardwick-Smith S, Mastrobattista JM, Wallace PA, et al. Ring block for neonatal
circumcision. Obstet Gynecol 1998;91(6):9304.
89. Machmouchi M, Alkhotani A. Is neonatal circumcision judicious? Eur J Pediatr
Surg 2007;17(4):2669.
90. Nebert DW, Zhang G, Vesell ES. From human genetics and genomics to pharmacogenetics and pharmacogenomics: past lessons, future directions. Drug
Metab Rev 2008;40(2):187224.
91. Evans WE, Relling MV. Pharmacogenomics: translating functional genomics into
rational therapeutics. Science 1999;286(5439):48791.
92. International Human Genome Sequencing Consortium. Finishing the euchromatic sequence of the human genome. Nature 2004;431:93145.
93. Stockmann C, Fassl B, Gaedigk R, et al. Fluticasone propionate pharmacogenetics: CYP3A4*22 polymorphism and pediatric asthma control. J Pediatr
2013;162(6):12227, 1227.e12.
94. Ingelman-Sundberg M. Genetic polymorphisms of cytochrome P450 2D6
(CYP2D6): clinical consequences, evolutionary aspects and functional diversity.
Pharmacogenomics J 2005;5(1):613.
95. Madadi P, Ciszkowski C, Gaedigk A, et al. Genetic transmission of cytochrome
P450 2D6 (CYP2D6) ultrarapid metabolism: implications for breastfeeding
women taking codeine. Curr Drug Saf 2011;6(1):369.
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96. Madadi P, Amstutz U, Rieder M, et al. Clinical practice guideline: CYP2D6 genotyping for safe and efficacious codeine therapy. J Popul Ther Clin Pharmacol
2013;20(3):e36996.
97. Koren G, Cairns J, Chitayat D, et al. Pharmacogenetics of morphine poisoning in
a breastfed neonate of a codeine-prescribed mother. Lancet 2006;368(9536):
704.
98. Kearns GL, Abdel-Rahman SM, Alander SW, et al. Developmental pharmacologydrug disposition, action, and therapy in infants and children. N Engl J
Med 2003;349(12):115767.
99. Leeder JS, Kearns GL. Pharmacogenetics in pediatrics. Implications for practice. Pediatr Clin North Am 1997;44(1):5577.
100. Saarenmaa E, Neuvonen PJ, Fellman V. Gestational age and girth weight effects
on plasma clearance of fentanyl in newborn infants. J Pediatr 2000;136:76770.
101. Kullo IJ, Haddad R, Prows CA, et al. Return of results in the genomic medicine
projects of the eMERGE network. Front Genet 2014;5:50.
D i s c h a r g e Pl a n n i n g
Brian M. Barkemeyer,
MD
KEYWORDS
Neonatal intensive care unit Discharge planning Screening test Circumcision
Late preterm infant High-risk infant
KEY POINTS
Hospital discharge is a time of transition for infants and families that requires oversight
of common postnatal adaptations, screening tests, and establishment of necessary
follow-up care.
Preterm infants face additional medical problems that vary in complexity by degree of prematurity, with infants born at lowest gestational age (<28 weeks) at highest risk for complicated neonatal course and adverse long-term outcomes.
High-risk infants often have complex problems that require coordinated follow-up after
discharge essential for improved outcomes.
INTRODUCTION
Initial hospital discharge of the infant is a time of great excitement and anxiety for the
family. Health care provider and family anxiety may be heightened by any combination
of actual or perceived medical and/or social risks. Preparation of the infant and family
for discharge is an involved process that is best done through a consistent approach
from all members of the health care team perceptive to the needs of the infant and
family. Although most hospitals have routine patterns of newborn care, medical documentation, and discharge order sets, it is important that each relevant aspect of care is
applied appropriately to each child at discharge. The optimal time for discharge of the
apparently healthy newborn depends on several factors including the infants condition, risk for evolving problems (eg, infection, poor feeding, jaundice, and drug withdrawal), the ability of the family to provide appropriate care for the infant, and the
timely availability of appropriate follow-up.
Nursing, medical, and support staff should be attuned to the interaction of the infant
and family throughout the initial hospital course to recognize concerns about the ability of the family to provide appropriate care. Additionally, variations from normal in an
infants health and behavior should be documented and communicated effectively by
Disclosure: None.
Neonatology, Louisiana State University Health Sciences Center, 200 Henry Clay Avenue, New
Orleans, LA 70118, USA
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all health care providers. Discharge examination of the newborn should be thorough
with documentation of adequate transition from the intrauterine environment to
include establishment of normal respirations, normal circulatory status, adequate
feeding, normal voiding and stooling patterns, and adequate thermoregulation. Infants
who fail to meet these criteria should not be discharged home and additional assessment may be needed. Before hospital discharge, physical examination should include
assessment for the presence of a red reflex from the eyes bilaterally and for any evidence of developmental dysplasia of the hip. The red reflex should be bilateral, symmetric, and without dark spots or white opacity.1 Female infants, infants born with
breech presentation, and infants with a family history of this disorder are at highest
risk for developmental dysplasia of the hip. When definite dislocation of the hip is
noted, prompt referral to an orthopedist is warranted; when the examination is equivocal, serial follow-up examinations are warranted. If necessary, further assessment for
developmental dysplasia of the hip can be performed with hip ultrasound.2 The efficacy of these traditional recommendations for screening for developmental dysplasia
of the hip and common interventions has more recently been questioned.3
SCREENING TESTS
Routine screening of mothers and infants for a variety of common and uncommon
conditions has allowed for timely recognition and intervention resulting in ongoing significant improvements in perinatal outcomes. Many of these screening tools are discussed in greater detail elsewhere in this issue, and appropriate follow-up of
abnormal results and pending studies is essential at hospital discharge. Follow-up
of all relevant maternal screening tests requires effective communication between obstetric and newborn care providers. Timely identification of infants at risk for infection
based on maternal screening tests (including gonorrhea, syphilis, HIV, hepatitis B, and
group B streptococcus) should be accomplished in the immediate neonatal period,
and follow-up on all such tests and their impact on the infant should be done at the
time of discharge.
Although newborn metabolic screening results may not be available at the time of
hospital discharge, it is important that specimens are obtained before discharge
with proper follow-up mechanisms established. A hearing screen should be obtained
before hospital discharge with awareness of ongoing factors, such as infection,
ototoxic drug exposure, and severe jaundice, which may alter results. At-risk infants
should be identified with appropriate follow-up testing in place at discharge.4
Screening for congenital heart disease should be performed with pulse oximetry after the first 24 hours of life in all infants, with infants with oxygen saturations less than
90% being evaluated immediately for potential cardiac malformation if there is no
other obvious cause. Infants with oxygen saturations greater than or equal to 95%
and less than 3% difference in saturation between right hand and either lower extremity are considered to have passed this screen.5
Because it is known that preterm and other infants may have apnea, bradycardia,
and/or oxygen desaturation when placed semiupright in a car seat, it is recommended
that infants of gestational age less than 37 weeks and other at-risk infants (eg, Down
syndrome, hypotonia, congenital heart disease) undergo a period of observation in
their car seat before discharge. This period of observation should be 90 to 120 minutes, or more if travel duration is longer. Infants who experience problems during
this screen should be reassessed with changes in support or position to ensure safety.
Family members should be educated in the importance of proper use of car
restraints.6
Discharge Planning
Jaundice is a common problem in newborn infants during the first few days of life,
which typically is self-limited or easily treated, but can put the infant at significant risk
for adverse neurologic outcome if not monitored appropriately for timely intervention.
Awareness of risk factors for excessive jaundice, such as hemolysis, excessive
bruising, or poor feeding, is important along with visual screening and transcutaneous
bilirubin determination. Transcutaneous bilirubin screening is noninvasive; relatively
inexpensive; and avoids inadequacies of visual screening, such as poor lighting,
poor color perception, or a newborn with darker skin tone. Comparison of screening
bilirubin values with available time-dependent bilirubin nomograms helps identify
higher-risk infants before hospital discharge. When transcutaneous bilirubin screening
suggests a need for therapy, serum bilirubin should be promptly obtained to make
appropriate clinical decisions. Infants who do not require intervention for hyperbilirubinemia and are otherwise ready for discharge may be safely discharged if timely
follow-up of subsequent bilirubin levels is available.7
FEEDING
It is commonly accepted that exclusive breastfeeding is the optimal feeding method

for infants for the first 6 months of life, and breastfeeding can continue beyond that
up to 12 months or longer as mutually desired by the mother and infant. Achievement
of higher sustained breastfeeding rates has significant medical benefits for infants and
their mothers along with significant economic benefits for families and society. There
are several barriers to effective breastfeeding including many within the birth hospital.
Common hospital practices that have a negative influence on successful breastfeeding initiation include a lack of emotional and practical support for breastfeeding
mothers, delays in initiation or limitations on duration of breastfeeding, and early introduction of supplemental formulas and pacifiers.8 Pacifiers have been associated with
a lower incidence of sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS), so if desired, their use
should be restricted until after breastfeeding is well-established.9
Throughout the hospital stay and at the time of discharge, the adequacy of the
mothers ability to breastfeed her infant should be assessed. Mothers with prior breast
surgery, flat or inverted nipples, or difficult delivery are at greatest risk for problems in
establishing adequate breastfeeding. Assessment of the mothers milk production, infant feeding practices, voiding and stooling patterns, and serial infant weight are
needed. Because the establishment of breastfeeding is an ongoing process that typically continues after discharge, close monitoring of this evolution is necessary, especially for mother-infant pairs with suspicion or evidence of delays. Supplementation of
breastfeeding should be limited in duration and for defined conditions (persistent
hypoglycemia, dehydration as evidenced by inadequate voiding and stooling, and
excessive weight loss >10% of birthweight). Breastfed infants should receive supplemental vitamin D, 400 IU per day.
Infants who are not breastfed need to have their intake, output, and weight monitored, although most infants quickly adapt to an ad lib intake. Mothers who decide
against or are unable to breastfeed their child should be supported in this process.
Formula-fed infants should receive an iron-fortified cows milkbased formula unless
there is a defined need for an alternative. There is no need for routine additional vitamin
D supplementation of formula-fed infants.
CIRCUMCISION
Circumcision of newborn male infants has been a topic of great discussion and passion for several years. Although some medical benefits of circumcision are definite,
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opponents view any such benefits as limited given the risks and potential pain of the
procedure. Proponents have argued that the procedure affords lifelong benefits with
limited risk and can be safely done with appropriate anesthesia. In 2012, the American
Academy of Pediatrics issued a Circumcision Policy Statement that stated, preventive health benefits of elective circumcision of male newborns outweigh the risks of the
procedure. Additionally, the policy states that circumcision lowers the risk of urinary
tract infection (UTI) and acquisition of HIV and other sexually transmitted diseases, but
these benefits are not so great to warrant routine circumcision for all male infants; if a
family desires circumcision for medical and cultural reasons, the procedure should be
safely done.
In addition to familiarity with the policy statements, such as that of the American
Academy of Pediatrics, health care providers should be prepared to answer a familys
questions about this procedure. The three primary benefits of circumcision are a
reduced incidence of UTI, sexually transmitted diseases, and penile cancer. The number needed to treat for reduction of male UTI is 100, meaning that for every 100 circumcisions performed, one male UTI is prevented. Circumcision lowers transmission rates
for HIV, herpes simplex virus type 2, and human papilloma virus. Penile cancer is rare,
and current data to assess the impact of circumcision on risk are limited. Opponents to
circumcision question the supportive data indicating reduction in sexually transmitted
diseases and penile cancer are benefits of the procedure.
Circumcision done in the newborn period is generally safer and better-tolerated than
in older males. Circumcision should be done by an appropriately trained provider using
sterile technique. Appropriate anesthesia may include sucrose solution in addition to
topical anesthetic or injectable local nerve block. There is no clear advantage to any
of the three most commonly used techniques (Plastibell device, Gomco clamp, or Mogen clamp). Bleeding is the most frequent complication of circumcision, but it is usually
limited. Significant complications are reported in 0.2% of all circumcisions. There is no
evidence for diminished sexual pleasure or performance as a result of circumcision.
Poor cosmetic outcome is a concern for some parents, but concerned parents should
be advised that appearance will likely evolve to a more acceptable one over time.
Despite the available medical data, the decision for circumcision for most families is
most strongly influenced by religious, cultural, and personal motives. At present, payment for the procedure by many third-party payors is limited.1013
DISCHARGE OF THE LATE PRETERM INFANT
Lacking the physiologic maturity of the term infant, the late preterm infant is at higher
risk of problems, such as feeding difficulty, hypoglycemia, hyperbilirubinemia, hypothermia, apnea, and respiratory distress. Because these infants lack some of the
more obvious acute problems of infants born at earlier gestation and they are often
managed in a regular nursery with full-term infants, a lack of awareness by caretakers
and families of the potential for these problems may result in ever greater risks of
morbidity and mortality. Additionally, there may be interplay between these problems,
such as a late preterm infant with hypothermia with resulting tachypnea and further
worsening of immature feeding processes, thus placing the infant at higher risk for hypoglycemia and hyperbilirubinemia.
The problems of the late preterm infant may not fully resolve at the time of
discharge, and infants may regress in what initially seemed to be a normal feeding
pattern. Sooner and more frequent outpatient follow-up may reduce the increased
risk for readmission that these infants face. Ideally, the late preterm infant should be
seen as an outpatient within 48 hours of discharge. At follow-up, close monitoring
Discharge Planning
of feeding, voiding, and stooling is essential with serial weight measurements and
observation of jaundice also necessary. Ultimately, the late preterm infant is at
increased risk for developmental delays; close developmental follow-up is needed
to provide timely allied health therapy interventions.14,15
DISCHARGE OF THE PRETERM INFANT AFTER NEONATAL INTENSIVE CARE UNIT STAY
Discharge of the preterm infant after neonatal intensive care unit (NICU) stay requires
close attention to health care maintenance and follow-up for specific problems of prematurity that may require visits to several physicians and therapists. Timing of
discharge for the complex infant is determined by the current stability and needs of
the infant; the ability of caregivers to meet those needs in the home setting; and
increasingly, outside pressures to limit duration of hospital stay. Thoughtful and thorough discharge planning may help reduce the high risks for morbidity, mortality, and
hospital readmission these infants face.
In general, the preterm infant can be safely discharged from the NICU when the infant is able to feed adequately to allow for appropriate weight gain; is able to maintain
appropriate body temperature without external heat sources; is able to receive any
additional necessary medical care or therapy in the home setting; and is able to be
cared for in a home with capable caretakers properly equipped with all necessary
nutrition, medications, and equipment. Determining the readiness of a particular infant
to meet each of these criteria depends on several variables in addition to gestational
age and weight. Infants may meet one criteria (eg, adequate thermoregulation) but not
another (eg, poor feeding); thus, it is not possible to routinely discharge a preterm infant at a given gestational age and weight. Although most infants are able to be safely
discharged by 36 to 37 weeks postmenstrual age, some may be ready as early as 33 to
34 weeks, whereas others may require hospitalization well beyond these postmenstrual ages. Infants of lowest gestational age and birthweight are more likely to require
discharge at a later gestational age.1618
Oral feedings are typically introduced to preterm infants around 33 to 34 weeks
postmenstrual age with appropriate maturation of the ability to coordinate sucking,
swallowing, and breathing. Gaining proficiency at oral feedings varies by infant and
depends on neurodevelopment and associated health problems; preterm infants
with neurologic impairment or chronic lung disease may have significant delays in
achieving proficiency at oral feeding. Gastroesophageal reflux is common in preterm
infants; for most preterm infants without other comorbidities, gastroesophageal reflux
is self-limited and typically does not require specific treatment. For preterm infants
with comorbidities, such as neurologic impairment, chronic lung disease, or apnea,
a variety of therapies for gastroesophageal reflux have been used including positional
maneuvers, thickened feedings, acid-suppression medication, or prokinetic medication. There is no consensus among a variety of pediatric specialists for the optimal
management of significant gastroesophageal reflux, but therapy should be provided
in stepwise fashion with ongoing assessment for improvement.
A pattern of adequate growth on a specific feeding regimen that can be mimicked at
home should be established before discharge. Breast milk is the optimal nutrition for
preterm infants throughout the hospital stay and after discharge. Breast milk typically
requires supplementation to augment calories, protein, sodium, and calcium intake in
the preterm infant. In the hospital setting, this is often accomplished through the addition of commercial human milk fortifiers. Postdischarge, supplementation if necessary
may be accomplished more economically by the addition of postdischarge formula to
human milk intake. For the preterm infant not feeding breast milk, a fortified 22 calorie/
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ounce preterm infant formula should be used after discharge. The duration of time
postdischarge to use fortified human milk or 22 calorie/ounce preterm infant formula
is variable and depends on degree of prematurity, growth, and associated medical
problems, such as osteopenia. Infants born at less than 28 weeks gestation with
ongoing medical problems may benefit for 12 months adjusted age, whereas infants
of higher gestational age with few associated medical problems and steady growth
may limit duration to 6 to 9 months adjusted age. Weight, length, and head circumference of the preterm infant after NICU discharge should be plotted regularly on growth
curves designed for preterm infants.
Infants born at lower gestational ages (<28 weeks gestation) with prolonged total
parenteral nutrition (TPN) use lack adequate bone mineralization at birth, which can
develop into osteopenia of prematurity. Preterm infants who receive full or partial
breast milk, or take in less than 1000 mL infant formula, should receive vitamin D,
400 IU daily.19
Despite advances in care for very low birthweight infants, nutritional care in the
NICU is unable to match growth rates achieved in utero. Postdischarge, growth needs
to be closely monitored with regular plotting of weight, length, and head circumference against standardized curves for the preterm infant. Because many preterm infants are at risk for developmental delay, it is essential that optimal nutrition for
brain growth be provided in the first year of life.
Among very low birthweight infants who require TPN for more than 14 days, approximately 50% may develop TPN cholestasis with resultant elevation in direct bilirubin.
Although TPN cholestasis is the most common cause for direct hyperbilirubinemia in
the NICU population, there are a myriad of other potential causes for this problem that
should not be overlooked. The extent of evaluation for any single infant to rule out
other less common causes of elevated direct bilirubin is an individualized decision,
but more common anatomic, infectious, and metabolic causes should be investigated.
In most cases of TPN cholestasis, as feeds are resumed, a gradual resolution of the
elevated direct bilirubin occurs. This resolution may continue after hospital discharge,
necessitating serial laboratory observations to assess for return to normal of total and
direct bilirubin levels. In some infants with more significant TPN cholestasis, therapy at
hospital discharge may include specialty formulas with medium-chain triglycerides as
the source of lipids, drugs that may increase bile acid flow (phenobarbital, ursodeoxycholic acid), and fat-soluble vitamin supplementation (vitamins A, D, E, K).20
A common hematologic problem in preterm infants is anemia of prematurity, which
is an accentuation of the physiologic anemia that occurs in term infants, albeit sooner
after birth and with resultant lower hemoglobin concentrations. Depending on the preterm infants other problems of prematurity impacting oxygen delivery and oxygen
needs, anemia of prematurity is more likely to be symptomatic than what occurs in
term infants. During the acute stages of illness from prematurity, red blood cell transfusion may be necessary to replace ongoing losses from blood sampling for necessary
laboratory tests. As the overall condition of the preterm infant improves closer to and
beyond hospital discharge, the threshold for transfusion is unknown. Repeated transfusions late in the course of anemia of prematurity continue to delay recovery from this
problem because the infants own erythropoietin production is inhibited. In general,
the preterm infant discharged from the hospital with anemia of prematurity should
be monitored for adequate nutrition including sufficient iron in the diet, the absence
of obvious symptoms related to anemia (persistent tachycardia, poor weight gain),
and the gradual recovery of hemoglobin levels to normal. For infants with anemia of
prematurity, evidence of spontaneous increase in hemoglobin concentration coupled
with evidence of reticulocytosis is reassuring.
Discharge Planning
Apnea of prematurity is a common problem in preterm infants, especially those born

at lower gestational ages. For most infants, resolution of apnea of prematurity occurs
around the same time that other maturational events occur (oral feeding, thermoregulation). For some preterm infants, apnea of prematurity may continue after maturation
in oral feeding and thermoregulation have occurred, thus delaying hospital discharge.
Management of such infants varies, but in general, all infants should have a period of 3
to 7 days free of significant apnea or bradycardia before discharge. In some cases,
methylxanthine therapy with caffeine or theophylline may be used to treat apnea of
prematurity. Caffeine has a higher therapeutic index and once-daily dosing, thus it
is the preferred drug for apnea of prematurity.
Apnea of prematurity typically resolves by 36 to 40 weeks postmenstrual age, but in
infants born at less than 28 weeks gestation, it may persist to 44 weeks postmenstrual
age. Management of infants otherwise ready for discharge who have ongoing minor
cardiorespiratory events caused by apnea of prematurity varies. Caffeine therapy
and/or home monitoring may be used to allow for earlier discharge of such infants. In
most cases, caffeine therapy and/or home monitoring can be discontinued after
44 weeks postmenstrual age. Gastroesophageal reflux may coexist with apnea of prematurity in some infants, further complicating clinical assessment and decision making.
Although families may be concerned about potential links between apnea of prematurity and SIDS, the only link between these entities is that preterm infants are at
increased risk for both. There is no evidence that preterm infants with apnea of prematurity are at a higher risk of SIDS than preterm infants without apnea of prematurity.
Although acute management of preterm infants early in their hospital course may
require prone positioning, most infants should be placed supine to sleep by 32 weeks
postmenstrual age. The Back to Sleep campaign has reduced the rate of SIDS in
term and preterm infants (Box 1).21
THE PRETERM INFANT WITH SPECIAL NEEDS AFTER DISCHARGE
A small subset of preterm infants may have special needs after discharge beyond their
peers. Infants discharged on medications for ongoing medical problems, such as
bronchopulmonary dysplasia, apnea of prematurity, or other complications related
to prematurity, may require dosage adjustment for weight gain after discharge. Before
hospital discharge, a plan of management for such complicated patients should be
developed, including follow-up visits with pediatric specialists as needed to assist in
management decisions.
Infants who continue to have feeding difficulties may require alternative means of
feeding. In select instances, home gavage feedings may be used to allow for hospital
discharge of an infant expected to progress to full oral feedings in a short period of
time. Infants for whom home gavage feedings are used should be otherwise free of
significant medical problems and have parents who are willing, capable, and trained
to administer gavage feedings before discharge. Attempts at oral feedings should
be continued with the family trained in the necessary skills to do so.
For infants unable to feed orally and unlikely to make progress to do so in a reasonable amount of time, placement of a feeding gastrostomy tube may be necessary. Parents should be educated in the administration of gastrostomy tube feedings, care of
the gastrostomy site, and management when the gastrostomy tube is unexpectedly
displaced. For any alternative feeding method, necessary supplies and replacements
should be reliably provided.
Infants with severe bronchopulmonary dysplasia may require home oxygen therapy.
Caretakers should be educated in the set-up and administration of supplemental
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Box 1
Primary care checklist for the preterm NICU graduate
Nutrition
Type, caloric density, volume, method of intake
Use of growth chart (preterm specific)
Current medications
Are they necessary?
Are the doses appropriate for current weight?
Immunizations
Are routine immunizations up to date?
Is infant a palivizumab candidate?
Respiratory
Any use of supplemental oxygen or aerosols?
Any current issues with apnea of prematurity?
Anemia of prematurity
Is there need for follow-up hemoglobin level?
Neurodevelopmental
What are results of prior cranial imaging studies?
Is there retinopathy of prematurity and is follow-up necessary?
Is follow-up hearing assessment needed?
Ongoing developmental screening
Car and home safety monitoring/guidance
Is family support appropriate for infant?
Other problems?
Other necessary follow-up?
home oxygen. Infants discharged on home oxygen therapy should be monitored with
either continuous pulse oximetry or cardiorespiratory monitoring to recognize complications that may result from unexpected loss of supplemental oxygen. A plan for
weaning home oxygen and appropriate follow-up should be established before
discharge and modified based on the infants condition.
Infants who require tracheostomy to establish an adequate airway are at risk for
complications after discharge. Families should be instructed in tracheostomy care
including suctioning, management of humidification and/or oxygen supplementation,
and emergency tracheostomy replacement. Instruction should include assessment of
independent skills in tracheostomy management. A care plan with outpatient subspecialty support should be established before discharge. As with all other specialty
equipment, procurement of appropriate supplies before discharge is essential.
Intraventricular hemorrhage occurs inversely with gestational age, with significant
intraventricular hemorrhage highest in infants of gestational age less than 28 weeks.
Significant intraventricular hemorrhage (grades III or IV) is an important cause of
adverse neurologic outcomes including mental retardation, cerebral palsy, or hydrocephalus. In most cases of posthemorrhagic hydrocephalus, the evolution of the
Discharge Planning
problem and need for cerebrospinal fluid diversion (most often through ventriculoperitoneal shunt placement) occurs during the initial hospital stay. In some infants, evolution of hydrocephalus may continue after discharge necessitating serial
evaluations of ventricular enlargement by head ultrasound or other neuroimaging
studies. Assessment of head growth in all discharged preterm infants is an important
part of ongoing follow-up to recognize inadequate or excessive head growth in a
timely fashion.
Similar to other problems of prematurity, retinopathy of prematurity is most significant in infants born at lower gestational ages and full resolution of the problem may not
occur until after hospital discharge. Most infants born at less than 28 weeks gestation
develop retinopathy of prematurity, but most cases resolve without intervention and
without visual loss. Timely recognition of retinopathy of prematurity is essential
because current interventions with cryotherapy and/or intraocular bevacizumab if
necessary can significantly improve visual outcomes when offered at optimal time.
Unnecessary delays in referral, screening, or intervention can result in unnecessary
blindness. It is essential that discharge plans for follow-up of infants at ongoing risk
for retinopathy of prematurity be communicated effectively with parents and to the primary care physician; need for follow-up should be reinforced regularly with primary
care follow-up visits.22
The most complicated preterm infant may remain medically fragile even after hospital discharge. Often these infants have illness involving multiple organ systems
that may require various combinations of medications, oxygen therapy, respiratory
support, specialty feedings, and multiple pediatric subspecialty follow-up visits.
Although the complexity of illness involving any individual organ system may go
beyond what is cared for by the general pediatrician, the general pediatrician as primary care provider is often placed in the role of gatekeeper or coordinator of care.
It is essential that timely and thorough communication between the subspecialists
and pediatrician be in place. In the role of primary care provider, the pediatrician
must also assume the role of patient advocate for these complicated infants. Rehospitalization is much more common for the medically complicated infant because of exacerbations of existing problems or development of intercurrent illness, such as
respiratory or gastrointestinal viral infections. Avoidance of sick contacts, frequent
hand washing, and appropriate immunizations are essential to minimize the risk of
intercurrent illness.
OUTCOME FOR THE PRETERM INFANT
Although the rate of preterm birth in the United States has declined slightly in recent
years, births before 37 weeks gestation accounted for 11.6% of all births in 2012,
with births of low birthweight infants (<2500 g) accounting for 8% of all births. Although
all preterm infants have higher risks of short- and long-term complications compared
with term infants, the greatest risk for mortality and long-term morbidity occurs in very
low birthweight infants (<1500 g), which accounted for 1.4% of all United States deliveries in 2012 (Table 1).23
Improvements in neonatal care have allowed for progressive improvements in survival of preterm infants with survival rates for infants in the National Institute of Child
Health and Human Development Neonatal Research Network ranging from 6% at
22 weeks gestation to 92% at 28 weeks gestation. Morbidity and mortality continue
to be highest at the lower gestational ages. In general, lower gestational age and
greater severity of short-term morbidities are associated with higher risks of longterm adverse neurodevelopmental outcome. Female gender, antenatal steroid use,
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Table 1
Gestational age-specific outcome from National Institute of Child Health and Human
Development network NICUs
Gestational Age
22 wk
23 wk
24 wk
25 wk
26 wk
27 wk
Survival to discharge
26
55
72
84
88
28 wk
92
Survival without major morbiditya
20
34
44
57
Severe intraventricular hemorrhage, periventricular leukomalacia, bronchopulmonary dysplasia,

necrotizing enterocolitis, infections, and retinopathy of prematurity stage 3.
Adapted from Stoll BJ, Hansen NI, Bell EF, et al. Neonatal outcomes of extremely preterm infants
from the NICHD neonatal research network. Pediatrics 2010;126:44356.
maternal education at or above high school, and the absence of major neonatal morbidities have been identified as independent predictors of unimpaired outcome at
30 months of age.24
Preterm infants born beyond 28 weeks are at limited risk for adverse medical and
neurologic outcome when compared with infants born at lower gestational ages,
with most infants born beyond 28 weeks gestation having normal outcomes. Despite
the higher likelihood of normal outcome, because the risk of adverse outcome remains
higher in this subgroup than that of term infants, close medical and developmental
follow-up by the primary care physician is warranted.
Because of significantly higher risks of adverse medical and neurologic outcomes
for infants born less than or equal to 28 weeks gestation, these infants require close
follow-up for ongoing medical problems and neurodevelopmental impairment. Highrisk follow-up clinics offer multidisciplinary resources that may be helpful in the
ongoing evaluation and therapy for such infants. Most such high-risk clinics offer in
depth neurodevelopmental follow-up, and some may also offer primary or specialty
care for the NICU graduate. For infants who meet established inclusion criteria, referral
to high-risk follow-up clinic should be done before hospital discharge.
Early intervention programs in the United States are federally funded programs
administered by states to provide timely evaluation and intervention for infants from
birth through 2 years of age who are experiencing developmental delays or at high
risk for developmental delays based on established physical or mental conditions.
Criteria for evaluation and services provided vary by state, but most high-risk NICU
graduates meet these criteria.
THE HIGH-RISK FAMILY
For the family of any infant requiring NICU care, the hospital course and discharge
planning process can be a stressful time. Even well-adjusted families need guidance
and support through this difficult process. Families with independent risk factors for
adverse outcomes, such as poverty, lack of education, lack of social support, domestic abuse, or substance abuse, may require extra resources and support leading up to
and after discharge.
Families should be encouraged to visit their hospitalized child frequently, and they
should be kept abreast of their childs problems and management plans. As the infants condition stabilizes and especially as the time for discharge nears, the family
should have progressive involvement in their childs care. Rooming-in opportunity
should be provided for all parents, and mandated for at-risk parents or parents of infants with complex home care requirements. Postdischarge, resources that may aid in
transition include early and frequent follow-up with the primary care provider, home
health nursing, lactation specialist, and other available community support agencies.
Discharge Planning
In support of proper transition of care from the NICU to the home setting, effective
communication of pertinent details from the hospital course to follow-up physicians
and other care providers is important. Summarizing a lengthy NICU stay in a document
that is understandable, is not too long, and provides relevant information for ongoing
care is a skill that should be mastered by the neonatologist. In providing such a summary, the more practical details provided involve ongoing care rather than extensive
details of resolved problems. Resolved problems are relevant, but should be
mentioned in summary format. Electronic medical record access can be useful to
identify more detailed information when necessary.
Care and support of the sick infant through a NICU stay requires an extensive
amount of resources. For improved long-term outcomes to occur, successful transition of the high-risk infant from the hospital to home setting is necessary, including
transition of care from the neonatologist to the primary care physician.
REFERENCES
1. American Academy of Pediatrics Section on Ophthalmology. Red reflex examination in neonates, infants, and children. Pediatrics 2008;122:14014.
2. Clinical practice guideline: early detection of developmental dysplasia of the hip.
Subcommittee on Developmental Dysplasia of the Hip. American Academy of Pediatrics. Pediatrics 2000;105:896905.
3. Shipman SA, Helfund M, Moyer VA, et al. Screening for developmental dysplasia
of the hip: a systematic review for the US preventive services task force. Pediatrics 2006;117:e5776.
4. American Academy of Pediatrics Joint Committee on Infant Hearing. Year 2007
position statement: principles and guidelines for early hearing detection and
intervention programs. Pediatrics 2007;120:898921.
5. Mahle WT, Newburger JW, Matherne GP, et al. Role of pulse oximetry in examining newborns congenital heart disease: a scientific statement from the AHA
and AAP. Pediatrics 2009;124:12336.
6. Bull MJ, Engle WA. Safe transportation of preterm and low birth weight infants at
hospital discharge. Pediatrics 2009;123:14249.
7. American Academy of Pediatrics Subcommittee on Hyperbilirubinemia. Clinical
practice guideline: management of hyperbilirubinemia in the newborn infant 35
or more weeks gestation. Pediatrics 2004;114:297316.
8. Eidelman AI, Schanler RJ. American Academy of Pediatrics section on breastfeeding. Breastfeeding and the use of human milk. Pediatrics 2012;129:e82741.
9. Hauck FR, Omojokun OO, Siadaty MS. Do pacifiers reduce the risk of sudden infant death syndrome? A meta-analysis. Pediatrics 2005;116:e71623.
10. American Academy of Pediatrics Task Force on Circumcision. Circumcision policy statement. Pediatrics 2012;130:5856.
11. American Academy of Pediatrics Task Force on Circumcision. Male circumcision.
Pediatrics 2012;130:e75685.
12. Frisch M, Aigrain Y, Barauskas V, et al. Cultural bias in the AAPs 2012 technical
report and policy statement on male circumcision. Pediatrics 2013;131:796800.
13. American Academy of Pediatrics Task Force on Circumcision. Cultural bias and
circumcision: the AAP task force on circumcision responds. Pediatrics 2013;
131:8014.
14. Engle WA, Tomashek KM, Wallman C, Committee on Fetus and Newborn, American Academy of Pediatrics. Late-preterm infants: a population at risk. Pediatrics
2007;120:1390401.
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Barkemeyer
15. Kugelman A, Colin AA. Late preterm infants: near term but still in a critical developmental time period. Pediatrics 2013;132:74151.
discharge of the high-risk neonate: proposed guidelines. Pediatrics 1998;102:
4117.
discharge of the high-risk neonate. Pediatrics 2008;122:111926.
18. Andrews B, Pellerite M, Myers P, et al. NICU follow-up: medical and developmental management age 0-3 years. Neoreviews 2014;15:e12332.
19. Abrams SA, American Academy of Pediatrics Committee on Nutrition. Calcium
and vitamin D requirements of enterally fed preterm infants. Pediatrics 2013;
131:e167683.
20. Feldman AG, Sokol RJ. Neonatal cholestasis. Neoreviews 2013;14:e6373.
21. American Academy of Pediatrics Task Force on Sudden Infant Death Syndrome
Policy Statement. SIDS and other sleep-related infant deaths: expansion of recommendations for a safe sleeping environment. Pediatrics 2011;128:10309.
22. American Academy of Pediatrics Section on Ophthalmology Policy Statement.
Screening examination of premature infants for retinopathy of prematurity. Pediatrics 2013;131:18995.
23. Martin JA, Hamilton BE, Osterman MJ, et al. Births: final data for 2012. Natl Vital
Stat Rep 2013;62:169, 72. Available at: http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/nvsr/
nvsr62/nvsr62_09.pdf. Accessed September 23, 2014.
24. Stoll BJ, Hansen NI, Bell EF, et al. Neonatal outcomes of extremely preterm infants
from the NICHD neonatal research network. Pediatrics 2010;126:44356.
I ndex
Note: Page numbers of article titles are in boldface type.
A
ABO hemolytic disorders, in newborns, 512514
Age, gestational, initial assessment of, 346352
Airway clearance, in newborn resuscitation, 338
Alagille syndrome, 420
Algorithms, in guidelines for diagnosing neonatal infections, 494495
Anemia, in newborns, 518519
Angelman syndrome, 422
Aniridia, with Wilms tumor, genital anomalies, and retardation, 419420
Anomalous pulmonary venous return, total, in newborns, 481
Antibiotics, for neonatal infections, 497
stewardship of, 502
Antidepressants, maternal use of, assessment of drug-exposed newborn, 528529
Antifungal therapy, and prophylaxis in newborns, 499500
Antiviral therapy, in newborns, 497499
Aortic valve stenosis, in newborns, 479
Arteriovenous malformations, of great vein of Galen in newborns, 481
Assessment, initial, of newborns, 345365
birth trauma, 352358
extracranial injuries, 352354
neurologic, 356358
other associated injuries, 358
soft tissue injuries, 354356
congenital anomalies of extremities, 359361
gestational age and growth, 346352
neurologic assessment, 358359
physical examination, 352
umbilical cord, 361363
with planned home birth, 363
Atrial septal defects, in newborns, 476
B
Bacteria. See also Infections.
antibiotic use in newborns, 497
antimicrobial stewardship, 502
Group B streptococcal prophylaxis, 501
transmission to newborns, 492493
Beckwith-Wiedemann syndrome, 424425
Biomarkers, for diagnosing neonatal infections, 495496
Birth trauma, in initial assessment of newborns, 352358
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0031-3955(15)00034-6
558
Index
Birth (continued )
neurologic, 356358
Brachial plexus, due to birth trauma, 356357
Brain development, in late preterm infants, 449450
Breastfeeding, 427433
clinical outcomes with, 428429
common problems, 432433
composition of human milk, 429430
contraindications to, 432
duration of, 432
growth and growth standards, 430431
issues in late preterm infants, 448449
supplements for breastfed infants, 431
supporting, 432
Bronchopulmonary dysplasia, neonatal, 463465
Bruising, due to birth trauma, 354355
C
Caput succedaneum, subgaleal, due to birth trauma, 352353
Cardiac evaluation, of the newborn, 471489
common congenital heart defects, 476481
causing decreased pulmonary blood flow, 476479
causing increased pulmonary blood flow, 479481
uncomplicated, 476
dysrhythmias, 482484
congenital third-degree heart block, 483
premature beats, 482483
supraventricular tachycardia, 483484
initial evaluation, 472476
abdomen, 475476
auscultation of heart, 47475
blood pressure, 476
breathing pattern, 474
cardiac murmurs, 474475
peripheral pulse, 473474
skin and mucous membranes, 472473
pulse oximetry screening, 484487
special considerations, 481
stabilization when critical congenital heart disease is suspected, 487488
Cardiovascular changes, during transition from fetus to neonate, 330333
Central nervous system maturation, in late preterm infants, 449450
Cephalohematoma, due to birth trauma, 353
Chest compression, in newborn resuscitation, 339
Circumcision, in discharge planning for newborns, 547548
neonatal, pain due to, 534535
dorsal penile nerve block and subcutaneous ring block, 534535
technique, 535
Clavicle fractures, in newborns due to birth trauma, 358
Cocaine, maternal use of, assessment of drug-exposed newborn, 528
Index
Cold stress, in late preterm infants, 445446

Congenital anomalies, of extremities, assessment in newborns, 359361
Congenital heart disease, cardiac evaluation of the newborn, 471489
causing decreased pulmonary blood flow, 476479
causing increased pulmonary blood flow, 479481
uncomplicated, 476
abdomen, 475476
auscultation of heart, 47475
blood pressure, 476
breathing pattern, 474
cardiac murmurs, 474475
peripheral pulse, 473474
skin and mucous membranes, 472473
stabilization when critical CHD is suspected, 487488
Congenital lung diseases, 466467
Cri du chat syndrome, 418
Cyanosis, central, in newborns, 481
D
Delivery issues, affecting the newborn transition, 336337
Diaphragmatic paralysis, due to birth trauma, 357
DiGeorge/velocardiofacial syndrome, 417
Discharge planning, for newborns, 545656
circumcision, 547548
feeding, 547
for high-risk families, 554555
for late preterm infants, 548549
for preterm infants after NICU stay, 549551
for preterm infants with special needs, 551553
outcomes for preterm infants, 553554
screening tests, 546547
Down syndrome, 411412
Drug abuse, maternal, and neonatal abstinence syndrome, 525532
assessment of drug-exposed newborn, 526532
Dysrhythmias, in the newborn, 482484
E
Edwards syndrome, 412415
Enzyme disorders, of red blood cells in newborns, 514515
559
560
Index
Epigenetic/imprinting disorders, 420425

Prader-Willi syndrome, 422424
Russell-Silver syndrome, 425
Ethical dilemmas, in the genomic era, 425426
Extremities, congenital anomalies of in newborns, 359361
Eyes, development of, 367368
early vision, 369370
examination of, in newborns, 368369
F
Facial nerve palsy, due to birth trauma, 357
Families, discharge planning for neonates from high-risk, 554555
Fat necrosis, subcutaneous, due to birth trauma, 356
Feeding, difficulties in late preterm infants, 447449
in discharge planning for newborns, 547
Fetus, transition to neonate, 329343
Formula feeding, 433434
formulas with extensively hydrolyzed protein, 434
infant formulas, 433434
soy formulas, 434
Fractures, in newborns due to birth trauma, 358
clavicle, 358
humerus, 358
skull, 358
Fungal infections. See also Infections.
antifungal use in newborns, 499500
G
Gastroesophageal reflux, and neonatal nutrition, 434437
evaluation and management of, 435437
Gastroesophageal reflux disease, and neonatal nutrition, 434437
evaluation and management of, 435437
symptoms of, 435
Gastrointestinal motility, in late preterm infants, 448
Genetic counseling, for epigenetic/imprinting disorders, 422425
Genetic syndromes, common, 411426
epigenetic/imprinting disorders, 420425
ethical dilemmas in genomic era, 425426
large-scale genomic anomalies, 411417
Down syndrome, 411412
Klinefelter syndrome, 416417
trisomy 13 (Petau syndrome), 412
trisomy 18 (Edwards syndrome), 412, 415
Index
Turner syndrome, 416

microdeletion syndromes, 417420
cri du chat syndrome, 418
Miller-Dieker syndrome, 418419
Smith-Magenta syndrome, 419
velocardiofacial (22q11.2) syndrome, 417
Williams syndrome, 417418
Wilms tumor-aniridia-genital anomalies-retardation, 419420
Wolf-Hirschhorn syndrome, 418
Genital anomalies, with Wilms tumor, aniridia, and retardation, 419420
Gestational age, initial assessment of, 346352
Glucose homeostasis, postnatal, 400403
Group B streptococcal prophylaxis, in newborns, 501
Growth, intrauterine, assessment in newborn, 346352
H
Hand hygiene, for prevention of neonatal infections, 501
Hearing, in newborns, 370376
functional consequences, 373
interventions for impairments of, 375376
continued interventions for family and school, 376
medical, 375
modes of communication, 376
surgical implants, 375376
normal development of, 370
screening, 373375
structure and function, 370371
types and causes of, 371373
Hematologic problems, in newborns, 509524
anemia, 518519
diagnosis of hemolysis, 517
hemoglobinopathies, 516517
hemolysis and neurotoxicity risk, 517518
hemolytic diseases, 510515
ABO, 512514
immune-mediated, 510512
red blood cell enzymopathies, 514515
polycythemia, 519
red blood cell membrane defects, 515516
red blood cells, 509510
thrombocytopenia, 519520
Hemoglobinopathies, in newborns, 516517
Hemolysis, diagnosis in newborns, 517
neurotoxicity risk in, 517518
jaundice evaluation and management, 517518
Hemolytic diseases, in newborns, 510515
ABO, 512514
561
562
Index
Hemorrhage, subgaleal, due to birth trauma, 353354

High-risk families, discharge planning for neonates from, 554555
Home birth, planned, initial assessment of newborn in, 363
Hospital course, in late preterm infants, 441443
Human Genome Project, inherited variation in pharmacology, 535539
Humerus fractures, in newborns due to birth trauma, 358
Hyperbilirubinemia, in late preterm infants, 448
Hypoglycemia, in late preterm newborns, 446447
metabolic screening in newborns, 385409
acute metabolic decompensation with inborn errors of metabolism, 398
definition of, 403407
metabolic acidosis, 398400
postnatal glucose homeostasis, 400403
principles of screening, 386387
tandem mass spectrometry, 387398
Hypoplastic left heart syndrome, in newborns, 480
I
Immune-mediated hemolytic disorders, in newborns, 510512
Immunization, for prevention of neonatal infections, 501502
Immunoprophylaxis, for prevention of neonatal infections, 501502
Imprinting disorders. See Epigenetic/imprinting disorders.
Infant nutrition. See Nutrition.
Infections, neonatal, 491508
clinical presentations, 493494
early-onset, 493494
late-onset, 494
diagnostic evaluations, 494496
algorithm-based guidelines, 494495
biomarkers, 495496
molecular-based tests, 496
microbiologic agents, 492493
preventive strategies, 501505
hand hygiene, 501
immunization and immunoprophylaxis, 501502
NICU care bundles, 503505
probiotics and prebiotics, 502503
surgical treatment, 500
therapeutic management, 496500
antibiotics, 497
antifungals, 499500
antivirals, 497499
Interstitial lung disease, neonatal, 465466
J
Jaundice, and neurotoxicity due to hemolysis in newborns, 527528
Index
K
Klinefelter syndrome, 416417
L
Lacerations, due to birth trauma, 354
Laryngeal nerve injury, due to birth trauma, 357358
Late preterm infants, 439451
consequences of, 441450
central nervous system maturation, 449450
gastrointestinal and feeding maturation, 447449
hospital course, 441443
metabolic concerns, 445447
respiratory, 443445
definition, 439
discharge planning for, 548549
epidemiology, 439441
Length of stay, hospitalization of late preterm infants, 443
M
Marijuana, maternal use of, assessment of drug-exposed newborn, 529
Maternal conditions, affecting the newborn transition, 333335
Maternal drug abuse, and neonatal abstinence syndrome, 525532
Meconium aspiration syndrome, 461463
Medications, neonatal, 525544
maternal drug abuse and neonatal abstinence syndrome, 525532
pain, 532535
pharmacogenomics and pharmacogenetics, 535539
Membrane defect, of red blood cells in newborns, 515516
Metabolic acidosis, postnatal, 398400
Metabolic concerns, in late preterm infants, 445447
Metabolic screening, in newborns, 385409
definition of hypoglycemia, 403407
Methamphetamine, maternal use of, assessment of drug-exposed newborn, 528
Microbiologic agents, transmission to newborns, 492493
Microdeletion syndromes, 417420
cri du chat syndrome, 418
Smith-Magenta syndrome, 419
velocardiofacial (22q11.2) syndrome, 417
Wilms tumor-aniridia-genital anomalies-retardation, 419420
563
564
Index

Molecular-based tests, for diagnosing neonatal infections, 496
Motor function, assessment in newborns, 358359
Murmurs, cardiac, in newborns, 475
N
Nasal deformities, due to birth trauma, 356
Neonatal abstinence syndrome, due to maternal drug abuse, 525532
Neonatal intensive care unit (NICU), admissions in late preterm infants, 441442
care bundles to reduce infection in, 503505
Neonatal Resuscitation Program, 337340
airway clearance, 338
assisted ventilation, 339
chest compression, 339
medications and volume expansion, 339
supplemental oxygen, 338339
thermoregulation, 337
Neonates. See Newborns.
Neurologic assessment, in newborns, 358359
Neurologic injury, due to birth trauma, 356358
brachial plexus, 356357
diaphragmatic paralysis, 357
facial nerve palsy, 357
laryngeal nerve injury, 357358
Neurotoxicity, risk due to hemolysis in newborns, 517518
jaundice evaluation and management, 517518
Newborns, cardiac evaluation of, 471489
stabilization when critical congenital heart disease is suspected, 487488
discharge planning, 545656
circumcision, 547548
feeding, 547
for high-risk families, 554555
for late preterm infants, 548549
for preterm infants after NICU stay, 549551
for preterm infants with special needs, 551553
outcomes for preterm infants, 553554
screening tests, 546547
genetic and epigenetic syndromes, 411426
epigenetic/imprinting disorders, 420425
ethical dilemmas in genomic era, 425426
large-scale genomic anomalies, 411417
microdeletion syndromes, 417420
hematologic problems in, 509524
Index
anemia, 518519
diagnosis of hemolysis, 517
hemoglobinopathies, 516517
hemolysis and neurotoxicity risk, 517518
hemolytic diseases, 510515
ABO, 512514
polycythemia, 519
red blood cell membrane defects, 515516
red blood cells, 509510
thrombocytopenia, 519520
infections in, 491508
clinical presentations, 493494
diagnostic evaluations, 494496
microbiologic agents, 492493
preventive strategies, 501505
surgical treatment, 500
therapeutic management, 496500
initial assessment and management, 345365
birth trauma, 352358
neurologic, 356358
congenital anomalies of extremities, 359361
gestational age and growth, 346352
neurologic assessment, 358359
physical examination, 352
umbilical cord, 361363
with planned home birth, 363
late preterm infants, 439451
consequences of, 441450
definition, 439
epidemiology, 439441
medications for, 525544
maternal drug abuse and neonatal abstinence syndrome, 525532
pain, 532535
pharmacogenomics and pharmacogenetics, 535539
metabolic screening and postnatal glucose, 385409
definition of hypoglycemia, 403407
nutrition, 427438
breastfeeding, 427433
formula feeding, 433434
gastroesophageal reflux and gastroesophageal disease, 434437
respiratory distress in, 453469
565
566
Index
Newborns (continued )
bronchopulmonary dysplasia, 463465
congenital lung diseases, 466467
differential diagnosis, 456
interstitial lung disease, 465466
meconium aspiration syndrome, 461463
physiologic changes at birth, 454456
pneumonia, 459
respiratory distress syndrome, 460461
transient tachypnea of neonate, 458459
upper airway anomalies, 456458
sensory development, 367384
hearing, 370376
smell and taste, 376381
vision, 367370
transition from fetus to, 329343
neonatal problems of, 333337
delivery issues affecting, 336337
fetal/newborn conditions affecting, 335336
maternal conditions affecting, 333335
newborn resuscitation, 337340
physiology of, 330333
cardiovascular and pulmonary changes during, 330333
fetal cardiopulmonary, 330
Nutrition, neonatal, 427438
breastfeeding, 427433
formula feeding, 433434
gastroesophageal reflux and gastroesophageal disease, 434437
O
Opioids, maternal use of, assessment of drug-exposed newborn, 529532
breastfeeding issues, 530531
discharge issues, 532
long-acting, 529530
neonatal abstinence scoring, 530
pharmacotherapy for neonatal abstinence syndrome, 531532
short-acting, 529
Oral structures, and sense of taste in newborns, 376381
Oxygen, supplemental, in newborn resuscitation, 338339
P
Pain, medications for, in neonates, 532535
for circumcision, 534535
Index
inadequate treatment of, 533

nonpharmacologic interventions for, 533
pain perception, 532533
sucrose, 533534
topical anesthetics, 534
Patau syndrome, 412
Patent ductus arteriosus, in newborns, 476
Personalized medicine, 538539
Petechiae, due to birth trauma, 354355
Pharmacogenetics. See Pharmacogenomics.
Pharmacogenomics, inherited variation in pharmacology and Human Genome Project,
535539
developmental expression of drug-metabolizing enzymes, 538
personalized medicine, 538539
phenotypic variations in pharmacogenetics, 537
single nucleotide polymorphisms, 535537
Physiology, of transition from fetus to newborn, 330333
respiratory, 454455
Pneumonia, in neonates, 459
Polycythemia, in newborns, 519
Prebiotics, for prevention of neonatal infections, 502503
Premature beats, in newborns, 482483
Prenatal drug use, maternal, and neonatal abstinence syndrome, 525532
Preterm infants. See also Late preterm infants.
discharge after NICU stay, 549551
outcomes for, 553554
with special needs after discharge, 551553
Preventive strategies, for neonatal infections, 501505
hand hygiene, 501
immunization and immunoprophylaxis, 501502
NICU care bundles, 503505
probiotics and prebiotics, 502503
Primitive reflexes, assessment in newborns, 359, 360
Probiotics, for prevention of neonatal infections, 502503
Pulmonary changes, during transition from fetus to neonate, 330333
Pulmonary valve atresia, in newborns, 476478
Pulmonary valve stenosis, in newborns, 476478
Pulse oximetry screening, in newborns, 484487
R
Red blood cell disorders, in newborns, 509524
Reflexes, primitive, assessment in newborns, 359, 360
Respiratory distress, neonatal, 453469
assessment of, 455456
bronchopulmonary dysplasia, 463465
567
568
Index
Respiratory (continued )
congenital lung diseases, 466467
differential diagnosis, 456
interstitial lung disease, 465466
meconium aspiration syndrome, 461463
physiologic changes at birth, 454456
pneumonia, 459
respiratory distress syndrome, 460461
transient tachypnea of neonate, 458459
upper airway anomalies, 456458
Respiratory distress syndrome, in late preterm infants, 443444
neonatal, 460461
Respiratory immaturity, in late preterm infants, 443445
Resuscitation, neonatal, 337340
S
Screening, maternal and newborn, in discharge planning, 546547
metabolic. See Metabolic screening.
Sensory development, 367384
hearing, 370376
smell and taste, 376381
vision, 367370
Skull fractures, in newborns due to birth trauma, 358
Smell, sense of, in newborns, 376381
Smith-Megenis syndrome, 419
Soft tissue injuries, due to birth trauma, 354356
Streptococcus, Group B, prophylaxis in newborns, 501
Subcutaneous fat necrosis, due to birth trauma, 356
Subgaleal hemorrhage, due to birth trauma, 353354
Suck/swallow, in late preterm infants, 447448
Supraventricular tachycardia, in newborns, 483484
Surgical options, for neonatal infections, 500
Syndromes, genetic and epigenetic. See Genetic syndromes and Epigenetic/imprinting
syndromes.
T
Tandem mass spectrometry, metabolic screening in newborns with, 387398
Taste, sense of, in newborns, 376381
Temperature regulation, in late preterm infants, 445
Thermoregulation, in newborn resuscitation, 337
Index
Third-degree heart block, congenital, in newborns, 483

Thrombocytopenia, in newborns, 519520
Total anomalous pulmonary venous return, in newborns, 481
Transient tachypnea of the newborn, 458459
in late preterm infants, 443444
Transition, from fetus to newborn, 329343
neonatal problems of, 333337
delivery issues affecting, 336337
fetal/newborn conditions affecting, 335336
maternal conditions affecting, 333335
newborn resuscitation, 337340
physiology of, 330333
Transposition of great vessels, dextro, in newborns, 478
Trauma, from birth, in initial assessment of, 352358
neurologic, 356358
Trisomy 13, 412
Trisomy 18, 412415
Turner syndrome, 416
U
Umbilical cord, assessment in newborns, 361363
Upper airway anomalies, neonatal, 456458
V
Velocardiofacial syndrome, 417
Ventilation, assisted, in newborn resuscitation, 339
Ventral septal defects, in newborns, 476
Viruses. See also Infections.
antiviral use in newborns, 497499
Vision, sensory development, 367370
early vision, 369370
examination of eye, 368369
eye development, 367368
Volume expansion, in newborn resuscitation, 339
569
570
Index
W
Wilms tumor, with aniridia, genital anomalies, and retardation, 419420
Withdrawal, in neonatal abstinence syndrome, 528

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The Healthy and Sick

April 2015 Volume 62 Number 2

The Healthy and Sick Newborn

Transition from Fetus to Newborn

Jonathan R. Swanson and Robert A. Sinkin

Julie R. Gooding and Richard E. McClead Jr

Melinda B. Clark-Gambelunghe and David A. Clark

in the neonatal period than is generally appreciated. Newborn screening is

Darius J. Adams and David A. Clark

Arun K. Pramanik, Nandeesh Rangaswamy, and Thomas Gates

primary care providers may encounter newborn infants with respiratory

Donald J. Fillipps and Richard L. Bucciarelli

Roberto Parulan Santos and Debra Tristram

Robert M. Ward, Justin Stiers, and Karen Buchi

applications of pharmacogenomics to the neonatal period are presented,

The Healthy and Sick Newborn

Pediatr Clin N Am 62 (2015) xiii

The Healthy and Sick Newborn

Pediatr Clin N Am 62 (2015) xvxvi

Swanson & Sinkin

FETUS TO NEWBORN TRANSITION PHYSIOLOGY

Transition from Fetus to Newborn

Blood from descending

Vasoconstrict with increased oxygenation

Blood from placenta to

Collapse with absent blood flow

Shunt from pulmonary

Functionally closes with increased

Shunt from umbilical

Collapse with absent blood flow

Allows blood flow between

Closes when systemic pressure is greater

Vasodilate with elevated oxygen levels

Swanson & Sinkin

Transition from Fetus to Newborn

Maternal conditions can significantly affect a newborns ability to transition effectively;

Swanson & Sinkin

Transition from Fetus to Newborn

Maternal substance abuse is another significant contributor to increased perinatal

Fetal/Newborn Conditions Affecting Transition

Swanson & Sinkin

Transition from Fetus to Newborn

Swanson & Sinkin

Routine suctioning of term infants without evidence of obstruction or meconium is not

Insufficient or excessive oxygen can be harmful to neonates during resuscitation.

Transition from Fetus to Newborn

The only medication currently recommended in neonatal resuscitation is epinephrine.

Swanson & Sinkin

Transition from Fetus to Newborn

Swanson & Sinkin

Transition from Fetus to Newborn

Initial Assessment and

Richard E. McClead Jr,

Disclosure: Neither author has any conflicts or financial relationships to disclose.

Gooding & McClead Jr

The initial assessment of a normal, healthy newborn by a pediatrician should take

Initial Assessment and Management of the Newborn

Gooding & McClead Jr

Mitochondrial mutations or other neurodegenerative disorders, such as Friedrich