Review Article - Non-Destructive Quality Evaluation of Vegetables

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Review Article: Non-Destructive Quality

Evaluation of Vegetables
CONFERENCE PAPER JULY 2014
DOI: 10.13140/2.1.3449.1204
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Abdelgawad Saad
Agricultural Engineering Research Institute
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National Conference on Pre-/Post-Harvest Losses & Value Addition in Vegetables. July 12-13, 2014.
Indian Institute of Vegetable Research, Varanasi, India.
Review Article: Non-Destructive Quality Evaluation of Vegetables

AbdelGawad Saad1, Pranita Jaiswal2, S.N. Jha2*
1
Agricultural Research Center (ARC), Agricultural Engineering Research Institute (AEnRI),

Dokki, Giza, Egypt.
2
Agriculture structure and environmental control division, Central Institute of Post-Harvest
Engineering anTechnology (CIPHET), Ludhiana-141004, Punjab, India.
* Corresponding author: [email protected] (S.N. Jha)
I. INTRODUCTION
II. SPECTOSCOPY TECHNIQUES
A. Visual Spectroscopy
B. Near infrared Spectroscopy
C. Microwave Dielectric Spectroscopy
D. X-ray and Computerized Tomography (CT)
III. SOUND WAVES TECHNIQUES
A. Acoustics
B. Ultrasound
IV. IMAGING ANALYSIS TECHNIQUES
A. Hyperspectral Imaging
B. Machine Vision
C. Magnetic Resonance (MR) and Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)
VI. CONCLUSIONS
VII. REFERENCES
Indian Institute of Vegetable Research, Varanasi, India .
I. INTRODUCTION
Vegetables are consider as the one of the most valuable group of food which play a vital role
in human health by preventing diseases and repair body via maintaining its alkaline reserve
(FSSAI 2012). Different vegetables are used in different forms such as roots, stems, leaves,
fruits and seeds and contribute to a healthy diet (USDA 2012). Therefore, the maintenance of
quality of vegetables is the main concern. However, both quantitative (such as decrease in
weight or volume) and qualitative (such as reduced nutrient value and unwanted changes in
taste, color, texture, or cosmetic features of food) losses in vegetables occur between harvest
and consumption (Buzby and Hyman 2012). Majority of them occur during harvest, and
postharvest presses (Kader 2005; Hodges et al. 2011). The qualitative losses, of fresh
produce, are although difficult to assess than quantitative losses (Kader 2005; Kitinoja et al.
2011), yet they significantly affect the overall acceptability of the produce. Quality standards,
consumer preferences and purchasing power vary greatly across countries and cultures and
these differences influence marketability and the magnitude of post-harvest losses. In recent
years, markets of developed countries have emerged as a major hub of agricultural export for
many developing countries. This access to international market has posed many challenges to
meet their stringent food safety standards. So the need of the hour is therefore to develop an
effective quality evaluation system for maintaining an acceptable quality level to the end
users.
Keeping these things in mind, the objective of postharvest research round the globe is
focussed at 1) Understanding the biological and environmental factors responsible for
postharvest losses; 2) Development of suitable postharvest technology to reduce losses and
preserve quality and safety of commodities; 3) Development of rapid, cost effective, user
friendly quality evaluation technique. Quality of vegetables is determined by various
physicochemical parameters such as colour, shape, size, gloss, firmness, total soluble solids
(TSS), pH, dry matter (DM), and acidity which involve laborious laboratory techniques
which are destructive in nature, need trained staff and render the commodity unusable. These
problems can be overcome by applying the approach of non-destructive techniques.
Non-destructive techniques can be used for internal quality assessment and sorting of
vegetables as well as for measurements of critical selection feature in plant breeding
programs. Different Non-destructive techniques frequently used for the assessment of
vegetables quality are fast, user friendly cheaper and accurate (Alander et al. 2013; Saldaa et
2
al. 2013). It is possible to screen large numbers of diverse samples by applying these
techniques. The scientific principle of non-destructive technique is to estimate vegetables
quality via measuring change in energy, applied on the target (Figure 1).
Input energy
Near infrared (NIR)
X-ray
Ultrasonic
Microwave
Acoustic
Magnetic resonance
Imaging (MR/MRI)
Vegetables
Output energy
Targets: Chemical components,

Physical properties, quality, taste
Energy change
Quantification
Development of calibration models between the targets and energy
Figure 1. Scientific principle of non-destructive quality estimation for vegetables.
Various non-destructive techniques such as optics, near infrared (NIR), ultrasonic, X-ray,
microwave, acoustic, and magnetic resonance/magnetic resonance imaging (MR/MRI) have
been applied for quality determination of horticulture produce (Wang et al. 2009; Jha et al.
2010; Lorente et al. 2011).
II. SPECTOSCOPY TECHNIQUES
A. VISUAL SPECTROSCOPY
Chemical components of any food material absorb light energy at specific wavelengths;
therefore some compositional information can be determined from spectra measured by
spectrophotometers. In the visible wavelength range, pigments such as chlorophylls,
carotenoids, anthocyanins and other coloured compounds are the major light absorbing
component of vegetables (Ignat 2012). The reflectance properties of any object in the visible
region (380750 nm) are perceived by human eyes as colour, which provide information
about the pigment content of the sample (Berns 2000). Colours appear, when light is
absorbed and some part of it is reflected by the target material. If all light is reflected, the
object will appear white, and if all is absorbed, it will appear black. The wavelengths
influence the perceived color which therefore is dependent on both the light source and the
absorption by the object (Lkke 2012).
Vegetables skin colour has been considered as indicator for maturity in some
horticultural products such as tomato (Edan et al. 1997). Absorption spectrum of several plant
pigments are shown in Figure 2. Basically, colour is regarded as one of the appearing
property attributed to the spectral distribution of light which is directly related to the object to
which the colour is ascribed as well as the eye of the observer. On the other hand in absence
of illumination, colour does not appear. Hence, a number of factors influenced the radiation
and subsequently affect the exact colour that one perceives (Jha 2010).
Figure 2. Absorption spectra of chlorophyll and carotenoids. From www.cfb.unh.edu

Jha and Matsuoka (2002) used spectral radiometer to determine the freshness of eggplant
on the basis of surface gloss and weight. They established a relationship between gloss index
and weight during storage and developed quick and reliable instrumental method for nondestructive estimation of freshness of eggplant. Jha et al. (2002) further developed a freshness
index of eggplant using this technique.
B. NEAR INFRARED SPECTOSCOPY
Nearinfrared spectroscopy is one of the most widely studied quality assessment tools for the
last twenty years. It is a rapid, powerful, reliable and non-destructive technique for the
measuring qualitative and quantitative properties of biological materials (Jha and Matsuoka
2004; Teye et al. 2013). This technique is now increasingly used for non-destructive
measurement of the quality of fruits and vegetables such as soluble solids (Brix), acidity,
titratable acidity, water content, dry matter, firmness, and so on and for rapid assessment of
fiber, protein, fat, ash content and so on (Jha and Matsuoka 2004; Bureau et al. 2013).
4
Near-Infrared spectroscopy involves use of light in the wavelengths range of 780-2500

nm, and the light penetration depth, depends on the wavelength and the sample
characteristics. It is up to 4 mm in the 700-900 nm range (Lammertyn et al. 2000; Nicolai et
al. 2007). In the NIR region, the absorption is due to overtones and the combination tones of
the fundamental infrared (IR) vibration bands of bonds where the electric dipole moment
changes; anharmonic bonds (Thygesen et al. 2003). The light emitted from the object
(sample), reveals information about chemical properties and surface structure. The light
scattered from fresh produce reveals the microstructure of the tissue and the light absorption
is associated with the presence of chemical components in the sample under study. Therefore
both phenomenons are useful in quality assessment (Nicolai et al. 2007). The fresh
agriculture product are generally found to be high in moisture content, hence the NIR
spectrum of fresh agriculture product is vastly controlled by water content since water has a
high absorption in NIR region of light (Cen and He 2007). The spectral pattern information is
used to predict the chemical compositions of the sample by extracting the relevant
information from many overlapping peaks. So, the pivotal step is to extract the useful
information from original spectral data. Additionally, automation of NIR measurements can
be done after proper calibration. Multivariate calibration is required to develop the prediction
models, for quantitative analysis of sample constituents. Partial least squares (PLS), principal
components regression (PCR), and artificial neural networks (ANN) are the most used
multivariate calibration techniques for the NIR spectroscopy (He et al. 2005). Vis-NIR
spectroscopy has been successfully used to develop model for prediction of sensory quality of
chicory, soluble solids content and firmness of bell pepper (Francois et al. 2008; Penchaiya et
al. 2009). It has also been used in prediction of chlorophyll content in leafy green vegetables
(Xue and Yang 2009). Slaughter et al. 1996) used NIR spectroscopy to study the soluble solid
content of more than thirty varieties of fresh tomatoes. Shao et al. (2007) measured the
quality characteristics (soluble solids content, pH and firmness) of tomato Heatwave, by
NIR spectroscopy and found satisfying results.
NIR spectroscopy has been used to measure the nitrate concentrations in vegetables
(Shao and He 2008; Kanda et al. 2010; Itoh et al. 2011). Shao and He (2008) estimated the
strawberry acidity by NIR reflectance spectroscopy, the absorbance data compressed by using
wavelength transformation and two models were established to predict strawberry acidity.
Matsumoto et al. (2009) developed models to measuring nitrate concentration in the whole
body of a lettuce by using absorption spectra in the range of 700960 nm. Itoh et al. (2011)
developed a method for non-destructive measurement of nitrate concentration in Spinach and
komatsuna leaves by near-infrared (NIR) spectroscopy. They measured absorption spectra of
small portion of the leaves thereafter the nitrate concentrations of the same portion were
measured by a liquid chromatography analyzer. Finally PCR or PLS methods with a
wavelength selection algorithm were developed to estimate the nitrate concentration.
C. MICROWAVE DIELECTRIC SPECTROSCOPY
Microwave electromagnetic radiation spectrum stretch from a frequency range 108 Hz to
1011Hz (Chieh 2012). Microwave dielectric spectroscopy is an emerging technique used in
assessment of the internal quality based on dielectric properties of food products (Bohigas et
al. 2008). Dielectric properties of all materials are dependent on their molecular structure.
Specifically, it depends on the distribution of electric charges, which are either constantly
embedded within the molecules or temporarily covers its surfaces. It is also known that the
molecular structure of objects determine their physical and chemical properties. Therefore,
the dielectric properties of various molecules constituting a given material will uniquely
identify it. It can successfully diversify physical and chemical properties of a tested material
(Figure 3). The crucial point of the application of the dielectric spectroscopy measurement
techniques in agrophysics is the utilization of their advantages for rapid and non-destructive
assessment of the quality of the agricultural objects. It may be done by searching for
dependencies between the dielectric properties and other physical and chemical properties of
tested materials of agricultural origin (Skierucha et al. 2012).
Molecular structure of heterogeneous materials
Dielectric properties (phase

shift,
signal
attenuation,
relaxation time, temperature
influence, ect.) in the function
of frequency
Correlation
sought
Physical and chemical properties

(moisture, firmness, colour, pH,
acidity, salinity, content of starch,
sugar, trace elements, aromatic
compounds, etc.)
Quality parameters of heterogeneous materials

Figure 3. Quality parameters of heterogeneous materials of agricultural origin described by
physical and chemical parameters as well as the dielectric ones (Skierucha et al. 2012).
6
The dielectric properties of food materials in the microwave region can be determined by
different microwave measuring sensors (Kraszewski 1996). The specific method used
depends on the frequency range and the type of target material. The water content and soluble
solid content of watermelon were evaluated by measuring permittivity of watermelon (Nelson
et al. 2007). The open ended probe was used to measure the complex permittivity of
watermelon. Soluble solid content and moisture content of watermelon were used as a quality
factor for the correlation with the dielectric properties. A high correlation was obtained
between the dielectric constant and solid soluble content (Nelson et al. 2007).
Nelson and Trabelsi (2008) used the permittivity measurements of honeydew melons and
watermelons, with an open-ended coaxial-line probe and impedance analyzer at frequencies
of 10 MHz to 1.8 GHz to provide information about their maturity. Total soluble solid of
melons was used as measure of maturity and was correlated with permittivity. Dielectric
constant and loss factor correlations with total soluble solid were low, but a high correlation
was recorded between the total soluble solid and permittivity from a complex-plane plot of
dielectric constant and loss factor, each divided by total soluble solid.
Dielectric spectroscopy can be considered an important non-destructive tool for
controlling the freezing process of potato at frequency range of 500 MHz to 20 GHz (Cuibusa
et al. 2013). The dielectric properties of tomatoes were measured over a frequency range of
3003000 MHz at temperatures between 22 and 120 C (Penga et al. 2013). The dielectric
properties has been used to measure the moisture content and tissue density of agricultural
materials by predicting heating rates which in turn describe the behaviour of products when
exposed to high-frequency or microwave electric fields (Venkatesh and Raghavan 2004).
Nelson (2003); (Nelson et al. 2006) carried out permittivity measurements of cut
vegetables (cantaloupe, carrot, cucumber, and potato) over a frequency range of 10 MHz to
1.8 GHz and at various temperatures ranging from 5C to 95C. The dielectric loss factor was
considerably decreased with frequency whereas slight decrease in dielectric constant was
observed with frequency. Similarly, the dielectric loss factor was generally found to be
increased with temperature. In fruits and vegetables, the moisture content is high then the
dielectric constant is generally high at temperature ranges from 5C to 95 C. McKeown et al.
(2012) observed the highest magnitude of permittivity values (dielectric constant and
dielectric loss) at low frequencies in carrot. The dielectric constant value of carrot,
cantaloupe, potato, and finally cucumber was found to be in the decreasing order. Although
7
moisture content did not correlate with the dielectric properties, other factors such as density,
tissue structure, nature of water binding to constituents of vegetables might have affected the
dielectric properties
D. X-RAY AND COMPUTERIZED TOMOGRAPHY (CT)
X-ray imaging is an established technique for quickly detecting the strongly attenuating
materials. It has been applied to a number of inspection applications within the agricultural
and food industries (Jha and Matsuoka 2000; Donis-Gonzlez 2013).
Recently, techniques based on two-dimensional (2D) X-ray, and computed tomographic
(CT) imaging have been explored, and used for internal quality determination of agricultural
and food products non-destructively (Abbott 1999; Haff 2008). Despite extensive research
effort, real-time inspection systems for detection of internal quality of fresh produce are not
commercially available, because of limitations in useful information when using high-speed
systems (Butz et al. 2005). However, with the improvement in high-performance computers,
new detector technologies, high-performance x-ray tubes, accessibility, real-time imaging,
cost diminution, and significant reducing in image acquisition time and in-line CT sorting
systems are gaining tremendous attraction (Pratx and Xing 2011).
X-ray is short wave radiation (0.01 10 nm) with high energy (1.92 10-17 1.92
10-14J) that can easily penetrate matter. X-rays are generated by bombarding electrons on a
metallic anode (X-ray tube) (Bushberg et al. 2002). Traditional CT is an imaging modality
where an x-ray tube is rotated around an object or objects and the attenuation is recorded on a
detector. Other equipment may contain a rotating stage in front of a fixed x-ray tube and
detector (Donis-Gonzlez et al. 2012). Quenon and De Baerdemaeker (2000) developed Xray method to measure the length of the floral stalk in Belgian endive Cichorium intybus L
non-destructively. Detection algorithm was developed based on the minimal transmitted
intensities along the length. The method is very accurate with an absolute precision of 4.9mm
and allows the study of the influence of storage conditions and time on the internal quality of
Belgian endive. They concluded the X-ray transmission is suitable for a non destructive
measurement of the length of the floral stalk in Belgian endive.
III. SOUND WAVES TECHNIQUES
Acoustic sound waves (in the range of human hearing i.e 20 Hz to 20 KHz) and ultrasonic
waves (which are above the range of human hearing i.e. 20 KHz to 1 MHz) are used to
evaluate the quality of fresh vegetables non-destructively (Sagartzazu et al. 2008). In acoustic
sound, a device is often used to lightly tap or thump the commodity to create a sound wave
that pass through the product tissue. The characteristics of the sound waves as they pass
though the product can be used to indicate the quality attributes of fruit and vegetables during
postharvest processes (Butz et al. 2005).
A. ACOUSTICS
Acoustic resonance technique is an emerging trend for non-destructive quality evaluation of
fruits and vegetables. This technique is based on the response to sound and vibration when
the source is gently tapped. It can be used to predict the maturity, internal quality, ripening
stage and other similar parameters using the audible frequency range of 20 Hz to 20 kHz. The
availability of high-speed data acquisition and processing technology has renewed research
interest in the development of impact and sonic response techniques (Vahora et al. 2013).
When an acoustic wave reaches to the agricultural products, the reflected or transmitted
acoustic wave depends on the acoustic characteristics of the agricultural products. The
reflected or transmitted acoustic wave can provide information on the interaction between
acoustic wave and agricultural products, and acoustic characteristics such as attenuation
coefficient, transmitting velocity, acoustic impedance, and natural frequency. Different
agricultural products have various acoustic characteristics based on the internal tissue
structures (Sugiyama et al. 1994; Trnka et al. 2013).
From last three decades, there has been tremendous development in acoustics technology.
It has become a primary method for watermelon sorting and grading (Mizrach et al. 1996).
He et al. (1994) developed pendulum hitting device to judge maturity and other internal
qualities of watermelons without damage, by studying the feature curves of the sound
waveform of watermelons. Sugiyama et al. (1994) studied the relationship between the
transmission velocity and firmness of muskmelons. They found that the transmission velocity
became lower in ripened muskmelons. Based on the study, they developed an instrument to
measure the transmission velocity of sound wave in muskmelons and found that the
transmission velocity of sound wave in edible muskmelons ranged from 37 -50 m/s.
An instrument for measuring the hollow heart and maturity of watermelons (Figure 4) was
developed by Applied Vibro-Acoustics (AVA) Company. It was based on the theory that
everything in the world holds its own special frequency. L (2003); (Rao et al. 2004)
developed a quality inspecting system using acoustic technology. The sound waves were
9
collected via microphones and transformed into electric signal. Thereafter this electric signal
was amplified, followed by filtered via processing circuit, and sampled by a data acquisition
board (Figure 5). A correlation was developed between the transmission velocity and soluble
solids content of watermelons and the best correlation coefficient for different striking
positions and growth status of watermelons was found to be 0.810.95.
Figure 4. A portable frequency

response
measurement
instrument
(http://www.ava.co.jp).
Figure 5. Diagram of setup the transmitting velocity

measurement of watermelon (L, 2003).
Baltazar et al. (2007) used acoustic impact test to study the ripening process of intact
tomato. They concluded that the non-destructive acoustic impact technique could detect small
physiological changes. The relation between water loss and firmness measurements in
tomatoes during post harvest period was studied by Hertog et al. (2004). The acoustic
stiffness measurement (Figure 6) was found to be suitable for determining the softening
phenomena of individual pepper samples during post harvest period (Zsom-Muha 2008). The
tests applied on two excitation positions of paprika: top (1) and shoulder part (2) the product
showed characteristic frequency peak of the measured acoustic response in these two
positions. One dominant frequency peak can be obtained by the excitation on the top of the
pepper berry. In contrast to this, by the excitation on the shoulder part, other frequency peak
can be seen (probably because of the excitation of other vibration modes) but no significant
difference can be observed as a acoustic stiffness coefficients on both (top and shoulder part)
excitation positions of the pepper berry, may be due to the suitability to excite the pepper
berry on the
top
part (ZsomMuha 2008).
10
Figure 6: Spectrum of acoustic response of paprika excited on different positions (ZsomMuha 2008)
B. ULTRASOUND
Ultrasound technology has been known and used in many areas, including medical
diagnostics, industrial processes, and metal fabrication (Mason et al. 1996). It has also gained
attention and increasing popularity in evaluating and testing the biological and food materials
(Jivanuwong 1998). The advantages of ultrasonic methods includes quick measurement and
interpretation, penetrating optically opaque materials, accuracy, low cost, freedom from
radiation hazards, and the ease of on-line measurement. At high frequencies and low power it
can be used as an analytical and evaluation tool, and at a very high power it can assist
processing (Mason et al. 1996). Ultrasonic vibrations are above the audible frequency range
>20 kHz. Ultrasound is generated by a transducer containing a ceramic crystal which is
excited by a short electrical pulse that has a typical form of several sine cycles. Through the
piezoelectric effect, this electrical energy is converted to a mechanical wave that is
propagated as a short sonic pulse at the fundamental frequency of the transducer. This energy
is transferred into the material or body under analysis and propagated through it
(Krautkramer and Krautkramer 1990). The ultrasound signal emerging from the test sample is
sensed by a piezoelectric element that acts as a receiver, converting any ultrasound impinging
on it, back to electrical energy. Mizrach et al. (2000) reported that ultrasonic nondestructively measurement system was relied for the assessment of same transmission
parameters which may be have quantitative relation with the ripening, maturity, firmness and
other internal quality of fruit and vegetables.
IV. IMAGING ANALYSIS TECHNIQUES
11
An imaging system technique is a common to obtain spatial information of the samples in

monochromatic forms or colour images. Imaging system is therefore used for colour, shape,
size, surface texture evaluation of food products and to detect surface defect in food samples,
however it cannot identify or detects chemical properties of a food product (Sun 2009; Sun
2010).
A. HYPERSPECTRAL IMAGING
Now days, hyperspectral imaging system has become a powerful tool and popular for food
research. It can capture the spatial data of the whole target at selected wavelengths instead of
measuring spectral values at single point (Huang et al. 2014). Its an inherently effective tool
because of ability to collect data with both spatial and spectral characteristics of the scanned
target (Wang et al. 2013).
Itoh et al. (2010) used near-infrared hyperspectral imaging system to measure the nitrate
concentration distribution in a vegetable leaf. The nitrate concentration estimated at each
pixel in a leaf image with high accuracy, and the results indicated variation in nitrate
concentration inside a leaf. Wang et al. (2009) developed a NIR reflectance hyperspectral
imaging system for sour skin detection in Vidalia onions. The system consisted of an InGaAs
video camera, normal lens, liquid crystal tunable filter (LCTF), and frame grabber for
acquiring image data, and two tungsten halogen lamps as light sources. The schematic
diagram of the system for transmission experiments to take transmittance images of food
material (sweet onions, onion bulbs), onion sample placed between the light source and the
hyperspectral imaging system as shown in Figure 7 (Wang et al. 2009).
Figure 7. Schematic of hyperspectral imaging system for onion transmittance experiments

One of the very interesting applications of hyperspectral imaging technique is to predict
the sugar content distribution in melons (Sun 2009). Polder et al. (2004) measured the surface
distribution of carotenes and chlorophyll in ripening tomatoes at spectral range of 400 - 700
12
nm with 1 nm resolution. Zhang et al. (2013) predicted soluble solid content of tomatoes at
spectral range of 720-990 nm using a prototype of hyperspectral transmittance imaging
system. It has also been used to predict the amount of dry matter, soluble solids content, and
firmness of onions by using a line-scan hyperspectral imaging system with three sensing
modes (reflectance, interactance, and transmittance) at spectral range of 400-1000 nm (Wang
et al. 2013), total soluble solids, total chlorophyll, carotenoid and ascorbic acid content
during bell pepper maturity at spectral range of 550-850 nm (Itoh et al. 2010).
B. MACHINE VISION
During recent years, the machine vision system has been increasingly used for examination of
fruits and vegetables, especially for applications in quality inspection and defect sorting
applications (Eissa and Abdel Khalik 2012). Computer vision system is recognized as the
integration of devices for non-contact optical sensing, computing and decision processes,
which receive and interpret automatically an image of a real scene (Parmar et al. 2011). It
includes capturing, processing and analysis of two-dimensional images, with other noting that
aims to duplicate the effect of human vision by electronically perceiving and understanding
an image. The basic principle of computer vision is described in Figure 8. Image processing
and image analysis are the core of computer vision with numerous algorithms and methods
available to achieve the required classification and measurements (Eissa and Abdel Khalik
2012).
Figure 8. Principle of computer vision system.

An automatic strawberry grading system with photoelectric sensors was designed to
detect shape and grading of strawberry (Liming and Yanchao 2010). A machine vision
system together with linear discriminate analysis based on color information of the pixel in
dry and wet condition of the object was used for discriminating potato tubers from solid clods
13
(Al-Mallahi et al. 2010). A discrimination rate of 92% for wet condition and 73% for dry
condition was successfully achieved (Al-Mallahi et al. 2010). Machine vision system was
developed for guidance of a robot arm to pick the ripe tomato during harvest, via acquiring
images from tomato plant (Arefi et al. 2011).
C. MAGNETIC RESONANCE (MR) AND MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING (MRI)
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) has become a well-established technique for nondestructive analysis of the internal structure of food. The MRI technique provides a nondestructive method to evaluate both the qualitative and the quantitative properties of
biological materials (Cheng et al. 2011). This technique is based on the interaction of certain
nuclei, such as carbon and hydrogen, with electromagnetic radiation in the radio frequency
range (Slaughter 2009). It is used to evaluate the property of interest for food processing (as
drying), physical tissue damage assessment (as bruising) and others for online sorting process
or detection of internal defects (as internal browning) (Defraeye et al. 2013). Magnetic
resonance imaging technique has been used as a non-invasive research tool for internal
quality assessment of some fruit and vegetables (Mazhar et al. 2013). The physiological
change of tomato at different maturity stages has been visualized in MR (Saltveit 1991;
Zhang and McCarthy 2012). The change in macroscopic structure and water proton
relaxation times during ripening of tomato fruit have been investigated by (Musse et al.
2009). Chemical shift imaging (CSI) technique (nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopic
method) was employed to investigate spatialtemporal changes in sugar and lycopene
contents of tomatoes during ripening, to provide a better conception of the postharvest
ripening process of tomatoes (Cheng et al. 2011). Dedicated MRI has been used to trace the
thawing process for boiled and frozen edible vegetables such as green soybeans, broad beans,
okra, asparagus and taro. It was measured by the spin-echo method (echo time= 7 ms) with
0.1 or 0.2 s and 1 s repetition times (Koizumi et al. 2006). The pericarp tissue injury in
tomatoes was detected by using in-line MRI equipment (Milczarek et al. 2009).
VI. CONCLUSIONS
The current review focused on some valuable applications of non-destructive methods for
vegetables quality evaluation. Non-destructive techniques are centre of attraction for its
feasibility to predict external and internal quality of vegetables without any loss in structure.
14
Moreover, these techniques provide constitutional variation of the vegetables/vegetable

products and their accurate quantification, leading to better characterization and improved
quality and safety evaluation results. Considering these advantages, it is expected that nondestructive technology will play more significant role in the field of vegetables/fruits
industries in near future.
VII. REFERENCES
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All in-text references underlined in blue are linked to publications on ResearchGate,

Available from: Abdelgawad Saad

Review Article: Non-Destructive Quality Evaluation of Vegetables

Agricultural Research Center (ARC), Agricultural Engineering Research Institute (AEnRI),

Targets: Chemical components,

Figure 2. Absorption spectra of chlorophyll and carotenoids. From www.cfb.unh.edu

Near-Infrared spectroscopy involves use of light in the wavelengths range of 780-2500

Dielectric properties (phase

Physical and chemical properties

Quality parameters of heterogeneous materials

Figure 4. A portable frequency

Figure 5. Diagram of setup the transmitting velocity

part (ZsomMuha 2008).

An imaging system technique is a common to obtain spatial information of the samples in

Figure 7. Schematic of hyperspectral imaging system for onion transmittance experiments

Figure 8. Principle of computer vision system.

Moreover, these techniques provide constitutional variation of the vegetables/vegetable

Milczarek, R. R., M. E. Saltveit, T. C. Garvey and M. J. McCarthy. 2009. Assessment of

Quenon, V. and J. De Baerdemaeker. 2000. Non-destructive method for internal quality

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