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Direct Proof - Counterexamples

This document defines key concepts related to proof techniques in mathematics such as direct proof, counterexamples, definitions of even/odd integers, prime/composite integers, rational/irrational numbers, and divisibility. It provides examples of direct proofs, such as proving the sum of two even integers is even. It also explains how to disprove statements using counterexamples, such as proving the statement "if a2 = b2 then a = b" is false by letting a = 1 and b = -1.

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Marlon Boucaud
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194 views3 pages

Direct Proof - Counterexamples

This document defines key concepts related to proof techniques in mathematics such as direct proof, counterexamples, definitions of even/odd integers, prime/composite integers, rational/irrational numbers, and divisibility. It provides examples of direct proofs, such as proving the sum of two even integers is even. It also explains how to disprove statements using counterexamples, such as proving the statement "if a2 = b2 then a = b" is false by letting a = 1 and b = -1.

Uploaded by

Marlon Boucaud
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© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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ECNG2013

LECTURE 6
Proof Techniques
Direct Proof / Counterexample
Preliminary Definitions
1. (a) An integer, n, is even if, and only if, n equals twice some integer.
i.e if n is an integer, then n is even implies that there is an integer k
such that n= 2k,
and conversely, if n= 2k where k is an integer, then n is even.
(b) An integer, n is odd if, and only if , n equals twice some integer plus 1.
i.e if n is odd then there is an integer k such that n = 2k+1 and
conversely, if n = 2k + 1
where k is an integer, then n is odd.
2. (a) An integer n is prime if, and only if, n > 1 and for all positive integers r
and s if n = r s, then
r 1 or s 1

(b) An integer n is composite if, and only if, n > 1 and for all positive
integers r and s if
n = r s, then r 1 and s 1
3. A real number is rational if, and only if, it can be expressed as a quotient of
two integers with non zero denominator.
i.e if r is rational then there exist integers a and b such that r = a/b and
b 0.
Conversely, if r = a /b where a and b are integers and b is not 0, then r
is rational.
A real number that is not rational is irrational.
4. If n and d are integers, then n is divisible by d if, and only if, n = d k for
some integer k.
Alternatively we say that
n is a multiple of d or
d is a factor of n or
d is a divisor of n or
d divides n written symbolically as d n
2
5. A perfect square is a positive integer that is equal to z for some positive
integer z .

Notation
N : Natural Numbers

Z : Integers
Q : Rational numbers
R : Real numbers

Example(1)
Prove that the sum of two even numbers is even.
Method of Direct Proof
1. Express the statement to be proved in the form , if P(x) then Q(x).
e.g For all integers m and n, if m and n are even then m + n is even.
2. Start proof by assuming that x is a particular but arbitrary value for which
hypothesis P(x) is true.
i.e Suppose that m and n are even integers.
3. Show that the conclusion Q(x) is true using definitions, previously established
results , and the rules of logical inference.
In given example, we need to use the definition of even numbers and prove that for
all integers m and n if m and n are even then m+n is even.
Proof
Suppose m and n are even integers.
m 2r and n 2 s for some integers r and s, from definition of even numbers.
m n 2r 2s 2 (r s ) 2k where k = r+s is an integer since it is the sum of two
integers.
Hence m +n is even from definition of even numbers.
Example (2)
Prove that the sum of two rational numbers is rational.
i.e For all numbers r, s, if r and s are rational then r + s is also rational.
Proof
Suppose r and s are rational numbers.
r ba and s dc for some integers a, b, c, d with b 0 and d 0 from definition of rational numbers.
rs

a
b

c
d

ad bc
bd

p
q

where p and q are integers because sums and products of integers

yield integers.
Also q 0 since b 0 and d 0.

It follows by the definition of a rational number that r + s is rational.

Counter Examples
A common mistake in attempting to prove a universal statement is to show that it is
true for a special case. For example, one might want to say since when m=14 and
n=6 (m and n are both even)then
m + n = 20 is also even, hence statement in earlier example is true.

Suppose we were asked to determine if the following statement is true.


For all real numbers ' a ' and ' b' , if a 2 b 2 then a b.

In examining the above statement, if one can cite one example where the
statement is untrue, then the statement is false since it is a universal statement.

Disproof by counter example


To disprove a statement by counterexample of the form: For all of x, if P(x) then
Q(x), find a value of x for which P(x) is true and Q(x) is false. Such an x is a
counterexample.

In Example,
Let a=1 and b=-1.
a 2 12 1 b 2 ( 1) 2
and so a 2 b 2 .
But a b, since 1 1.
Hence statement is false.

Example 2
Disprove the following statement
For all integers a and b, if a b and b a then a=b
Solution
Let a=2 and b=-2.
Then a b and b a since 2 2 and 2 2 . However , a b since 2 2
Hence the proposed divisibility property is false.

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