Contour Lines

There are several ways of indicating elevation and relief on maps. The most
common way is by contour lines. A CONTOUR LINE is a line representing an
imaginary line on the ground along which all points are at the same elevation.
Contour lines indicate a vertical distance above or below a datum plane. Starting at
sea level, normally the zero contour, each contour line represents an elevation above
sea level. The vertical distance between adjacent contour lines is known as the
CONTOUR INTERVAL. The amount of the contour interval is given in the marginal
information. On most maps, the contour lines are printed in brown. Starting at zero
elevation, every fifth contour line is drawn with a heavier line. These are known as
INDEX CONTOURS. Someplace along each index contour, the line is broken and its
elevation is given. The contour lines falling between index contours are called
INTERMEDIATE CONTOURS. They are drawn with a finer line than the index
contours and, usually, do not have their elevations given. Using the contour lines on a
map, you may determine the elevation of any point as follows:
1. Find the contour interval of the map from the marginal information, and note both
the amount and the unit of measure.
2. Find the numbered contour line (or other given elevation) nearest the point for
which the elevation is being sought.
3. Determine the direction of slope from the numbered contour line to the desired
point.
4. Count the number of contour lines that must be crossed to go from the numbered
line to the desired point and note the direction-up or down. The number of lines

crossed multiplied by the contour interval is the distance above or below the starting
value.
When the desired point is on a contour line, its elevation is that of the contour.
For a point between contours, most military needs are satisfied by estimating the
elevation to an accuracy of one half of the contour interval. All points less than one
fourth of the distance between the lines are considered to be at an elevation of one half
of the contour interval above the lower line (fig. 5-6).
To estimate the elevation of the top of an unmarked hill, add half of the
contour interval to the elevation of the highest contour line around the hill.

To estimate the elevation of the bottom of a depression, subtract half of the

contour interval from the value of the lowest contour around the depression. On some
maps, the index and intermediate contour lines do not show the elevation and relief in
as much detail as may be needed; then SUPPLEMENTARY CONTOURS may be
used. These contour lines are dashed brown lines, usually at one half of the
contour interval for the map. A note in the marginal information indicates
the interval used. They are used exactly like solid contour lines.
On some maps, the contour lines may not meet the standards of accuracy but are
sufficiently accurate in both value and interval to be shown as contours rather than as
form lines. On maps of this type, the contours are considered as approximate and are
shown with a dashed symbol; elevation values are given at intervals along the heavier
(index contour) dashed lines. The contour note in the map margin identifies them as
approximate contours.

In addition to the contour lines, bench marks and spot elevations are used to indicate
points of known elevation on the map. BENCH MARKS, the more accurate of the
two, are symbolized by a black X, for example, XBM 124. The elevation value shown
in black refers to the center of the X. SPOT ELEVATIONS, shown in brown,
generally are located at road junctions, on hilltops, and other prominent landforms.
The symbol ^P^P designates an accurate horizontal control point. When a bench mark
and a horizontal control point are located at the same point, the symbol BM^P^P^P is
used.
The spacing of the contour lines indicates the nature of the slope. Contour lines evenly
spaced and wide apart indicate a uniform, gentle slope (fig. 5-7). Contour lines evenly
spaced and close together indicate a uniform, steep slope. The closer the contour lines
are to each other, the steeper the slope (fig. 5-8).
Contour lines closely spaced at the top and widely spaced at the bottom indicate a
concave slope (fig. 5-9). Considering relief only, an observer at the top of a concave
slope can observe the entire slope and the terrain at the bottom. However, a unit
attacking up a concave slope would have no cover or conceal-ment from observers or

weapons at or near the top; also, farther up the slope, the climb would be more
difficult.

Contour lines widely spaced at the top and closely spaced at the bottom indicate a
convex slope (fig. 5-10). An observer at the top of a convex slope would have no
observation of most of the slope or of the terrain at the bottom. But a unit attacking up
a concave slope would have a much greater degree of cover and concealment than on
a concave slope; also, the climb farther up the slope would be easier.
In order to show the relationship of land formations to each other and how they would
be symbolized on a contour map, stylized panoramic sketches of the major relief
formations are drawn. Then a contour map of each sketch is developed. Each of the
figures that follow shows a sketch and a map with a different relief feature and its
characteristic contour pattern.

1. HILL. This is a point or small area of high ground (fig. 5-11). When you are located
on a hilltop, the ground slopes down in all directions.
2. VALLEY. A valley is a course of a stream that has at least a limited extent of
reasonably level ground bordered on the sides by higher ground. (See fig. 5-12, views
A and B, top and bottom.) The valley generally has maneuvering room within its
confines. Contours indicating a valley are U-shaped and tend to parallel a major
stream before crossing it. The more gradual the fall of a stream, the farther each
contour parallels it. The curve of the contour crossing always points upstream.
3. DRAW. A draw is a less developed course of a stream in which there is essentially
no level ground and, therefore, little or no maneuvering room within its confines. (See
fig. 5-12, views A and B, top and bottom.) The ground slopes upward on each side and

toward the head of the draw. Draws occur frequently along the sides of ridges at right
angles to the valleys between them. Contours indicating a draw are V-shaped, with the
point of the V toward the head of the draw.
4. RIDGE. Normally, a ridge is a line of high ground with minor variations along its
crest. (See fig. 5-13, views A and B, top and bottom.) The ridge is not simply a line of
hills; all points of the ridge crest are appreciable y higher than the ground on both
sides of the ridge.
5. SPUR. A spur is a short, continuously sloping line of higher
ground normally jutting out from the side of a ridge. (See fig. 5-13, views A and B,
top and bottom.) A spur is often formed by two roughly parrallel streams cutting
draws down the side of a ridge.
6. SADDLE. A saddle is a dip or low point along the crest of a ridge. A saddle is not
necessarily the lower ground between two hilltops; it maybe simply a dip or break
along an otherwise level ridge crest (fig. 5-14).
7. CLIFF. A cliff is a vertical or near vertical slope (fig. 5-15). When a slope is so
steep that it cannot be shown at the contour interval without the contours coming
together, it is shown by a ticked "carrying" contour or contours. The ticks always
point toward lower ground.
8. CUTS and FILLS. Cuts and falls are man-made features caused when the bed of a
road or railroad is graded or leveled by cutting through high areas and filling in low
areas along the right-of-way. (See fig. 5-16, views A and B, top and bottom.)
9. DEPRESSION. A depression is a low point or a sinkhole, surrounded on all sides
by higher ground.