Experiment 1

Basic Electronics Circuits

Familiarization of Basic Test Equipments and Passive Devices
The first lab session of this course is devoted to
(i) Getting conversant with the features and usages of the test equipment to be
used for conducting experiments
(ii) Gaining familiarity with the physical features and electrical characteristics of
commonly used passive electronic devices. The equipments that are used for the
lab session are
a. Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (CRO), with Component Tester.
b. Function Generator (FG), providing sine, square, triangle and pulse
waveforms, and Frequency Counter.
c. DC Power Supply, providing variable +30V, +15V, -15V and +5V DC
voltages with a common Ground.
Part A. CRO and FG and DC power supply
A CRO consists of a Cathode Ray Tube (CRT) and related electronic circuits for
generating the voltages required for its proper operation. The CRT consists of electron
gun that generates a focused electron beam that impinges on the fluorescent screen of
the CRO after passing between the horizontal and vertical deflecting plates. This creates
a bright spot on the screen, which can be moved both horizontally and vertically by
means of the applied voltages with respect to the deflecting plates. If these voltages are
periodic functions of time with sufficiently high frequency, the back and forth
movement of the spot on the screen appears as lines by virtue of persistence of vision.
In general, the resulting graph created on the screen will keep changing with time, and
hence the picture will become jumbled. But if the voltages applied to the deflecting
plates are synchronized with respect to each other that the spot repetitively draws the
same graph on the screen, and then the pattern created on the screen would appear to
be stationary, enabling one to make suitable observations and measurements. This is
achieved in a CRO in two different ways in the two main modes of operation of a CRO:
(a) y-t mode This mode enables to obtain the graph of the input voltage (y) applied to
the vertical plates plotted as a function of time (t) normally referred to as the
waveform of the y-input. This is achieved by making the spot move with a constant
velocity from left to right, and then return very fast from right to left, by applying a
saw tooth voltage to the horizontal deflecting plates. The horizontal axis thus forms
a Time Base (TB), with the time scale adjustable in calibrated steps (expressed in
time/division) by suitably setting the slope of the saw tooth voltage. The y-input is
applied to the vertical deflecting plates after amplifying it as necessary by the
vertical amplifier. This amplification decides the Deflection Sensitivity (expressed in
voltage/division), adjustable in calibrated steps. Most practical CROs provide a dualtrace option, whereby two signals can be simultaneously displayed on two channels
CH1 and CH2 using the same time base, but using two independent vertical
amplifiers. This is achieved either in the ALT (alternate) mode by applying the two
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input waveforms alternately to the vertical deflecting plates in alternate saw tooth
cycles, or in the CHOPPED mode by switching between the two inputs at a very fast
rate within every saw tooth cycle.
(b) x-y mode In this mode, the graph of the y-input against the x-input is obtained by
applying these voltages to the vertical and horizontal deflecting plates, after
amplifying them as necessary by vertical and horizontal amplifiers respectively. Their
amplifications decide the respective deflection sensitivities, adjustable in calibrated
steps.
An x-y display will give a stationary display only if the x and y signals are harmonics of
the same fundamental frequency. Lissajous figures are produced if both the voltages
are sinusoidal. The vertical amplifier used for the second signal in dual-trace y-t display
is used as the horizontal amplifier used for the x-input in the x-y mode. The Component
Tester (CT) provides the x-y display of I-V characteristic of any component connected
between the CT terminals. Scientech 803 MegaScope is shown in Fig. 1.

Fig. 1: The front panel of scope

A FG can generate a number of waveforms (sine/square/triangle/saw tooth/pulse/TTL),

with varying voltages and frequencies. The front panel of Scientech 4061 10 MHz FunctionPulse Generator is shown in Fig. 2. The functions of various buttons are described below.
1. Power: Push button switch to switch ON the instrument.
2. LCD Display: 20 x 4 Character bright back lit Liquid Crystal Display.
3. Frequency: Used for selection of frequency range step by step.
4. Function: Used for selection of Particular waveform.
5. Modulation: Used for selection of Frequency Modulation.
6. Atten: Used for Selection of 20dB or 40dB attenuation
7. Menu: Used for selection of Function Generator/Frequency counter mode.
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8. Duty Cycle: When pulse output function is selected, this controls the pulse duty cycle from
15% to 85%.
9. Frequency Variable: In conjunction with frequency range, selected by frequency key on front
Panel.
10. Amplitude Variable: In conjunction with attenuators (6), this varies the level of output.
11. DC Offset: This control provides DC offset. Approximately 5VDC is superimposed on the
output. Keep the control off if DC offset is not required.
12. Output (BNC connector) : Output of 10 MHz function generator i.e. 20Vpp (Open Circuit)
13. External Counter (BNC Connector): Input BNC connector for measuring the frequency of
external signal when External Counter mode is selected by Menu key on the LCD display.
14. Modulation Input: Maximum modulation Input i.e. 2Vpp.

Fig. 2: The front panel of function generator

Operation of function generator
Function Selection: The required output signal (waveform) is selected using the button
Function from the available 6 different waveform- Sine, Square Triangle, Ramp, Pulse and TTL
are available. The functions are displayed on LCD.
Frequency Adjustment: The Coarse adjustment is performed with the Key (3) that is divided in
steps of decades. The desired frequency is selected by rotating the Variable control (9). The
selected frequency appears on the LCD.
Signal Output: Connect one end of BNC-BNC cable to the output of FG and other end to
oscilloscope. Keep attenuator (20 or 40dB) in off position. Adjust the desired output with the
help of Amplitude variable (10) and Attenuator switches (6). The generator provides a maximum
of 20 Vpp and minimum of 20 mVpp (approximately) output. It is recommended to use the
terminated cable (50) for observing square wave or pulses to reduce overshoot and ringing
etc. With 50 termination the maximum output is 10Vpp.
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Fig. 3: The front panel of DC power supply

The DC POWER SUPPLY, with variable DC voltage sources of +30V, +15V, -15V and +5 V
is shown in Fig. 3. The DC outputs 0- 30V and 0 15V dual track, can be continuously adjusted,
with coarse and fine controls. The other DC output 5V also can be adjusted between between
4V - 6V. Current limit is also adjustable for all outputs. Any over loading for adjusted current
limit, is indicated by OR LED. When the maximum setting is crossed or the overheating has
occurred, the OR LED will lit up.
1. Power: Push button switch for supplying power to instrument.
2. (2) & (12) Fine (adjusting knob): For the fine settings of the output voltage for A & C output
terminals. Adjustment range approximately 2.1 V & 1V respectively.
3. (3) & (13) Coarse (adjusting knob): For the coarse setting of the output voltages at A & C
respectively. Adjustment range: 0-30V and 0 15V respectively.
4. (4) & (14) I maximum (Adjusting knob): For current limit setting of the outputs A & C
respectively. Adjustment range 20mA - 1A each.
5. (5) & (10) Digital Display (7-segment LED): 3-digit readout for output voltage & 3 digit
readout for output current.
6. 4V - 6V: (Adjusting knob) Adjustment for setting the output voltage of the source B from 4V
to 6V.
7. (7) & (11) V & mA Indicators: Two LEDs indicate the unit of the display.
8. ORA, ORB, ORC-, ORC+ (overload indicators): LEDs for overload indication for respective DC
outputs are provided. In case of overheating or output current in excess of set limit
corresponding OR LED lits up.
9. Select Display (push buttons): Four push buttons can be pressed one at a time. When pressed
each selects both displays (voltage & current) simultaneously for the respective voltage source
to show the instantaneous values.
15. A: 0 - 30V (4mm banana terminals): Output terminals for 4mm banana plugs or cable
connection. The output voltages are short circuit protected.
16. I Maximum: For current limit setting of the output B. Adjustment range 20mA - 1A each
17. B: 5V (4V - 6V) (4mm banana terminals): Output terminals for 4mm banana plugs or cable
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connection for fixed 5V output. The output voltages are short circuit protected.
18. C: 0 15V Dual Tracking (4rnm banana terminals): Output terminals for 4mm banana plugs
or cable connection. 0 to +15V output is "Master" and 0 to - 15V output is "Slave", which tracks
the output voltage of Meter. The output voltages are short circuit protected.

Experiment: To generate 1 kHz sinusoidal wave whose maximum amplitude is 1 V and

maximum possible voltage with the given FG.
1. Set the FG controls to generate a 1-kHz sine wave with the maximum possible
amplitude with no d-c offset. Connect the FG output to the CH1 input of the CRO
and release the Gnd push-button to apply the input. Adjust the Time/Div and
CH1 controls for a full-scale display of 3-4 cycles of the waveform.
2. Note the CH1 and TB settings and the frequency of the input signal from the LCD
display. Determine the peak-to-peak value of the signal from the number of
divisions along the vertical axis between the negative and positive peaks
displayed on the CRO screen, and calculate the frequency of the signal from the
number of divisions along the horizontal axis in a complete cycle. Compare this
value with that given on the LCD display. Note the effect of turning the TB
Variable knob on the displayed waveform and the measured values.
3. Change the setting of the Trigger Auto/Level push-button to Level and adjust
the Trigger Level control knob to display exactly two full cycles of the sine wave,
starting from half the peak value with a positive slope. Change the Trigger Slope
setting to and note the effect.
4. Reduce the peak-to-peak value of the FG output to 2V and add a DC OFFSET of
+2V. Adjust the CH1 control to obtain a good display. Note the difference
between DC and AC couplings.
5. Now connect the Cal Out signal (1 kHz square wave) to the CH2 input of the CRO.
Try out and note the effects of different display modes (CH1, CH2, ALT, CHOP,
ADD, SUB) combined with different Trigger Source options (CH1, CH2 and ALT).
Part B. Resistors
Resistors used in electronic circuits are usually classified according to Composition
(carbon film, metal film, wire-wound etc.), Tolerance (5%, 1% etc), and Power rating (
W, 1W, 5W etc.).
Of these three features, the first one has to be found out from the manufacturer's
specifications. The value and the tolerance, unless printed on the resistor, are coded by
four or five coloured bands. If the value is indicated by three bands, the 1st and 2nd
bands give the significant digits, and the 3rd band gives the number of zeros after the
two significant digits. If the value is indicated by four bands,, the 1st, 2nd and 3rd bands
give the significant digits, and the 4th band gives the number of zeros on the right of the
three significant digits The ten colours denoting the digits 0-9 are the following: Black
(0), Brown (1), Red (2), Orange (3), Yellow (4), Green (5), Blue (6), Violet (7), Grey (8),
White (9). The last band, placed slightly away from the other bands, indicates the
tolerance: a golden band indicating a tolerance of 5%, and a brown or a red band
indicating a tolerance of 1% or 2%. Absence of a tolerance band implies 10% tolerance.
1. Identify the different types of resistors given to you from their approximate
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distinguishing features. Using the colour code, note down the values and tolerances
of the different resistors provided. Verify the values by measuring the resistances
with the multimeter.
2. Connect the red CT terminal to CH1 of the CRO and measure the peak to peak value
of the voltage. This will provide us the calibration of the horizontal (voltage) scale for
CT display. Set the CRO in CTx1 mode by means of the Horizontal (X) push-button.
Connect a 1-k resistor to the CT terminals and calibrate of the vertical (current)
scale of the CT display.
3. Display and plot the i-v characteristics of the given resistors one by one, with the
current and voltage scales properly indicated, using the CTx10 setting, if necessary,
to expand the x-axis.
Part C. Capacitors and Inductors
Capacitors used in electronic circuits are classified according to the dielectric material
used in the fabrication of the capacitor and the range of values available varies from
type to type. Some of the commonly encountered types are listed below:
Electrolytic ( 1 F) Cylindrical body with printed value and polarity
indicated by +/; Polyester (0.00110 F) Molded body with value either
printed or colour-coded; Ceramic ( 1 F) Disc-shaped body, with value
printed on the body.
Capacitance value is generally printed in the format abn, where ab represents a 2-digit
number and n represents the exponent, the implied value being (ab)x10n pF. These
capacitors may be assumed to have 10% tolerance unless indicated otherwise.
1. Identify the different types of capacitors from their approximate distinguishing
features, and note down their values as well as voltage ratings.
2. Repeat step B.3 with the given capacitors as well as the given inductor.
Part D. Temperature and Light Sensors
1. Identify the given thermistor and LDR (light-dependent resistor) by visual
examination.
2. Repeat step B.3 with the given thermistor. Note that a thermistor gives a
temperature-dependent resistance, and hence its i-v characteristic would be a
straight line like that of an ordinary resistance, but the slope will depend on
temperature.
3. Heat the thermistor by pressing it between two fingers, taking care not to touch any
of the lead wires, Observe how the slope changes and hence determine whether the
thermistor has a positive temperature coefficient (PTC) or a negative temperature
coefficient (NTC).
4. Repeat step B.3 with the given LDR and note the effect of shining light on the LDR
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from a white LED connected to the 5V d-c supply through a 110- resistor. Find the
minimum and maximum resistances of the LDR corresponding to the slopes of the
resistive characteristic with zero and maximum illumination from the white LED.
Part E. Different Types of Diodes
1. Identify each of the following four different types of diodes by visual examination,
and repeat step B.3 with each of them. Connect the diode in each case so that the
positive direction of the y-axis of the display corresponds to the forward direction of
the diode: (i) general-purpose diode, (ii) rectifier diode, (iii) zener diode and (iv) LED.
2. Sketch the i-v characteristics of the given diodes shown in Fig. 4, and measure the
values of their forward-bias voltage drop VD and reverse breakdown voltage VB, if
observed, using the calibrations of the horizontal (voltage) and vertical (current)
scales of the CT display obtained in step B.2.
id

id

id

VB
0 VD

(i) and (ii)

vd

0 VD v d

(iii) Zener Diode

VD v d

(iv) LED

Fig. 4: i-v Characteristics of different types of Diodes

Part F. Microphone and Loudspeaker

The objective of this part of this experiment is to become conversant with a simple
condenser microphone (MIC) and a small loudspeaker (LS), which are the most
commonly encountered source and destination of an audio signal.
A condenser microphone is just a parallel-plate capacitor having one fixed plate and one
plate mounted on a diaphragm that can vibrate according to the incident sound waves.
It works on the basic principle that the current through a capacitor is given by iC =
d(CVC)/dt in general. If VC is a constant voltage and C varies due vibrations of the
diaphragm, an a-c current iC = VC dC/dt will flow through the capacitor.
1. Set up the biasing circuit for the given condenser microphone as given in Fig. 5,
and display the microphone output on the CRO. Speak into the microphone and
see your voiceprint on the CRO for different sounds. Sketch the voiceprints of a
few pure vowel sounds produced by the microphone. Try to find out the
minimum and maximum frequencies that your voice signal contains.
2. Common loudspeakers of the kind you will be using in the laboratory are of the
electromagnetic type, consisting of a coil wound over a magnetic core, and a
diaphragm made of magnetic material placed in the magnetic field of the coil. A
loudspeaker is normally connected to the output of an audio amplifier that
amplifies its input signal to deliver the power required by the loudspeaker. The
amplifier output current flows through the coil of the loudspeaker, causing the
diaphragm to vibrate in accordance with the applied signal, thereby producing
sound waves.
3. Measure the d-c resistance of the given loudspeaker (LS) with the multimeter.
Connect the FG output to the loudspeaker and also to a CRO input channel, as
shown in Fig. 6. Set the FG to give a 1-kHz sinusoidal signal, and gradually
increase the amplitude until there is a reasonably audible sound from the
loudspeaker. Repeat the above procedure for different waveforms viz, square,
pulse, triangle, ramp, TTL and observe the sounds in speaker over a wide range
of frequencies (10Hz - 25 KHz), also observe the sound patterns and plot the
practical wave forms.

Fig. 5: Condenser
microphone biasing

Fig. 6: Loud speaker

testing circuit

Fig. 5: Audio test circuit

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4. Set up the audio test circuit given in Fig. 7. Place the microphone so that it can
pick up the sound from the loudspeaker and display the FG and microphone
outputs on two channels of the CRO, triggering the CRO by the FG output. Vary
the frequency of the FG over the entire audio frequency range (20 Hz 20 kHz)
in the 1-2-5 sequence and measure the microphone output voltages at each
frequency, ensuring that the FG output remains at the same level as set in step
1, by adjusting the FG amplitude control if necessary. Note the frequency range
over which your ear can hear the sound from the loudspeaker. Tabulate the ratio
of the two voltages against frequency. This ratio gives the product of the voltageto-sound conversion factor of the LS and the sound-to-voltage conversion factor
of the microphone on frequency. Note how this ratio changes with frequency.
Part G. Mesh & Nodal Analysis
Set up the circuit shown in Fig. 8 on the bread board and note down the voltage on the
DMM and CRO and observe the difference of VRMS and VP, respectively. Compare with
theoretical values.
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2 Sin314t