DESIGN DISSERTATION

TOPIC
SKYSCRAPER - MIXED USE DEVELOPMENT AT
DHOLERA S.I.R, GUJRAT

SUBMITTED BY
MS. KRATI MUKUND SRIVASTAVA
FINAL YEAR, B. ARCH.

PADMASHREE DR. D. Y. PATIL COLLEGE OF

ARCHITECTURE, NERUL , NAVIMUMBAI, INDIA.

APRIL 2016

CERTIFICATE
THIS IS TO CERTIFY THAT MS. KRATI MUKUND SRIVASTAVA A
FINAL YEAR BONAFIDE STUDENT OF PADMASHREE DR. D.Y PATIL
COLLEGE OF ARCHITECTURE HAS COMPLETED TO MY SATISFACTION
HER DESIGN DISSERTATION ENTITLED SKYSCRAPER - MIXED USE
DEVELOPMENT AT DHOLERA S.I.R, GUJRAT UNDER MY GUIDANCE IN
APRIL 2016.

SIGNATURE OF PRINCIPAL

SIGNATURE OF GUIDE

PROF. S.V. CHAUDHARI

PROF. SANJIV DONGRE

STAMP OF COLLEGE

DATE: 1 ST. APRIL 2016

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I WOULD LIKE TO TAKE THIS OPPORTUNITY TO FIRSTLY ACKNOWLEDGE AND
THANK MY THESIS GUIDE AR. SANJIV DONGRE, MY PARENTS FOR THEIR TEACHINGS
AND MORAL SUPPRORT, THE GREAT ENCOUREGEMENT THEY ALWAYS GAVE ME IN
ACADEMICS AND MY EXTRA CARICULAR ACTIVITIES AND FOR EVERY THING THEY
HAVE DONE FOR ME.
I WOULD LIKE TO THANK ALL OUR PROFESSORS FOR ALWAYS BEING A CONSTANT
SUPPORT FOR ALL OUR ACTIVITIES.
I WOULD ALSO LIKE TO THANK MY GUIDE AR.SANJIV DONGRE FOR ALL THE
SUPPORT AND HELP WHICH HE HAS GIVEN TO ME WHILE DESIGNING FOR MY
THESIS.

INDEX
1. INTRODUCTION
I.
II.
III.
IV.
V.
VI.

DEFINITION OF HIGH RISE BUILDING

THE THESIS
SCOPE OF THE THESIS
OBJECTIVES
METHODOLOGY
THE SITE

2. DATE COLLECTION
a. PLANNIG AND DESIGNING OF HIGH RISE BUILDING
BASIC PLANNING CONSIDERATIONS
BASIC DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
b. HIGH RISE DESIGN FOR EARTHQUAKE ZONE
c. LATERAL LOADS ON HIGH RISE BUILDINGS
d. STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS FOR TALL BUILDINGS SYSTEMS
e. INSTALLATION OF SERVICE SYSTEM
f. FIRE-FIGHTING
g. NET CASE STUDY
h. LIVE CASE STUDY
LITERATURE CASE STUDY
SPECIAL STUDY
ANALYSIS
PROJECT DESIGN DEVELOPMENT
CONCLUSION

1.
I.
II.
III.
IV.
V.
VI.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
I.
II.
III.
IV.

INTRODUCTION
DEFINITION OF HIGH RISE BUILDING
THE THESIS
SCOPE OF THE THESIS
OBJECTIVES
METHODOLOGY
THE SITE
URBAN SPRAWL
VERTICAL LIVING
MIXED USE DEVELOPMENT
DEFINE, BENEFIT, CHALLENGES, COST
CASE STUDIES
LIVE CASE STUDY
KOHINOOR TOWER
PHEONIX MALL
LINKIN ROAD, HILL ROAD
VIVIANA MALL
NET CASE STUDY

I.
a.
b.
c.
d.
II.
III.
IV.

BURJ KHALIFA
INTRODUCTION
STRUCTURAL AND ARCHITECTURE SYSTEM
CONSTRUCTION
SERVICES
TAIPEI 101
SHANGHAI WORL TRADE CENTER
SWISS TOWER
BOOK CASE STUDY

I.
II.
III.
IV.

DRAGON FLY
BIONIC ARCH
SWISS
KEN YEANG
SPECIAL STUDY

I.
II.
III.
IV.

ECO VILLAGE
BAHRAIN WTC
URBAN FARM
VERTICAL FARM

3.

CHAPTER -1 INTRODUCTION
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Man has always built monumental structures for the gods, including temples, pyramids and
cathedrals which pointed to the sky; however, today's monuments, i.e. tall buildings, symbolize
power, richness, prestige, and glory. The major difficulty, from the ancient efforts to reach heaven
with the Tower of Babel to the world's tallest building - Bhurj Khalifa, has been to overcome the
limitations of nature with human ingenuity.
Until the introduction of modem metal frame construction, advent of electricity, fireproofing. and
most importantly elevator, tall building actually was not practical, These technological innovations
were first utilized in the Home Insurance Building (1885). and by the advances in these
innovations, tall buildings become more and more practical,
Today, it is virtually impossible to imagine a major city without tall buildings. Tall buildings are the
most famous landmarks of cities, symbols of power, dominance of human ingenuity over natural
world, confidence in technology and a mark of national pride; and besides these, the importance
of tall buildings in the contemporary urban development is without doubt ever increasing despite
their several undeniable negative effects on the quality of urban life.
The feasibility and desirability of tali buildings have always depended on the available materials,
the level of construction technology, and the state of development of the services necessary for
the use of the building. Therefore, advances in structural design concepts, analytical techniques,
and a more sophisticated construction industry, in conjunction with the high-strength lightweight
materials have made it possible to construct very tall, much more slender and lightweight
buildings at a low cost premium compared to conventional construction.
However, every advance in height comes with a new difficulty and hence the race toward new
heights has not been without its challenges as well. Understandably, the increased flexibility
makes contemporary tall buildings much more vulnerable to environmental excitations such as
wind, which leads to horizontal vibration.
The tall buildings are designed primarily to serve the needs of the occupancy, and. in addition to
the satisfied structural safety, one of the dominant design requirements is to meet the necessary
standards for the comfort of the building users and the serviceability. In this context, since wind
can create excessive building motion, the dynamic nature of wind is a critical issue, negatively
affecting occupancy comfort and serviceability.
Many researches and studies have been done in order to mitigate such an excitation and
improve the performance of tall buildings against wind loads. Hence, different design methods
and modifications are possible, ranging from alternative structural systems to the addition of
damping systems in order to ensure the functional performance of flexible structures and control
the wind induced motion of tall buildings.
1.1 DEFINITION OF HIGH RISE BUILDING
As the notion of size or appearance of tallness is a relative matter, and not consistent over time
and place, it is difficult to define or distinguish the 'tall building', 'high-rise building' or 'skyscraper'
just in terms of size. Unfortunately, there is no consensus on what comprises a tall building or at
what magical height, or number of stories, buildings can be called tall. The terms all mean the
same type of building which is built extremely high - in which skyscraper is a more assertive term.
6

Although the high-rise building has been accepted as a building type since the late 19th century,
tall buildings have been constructed since ancient times for several purposes and, therefore, the
history of tall buildings is much older than a century.
"A building whose height creates different conditions in the design, construction, and use than
those that exist in common buildings of a certain region and period."
-The Council ofTall Buildings and Urban Habitat (CTBUH) Consequently, the
use of the terms 'tall building', 'high-rise building', and 'skyscraper' have common associations,
and depending on time and place, the concept of height varies in relation to the progress of
technology and the desires of society.
1.1.1 BENEFITS OF MIXED USE DEVELOPMENT

Reduced distances between housing, workplaces, retail businesses, and other amenities and
destinations
More compact development
Stronger neighborhood character, sense of place
Walkable, bike-able neighborhoods, increased accessibility via transit, both resulting in
reduced transportation costs
1.2 THE THESIS 1.2.1 AIM
To design a bioclimalie architecture and integrating plants into skyscrapers for a high rise mixed
use development.
1.3 SCOPE OF THE THESIS
Analysis and incorporating bioclimalic design principles for high rise mixed use development.
Analyzing and using new design techniques
1.4 OBJECTIVES
1.To study how architecture contribute to the mixed use development
2. To design spaces which enhances the physical and visual interaction and reduce isoJ
ation.
3. To design spaces which bring closer to nature and harmony.
4. To bring transparency, openness and fluidity of space.
5. Priority to sustainable materials and functional requirements in design, while integrating
services to it.

1.5 METHODOLOGY
The Fig: 1.1 show the methodology chart for this study. This methodology chart explains the first
step, about the study of general information of high rise planning. This includes the components
of high rise planning, definition of high rise and its complex services. The next step is the study of
high rise planning from various case studies. Then the classification of issues in different aspects
is made from the findings. Then the detail study is made for each aspects through different case
studies. Finally, the concept for the design is evolved, and progressed towards developing the
design.

THE SITE

RESEDENTIAL AREA
PUBLIC
FACILITIES
ZONE

VI

K
E
W

VI
E
W

N
O
N
W
L
E
D
G
E
&

RESEDENTIA
L AREA

RECREATIONAL &
SPORTS GUJARAT ECONOMY
Contribution

to

the

nation

I
T


Worlds largest producer of castor and cumin

Worlds largest gas based single location sponge iron plant

Worlds largest producer of processed diamonds

Worlds 3rd largest producer of denim

Asias largest grass root petroleum refinery at Jamnagar

Indias largest producer of cotton

Indias first LNG chemical port terminal at Hazira

Gross State Domestic Product

Gross State Domestic Product (GSDP) at factor cost at constant (1999-2000) prices in 200607 was US$45.30 billion as against US$41.52 billion in 2005-06. The GSDP registered a
growth of 9.17% at constant prices in the year 2006-07. Gujarat contributed 6.50% to the
Gross Domestic Product (GDP) of India in the year 2006-07.

Per Capita Income

The per capita income at current
prices has been estimated at
US$915 in 2006-07 (higher than the
national average of US$627) as
against US$805 in 2005-06,
registering an increase of 13.76 %
during the year.

Agriculture
Agriculture is well established in terms of natural resources, skilled labour force, enterprising
farmers, and the market network. The major food crops in the state are rice, wheat, jowar,
bajra, maize, tur, gram, groundnut; while major non food crops are cotton, tobacco, and
isabgul. Agriculture accounted for around 18.22% (at constant prices) of the State's GSDP in
the year 2006-07.

Industry
The secondary sector accounted for 37.78% (at constant prices) of the State's GSDP in the
year 2006-07. Gujarat ranks second in state-wise percentage share of Net Value Added by
manufacturing in the factory sector of India according to the Annual Survey of Industries
(2004-05). Gujarat has been a front runner in industries including textiles, chemicals,
petrochemicals, pharmaceuticals, engineering, oil and gas, ceramics, gems and jewellery, and
agro-based products. There are around 202 industrial estates in Gujarat.
Services
The services sector contributed 44.00% (at constant prices) to the State's GSDP in the year
2006-07. Services included trade, hotels, transport, communication, and financial services.
Social Infrastructure of Gujarat
The State is home to India's leading business school Indian Institute of Management,
Ahmedabad (IIM-A), and other important institutes such as National Institute of Design (NID),
National Institute of Fashion Technology (NIFT), and Entrepreneurship Development Institute
(EDI). Apart from the leading institutes the State is also home to 44 engineering institutes and
41 management schools. Further, the State Government plans to establish a shipbuilding
university, the first of its kind in the country and it is going be established in Kutch. Besides,
the State has a well established health infrastructure including multi-speciality hospitals
managed by reputed groups. The State also has multiplexes and multi cuisine restaurants for
entertainment.

Mining
As per provisional estimates, the production of agate, steatite and gypsum during the year
2006-07 was 38, 1105 and 156 tonnes respectively. The production of limestone,lignite,
bauxite, laterite and dolomite were 22482, 9810, 3214, 262 and 325 thousand tones
respectively. The production of clay (others), china clay, bentonite, quartz, silica sand and
chalk were 5582, 492, 896, 223, 961 and 199 thousand tonnes respectively. The production of
crude oil and natural gas was 6212 thousand tonnes and 3294 million cubic meters
respectively
during
the
year
2006-07.
Power
The installed power capacity of the State as on March 31, 2007 was 9561 MW. The total
generation of electricity in the State including private sector and central sector share was
61543 MUs in 2006-07 as against 58724 MUs generated during the previous year 2005-06.
The total consumption of electricity during 2006-2007 was 41513 MUs as against 38358 MUs
in 2005-06. The per capita consumption of electricity during the year 2006-07 was reported to
be 1354 units. (as per CEAs revised formula) as against 1313 units of the previous year
4

2005-06.
Natural
Gas
Gujarat has been one of the earliest oil/gas producing states in the country. Oil and gas
reserves in Gujarat are located at Ankleshwar, Mehsana, Tapti High (which is India's second
largest producer of gas), Hazira, Bharuch, Gandhar, Dahej, Jambusar, Palej, Kalol, and
isolated gas fields around Ahmedabad. Below are figures for gas production in the state
during 2001-2006: Gujarat holds the unique distinction of being the only state with more than
one gas producer currently. Apart from ONGC Gujarat State Petroleum Corporation Ltd.
(GSPC), Cairn Energy and Niko Resources are involved in the process of production of
natural gas in Gujarat. Private players including Adani Group and British Gas and public
sector companies like GAIL, BPCL, GSPC Gas Company are involved in gas distribution.
Hazira and Dahej LNG terminals of Gujarat are the only LNG terminals in the country. LNG
terminals are proposed at Mundra and Pipavav. Besides, Gujarat has an extensive
transmission network. A Gas grid of around 1600 km is in operation, around 256 km is under
construction.
Infastructure
1. Airports
There are 11 airports under the operational jurisdiction of Airports Authority of India (AAI)
International airport: Ahmedabad.Domestic airports: Ahmedabad, Vadodara, Surat, Jamnagar,
Rajkot, Bhavnagar, Porbandar, Bhuj,Keshod, and Deesa airports
2. Ports
The State has 40 minor and intermediate ports, geographically dispersed across South
Gujarat (13 ports), Saurashtra (23 ports) and Kutch region (4 ports) and one major port.
Besides this, there are 3 private ports in the State. Kandla is another major port and is
under the control of Central Government of India. The total cargo handled by the Kandla
Port in quantitative terms has increased from 45.907 million tonnes in the year 2005-06
to 52.982 million tonnes in the year 2006-07, showing an increase of 15.41 % over the
previous year (including transshipment). The intermediate and minor ports of Gujarat
handled a total cargo of 132.442 million tonnes during the year 2006-07 as against
108.075 million tonnes handled during the preceding year, showing an increase of about
22.54 %.
3.Roads
The total length of roads (except Non-plan, Community, Urban and Project roads) in the
State has increased to 74038 km by the end of 2005-06 from 73724 km at the end of
2004-05. Out of the total road length of 74038 km at the end of the year 2005-06, the
length of National Highways, State Highways, Major District Roads, Other District Roads
and Village Roads was 2867 km, 18702 km, 20707 km, 10503 km, and 21259 km,
respectively.

Highlights of Gujarat Economy*

The state accounts for 15.59% of country's investment and 10% of country's
expenditure. (Source: www.gujaratindia.com)
Key industries in Gujarat include chemicals and petrochemicals, drugs and pharmaceuticals,
5

dairy, cement and ceramics, textiles, auto and engineering, and gems and jewellery. Further
impetus is being provided to Gujarat's economic prosperity by urban, port and SEZ led
infrastructure development.

Gujarat's rate of growth of industrial output was 20% in 2006-07

Gujarat is the only state in India which offers investors clear exit options in terms of
termination of labour and closure of industrial unit in a Special Economic Zone (SEZ)

Gujarat is an industrially peaceful state with the lowest number of man-days lost in the
country.

Gujarat has the largest chemicals industry in the country. It is the leading producer of cement ,
salt and soda ash in India.

Gujarat has the largest diamond processing industry in the country.

Its the leading producer of fennel, castor seeds and psyllium husk in the world.

Gujarat has the world's largest grass root refinery located at Jamnagar.

Gujarat is home to Kandla, India's first and largest special economic zone (SEZ). It is also one
of India's largest ports with a capacity of 45.9 MMTA (million metric tonnes per annum). Most
of the bulk traffic (10.8%)of the country is handled from Kandla port which amounts to 150
MMTA.

Gujarat is the first state in the country where ports are being privatised through built-ownoperate and transfer (BOOT) scheme. Gujarat has opened the country's first private sector
ports Pipavav and Mundra by implementing the BOOT scheme. In addition, the liquid cargo
(chemicals) handling port at Dahej is the first of its kind and has been set up as a joint
venture.

The state has the highest number of airports(11) in India, including an international airport,in
Ahmedabad.

Gujarat has an extensive road network exceeding 74000 km. The Ahmedabad-Vadodara
expressway is now open for transportation.

It brought the gas grid in operation and sensitised the nation to the fact that gas can be used
to transform lives.

The first state in India to notify the Disaster Management Act.

Gujarat is home to Indias first LNG Terminal located at Hazira. Another LNG terminal is
located at Dahej.

2. LOCATION PROFILE
DHOLERA is situated in Ahmedabad district in the Gulf of Khambhat

Dholera is in proximity with the coastal line. It is covered by water faces on three sides, namely,
on the east face by Gulf of Khambhat, on the north side by Bavaliari creek and on southern
side by Sonaria creek.

Proximity to Ahmedabad has provided Dholera a strong locational advantage with a vibrant
manufacturing base and investment scenario The project is spread over an area of 35,000
hectares. The processing area which is proposed is 14,000 hectares and rest is nonprocessing zoneLocation: Dholera Special Investment Region Strategically located, the
Ahmedabad-Dholera industrial region lies within 100 km from the Dedicated Freight Corridor
(DFC) in Central Gujarat
Connectivity:
National Highway 8 connects the Dholera Special Investment Region with Ahmedabad,
Bhavnagar and Mumbai. Dholera itself has good connectivity with National Highway (NH) 8
(Anand) and 8A (Bagodra), augmenting Bagodra -Bhavnagar, Bagodra- SurendranagarRadhanpur links
As a part of Golden Quadrilateral, the 500 km Mumbai- Ahmedabad- Vadodara Express way
connects the region
In order to make the region more assessable, an airport and a port are proposed in this region.
The port site is proposed to be connected by road with Ahmedabad Bhavnagar highway at a
distance of about 11 kilometres. Almost 2,057 hectares of Government land was allocated for
the development of port site
Rail connection is being planned for Dholera, while the nearest meter gauge connection is
Bhavnagar (34 km) and the nearest broad gauge station is Tarapur (103 km)
Distance of DSIR from important cities
Important Cities

Distance (in km)

Mumbai

516

Delhi

815

Surat

278

Jamnagar

313

Rajkot

225

Gandhinagar

128

Ahemdabad

105

Map --Road Connectivity to Dholera

Map

--Road

Connectivity

to

2Map---Rail

Dholera

Connectivity

to Dholera
SWOT ANALYSIS
STRENGTH
Dholera SIR : Ideally located, widely connected...

Total Area : 903 sq. kms: a green field location

Developable area: 547 sq. kms.

Economic activity area : 377 sq. kms

High Access Corridor: City Center, Industrial, Logistic, Knowledge & IT, Recreation & Sports,
Entertainment

World-class infrastructure & connectivity: within & outside

Central spine express way & Metro Rail to link the SIR with mega cities

Airport & Sea Port in the vicinity

Proximity to mega cities: Ahmedabad, Bhavnagar, Vadodara

Benefit of sea coast, nature park, golf course

10

Premium civic amenities

Capable to cater to both International & Domestic Market

Close to Guajrat International Finance TechCity (GIFT)

Close to Petro-chemicals and Petroleum Inv. Region (PCPIR)

Logistic support of the Dedicated Freight Corridor (DMIC)

Benefits of the high impact Delhi Mumbai Industrial Corridor (DMIC)

Public investment in core infrastructure

PROJECT HIGHLIGHTS & OPPORTUNITY

A self governed economic region enjoying full support of the government and full potential for
private sector participation

Logistic support of the Delhi-Mumbai Dedicated Freight Corridor linked with efficient rail and
road network.

To be linked with Ahmedabad city with metro rail system

Proximity to sea port, Closeness to international airport

Premium civic amenities

Close to Gujarat International Finance City (GIFT)

Close to Petro-chemicals and Petroleum Inv. Region (PCPIR)

Autonomy in operations

Flexibility in decisions

Single window clearance

Dispute Resolution mechanism

Opportunities in SIR

To build the industrial parks, townships, knowledge cities

In building its infrastructure: road, rail, hospital, water, sanitation, tourism, and hospitality

Set up the metro rail system & international airport

Potential for development as a multi-modal transportation hub due to lesser distance to all the
northern Indian States.

11

Build world class transport service foreign markets

Current Status

Draft Development plan published on 05.01.2011

Location identified along with details of the area

The work on the central spine road already started

Notification issued for delineation of 879 Sq. Km of Area as DSIR

Government allocates 1700 Hect. land for adjoining Airport

Anchor Tenants already in place

Master plan prepared

Water logging, seismological & environment studies underway

The legal framework enacted: The SIR Act 2009

Project development corporation (GICC) formed

A high-rise is a tall building or structure

Buildings between 75 feet and 491 feet (23 m to 150 m) high are considered high-rises.
Buildings taller than 492 feet (150 m) are classified as skyscrapers.

The materials used for the structural system of high-rise buildings are reinforced concrete
and steel. Most American style skyscrapers have a steel frame, while residential tower blocks
are usually constructed out of
concrete.

High-rise structures have certain

features. The structures are high &
lead to higher vertical loads and
higher lateral loads (mainly due to
wind stress) in comparison with lower
buildings.
LOADS
ON
THE
HIGHRISE
STRUCTURES
Vertical Loads

Dead loads arise from the weigh to

the individual construction elements
and the finishing loads.

Live loads are dependent on use

depending on the number of stories;
live loads can be reduced for load
transfer and the dimensioning of
vertical load-bearing elements.

12

 However, the reduction of the total live load on a construction element may not exceed 40%.
Horizontal Loads

Calculation of lateral loads should be carefully scrutinized.

It generally arises from unexpected deflections, wind and earthquake loads

Unexpected Deflections

It arises from imprecision in the manufacture of construction elements and larger

components.

Another cause is the uneven settling of the foundation at an in-homogeneous site.

Any deflection produces additional lateral forces.

Wind Loads

High-rise buildings are susceptible to oscillation. It should not be viewed as statically

equivalent loads, but must be investigated under the aspect of sway behaviour.

Wind tunnel experiments are used to see the influence of the buildings shape on the wind
load.

The ability of wind loads to bring a building to sway must also be kept in mind. This
oscillation leads both to a perceptible lateral acceleration for occupants, and to a maximum
lateral deflection.
Earthquake Loads
Definition
Seismology (from the Greek seismos= earthquake and logos= word)
scientific study of earthquakes
propagation of elastic waves through the Earth.
studies of earthquake effects, such as tsunamis
diverse seismic sources such as volcanic, tectonic, oceanic, atmospheric, and artificial
processes such as explosions.
Earthquake

Produce different types of seismic waves.

It travel through rock, and provide an effective way to image both sources and structures
deep within the Earth.
Seismic Waves
There are three basic types of seismic waves in solids:

P-waves

S-waves

P-and/or S-waves.

The two basic kinds of surface waves (Raleigh and Love).

Pressure waves/Primary waves /P-waves,

Travel at the greatest velocity within solids and are therefore the first waves to appear on a
seismogram.

P-waves are fundamentally pressure disturbances that propagate through a material by

alternately compressing and expanding (dilating) the medium, where particle motion is
parallel to the direction of wave propagation.
Shear waves/secondary waves/S-waves,

Transverse waves that travel more slowly than P-waves and thus appear later than Pwaves on a seismogram.

Particle motion is perpendicular to the direction of wave propagation. Shear waves do not
exist in fluids such as air or water.

13

Type of High-Rise Structure

1.
Braced Frame
2.
Rigid Frame Structure
3.
Infilled Frame Structure
4.
Flat Plate and Flat Slab Structure
5.
Shear wall structure
6.
Coupled wall structure
7.
Wall-frame structure
8.
Framed tube structure
9.
The trussed tube
10. Tube in tube or Hull core structure
11. Bundled tube structure
12. Core and Outriggers system
13. Hybrid structure
Braced Frame

Braced frames are cantilevered vertical trusses resisting laterals loads primarily through the
axial stiffness of the frame members.

The effectiveness of the system, as characterized by a high ratio of stiffness to material

quantity, is recognized for multi-storey building in the low to mid height range.

Generally regarded as an exclusively steel system because the diagonal are inevitably
subjected to tension for or to the other directions of lateral loading.

Able to produce a laterally very stiff structure for a minimum of additional material, makes it
an economical structural form for any height of buildings, up to the very tallest.
Advantages:
Girders only participate minimally in the lateral bracing action-Floor framing design is
independent of its level in the structure.

Can be repetitive up the height of the building with obvious economy in design and
fabrication.
Disadvantages:Obstruct the internal planning and the locations of the windows and doors; for this reason,
braced bent are usually incorporated internally along wall and partition lines, especially
around elevator, stair, and service shaft.-Diagonal connections are expensive to fabricate and
erect.

Rigid Frame Structure

Consist of columns and girders joined by moment resistant connections. Lateral stiffness of a
rigid frame bent depends on the bending stiffness of the columns, girders, and connection in
the plane of the bents. Ideally suited for reinforced Figure 3ACT TOWER, HIMASTU JAPAN
concrete buildings because of the inherent rigidity of
reinforced concrete joints. Also used for steel frame buildings, but moment-resistant
connections in steel tend to be costly. While rigid frame of a typical scale that serve alone to
resist lateral loading have an economic height limit of about 25 stories, smaller scale rigid
frames in the form of perimeter tube, or typically rigid frames in combination with shear walls
or braced bents, can be economic up top much greater heights.
Advantages:-

14

May be place in or around the core, on the exterior, or throughout the interior of the building
with minimal constraint on the planning module.
The frame may be architecturally exposed to express the grid like nature of the structure.
The spacing of the columns in a moment resisting frame can match that required for gravity
framing.-Only suitable for building up to 20 30 stories only; member proportions and
materials cost become unreasonable for building higher than that.

Fig. WTC OSAKA JAPAN

In-filled Frame Structure
Most usual form of construction for tall buildings up to 30 stories in height Column and girder
framing of reinforced concrete, or sometimes steel, is in-filled by panels of brickwork, block
work, or cast-in-place concrete. Because of the in-filled serve also as external walls or internal
partitions, the system is an economical way of stiffening and strengthening the structure. The
complex interactive behavior of the infill in the frame, and the rather random quality of
masonry, has made it difficult to predict with accuracy the stiffness and strength of an in-filled
frame.
Fig. Infilled Frame.
Flat-Plate and Flat Slab Structure

Is the simplest and most logical of all structural forms in

that it consists of uniforms slabs, connected rigidly to
supporting columns.

The system, which is essentially of reinforced concrete,

is very economical in having a flat soffit requiring the most
uncomplicated formwork and, because of the soffit can be
used as the ceiling, in creating a minimum possible floor
depth.

Lateral resistance depends on the flexural stiffness of

the components and their connections, with the slab
corresponding to the girder of the rigid frame.

Particularly appropriate for hotel and apartment construction where ceiling space is not
required and where the slab may serve directly as the ceiling.

Economic for spans up to about 25 ft. (8m),above which drop panels can be added to
create a flat-slab structure for span of up to 38 ft. (12m).

Suitable for building up to 25 stories height.

Shear Wall Structure
Concrete or masonry continuous vertical walls may serve both
architecturally partitions and structurally to carry gravity and
lateral loading. Very high in plane stiffness and strength
make them ideally suited for bracing tall building Act as
vertical cantilevers in the form of separate planar walls, and
as non-planar assemblies of connected walls around
elevator, stair and service shaft. well suited to hotel and
residential buildings where the floor-by floor repetitive
planning allow the walls to be vertically continuous and
where they serve simultaneously as excellent acoustic and
15

fire insulators between rooms and apartments. Minimum shrinkage

restraint reinforcement where the wall stresses are low, which can
be for a substantial portion of the wall.

Tensile reinforcement for areas where tension stresses occur in

walls when wind uplifts stresses exceeds gravity stresses.

Compressive reinforcement with confinement ties where high

compressive forces require the walls is designed as columns.
Individual shear walls, say at the edge of a tall building, are design
as blade walls or as columns resisting shear and bending as
required.

High strength concrete has enable wall thickness to be minimized,

hence maximizing rentable floor space.

Technology exists to pump and to place high-strength concrete at

high elevation.

Fire rating for service and passenger elevator shafts is achieved

by simply placing concrete of a determined thickness.

The need for complex bolted or side-welded steel connections is avoided.

Well detail reinforce concrete will develop about twice as much damping as structural steel.
This advantage where acceleration serviceability is critical limits state, or for ultimate limits
state design in earthquake-prone area.
Action to be considered:
Shear wall formed around elevator and service risers requires a concentration of opening
at ground level where stresses are critical.

Torsional and flexural rigidity is affected significantly by the number and the size of opening
around the shear walls throughout the height of the building.

Shear wall vertical movements will continue throughout the life of the building.

Construction time is generally slower than for a steel frame building.

The additional weight of the vertical concrete elements as compared to steel will induce a
cost penalty for the foundations.

An increase in mass will cause a decrease in natural frequency and hence will most likely
produce an adverse effect of the acceleration response depending on the frequency range of
the building. But shear wall systems are usually stiff and cause a compensating increase in
natural frequency.
Problem associated with formwork systems:

A significant time lag will occur between footing construction and wall construction,
because of the fabrication and erection on site of the moving formwork systems

Time will be lost at the levels where wall are terminated or decrease in thickness, alignment
of the shear walls are within tolerance.

Regular survey check must be undertaken to ensure that the vertical and twist alignment of
the shear walls are within tolerance.

In general it is difficult to achieve a good finish from slip-form formwork systems, and hence
rendering or some other type of finishing may be necessary.
Shear wall Structure
Coupled Wall Structure

Consist of two or more shear walls in the same plane, or almost the same plane, connected
at the floor levels by beam or stiff slabs.

16

The effect of the shear-resistant connecting members is to cause the sets of wall to behave
in their partly as a composite cantilever, bending about the common centroid axis of the walls.
Suited for residential construction where lateral-load resistant cross walls, which separate
the apartments, consist of in-plane coupled pairs, or trios, of shear walls between which there
are corridor or window openings. Besides using concrete construction, it occasionally been
constructed of heavy steel plate, in the style of massive vertical plate or box girders, as part of
steel frame structure.

Coupled shear walled structure

Wall-Frame Structure

The walls and frame interact horizontally, especially at the top, to produce stiffer and
stronger structure. The interacting wall-frame combination is appropriate for the building in the
40 60 story range, well beyond that of rigid frames or shear walls alone.

Carefully tuned structure, the shear of the frame can be made approximately uniform over
the height, allowing the floor framing to be repetitive. Although the wall-frame structure is
usually perceived as a concrete structural form, with shear
wall and concrete frames, a steel counterpart using braced
frames and steel rigid frames offers similar benefits of
horizontal interaction.

The braced frames behave with an overall flexural

tendency to interact with the shear mode of the rigid
frames.
Wall frame structure
Majestic building, Wellington, New Zealand.
The lateral resistant of the framed-tube structures is provided by very stiff
moment-resistant frames that form a tube around the perimeter of the
building. The basic inefficiency of the frame system for reinforced
concrete buildings of more than 15 stories resulted in member proportions
of prohibitive size and structural material cost premium, and thus such
system were economically inviable. The frames consist of 6-12 ft. (2-4m)
between centers, joined by deep spandrel girders. Gravity loading is
shared between the tube and interior column or walls. When lateral
loading acts, the perimeter frame aligned in the direction of loading acts
as the webs of the massive tube of the cantilever, and those normal to
the direction of the loading act as the flanges. The tube form was
developed originally for building of rectangular plan, and probably its
most efficient use in that shape.
Suitable for reinforced concrete and steel construction and has been
used for building ranging from 40 to more than 100 stories.
Aesthetically, the tube externally evident form is regarded with mixed
enthusiasm; some praise the logic of clearly expressed structure
while other criticizes the grid like faade as small-windowed and
uninterestingly repetitious. Depending on the height and dimensions
of the building, exterior columns spacing should be in order of 1.5 m
to 4.5 m on center maximum. Spandrel beam depths for normal office
or residential occupancy application are typically 600 mm to 1200
mm. Frame tube in structural steel requires welding of the beam-

17

column joint to develop rigidity and continuity. The formation of fabricated tree elements,
where all welding is performed in the shop in a horizontal position, has made the steel frame
tube system more practical and efficient. The 110 story World Trade Center twin towers, New
York are examples whereby the structuralism notion of a punched wall tube with extremely
close exterior columns is architecturally exploited to express visually the inherent verticality of
the high rise building.
The Trussed tube:

The trussed tube system represents a classic solution for a tube uniquely suited to the
qualities and character of
structural steel.

Interconnect all exterior

columns to form a rigid
box, which can resist
lateral shears by axial in
its members rather than
through flexure.

Introducing a minimum
number of diagonals on
each faade and making
the diagonal intersect at
the same point at the
corner column.

The system is tubular in

that the fascia diagonals
not only form a truss in the
plane, but also interact
with the trusses on the
perpendicular faces to
affect the tubular behavior.
This creates the x form
between corner columns
on each faade.

Relatively broad column

spacing can resulted large
clear spaces for windows,
a particular characteristic
of steel buildings.

The faade digitalization

serves to equalize the
gravity loads of the exterior columns that give a significant impact on the exterior architecture.

18

Tube-in-Tube or Hull Core Structure

This variation of the framed tube consists of an outer frame

tube, the Hull, together with an internal elevator and service
core.

The Hull and core act jointly in resisting both gravity and
lateral loading.

The outer framed tube and the inner core interact

horizontally as the shear and flexural components of a wallframe structure, with the benefit of increased lateral stiffness.

The structural tube usually adopts a highly dominant role

because of its much greater structural depth.
Bundled-Tube structures

The concept allows for wider column spacing in the tubular

walls than would be possible with only the exterior frame tube
form.

The spacing which make it possible to place interior

frame lines without seriously compromising interior space
planning.

The ability to modulate the cells vertically can create a

powerful vocabulary for a variety of dynamic shapes
therefore offers great latitude in architectural planning of a
tall building.
Core and Outrigger Systems

Outrigger serve to reduce the overturning moment in

the core that would otherwise act as a pure cantilever,
and to transfer the reduced moment to columns outside
the core by the way of tension-compression coupled,

19

which take advantage of the increase moment arm

between these columns.

It also serves to reduce the critical connection where

the mast is stepped to the keel beam.

In high-rise building this same benefit is realized by a

reduction of the base core over-turning moments and the
associated reduction in the potential core uplift forces.
In the foundations system, this core and outrigger system
can lead to the need for the following:

The addition of expensive and labor-intensive rock

anchors to an otherwise simple foundation alternative
such as spread footing.

Greatly enlarged mat dimensions and depth solely to

resist overturning forces.

Time-consuming and costly rock sockets for caisson

systems along with the need to develop reinforcement throughout the complete caisson
depth.

Expensive and intensive field work connection at the interface between core and the
foundation. This connection can become particularly troublesome when one considers the
difference in construction tolerances between foundations and core structure.

The elimination from consideration of foundation systems which might have been
considerably less expensive, such as pile, solely for their inability to resist significant uplift.
Advantages:

The outrigger systems may be formed in any combination of steel, concrete, or composite
construction.

Core overturning moments and their associated induced deformation can be reduced
through the reverse moment applied to the core at each outrigger intersection. This moment
is created by the force couple at the exterior columns to which the outrigger connect. It can
potentially increase the effective depth of the structural system from the core only to almost
the complete building.

Significant reduction and possibly the complete elimination of uplift and net tension forces
throughout the column and the foundation systems.

The exterior column spacing is not driven by structural considerations and can easily mesh
with aesthetic and functional considerations.

Exterior framing can consist of simple beam and column framing without the need for
rigid-frame-type connections, resulting in economies.

For rectangular buildings, outriggers can engage the middle columns on the long faces of
the building under the application of wind loads in the more critical direction. In core-alone
and tubular systems, these columns which carry significant gravity load are either not
incorporated or under-utilized. In some cases, outrigger systems can efficiently incorporate
almost every gravity column into lateral load resisting system, leading to significant
economies.
Disadvantages
The most significant drawback with use of outrigger systems is their potential interference with
occupiable and rentable space. This obstacle can be minimized or in some cases eliminate by
incorporation of any of the following approaches:

Locating outrigger in mechanical and interstitial levels

Locating outriggers in the natural sloping lines of the building profile

20

Incorporating multilevel single diagonal outriggers to minimize the member interference on

any single level.

Skewing and offsetting outriggers in order to mesh with the functional layout of the floor
space.

Another potential drawback is the impact the outrigger installation can have on the erection
process. As a typical building erection proceeds, the repetitive nature of the structural framing
and the reduction in member sizes generally result in a learning curve which can speed the
process along.
The incorporation of a outrigger at intermediate or upper levels can, if not approached properly,
have a negative impact on the erection process. Several steps can be taken to minimize this
possibility Provide clear and concise erection guidelines in the contract documents so that the
erector can anticipate the constraint and limitation that the installation will impose. If possible,
avoid outriggers locations or
design constraints that will
require backtracking in the
construction process to
install or connect the
outrigger. The incorporation
of intermediate outriggers in
concrete construction or
large variation in dead-load
column stresses between
the core and the exterior
can in some cases result in
the need to backtrack.
Such a need can be
minimized if issues such as
creep
and
differential
shortening are carefully
studied during the design
process to minimize their
impact.
Avoid
adding
additional outrigger levels
for borderline force or
deflection control.
Hybrid Structure
Combination of two or even
more of basic structural forms either by direct combination or by adopting different forms in
different parts of the structure. This systems provide in-plane stiffness, its lack of Torsional
stiffness requires that additional measures be taken, which resulted in one bay vertical
exterior bracing and a number of level of perimeter Vierendeel bandages perhaps one of
the best examples of the art of structural engineering. Hybrid structures are likely to be the
rule rather than the exception for future very tall buildings, whether to create acceptable
dynamic characteristics or to accommodate the complex shapes demanded by modern
architecture. High-strength concrete, consist of stiffness and damping capabilities of large
concrete elements are combined with the lightness and constructability of steel frame exhibits
significantly lower creep and shrinkage and is therefore more readily accommodated in a
hybrid frame.

21

CHAPTER -2 LITERATURE SURVEY

2.1 DATA COLLECTION
2.2 PLANNING AND DESIGNING OF HIGH RISE BUILDINGS 2.1.1 BASIC
PLANNING CONSIDERATIONS
Bask planning considerations for high rise building design include the following parameters:
Planning module
Span
Ceiling height
Floor-to-lloor height
Depth of structural floor system
Elevator system
Core planning
Parking
Planning module, namely the
changes according to
class.

space one needs for living,

the culture and the economic

Span, described as the distance from a fixed interior clement such

as building core to exterior window wall, is another important
criterion for good interior planning. These depths change
depending on the function of the space, and acceptable span
is determined by office layouts, hotel room standards, and
residential code requirements for outside light and air. Usually,
the depth of the span should be between 12 and 18 m for
office functions, except where very large single tenant groups
are to be accommodated. Lease span for hotels and residential units range from 9
to 12M.
Ceiling height (Fig: 2.1) is also an important factor in building planning. Commercial
functions require a variety of ceiling heights ranging between 2.7 and 3.7 m.
While office functions necessitate ceiling heights of approximately 2.5 to 3.0 m,
residential and hotel functions require ceiling heights of 2.5 to 3.0 m.Fig 2.1 Ceiling height
and floor to- floor height. Floor-to-floor height (Fig: 2.1), which is a function of the
necessary ceiling height, the depth of the structural lloor system, and the depth of
the space required for mechanical distribution, determines the overall height of
the building, and affects the overall cost. A small increase or decrease in floor-tofloor height, when multiplied by the number of floors and the area of the
perimeter enclosure by the building, can have a great effect on many systems
such as the exterior, structural, mechanical system, and the overall cost.
Depth of structural floor system plays an important role for planning considerations in high rise
buildings, and varies broadly depending on the floor load requirements, size of the structural bay.
and type of floor framing system.
Elevator system is another major component for good interior planning. In the design
of an elevator system, wailing interval, elevator size and speed interpretation of
program criteria, areas to be served, the population density of the building, and
the handling capacity of the system at peak periods, must be considered. This
becomes even more complicated for mixed-use projects.

22

For preliminary planning, one elevator per 1000 m2 of gross area is a rule of thumb for estimating
the number of elevators needed. Besides this, the net usable area varies from one elevator zone
to another and from floor to floor, and should average from 80 to 85% over the entire building.
The sky-lobby concept is an important and innovative approach in elevator system design. This
concept uses high-speed express shuttle cars to transport passengers from the ground level to a
lobby higher up in the building for transfer to local elevator zones so that the area used for
elevator shafts and lobbies on the lower floors of the building is reduced.
Core planning is another significant issue for planning considerations. A typical floor in a high rise
building contains a perimeter zone, an interior zone, and a core zone. While perimeter zone is
described as an approximately 4.5 m or 5 m deep area from the window wall with access through
the interior zone, interior zone is defined as the area between the perimeter and the public
corridor. On the other hand, core zone consists of those areas between elevator banks which
become rentable on floors at which elevators do not stop. Central core, which is generally used in
the buildings with a rectangular plan, and split core. which is generally used in the building with a
relatively square plan, is the most typical core arrangements. Cores accommodate elevator
shafts, mechanical shafts, stairs, and elevator lobbies. Core elements that pass through or serve
every floor should be located, so that they can rise continuously, and thus avoid expensive and
space-consuming transfers.
Parking is another planning requirement, which varies according to different functions such
as business, residential, and like. When parking facility provided within the footprint of
the building, it has a great impact on the plan and the structure. If it is inevitable, the
structural bay should be well arranged to obtain efficient space use for parking and
functional areas, and the core elements should be effectively located to minimize
interference with car parking and circulation. Mechanical ventilation is one other
important concern for the user of parking facility, and pedestrian

23

2.1.2 BASIC DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS

The basic design considerations for a high rise building include the following parameters:
the cultural, political, and social aspects of the city where the building will be located
a strong relationship with the city
the master plan and an appropriate site selection
sustainability
safety and security issues
learning about the possibilities and limitations of technology
When a high rise building is designed, the design team should also be aware of the codes,
regulations, zoning requirements, and life safety issues.
The master plan is one of the significant design considerations for high rise buildings, in which
we 11-performed site analysis include, automobile, traffic and pedestrian impact, accessibility,
minimal blockage of view, and minimizing the building shadows to neighboring buildings. Besides
this, an appropriate site selection also includes the consideration of reuse or rehabilitation of
existing buildings, and physical security. The location of high rise buildings within an urban area
affects the amount of day lighting, and may even create wind tunnels.
Sustainability is also a key element in high rise building design. This concept is based on the
following objectives: optimization of site potential, minimization of energy consumption,
protection and conservation of water, use of environmental- friendly products, enhancement of
indoor environmental quality, and optimization of operational and maintenance practices. Day
lighting, natural shading, energy efficient and photovoltaic facades, wind power systems, and the
sky garden concept are also the main parameters for a more sustainable high rise building
design.
Designing a safe and secure high rise building has always been a primary goal Tor owners,
architects, engineers, and project managers. There is an increased concern on these issues for
high rise building design especially after the disastrous 9/11 incident. Natural disasters, acts of
terrorism, indoor air quality, hazardous materials, and fire are very significant and immediate
safety issues to be considered in the design.
Learning about the possibilities and limitations of technology is critical for the success of the
project. New technology and new building materials are being introduced at a fast rate; it is
important to track these changes. The different demands of the ever changing nature of business
and lifestyle also force us to be aware of the technological changes.
2.2 HIGH RISE DESIGN FOR EARTHQUAKE ZONES
2.2.1 NATURE OF EARTHQUAKE
The earth's outer layer is composed of plates ranging in thickness from 32 to 241 km. The plates
are in constant motion, riding on the molten mantle below, and normally traveling at the rate of a
millimeter a week, which is equivalent to the growth rate of a fingernail. Hence, this motion
causes continental drift and the formation of mountains, volcanoes, and earthquakes
The Richter scale is a logarithmic scale for determining the energy dissipated in an earthquake.
This means that an earthquake measuring 7 on the Richter scale dissipates 32 times the energy
of a size-6 quake, while one measuring 8 dissipates roughly 1.000 times as much energy. The
energy dissipated by these earthquakes is expressed in horizontal and vertical acceleration
forces acting on the skyscrapers. The immense forces transmitted from underground must be

absorbed by the supporting structures of the buildings. These dynamic loads are replaced by
structural equivalent loads in horizontal and vertical direction when a structural analysis of the
building is performed.

2.2.2 ACTION OF SEISMIC LOADS ON THE BUILDING

The horizontal and vertical acceleration of the subsoil due to an earthquake causes the building
to vibrate. In simplified form, these loads can be represented by horizontal and vertical
equivalent loads acting on the mass centre of gravity of the building. The magnitude of these
equivalent loads depends directly on the mass of the building. This leads to the conclusion that
as the height of the building increases, the mass centre of gravity normally wanders upwards and
the llexural effect on the building is intensified by the longer lever arm. The potential earthquake
damage suffered by high-rise buildings varies. The damage depends more on the rate of motion
and magnitude of the displacement than on the acceleration.
2.2.3 ROLE OF SUBSOIL
Natural rock is the best subsoil from the point of view of its earthquake properties. Sandy soils
saturated with water and artificially backfilled land are considered to be particularly critical. The
widely-feared liquefaction effects (plasticization of the soil) can occur if an earthquake coincides
with high groundwater levels. The building may subsequently remain at a slant or both the
building and the surrounding terrain may subside.
2.2.4 FOUNDATIONS DESIGN FOR EARTHQUAKE
Deep foundations generally display better seismic resistance than shallow foundations. Floating
foundations can prove advantageous on soft ground, since they may be better able to attenuate
resonance action. The risk of subsidence is considerably greater with floating foundations than
with deep foundations. "Base isolation" is an anti-seismic construction technique that uses the
principle of attenuation to reduce vibrations. The building is isolated from the solid subsoil by
damping elements arranged on a foundation ring or foundation plate. The building was
retroactively more or less mounted on ball bearings which arc intended to gently damp down the
impact of a future earthquake. As in the case of wind loads, earthquakes can also give rise to
resonant vibration.
2.2.5 HEIGHT OF THE BUILDING
High rise buildings are more susceptible to damage from strong remote earthquakes than from
weak earthquakes close at hand. They normally have a lower resonant frequency and a lower
attenuation than low buildings. Short-wave oscillation components in earthquakes are rapidly
damped, while the long-wave components (frequency f<l Hz) can still make themselves felt at a
distance of several hundred kilometers, particularly in the form of surface waves.
2.2.6 SYMMETRY OF THE HIGH-RISE BUILDING
Symmetric layouts, rigidity and mass distribution lead to a considerably better seismic response
than asymmetric layouts, rigidity and mass distribution. This is because asymmetric buildings are
subjected to stronger torsion (twisting) around the vertical axis by horizontal seismic loads.
2.2.7 SHAPE OF THE HIGH-RISE BUILDING
When parts of different height are permanently connected to one another as, for example, is
often found in high-rise buildings with atriums, then the various structures in the building can be
subjected to considerable torsional stresses by the seismic loads. Buildings of different heights

can also be subjected to a whole series of effects in an earthquake, higher buildings were literally
jammed in between lower buildings, thus extensively damaging the floors at the clamping point.
In some cases, the buildings simply buckled over at the edge of the lower adjacent buildings.
Resonance effects can also cause buildings to oscillate so strongly that they hammer against
one another. Another effect observed in high-rise buildings is the soft-storey effect: due to
lobbies, atriums or glazed shopping passages, some floors - usually near the ground floor - are
distinctly "softer" than those above them. These "soft" floors then collapse in an earthquake.

2.3 LATERAL LOADS ON HIGH RISE BUILDINGS

From the structural design point of view, due to its height, a high rise building could be described,
as one that is more affected by lateral loads treated by wind or earthquake actions compared to
other building types. Thus, loads acting on high rise buildings are different from those on low rise
buildings in terms of accumulation into much larger structural forces, and the increased
importance of wind loading. Wind loads on a high rise building act not only over a very large
surface, but also with greater amount at the greater heights, and with a larger moment arm than
on a low- rise building.
Even though the wind loads on a low-rise building generally have a minor affect on the design
and structural configuration, they can play a vital cole for the selection of the structural system in
a high rise building. Depending upon the mass and shape of the building, and the region,
although, the wind load is very important in the design of high rise buildings, in seismic regions,
inertia! loads from the shaking of the ground also play an important role. Furthermore, in contrast
to vertical loads which can be estimated roughly from previous field observations, lateral loads,
namely the wind and earthquake loads, on buildings are fairly unpredictable, and cannot be
assessed accurately.
2.3.1 NATURE OF WIND

Wind, which is created by temperature differences, could be described as an air motion,

generally applied to the natural horizontal motion of the atmosphere. The vertical motion, on the
other hand, is termed as a current. Air close to the surface of the earth moves three
dimensionally, in which horizontal motion is much greater than the vertical motion. While the
vertical air motion is significant particularly in meteorology, the horizontal motion is important in
engineering. The surface boundary layer concerning the horizontal motion of wind extends
upward to a certain height above which the horizontal airflow is no longer affected by the ground
effect. Most of the human activity is performed in this boundary layer, and hence how the wind
effects are felt within this zone is of great concern in engineering.
Wind is a very complex phenomenon owing to the many flow situations resulting from the
interaction of wind and structure. In wind engineering, on the other hand, simplifications are
made to find meaningful predictions of wind behavior by distinguishing the following features:
variation of wind speed with height
turbulent and dynamic nature of wind
vortex-shedding phenomenon
cladding pressures
2.3.2 WIND EFFECTS ON HIGH RISE BUILDINGS
The wind is the most powerful and unpredictable force affecting high rise buildings. High rise
building can be defined as a mast anchored in the ground, bending and swaying in the wind, This
movement, known as wind drift, should be kept within acceptable limits. Moreover, for a welldesigned high rise building, the wind drift should not surpass the height of the building divided by
500. Wind loads on buildings increase considerably with the increase in building heights.
Furthermore, the speed of wind increases with height, and the wind pressures increase as the
square of the wind speed. Thus, wind effects on a high rise building are compounded as its
height increases. Besides this, with innovations in architectural treatment, increase in the
strengths of materials, and advances in methods of analysis, high rise building have become
more efficient and lighter, and so, more vulnerable to deflection, and even to swaying under wind

loading.
The swaying at the top of a high rise building induced by wind may not be seen by a passerby,
but its effect may be a concern for those occupying the top floors. Unlike dead loads and live
loads, wind loads change rapidly and even abruptly, creating effects much larger than when the
same loads were applied gradually, and that they limit building accelerations below human
perception.

2.3.3 VARIATION OF WIND SPEED WITH HEIGHT

Ail important characteristic of wind is the variation of its speed with height (Fig: 2.2). The wind
speed increase follows a curved line varying from zero at the ground surface to a maximum at
some distance above the ground. The height at which the speed stops to increase is called the
gradient height, and the corresponding speed, the gradient wind speed. This important
characteristic of wind is a well understood phenomenon that higher design pressures are
specified at higher elevations in most building codes.
Additionally, at heights of approximately 366 m from the ground, surface friction has an almost
negligible effect on the wind speed; as such the wind movement is only depend on the prevailing
seasonal and local wind effects. The height through which the wind speed is affected by the
topography is called atmospheric boundary layer. The wind speed profile within this layer is in the
domain of turbulent flow and could be mathematically calculated.

2.3.4 TURBULENT AND DYNAMIC NATURE OF WIND

WinJ transfers some amount of its energy to the object that it hit on its path. The measure of the
amount or energy transferred is called the gust response factor. Terrain roughness and variety of
the height above ground, affect wind turbulence (also known as gustiness).Wind loads related
with gustiness or turbulence, change rapidly and even abruptly unlike the mean flow of wind with
static characteristic. Furthermore, the motion of wind is turbulent. Turbulence can be described
as, any movement of air at speeds greater than 0.9 to 1,3 m/s, resulting in random movement of
air particles in all directions. The scale and intensity of turbulence can be related to the size and
rotating speed of eddies (a circular movement of wind) that create the turbulence. Additionally,
the flow of a large mass of air has a larger overall turbulence than that of a small mass of air.
Consequently, from the structural engineer's point of view, the wind speed can be considered to
include two components; a mean speed component increasing with height and a turbulent speed
fluctuation.
2.3.5 VORTEX-SHEDDING PHENOMENON
Along wind and across wind are two important terms used to explain the vortex- shedding
phenomenon. Along wind or simply wind is the term used to refer to drag forces. The across wind
response is a motion, which happens on a plane perpendicular to the direction of wind. When a
building is subjected to a wind flow, the originally parallel wind stream lines are displaced on both
transverse sides of the building (Fig 2.3). and the forces produced on these sides are called
vortices.

wind

Fig 2.3 Simplified wind flow

At low wind speeds, the vortices arc shed symmetrically (at the same instant) on either
transverse side of the building (Fig 2.4a), and so building does not vibrate in the across wind
direction.

Win

(a)

(b)

speed of wind - vortex-shedding phenomenon (there

direction)

Fig 2.4 Vortices in

different wind speed
conditions: (a) vortices in
low speed of wind (there is
no vibration in the across
wind direction); (b) vortices in high
is vibration in the across wind

On the other hand, at higher wind speeds, the vortices are shed alternately first from one and
then from the other side. When this occurs, there is an impulse both in the along wind and across
wind directions. The across wind impulses are, however, applied alternatively to the left and then
to the right. This kind of shedding which causes structural vibrations in the flow and the across
wind direction is called vortex- sheddingi a phenomenon well known in fluid mechanics. This
phenomenon of alternate shedding of vortices for a rectangular high rise building is shown
schematically in Fig: 2,4b,
2.3.6 CLADDING PRESSURES
The cladding design for lateral loads is a very significant subject for architects and engineers.
Even though the broken glass resulting from the exterior cladding failure may be a less important
consideration than the structural collapse during an earthquake, the cost of replacement and
risks for pedestrians require careful concentration in its design. Wind forces play a major role in
glass breakage, also affected by solar radiation. muJJion and sealant details, tempering of the
glass, double or single glazing of glass, and fatigue. Breaking of large panels of glass in high rise
buildings can badly damage the neighboring properties and injure the pedestrians.

2.4 STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS FOR HIGH RISE BUILDINGS: LATERAL LOAD RESISTING
SYSTEMS

The key idea in conceptualizing the structural system for a slender high rise building is to think of
it as a beam cantilevering from the earth. As a general rule, when other things being equal, the
high rise building more necessary is to identify the proper structural system for resisting lateral
loads, in which the rigidity and stability requirements arc often the dominant factors in the design.
Moreover, the selection of the structural system of a high rise building involves the following
factors:
economic criteria related to the budget of the project;
function of the building;
internal planning;
material and method of construction;
external architectural treatment;
planned location and routing of the service systems;
height and proportions of the building.
Consequently, the effect of lateral loads must be considered from the very beginning of the
design process, and the structural systems need to be developed around concepts associated
entirely with resistance to these load Basically, there arc three main types of buildings: steel
buildings, reinforced concrete buildings, and composite buildings.

2.4.1 STEEL, REINFORCED CONCRETE AND COMPOSITE HIGH RISE

BUILDINGS
Even though the application of steel in structures can be traced back to Bcssemers steelmaking
process (1856). its application to high rise structures received its stimulus from the 300 m high
Eiffel Tower (1889). Furthermore, the role of steel members which used to carry only gravity
loads in the early structures, has been entirely upgraded to include wind and earthquake
resistance in systems ranging from the modest portal frame to innovative systems involving
outrigger systems, interior and exterior braced frames, and like. Today, structural steel could be
utilized in a variety of structures from low-rise parking areas to 100-story high skyscrapers.

Most of the high rise buildings in the world have steel struetural system, due to its high strength-toweight ratio, case of assembly and economy in transport to the site, availability of various strength
levels, and wider selection of sections. Innovative framing systems and modern design methods,
improved fire protection, corrosion resistance, fabrieation, and erection techniques combined with
the advanced analytical techniques made possible by computers, have also permitted the use of
steel in just any rational struetural system for high rise buildings.
Although concrete as a structural material has been known since early times, the practical use of
reinforced concrete was only introduced in 1867. The invention of reinforced concrete increased
the significance and use of concrete in the construction industry to a great extent. Partieularly,
because of its moldability characteristics, and natural fireproof property, architects and engineers
utilize the reinforced concrete to shape the building, and its elements in different and elegant
forms, Besides this, when compared to steel, reinforced concrete high rise buildings have better
damping ratios eontributing to minimize motion perception and heavier concrete structures offer
improved stability against wind loads. Moreover, high strength concrete and lightweight structural
concrete allow using smaller member sizes and less steel reinforcement. All high rise buildings
can be considered as composite buildings since it is impossible to eonstruet a funetional building
by using only steel or concrete.
In this study, buildings having reinforced concrete beams, columns, and shear walls arc accepted
as reinforced concrete (or concrete) buildings, and in the same way, buildings having steel
beams, columns and bracings are accepted as steel buildings. Namely, the frame and bracing or
shear walls - but not the floor slabs - are the determining parameters for the building type. A
concrete column became more economical than a pure steel column thanks to the introduction of
high and ultra- high-strcngth concrete with compressive strength up to 18 IMPa in I960, Besides
the economic feature, moldability. high stiffness and insulating, and fire-resisting quality of
concrete, have all contributed to realize its structural combination with steel which has merits of
high strength-to-weight ratio especially for seismie zones, fast construction, long span capacity,
ease of assembly and field work.
Both steel and concrete constructions have advantages and drawbacks. Moreover, without
composite construction, many of our contemporary high rise buildings may never have been
constructed in their present form today. On the other hand, here, the term composite system
means any and llII combinations of steel and reinforced concrete elements and is considered
synonymous with other definitions such as mixed systems, hybrid systems, etc. The classification
of structural systems of high rise buildings are:

F rame (rigidframe) systems;

Braced frame and shear walled frame systems;
Outrigger - belt truss systems;
Framed tube systems;
Braced (exterior braced) systems;
Bundled tube systems.
2.5 INSTALLATION OF SERVICE SYSTEMS
The installation for air-conditioning, ventilation, lighting and fire alarms are usually located
between the load-bearing ceiling and a suspended false ceiling into which the lamps arc normally
integrated. Small-scale electrical installations are contained in trucking in the screcd flooring.
Cables can then be routed as desired in the space below the floor; the equipment is connected

to sockets in so-called floor tanks. False floors are to be found almost everywhere in modern
houses, since cables can be rerouted without difficulty, as is increasingly required on account of
the rapid pace of change in office and communications technology. Moreover, the space below
the floor can also be used for ventilation and air-conditioning installations.
Particular attention must be paid to the question of fire protection in such false floor
constructions. Connection of the flexible partition walls to both the suspended ceiling and the
elevated false floor can pose problems. From the point of view of soundproofing and thermal
insulation, it would be better to install high rise the partition walls between the load-bearing
floors.
However, since the suspended ceilings and false floors normally extend over the entire area and are
not confined to any single room on account of the technical installations, the partition walls must also
be fitted between the suspended ceiling and false floor. This consequently makes it necessary to use
soundproofing and thermally insulating floor coverings, as well as ceiling materials. Facade
elements into which technical components have already been incorporated by the manufacturer are
conveniently linked to the remaining network by means of screw-in and plug-in connections.
However, it is becoming increasingly rare for such technical service connections to be installed in
the external walls, as they do not permit as flexible use of the room as floor tanks. Due to the
relati vely small area available per floor, fire resistant elements (fire walls) are usually only to be
found in the core areas incorporating the elevators, stairwells, service and installation shafts,
sanitary and ancillary rooms. A vertical breakdown into fire compartments is mostly obtained with
the aid of fire-resistant floor
2.5.1 ENERGY AND WATER SUPPLY
Unlike the case with normal multi-storey buildings, the technical service components in high rise
buildings must meet special requirements if only on account of the height, since the required
supply of energy, water and air and the effluent volume are incomparably larger. These utilities
must also be transported to the very last floor in sufficient quantities, under adequate pressure
and at sometimes to tally different temperatures. The planning effort required on the part of the
service engineers responsible for the supply and disposal services in high-rise buildings is
therefore very much greater than in the case of smaller and medium sized projects. The pressure
load on the individual components is reduced through subdivision into several pressure stages
with technical service centres in the basement or on the ground floor, on intermediate floors and
on the roof.

2.5.2 VENTILATION AND AIR-CONDITIONING

The systems should be designed in such a way as to ensure flexible division of the areas
(large rooms, individual rooms) so that their use can subsequently be changed without
extensive conversions. A variety of ventilation and air-conditioning systems can be installed,
depending on the purpose for which the building is used. The high- rise headquarters of the
Deutsche Bank in Frankfurt am Main, for instance, is supplied by a two-channel highpressurea system in
which the air is injected from above and discharged
through
corresponding exhaust air windows. A second, independent two-channel high-pressure
system
additionally blows air into
the rooms from
the false floors.
In principle, all
ventilation
same basic
2.5.3 SANITATION

air-conditioning and
systems must meet the
requirements:
Fig 2.5 Ventilation and Air-conditioning
system

Pressure stages
are also required for the
sanitation, thus
permitting the use of smaller
pumps. Sanitary
dispensing points must
additionally be isolated from the building as such for soundproofing reasons. The internal heat
loads (e.g. hot exhaust air, exhaust heat from refrigeration systems) accumulated in high-rise
buildings arc commonly used to heat water with the aid of heat pumps or heat recovery systems.
Studies shown that the height does not have any effect on the flow rate and rate of fall, since
fiscal matter and effluent do not simply drop to the ground under the force of gravity, but more or
less wind their way downwards along the pipe walls.
2.5.4 CONTROL SYSTEMS
Today's complex, ultra-modern control systems are primarily based on intelligent digital
controllers. This technology permits a direct link, between DDC (direct digital control) substations
and the centralized instrumentation and control whieh also takes over energy management
functions, such as:
Optimization of the overnight and weekend temperature reduction.
* Linking the heating of service water with re-cooling of the refrigeration system, operation of the
external blinds.

LQnT
Al
k
M
ah
tw
k

CH-

j i J u ".mj
ii < i
Proctor Pwditor BttJc Pralalor Prwfator
Predator Predator
LONMifL
Hea! Pump YAV Controller with Fart Coil Unit Vent Four-Loop Semen1 Third Party
Pfojrjnviatte Cor#oiif Controller Actuator ConlroUar
Ccxilrollw Controiictf VFO
Draco Conaroter
Fig 2.6 Control system

The air in the room must be continuously renewed (at three to six fold exchange of air is normally required per
hour).The outside air flow must be guaranteed with a minimum fresh air flow of 30 to 60 mj/h per person.

The risk of drafts must be minimized and any nuisance due to the transmission of sound eliminated.

It must be possible to shut off individual plant segments when the corresponding parts of the building arc not in use.

2.6 FIRE FIGHTING

Fire is one of the greatest risks for every building and particularly for high-rise buildings. Due
to the spectacular photographs and film sequences shown in the media, major fires have
always made - and will continue to make - headline news not only during the construction
phase, but above all during the occupancy phase.
2.6.1. FIRE FIGHTER ACCESSIBILITY
It is important for emergency personnel (e.g. firefighters, paramedics, police) to be able to
access a building quickly in the event of an emergency. In addition, these personnel cannot
be expected to scale all doors through stairwells. This need gets back to the elevator
systems. The tower has service elevators that run higher than local passenger elevators. In
fact, one of these service elevators runs over the tower. These are very fast, and are
configured to override the local elevators to allow for the quickest and easiest transfers. The
elevators themselves are fire/smoke resistant. With these, it makes accessing the building a
relatively painless process.
2.6.2 OCCUPANT EVACUATION
Occupant evacuation is the concern of any building; however, it poses a special challenge
given the height of the high rise buildings. With the tremendous climb, occupants will need
information on the situation, mechanical assistance to speed the process, and stairwells and
safe zones in the event of mechanical failures. It is important to note that most crises the
building will experience will not require full building evacuation. However, when lives are at
stake, it is still important to be sure that it is possible.
2.6.3. AREAS OF REFUGE
The tower design includes strategically placed areas of refuge which allow for better
controlled evacuation. Represented in Fig: 2.7, the typical area of refuge will have fire rated
exit stairs closed off by doors to counter the spread of smoke. Building employees will be
trained to direct and instruct evacuees. Also, the areas of refuge are designed to connect to
various stairwells.

This means that occupants can be directed down the safest path, and will almost never be
trapped. As usual, the areas of refuge arc encased in fire resistant concrete, are well
ventilated, and can be lit by emergency lights.

Fig: 2.7 Typical design for area of Refuge

2.6.4 FIRE EXTINGUISHERS

Hand-operated fire extinguishers must be installed at clearly marked and generally
accessible points in high-rise buildings in order to fight incipient fires. These extinguishers are
intended for use by the building's residents. However, teams should be present on every floor
made up of the people who work and live there; they must then be instructed on what to do if
a fine breaks out and also be familiarized with the use of these hand-operated fire
extinguishers.
2.6.5 FIRE-FIGHTING WATER
The cases outlined above have shown how important it is to have an effective supply of fire
fighting water when combating a fire in a high-rise building. So that the firemen can start to
fight the fire as soon as they arrive on the scene, wet risers must be installed in every
stairwell or in their vicinity and a wall hydrant with hose line connected to these risers on
every floor. The hoses must be sufficiently long to direct fire-fighting water to every point on
that floor.

Ail adequately dimensioned water line and adequate water pressure must be ensured when
planning and designing the building. In very high buildings, booster systems must be installed in
the wet risers to increase the water pressure. Whether the water for fire-fighting can be taken
from the public mains or from separate water reservoirs or tanks must be decided in each
individual instance in accordance with local conditions and regulations. For greater safety, it may
be useful to install not only wet risers, but also dry risers into which the fire brigade can feed
water at the required pressure from the ground floor.
2.6.6 SPRINKLERS
An automatic sprinkler system is the most effective protective measure for fighting and controlling
a fire in a high-rise building. Care must be taken to ensure that the complete building is protected
by such sprinklers. In the cases outlined above, there were either no sprinklers at all or no
activated sprinklers on the burning floors. Based on past experience, the installation of sprinkler
systems is in many countries prescribed by law for high-rise buildings from a certain height
onwards as from 60 m in Germany, for example. In some cases, the statutory regulations even
stipulate that sprinklers have to be installed retroactively in high-rise buildings erected before the
regulations came into force.

Fig: 2.8 Automatic Sprinkler System

Automatic sprinkler systems throughout the building arc important since they must fight a fire as
early as possible and must either extinguish the fire directly or keep it under control until the fire
brigade arrives to finish off the job. However, a sprinkler system will normally be unable to control
a fire in full flame, for instance if it leaps from a lloor with no sprinklers to one with sprinklers.
Sprinkler systems are simply not dimensioned to cope with such developments.
Sprinkler systems must meet the following requirements:
They must rapidly control a fire in the fire compartment in which it breaks out;
They must limit the emission and spread of flames, hot fumes and smoke, they must trigger an
alarm in the building, preferably also indicating to the central control panel where the seat of
the fire is located, the alert must be forwarded to the fire brigade or other auxiliary forces.
The ability of the system to indicate to the central control panel where the seat of the fire is
located presupposes that a separate sprinkler system with an alarm valve is assigned to each
floor and to each fire compartment. As already mentioned in connection with fire-detection
systems, the installation of an automatic fire-detection system in addition to the sprinkler
system is advisable so that fires can be discovered and signaled more quickly. Sprinkler
systems must be installed in accordance with the applicable directives or standards, the best
known of which include NFPA. CEA, FOC and VdS. All the components used for installation
must comply with the relevant standards.
The various directives and standards permit a variety of solutions with regard to the water
supply:
Water supply from the public mains - possibly via an intermediate tank on the ground - via
booster pumps on the ground to supply several groups of floors with different pressure levels
intermediate tanks on various upper floors, under either normal pressure or excess pressure, to
supply the sprinkler groups above or below deep tanks and pressurized tanks on the roof, as well
as intermediate tanks in the middle of the building, to supply the sprinklers below with static or
high pressure Tanks on upper floors can be replenished via low-capacity pumps.

Depending on the type of supply selected, it may be necessary to install rise pressure- reducing
valves on the individual floors. For a sprinkler system to operate smoothly, it must not only be
correctly installed and set. but also be regularly inspected and serviced by specialist personnel.
2.6.7 OTHER EQUIPMENT
Other automatic fire-fighting equipment may be appropriate for certain systems in a high-rise
building, such as transformers, electrical switchgear and control rooms, computer centers and
telephone switchboards.

ADVANTAGES OF SKYSCRAPERS

Ability to accommodate large populations

The world's population, especially in Middle East and Asian countries, continues to migrate from
rural areas to urban areas. By 2030, it is expected that about 60% of the worlds population
will be urban. In 2050, over 80% of the world population will live in urban areas when the
worlds population is expected to reach 9 billion. (1) Utilization of the vertical space in urban
areas is the only way to accommodate the needs of this growing population.

Economic Globalization

The ongoing trend for constructing tall buildings around the world reflects the increasing impact
of global competition on the development of the worlds major cities. These cities compete on
the global stage to have the title of tallest building with which to announce the confidence and
global stature of their growing economies. An iconic tall building enhances the global image of
the city. It is likely to put the city on the world map, thereby signaling and promoting its
significant economic progress and advancement. (1)

Urban Regeneration

As people begin to better understand the impact their lifestyles have on our environment, many
young people are seeking a lifestyle that is less dependent on automobiles. They want to
work, shop and recreate within walking distance of where they live. Older people are moving
to cities seeking lower maintenance properties, easy access to medical services and less
isolation. Construction of new attractive high-rises can also beautify and revitalize dilapidated
districts and neighborhoods within the urban core and surrounding areas. This improves the
quality of life in these areas by minimizing or eliminating social ills such as crime that might
have been prevalent there. (1)

Agglomeration
With an abundance of skyscrapers comes an abundance of businesses and consumers in a
small geographic area. The presence of an abundance of firms offering similar products
spurs competition, innovation, and efficiency. Agglomeration improves economy of scale and
can increase productivity through access to denser markets. Access to competing suppliers
helps firms procure more efficient, cheaper, and more appropriate inputs.(1)
Land Use and Preservation

In areas where land is expensive, building up provides the most efficient use of space for a
growing population. According to the Urban Land Institute, By strategically increasing the
number of dwelling units per acre, cities not only will go a long way toward meeting their

sustainability objectives, but also will be competitive, resilient, and great places to live (2)
High density structures also help preserve open space such as: natural areas in and around
cities and localities that provide habitat for plants and animals, recreational spaces, farm and
ranch lands, places of natural beauty, critical environmental areas (e.g., wetlands), and
recreational community spaces.(1)

Climate Change and Energy Conservation

Although tall building require an enormous amount of energy to build, the long term advantages
make them more energy efficient. Tall buildings save energy relative to an equivalent floor
area of low-rise buildings. They explained: Manhattan can be considered the greenest place
in America, if measured by energy use per inhabitant. If New York City were a state, it would
be 12th in population and last in energy consumption (3)

Infrastructure and Transportation

Vertically configured buildings facilitate more efficient infrastructure. Simply put, a 500-unit singlefamily subdivision requires many more roads, sidewalks, sewers, hydro lines, power and gas
lines, light standards, fire hydrants, etc., than that of a tall building, which allows integrating
these systems efficiently in a dense manner. (1) Additionally, in areas with of high density,
people can accomplish more with less driving. Not only is public transportation is more
available, but most tasks such as shopping, banking, medical services and general
errands are within walking distance. Overall, compact development reduces driving from 20%
to 40%. (4)

Emerging Technologies

The development of skyscrapers has led to many engineering and technological advances.
Advancements in the areas of building service systems, computer sciences, facade
engineering, glazing, daylight and heat control, structural framing systems, ceiling systems,
lighting, ventilation, exit strategies and water recycling systems can all be attributed to
skyscraper development.

Local Pride

Skyscrapers are also points of pride for a city and its citizens. The design of many skyscrapers
include beautiful public areas and allow the public to view public works of art. Public viewing
platforms in iconic skyscrapers provide an economic boost to the area by drawing tourists
year-round.

DISADVANTAGES OF SKYSCRAPERS

Economic Considerations

Construction of these buildings requires an extra cost premium because of their need for
sophisticated foundations, structural systems to carry high wind loads, and high-tech
mechanical, electrical, elevator, and fire-resistant systems (2) Skyscrapers also have higher
operational costs such as higher operational costs, such as high energy consumption,
elevator maintenance, and emergency response preparedness. Compared to low rise
buildings, skyscrapers have less useable space. While about 70% of a skyscrapers floor
plate is generally usable space (the remainder being the buildings elevator core, stairwells,
and columns), more than 80% of low-rise spaces are typically useable. (3)

Environmental Impact

Wind funneling and turbulence around the base of skyscrapers can cause inconvenience for
pedestrians. The height of the building creates huge shadows blocking sunlight from nearby
structures.

Civic Infrastructure

Due to the density of population that skyscrapers create, demand on transportation and
infrastructure are greatly increased. Proper planning to alleviate traffic congestion typically
require large public works and construction projects. A new skyscraper will also place
additional load on the existing power grid, water supply, and sewer systems. If a tall building is
built in an undeveloped area, new cost-intensive infrastructure must be provided. (2)

Socio-Cultural Factors

Many scholars have expressed concerns about the socio-psychological impacts of living in highrise housing. While high-rise housing may be desirable for single people and couples, it may
be less desirable for a family with children. Some sociologists argue that the environment of
tall buildings can make inhabitants feel claustrophobic by creating a rat-cage mentality (2)

Perception
Some poorly planned skyscrapers have created a public perception that the buildings are
poorly built and lead to higher rates of crime in the area. One example of this is the PruittIgoe housing project in St. Louis. Researchers have identified economic class, race, poor
planning, and linear blockish brutalist architecture as reasons for the failure of this project. (4)
Public Safety

Especially after the September 11th attacks on the World Trade Center, people see skyscrapers
as targets for potential future attacks. This threat in addition to the possibility of more common
disasters such as fire or earthquake make many people afraid to reside or work in or around
skyscrapers.

Global Connectivity

When skyscrapers were first built, one of the perceived advantages was to create connections
between diverse groups of people and allow them to work together more easily. With the
advent of the internet, people can now work from anywhere and connect with anyone. This
new technology may minimize the advantage of physical proximity.

5. ARCHITECTS CONSIDERATION (CASE STUDIES)

BURJ KHALIFA, DUBAI

A mixed use development which has office, retail, hotels and residential spaces. The Burj Khalifa
was revealed to be 828m (2.7 16ft) high, far high riser than the previous record holder, Taipei
101. With a total built-up area of about 6 million sq ft. Burj Khalifa features nearly 2 million sq ft of
residential space and over 300.000 sq ft of prime office space, in addition to the area occupied by
Armani Hotel Dubai and the Armani Residences. The tower also lays claim to the highest
occupied floor, the high riseest service lift, and the world's highest observation deck on the 124th
floor. The world's highest mosque and swimming pool will meanwhile be located on the 158th
and 76th floors.
Bhurj Dubai includes 163 habitable floors plus 46 maintenance levels and 9 parking levels in the
basement. The tapering spire is made out of reinforced concrete,steel, stainless steel
Official Name: Burj Khalifa Bin Zayed
Also Known As: Burj Dubai
Built: 2004-2010
Cost: $4,100,000,000
Designed By: Skidmore, Owings & Merrill
Structural engineer : William F. Baker
Main contractor: Samsung C&T
Developer: Emaar Properties
Type: Skyscraper
Total Stories: 206
Inhabited Stories :106
Elevators: 57 , speed:10m/sc
Maximum Height: 2,717 Feet / 828 Meters
Total area: 4,000,000 sq.m
Location: No. 1, Burj Dubai Boulevard, Dubai,
United Arab
and

The model above shows the major components of the

500 acre Downtown Burj Dubaidistrict - showing
the Dubai Mall at left Burj Dubai Tower centre
right and The Old Town and Island to the left of the lake and the commercial and
residential towers around the periphery.
Project Details: Economy: size, scope, and cost:
The key facts are:
1] 500 acre - 2 square kilometres [0.8 square miles] - mixed urban district.
2] 30000 homes in 19 residential towers.
3] 9 hotels with 2000 keys including the 160 room Armani Burj Dubai.
4] 3.77 million square feet of retail space in the Dubai Mall.
5] 3.5 kilometre long Boulevard [see 4 on site plan above].
6] 280 metres of
fountains.
Fig: 2.9 Buij Kalifa. Dubai

7] 1400 car parking spaces at the

Mall.
8] 36 acre lake.
6] 6 acres of designated parkland.
7] US$20 billion total project
investment and US$4.1 billion tower
investment.
Designed by Skidmore, Owings and
Merrill, the designers of the Sears
Tower in Chicago and the Freedom
Tower in New York, Emaar has also
retained GHD an international
building consulting firm as
independent consultants.
The builders are Samsung Engineering and Construction who also built the PETRONAS Twin
Tower in Malaysia and the Taipei 101 in Taiwan.

Comparison of Burj Khalifa with other

skyscrapersBurj Dubai Structure:
As the following image shows the tower
comprises three parts set around a central
core.
As the tower gains height setbacks occur on
each of the three parts in an upward
spiraling pattern so that the width of the
tower deceases as it gets higher. The top of
the tower is capped with a single spire.
Extensive views of the Arabian Sea have been
achieved for most rooms on most levels by
the Y shaped floor plan.
Burj Dubai footprint: The 80,000 sq ft [7432 sq meter] foundation slab has 192 piles buried 164
feet deep. Even with this massive piling the tower is projected to sway by up to 9 feet at its
highest point:

The tower will be clad with reflective windows and aluminum and stainless steel fined panels
designed to withstand the sometime 50+ degree heat of the Dubai summer.
The Fountain:
Outside the tower a complex public fountain system has been commissioned from WET

Design a sUSA based company - who have designed an elaborate 900 foot high fountain
that will project water 490 feet into the air whilst illuminated by 6600 lights and 50 colour
projectors.

Floor
Plans Break
down
The
following is
a
breakdown
of floors.

s2.7.2 CONCEPT

The architecture features a triple-lobed

footprint, an abstraction of a desert flower
named Hymenocallis.

The tower is composed of three elements

arranged around a central core.

Twenty-six helical levels decrease the

cross section of the tower incrementally as it
spirals skyward.

The curves at each ends symbolising the

onion domes an essential element in
Islamic architecture.

The modular. Y-shaped structure, with setbacks along each of its three wings provides
an inherently stable configuration for the structure and maximizes views of the Arabian
Gulf

Site Plan showing the triangular podium base of the Burj Dubai tower and all 15principal
components of the new Downtown Burj Dubai district:

Burj Dubai
2 Dubai Mall
3 The Old Town
4 Burj Dubai Boulevard this extends for 3.5 kilometres around the tower
periphery
5 The Residences [18 towers]
5a The Residences [18 towers]
6 Burj Dubai Lake Park
7 South Ridge [6 towers]
8 Burj Dubai business hub [6 low-rises]
9 Burj Dubai Lake hotel [63 storeys 300m]
10 Burj Dubai metro station
11 The Lofts [3 towers]
12 Burj Views [3 towers]
13 8 Boulevard Walk [38 storeys]
14 Doha Street
15 Sheikh Zayed Road

3
1
2
1. The three wings
2. Y shape
3. The central core

2.7.3 FOUNDATION
The superstructure is supported by a large reinforced concrete mat. which is in turn supported by
bored reinforced concrete piles. The mat is 3.7 meters thick, and was constructed in four
separate pours totaling 12.500 cubic meters of concrete. The minimum centre-to-centre spacing
of the piles for the tower is 2.5 times the pile diameter. The 1.5 meter diameter x 43 meter long
piles represent the largest and longest piles conventionally available in the region.A high density,
low permeability concrete was used in the foundations, as well as a cathodic protection system
under the mat, to minimize any detrimental effects form corrosive chemicals in local ground
water. It is founded on a 3.7m thick raft supported on bored piles, 1.5 m in diameter, extending
approximately 50m below the base of the raft.

Fig: 2.11 Type of Foundation

The Gradient spiral of the tower levels

Top
lev
wind
el
Middle
Tower
wind
level
levels
Lower
wind
level

The Advantages Of The Tower Shape

Design

The Advantages :

Foundation : The Modular, Y-Shaped Structure, With Setbacks Along Each Of Its Three
Wings Provides An Inherently Stable Configuration For The Structure And Provides Good
Floor Plates For Residential.

Usage : The Y-Shaped Plan Is Ideal For Residential And Hotel Usage, With The Wings
Allowing Maximum Outward Views And Inward Natural Light.

Nature : Gradient Spiral Design Hinders The Swirling Wind .Fig.1

1. Burj
khalifa
arrival
court
10.
Service
Yard

1
7

2. Armani
hotel
entry
11. Office
Entry

3
8
4

11

promenade
6.

Tower garden

7.

Water feature

8.

childerns play area

9.

Recreation area
spire

Level 160 to
168
Level 156
to
spire
159
Level136 to138
Level 160
to
Level125
to135
168
Level 156
to
Level112
to121
159
Level109 to111
Level136 to138
Level125
to135
Level 77 to108
Level112 to121
Level
76
Level109
to111
Level 77 to108
Ground to level
Level
Level
Level
199to
38
40
to16
37
89
42
76
8

3. Residenti
al entry
4. Viewing
deck

10

Level
15
5
Level 139 to
Level 154
Level
12
15
4
Level
5
12139 to
Level
3
Level
Level 154
12
12
2
Level4
12
3 Level 73
Level
to 75
12
2 Level
Mechanical floor housing Level
electrical
Level
44 substations, water tanks and
Level
Level
pumps,
Level
Level
17
air
17
73
,handling
,
to44
72
units, etc
43
43to 72
to18
75
18 A
BA
B

Layout
details:

5. Lake
front

The right wing :

Spire : Over 200m long and houses

communications equipment .

Level 156 to159 : Broadcast and telecoms companies .

Level 125 to 135 : The corporate suites .

Level 112 to 121 : The corporate suites .

Leve77 to108 : Private residences .

Level 76 : Sky lobby (fitness facilities, jacuzzi, swimming pools and recreational room) .

level 38 to 39 : Armani hotel Dubai .

Level 19 to37: The residence .

Level 9 to 16 : Armani residence .

Concourse, ground to level 8 : Armani hotel Dubai .

The left wing :

Level 139 to 154 : The corporate suites .

Level 124 : At the top observation deck

Level 123 : Sky lobby ( business lounge and library) .

Level 122 : At.mosphere restaurant .

Level 44 to 72 : The residence .

Level 43 : Sky lobby (fitness facilities, jacuzzi, swimming pools and recreational room) .

A : PODIUM : Provides a base ( 150m wide, six levels ) anchoring the tower to the
ground . Provides separate entries for the corporate suites , residence and Armani Hotel .
B : Foundation

B1 and B2: Parking and mechanical

adcdc

The building is expected to hold up to

35,000 people at any one time.
Otis Elevators has installed 57
elevators, and 8 escalators.
33 high-rise elevators including 2
double-decks.
138 floors served by main service
elevator.
504 meters main service elevator
rise, the worlds highest.
10 meters per second speed of
elevators .
60 seconds approximate time from
ground to level 124.
10.000 kilograms weight of hoist
ropes.
service elevator
Amani hotel : 0-8 level
Residences : 17-37 level
Armani hotel : 38-39 level
Residences : 44-72 leveL
Private Residences : 77-108 leveL
Corporate suites

Softened corners

Porosity or openings

Varying cross-section
shape

Tapering and setbacks

Spoilers

 2.7.4.3 COMMUNICATION FLOORS

The top four floors have been reserved for
communications and broadcasting. These floors
occupy the levels just below the spire.

Fig: 2.21 Communication floors

2.7.4.4

MECHANICAL FLOORS

Seven double-storey height mechanical floors house the equipment that bring Burj
Khalifa to life.
Distributed around every 30 storeys, the mechanical floors house the electrical substations, water tanks and pumps, air- handling units etc. that arc essential for the
operation of the tower and the comfort of its occupants.

2.7.4.5

OBSERVATION DECK

An outdoor observation deck, named At the Top. opened on 5 January 2010 on the
124th door. At 452 m (1.483 ft), it was the highest observation deck. Burj Khalifa opened
the 148th floor SKY level at 555 m (1,821 ft), once again giving it the highest observation
deck in the world on 15 October 2014.

Fig: 2.23 Aerial view from Observation deck

2.7.4.6 SPIRAL
The crowning touch of Burj Khalifa is its telescopic spire comprised of more than 4.000 tons of
structural steel. The spire was constructed from inside the building and jacked to its full height of
over 200 metres (700 feet) using a hydraulic pump. The spire also houses communications

equipment.

2.7.S EXTERIOR CLADDING

The exterior cladding is comprised of reflective glazing
with aluminum and textured
stainless steel spandrel panels and stainless steel vertical
tubular fins.
Close to 26.000 glass panels, each individually hand- cut. were used.
The cladding system is designed to withstand Dubai's extreme summer heatdfdsfdffd

2.7.S.1 CLEANING

Cleaning of Burj is met by using custom made Building

Maintenance Units [BMU]. While the pinnacle is reserved for
specialised rope technicians. With al 18 BMU'S in operation, the
facade will take two to three months to clean.

Fig: 2.26 Cleaning System

2.7.6 SERVICES
Fig: 2.25 Exterior
Cladding

Seven double-storey mechanical floors house the equipment that

bring Burj Khalifa to life.
Distributed around every 30 storeys, the mechanical floors house the electrical sub-stations,
water tanks, pumps and air handling units that arc essential for the running of the building.
These mechanical areas typically serve the 15 lloors above and below them.
MEP operations are managed by a central BMS, with local control panels in each plant room,
all connected by fibre-optic cabling.
2.7.6.1 PLUMBING SERVICES

The Burj Khalifa's water system supplies an average of 946.000 L (250.000 US gal) of water
per day through 100 km (62 mi) of pipes.
An additional 213 km (132 mi) of piping serves the fire emergency system, and 34 km (2 1
mi) supplies chilled water for the air conditioning system.
The waste water system uses gravity to discharge water from plumbing fixtures, floor drains,
mechanical equipment and storm water, to the city municipal sewer.

ELECTRICITY
The tower's peak electrical demand is 36mW. equal to about 360.000 100 Watt bulbs
operating simultaneously.

2.7.6.2

AIR CONDITIONING

The air conditioning system draws air from

upper floors where the air is
cooler and cleaner than on the ground.
At peak cooling times, the tower's cooling
equivalent to that provided by
13.000 short tons (26.000.000 lb) of
ice in one day,or about 46 MW. The
condensate collection system, which
hot and humid outside air, combined
cooling requirements of the building,
a significant amount ofs condensation
moisture from the air.
The condensed water is collected and
into a holding tank located in the
basement car park; this water is then
into the site irrigation system for use on
Khalifa park.

the

is
melting
uses the
with the
results in
of
drained
pumped
the Burj

Burj Dubai Lifts:

The tower will have 56 elevators most double deck
elevators carrying 42 people and accessible from
floors at the same time.
Floor speeds of 10m/s

two

2.7.6.5 SKY LOBBIES

The Burj Khalifa features distinct sections: residential

apartments, serviced apartments and hotel rooms,
corporate offices. Elevators have been arranged in
serve these different audiences, with 'sky lobby'
The sky lobby is an intermediate floor where residents,
and executives will change from an express elevator
elevator, which stops at every floor within a certain
of the building.
Burj Khalifa's sky lobbies are located on level 43. 76
and will include a lounge area and kiosk, amongst
amenities.
2.7.7 FIRE SAFETY

and
zones to
system.
guests
to a local
segment
and 123
other

Concretes surrounds all stairwells and the building service and fireman's elevator will have a
capacity of 5,500 kg and will be the world's high tallest service elevator.
There arc pressurized, air-conditioned refuge areas located approximately every 25 floors.
First Application of "Lifeboat" evacuations
Refuge levels: 42.75.111 & 138
10 elevators available for emergency evacuations

Fig: 2.28 Fire Safety Elevators

2.7.S LANDSCAPE

The park's 11 hectares of greenery and water features serve as both entry to Burj Khalifa and
outdoor living space. The landscape design includes three distinct areas to serve each of tower's
three uses: hotel, residential and office space. The main entry drive is circled with a palm court,
water features, outdoor spaces and a forest grove above. The grand terrace features garden
spaces, all-around pedestrian circulation, custom site furnishings, a functional island and a lake
edge promenade.

Fig: 2.29 Landscape Aerial View The landscape design includes six major
water features: the main entry fountain.
hotel entry fountain, residential entry fountain, the grand water terrace, children's
fountain pool and the sculptural fountain. The plants and the shrubbery will be
watered by the building's condensation collection system that uses water from the
cooling system. The system will provide 68.000.000 L annually. Spectacular stone
paving patterns welcome visitors at each entry.

Fig: 2.30 Stone Paving Patterns

2.7.9 INFERENCES

The Burj is not only the tallest building in the world, it's also home to the highest observation
deck, swimming pool, elevator, restaurant, and fountain in the world. Once at the top,
visitors can enjoy temperatures that are nearly 15 degrees cooler
than at the building's base.

Burj dubai has no helipad.

All windows were fixed windows, no scope for natural ventilation

Records of Burj Khalifa

1. Tallest existing structure: 829.8 m (2,722 ft) (previously KVLY-TV mast 628.8 m or 2,063 ft)
2. Tallest structure ever built: 829.8 m (2,722 ft) (previously Warsaw radio mast 646.38 m or
2,121 ft)
3. Tallest freestanding structure: 829.8 m (2,722 ft) (previously CN Tower 553.3 m or 1,815 ft)
4. Tallest skyscraper (to top of spire): 829.8 m (2,722 ft) (previously Taipei 101 509.2 m or
1,671 ft)
5. Tallest skyscraper to top of antenna: 829.8 m (2,722 ft) (previously the Willis (formerly Sears)
Tower 527 m or 1,729 ft)
6. Building with most floors: 163 (previously World Trade Center 110)
7. Building with world's highest occupied floor
8. World's highest elevator installation (situated inside a rod at the very top of the building)
9. World's longest travel distance elevators: 504m (1,654 ft)[23][24]
10. Highest vertical concrete pumping (for a building): 606 m (1,988 ft)
11. World's tallest structure that includes residential space
12. World's second highest outdoor observation deck: 124th floor at 452 m (1,483 ft) When it first
opened, the observation deck was the highest outdoor observation deck in the World, but it
has since been surpassed by Cloud Top 488 on top of Canton Tower.
13. World's highest installation of an aluminium and glass faade: 512 m (1,680 ft)
14. World's highest nightclub: 144th floor
15. World's highest restaurant (At.mosphere): 122nd floor at 442 m (1,450 ft) (previously 360, at a
height of 350 m (1,148 ft) in CN Tower)
16. World's highest New Year display of fireworks.
17. World's second highest swimming pool: 76th floor (world's highest swimming pool is located
on 118th floor of Ritz-Carlton Hotel at International Commerce Centre, Hong Kong).

SWISS REINSURANCE TOWER AT ST MARY AXE

LONDON

THE GHERKIN

NORMAN FORSTER