GIFT

fil-

Qr

SOLID G-EOMETBY.

WORKS BY CHAKLES

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BY CHARLES SMITH, M.A. AND SOPHIE BRYANT,

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Euclid s Elements of Geometry. Second Edition.

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MACM1LLAN AND

CO., LIMITED,

LONDON.

ELEMENTAEY TREATISE
ON

SOLID GEOMETRY
DY

CHARLES SMITH,

M.A.

MASTEB OF SIDNEY SUSSEX COLLEGE, OAilBBIDQK

ELEVENTH

EDITION.

Hontion

MACMILLAN AND

CO.,

LIMITED

NEW YORK: THE MACMILLAN COMPANY

1907
All rights reserved.

Agtron.

First Edition, 1884.

Edition, 1893.
i/w/i,

899.

Second Edition, 1886.

/7/M

^//M Edition,

Tenth Edition, 1905.

90 1

6Y.rM Edition, 1897.

.

M/A ,ff^Vw,

Eleventh Edition, 1907.

^y,

Third Edition, 1891.

Edition, 1895.

903.

PREFACE.
THE

following

work

is

intended as an introductory text

book on Solid Geometry, and I have endeavoured

to present

the elementary parts of the subject in as simple a manner as

possible.

Those who desire

fuller information are referred to

the more complete treatises of Dr Salmon and Dr Frost, to

both of which I am largely indebted.
I have discussed the different surfaces which can be
represented by the general equation of the second degree at

an

earlier stage

this

than
is

is

for

sometimes adopted. I think that

many reasons the most satisfactory,

arrangement
and I do not believe that beginners will find it difficult.
The examples have been principally taken from recent

Examination papers; I have

included many interesting theorems of M. Chasles.
University and College

Mr

am

S. L.

indebted to several of

Loney, B.A., and

to

Mr

my

also

friends, particularly to

R H. Piggott, B.A., Scholars

of Sidney Sussex College, for their kindness in looking over

the proof sheets, and for valuable suggestions.

CHARLES SMITH.
SIDNEY SUSSEX COLLEGE,
April, 1884.

CONTENTS.
CHAPTER

I.

CO-ORDINATES.

PAGE
1

Co-ordinates
Co-ordinates of a point which divides in a given ratio the line joining

two given points

Distance between two points

Direction- cosines

Relation between direction-cosines .

....

4
5

Locus of an equation

Projection on a straight line

Polar co-ordinates

CHAPTER

II.

THE PLANE.
An

equation of the first degree represents a plane

of a plane in the form Ix + my + nz =p

Equation
Equation
Equation
Equation

of a plane in terms of the intercepts made on the axes

of the plane through three given points

10
11

of a plane through the line of intersection of two given

....

.
planes
Conditions that three planes

may have

11

common

line of intersection

Length of perpendicular from a given point on a given plane

Equations of a straight line
Equations of a straight line contain four independent constants
Symmetrical equations of a straight line

11

.12
14

14
15

CONTENTS.

Vlll

...

PAOK

....
....

1C

line

19

Equations of the straight line through two given points

Angle between two straight lines whose direction-cosines are given
Condition of perpendicularity of two straight lines

Angle between two planes whose equations are given

Perpendicular distance of a given point from a given straight
Condition that two straight lines may intersect
Shortest distance between two straight lines

16

17

18

19

20

.22

Projection on a plane
Projection of a plane area on a plane
Volume of a tetrahedron

23

....

Equations of two straight lines in their simplest forms

Four planes with a common line of intersection cut any straight
in a range of constant cross ratio

24
25

line

26

Oblique axes

26

Direction-ratios

26

Relation between direction-ratios

27

Distance between two points in terms of their oblique co-ordinates

Angle between two lines whose direction-ratios are given
Volume of a tetrahedron in terms of three edges which meet in a

28

point, and of the angles they make with one another

Transformation of co-ordinates
Examples on Chapter II

28

...
...
.

CHAPTER

28

29
34

III.

SURFACES OF THE SECOND DEGREE.

Number

of constants in the general equation of the second degree

All plane sections of a surface of the second degree are conies

.
.
.
Tangent plane at any point of a conicoid
.

Polar plane of any point with respect to a conicoid

Polar lines with respect to a conicoid

chord of a conicoid

is

37

38

.38

....
.

40

cut harmonically by a point and

its

polar

plane
Condition that a given plane may touch a conicoid
.
.
Equation of a plane which cuts a conicoid in a conic whose centre
.

40

.41
is

43

given

Locus of middle points

Principal planes

39

of a

system of parallel chords of a conicoid

,

44
44

CONTENTS.

IX

PAGE
Parallel plane sections of a conicoid are similar

and similarly situated

45

conies
Classification of conicoids

The
The
The
The
The
The

..-.-.

ellipsoid

hyperboloid of one sheet

hyperboloid of two sheets

cone

.49
.

.
.
.
paraboloids
paraboloid a limiting form of an ellipsoid or of an hyperboloid

.52
52

54
54

Cylinders
The centre of a conicoid

56

.......
.

The discriminating cubic

50

.51
51

...

asymptotic cone of a conicoid

Invariants

46

Conicoids with given equations

Condition for a cone

58
59

60
66

Conditions for a surface of revolution

66

Examples on Chapter

67

III

CHAPTER

IV.

CONIOOIDS REFERRED TO THEIR AXES.

The sphere
The ellipsoid
Director-sphere of a central conicoid
Normals to a central conicoid

Diametral planes
Conjugate diameters

69
".71
.

72
73

.74
75

Relations between the co-ordinates of the extremities of three conjugate

diameters

75

Sum

76

The

of squares of three conjugate diameters is constant

.
.
i
parallelepiped three of whose conterminous edges are conjugate
semi-diameters is of constant volume

Equation

of conicoid referred to conjugate diameters as axes

76
78

The paraboloids

80

Locus of intersection of three tangent planes which are at right angles

Normals to a paraboloid

81

Diametral planes of a paraboloid

81

80

CONTENTS.
PAGE

Cones

83

Tangent plane at any point of a cone

83

Reciprocal cones
Eeciprocal cones are co-axial

Condition that a cone

84
85

may have
may have

three perpendicular generators

Condition that a cone
three perpendicular tangent planes
Equation of tangent cone from any point to a conicoid
Equation of enveloping cylinder

....
.

85
86
86

88

Examples on Chapter IV.

90

CHAPTER

V.

PLANE SECTIONS OF CONICOIDS.

Nature of a plane section found by projection
Axes and area of any central plane section of an ellipsoid or of an
hyperboloid

98

....

99

Condition that a plane section may be a rectangular hyperbola

Condition that two straight lines given by two equations may be at
.

Two

CHAPTER

99

101
101

102

103

102

common have

also another

103

circular sections of opposite systems are

Circular sections of a paraboloid

Examples on Chapter V.

97

......

Area of any plane section of a central conicoid

Area of any plane section of a paraboloid
Area of any plane section of a cone
Directions of axes of any central section of a conicoid
Angle between the asymptotes of a plane section of a central conicoid

right angles
Conicoids which have one plane section in
Circular sections

96

on a sphere

-.

"..

105

105

108

VI.

GENERATING LINES OF CONICOIDS.

Ruled surfaces defined
Distinction between developable and skew surfaces
Conditions that

all

....

points of a given straight line may be on a surface .

to a conicoid at any point on a generating line

113

113
113

The tangent plane

contains the generating line

a generating line of a conicoid touches the surface

Any plane through

115
.

115

XI

CONTENTS.

PAGE

Two generating lines pass through every point of an hyperboloid of

.
r
.
.
.
sheet, or of an hyperbolic paraboloid

one
116

lines
systems of generating
lines
All straight lines which meet three fixed non-intersecting straight
of the same system of a conicoid, and the three fixed
are

11G

system of the same conicoid .

of
Condition that four non-intersecting straight lines may be generators

117

Two

generators

lines are generators of the opposite

H?

the same system of a conicoid

to
lines through the angular points of a tetrahedron perpendicular
the opposite faces are generators of the same system of a conicoid
three lines joining
If a rectilineal hexagon be traced on a conicoid, the
its opposite vertices meet in a point
Four fixed generators of a conicoid of the same system cut all generators

The

of the opposite system in ranges of equal cross-ratio

118

.118

118

Angle between generators

of an hyperboloid of
Equations of generating lines through any point
one sheet
/
of an hyperbolic
Equations of the generating lines through any point

***
12

l"-1

paraboloid

Locus of the point of intersection of perpendicular generators

.
.
Examples on Chapter VI.

CHAPTER
SYSTEMS OP CONICOIDS.
All

12-4

VII.
RECIPROCATION.

TANGENTIAL EQUATIONS.

conicoids through eight given points have a

intersection

124

common

curve of
I 28

Four cones pass through the intersections of two conicoids

129

Self-polar tetrahedron

129

Conicoids which touch at two points

All conicoids through seven fixed points pass through another fixed

130

point

130

.131

Rectangular hyperboloids

Locus of centres of conicoids through seven given points

Tangential equations
Centre of conicoid whose tangential equation is given
Director-sphere of a conicoid
Locus of centres of conicoids which touch eight given planes
Locus of centres of conicoids which touch seven given planes
.

132

.133
.

134

.135
.

136
137

CONTENTS.

Xll

PAGE
Director- spheres of conicoids which touch eight given
planes, have a
common radical plane

The

......

director-spheres of all conicoids which touch six given planes are

cut orthogonally by the same sphere

Reciprocation

137

137

The

degree of a surface is the same as the class of its reciprocal

.
.
Eeciprocal of a curve is a developable surface
Examples of reciprocation

...
.

138

138
140

Examples on Chapter VII

141

CHAPTER
CONFOCAL CONICOIDS.

137

VIII.

CONCYCLIC CONICOIDS.

Foci OP CONICOIDS.

Confocal conicoids defined

144

Focal conies. [See also 158]

Three conicoids of a confocal system pass through a point
One conicoid of a confocal system touches a plane

145

....
.

Two

conicoids of a confocal system touch a line

Confocals cut at right angles

The tangent planes through any

line to the

145
146

146
147

two confocals which

it

touches are at right angles

148

Axes of central section of a conicoid in terms of axes of two confocals

Corresponding points on conicoids
Locus of pole of a given plane with respect to a system of confocals
Axes of enveloping cone of a conicoid
Equation of enveloping cone in its simplest form
Locus of vertices of right circular enveloping cones

149
151

152
153

....

Coney clic conicoids

153

155
155

Reciprocal properties of confocal and concyclic conicoids

Foci of conicoids

Focal conies

156

156
.

158

160

Focal lines of cone

159

Examples on Chapter VIII

CHAPTER

IX.

QUADRIPLANAR AND TflTRAHEDRAL CO-ORDINATES.

Definitions of Quadriplanar

and of Tetrahedral Co-ordinates

Equation of plane
Length of perpendicular from a point on a plane

164

165
167

CONTENTS.

xiii

PAGE

Plane at infinity

167

Symmetrical equations of a straight line

General equation of the second degree in tetraliedral co-ordinates

168
.

169

Equation of tangent plane and of polar plane

170

Co-ordinates of the centre

170

Diametral planes
Condition for a cone
Any two conicoids have a

171
171

common

self-polar tetrahedron

The circumscribing conicoid

The inscribed conicoid
The circumscribing sphere

172

172

.172

173

Conditions for a sphere

173

Examples on Chapter IX

175

CHAPTER

X.

SURFACES IN GENERAL.

The tangent plane

at

any point

of a surface

178

Inflexional tangents
The Indicatrix

179

Singular points of a surface

.
.
.
Envelope of a system of surfaces whose equations involve one arbitrary

180

180

parameter

of regression of envelope
Envelope of a system of surfaces

181

.182

Edge

whose equations involve two arbitrary

parameters
Functional and differential equations of conical surfaces
.
.
Functional and differential equations of cylindrical surfaces .
.
.
Conoidal surfaces
.

Differential equation of developable surfaces

Equation of developable surface which passes through two given curves
conicoid will touch any skew surface at all points of a

183
184
185
186

188
190

generating

line

Lines of striction

Functional and differential equations of surfaces of revolution

.
.
.
.
,
Examples on Chapter X.
,
,

191

,.

191
.

192

194

CONTENTS.

XIV

CHAPTER

XI.

CURVES.
PAGE

Equations of tangent at any point of a curve

Lines of greatest slope

197

....

Equation of osculating plane at any point of a curve

Equations of the principal normal
.
Radius of curvature at any point of a curve
Direction-cosines of the binormal
.

......

Measure of torsion at any point of a curve

may

202
203
203

206

Kadius of curvature of the edge of regression

Curvature and torsion of a helix

Examples on Chapter

201
202

204

be plane
Centre and radius of spherical curvature

Condition that a curve

198

of the polar developable

207
208

XL

210

CHAPTER

XII.

CURVATUBB OF SuKFACES.
Curvatures of normal sections of a surface

...",".

Euler

213

214

Principal radii of curvature

Theorem
s Theorem

.214

Meunier

215

Definition of lines of curvature

217

The normals

to

any surface

at consecutive points of a line of curvature

217

intersect

217

Differential equations of lines of curvature

Lines of curvature on a surface of revolution

218

.
.218
*
.
.
Lines of curvature on a developable surface .
219
Lines of curvature on a cone
on both
If the curve of intersection of two surfaces is a line of curvature
220
the surfaces cut at a constant angle
221
s Theorem

Dupin

To

...

find the principal radii of curvature at

any point

Principal radii of curvature of the surface

Gauss measure of curvature

Geodesic lines

of a surface

222
223

Umbilics

z=f(x,

y)

224

225
22 6

CONTENTS.

XV
PAGE

Lines of curvature of a conicoid are

its

curves of intersection with con-

focal conicoids

Curvature of any normal section of an ellipsoid

.
.
.
.
The rectangle contained by the diameter parallel to the tangent at any
point of a line of curvature of a conicoid, and the perpendicular

The

from the centre on the tangent plane at the point is constant

.
rectangle contained by the diameter parallel to the tangent at any
point of a geodesic on a conicoid, and the perpendicular from the
centre on the tangent plane, is constant

227
228

228

228

Properties of lines of curvature of conicoids analogous to properties of

confocal conies

229

Examples on Chapter XII.

230

Miscellaneous Examples

237

SOLID GEOMETRY.
CHAPTER

I.

CO-ORDINATES.

THE

position of a point in space is usually determined

it to three fixed planes.
The point of inter
section of the planes is called the origin, the fixed planes are
called the co-ordinate planes, and their lines of intersection
1.

by referring

The three co-ordinates of a point are

the co-ordinate axes.
its distances from each of the three co-ordinate planes,
measured parallel to the lines of intersection of the other
When the three co-ordinate planes, and therefore the
two.
three co-ordinate axes, are at right angles to each other, the
axes are said to be rectangular.
The position of a point is completely determined when
2.
be
co-ordinates are known.
For, let YOZ, ZOX,
the co-ordinate planes, and
OX, Y OY, OZ be the axes,
and let LP, MP, NP, be the co-ordinates of P. The planes
are parallel respectively to YOZ, ZOX,
MPN, NPL,
if therefore they meet the axes in Q, R, S, as in the
is a
figure, we have a parallelepiped of which
diagonal;
and, since parallel edges of a parallelepiped are equal,

XOY

its

LPM

XOY\

OP

LP = OQ,MP =

OR, and

NP = 08.

Hence, to find a point whose co-ordinates are given, we have

only to take OQ, OR,
equal to the given co-ordinates,

OS

S. S. G.

CO-ORDINATES.
Q, R, S parallel respectively
then the point of intersection of

and draw three planes through

to the co-ordinate planes

these planes will be the point required.

If the co-ordinates of

tively be a,

b, c,

then

is

to OX, OY,
parallel
said to be the point (a,

OZ respec
6, c).

To determine the position of any point P it is not

absolute lengths of the lines
merely to know the
the directions in which
know
MP, NP, we must also

sufficient

LP

drawn
those drawn

If lines

they are drawn.

sidered as positive,

as negative.
shall consider that the directions

must be considered

We

in one direction be con

in the opposite direction

OX, 0\

OZ

are

positive.

The whole

of space

is

divided by the co-ordinate planes

UAY /,,
namely OXYZ, OX Y /,,
YZ
OX
and
YZ
OXYZ,
OX
2
OXYZ, OXY
there is a

into eight compartments,

,

be any point in the first compartment,

other compartments whose absolute
point in each of the
to those of P\
distances from the co-ordinate planes are equal
are
a,
(a, -b, c)
be),
(b, c) the other points
and, if P be
- 6, c) and (- a,-b-c)
a,
6,
c),
(a,
c), (b,
c), (a,
(a, b,
If

(a>

respectively,

00-OKDINATES.
4.
To find the co-ordinates of the point which divides the
straight line joining two given points in a given ratio.

Let P,
divides

Let

N.

be the given points, and R the point which

the given ratio m l ra 2
be (a?, y, *).
fo,
^), $ be (a?2 ya *a ), and

PQ in
Pbe

Draw PL, QM, EN parallel to OZ meeting .XO F in L, M,

Then the points P, ft ^, Z, M,
are clearly all in one

LM will

and a line through P parallel to

plane, and will therefore meet QM, EN,

be in that
in the points K,

plane,

suppose.

Then

PR

HU

m
m
+
PQ

77^=

But Z/P = z

!
.

9?^

~&

-*,

=
tt^

2-=

+ m,

*
?;

oc

Similarly

and y

When Py

is

divided externally,

is

negative.

ll

CO-ORDINATES.

The most useful case is where the line

co-ordinates of the point of bisection are
The above

We

may

is

bisected

the

whatever the angles between

results are true

the co-ordinate axes

PQ

be.

shall in future consider the axes to be rectangular in

when the contrary is expressly stated.

all cases except

To express

5.

the distance between two points in terms

of

their co-ordinates.

Let

Pbe

the point (xiy y lt zj and Q the point (a?a y2 s ).

2
and Q planes parallel to the co-ordinate
planes, forming a parallelepiped whose diagonal is PQ.

Draw through

Let the edges PL, LK, KQ be parallel respectively to

OY OZ+ Then since PL is perpendicular to the plane

OX,

QKL,

the angle

Now PL

is

from the plane

PLQ is

a right angle,

the difference of the distances of

= x^
YOZ, so that we have

PL

and Q
x^ and

LK and KQ.
Hence PQ 1 = (, - *,) + (y, + (,, - ztf
(i).
The distance of P from the origin can be obtained from
the above by putting #2 = 0, y^ = 0, z^ = 0. The result is
similarly for

y,)"

<

2
i/ 1

+*

2
1

(ii).

CO-ORDINATES.
Ex.

The co-ordinates of the

points are (x lf y v zj,

and i(*i + * 2 + 2a).

(a?2 , t/ 2 ,

z,,),

centre of gravity of the triangle whose angular

y s 2 8 ) are $ (x l + x^ + x^, i (yi + y* + y 8 ),

(x9 ,

Ex. 2. Shew that the three lines joining the middle points of opposite
Shew also that this point is on the
edges of a tetrahedron meet in a point.
line joining any angular point to the centre of gravity of the opposite face,
and divides that line in the ratio of 3 1.
:

Ex.

Find the locus

and (3, 2, - 1).

of points

3.

(1, 2, 3)

Ex. 4. Shew that the point (,

passes through the four points (1, 2,

which are equidistant from the points

Ans. x -22=0.

0, |) is

the centre of the sphere which

3), (3, 2,

-!),(-

1, 1, 2)

and

(1,

1,

2).

Let a, 0, 7 be the angles which the line PQ makes

6.
with lines through
parallel to the axes of co-ordinates.
Then, since in the figure to Art. 5 the angles PLQ, PMQ,
are right angles, we have
vv

PNQ

PQ cos a = PL,

PQcos/3 = PM,
and

PQcosy=PN.

Square and add, then

PQ

{cos a

+ cos 7 = PU + PM* + PN = PQ
cos a + cos /? 4- cosfy = 1.

cos

/8

Hence

The cosines of the angles which a straight line makes

with the positive directions of the co-ordinate axes are called
its direction-cosines, and we shall in future denote these
cosines

by the

letters I, m, n.
the above we see that any three direction-cosines
2
are connected by the relation f +
+ n2 = 1. If the
direction-cosines of
be I, m, n, it is easily seen that those
of QP will be
n and it is immaterial whether we
I,
m,
consider I, m, n, or the same quantities with all the signs

From

PQ

changed, as direction-cosines.
If

we know

cosines of
cosines.

that a,

some

For we have
.

6,

c are proportional to the direction-

we can

line,

at once find those direction-

=T=
b

hence each

V(^~+

6*

c )

is

equal to

..,_
*

V(a*

+ &* + (?)

CO-ORDINATES.

Ex. The direction-cosines of a line are proportional to 3, -4, 12, find

their actual values.
Ans. T\ "A* TS7.

The

where the

projection of a point on any line

line is

is

the point

met by a plane through the point per

Thus, in the figure to Art. 2, Q, R, S

pendicular to the line.
on the lines OX, OF,
are the projections of
re

OZ

spectively.

The projection of a straight line of limited length on

another straight line is the length intercepted between
If we have any number of
the projections of its extremities.
whose
S...
R,
P,
Q,
projections on a straight line are
points
p, q, r, s..., then the projections of PQ, QR, RS... on the
line, are j^, qr, rs....

In estimating these projections we must consider the

throughout, so that we shall

that is the projection of
is equal to the algebraic sum of the pro
This result may be stated in a
jections of PQ, QR and RS.
more general form as follows: The algebraic sum of the

same

direction

always have pq
PS on any line

as

positive

+ qr + rs = ps,

projections of any number of sides of a polygon beginning at

ending at Q is equal to the projection of PQ.

P and

we have any number

of parallel straight lines, the

on them are the intercepts
line
other
any
and Q perpendicular to their
between planes through
These intercepts are clearly all equal hence the
directions.
of
any line on a series of parallel straight lines
projections
are all equal.
And, since the projection of a straight line on
8.

If

projections of

PQ

an intersecting straight line is found by multiplying its

length by the cosine of the angle between the lines, we have
the following proposition

The projection of a finite straight line on any other

straight line is equal to its length multiplied by the cosine of
the angle between the lines.

In the figure to Art. 2, let OQ = a,OR = b, OS=c.

is clear that x = a for all points on the plane
PMQN, and that y = b for all points on the plane PNRL,
9.

Then

it

CO-ORDINATES.

z
Also
c for all points on the plane PLSM.
=
=
and
b
and
at
have
x
the
the
line
we
a,
y
along
we have the three relations x = a, y = b, z = c.
point
So that a plane is determined by one equation, a straight
line by two equations, and a point by three equations.
= 0,
In general, any single equation of the form
(x, ?/, z)
in which the variables are the co-ordinates of a point,
represents a surface of some kind ; two equations represent a
curve, and three equations represent one or more points* This

and that

NP

we proceed

to prove.

Let two of the variables be absent, so that the

10.
= 0. Then the
(x)
equation of the surface is of the form
= 0, where
a) (x
b) (x
c)
equation is equivalent to (x
=
all
the
hence
are
the
roots
of
a, 6, c,...
Q\
F(x)
points
are on one
whose co-ordinates satisfy the equation F(x) =
or other of the planes #
a = 0, x 6 = 0, x c
0,
Let one of the variables be absent, so that the equation
= 0. Let be any point in the plane
is of the form F (x,
y)
=
z =
whose co-ordinates satisfy the equation
(x, y)
then the co-ordinates of all points in the line through
parallel to the axis of z, are the same as those of P, so far as*
x and y are concerned ; it therefore follows that all such
Hence the surface represented by
points arc on the surface.
= is traced out by a line which is
the equation
(x, y)
always parallel to the axis of z, and which moves along the
curve in the plane z = Q defined by the equation F(x,y]
0.
Such a surface is called a cylindrical surface, or cylinder.
Next let the equation of the surface be F(x,y,z) = 0.
We have seen that all points for which x = a, and y b
lie on a straight line parallel to the axis of z.
Hence, if in
the equation F(x, y, z) = 0, we put x
a, and y
b, the roots
of the resulting equation in z will give the points in which
the locus is met by a line through (a, b, 0) parallel to the axis

of

z.

Since the

number

of roots

is finite,

the straight line will

meet the locus in a finite number of points, and therefore the

locus, which is the assemblage of all such points for different
values of a and b, must be a surface and not a solid figure.

CO-OEDINATES.

The points whose co-ordinates satisfy two equations

11.
must be on both the surfaces which those equations represent
and therefore the locus is the curve determined by the intersec
tion of the two surfaces. When three equations are
given, we
have

sufficient equations to find the co-ordinates,

although there
set of values, so that three

may be more than one

equations
represent one or more points.
12.
The position of a point in space can be defined by
other methods besides the one described in Art. 1.
Another method is the following: an origin
is taken, a
fixed line
through 0, and a fixed plane XOZ. The
is
position of a point
completely determined when its
distance from the fixed point 0, the angle ZOP, and the angle
between the planes XOZ, and
are given.
These coordinates are called Polar Co-ordinates, and are usually de
noted by the symbols r,
and 0, and the point is called the

OZ

POZ

point

(r, 6,

$).

be perpendicular to OZ, and

Y be perpendicular
to the plane ZOX, we can express the rectangular co-ordinates
of P in terms of its polar co-ordinates.
If

OX

Draw

PN

perpendicular to the plane

perpendicular to OX, and join ON. Then

x=
y=
and 2

XOY,

and

NM

OM = ON cos = OP sin 6 cos = r sin 6 cos $,

MN= ONsm

<f)

= OP sin

</>

6 sin

= r sin

<

6 sin

<f>

</>,

We can also express the polar co-ordinates of any point in

terms of the rectangular. The values are,
r=

4/ (a?

=,

tan"

an d

= tan

CHAPTER

II.

THE PLANE.
To shew that

13.

the surface represented by the general

equation of the first degree

is

a plane.

The most general equation

of the

first

degree

is

Ax + By + Cz + D = 0.
If

(o? f ,

y lt z^ and

(o?a ,

y2 z^ be any two points on the

,

locus,

we have

Ax + By + Cz D = 0,
^1^
B + Cfe + D = 0.
-I-

and

-f-

Multiply these in order by

J

then we have
t

B2l

m^m^

and

and add:

12

m, -f m2
mj + m2
m, + m 2
This shews [Art. 4] that if the points (#,, y,, s,), (a?a y a a ) be
on the locus, any other point in the line joining them is also
on the locus this shews that the locus satisfies Euclid s
{

definition of a plane.

To find

of a plane.
from the
Let p be the length of the perpendicular
of
on
the
and
let
be
direction-cosines
n
the
I,
m,
origin
plane,
14.

the equation

ON

THE PLANE.

10
(he perpendicular.

PL

Let
on
perpendicular

P be any point on the plane,

and draw

XO Y, and LM perpendicular to

Then the projection of

of the projections of OM,

on ON is equal
and LP on ON.
we have

OP

OX.

to the

sum

ML

Hence

if

P be

(a?,

y, z),
las

+ ffiy + nz p ...................... (i),

the required equation.

By comparing the general equation of the first degree
with (i), we see that the direction-cosines of the normal to the
plane given by the general equation of the first degree are
proportional to A, B, G and therefore [Art. 6] arc equal to
;

Also the perpendicular from the origin on the j)lane

equal to

is

15.

To

where the plane whose equation

find

is

meets the axis of x we must put y=z = Q; hence if the

= 0.
intercept on the axis of x be a, we have A a + D
Similarly if the intercepts on the other axes are b and c
we have Bb + = 0, and Cc 4- D = 0. Hence the equation

of the plane

is

This equation can easily be obtained independently.

THE PLANE.
To find

16.

the equation of the

11

plane through three given

points.

Let the three points be (xv y v zj (a?a

of a plane is

?/ 2 ,

^2 ), (xs ys ^3 ).
,

The general equation

Ax -f By 4- Cz + D = 0.
If the three given points are on this plane,

+ By\ + Cfc +

Ax^

Ax + By^ + Gz + D

and

we have

= 0,

Z>

0.

from these four equations, we

Eliminating A, B, 0,
have for the required equation

x.

?/

-0.

and 8 =
be the equations of two planes,
be the general equation of a plane through
their intersection.
For, since S and S are both of the first
and hence S \8 =
represents
degree, so also is
If

8=0

S X S =

will

17.

S\S

passes through all points common to

8
and S = 0; for if the co-ordinates of any point satisfy
S = and S = 0, those co-ordinates will also satisfy S = X/S".
is the
Hence, since \ is arbitrary, S \S =
general
equation of a plane through the intersection of the given

The plane

a plane.

planes.
18.

common

To find the conditions

of intersection.

that three planes

may

have a

line

Let the equations of the planes be

(i),

cis

and

a"x

The equation
of

(i)

and

(ii)

(ax

4-

+ Vy +

c"z

(ii),

d"

(iii).

is

any plane through the line of intersection

of the form

by

of

cz

d)

-f

X (ax +

y f

c z

+ d ) = Q... (iv).

THE PLANE.

12
If the three planes

have a

can,

common line of intersection, we

make (iv) represent the same

by properly choosing
plane as (iii). Hence corresponding coefficients
proportional, so that
a

-f

Xa
~~ _

~an
Put each

must bo

+ \b
~ _ c + Ac _ d + \d[

~wr

fraction equal to

\a

~ar~~*
then we have

~~<r~

JJL,

-f

+ \c +

4-

pa"

= 0,
=

0,

/ic"

= 0.
d -f Xd +
the required
X
and
have
we
/A
Eliminating
namely

and

/*d"

conditions,

0,

notation indicating that each of the four determinants, ob

tained by omitting one of the vertical columns, is zero.*

Othe

We

can shew, exactly as in Conies, Art. 26, that if

be the equation of a plane, and x y z
be the co-ordinates of any point, then Ax 4- By 4- Gz 4will be positive for all points on one side of the plane, and
negative for all points on the other side.
19.

Ax + By + Gz + D =

To find the perpendicular distance of a given point

a
from given plane.
Let the equation of the given plane be
20.

Ix

+ my + nz=p

..................... (i),

x, y, z be the co-ordinates of the given point P.

equation

and

let

Ix
is

+ my -\-nz = p

The

..................... (ii)

the equation of a plane parallel to the given plane.

It will pass through the point (x y z) if
,

Ix
*

+my +nz =p

.................. (iii).

shew that there are only two independent conditions, as is

geometrically obvious, for if the planes have two points in common they
must have a common line of intersection.
It is easy to

THE PLANE.

Now

if

PL

13

be the perpendicular from

on the plane

(i),

and ON, ON the perpendiculars from the origin on the planes

and (ii) respectively, then will
(i)

=p -p

= lx + my

-f

nz

p.

of the perpendicular from any point on

nz p = is obtained by substituting the

Hence the length

the plane lx

+ my +

co-ordinates of the point in the expression lx

If the equation of the plane be

may be

-f my -\-nz-p.
Ax -\-By-\-Cz-\-D-Q, it

written

which is of the same form as (i) therefore the length of the

perpendicular from (x, y z) on the plane is
;

Ax + By + C*+D
Ex. 1. Find the equation of the plane through (2, 3, - 1) parallel to the
Ana. 3oc - 4y f 7 + 13 = 0.
plane 3os 4y + Iz = 0.
Ex. 2. Find the equation of the plane through the origin and through
the intersection of the two planes 5x - 3y -f 2* + 5 = and 3#/p: 5y - 2z - 7 = 0.

Ex. 3. Shew that the three planes 2x + 5y + 3z=Q, x-y + 4z = 2, and

- 5^ + 4 = intersect in a straight line.
Ex. 4. Shew that the four planes 2x-Zy + 2z = 0,x + y-3z = 4, 3o;-y + z=2,
and lx - 5y + &z = 1 meet in a point.
Ex.5. Shew that the four points (0, -1, -1) (4, 5, 1), (3, 9, 4) and
- 4, 4, 4,) lie on a plane.
(
Ex. 6. Are the points (4, 1, 2) and (2, 3, - 1) on the same or on opposite
Bides of the plane 5x - ly - 6z + 3 = ?
7y

Ex. 7. Shew that the two points (1, - 1, 3) and (3, 3, 3) are equidistant
from the plane 5x + 2y - Iz + 9 = 0, and on opposite sides of it.
Ex. 8. Find the equations of the planes which bisect the angles between
the planes Ax + By + Cz + D = 0, and A x + B y + C z + D = 0.
Ax+By + Cz + D _ A x + B y+C z + D
"

THE STRAIGHT

14

LINE.

The

locus of a point, whose distances from two given planes are

is a plane.
Ex. 10. The locus of a point, which moves so that the sum of its distances
from any number of fixed planes is constant, is a plane.

Ex.

0.

in a constant ratio,

21. The co-ordinates of any point on the line of intersection

of two planes will satisfy the equation of each of the planes.
Hence any two equations of the first degree represent a
can find the equations of a straight line in
straight line.
their simplest form in the following manner.

We

be the straight line, pq its projection on the plane

OZ. Then the co-ordinates x and y
of any point in PQ are the same as the co-ordinates x and y

Let

PQ

X OY by lines parallel to

of

projection in pq.
if Ix -f my
nates of any point on
its

Hence

be the equation of pq, the co-ordi

PQ will satisfy the equation
I

Ix

+ my

1.

the equation of the projection of PQ on the

Similarly,
YOZloe
ny +pz = 1, the co-ordinates of any point on
plane
PQ will satisfy the equation ny-\- pz = 1. Hence the equations
of the line may be written
if

lx

+ my = I,

ny

+ pz-

1.

be noticed that the equations of a straight line

contain four independent constants.
The above equations are unsymmetrical and are not so
useful as another form of the equations which we proceed to
It should

find.

THE STRAIGHT
Let

22.
(x, y, z)
(ex,

ft

<y);

any other point

and

let

I,

on a straight line, and

line, at a distance r from
m, n be the direction-cosines of the line.
7) be

(a, /3,

15

LINE.

any point

on the

and
Draw through
planes parallel to the co-ordinate
planes so as to make a parallelepiped, and let AL, LM,
be edges of this parallelepiped parallel to the axes of x, y, z
on the axis
is the
Then
projection of
respectively.

MP

AP

AL

of#; therefore
,

We

= lr,

or

X ~

have similarly

r,

m
Hence the equations

and

OL

zy =
-

r.

of the line are

OL

_y

ft

_z

7_
n

*
Ex. 1. To find in a symmetrical form the equations of the line of inter
section of the planes 5x - 4y = 1, By - 5z = 2.

The equations may be

written

= | = ^^-?
4
o
O

cosines are proportional to 4, 5, 3.

cosines are therefore | \/2, |\/2,

Ex.

2.

Find

in a

The

3.

Am. %(x-

Find the direction-cosines of the

.

Ex.
(2, 3, 4)

4.

Hence the

symmetrical form the equation of the line

3x+y~7z=Q.
Ex.

direction-

actual values of the direction-

line

5)

x-2y- 5,

=y=z- If.

whose equations are

Ans.

^.^j.-^.

Write down the equation of the straight line through the point

whicli is equally inclined to the axes.

Ans.

x-2 = y-3 z-4.

THE STRAIGHT

16

LINE.

To find the equations of a straight line through two

23.
given points.

AB

Let the co-ordinates of the two given points

be
z
an d 1^ the co-ordinates of any point P
v 2/1 z i an d xv
on the line
be x, y, z. Then the ratio of the projections
of ^4Pand AB on any axis is equal to
AB. Hence

AB

y*>

*>

AP

the equations of the line are

x
~x
*

To find

24.

y
\

y<i~~

y\

zz

~z

the angle between two straight lines

whose

direction- cosines are given.

Let

two

I,

lines,

m, n and l m n be the direction-cosines of the

and let 6 be the angle between them.
t

Let P,Q be any two points on the

first line.

Draw planes through P, Q parallel to the co-ordinate

be edges of the parallelepiped
planes, and let PL, LM,
so formed.
Then the projection of
on the second line is
on
equal to the sum of the projections of PL, LM, and

MQ

PQ

MQ

that line.

Hence
But

PQ cos = PL .1 + LM .m + MQ

Pl = l.PQ,

LM=m.PQ,

and

n.

MQ = n.PQ;

THE STRAIGHT
therefore

cos

we have

If the lines are at right

angles
II

If L,

17

mm + nn.

II

LINE.

+ mm + nn

0.

N are

M,

proportional to the direction-cosines of a

line, the actual direction-cosines will be

___
M

Hence the angle between two lines whose direction-cosines

and L
N respectively is
M,

are proportional to L,
*
r>r\o
1

y(

The condition

LL + MM + NN
+ ^ + ^ *j (L* + M* + N*y
1

of perpendicularity

is

as before

LL + MM + NN = 0.

Ex.

1.

Ex.

2.

Shew

Shew that the

3x= -y=
Ex.

that the lines ~

line

= =

and

4z=3t/= -Z

=
is

are
-^ 1

at right angles.

perpendicular to the line

-4z.

Find the angle between the

3.

lines

?=
1

= and |
f
1
U
o

-^-.

4
^4ns.

e
5

cos"

yV

Ex.4. Shew
that
the lines
3x + 2y + z-5 = Q = x + y-2z-3, and
8x - 4y - 4z = = Ix + 1 Oy - 82 are at right angles.
Ex. 5. Find the acute angle between the lines whose direction-cosines are

Ex. 6. Shew that the straight lines whose direction-cosines are given by
the equations 2l + 2m-n = Q, and mn + nl + lm = Q are at right angles.
2
Eliminating I, we have 2mn -(m + n) (2m -n) = 0, or 2in
Hence, if the direction-cosines of the two lines be l^ m v n^ and

have

-1

-|.

Similarly

n^n^

+ 71^2 =

-LI =-

Hence the

^.

-mn-n = 0.
z m 2 w 2 we
z

condition

1^1^

+ m.m,,

^1^2
is satisfied.

Ex. 7. Find the angle between the two lines whose direction-cosines are
Ans. 60.
+ n = 0, Z2 + 2 - n 3 = 0.
given by the equations I +
Ex. 8. Find the equations of the straight lines which bisect the angles
x y
..
,,
,
= z- and, x-. = u = -z .
between the lines T =

I
m n
V
m n
= r. Then
be two points, one on each line, such that
the co-ordinates of P are li\ mr, nr, and of Q are I r, m r, n r; hence the co
ordinates of the middle point of PQ are ^(1 + / ) r, ^ (//* + m ) r, % (n + n ) r. Since
,

Let P,

S. S. G.

OPOQ

T&E STRAIGHT

18
middle

the

m+m

+l

on

is

point
.

By

+ ri.

m-m

.,

the

equations
;

required
of

the

equations

are

of

the

bisector

n-

the preceding Article

cos 6

therefore

sin

= A/

therefore sin
26.

bisector,

the

Similarly

supplementary angle are

25.

the

LINE.

To find

= II + mm -f nri
= 1 (II + mm -f nri)*
;

(mri

+ mm
+ (Imf

-^ (II
rij*

+ (nl

the angle between

rilf

-f nri)*
I

m)

}.

two planes whose equations

are given.

The angle between two planes is clearly equal to the

angle between two lines perpendicular to them. Now we
have seen [Art. 14] that the direction-cosines of the normal
to the plane
are proportional to A, B, C.
Hence by Article 24 the angle
between the planes whose equations are

+
IS

<

V (A*

Cz

AA +Bff+Oa
B C V (A 4- JT 4- C
*

4-

+Z=0

4-

Ex. 1. Find the equation of the plane containing the line

2x + By + 4z = 5, and perpendicular to the plane x - y + z = 0.
Ans.

Ex.
?
1

2.

At what angle do the planes x + y + z = 4,

origin in the acute angle or in the obtuse?

acute angle or in the obtuse ?

x-

x-2y-z=

cut ? Is the
Is the point (l,-3, 1) in the
1
Ans. cos~ |-v/2, acute, obtuse.

Ex. 3. Find the equation of the plane through (1, 4, 3) perpendicular

to the line of intersection of the planes 3x + 4y + 7z + 4 0, and
+ 2z+3 =
also of the plane through (3, 1, - 1) perpendicular to the line of intersection
of the planes 3x + y-z = 0, 5x-3y + 2z=Q.

Ans. 15x + y-7z + 2=Q.

Ex.

4.

Shew

that the line

+iiz+p = Q

if IX

^=
\

y
-

--

fj.

+ m/jL + nv =0,

is parallel to

x-y

Ans.

x+ lly + 14je=0.

the plane

the axes being rectangular or oblique.

THE STRAIGHT

19

LINE.

To find the perpendicular distance of a given point

a
from given straight line.
Let the equations of the line be
27.

w-

- ft

-7
n

M\s
a

Let (/ g, h} be the given point P, and let PQ be the per

on the line.
pendicular from
Let A be the point (a, /3, 7), and draw through
and
planes parallel to the co-ordinate planes so as to form a
are edges parallel to
parallelepiped of which AL, LM,
the axes.
Then
is the projection of
on the given line, and
is
equal to the sum of the projections of AL, LM, and MP\

MP
AP

AQ

AQ = (/- a) + (g - @) m + (h - 7) n.

therefore

Hence
.

To find

28.

C-v -^

the condition that two lines

Let the equations of the

2-7

a.
7

,
)

lines

ana
<

be
T
,

If the lines intersect they will

the plane passes through (a, ft,
equation

jnjtyLmtersect.

lie

7),

-,

on a plane

n
;

and, since

we may take

-0)+ (*-7)0 .............

for

(i).

22

its

THE STRAIGHT

20

The point

(a

/3

) is

LINE.

on the plane, hence we have

Also, since the normal to the plane

both

lines,

perpendicular to

is

we have
\l

+vn =
+ fjum + vri =

-\-fjim

\l

and

...................... (iii),

...................... (iv).

v from the equations

Eliminating X,
the required condition, namely

(ii),

//,,

and

(iii)

(iv)

we have

-/,
,

I
I

7-7 = 0.
n

ri

If this condition be satisfied, by eliminating X, ^, v from

we find for the equation of the plane through the
(i), (iv), (iii),
lines
straight

= 0.
I
I

in

If the equations of the lines be

a zx + bjj

4-

c/ 4- dz =

0,

and a 9ao

a x a? + b,y 4c
d B = 0,

4-

+ b$ + c# 4-

4- c4 4- S4 = 0, the condition of intersection of the lines is the

condition that the four planes may have a common point,
which is found at once by eliminating x, y 2.
y

To find the shortest distance between two straight

29.
lines whose equations are given.

A KB and GLD

be the given straight lines, and let

is
perpendicular to both. Then
the shortest distance between the given lines, for it is the
the line joining any other two points on the
projection of
1
lines
given
Let the equations of the given lines be
x a _ y b _ z c_
x a y b Z G

Let

KL be

a line which

KL

is

We

can find

parallel to

CD

plane

cut

PAB

m,

I
1

line required.

KL

CD

in

and

f.

by the following construction

AP

let

~i

draw

AE

through

be perpendicular to the plane EAB, and let the

be drawn parallel to PA it will be the
then if

LK

THE STRAIGHT LINE.

Let the equations
distance lies be

X
Since the line

on which the shortest

of the line

OL

ft

21

y
(i).

meets the given lines, we have [Art. 28]

-a, ft-b, 7-c =
..(ii),

(i)

a.

\
and

Since

(i)

and

is

//,

-a
r

-b
ft

wi

n
^
,

7 c

.(iii).

11

perpendicular to the given

\l + fim + vn
0,
\l -f /A?^ + vn

lines,

we have

therefore

mn

mn

nl

nl

Im

Hence, from (ii) ani (lii), vc aee that (a, ft, 7), which is
an arbitrary point en the shortest distance, is on the two
planes

a
I

m
nl

0,

Im

ril,

m n,

m.n

nl

m n,

mn
and

a,
I

m
= 0.

ril,

Im

These planes therefore intersect in the

shortest distance

We

line

on which the

lies.

can find the length of the shortest distance from the

fact that it is the projection of the line joining the points

the projection of this line on the
(a, b, c) and (a, b c ).

Now

line

whose direction-cosines are

(a

(6

X,

6)

/A,

/z

v is
(c

c) v

THE STRAIGHT

22

But

LINE.

as above

mn

mn

therefore each fraction

is

nl

lm

equal to
1

- m n)* + (nl J((mn

Hence

+ (Im - m?}
1

ril)*

the length of the shortest distance

is

- a (mn - mn) + (b - V)(nl - nl) + (c- c }(lm - I m)

(a
8
- ritf + (lmf - I mf}
Vl(mn - m n) + (nl
)

Ex. 1. Find the perpendicular distance of an angular point of a cube

from a diagonal which does not pass through that angular point.

Ex.

2.

How

far is the point (4, 1, 1)

from the

Ans.a^\.

line of intersection of

Ex. 3. Shew that the two lines x - 2 = 2y - 6 = 3z, 4x - 11 = 4y - 13 = 3z

meet in a point, and that the equation of the plane on which they lie is
Ex.

4.

Find the ^Uati?H Of *b

fi

trough the point

^w&
z ~
"x

througli the line whose equations are

a.

Ans.

(a

/3

7% and

P _ ~~ y

Ex.

5.

The shortest distances between the diagonal

and the edges which it does not meet are

of a rectangular

parallelepiped

be

where

a, 6, c are

Ex.

6.

the lengths of the edges.

Find the shortest distance between the straight lines

-2 = z-3 &nd-mx = z=0.
x-l =

5m- 10

Ans.

Determine the length of the shortest distance between the lines

and 3 (x-l)=-y- 2= -42+ 2. Find the equations of the
Ans. &.
forms a part.
straight line of which the shortest distance
Ex.

ix=

7.

6y-z

be

If through any number of points, P, Q,R... lines

30.
drawn either all through a fixed point, or all parallel to a
fixed line and if these lines cut a fixed plane in the points
;

23

PROJECTIONS.

P Q ,R ...;

P Q R

are called the projections of

P,
QQ, RR... are
all perpendicular to the fixed plane, the projection is said to
be orthogonal.
The orthogonal projection of a limited straight line on a
plane is the line joining the projections of its extremities.
It is easily seen that the projection of a line on a plane
is equal to its length multiplied by the cosine of the angle
,

ft JS...

then

on the plane.

between the

line

...

If the lines

PP

and the plane.

31.
The orthogonal projection of any plane area on
any other plane is found by multiplying the area by the

cosine of the angle between the planes.

Divide the given area into a very great number of

rectangles by two sets of lines parallel and perpendicular to
the line of intersection of the given plane and the plane of
Then, those lines which are parallel to the line
projection.
of intersection are unaltered by projection, and those which
cos 6, where
are perpendicular are diminished in the ratio 1
:

6 is the angle between the planes. Hence every rectangle,

and therefore the sum of any number of rectangles, is
diminished by projection in the ratio of 1 cosO. But,
when each of the rectangles is made indefinitely small, their
sum is equal to the given area. Hence any area is diminished
:

by projection in the

ratio 1

cos

0.

If we have more than one plane area, we must

32.
make some convention as to the sign of the projection,
and we have the following definition the algebraic pro
:

of any face of a polyhedron on a fixed plane is

found by multiplying its area by the cosine of the angle
between the normal to the fixed plane and the normal
to the face, the normals to the faces being all drawn outwards
or all drawn inwards.

jection

33.

Let

be the area of any plane surface

I,

m, n the

A Ay A

direction-cosines of the normal to the plane

x
on the co-ordinate planes. Then
projections of

the

we have

VOLUME OF TETRAHEDRON.

24

P + m*

Hence, since
we have

-f

n2

1,

A x + Af + A* = A
*

2
.

Also the projection of A on any other plane, the directioncosines of whose normals are l m, ri, is A cos 6 ; and we
y

have

cos 6

= (U + mm + nri) A

Hence

to find the projection of any plane area, or of the

of any plane areas, on any given plane, we may first
find the projections
on the co-ordinate planes,
t
x
y
and then take the sum of the projections of A x A
on
t

sum

y,

the given plane.

34.

To find

co-ordinates of

volume of a tetrahedron in terms of the

angular points.

the

its

Let the co-ordinates of the angular points of the tetra

hedron ABCD be (xv y l9 * t ),
*
and (a?4 y *4
(,, ya *), (5, yv 8 ),
The volume of a tetrahedron is one-third the area of the base
,

).

4>

multiplied by the height.

v

Now the equation of the face BCD

y

is

=0.

.*

2/3
2/4

A
A

The perpendicular p from

on

this is

found by sub

and dividing by the square

stituting the co-ordinates of
root of the sum of the squares of the coefficients of x,
y,

and

z.

Now

the coefficients of

x, y, z
L.

IL.

are
1

2/ 2

2/3
2/4

respectively; and these

2/3

2/4

coefficients are

1
!

respectively equal
to twice the area of the projection of
on the planes
# 0, y - and z = 0. Hence the square root of the sum
of the squares of the coefficients of xt y and z is, by the

BCD

preceding Article, equal to 2

A BCD.

TWO STRAIGHT
Therefore 2p

25

LINES.

therefore

volume

2/<

of tetrahedron

2/2
2/3

*4>

2/0

1
^4>

The equations of two straight lines can be found in a

35.
very simple form by a proper choice of axes.

Let
be the middle point of CO the shortest distance
draw
between the two straight lines CD,
Through
OA, OB parallel to CD, C D and let OX, OY bisect
the angle A OB. Take OX, OY,OG for axes of co-ordinates
x tana
then, if AOB be 2a, the equations of OA, OB are y
2 = 0, and y =
x tan a, z 0.
,

CD

Hence the equations of the parallel

x tan a, z= c; and y = x tan a, s =

When

it

rectangular,
tions of CD,

W
CD

Also

lines

are

not of importance that the axes should be

for axes: the equa
jy will then be y = 0, ^ = c and # = 0, z =
c.
be a?iy straight line which intersects CD and

is

we may take OA, OB, 00

may

Z>

(7Z>,

c.

OBLIQUE AXES.

26

Four given planes which have a common line of

any straight line in a range of constant cross

36.

intersection cut
ratio.

Let any two lines meet the planes in the points

be
E, S and P Q R, 8 respectively. Let 0,
any two points on the line of intersection of the given planes,
and let the line of intersection of the two planes OPQRS,
O P Q E S meet the four given planes in
respec
Then, from the pencil whose vertex is 0, we have
tively.
and, from the pencil whose vertex is
{P QRS] =
S }. Hence (P QRS] = [P Q R S },
we have
8"}={P[
which proves the proposition.
P,

P",

S"
Q", E",

{P"Q"R"S"}\

{P"

Q"

QR

R"

DEF. Two systems of planes, each of which has

37.
a common line of intersection, are said to be homographic
when every four constituents of the one, and the correspond
ing four constituents of the other, have equal cross ratios.

An equivalent definition [see Conies, Art. 323] is the

two systems of planes, each of which has a
following
common line of intersection, are said to be homographic
which are so connected that to each plane of the one system
corresponds one plane, and only one, of the other.
:

OBLIQUE AXES.
38.

Some

of the preceding investigations apply equally

whether the axes are rectangular or oblique.

easily recognised.

We

which the formulae

These may be

proceed to consider some cases in

for oblique and rectangular axes are

different.

Let P, Q be two points on a straight line, and

39.
through P, Q draw planes parallel to the co-ordinate planes
be
so as to form a parallelepiped, and let PL, LK,
ratios of PL, LK, KQ
the
Then
axes.
the
to
edges parallel

KQ

to

PQ are

clear

that

called the direction-ratios of the line PQ.

the directidn of a line is determined

direction-ratios.

It is

by

its

OBLIQUE AXES.

27

To find the angles a line makes with the axes

40.
co-ordinates, in terms of its direction-ratios.

of

XOY

Let X, fi, v be the angles YOZ ZOX,

respectively.
direction-ratios of the line PQ, and let
I, m, n be the
Let PL, LK,
a, /Q, 7 be the angles it makes with the axes.
KQ be parallel to the axes so that PL = l. PQ, LK = m PQ,
KQ = n.PQ, as in Art. 39. Then, since the projection of
PQ on the axis of x is equal to the projection of PLKQ,
we have
,

Let

PQ cos a = PL + LKcos v + KQ cos ^

n cos
cos a = I + m cos v
=
I cos v + m + n cos X,
cos /3

therefore

-f-

Similarly

and

cos 7

To find

41.

cos

/z

+m

cos X

/i.

n.

the relation between the direction-ratios

of a

line.

Project

PL, LK,

KQ on

PQ, then we have

PL cos + LKcosp + KQcosy = PQ;

cL

therefore from Art. 40,

I

(I

+ m + n cos \)
cos /A + m cos X
(I
2mn cos X + 2?iJ cos ^ + 2/m cos = 1

+ m cos + n cos /A) + m

z>

(I

cos y
-f

or

r+m + n

which

is

-f

the required relation.

i>

-I-

n)

.(i),

=1

OBLIQUE AXES.

28

Let the co-ordinates of the points P,

y* 2i and . 2/2

Q be

>

*>

i>

l.PQ = PL = xz -

Then

n.PQ

and

Hence from

2 (,

- *J

we have

(i)

K-

#1) cos /i

+ 2 (a, - aj

f)

(y a

-y

which gives the distance between two points

cos ? ......

t)

in

(ii),

terms of their

oblique co-ordinates.

To find

42.

the angle between

two lines whose direction-

ratios are given.

Let
lines

I.

m, n and

PQ and PQ

Let PL, LK,

and

KQ

let

n be the
6

l>e

direction-ratios of the
the angle between them.

be parallel to the axes, so that

LK=m

KQ = n .PQ.
then
Project PQ and PLKQ on the line P Q
=
a
cos
n
cos
m
P
cos
+
Q
PQ
PQ
ft + P Q cos 7
where a /3 7 are the angles the line P Q makes with
PL = l.PQ,

PQ, and

axes.

the

Hence, from Art. 40, we have

cos 6

(I

+m

cos v

-f

w cos //,)

m (r cos v + m + n cos X)
+ w cos + m cos X + n
+ wm 7m + (mri -f m n) cos X +
4-

(If

II

/A

-f-

(>?

4- (iwi

+ w7)
-f-

???)

cos

cos

/^
j^.

J o find the volume of a tetrahedron in terms of three

43.
edges which meet in a point and of the angles they make with
one another.
Take the axes along the three edges, and let a, b, c
be the lengths of the edges, and X, /u,, v the angles they make
with one another. Then

Volume = J

abc sin v cos

0,

OBLIQUE AXES.
where
plane

be

is

the angle between

OZ

and the normal

to the

XOY.

Let the direction-ratios of the normal

m n. Then from Art. 40 we have

I,

to the plane

XOY

+ ra cos v -f n cos = 0,
+ w + cos X = 0,
I cos
+ m cos X -f 7i = cos

//,

cos p

?z

yu,

Multiply by

The

m, n and add, then, from

n cos 6 = 1.

I,

elimination of

I,

1,

COS//,

cosX,

0,

o,

therefore sin v cos

6=

COS
1

cos

cos

fju

cos

Art 41,

COS V
1

COS

/IP ,

cos

Hence the volume required

2
2
cos
cos X
^ abc V (1
/-t

COS

/JL

COS

costf

1,
cos e

COS V

cosy,

(i)

m, n from the above equations gives

COS V

1,

0.

/-t.

cos v

cos v

-f

+2

2 cos

cos

X cos

cos

//,

/u-

cos

cos

v).

TRANSFORMATION OF CO-ORDINATES.

44.

To change

the origin

of co-ordinates without changing

the direction of the axes.

referred
Let/, g, h be the co-ordinates of the new origin
Let
be any point whose co-ordinates
to the original axes.
referred to the original axes are #, y, z, and referred to the
be parallel to the axis of x and
Let
new axes x,
z.

let it

meet

FO^in

PL

L, and

T OZ

in

30

TRANSFORMATION OF CO-ORDINATES.

Then
x

therefore

= LL

=f.

Similarly

and

Hence,

y + g,

if in

+h

= h.

the equation of any surface we write x

+f,
we obtain the equation

for x, y, z respectively,

referred to the point (/, g, h) as origin.

To change

45.

the direction of the axes without

changing

the origin, both systems being rectangular.

Let l v v n^ /2 ra n
and lv y n s be the direction?
cosines
ines of the new axes referred to the old.
,

<2

Let

P be any point

are x, y, z and x,

Draw PL
pendicular to

whose co-ordinates

in the

two systems

X OY and LM per
ML
and LP=z
OX is equal to the sum of

perpendicular to the plane

= x,
=y
then
;

OM

OX

Since the projection of OP on

the projections of OM,
and LP,

ML

Similarly

y=

and

we have

a + ra 2 y + mn z,
x + n2 y + n s z

/*,

TRANSFORMATION OF CO-ORDINATES.

31

These are the formulae required.

Since l v m v n^ 12 w 2 n 2 and 18 w g n8 are direction-cosines,
we have
,

OX OY OZ

Also, since
angles,

are two and

we have
y,

y
^

m m 4- nji = 0,
j
m^j + n n = 0, L
+ m^ + w^ = J

4-

4 -f-

and

two at right

The six relations between the nine direction-cosines which

we have found above are equivalent to the following
:

This
m,,

follows

m m
2,

OX, OY,
46.

at

and

once

n,,

OZ referred

n2

from

wg

the

fact

are the

that

J
f

to the rectangular axes

lh + m,?^ -f WjWa = 0,
IJ,9

+m

m + n^ = 0,
B

we have

Hence each

fraction is equal to

^,

of

OX OY OZ

Since

and

direction-cosines

TRANSFORMATION OP CO-ORDINATES.
Also

If in Art. 45 the

47.

/j,

??

lt

new axes

are oblique

we

still

have

the relations

y = mjc
z

+ m,y + m/,
+ i\y + n z

njc
can deduce the values of x

We

z in terms of x, y, z

the results are

x
Ill

and two similar equations.

The degree of an equation
formation of axes.
48.

is

unaltered by any trans

From the preceding Articles we see that, however the

may be changed, the new equation is obtained by sub

axes

x y, z expressions of the form Ix + my+nz+p.

These expressions are of the first degree, and therefore if
the degree of the
they replace x, y, and z in the equation,
can the degree of the
Neither
be
raised.
not
will
equation
to the
equation be lowered; for, if it were, by returning
the
the
to
therefore
and
equation,
original
original axes,
degree would be raised.

stituting for

We

49.

shall conclude this chapter

by the solution of

some examples.
(1)

line of constant length has its extremities on two fixed straight lines;
the locus of its middle point is an ellipse.
take the axes of co-ordinates as in Art. 35, the equations of the lines
z=-c. Let the co-ordinates of the
and
z =

shew that
If

we

will be

= mx,

c\

y= -mx,

EXAMPLES.

33

any one of its possible positions be a^, y v z l and

x y, z )
the co-ordinates of the middle point of the line.
(
be the length of the line, we have

extremities of the line in

x
Then,
y<

>2>

22

allcl lct

l>o

>

if 21

But, since y 1 = mx l and

21

^=c, and #2 = -wo;2

2 = 0,

-c, we have

is

the ellipse whose equations are

moves so as always

line

z2

-z 2 = 2c, and

Hence the locus of the middle point

(2)

to intersect three

which are not

all parallel to the same

surface generated by the straight line.

plane

given straight lines,

find the equation of the

Draw through each of the lines planes parallel to the other two; a
parallelepiped is thus formed of which the given lines are edges. Take the
centre of the parallelepiped for origin, and axes parallel to the edges, then
the equations of the given lines are y = &, z
-c; * = c, x= -a; and x = a,

y=

b respectively.

Let the equations of the moving line be

05-0 _ y-/3
z - y

"

Since this meets each of the given lines

-c-y
---

c-y

6-j8

-=

n
we have

-a-a

=-7

and

a-a

-b-8

-r

~^---

Hence, by multiplying corresponding members of the three equations, we

see that (a, /3, 7), an arbitrary point on the moving line, is on the surface

whose equation

is

=
be

ca

ab

The

lines of intersection of corresponding planes

of
systems describe a surface of the second degree.
(3)

two homographic

We may take y=mx, z = c,

and y= -mx, z= -c for the equations of the

two systems of planes [see Art. 35.]
Let the equations of corresponding planes of the two systems be

lines of intersection of the

y-mx + \(z-c)=0,
y+mx + \ (z+c)=Q.

and

Since the systems are homographic there is one value of X for

every value of
and one value of X for every value of V; hence X, X must be connected by
a relation of the form
X,

S. S. G.

EXAMPLES ON CHAPTER

34

Substitute for X and X

Hence the

II.

and we have

m3 ^ 2 -A(z + c)(y- mx) - B (z - c)

(y

+ mx) + G (z2 -

c 2)

= 0.

line of intersection of corresponding planes describes a surface of

the second degree.

EXAMPLES ON CHAPTER

:^(

1.

equally

through

IF

be a fixed point on a straight line through the origin

to the three axes of co-ordinates, any plane
will intercept lengths on the co-ordinate axes the sum of

inclined

whose reciprocals
v

2.

II.

Shew

is

constant.

that the six planes, each passing through one edge

and bisecting the opposite edge, meet in a point.

of a tetrahedron

Through the middle point of every edge of a tetrahedron

is drawn perpendicular to the
opposite edge shew that
planes so drawn will meet in a point such that the
centroid of the tetrahedron is midway between it and the centre
3.

a plane
the six

of the circumscribing sphere.

4.

>

is

is

The equation of the plane through T =

I

- = perpendicular to the plane containing

n

x (m - n) + y (n ~>-.

Shew
a

z (I - m) =
1) +

in,

= n
-.
(i

and

and which

-=-==-

ni

0.

that the straight lines

ft

aa

bfi

cy

in

will lie in one plane, if

V<

a)

Two systems of rectangular axes have the same origin ; if

a plane cut them at distances a, &, c, and a, 6 , c from the origin,

t>-

then

111111

EXAMPLES ON CHAPTER
7.

35

II

Determine the locus of a point which moves

from two given straight lines.

so as always

to be equally distant

Through two straight lines given in space two planes are

at right angles to one another ; find the locus of their line
of intersection.

drawn

A line of constant length has its extremities on

9.

and shew
10.

two given
by it,

find the equation of the surface generated

that any point in the line describes an ellipse.

straight lines

Shew that the two straight

+ by + cz = 0, yz + zx + xy

lines

equations ax

will

represented by the
be perpendicular if

1
- + 1 + I~ = n
0.
a y
o
c

Find the plane on which the area of the projection of the

hexagon, formed by six edges of a cube which do not meet a given
11.

diagonal, is a

maximum.

Prove that the four planes

^1

form a tetrahedron whose volume

13.

is

olmn

Find the surface generated by a straight line which

and meets two given straight lines.

is

parallel to a fixed plane

14.
straight line meets two given straight lines and makes
the same angle with both of them; find the surface which it

generates.

Any two
by a straight

15.

ratio

finite straight lines

line

same
which it

are divided in the

find the equation of the surface

generates.

16.
straight line always parallel to the plane of yz passes
2
2
2
2
through the curves x + y = a 2 = 0, and x = az, 2/ = 0; prove
that the equation of the surface generated is
,

Three straight lines mutually at right angles meet in a

17.
point P, and two of them intersect the axes of x and y respec
tively, while the third passes through a fixed point (0, 0, c) on the
axis of z.
Shew that the equation of the locus of is

32

EXAMPLES ON CHAPTER

36

TI.

Find the surface generated by a straight line which meets

2
= c 2 x = 0.
=
y = mx, z = c , y = mx, z -c; and if + z

18.

19.

P,

AB, A

are points on two fixed non-intersecting straight

such that the rectangle AP,

the surface generated by the line PP .

lines

\GO.

AP

is

constant

Find

Find the condition that

ax*

+ by* +

+ la yz + 2b zx +

cz*

Zc

xy -

may represent a pair of planes ; and supposing

the angle between the planes, prove that
2

tan

= -*v/

it satisfied, if

+ 2 -bc-ca-ab
r
a+b+c

be

c"

Find the volume of the tetrahedron formed by planes

21.
f\
whose equations are y + z = 0, z + x = 0, x + y = 0, and x + y + z = 1.
22.

Find the volume of a tetrahedron, having given the

equations of

its

plane faces.

Shew that the sum of the projections of the faces of a

23.
closed polyhedron on any plane is zero.
Find the co-ordinates of the centre of the sphere in
24.
scribed in the tetrahedron formed by the planes whose equations
and x + y + x=l.
are x = 0, y = 0, z=
Find the co-ordinates of the centre of the sphere in
25.
scribed in the tetrahedron formed by the planes whose equations
=- a.
are y + z - 0, z + x - 0, x + y = 0, and x + y + z

CHAPTER

III.

SURFACES OF THE SECOND DEGREE.

The most general equation of the second degree, viz.

50.
2
ax* +
+ cz* + 2fyz + 2^,7? + 2htvy -f 2w + 2vy + 2wz + d = 0,
contains ten constants.
But, since we may multiply or divide
the equation by any constant quantity without altering the
relation between as, y, and z which it indicates, there are
really only nine constants which are fixed for any particular
surface, viz. the nine ratios of the ten constants a, b, c, &c. to
one another.
surface of the second degree can therefore
be made to satisfy nine conditions and no more. The nine

conditions which a surface of the second degree can satisfy

must be such that each gives rise to one relation among the
constants, as, for instance, the condition of passing through a
given point. Such conditions as give two or more relations
between the constants must be reckoned as two or more of

the nine.

We shall throughout the present chapter assume that the

equation of the second degree is of the above form, unless it
The left-hand side of the equation
is otherwise expressed.
will be sometimes denoted by F(x, y, z).
51.

To find

the prints

where a given straight line cuts

of the second

the surface represented by the general equation

degree.

THE TANGENT PLANE.

38

Let the equations of the straight line be

To find the points common

we have the equatiou

to this line

and the

surface,

+ c (7 -f wr) + 2/ (0 + wr)(y 4- nr)

f 2# (7 4- ?)( -f Ir) + 2A, (a 4- Zr)(/3 4- w) 4- 2w (a + Jr)
+ 20 (ft 4- wr) 4- 2w (7 4-wr) + d = 0,
a

-i-

IrY

+b

(/3 4-

m/-)*

or
I

!7
+ p(a,/8,7)=0 ............ (i).
J

Since this is a quadratic equation,

any straight

meets

line

the surface in two points.

Hence all straight lines which lie in any particular plane

meet the surface in two points. So that, all plane sections of
a surface of the second degree are conies.
In what follows surfaces of the second degree will
generally be called conicoids.
^

To faid the equation of the tangent plane

52.
point of a conicoid.

at

any

one root of
a point on F(x, y, .z) =
the equation found in the preceding Article will be zero.
Two roots will be zero if I, m, n satisfy the relation
If

(a,

0, 7) be

,dF +

l-T-

da

The

line

^-^ =
I

dF
mjlz

dp

dF
+ n-r = V .................. W,.<

dj

1$
= *^
n
m

w il]

in that case

be a

contact being (a, /9, 7).

tangent line to the surface, the point of
If we eliminate /, m, n between the equations of the line,
and the equation (i), we see that all the tangent lines lie in
the plane whose equation is

39

THE POLAR PLANE.

This plane

is

called the tangent plane at the point

(a, /3, 7).

If we write the equation (ii) in full, we obtain

x (aa + hj3 + #7 + u) + y (ha + b{3 +fy + v) + z (ga +f{3+w+ w)

+ C + 23 + 2a 4- 2/ta + ua + v + wy.
+ 0? to both sides, then the right side
Add t*a + 17/8 +
= act

^which

zero; we therefore
at (a,
7)
equation of the tangent plane

becomes F(a,

/8,

7),

is

have

for

the

&

+ #7 + M) + y (/w + 6+/y+tO+*(flra +/0 + cy + w)

+ wa + -y/8 + 1^7 + d = 0. .(iii).

x (aa + A

v
Ex 1 Find the equation of the tangent plane at the point (# , y , z ) on
9
Ans. ax x + by y + cz z +d=<X
the surface as 2 + by + cz* + d=0.
Ex 2. Find the equation of the tangent plane at the point (x , y , z ) on
2
Ans. ax x + by y + z + z =0.
the surface az 2 + 6i/ + 2,s = 0.

condition that the tangent plane at

a particular point (x, y z) is
through
pass

53.

may

The

(a,

&

7)

+ v/3 +
This condition

is

+ = 0.
o?

w>7

equivalent to

+ 1;^ + wz + cZ = 0.
/

the last equation we see that all the points, the

the particular point
tangent planes at which pass through
on the plane whose equation
(x y /), lie on a plane, namely

From

is

x (ax

+ hy + gz +u)+y (hx + by +fz + v)

+ z (gX +fy + cz + w) + ux + vy +

?/

+ d = 0.

called the polar plane of the point (x, y z).

cuts the surface in a conic,
The polar plane of any point
to any point on this conic is a tangent
and the line joining
The assemblage of such lines forms a cone, which is
line.
to the conicoid.
cone from
called the

This plane

is

tangent

of the polar plane of the origin, found

in the above, is
s =

The equation
putting x

=y =

= 0.

by

THE POLAR PLANE.

40

The

54.

pass through

a (ax

condition that the polar plane of (x

(a, (3,

+ hy + g Z + u)+/3 (hoc + by +fz + v)

+ 7 (gx -\-fy + cz + w) 4- w# 4 v/ + wa

This equation

is

may

y, z)

above

7) is as

unaltered

if

we interchange

4-

d = O. c

a and x,
the polar

and 7 and a
it therefore follows that if
/8 and y
with respect to a conicoid pass through
plane of any point
a point Q, then will the polar plane of Q pass through P.
55.
Let
be any point on the line of intersection of the
,

polar planes of P, Q.

and also on the

is on the polar plane of
Then, since
will pass through
polar plane of Q, the polar plane of
and through Q, and therefore through the line PQ. Similarly
the polar plane of 8, any other point on the line of inter

section, will pass through the line PQ.

Two lines which are such that the polar plane with
respect to a conicoid of any point on the one passes through

the other, are called polar lines, or conjugate

56.

If any chord of a

conicoid be

lines.

drawn through a point

and the polar

will be cut harmonically by the surface

plane of 0.
it

for origin, and let the surface be given

Take the point
the
by
general equation of the second degree.
Let the equations of any line, which cuts the surface in
in R, be
P, Q and the polar plane of

x
_
I

i/

*_

=r

To find the points where the line cuts the surface

as in Art. 51, the quadratic equation
a

r (aV

have,

+ but + en + 2fmn +

Hence

we

tynl

-I-

2hlm)

2r (id

_ + _-=_-({+,,, +

The equation

of the polar plane of

ux

4-

vm + wn) + d
,).

is

0.

CONDITION OF TANGENCY.

Hence

D=

-~

->

ULI

+ vm +

(ul

JL

therefore

tori)

41

OQ~ OR

which proves the proposition.

To find

57.

condition that a given plane

the

may

touch

conicoid.

Let the equation of the given plane be

lx

+ my + nz +p =

The tangent plane

x (ax

-f-

at

(i).

(so

z)

is

+ gz +u) + y (hx + by +fz -f v)

+d=
+ vy +
+fy + cz + w) 4hy

If the planes represented

and

+ z (gx
have

ax

by

(i)

(ii)

...... (ii).

are the

same we

-f

hy + gz
I

+u _ hx + by +fz
m

-}-

_ gx +fy

4- cz

+w

_ ux + vy + wz + d

P
Put each

X; then we have

fraction equal to

+ hy + gz + u + X =0,
+ by^ +fa + v + X m = 0,
X w = 0,
-f /y + c^ + w
wa/ -f vy +wz
d+\p = 0.
ax
hx

-f-

<7#

-f-

Also, since

(a/,

ia? -f

on the given plane, ^

my +^2? +p = Q.
is

Eliminating x, y, z, X, we obtain the required condition,

namely
a,

h,

g,

u,

h,

b,

f,

v,

g,
u,

f,

c,

w,

v,

w,

d,

m, n, p,

=0.

42

TANGENT PLANE.
The determinant when expanded

AP + Bin + On + Dp +
2

where A, B,
determinant

+2
+2

2 .Fww

cases

72p

+ 2Fwp + 2Wnp =

C, &c. are the co-factors of a,

g
6, /,

h,

We

is

Gnl + 2 fl7m

c,

0,

&c. in the

g,

f,

c,

u,

w,

b,

will give special investigations in the

two following

which are of great importance:

I.

Let the equation of the surface be

ax 2 + by 9 -f cz2 + d = 0.
The tangent plane at any point (a? y z)
cw? # + 6^/ 2/ + cz z + ^ = 0.
7

is

Hence, comparing this equation with the given equation

Ix

ax

we have r

=~ =

+ my +nz + p=Q,

bi/

cz

= ~d

p
2

-f

4/(ax

v//
hence, since

ao;

fy/

6y*

is

equal to

c/

the required condition of tangency

II.

fraction

+ c/ + f?)

-f

-p,

Bacn

+ = 0,
rf

is

Let the equation of the surface be

ax*

The tangent plane

at

+ by* +

2z

0.

any point (V,

?/,

is

axx + by y + z + / = 0.
Hence, comparing this equation with the given equation
Ix + my + nz + p = 0,

CENTRE OF A PLANE SECTION.

we have - 7-

hence, since

=-=

Each

ax*

-f

4-

fraction

%z

the required condition of tarigency

is

43
equal to

0,
is

-V
+2np =
f
a
b

0.

58.
If we find, as in Article 51, the quadratic equation
giving the segments of a chord through (a, ft, 7) the roots of
the equation will be equal and opposite, if

,dF +

l-jda.

dF A
m dF + n-j-^O
.............
-,^

dft

dy

...

(i).

In this case (a, ft, 7) will be the middle point of the chord.
Hence an infinite number of chords of the conicoid have the
point (a, ft, 7) for their middle point.

we

If

chord and

eliminate I, m,
(i), we see that

whose equation

(a, ft,

all

of the
such chords are in the plane

is

.dF
Hence

n between the equations

.dF

.dF

7) is the centre of the conic in

which

....

(ii)

meets

the surface.

This result should be compared with that obtained in

Art. 52.
Ex. 1. The locus of the centre of all plane sections of a conicoid which
pass through a fixed point is a conicoid.

The equation
/,

</,

of the locus is

(f-x)-^-

+ (y-y)-- +(h-z)

j-

where
>

h are the co-ordinates of the fixed point.

V Ex.

2.

The locus

straight line.

of the centre of parallel sections of a conicoid is a

DIAMETRAL PLANES.

44
The
lx

whose centre

section

+ my + nzQ

is

(a,

dF

dF

dF

~da

_ dg
~

dy

m~~

Hence the locus

is

_I
^
dx
m
~~

The

parallel

the given

to

plane

11

the straight line whose equations are

1

planes

7) is

/3,

if

i??

_ 1 dF
~

dy

n dz

straight lines clearly all pass through the point of intersection of the

dF = dF
= dF = n0.
dx

dy

dz

59.
To find the locus of the middle points of
parallel chords of a conicoid.

As

a system of

in the preceding Article, (a, 0, 7) will be the middle

whose direction-cosines are I, m, n, if

point of the chord

.dF

+m

dF

l-j-

da

-^5
d/3

ft

dF =
-5-

0.

dy

Hence the

locus of the middle points of all chords whose

direction-cosines are I, in, n is the plane whose equation is

.dF
,

c -i

|-

ax

m dF
-j

dy

\-

dF =
-y-

0.

dz

Def. The locus of the middle points of a system of parallel

chords of a conicoid is called the diametral plane.
If the plane be perpendicular to the chords it bisects, it is
called a principal plane.
60.

To find the equations of the principal planes of a

conicoid.

The diametral plane

are

I,

m, n

dF
~j

ax

or,
I

whose

dF =
O
m dF
-J- + n TJdz

writing the equation in

(ax

or

of the chords

direction- cosines

is

v/

dy

full,

+ hy +gz + u) + m (hx + by +fz + v)

+ n (gx +fy -f cz + w) 0,
x (al + hm + gri) + y (hi + bm +fri) + z (gl +fm + en)
+ ul + vm 4- wn 0.

45

PRINCIPAL PLANES.
be perpendicular to the chords

If this plane

it

bisects,

we have
hi

+b

Put X

common

for the

+ gn

0,|

+ (b-\)m+fn
=0,|
+ (e-X)-oJ
+fm

hi

gl
I,

value of these fractions, then

+hm

(a-\)l

Eliminating

ra

.......

n we have

ra,

a-X,
h

h,

b-\

0,

f
c

f>

g>

2
X - (a + b + c) X + (6c + ca + a& -f - g - tf) X
- (ale
+$fgh -of*- bg*
2

or

ch*)

0.

This is a cubic equation for determining X and when X is

determined, any two of the three equations (i) will give the
corresponding values of I, m, n.
Since one root of a cubic is always real, it follows that
there is always one principal plane.
;

Find the principal planes of the following surfaces

+ 2zx~2xy
+ Wy* + &z*-8yz + 4z

x* + y*-z * + 2yz
<

\/

(i)
(ii)

llx>

Ans.

Ans.

61.

and

(i)

(ii)

All parallel plane

sections

of a conicoid are similar

similarly situated conies.

Change the axes of co-ordinates

one of the system
plane of xy may be

in such a

way

that the

of parallel planes

and

let the equation of the surface be the general equation of the

second degree.
Let the equation of any one of the planes bo z = k. At
= 0, by the
all points of the section of the surface
(x, y, z)

PARALLEL, SECTIONS ARE SIMILAR.

46

=k

plane z

both these relations are

satisfied

we

therefore

have
ax*

+ by

-f

ck*

+ 2fyk + 2gkx -f Zhxy + 2ux + 2vy

+ 2wk + d=Q ............ (i).

Now the equation (i) represents a cylinder whose gene

rating lines are parallel to the axis of z, and which is cut hy
in the curve represented by (i).
the plane z =
Since parallel sections of a cylinder are similar and simi
=
of the surface
(x, y, z)
larly situated curves, the section
=
is similar to the conic represented by (i) and
z
k
0;
by
and all such conies, for different values of k are clearly

F
t

similar and similarly situated

this proves the proposition.

CLASSIFICATION OF CONICOIDS.
6*2.

We

proceed to find the nature of the different

whose equations are of the second degree and we will

shew that we can always change the directions of the

surfaces
first

axes of co-ordinates in such a way that the coefficients of yz,

zx, and xy in the transformed equation are all zero.

We have seen [Art. 60] that there is at least one

63.
diametral plane which is perpendicular to the chords it
bisects.

in a new system of co
this plane for the plane z =
ordinates.
The degree of the equation of the surface will not be altered
will be of the form
the transformation ; hence the

Take

by

ax*

equation

2wz + d = 0.
Zfyz + 2gzx + Zlixy + 2ux + 2vy +
by*
= bisects all chords parallel
By supposition the plane z

-f

-f cz* 4-

to the axis of z

therefore

surface, the point (# , y

From this we see at once

Now

if (#

y, z) be any point on the

be on the surface.

will also

that/= g

=w = Q.

turn the axes through an angle Jtan

~_^

>

will disappear.
[See Conies, Art. 167] the term involving xy

CLASSIFICATION OF CONICOIDS.

Hence we have reduced

terms yz,

zx,

and xy are

47

the equation to a form in which the

absent.

all

When the terms yz, zx, xy are all absent from the
64.
equation of a conicoid, it follows from Art. 60 that the co-ordi
Hence by
nate planes are all parallel to principal planes.
the preceding article, there are always three principal
This shews
planes, which are two and two at right angles.
that all the roots of the cubic equation found in Art. 60 are real.
For an algebraical proof of this important theorem see
Todhunter s Theory of Equations.

We have

65.

degree can in

I.

We

all

seen that the general equation of the second

cases be reduced to the form

Let A, B, C be all finite.

can then write the equation

Hence, by a change of origin, we have

If

be not zero we have

.2

-,

+ 77 =

A
which we can write

or

or

in the

B
form

1,

48

CLASSIFICATION OF CONICOIDS.

according as

-j-

D
,

-^

-^ are

all

positive,

two positive and

one negative, or one positive and two negative.

are negative the surface is clearly imaginary.]
If
be zero, we have

[If all three

if+
Let

II.

G,

2
<7z

=0

any one of the three

................ (8).

coefficients

A, B,

G,

be

zero.

Write the equation

then,

if

W be not

be reduced

zero, the equation can,

by a change of

origin,

to

W be zero, we have the form

If

Aa?
or, if

in the form

jy be

+B

zero, the form

Q
III.

We

Let B, G, two of the three

then have

..................

coefficients,

(77).

be zero.

Wa

Now take 2 FT/ + 2

Wz+D--^

for the

plane y

= 0,

and

the equation reduces to the form

a?

If

however

F=

TF= 0,

= 2% .........................

the equation
a?

66.

We

now proceed

=k

to

is

((9).

equivalent to

........................ (*)-

consider

the

nature of the

whose equations are (a), (/3), ..... (i) to one of which

forms we have seen that the general equation is reducible.

surfaces

49

THE ELLIPSOID.
The

surface whose equation

is

a
an

called

is

Let
(a, y, z)

ellipsoid.
c be in

descending order of magnitude

being any point on the surface, we have

a,

b,

*2
and

then

+ v? + ^^1.1

So that no point on the surface is at a distance from the

or less than c. The surface is therefore
origin greater than a,
limited in every direction; and, since all plane sections of a
conicoid are conies, it follows that all plane sections of an
ellipsoid are ellipses.
The surface is clearly symmetrical about each of the co

ordinate planes.
If r be the length of a semi-diameter whose directioncosines are I, m, n, we have the relation
1
"72

\ mT

- ~2
l

T~

U*

4.

If two of the coefficients are equal, b and c suppose,

the section by the plane x = 0, and therefore [Art. 61]
=
by any plane parallel to # 0, is a circle. Hence the
surface is that formed by the revolution of the ellipse

+ fa = 1
^
a
6
2

about the axis of

x.

The

surface formed by the revolution of an ellipse about

major axis is called a prolate spheroid ; that formed by
the revolution about the minor axis is called an oblate

its

spheroid.
If

a=b = c

the equation of the surface

is

x3 + if +

a*,

which from Art. 5 represents a sphere.

s. s.

u.

THE HYPERBOLOID OF ONE SHEET.

The

67.

is

called

The
on the

surface

is

an kyperbcloid of one sheet.

x and y are
intercepts on the axes of

axis of z are

The

whose equation

surface

is

real,

and those

imaginary.

clearly symmetrical

about each of the co

ordinate planes.

= and y = are hyperbolas,

by the planes x
is an ellipse.
The section by z = k is also an ellipse, the projection of

The

sections

and that by

which on 2

is

=1 +

and the section becomes

as k becomes greater and greater.

greater and greater

Jf
to z

l) }

is

the section of the surface by any plane parallel

Hence the surface is that formed by the

circle.

THE HYPERBOLOID OF TWO SHEETS.

revolution of the hyperbola
d2

=1

about

its

51

conjugate

axis.

The

figure

68.

The

shews the nature of the

surface whose equation

~~

~~

a2
is

is

*>

surface,

~~

called an hyperboloid of two sheets.

The intercepts on the axis of x are real, those on the othe;

two axes are imaginary.
and z
are hyper
The sections by the planes y
bolas.

The
k*

>

The parallel
is imaginary.
by the plane x
does not meet the surface in real points unless
2
2
If &
a the section is an ellipse the axes of which

section

=k

plane x
2
ft .

>

as k becomes greater and greater.

surface therefore consists of two detached portions as in

become greater and greater

The

the figure.

If I

circle.

= c,

is
the section by any plane parallel to a; =
surface is that formed by the revolution

Hence the

of the hyperbola

y^

about

its

transverse axis.

ft

69.

a cone.

The

surface whose equation

is

Ax*

+ By* -f

Cz*

42

is

THE CONE.

52

a surface generated by straight lines which

always pass through a fixed point, and which obey some other
law.
The lines are called generating lines, arid the fixed
point through which they pass is called the vertex of the
cone

is

cone.
If the vertex of a cone be taken as origin, the
equation
of the surface is homogeneous. This follows at once from the
consideration that if (x, y, z) be any point
on the surface,
is also on the
any other point (kx, ky, kz) on the line

OP

surface.

Conversely any homogeneous equation represents a cone

is the origin of co-ordinates.
For, if the values
x, y, z, satisfy a homogeneous equation, so also will kx, ky,
Hence the line through
kz, whatever the value of k may be.
the origin and any point on the surface lies wholly on the

whose vertex

surface.

The general equation of a cone of the second degree, or

quadric cone, referred to its vertex as origin is therefore
ax*

Zfyz

Zgzx

+ Zhxy =

0.

be the length of the semi-diameter of the

2
1, we have the relation

If r

70.

surface ax*

+ by + cs +

+ by + c/ =

= al* + bin +
2

en*.

Hence the direction-cosines of the lines which

surface at an infinite distance satisfy the relation
al

Such

-j

-f

jj

2
+ 6m +

en

0.

lines are therefore generating lines of the cone

This cone

71.

meet the

is

called the asymptotic cone of the surface.

The equation Ax 2 + By 2 + 2 Wz =

= %z,

or

y = 2z,

are alike or different.

is

equivalent to

according as the signs of

and

THE PARABOLOID.
The

is

called

The

surface whose equation

an elliptic paraboloid.
sections by the planes

having a

is

#=

common axis, and whose

and y
are parabolas
concavities are in the same

direction.

The section by any plane parallel to z = is an ellipse if

the plane be on the positive side of z = 0, and is imaginary if
the plane be on the negative side of 2 = 0.
Hence the
surface is entirely on the positive side of the plane z = Q, and
extends to an infinite distance.
The

is

surface

whose equation

is

called an hyperbolic paraboloid.

The

sections by the planes

which have a

common

axis,

#=0 and y = are parabolas

and whose concavities are in

opposite directions.

The surface is on both sides of the plane 2

extends to an infinite distance in both directions.
-.
.

= 0,

and

THE PARABOLOID.

5*

The

section

by the plane z

x*
the equation -r

given by

y=

the two straight lines

is

u*

0.

The

section by

any plane

Q is an hyperbola: on one side of the plane

parallel to z
z
the real axis of the hyperbola is parallel to the axis of
x, and on the other side the real axis is parallel to the

axis of y.

The
Ly
*Sr

figure shews the nature of the surface.

It is important to notice that the

72.
elliptic paraboloid
a limiting form of the ellipsoid, or of the hyperboloid of
two sheets; and that the hyperbolic paraboloid is a limiting
form of the hyperboloid of one sheet.
is

This can be shewn in the following manner.

of the ellipsoid referred to (a,

The equation
l

origin

is

-2-t-fa
u

(i

become

b
infinite,

tively to

while

and

= 0.

c
,

Now

suppose that

a,

is

The

b,

c all

- remain

finite

then, in the limit,

and equal respec

we have

-=
I

which

0) as

0,

-f

yI

2#,

the equation of an elliptic paraboloid.

other cases can be proved in a similar manner.

The equation Ax* -f By*+D = Q represents a cylinder

73.
and
have dif
[Art. 10], being a hyperbolic cylinder if
ferent signs, and an elliptic cylinder if
and
have the same

sign.

If the signs of A, B,

are all the

same the

surface

is

imaginary.

The equation Ax* -f 7??/2 =

represents two intersecting

or
which
real
are
imaginary
planes,
according as the signs of
A and B are alike or different.

The equation
curve

is

The

2%

x*
represents a cylinder whose guiding
a parabola, and which is called a parabolic cylinder.
2
k represents the two parallel planes
equation #

EXAMPLES.

55

Ex. 1. The sura of the squares of the reciprocals of any three diameters
of an ellipsoid which are mutually at right angles is constant.
n t ) we
If rx be the semi-diameter whose direction-cosines are (l lt
lt

have
/*i

= ^ + 5 + -T
2
a
c

and similarly

111111
i

for the other diameters.

By

addition

0"

Ex. 2. If three fixed points of a straight line are on given planes which
are at right angles to one another, shew that any other point in the line
describes an ellipsoid.
Let A, JB, C be the points which are on the co-ordinate planes, and
P (x, y, z) be any other fixed point whose distances from A, B, G are a, &, c.

Then - = l,
a

line.

Ex.

m, and

^~

= n,

Hence the equation

where L m, n are the direction cosines of the

of the locus is

X%
y%
+ fr
a2
6^
-,

22

-5=!.

c2

Find the equation of the cone whose vertex is at the centre of an

and which passes through all the points of intersection of the
and a given plane.

3.

ellipsoid
ellipsoid

a?
-

Let the equations of the ellipsoid and of the plane be

Ix

+ my -\-nz- \.

We

Ex.

4.

it is

and

ellipsoid
is

2
-

homogeneous represents a cone whose vertex

and the ellipsoid

this equation being

;

of the
of the equation of the plane: the result

^ + f- +^ =(i*+my + ^)
For

z
p + =1

i/

have only to make the equation

homogeneous by means

at the origin
and
the same points.

clear that the plane cuts the cone

is

in

Find the general equation of a cone of the second degree referred

axes of co-ordinates.
of a quadric cone whose centre is at the origin

to three of its generators as

The general equation

is

ax 2 + by* + cz 2 + 2fyz + 2gzx + 2hxy = 0.

If the axis of
be a generating line, then y = 0, z =
must satisfy the
equation for all values of x this gives a = 0.
Similarly, if the axes of y and z
be generating lines, fc =
and c = 0. Hence the most general form of the
equation of a quadric cone referred to three generators as axes is
;

fyz

+ gzx + hxy = 0.

Ex. 5. Find the equation of the cone whose vertex is at the centre of a
given ellipsoid, and which goes through all points common to the ellipsoid
and a concentric sphere.
2
xa
z2
7/
515
If the equations of the ellipsoid and sphere be
^ and

~|+ 55

o:

+ 2/ 2 + 2 2 = r2

respectively; the equation of the cone will be

"^"i

THE CENTRE.

56
Ex.

Find the equation

6.

and whose generating

Let

any generator be

through the conic

*=

and y =
p-^

7,

+ p(/37i-7?7i) 2 = n2

the line,

and we have

Hence

y.

-2(an-7Z)

whose vertex

of the cone

lines pass

-=

is

j^

the point

(a,

/3,

7)

= ^, 2 = 0.

This meets

2=0 where

Substitute for

-^ +

I,

-^ (a.z-yx)^+j-^(^z

m, n from the equations of

-yy)

= (z-y)

<2

the

required

equation.

If the origin be the centre of the surface, it is the

74.
middle point of all chords passing through it; hence if
yv
z^
(x 2/j, Zj) be any point on the surface, the point ( x lt
will also be on the surface.
l

Hence we have

+ by* + cz* + 2fy z + Zgz^ + 2/w^ + 2?^ + 2vy

+ 2?^ + d = 0,
*
and ax* + by* + cz*

ax*

ux

therefore

+ v^ + ic^j = 0.

Since this equation holds for

all

points (xlf y lf zj on the

we must have u, v, w all zero.

Hence, when the origin is the centre

surface,

coefficients of x,

75.

Let

To find
(f,

77,

f)

y and z are

of a conicoid, the

all zero.

the co-ordinates of the centre

of a conicoid.

be the centre of the surface; then

if

we take

of x, y, and z in the trans

(?
?) f r origin, the coefficients
formed equation will all be zero. The transformed equation
7?

will

be [Art. 44]

J)

(a?

-f

THE CENTRE.

57

Hence the equations giving the centre

af

4- hrj

are

+ g + u = 0, V

and

The equation
i),

of the conicoid

when

referred to the centre

f) as origin is

ax?

//?/

+ ct? +

Multiply equations

sum from &(%,

2fyz

(i)

*],) ,

fyzx

in order

+
by

2Jucy

f,

77,

(i)

and

(iii)

...... (ii),

f and subtract the

then we have

d^ug+wrj + wZ+d.
From

+d =

,(iii).

we have

v^.

^"-<a-kJ

THE CENTRE.

58

The determinant on the right side of

discriminant of the function F\x y,
and
symbol A.
t

(iv)
is

z}>

called the

is

denoted by the

The determinant on the left side is the discriminant of

the terms in F(x, y, z) which are of the second degree; it is
also the minor of d in the determinant A, and, as in Art. 57,
we shall denote it by D. Equation (iv) may therefore be
written
(v).

76.

obtained

The equations for finding the centre can also be

from Art. 58 (i); for (f, 77, f) will be the middle

point of every chord which passes through

vided

y,

(f,

f),

pro

dF df ~ dF
d%
It should

dij

be noticed that the co-ordinates of the centre

by the equations

are given

I-5-l-i
U V ~W~D
where U, V, W,
77.

If,

origin,

have the same meanings as in Art.

57.

by a change of rectangular axes through the same

2
a# + by 2 + cz* -f Zfyz + 2gzx + 2hxy

becomes changed into

aV + &y + c z* + Zf yz + Zg zx + Zh xy
then, since x*
ax*
will

+ y* + z*

is

+ a? + Zfyz +

unaltered by the change of axes,

Zgzx

+ 2hxy - \

(x>

+f+z

).

.(i)

be changed into

aV +

+ cz* +

2f yz

-f

2g zx

+ Zh xy

-X(^-i-2/ + 5

The

expressions

(i)

of linear factors for the

) ...... (ii).

and (ii) will therefore be the product

same values of X.

59

INVARIANTS.

The

condition that

the product of linear factors

a-X,

b-\,

9
that

is

(i)

>

is

= 0,

f
c

is

- (ale +
The

condition that

(ii)

is

- a/ 2

2fgh

by*

- ctf) = 0.

the product of linear factors

is

similarly
2
2
-/ - # - h *}
2 2
-cA
a/
(a Vc + 2/y#

X - X2 (a! + V + c) + X (6Y -f cV

4-

aV

Since the roots of the above cubic equations in

same, the coefficients must be equal.

Hence the following expressions

are unaltered

change of rectangular axes through the

are therefore called invariants :
be

same

= 0.

are the

by any

origin,

and

2
+ ab -/* - g - A .......... II,
-f 2////1
af bf ctf ...... III.

ale

ca

Since the coefficients of the terms of the second degree

are unaltered by a change of origin, the axes being parallel
to their original directions, it follows that the expressions
of rectangular
I, II, and III are unaltered by any change
axes.

We

have seen [Art. 63] that by a proper choice of

axes
ax* + by* + c^ + %fyz + 2gzx -f 2/m/ can al
rectangular
ways be reduced to the form aa? + fty* -f 72* ; and this re
duction can be effected without changing the origin, for the
terms of the second degree are not altered by transforming to
78.

any

parallel axes.

Now a?8 + y* + z* is unaltered by a change of rectangular

axes through the same origin.
Hence, when the axes are so
changed that

THE DISCRIMINATING

60

CUBIC.

+ by* + cz* + 2fyz -f 2gzx + 2/m/ becomes cue1 + #?/ + 70

ax + by* + cz* + 2/y* + 20*a? + Zlney - \ (x* + ?/ + a
(i),
ax*

will

become
2

) ............... (ii).

Both these expressions will therefore be the product of

same values of X. The condition that

linear factors for the

(i) is

the product of linear factors

g
But
a,

(ii)

is

equation

-0.

6-X,

c-X

the product of linear factors

when X

is

equal to

0, or 7.

Hence the

X,

is

coefficients

a, /3,

7 are the three roots of the

(iii).

The equation when expanded

2
+ c) + X (ab f fo + c
(a +

-X

/)

This equation

is

is

/ - #* 2

2
7>

- a/ ~

(abc

-f

2/5*

fyf

c/t )

0.

called the discriminating cubic.

It should be noticed that the equation

found in Art. 60.

is

the same as that

We

79.
proceed to shew how to find the nature of a
conicoid whose equation is given.

First write down the equations for finding the centre of

the conicoid and from Art. 75 we see that there is a definite
centre at a finite distance, unless the determinant
;

a,

h,

h,

b,

f
c

9>

is zero.

f>

CONICOIDS WITH GIVEN EQUATIONS.

If

parallel axes through the

be not zero, change to

and the equation becomes

centre,

ax*

where d

is

bif

cz*

61

+ 2fyz + tyzx +

Zlixy

+d = 0,

found as in Art. 75.

Now, keeping the origin fixed, change the axes

manner that the equation is reduced to the form
Then, by Art. 78,

a,

& 7 will

in such

be the three roots of the dis

criminating cubic.
[When the discriminating cubic cannot be solved, since its
roots are all real [Art. 64], the number of positive and of
negative roots can be found by Descartes Rule of Signs.]

Dd

Since

may be

A, the last equation

written in the

+ D/3f + Dyt* + A = 0.
~?
-~ are
quantities

Dztf

form
If the three

-^-

all

negative,

is an ellipsoid ; if two of them are

negative, the
an hyperboloid of one sheet ; if one is negative, the
is an hyperboloid of two sheets ; and if they are all
positive, the surface is an imaginary ellipsoid.

the surface
surface
surface

A = 0,

If
Ex.

is

the surface

llx"

(i).

The equations

+ l(ty + 62

is

a cone.

- 8yz + 4zx

for finding the centre are

-12xy + 72x - 72y + 36z + 150 = 0.

-~ = Q. or

-=-

dx

dy

dz

llx2xTherefore the centre

The equation

is

(-2,

2,

1).

referred to parallel axes through the centre will therefore be

llx2 + l(ty 2 + 62 2 - Syz + 4zx - 12xy -12 = 0. [Art. 75 (iii) .]

The Discriminating Cubic is X3 - 27X 2 + 180X - 324 =

Hence the equation represents the ellipsoid

are 3, 6, 18.

*2
or

7
We

the roots of which

2
+ 6// 2 + 182 2 = 12,

3j,-

22

+C + pl.
7/2

can find the equations of the axes by using the formulae found in

Art. 60.

The

-!,!,-*.

direction-cosines

of

the

axes

are

I,

i,

- -I

CONICOIDS WITH GIVEN EQUATIONS.

62

x2 + 2i/ 2 + 32 2 - 4x3 - xy + d = 0.
(ii).
The Discriminating Cubic is X 3 - 6\ 2 + 3X + 14 = 0.
Ex.

All the roots of the

cubic are real hence, by Descartes Rule of Signs, there are two positive
The surface is therefore an hyperboloid of
roots and one negative root.
one sheej^, an hyperboloid of two sheets, or a cone, according as d is
negative; positive, or zero.
;

that D = 0.
Then the three planes
on
which
the
will not intersect in a
centre
lies
(i)]
point at a finite distance from the origin, and we shall have
three cases to consider according as the planes meet in a
point at infinity, or have a common line of intersection, or
are all parallel to one another.
These three cases we shall
consider in the following Articles.

Next suppose

[Art. 75

It should be observed that

discriminating cubic is zero.

The

81.

when

D=

one root of the

conditions that the planes whose equations are

ax + hy + gz + u

0,

+ 0=0,
gx + fy + cz + iv= 0,
kB-.+ty +fj

and

may be

parallel are

a
j-

h- b f
- T-h -9 ana
= -:,= -,
nd
b J
g f c
-7,

fl

These conditions may be written

af=gh, bg=hf, ch=fg .................. (i).

Now

these are the conditions that the terms of the second

degree should be a perfect square and when this is the case
it is obvious on inspection.
;

When the terms of the second degree are a perfect

square, the general equation can be written in the form
+

fgh
^f/

2ux

2vy

+ 2wz + d =

......... (ii).

C/

If the plane

ux

+ vy+wz=Q
x

11
*2

is

parallel to the plane

= 0,

CONICOIDS WITH GIVEN EQUATIONS.

the equation

63

represent two parallel planes

(ii) will

the con

ditions for this are

uf=
If the conditions

(iii)

vg

=wh

(iii).

are not satisfied, the equation

the form

Ay*

+ Ex = 0,

which represents a parabolic cylinder

are parallel to y
0.
0, x

(ii) is

whose generating

of

lines

Hence the general equation

sents a parabolic cylinder
to the line

+~+

J7

=
(i)

second degree repre

ux + vy 4 wz

provided the conditions

of the

whose generating

lines are parallel

are satisfied, and that

(iii)

are not

satisfied.

The latus-rectum of the principal parabolic section can be

by the same method as that employed in Conies,

found

Art. 172.
Ex.

Find the nature of the conicoid whose equation

4j;2

The equation

+y +

4 Z 2 _ 4^ 2 + Q Z

_
xy + 2 X

4i/

52

is

+ 1 = 0.

is
(2o;

This

is

equivalent to

The planes 2x - y + 2z + X = 0, and

x (4\ will

be perpendicular,

2)

if

written

y (2\

X=l.

(2x

4)

+ z (4\ - 5) - 1 + X 2 = 0,

Hence the equation

2=
2;c + 2y - z,
1)

of the surface

+ 22 + l\ a = 1 2x + 2y~z
s
3(2,x-y 3
)
Hence, taking 2x - y + 2z + 1 = 0, and 2x + 2y - z =

and x = Q

may

as the planes y
respectively, the equation of the surface will be

Hence the latus-rectum

be

- y + 1z +

of a principal parabolic section is -.

CONICOIDS WITH GIVEN EQUATIONS.

64
82.

Next suppose that the three planes on which the

centre lies are not

line of intersection.

all parallel,

but that they have a

common

If \ve take any point on the line of centres for origin, the
equation will take the form

ax*

by*

C2

2fyz

2gzx

+ %lixy + d! - 0.

Then, keeping the origin fixed, by transformation of axes

the equation will be reduced to the form

+ Py* + d =

ax*

........................

One root of the discriminating cubic is zero, since

are given by the equation
and the roots a, /3,

If d
0, the surface represented by the equation
two planes, real or imaginary.
If d be not zero, the surface is a cylinder.

The

may have

^
a

ax
hx

common

is

a,

h,

g,

h,

b,

/,

f,

c,

is,

+ hy + gz + u = 0,
+ by 4- fa + v 0,

line of intersection, are given

g,

Ex.

(i)

conditions that the three planes

.

that

(i).

D=

=0,

=7=F = D=0

by

[Art. 18]

Find the nature of the conicoid whose equation is

32^2 + y i + 4.32 _ IQZX _ sxy + 96* - 2(ty Sz + 103 = 0.

The equations

giving the centre are

- 4x+ y

-10 = 0,

- 80;
+4z- 4 = 0.
and
Hence there is a line of centres. Find one point on the line, for example
the origin to the point (0, 10, 1) the equation will
(0, 10, 1), and change
32x 2 + y 2 + z* - 16-s.c - 8xy = 1.
then become
:

CONICOIDS WITH GIVEN EQUATIONS.

65

The Discriminating Cubic

-37X + 84\ = 0. One root is zero, and the
other two roots are positive hence the equation is an elliptic cylinder.
2

is X 3

The

83.

axis of the cylinder

If the planes

at infinity,

the line of centres

is

and

on which the centre

we proceed

equations are

its

meet

lies

at a point

as follows.

Since one root of the discriminating cubic is zero, the

equation can always be solved let the roots be a, ft, 0.
:

Find the directions of the principal axes of the surface,

by means of the equations of Art. 6*0; and take axes parallel
to these principal axes.
The equation will then become
OLO?

or,

+ fry* + 2ux +

by a change of

paraboloid, the latera recta of

v,

being

principal parabolic

A -~and

-6zx-7x-5y

Qyz

direction-cosines

is

X3 - 3X 2 - 18X =

the

of

principal

the roots of which are

axes

1
r

are

to find tlie

e(l uation

^/o

i^/o

referred to

"72

"73

v/6

>

N/2

/3

for x, y, z respectively.

6z 2 -

the surface

is

x/3

N/6

The equation

_ 4^/6* 3?/2

or, by changing the origin

parabolas being

we must

substitute

JLJL_^__
+

JL +
4. JL +
4. JL

S. S.

Hence

an<

73 73
~/2
axes parallel to the principal axes,

6,

1
,

>/w

Thus

its

Find the nature of the surface whose equation is

322 + bz + 3 = 0.

The Discriminating Cubic

-3,0.

The

0,

origin,

Hence the surface is a

u r sections
*

Ex.

+ 2w z + d =

2v y

Gaj

3y

will

^2

~ 2x
,

7C

then become

2J3y - J2z + 3 =
2

fJ2z= 0.

a hyperbolic paraboloid, the latera recta of the principal

^2 and J^/2.

G.

CONDITION FOR A CONE.

66

is
84.
It follows from Art. 75 (ii) and (iv) that when
not zero, the necessary and sufficient condition that the
surface represented by the general equation of the second
= 0.
degree may be a cone is A
= 0, then will U, and
=
be
also
and
A
When
all zero*: hence [Arts. 81 and 82] the surface must be either
and cylinders and planes are
a cylinder or two planes
of
cones.
forms
Conversely, when the surface re
limiting

presents a cylinder, or two planes, V, V,

= 0.
zero, and therefore also A

W and D are

all

is the necessary and sufficient condition

Hence A =
that the surface represented by the general equation of the
second degree may be a cone.

To find the conditions that the surface represented by

85.
the general equation of the second degree may be a surface of
revolution.

We

two of the roots of the dis

require the condition that
In that case
be
cubic
equal.
may
criminating
can be transformed into
ax?

+ ay + 7/.

Hence
ax*
*

by*

+ cz* +

2fyz

+ Zgzx +

Zhasy

-\(x*+y* + z*).

.(i),

This can be proved as follows:

We have

u U + vV+wW+dD = &.

And, since a determinant vanishes

have also

and

of its rows are identical,

when two

we

aU+HV+gW+uD = 0,
hU+bV+fW+vD = Q,
=
9 U+fV + cW+wD 0.

are all zero, we can eliminate

and D=0, unless 17, V,
we thus
from the first equation and any two of the others:
but these determinants are
obtain three determinants which are all zero

Hence when A =

U V

U, V, and W.

SURFACE OF REVOLUTION.*

67

can be transformed into

ax*

Now

X=

we take

if

Hence

aif

^-\

cr,

(ii)

(x

+ f + /) ........ .(ii)-

be a perfect square.

will

a surface of revolution,
a proper choice of X, make (i) a perfect square
square must be
if

the surface

[x

We

is

we
;

can, by
and that

V(a -\)

therefore have

........ (Hi).

Hence, iff,

h be

g,

a-

ah

all finite,

we have

c=

=b - hf

fg

the required conditions.

Let h, any one of the three quantities /, g, h, be zero
then from (iii) we see that X = a or \ = b, and therefore also

or/=0.
Suppose g

and h

then X

= a,

and the condition

for a surface of revolution is

(b-a)(c-a)=f
EXAMPLES ON CHAPTER

(v).

III.

Determine the nature of the surfaces represented by the

1.
following equations
:

(ii)

x a + y* +

(iii)

x - 2xy
2

(iv)

+ xy - 2xz + 4
2
2yz 2zx = a
.

3!

(v)

(vi)

2;

52

EXAMPLES ON CHAPTER

68
2.

III.

Find the nature of the surfaces represented by the following

equations
(i)

(ii)
(iii)

(iv)

2
If - 3* -

- 1 2xy + 1 = 0.
yz + Szx
2 2x* + 2y*
4*
2yz- 2zx-5xy -2x-2y + z=Q.
2
2
2
5aj - y + z + Qxz +
xy + 2x + ky + Qz = 8.
2x 2 + 3y 2 + 3i/z + 2zx + xy - by + Sz - 32 = 0.

x9 +

Find the equations of the axes of (i), and the latera recta of
the principal parabolas of (ii) and of
(iii).
3.

Shew

that the equation

x + y 2 + 3 2 + yz + zx + xy = 1,
represents an ellipsoid the squares of whose semi-axes are 2,
Shew also that the equation of its principal axis is x = y = z.
~

4.

Shew

that, if the axes,

2, i.

supposed rectangular, be turned

will be unaltered.

round the origin in any manner, u 2 + v 2 + w*

5.

Shew

that, if three chords of a conicoid

middle point, they

all lie in

have the same

a plane, or intersect in the centre of

the conicoid.
lines are drawn in fixed directions
6.
Through any point
and Q Q respectively;
which meet a given conicoid in points P,
shew that the rectangles OP, OP and OQ, OQ are in a constant

ratio.

If any three rectangular axes through a fixed point

7.
then will
a given conicoid in P,
;
Q, Q and R,
;

PP

OP*

OP*.

OP OP
.

be constant.

OQ*.

OQ
77,

OQ. OQ

OR OH
2

OR OIC
.

cut

CHAPTER

IV.

CONTCOIDS REFERRED TO THEIR AXES.

IN the present chapter we shall investigate some
properties of conicoids, obtained by taking the equations
of the surfaces in the simplest forms to which they can be
86.

reduced.

We

shall

begin by considering the Sphere.

THE SPHERE.
87.

The equation

and radius d

is

of the sphere

whose centre

is (a, b, c)

[Art. 5]

2
2
(x-a) +(y-by + (z-c) =

d*.

therefore of the form

The equation of any sphere

a?+ if + z* + ZAx + 2%+ 2Cz
is

+D =

0.

form, that is every

Conversely every equation of the above
2
2
z are equal, and
of
and
in
which
the
coefficients
x\ y
equation
,

in

which the terms

yz, zx,

xy do not appear, represents a

sphere.
88.

The general equation

of a

sphere contains

four

constants, and therefore a sphere can be made to satisfy four

conditions.
We may, for example, find the equation of a
which
sphere
passes through any four points.

THE SPHERE.

70

If (x v T/J, z ), (#2 y v s 2), (#, 7/3, z s ], (x4

points the equation of the sphere through
2

-f?/

_L

7/

TjTj

+
4.

i/ 4 ,

r
*^l

?/

^*j

*
*l

Ji

be the four

z4)

them

will be.

0.

I1

- -

2/2

2/3

2/3^

f/+*;
89.
(x

2/4

The equation of the tangent plane at any point

2
= a? is
z) of the sphere whose equation is a? + y + z*

+ yy + zz = a

This result can be

[Art. 52, Ex. 1],
obtained at once from the fact that the tangent plane at any
point (& y, z) on a sphere is perpendicular to the line

xx

joining (x y
of the plane
t

(x

-x

This gives for the equation

+(y- y y+(z- z) z = 0,
)

xx

or

the

to the centre.

+ yy + zz = a?.

The polar plane of any point

method of Art. 53, to be
xx

(a/,

y /) can be shewn, by

+ yy + zz = a

3
.

be the equation
It can be easily shewn, that if S =
90.
of a sphere (where 8 is written for shortness instead of
2
8
a- -f
4- z + 2 Ax + 25?/ + ZCz + D), and the co-ordinates of
any point be substituted in S, the result will be equal to the
square of the tangent from that point to the sphere.
= be the equations of two spheres
0, and
Hence, if
S is the
of x* is unity), S
which
coefficient
of
the
each
(in
locus of points, the tangents from which to the two spheres

S=

>ST

are equal.
The surface whose equation is 8 S = passes through all
= 0, and S
for, if
;
points common to the two spheres 8
and
the co-ordinates of any point satisfy the equations S =
S = 0, they will also satisfy the equation S - S = 0.
=Q is of the first degree,and therefore represents
Now
a plane. The plane through the points of intersection of two
spheres is called their radical plane.

SS

THE ELLIPSOID.

71

We have seen that the tangents drawn to two spheres

from any point on their radical plane are equal.
radical planes of four given spheres meet in a point,
= 0,
in the point given by 81
82 = S8 =S^, where
$2 = 0, S3 = 0, $4 = are the equations of the four spheres,
in each of which the. coefficient of a? is unity.
This point is called the radical centre of the four spheres,

The

viz.

and
(a^, y lt zj
a diameter.
If (x, y, z) be any point on the sphere, the direction -cosines of the lines
joining (x, y, z) to the two given points are proportional to x X L y- y^
Ex.

(# 2 ,

Find the equation of the sphere which has

1.

z 2 ) for extremities of

i/ 2 ,

- Z-L, and x-x2 ,y-y2 ,z- z 2

The condition of perpendicularity
.

of

these lines gives the required

equation

V*

Ex. 2. The locus of a point, the sum of the squares of whose distances
from any number of given points is constant, is a sphere.
Ex.

^*

3.

from the

point moves so that the sum of the squares of its distances

cube is constant ; shew that its locus is a sphere.

six faces of a

shew
Ex. 4. A, B are two fixed points, and P moves so that
;
that the locus of P is a sphere. Shew also that all such spheres, for different
values of w, have a common radical plane.

PA=nPB

Ex. 5. The distances of two points from the centre of & sphere are pro
portional to the distance of each from the polar of the other.

Ex.

Shew

6.

that the spheres whose equations are

and
cut one another at right angles,

We

91.

and we

shall

if

proceed to prove some properties of the ellipsoid;

always suppose the equation of the surface to be
2

a*

__
a
a

unless

it is

z
if
__ __

J_

6*

otherwise expressed.

To obtain the properties of the hyperboloids we shall

only have to make the necessary changes in the signs of
2
2
6

and

72

DIRECTOR-SPHERE.

We have already seen [Art. 52] that the equation of the

tangent plane at any point (x, y z ) is
,

-i
~
The length of the perpendicular from the origin on the
tangent plane at the point (x y z) is [Art. 20] given by the
equation
1
x * y 2 z*
,

p
Equation

(i)

is
I

2= a-44 +
2

T44
6

.................. (11).

equivalent to Ix

+ my +

y
^*

nz

= p, where

Hence the plane whose equation

touch the ellipsoid, if

+ my + nz=p,

is Ix

will

92.
To find the locus of the point of intersection of three
tangent planes to an ellipsoid which are mutually at right
angles.

Let the equations of the planes be

+ nz = J
1

By
have

+ m y 4-

?i

=
3

/y/

4-

(V

2
3

Vm

4- 6

??i

+c

/i

8 )-

squaring both sides of these equations and adding, we

between the direction-cosines

in virtue of the relations

of perpendicular lines
x^

The required

+y

+ z2 = a

+b +G

i
.

therefore a sphere.
called the director-sphere of the ellipsoid.
93.

locus

The normal

straight line through

at P.

is

to a surface at

P perpendicular

This sphere

any point
to the

is

is

the

tangent plane

NORMALS.

The normal

an

to

73

ellipsoid at the

point (x,

z)

is

-therefore

&

_y

JL
a2

JL2

fl

++

Since

_z

!.

[Art

91.]

the direction-cosines of the normal are

*

94.

If the

normal at (# y z
we have
,

pass through the par

ticular point (/, g, h)

_^
a2

Put each

y_
b*

fraction equal to X, then

Hence, since

we have

Since this equation for X is of the sixth

degree, it follows
that there are six points the normals at which
pass through a
given point.
Ex. 1. The normal at any point P of an ellipsoid meets a
principal
plane in G. Shew that the locus of the middle point of PG is an ellipsoid.
Ex. 2. The normal at any point P of an
ellipsoid meets the principal
planes in G lf G 2 G,. Shew that PO V PG 2 PG 3 are in a constant ratio.
Ex. 3. The normals to an ellipsoid at the points P, P meet a principal
,

plane in G,

GG

shew that the plane which

bisects

PP

at right angles bisects

DIAMETRAL PLANES.

74

Ex. 4. If P, Q be any two points on an ellipsoid, the plane through

the centre and the line of intersection of the tangent planes at P, Q, will
bisect

PQ.

5.
P, Q are any two points on an ellipsoid, and planes through the
centre parallel to the tangent planes at P, Q cut the chord PQ in P , Q
Shew

Ex.

95.

The

line

whose equations are

so--

a.

= y-p = z-y = ^

meets the surface where

(

+ &)

+ tf+ntrf

(y

r)

If (a, /?, 7) be the middle point of the chord, the two

values of r given by the above equation must be equal and
opposite therefore the coefficient of r is zero, so that we
;

have
la.

a2

+ mp + ny
~F ^~

Hence the middle points of

which are parallel to the line

This plane

is

chords of the ellipsoid

are on the plane whose equation

is

nz

my

Ix

all

called the diametral plane of the line

The diametral plane

through the point (x

of lines

parallel to the

y, z) on the surface

xx

yy

<?-+f

diameter

is

zz

,.^

?=

( );

hence the diametral plane of any diameter is parallel to the

tangent plane at the extremities of that diameter.

CONJUGATE DIAMETERS.

The condition that the point

on the diametral plane

(#

75

y" ,

z")

should

be

is

(i)

~f

a"

The symmetry of this result shews that if a point Q be on

the diametral plane of OP, then will
be on the diametral
of
OQ.
plane
Let OR be the line of intersection of the diametral
planes of OP, OQ then, since the diametral planes of OP,
OQ pass through OR, the diametral plane of OR will pass
and through Q, and will therefore be the plane
through
POQ, so that the plane through any two of the three lines
OP, OQ, OR is diametral to the third.
Three planes are said to be conjugate when each is dia
metral to the line of intersection of the other two, and three
diameters are said to be conjugate when the plane of any two
is diametral to the third.

If (#j, y v zj, (#2 ?/2 2 2 ) and (a?8 y B z s ) be extremities

96.
of conjugate diameters, we have from Art. 95,
,

"

56
a

"

Ms
6

"

V_8_o
c

Also, since the points are on the surface,

2
?
i

_,

2/i"

^+
SC

It

j^

_1_

76

CONJUGATE DIAMETERS.

Now

from equations
_>,

*}
o

_2

ii

(ii)

we

see that

12

be

-,

-3.

are direction-cosines of three

straight lines, and from equations
we see that the straight lines are two and two at
(i)
right
Hence, as in Art. 45, we have
angles.

and

We

have

fi

&

also

from Art. 46.

,

=1,

or

x lt y 1?

zv

=abc

(v).

a
the sum of the squares of the pro
(iii) we see that
jections of three conjugate semi-diameters of an ellipsoid on
any one of its axes is constant.

From

Also, by addition, we have, the sum of the squares of three

conjugate diameters of an ellipsoid is constant.
From (v) we see that the volume of the parallelopiped

which has three conjugate semi-diameters of an ellipsoid for

conterminous edges is constant.
In the above the relations (iii) and (iv) were deduced
from (i) and (ii) by geometrical considerations.
They
could however be deduced by the ordinary processes of algebra
without any consideration of the geometrical meaning of the
quantities, and hence the results are true for the hyperboloids.

CONJUGATE DIAMETEKS.

77

The two propositions (1) that the sum of the squares

97.
of three conjugate semi-diameters is constant, and (2) that
the parallelepiped which has three conjugate semi-diameters
for conterminous edges is of constant volume, are extremely
important.
append other proofs of these propositions.
Since in any conic the sum of the squares of two conjugate

We

semi- diameters is constant, and also the parallelogram of

which they are adjacent sides, it follows that in any conicoid
no change is made either in the sum of the squares or in the
volume of the parallelepiped, so long as we keep one of the
three conjugate diameters fixed.
have therefore only to shew that we can pass from
any system of conjugate diameters to the principal axes of
the surface by a series of changes in each of which we keep
one of the conjugate diameters fixed.
This can be proved as follows
let OP, OQ, OR, be
any
three conjugate semi-diameters, and let the plane Q
cut a
(/, and let OR be in the plane
principal plane in the line
to
then
are three
OP, OQ ,
OQ\
conjugate
conjugate semi-diameters.
meet the principal plane in
Again, let the plane

We

OR

OR

QOR

POR

which
Q lies in the
OP" and in the
plane

line

OP",

POR

and

then

semi-conjugate diameters. But, since

let

OR

OP",

OR"

be conjugate to
and OR" are

OQ
is

conjugate to

OP"

and to OQ both of which are in a principal plane, it must be

a principal diameter.
Hence, finally, we have only to take the axes of the
section Q OP to have the three principal diameters.
,

It is known that any two conjugate diameters of a

98.
conic will both meet the curve in real points when it is an
ellipse ; that one will meet the curve in imaginary points

when

it is an
hyperbola and that both will meet the curve
in imaginary points when it is an imaginary ellipse.
Hence,
by transforming as in the preceding Article, we see that
three conjugate diameters of a conicoid will all meet the
surface in real points when it is an ellipsoid
that one will
;

meet the surface

in

imaginary points when

it is

an hyper-

CONJUGATE DIAMETERS.

78

boloid of one sheet; and that two will meet the surface in
imaginary points when it is an hyperboloid of two sheets.

To find

99.

the

equation of an

ellipsoid

referred to

three conjugate diameters as axes.

Since the origin is unaltered we substitute for sc, y and z

expressions of the form Ix + my + nz in order to obtain the
transformed equation [Arfc. 47].
The equation of the ellipsoid will therefore be of the form

Ax* + Bf + Gz + IFyz +
l

to the axis of x.

Hx y =
G = H=0.

Gz x +
1

that

will

for all

Qzx + ZHxy =

1.

bisects all chords parallel

y v z t ) be any point on the

be on the surface.
Hence
points on the surface this requires

Therefore

(~^^yv z^

surface,
1

supposition the plane #

By

if

(x v

also

Similarly, since the plane

=
to the axis of y, we have

F = 0.

bisects all chords parallel

Hence the equation of the surface is

Ax* + By* + Cz* = 1,
x*

y*

z*

JF+fr+Jl-1.
where a

c are

the lengths of the semi-diameters.

We may obtain the relations between conjugate

100.
diameters of central conicoids by the following method
:

The expression

transformed, by taking for axes three conjugate diameters

a, ft, 7 with one another, into the

is

which make angles

expression
x*

v*

z*

+T
+ x (^ + y* + z + ^z cos a + 2*00B0-f 2yco87).
+~
o
c
The two

expressions

linear factors for the

the cubic s

will

therefore both split up into

Hence the roots of
of \.

same values

CONJUGATE DIAMETERS.
and

+X

cos 7

cos

ft

X
X

/9

cos

+X

fTa

cos a

79

cos /?

cos a

-^

+X

are equal to one another.

Hence, by comparing coefficients in the two equations, we

have
/2
/2
a 2 + 6 2 + c 2 = /2 +6 + c
(i),

6V + cV + a 6 = 6 V
2

sin a

sin

/3

+a

/2

6 sin

(ii),

and
abc

=abc

cos a

*J(\

cos

/3

cos

+2 cos acos/3cos7)..(iii).

Therefore the sum of the squares of three conjugate

diameters is constant the sum of the squares of the areas of
the faces of a parallelepiped having three conjugate radii for
conterminous edges is constant and the volume of such a
;

parallelepiped
1.

If

is

constant.

a parallelepiped be inscribed in an

ellipsoid, its edges will

be

parallel to conjugate diameters.

Ex. 2. Shew that the sum of the squares of the projections of three
conjugate diameters of a conicoid on any line, or on any plane, is constant.

Ex. 3. The sum of the

ends of any three conjugate
point is a sphere.

>

quares of the distances of a point from the six

iameters is constant shew that the locus of the
;

y^

Ex. 4. If
t
(#31/323) be extremities of three conjugate
(tfji/jZj), (x z
diameters of an ellipsoid, the equation of the plane through them will be

Ex. 5. Shew that the tangent planes at the extremities of three conju
gate diameters of an ellipsoid meet on a similar ellipsoid.

Ex. 6. Shew that the locus of the centre of gravity of a triangle whose
angular points are the extremities of three conjugate diameters of an ellipsoid
is a similar ellipsoid.

THE PARABOLOIDS.

80

THE PARABOLOIDS.

We

heave seen that the paraboloids are particular

101.
cases of the central surfaces; properties of the paraboloids
can therefore be deduced from the corresponding properties of
the central surfaces.
will, however, investigate some of

We

the properties independently.

We
to

suppose the equation of the surface

shall always

be
x*

y* =
-+V

a
102.

To find

of the point of intersection of three

a paraboloid which are mutually at right

the locus

to

tangent planes

.
22.

angles.

be one of the tangent planes;

Ijc + m^y + n^z + p^=
since the plane touches the surface, we have

Let
then,

+ bm* =

al*

Hence we may

2n p

have
Z

and

(al?

+ bm*) =

n3

<m/i

x4 m n
s

0.

+ n?z + % (al* + Im?) = 0,

= 0.
y + n*z + \ (al* 4- bm*)

Since the planes are at right angles,

z

hence the locus

103.

II.]

also

n x+
2 2
&

[Art. 57,

write the equation in the form

l^x -r vip^y + n* z + %

We

is

we have by

addition

a plane.

The equation

of the paraboloid

=
(a + b)

is

of the normal at any point (x,

y z)
t

The normal
point

at (x,

PARABOLOIDS.

81

will pass

through the particular

y z)
,

if
(/, g, h),

Put each

/-*

g-tf

?L

yL

fraction equal to

and substituting

_h~*
~
l

then

in

we have

The equation
five

in

of the

is

fifth

degree;

therefore

normals can be drawn from any

point to a paraboloid.

104,
The middle points of
which are parallel to the line

x
l

are [Art. 59] on the

plane

all

= z-

in

11

whose equation

dF

dF

dy

dz

jdF + m
~T~
~r + n
ax

chords of the paraboloid

is

=0,

- + my
--^-n= 0.

Ix

or

Hence

all

diametral planes are parallel to the axis of the

surface.

easy to shew conversely that all planes parallel

diametral planes.
A line parallel to the axis of the surface is called a
diameter.
Every diameter meets the surface in one point at
a finite distance from the
origin ; and this point is called the
extremity of the diameter.
It

is

to the axis are

s. s.

G.

PARABOLOIDS.

The two diametral

planes whose equations are

my

x
a

_+-/-n
o

and
are such that each

is

= 0,

parallel to the chords bisected

other, if

by the

mm _ n
-- --

II

"

be satisfied, the planes are called con

diametral
planes.
jugate
The condition shews that conjugate diametral planes
meet the plane z = in lines which are parallel to conjugate
diameters of the conic
If this condition

--r-T~=
^V-i
a

1.

If we move the origin to any point

surface, the equation becomes
x*
2xa
if
2yf$
105.

a
If

+V+
b

+-4^
o

- 2s =

(a, ft,

0.

we take the planes

* = 0,y=0, and

Cb

+ ^-*=0

as co-ordinate planes, and therefore the lines

x_y_z

x_y_z
a~0~a
for axes,

we must

,os

_y =

0~6~/3

[Art. 47] substitute

ax

by
for x, y, z respectively.

The transformed equation

is

$y

7) on the

CONES.

This

is

83

the equation to the surface referred to a point

7) as origin, two of the co-ordinate planes being parallel

to their original directions, and the third being the tangent
(or, /#,

plane at
Ex.

(a, /3, 7).

Shew

1.

paraboloid

is

that the locus of the centres of parallel sections of a

a diameter.

^j \&.

">

Shew

that all planes parallel to the axis of a paraboloid cut the

surface in parabolas.

Ex.

2.

Ex. 3. Shew that the latera recta of

paraboloid are equal.

parabolic sections of a

all parallel

Ex. 4. Shew that the projections, on a plane perpendicular to the axis

of a paraboloid, of all plane sections which are not parallel to the axis, are
similar conies.
P, Q are any two points on a paraboloid, and the tangent planes
and the
shew that the plane through
intersect in the line
;
is parallel to the axis of the paraboloid.
middle point of

Ex.

at P,

5.

US

ES

PQ

Ex. 6. Shew that two conjugate points on a diameter of a paraboloid

are equidistant from the extremity of that diameter.
Ex. 7. Shew that the sum of the latera recta of the sections of a
paraboloid, made by any two conjugate diametral planes through a fixed
point on the surface, is constant.

CONES.

The general equation

106.

degree

of a

cone of the second

is

ax*

+ by* + cz* +

The tangent

plane

2fyz

at

+ 2gzx + 2hxy = 0.

any point (x, y

on the

surface is

(x

-x)

(ax

hy

+ gz) + (y - y )

(hx

+ by +//)

or

x (ax + liy + gz } + y (lix + by +fz) + z (gx +fy + cz) = 0.

The form of this equation shews that the tangent plane
any point on a cone passes through its vertex, as is geo
metrically evident from the fact that the generating line
through any point is one of the tangent lines at that point,
and therefore lies in the tangent plane.
at

62

TANGENT PLANE OF A CONE.

To find the condition that the plane

touch the cone whose equation is

107.

may

(#

+ by + cz + 2fyz +

aa?

^gzx

lx+my + nz=Q

+ Vhxy = 0.

of the tangent plane at the point

Comparing the equation

y /), namely
t

x (ax + hy + gz) + y (hx + by +fz)

with the given equation, we have

z (got

+fy + cz ) =

+ hy + gz = hx + by +fz = gx +fy +

ax

Put each

fraction equal to

0,

cz

n
then

\,

ax+hy +gz + \l =0,

and

lx
t

AF + Bm* +
13,

we have the required

\,

a,

g,

h,

&

/,

f,

c,

m,

n,

Cn*

+ 2Fmn +

2 6^w? + 2777m

minors of

C, &c. are the

a,
,

condition

0,

I,

g>

where A,
minant

0.

on the plane,
my + nz = 0.

is

y, z)

Eliminating x, y z

or

+ cz + \n =

gx +fij
Also, since (x

h,

6,

= 0,

a, b, c, &c. in

the deter

If through the vertex of a given cone lines be drawn

perpendicular to its tangent planes, these lines generate
another cone called the reciprocal cone.

108.

The

line

through the origin perpendicular to the plane

RECIPROCAL CONE.
Hence, from the result of the

85

last article, the reciprocal of

the cone

+ by* + cz* + 2fyz + 2gzx + 2hxy = 0,

+
+ Ce* + 2Fye + 2Gex + ZHxy = 0.

aa?

Ax*

is

Since the minors of A, B, C, &c. in the determinant

A, II
B, B,
G, F,
,

r
O

we

are proportional to a,

b, c,

tween the two cones

a reciprocal one.

As a

is

&c.,

see that the relation be

particular case of the above, the reciprocal of the

cone

+ by* + cz = 0,
z

a-j?

From

tin s

we

is

^+^+

see at once that

- = 0.

a cone and

its

reciprocal

may

have three

are co-axial.

To find the condition that a cone

109.
perpendicular generators.
Let the equation of the cone be
ax*

+ by* + cz* + 2fyz + Zgzx -f

Zhxy

(i).

If the cone have three perpendicular generators, and we

take these for axes of co-ordinates, the equation will [Art. 73,

Ex. 4] take the form

Ayz + Bzx + Cxy=

(ii).
2

sum

of the co-efficients of # ?/ and z* is an in

variant [Art. 79] and in (ii) the sum is zero therefore the
sum must be zero in (i) also. Therefore a necessary condition

Since the

is

a+
If the

+c=

(iii).

condition (iii) is satisfied there are an infinite

number of sets of three perpendicular generators. For take
any generator for the axis of x\ then by supposition any
= 0, z = is on the surface ; therefore the
point on the line y

CONE WITH THREE PERPENDICULAR GENERATORS.

86

co-efficient of a?

is

zero, so

that the transformed equation

is

of

the form

and since the sum of the

0.
variant, we have b + c

Now

the section of

co-efficients of x*, y* y z* is

by the plane x

(iv)

is

an in

the two

straight lines

ty +

ca?

+2/y*=0;

and these are at right angles, since

-f-

= 0.

If a cone have three perpendicular tangent planes,

110.
the reciprocal cone will have three perpendicular generators.

Hence the necessary and

sufficient condition

that the

cone

may

ax* + by* + cz* + 2fyz + 2gzas + Zhxy =

have three perpendicular tangent planes is
A+
(7=0.

0,

B+

Ex. 1. CP,
Q OR are three central radii of an ellipsoid which are
mutually at right angles to one another shew that the plane PQR touches
a sphere.
Let the equation of the plane PQR be to + my + nz =p. The equation of
the cone whose vertex is the origin, and which passes through the intersection
x + my+ nz \
+ + =
\
of the plane and the ellipsoid
+ |* +
1, is
1^
^
t

By

^=

supposition the cone has three perpendicular generators;

therefore

Ex. 2. Any two sets of rectangular axes which meet in a point form six
generators of a cone of the second degree.
Ex.
a point

3.

all

111.

point

to

Shew that any two sets of perpendicular planes which meet in

touch a cone of the second degree.

To find the equation of

an ellipsoid.

Let the equation of the

ellipsoid
2

x
a
a

the tangent cone from

y
*

Tlj

-2

==
a

be

any

TANGENT CONE.

87

Let the co-ordinates of any two points

and

x"

respectively.
co-ordinates of a point

The

P Q

be x, y

z"

y",

which divides

PQ

in the ratio

n are

+
m+

nx
If this point
(not

mat"

be on the

mx J

(ny

+
m+n

+
m+n

ny

mz"

we have

ellipsoid,

nz

my"

my")*
}

or

PQ

If the line

cut the surface in coincident points, the

above equation, considered as a quadratic in

equal roots

Hence,

the condition for this

if

the point

(a?

must have

is

fixed, the co-ordinates

to the ellipsoid,

y /) be
,

of any point Q, on any tangent line from

must satisfy the equation

zz

Hence
from

(a?

112.
infinite

is

(i)

y, z

the required equation of the tangent cone

to the ellipsoid.

we suppose the point (x y, z

distance, the cone will become a
If

generating lines are parallel

ol the ellipsoid to the point (x

to

move

to

an

cylinder whose
to the line from the centre

z).

ENVELOPING CYLINDER.

8S
Hence,

if

in the equation of the enveloping cone

x =
and then make r
of

the

= mr, z

lr,

enveloping

nr,

we

shall obtain the equation

whose generating lines are

infinitely great,

cylinder

parallel to

we put

?!m = ?.n
I

Substituting lr, mr, nr for

equation of the enveloping cone

Hence, when r

x y z
we have
,

respectively in the

is infinite,

The equation of the enveloping cylinder can be

113.
found, independently of the enveloping cone, in the following
manner.
of the straight line which
parallel to

The equations
any

point (x

y /)
,

?!m
I

X
-

are

II

- -

The

straight line will

The

(x,

drawn through

n
Z

in

whose distances from

!/

is

ellipsoid in two points

are given by the equation

meet the

tf,

the surface, if
straight line will therefore touch
ix

EXAMPLES.

Hence the co-ordinates of

tangent line parallel to

any point, which

satisfy the

Ex.

is

on a

in

equation

ix

which

is

x^y_ =
I

89

the required equation of the enveloping cylinder.

(i).

To

find the condition that the enveloping cone

may have

three

perpendicular generators.

The equation

of the enveloping cone whose vertex

is (#

have three perpendicular generators the sum of the

z 2 must be equal to zero [Art. 109].
Hence (x yft
of the cone, is on the surface

If this
2

7/

and

/a; 2

Shew

The equations

"

that any two enveloping cones of

of the cones

whose

is

if),

of

the vertex

\ _a: 2
~

z*

i/

*"1

coefficients

1\
Ex. (ii).
plane curves.

vertices are

(a; ,

an

ellipsoid intersect in

y\ z

and

(x",

y",

z")

are

respectively.

The

surface

whose equation

passes through their

Ex.

(iii).

common

is

points,

Find the equation

ax* + by* + 2z = 0.

Ans. (ax

and clearly

is

two planes.

of the enveloping cone of the paraboloid

+ by* + 2z)

(ax

+ by 2 + 2z ) = (axx + byy + z+ z ) 2

Ex. (iv). Find the locus of a point from which three perpendicular
2
2
tangent lines can be drawn to the paraboloid ax + by + 22 =
Ans. ab (x2 + y*) + 2 (a + b) *=1.

90
EXAMPLES ON CHAPTER IV.
Find the equation of a sphere which cuts four given spheres

1.

orthogonally.
2.

S =

Shew that a sphere which cuts the two spheres $ =

at right angles, will cut lS+7nS =
at right angles.

and

3.
OP, OQ, OR are three perpendicular lines which meet in
a fixed point 0, and cut a given sphere in the points P, Q, R;
shew that the locus of the foot of the perpendicular from
on
the plane PQR is a sphere.

4.
two straight lines are drawn perpen
Through a point
dicular to one another and intersecting two given straight lines
at right angles; shew that the locus of
is a conicoicl whose
centre is the middle point of the shortest distance between the

given

lines.

Shew that the cone A x* + if + Cz* + ZFyz + 2 Gzx + 2 IIxy =

have three of its generators coincident with conjugate diameters

5.

will

of

^
6.

+
||

+^= 1, if Aa* +
plane

distances from

+ Cc 2 = 0.

moves so that the sum of the squares of its

points is constant; shew that it always

n given

touches an ellipsoid.

The normals to a surface of the second degree, at all

7.
points of a plane section parallel to a principal plane, meet two
fixed straight lines, one in each of the other principal planes.

Shew

that the plane joining the extremities of three

of an ellipsoid, touches another ellipsoid.
diameters
conjugate
8.

9.
Having given any two systems of conjugate semi-diameters
of an ellipsoid, the parallelepiped which has any three for conter
minous edges is equal to that which has the other three for

conterminous edges.
If lines be drawn through the centre of an ellipsoid
10.
the cone so
parallel to the generating lines of an enveloping cone,
formed will intersect the ellipsoid in two planes parallel to the
plane of contact.

EXAMPLES ON CHAPTER

91

IV.

The enveloping cone from a point P to an ellipsoid has

generating lines parallel to conjugate diameters of the
ellipsoid ; find the locus of P.
11.

three

The plane through the three points in which any three

12.
conjugate diameters of a conicoid meet the director-sphere touches
the conicoid.
13.

Shew

that any two sots of three

conjugate

diameters

of a conicoid are generators of a cone of the second degree.

14.
Shew that any two sets of three conjugate diametral
planes of a conicoid touch a cone of the second degree.

15.

Shew

ellipsoid is

that any one of three equal conjugates of an

on the cone whose equation is
(cf

l*

16.
D, E, / and P, Q, R are the extremities of two sets of
If p, p l} p a p a are the per
conjugate diameters of an ellipsoid.
pendiculars from the centre and P, Q,
respectively on the
plane DEF, prove that
,

The sum of the products of the perpendiculars from the

17.
two extremities of each of three conjugate diameters on .any
tangent plane to an ellipsoid is equal to twice the square on the
perpendicular from the centre on that tangent plane.
The distance r is measured inwards along the normal to
a
any point P, so that pr = m where p is the per
pendicular from the centre on the tangent plane at P ; shew that
18.

an

ellipsoid at

the locus of the point so obtained

is

(c

-m

2 2

Through any point P on an ellipsoid chords PQ, PR, PS

are drawn parallel to the axes
find the equation of the plane
QRS, and shew that the locus of K, the point of intersection of
the plane QRS and the normal at P, is another ellipsoid.
Shew
also that if the normal at P meet the principal planes in G
G^ G3
19.

then will

2111

]t

EXAMPLES ON CHAPTER

92

IV.

PR is the perpendicular from any point on its polar

20.
plane with respect to a conicoid and this perpendicular meets a
principal plane in G ; shew that, if PK. PG is constant, the locus
is a conicoid.
of

21.

Shew

that the cone whose base

x
is

the ellipse

^ = 1,

0,
1

and whose vertex

y = 0,

22.

is

is

ic

is

any point of the hyperbola

A cone,

when

=-

^-

a right circular cone.

whose equation referred

to its principal axes, is

thrust into an elliptic hole whose equation

that

-^

the cone

tits

the hole

its

x*
is

vertex must

lie

if

~=1

on the

shew

ellipsoid

In a cone any system of three conjugate diameters meets

23.
any plane section in the angular points of a triangle self polar
with respect to that section.

The enveloping cones which have as vertices two points

24.
on the same diameter of a conicoid intersect in two parallel planes
between whose distances from the centre that of the tangent
What
plane at the end of the diameter is a mean proportional.
is

the corresponding proposition for a paraboloid]

that any two enveloping cones intersect in plane

and that when the planes are at right angles to one
another, the product of the perpendiculars on one of the planes of
the
contact from the centre of the ellipsoid and the vertex
25.

Shew

curves;

>f

corresponding cone, is equal to the product of such perpendiculars

on the other plane of contact.

be such that its con

If a line through a fixed point
26.
jugate line with respect to a conicoid is perpendicular to it, shew
that the line is a generating line of a quadric cone.

The locus of the feet of the perpendiculars let fall from

27.
points on a given diameter of a conicoid on the polar planes of
those points is a rectangular hyperbola.

EXAMPLES ON CHAPTER
28.

Prove that the surfaces

x*

common

x2

i
if

tangent plane

i*

Prove that an

tric

sphere of radius

definite

number

if

0.

ellipsoid of semi-axes a,

=-====

Jb^ + c

2z

if
<*

V. V.
29.

x2

_z
_2z
^~^ ? V~
*

+ y _

<

have a

will

93

IV.

V+

6,

and a concen

are so related that an in-

a*b*

of octahedrons can be inscribed in the ellipsoid,

and at the same time circumscribed to the sphere, the diagonals of

the octahedrons intersecting at right angles in the centre.
,2

30.

Find the locus of the centre of sections of

which touch
31.

ellipsoid;
a conic.

-JB -K ITS

-=-=

^2

-,2

=1

z*
-a*"

1.

Planes are drawn through a given line so a,s to cut an

shew that the centres of the sections so formed all lie on

Find the locus of the centres of sections of an ellipsoid

by planes which are at a constant distance from the centre.
Shew that the plane sections of an ellipsoid which have
33.
32.

their centres on a fixed straight line are parallel to another straight

line,

and touch a parabolic

cylinder.

The

locus of the line of intersection of

2
is
tangent planes to ax + by* + cz*
34.

(b

c)

x2 +

(c

a) if

c (a

two perpendicular

+ b) z9 = 0.

The points on a couicoid the normals at which intersect

35.
the normal at a fixed point all lie on a cone of the second degree
whose vertex is the fixed point.
Normals are drawn to a conicoid at points where it is
36.
met by a cone which has the a.xes of the conicoid for three of its
generating lines; shew that all the normals intersect a fixed
diameter of the conicoid.

EXAMPLES ON CHAPTER

94?

IV.

Shew that the six normals which can bo drawn from

37.
any point to an ellipsoid lie on a cone of the second degree, three
of whose generating lines are parallel to the axes of the ellipsoid.
Find the equations of the right circular cylinders which
38.
circumscribe an ellipsoid.
If a right circular cone has three generating lines
39.
mutually at right angles, the semi-vertical angle is tan~ N/2.
1

If one of the principal axes of a cone which stands

40.
on a given base be always parallel to a given right line, the locus
of the vertex is an equilateral hyperbola or a right line according
as the base is a central conic or a parabola.
41.

The

axis of the right circular cone, vertex at the origin,

lines, whose direction -cosines are

which passes through the three

(,,

lt

n^,

(/

2,

n2 ),

(la ,

0,

1,

n a)

is

normal to the plane

1,

I?

y,
u

42.

a,

g>

=0.

m,

i>

The equations of the axes

of the four cones of revolution

which can be described touching the co-ordinate planes are

__ __.

a*

sin a
a, (3,

sin

y being the angles YOZ,

sin

/?

XOY respectively.

ZOX, and

43.
Prove that four right cones may be described, passing
through three given straight lines intersecting in the same point,
and that if 2a, 2/2, 2y be the mutual inclinations of the straight
lines, the equations of the cones referred to the straight lines as
co-ordinate axes will be
2

sin a

sin

/?

sin

sin

sin a

/?

"

cos

y
2

cos a

cos

v
1

cos y
z

/?

y
z

= 0,

cos a

cos

/?

sin y
L

= 0.

EXAMPLES ON CHAPTER

95

IV.

be extremities of three conjugate

44.
Shew that, if P Q,
diameters of a conicoid, the conic in which the plane PQR cuts
the surface contains an infinite number of sets of three conjugate
t

extremities, which are at the angular points of

inscribed in the conic PQR.
45.

Shew

that,

if

maximum

the feet of three of the six normals

ellipsoid lie on the plane Ix

the feet of the other three will be on the plane

from any point to an

^+fy/+<^_I

my

4-

drawn

nz + p =

0,

p
2

the equation of the ellipsoid being ax + by +

46.

triangles

cz*

= 1.

Prove that the locus of a point with which as a centre of

conical projection, a given conic on a given plane may be projected

into a circle on another given plane, is a plane conic.

If C be the centre of a conicoid, and P (Q) denote the

47.
perpendicular from P on the polar plane of Q j then will

C(Q)

f(Q)
48.
its

The

locus of a point such that the

normal distances from a given

sum

of the squares of

ellipsoid is constant, is a co-axial

ellipsoid.

If a line cut two similar and co-axial ellipsoids in P P* ;

prove that the tangent plane to the former at P,
meet those to the latter at Q or Q in pairs of parallel lines equi
49.

Q>

/",

distant respectively from

or

intersected by the normal at a

given point of the surface, the product of the tangents of the
angles siibtended at the point by the two segments of the chord
Prove that,
being the given point and P, P
being invariable.
the intersections of the normal with two such chords in perpendi
cular normal planes, the sum of the reciprocals of OP, OP , is
50.

invariable.

chord of a quadric

is

CHAPTER

V.

PLANE SECTIONS OF CONICOIDS.

We

114.
have seen [Art. 51] that all plane sections of a
conicoid are conies, and also [Art. 61] that all parallel
Since ellipses, parabolas, and
sections are similar conies.
hyperbolas are orthogonally projected into ellipses, parabolas,
and hyperbolas respectively, we can find whether the curve
of intersection of a conicoid and a plane is an ellipse,
parabola, or hyperbola, by finding the equation of the pro
jection of the section on one of the co-ordinate planes.
For example, to find the nature of plane sections of a

paraboloid.

The plane
2

aa? -f by

4-

2#

Ix 4-

= 0,

a (my
passes.

my + nz + p =

-f

nz

which

0,

is

generating lines of the cylinder, cuts

paraboloid

which the cylinder

+ p) + Wy +

The plane x =

the

cuts

in a curve through

2l*z

perpendicular to the
it in the conic whose

= 0, a (my + nz + pf -f
z =
and
-f 2
equations are x
this conic is the projection of the section on the plane x = 0.
If n = 0, the projection will be a parabola
but, if n be not
an
or
be
will
the
zero,
ellipse
hyperbola accord
projection

Wy

mn

a
ing as an? (am + bl )
that
positive or negative,

is,

is

positive or negative, or abl*n*

according as the surface

elliptic or hyperbolic paraboloid.

is

an

AREA OF CENTRAL SECTION.

97

Hence all sections of a paraboloid which are

parallel
to the axis of the surface are
parabolas ; all other sections of

an elliptic paraboloid are

ellipses, and
paraboloid are hyperbolas.

of

hyperbolic

Ex. 1. Find the condition that the section of atf

+ bifl+cz*^ bvy the
plane Ix + my + nz +p = may be a parabola.

r
Ans. 1

Ex

in

^+^ =

0.

Shew

that any tangent plane to the

asymptotic cone of a conicoid
meets the couicoid in two parallel
straight lines.
2.

115.
section of

To find the axes and area

of any central plane
an ellipsoid.

Let the equation of the

ellipsoid be
x*

+ 2=1
c
and

let

the equation of the

plane be

y + nz = Q .................. (i).
Every semi-diameter of the surface whose length is r
generating line of the cone whose equation is [p 55 Ex

is

5]

This cone will, for all values of

r, be cut by the plane in two
straight lines which lie along equal diameters of the section
and, when r is equal to either semi-axis of the
section, these

equal diameters will coincide. That is, the

plane (i) will
touch the cone (ii) when r is
equal to either semi-axis of
the section of the
The condition
ellipsoid by the plane.
of tangency gives

r2

From

(iii)

we

see that
__

abc

abc

t+Afy

where r rz are the semi-axes of the section, and

})
p
perpendicular on the parallel tangent plane.
S. s. G.

is

the

PLANE SECTIONS.

98

From

(iv)

we

see that the area of the section

is

equal to

of any plane section of an

ellipsoid.

Trabc

116.

To find

Take

for

the area

co-ordinate planes three conjugate planes of

which z = is parallel to the given plane then the equations
of the surface and of the given plane will be
respectively
of the forms
;

The

cylinder whose equation

v*

11*

+y.*

is

j_fL

&

=1

passes through the curve of intersection of the surface and the

k is
plane ; and the area of the section of this cylinder by z
,,,

/-

Tra b sin v

v being the angle

ellipsoid

by z =

is

XOY.
Tra 6 sin

I
(

The

F\
^

area of the section of the

v.

Hence, if A be the required area, and

the parallel central section, we have

be the area of

Now the tangent plane at (0, 0, c) is z c therefore the

perpendicular distances of the given plane and of the parallel
tangent plane from the centre are in the ratio of k c.
;

Hence

A=

where p and p are the perpendicular distances of the given

plane and of the parallel tangent plane from the centre.
This gives the relation between the area of any section
and of the parallel central section
and we have found,
in Art. 115, the area of any central section.
;

PLANE SECTIONS.

99

Hence the area of the section of the ellipsoid whose

equation, referred to its principal axes, is
Z*
__ i
y_
__+ f
a2 I2 c2
made by the plane whose equation is
lx-\- my + nz =p,

U?
_

i_

/
IS

V (a?l*

2
4 6Vi TcV)

^=

For
.

aT

T^vo

p* = a*F + Vm* +

and

[Ari

cV

[Art. 91].

Ex. 1. To find the area of the section of a paraboloid by any plane.

Let the equation of the paraboloid be ax* + 2 + 2z = 0, and let the equa
tion of the section be lz + my + nz+p=Q.
The projection of the section on

the plane jz=0

The

is

the conic

area of the projection is

and therefore

[Art. 31] the area of the section is

U-2

TT

Jab
Ex.
plane

2.

Ix

i-

To

my

The area

la

*>

e area
are of the section of the cone
find the

+ nz

x9

we put k =

+ -c =

by the

p.

of the section of

y"

|v

z2
-y

1
If

- + ^a
b

=1

by the given plane

v
kaP+kbmz + kcn]

the surface becomes the cone.

irp-

is

The required area

is

therefore

Jabc

Ex. 3. If central plane sections of an ellipsoid be of constant area, their

planes touch a cone of the second degree.

72

PLANE SECTIONS.

100
Let the area be

and

let

the equation of one of the planes be

Then we have
irdbc

irabc

a 2 i 2 + 6 2 m 2 + c 2w 2 = d 2

or
2

(a

- d2

r2

This shews that the plane

2
(ft

Ix

- d2 )

w + (c 2 - d
2

+ my + nz =

n 2 = 0.

2
)

always touches the cone

,2

We

can find, by the method of Art. 115, the area

117.
of a central plane section of the surface whose equation is
ax? + by* + cz* -f 2fyz + Zgzx + Zhxy = 1.

For the semi-diameters of length r are generating

the cone whose equation

(a

x*

p)
When

(b

is

i)

lines of

is

f + (c - p

equal to either semi-axis of the section of the

surface by the plane

Ix

+ my + ns =0,

be a tangent plane of the cone. The condition

of tangency gives, for the determination of the semi-axes, the
the plane will

equation

9"

h,

m,

1,

This result may also be obtained by finding the maxi

mum value of a? + y2 + 22 = r2 subject to the conditions
,

-f

c/ + %fyz +

2^^a;

+ 2hxy =

1,

and

^a?

+ my

AXES OF CENTAL ^FCT^

101

To find the directions of the axes of any central

of a conicoid.
Let the equation of the surface be
118.

section

Zgzx + Zhxy
the equation of the plane be
Ix 4- my + nz = 0.

cwc 4- bif 4- cz*

and

let

2fyz

1,

P
P

be any point on an axis of the section, the line

Then, if
to the centre of the section will be perpendicular
joining
to the polar line of
in the plane of the section.

Hence,

if

be

the polar line be X,

(f,
//.,

rj,

v,

and

f),

if

the direction-cosines of

we have

*| + ^+"?=0 ..................... (i).

Also, since the polar line

and

Ix

it is

is

on both the planes

+ my + nz = 0,

perpendicular to the normals to those planes

and

\l-\-

Eliminating

have

X,

//,,

fim -\-vn-

..................... (iii).

v from the equations

(i),

(ii),

(iii),

we

= 0.

f,
,

I,

hence

m,

gg+fy
n

Hence the required axes are the lines in which the given
plane cuts the cone whose equation is
z
0.
x,
y,
ax

+ hy + gz, hx +
I,

by

m,

+ fz, gx +fy + cz
n

119.
To find the angle between the asymptotes of any
plane section of a conicoid.
Let 6 be the angle between the asymptotes of the plane
section, and let the semi-axes of the section be a, fi.

102

CONDITION FOR RECTANGULAR HYPERBOLA.

Then
tan

This gives the required angle, since we have

found, in the
preceding articles, the axes of any plane section.
Ex.
ax"

4-

1.

Find the angle between the asymptotes

= 1 by the plane Ix -f my + nz = 0.

of

the

section

of

2
by* + cz

The semi-axes

are the roots of the equation

p2

tan

therefore

Ex.

2.

To

= -

7*2

^^ =

^,

iV

n2 \
*

-^

find the condition that the section of the conicoid

ax2 + by* + cz2 + 2fyz + 2gzx + 2hxy = I

by the plane 1x + my + nz = Q may be a rectangular hyperbola.
The square of the reciprocal of the semi-diameter whose direction-cosines
are X, /x, v is given by
-

r2

Take any three perpendicular diameters

then we have by addition

Now, if rv r2 be the lengths of any two perpendicular semi-diameters of a

2
2
rectangular hyperbola, rx + r2 = 0.
Hence for any semi-diameter of the conicoid which is perpendicular to
the plane of a section which is a rectangular hyperbola, we have

The
al 2

Ex.
Ix +

required condition

is

therefore

+ bm + cri* + 2fmn + 2gnl + 2hlm = a + b + c = (a + b + c)

my

Shew

+ m 2 + n2
-

P (6 + c) + w 2
The

(l

that the two lines given by the equations ax 2

+ nz = Q will be at right angles, if
3.

lines are the

by the plane

(c

+ a) + n 2

(a

).

+ by* + cz = 0,
1

+ b) = 0.

2
asymptotes of the section of the conicoid ax

+ by* + cz2

CIRCULAR SECTIONS.
120.

103

If two conicoids have one plane

all their other points

of intersection

lie

common

section in

on another plane.

Let the equations of the common plane section be

ax* + by* 4- %hxy + Zux + 2vy + c = 0, z = 0.
of

The most general equations

two conicoids which pass

through this conic are

ax*

+ by* +

Zhxy

+ 2ux +

2vy

+c+

z (Ix

+ my + nz+p) = 0,

and

+
for

(i^

a;

+ r/i y +

riz

+ p) =

0.

It is clear that all points which are on both surfaces, and

which z is not zero, are on the plane given by the

equation

z+p=

x+

m y + riz + p

this proves the proposition.

CIRCULAR SECTIONS.
121.

To find

the circular sections

of an ellipsoid.

Since parallel sections are similar, we need only consider

the sections through the centre.
Now all the semi-diameters of the ellipsoid which are of
lines of the cone whose equation is
length r are generating

be a circular secti on of radius r, an infinite

of generating lines of the cone will lie on the plane
This
of the section; hence the cone must be two planes.
will only be the case when r is equal to a, or 6, or c.
the two
If r ==
through the axis of x, their
If there

number

a,

equation being

pianos pass

104

CIRCULAR SECTIONS.

The equations

of the other pairs of

planes are respectively

Of these three
if a, b, c

pairs of planes,

two are imaginary. For,

^ - \ and i - i have
be in order of
magnitude,
t?

Cv

r&

the same sign, and therefore the

planes (i) are imaginary;
for a similar reason the
planes (iii) are imaginary. Hence,
the only real central circular sections of an
ellipsoid pass
through the mean axis, and their equations are

Since

all

parallel

sections are

similar,

there are two

systems of planes which cut the ellipsoid in circles, namely

planes parallel to those given by the equation (iv).
If 6 = c the two
planes which give circular sections are
coincident.

122.

If the surface be

must change the sign

of c

an hyperboloid of one
2

sheet,

we

in the

equations of the last

Article.
In this case the planes which
give the real circular
sections are those
given by equations (i), a being supposed to
be greater than 6.
If the surface be an
hyperboloid of two sheets, we must
2
change the signs of b and c\ In this case the planes which
g;ive the real circular sections are those given by equation
(ii),

b being supposed to be
numerically greater than

c.

123.
If a series of
planes be drawn parallel to either
of the central circular sections of an
ellipsoid, these planes
will cut the surface in circles which become smaller and
smaller as the planes are drawn farther and farther from
the centre and, when the
is drawn so as to touch the

plane
the circle will be
indefinitely small.
;

ellipsoid,

CIRCULAR SECTIONS.

105

DEF. The point of contact of a tangent plane which cuts

a surface in a point-circle is called an umbilic.
124.

Any

two circular sections of opposite systems are on

sphere.

The

circular sections of the ellipsoid are parallel to the

planes whose equations are

Hence

are the equations of the planes of

any two circular sections of
opposite systems.

The equation

for all values of X, the

equation of a conicoid which passes
through the two circular sections and, if X = 1, the equation
represents a sphere which proves the proposition.
125.
We can find the circular sections of the

is,

paraboloid

a?

-+

7/
<L

by writing the equation

cut,
is

%z

form

-*0+ir(J-s)- -.

i<^+
It is clear that the

in the

two planes given by the equation

the paraboloid where

they cut the sphere whose equation
a?

z*

%az

106

CIRCULAR SECTIONS.

and, since the planes must cut the sphere in circles, they will
cut the paraboloid in circles.

We can shew in a similar manner that the planes given

by the equation
will give circular sections of the
paraboloid.

Of the two

pairs of planes given

by the equations

one will be real, if a and b are of the same sign but both
pairs of planes will be imaginary if a and b are of different
sioris, so that there are no circular sections of a hvperbolic
;

paraboloid.
Ex.

1.

Shew

that the conicoid whose equation

has the same cyclic planes for

is

all

is

values of X.

Ex. 2. Shew that no two parallel circular sections of a conicoid, which

not a surface of revolution, are on a sphere.

Find the circular sections of the conicoid whose equation ia

as 2 + by* + cz 2 + 2fyz + 2gzx + 2hxy = 1.
All semi-diameters which are of length r are generating lines of the cone
whose equation is
Ex.

3.

If therefore r is the radius of

The condition for this is

a circular section, the cone must be two

planes.

~^>

If we substitute in (i) any one of the roots of the equation (ii),

obtain the equation of the corresponding planes of circular section.

Ex.

4.

Find the

(ii).

we

shall

real circular sections of the following surfaces

(i)

4x-

(ii)

2x^

+ 2f
+ 5y

* This is not
strictly true: a section through any generating line by
plane parallel to the axis of the surface is a circle of infinite radius.

107

EXAMPLES.
Ans.

(i)

planes parallel to

(ii)

planes parallel to

(x

Ex.

may

5.

Find the conditions that the plane

cut the conicoid

ax 2 +

1
by"

+ C2 2 + 2fyz + 2gzx + 2hxy = 1

in a circle.

As

in Ex. 3, the equation

(a _

1\ x*+fb-

i,

+ (c

z>

\"\

+ 2fyz + 2gzx + 2hxy =

must, for some value of 7, be two planes of which the given plane
The equation must therefore be the same as

By comparing

7V

m\

7V

and two similar equations.

Hence the required conditions are
cl* + an 2 - 2gnl

We

one.

the coefficients of yz, zx, xy we have

1 \
1 \
TO /
n /
T ) = 2ft
b
(c --^ H

n\

120.

is

2
2
_ am + bl - 2hlm

will conclude this chapter

by the solution

of

two examples.
Ex.

1.

on a conicoid as vertex, and plane sections of

shew that the cones are cut by any
in a system of similar conies.

With a fixed point

the conicoid for bases, cones are described;

plane parallel to the tangent plane at

(Chasles.)

The equation
is of

of a conicoid, referred to three conjugate diameters as axes,

the form
*-

a2

Hence the equation,

f+
6J

*-

c2

=i

referred to parallel axes through the extremity of one of

the diameters, will be

x*

s2

7/2

2
a-i+S+
62

-g
2

2z

A
= 0.

This we will take for the equation of the surface, the common vertex of the
cones being the origin. Let lx + my+nz = L be the equation of any plane
section ; then the corresponding cone will be
x~

2
7/

22

2z

EXAMPLES ON CHAPTER

103

V.

section of this cone by the plane z = k is clearly similar to the conic

The

which proves the proposition.

Ex. 2.
With a fixed point
on a conicoidfor vertex, and a plane section
of the conicoidfor base, a cone is described; shew (i) that if the cone have
three perpendicular generating lines, the plane base will meet the normal at O
in a fixed point; and (ii) that if the normal at O be an axis of the cone, the
in a fixed straight line.
plane base ivill meet the tangent plane at

The most general equation

surface

and the plane

a

is

of a conicoid, when the origin

the tangent plane at the origin, is

is

on the

+ by 2 + cz + 2fyz + 2gzx + 2hxy + 2z = 0.

1

The equation of the cone whose vertex is the origin, and which passes
through the points of intersection of the conicoid and the plane

my + HZ = 1

Ix +

ax 2 + b if + cz 2 + 2fyz + 2ytx + 2 hxy + 2z

1

is

Now

Ix

+ my + nz) = 0.

may have three perpendicular generating

the condition that the cone

lines is

a + b + c + 2n=Q
This shews that the intercept on the axis of

The

(i).

[See Art.

and y in

which proves
be an axis of the cone are
Hence the plane meets the axes of x

conditions that the axis of z

60]# + i = 0,
fixed points;

and/+m = 0.
which proves

[Art. 109].
z is

constant

may

(ii).

EXAMPLES ON CHAPTER V.

1.

SHEW

that the

area

of the

section of an ellipsoid,

by

a plane which passes through the extremities of three conjugate

diameters, is in a constant ratio to the area of the parallel central
section.
2.
Given the sum of the squares of the axes of a plane
central section of a conicoid, find the cone generated by a normal

to its plane.

Shew that a plane which cuts off a constant volume from

3.
a cone envelopes a conicoid of which the cone is the asymptotic
cone.

EXAMPLES ON CHAPTER
4.

Shew

109

that the axes of plane sections of the conicoid

x2
a2
which pass through the

y*

a?

b*

line

m~ n

!>

lie

V.

on the cone whose equation

is

If through a given point (x y 2 lines be drawn each

)
is an axis of some
plane section of ax* + by* + cz* = 1,
such lines describe the cone
5.

of which

6.

If the area of the section of

2

|M =
b

2*

be constant and equal to aa the locus of the centre

,

is

If a conic section, whose plane is perpendicular to a gene

7.
rator of a cone, be a circle; the corresponding projection of the

reciprocal cone is a parabola.

Shew that the principal semi-axes of the normal section

2 2 2
2 2 2
2 2 a
a 2
cylinder which envelopes b c x + c a y + a b z = o*b c , and
whose generating lines are parallel to
8.

of the

1>

are the values of r given

by

n9

EXAMPLES ON CHAPTER

110

Shew

9.

V.

that the section of

(

2/

b*

Shew

+ my + nz =

by the plane Ix

10.

_ 2x
~ z*2 ~
_

that

all

is

"^

a rectangular hyperbola,

if

plane sections of

which are rectangular hyperbolas, and which pass through the

point

(a, /?, y),

11.

touch the cone

(x-a)

(y-ftf

^,-tf^
a-b

Find the locus of the vertices of all parabolic sections

whose planes are at the same distance from its

of a paraboloid,
axis.

the plane Ix + my + nz = p cut the surface

a parabola, the co-ordinates of the vertex
of the parabola satisfy the equation
1 2.

Shew that,
cz* = 1 in

if

ax 2 + by 2 +

ax /I
I

1\

\b

cj

fy/l_l\

cz /I

l\

a)

n \a

b/

\c

of the section of (abcfyh\xyzf = 1 by the plane

which passes through the extremities of its principal axes is
1.3.

The area

3^/3

and base the

~ ;
the
plane x
by*
meets
this
cone
in
which
the
that
the
of
shew
again
equation
plane
the surface is
14.

cone

is

described with vertex (/,

section of the surface

x (af +

bg*

ax2 +

cz*

g, h)

made by

+ ch*-l) = 2f(afx + byy

f chz -

1).

EXAMPLES ON CHAPTER
Shew

15.

that the foci of

all

y +

i
lie

Ill

V.

parabolic sections of

**

b=

x
>

on the surface

Circles are described on a series of parallel chords of a

16.
fixed circle whose planes are inclined at a constant angle to the

plane of the fixed circle.

Shew that they trace out an ellipsoid, the square on whose
mean axis is an arithmetic mean between the squares on the other

two

axes.

Shew that if the squares of the axes of an ellipsoid

are in arithmetical progression the umbilici lie on the central
circular sections
if they are in harmonic progression the circular
sections are at right angles ; if they are in geometrical progression
the tangent planes at the umbilici touch the sphere through the
central circular sections.
17.

18.
Points on an ellipsoid such that the product of their
distances from the two central circular sections is constant lie on
the intersection of the ellipsoid with a sphere.

If the diameter of the sphere which passes through two

an ellipsoid be equal to its mean diameter, the
distances of the planes from the centre are in a constant ratio.
19.

circular sections of

20.

curves
21.

sphere of constant radius cuts an ellipsoid in plane

by their line of intersection.

find the surface generated

The hyperboloid

x*

+y

z*

tan a

a* is built

up of thin

circular discs of cardboard, strung by their centres on a straight

Prove that, if the wire be turned about the origin into the
wire.
direction (I, m, n), the planes of the discs being kept parallel
to their original direction, the equation of the surface will be

(nx

Izf

+ (ny

mzf = n

(z*

tan 2 a + a

2
).

If a series of parallel plane sections of an ellipsoid be

taken, and on any sections as base a right cylinder be erected,
shew that the other plane section, in which it meets the ellipsoid,
will meet the plane of the base in a straight line whose locus will
22.

be a diametral plane of the

ellipsoid.

112

EXAMPLES ON CHAPTER

V,

23.
Any number of similar and similarly situated conies,
which are on a plane, are tho stereographic projections of plane
sections of some conicoid.

The tangent plane at an umbilicus meets any enveloping

24.
cone in a conic of which the umbilicus is a focus and the inter
section of the plane of contact and the tangent plane a directrix.

The quadric ax 9 -f by 9 + cz = 1 is turned about its centre

2
8
touches a x + b y + c z* = 1 along a plane section.
Find
the equation to this plane section referred to the axes of either
of the quadrics, and shew that its area is
2

25.

iintil it

a+

abc

a b
abc

CHAPTER

VI.

GENERATING LINES OF CONICOIDS.

In cones and cylinders we have met with examples
127.
of curved surfaces on which straight lines can be drawn
which will coincide with the surface throughout their entire
length.

We

shall in the present chapter shew that hyperboloids

of one sheet, and hyperbolic paraboloids, can be generated
by the motion of a straight line; and we shall investigate
properties of those surfaces connected with the straight lines

which

lie

upon them.

DBF. A surface through every point of which a straight

can be drawn so as to lie entirely on the surface, is
called a ruled surface; and the straight lines which lie upon

line

are called generating lines.

ruled surface on which consecutive generating lines
intersect, is called a developable surface.
ruled surface on which consecutive generating lines do
it

not intersect,

is

called a skew surface.

To find where the

128,

straight line,

whose equations are

_
in

meets the surface whose equation is F (x, y, z] = 0, we must

substitute ot + Ir, ft + mr, and 7 + nr for x, y, z
respectively,
and we obtain the equation F (OL + Ir, /3 -f mr 7 -f nr) = 0.
t

S. S.

G.

GENERATING LINES.

114

ih
is of the k
degree, the equation for finding
&tb degree hence any straight line meets a surface
degree in k points.

If the surface

is

of the

of the &tb

however, for any particular straight line, all the co

the equation for r are zero, that equation will be
satisfied for all values of r
and therefore every point on that
Since there are k + 1
straight line will be on the surface.
terms in the equation of the fctb degree, it follows that
k -f 1 conditions must be satisfied in order that a straight line
tb
may lie entirely on a surface of the A; degree.
Now the general equations of a straight line contain four
independent constants, and therefore a straight line can be
made to satisfy four conditions, and no more.
It follows therefore, that, if the degree of a surface be
higher than the third, no straight line will, in general, lie
For special forms of the equations
altogether on the surface.
of the fourth, or higher orders, we may however have
generating lines for example, the line whose equations are
y = mx and z m* will, for all values of m lie entirely on the
If,

efficients in

surface whose equation is za?

y*.
If the equation of a surface be of the third degree, the
number of conditions to be satisfied is equal to the number
of constants in the general equations of a straight line.
Hence the conditions can be satisfied, and there will be a
The actual number of straight
finite number of solutions.
lines (real or imaginary) which lie on any cubic surface is 27.

[See Cambridge and Dublin Math. Journal, Vol. IV.]

The number of conditions to be satisfied, in order that a
Since
straight line may lie entirely on a conicoid, is three.
the number of conditions is less than the number of constants
in the general equations of a straight line, the conditions can
be satisfied in an infinite number of ways, so that there are
an infinite number of generating lines on a conicoid these
;

generating lines
obviously the case
129.
surface at

may however
when

all

the surface

is

be
an

imaginary,

is

ellipsoid.

generating line on any surface

any point

as

touches the

of its length, for it passes through a

115

GENERATING LINES OF CONICOIDS.

point of the surface indefinitely near to 0; hence the tangent

plane to any surface at a point through which a generating
line passes will contain that generating line.

The

section of a conicoid

by the tangent plane at

line passes, will be a
a
which
generating
any point through
conic of which the generator forms a part ; the conic must
therefore be two straight lines.
Hence, through any point on a generating line of a
conicoid another generating line passes, and they are both in
130.

the tangent plane at the point.

The two generating lines in which the tangent plane to a
conicoid intersects the surface are coincident when the conicoid
is a cone or a cylinder.

Since any plane section of a conicoid is a conic, any

131.
plane which passes through a generating line of a conicoid
will cut the surface in another generating line; and both
generating lines are in the tangent plane at their point of

Hence, any plane through a generating line of

a conicoid touches the surface, its point of contact being the
point of intersection of the two generating lines which lie

intersection.

upon

it.

132.

To find which of the

conicoids are ruled surfaces.

If a conicoid have one generating line upon

draw a plane through that generating line and

it,

and we

any point

of the surface, this plane will cut the surface in another

which must pass through P.

there be a single generating line on a conicoid,
there will be one, and therefore by Art. 130, two generating
lines, through every point on the surface.
can therefore at once determine whether a conicoid
is or is not a ruled surface, by finding the nature of the inter
section of the surface by the tangent plane at any particular

generating

Hence,

line,

if

We

point.

The equation
2
a;

the conicoid

-,

of the tangent plane at the point (a, 0, 0) of

l
2
z
= 1 is
a ; this meets the surface
-5

?/

+ ~s

x=

GENERATING LINES OF CONICOIDS.

116

whose projection on the plane x =

are
2
2
z
V
=
i 0. These lines are clearly
given by the equation
in

straight lines

when the surface is an hyperboloid of one sheet, and

imaginary when the surface is an ellipsoid, or an hyperboioid
real

of two sheets.

Hence the hyperboloid of one sheet is a ruled surface.

The hyperbolic paraboloid is a particular case of the
hyperboloid of one sheet
also a ruled surface.

hence the hyperbolic paraboloid

is

This can be proved at once from the equation of the

For, the tangent plane at the origin is z = 0, and
2
in the straight
this meets the paraboloid ax* + by + 2^ =
2
lines given by the equations ax + by*=Q, 2 = 0; the lines
are clearly real when a and b have different signs, and are
imaginary when a and b have the same sign.
paraboloid.

Hence an hyperboloid

of one sheet (including an hyper

bolic paraboloid as a particular case) is the only ruled conicoid

in addition to a cone, a cylinder, and a pair of planes.

To shew that there are two systems of generating

on an hyperboloid of one sheet.

133.
lines

Since any plane meets any straight line, the tangent

on an hyperboloid of one sheet will
plane at any point
meet all the generating lines of the surface, and the points
But the tangent
of intersection will be on the surface.
plane cuts the surface in the two generating lines through
P; hence every generating line of the hyperboloid must
which
intersect one or other of the two generators PA,
surface.
on
the
pass through any point

PB

Now

lines which meet the same

for otherwise there would
can
themselves
intersect,
generator
be three generating lines in a plane, which is impossible,
eince every plane section is a conic.
Hence there are two systems of generating lines, which
are such that all the members of one system intersect PB,
but do not themselves intersect and all the members of the

no two of the generating

GENERATING LINES OF CONICOIDS.

117

other system intersect PA, but do not themselves intersect.

is
Since the position of
arbitrary it follows that every
member of one of the two systems of generating lines meets
every member of the other system.

If a straight line intersect a conicoid in three points,

entirely coincide with the surface ; and hence, to have
a generating line of a conicoid given, is equivalent to having
three points given.

134.

it will

To have three non-intersecting generating lines given is

therefore equivalent to having nine points given, so that
[Art. 50] three non-intersecting generators are sufficient to
determine the conicoid on which they lie.
If a line meet three non -intersecting lines, it will meet
the conicoid of which they are generators in three points,
namely in the three points in which it intersects the three
lines ; and hence it must itself be a generator of the surface.
Hence, the straight lines which intersect three fixed nonintersecting straight lines are generators of the same system
of a conicoid, and the three fixed lines are generators of the
opposite system of the same conicoid. [See Art. 49, Ex. 2]
Since any line which meets three non-intersecting
135.
straight lines is a generating line of the conicoid on which
they lie, it follows that the only lines which meet the three

and which also meet a fourth given straight line are

the generators of the surface, of the system opposite to that
defined by the given lines, which pass through the points
where the conicoid is met by the fourth given straight line.
But the fourth straight line will meet the conicoid in two
points only, unless it be itself a generator of the surface.
Hence two straight lines, and two only, will, in general,
meet each of four given non-intersecting straight linos but if
the four given straight lines are all generators of the same
system of a conicoid, then an infinite number of straight
lines will meet the four, which will all be generators of the
opposite system of the same conicoid.
lines

Ex. 1. Two planes are drawn, one through each of two intersecting
generating lines of a conicoid shew that the planes meet the surface in two
other intersecting generating lines.
;

GENERATING LINES OF CONICOIDS.

18

Ex. 2. She,w that the plane through the centre of a conicoid and any
generating line, will cut the surface in a parallel generating line, and will
touch the asymptotic cone.
Ex.

conicoid is described to pass through two non-intersecting given

to touch a given plane. Shew that the locus of the point of contact
is a straight line.
Let the given lines meet the given plane in the points A,
respectively.
Then, the given plane will cut the surface in two generating lines, one
of which will intersect both the given lines; hence, since the points of
intersection must be A and B, the point of contact must be on the
line AB.

lines

3.

and

Ex.

The

4.

dicular to
conicoid.

lines through the angular points of a tetrahedron perpen

the opposite faces are generators of the same system of a

DD

be the four perpendiculars, and let a, /3, 7, 5 be

Let A A BB t CC
the orthocentres of the faces opposite to A, B, C,
Then, it is
respectively.
7, 5 parallel respectively to
easy to prove that the lines through a,
will meet all the four perpendiculars.
CC
Since the four
,
d(A
perpendiculars are met by more than two straight lines, they are generators
of the same system of a conicoid; and the four parallel lines through
5 are generators of the opposite system of the same conicoid.
fr
,

>

BB

DD

7>

ABCD

be traced on a conicoid, the

If a rectilineal quadrilateral
5.
centre of the surface is on the straight line which passes through the middle
of
the
diagonals AC, BD.
points
are the tangent planes at A, G respectively, and
The planes BAD,
is their line of intersection ; hence the centre of the conicoid is on the
and the middle point of AC. Similarly the centre is on the
plane through
and the middle point of BD.
plane through

Ex.

BCD

BD

BD
AC

Ex. 6. If a rectilineal hexagon be traced on a conicoid, the three lines

joining opposite vertices will meet in a point, and the three lines of inter
section of the tangent planes at opposite vertices lie in a plane.
[Dandelin.]
Let A
be the hexagon. Intersecting generators of a conicoid are
of
and
one system,
are
of different systems; therefore AB, CD,
BG, DE,
FA of the opposite system; so that opposite sides of the hexagon are of
of
the
Each
will
intersect.
therefore
different systems, and
diagonals
AD, BE, CF is the line of intersection of two of the planes through pairs of
in
the point
in
a
CF
meet
therefore
sides
AD, BE,
point, namely
;
opposite
of intersection of the three planes through pairs of opposite sides.
be the point of intersection of AB and DE, Y the point of inter
Let
and EF, and Z of CD and FA. The tangent planes at A, D,
section of
the tangent planes
namely the planes FAB, ODE, intersect in the line
intersect in the line XY\ and the tangent planes at G, F intersect in
at B,
the line YZ. Hence the three lines of intersection of the tangent planes at

BCDEF

EF

BC

XZ

opposite vertices

lie

in the plane

XYZ.

fixed generators of the same system cut all generators

Ex. 7.
[Chasles.]
of the opposite system in a range of constant cross-ratio.
Let any three generators of the opposite system cut the fixed generators in

Four

ANCLE BETWEEN GENERATORS.

119

and
the points A,B,C,D; A , B , V,
Then,
respectively.
the four planes through A
and the fixed generators cut all other
straight lines in a range of constant cross-ratio [Art. 36] we therefore have
A",

B",

C",

D"

"B"C"D"

{A B

CD

Ex. 8. The lines joining corresponding points of two homographic

systems, on two given straight lines, are generating lines of a conicoid.

To find the angle between the two generating lines

136.
through any point of an hyperboloid.
The section of an hyperboloid of one sheet by the
tangent plane at any point is similar and similarly situated to
Hence the generating lines
the parallel central section.
through any point are parallel to the asymptotes of the
Let the equation of the surface be
parallel central section.

let f,g,h be the co-ordinates of the point

through
which the generating lines pass.
Let a 8 /3 be the squares of the axes of the central section
be the
which is parallel to the tangent plane at P, and let
angle between the generating lines through P.

and

L>

-R
tan^-V-1-,
Z
a

Then
and therefore
tan

2.

Now the sum of the squares of three conjugate semidiameters is constant, and also the parallelepiped of which
Hence
they are conterminous edges.
and

o.j3p

=J

abc.

Hence we have
abc

137-

We can

write the equation of an hyperboloid of one

120

EQUATIONS OF GENERATORS.

sheet in such a

generating

as to shew at once the existence of

For, the equation

way

lines.

a
is

equivalent to

*2
_!*2
a2
c

= i_^.
6

and

it is evident that all

points on the line of intersection of
the planes whose equations are

are on the surface; and by giving different values to X we

obtain a system of straight lines which lie
altogether on the
surface.
The generating lines of the other system are
similarly given

by the equations

We

can find in a similar manner the equations of the

generating lines of the paraboloid

The equations

of the generators of one system are

a
and

A,

of the other system

ab~

>

ab~\

The equations

of the generating lines which pass

on
an
through any point
hyperboloid of one sheet can be
obtained in the following manner.
138.

The co-ordinates of any point on the surface can be

where
expressed in terms of two variables 6 and
(f>,

x=a

cos 9 sec $,

y = b sin

9 sec

<,

and z

= c tan

$.

GENERATING LINES OF AN HYPERBOLOID.

This is seen at once
the hyperboloid.

we

if

21

substitute in the equation of

are the
through the point
and the tangent plane at
is
Now, the equation of the tangent plane at (0,

The two generating

lines

lines of intersection of the surface

P.

</>)

- cos

sec

*r

sin

6 sec

hence the tangent plane meets

line whose equations are

+ |sin
o

-cos 6
a
If this line

we have from

(i)

or

0, and

is

The
a

= 0-0

Now AP, BP are the generators

is constant for all
(ii), 6 +
points
6

plane

in

the

......... (i).

in
meet the section of the surface by z =
whose eccentric angles are a, ft respectively,

the points A,

the

= cos0,

tan

......... (ii).

hence from
through P
on the generator AP, and
;

points on the generator BP.

direction-cosines of
are proportional to

constant for

all

AP

(cos a

- --

cos 6 sec

b (sin a

</>),

cos (6

-\-

0) cos
;

cos 9

sin

sin (6

+ 0) cos
:

sin

</>

sin (0

6 cos (^

</>),

c
^>),

AP are

hence the equations of

x a cos 6 sec _ y
"

sin (0

+ 0)

-&

Similarly the equations of

a cos

sec
<f>

sin (0

_y

b sin

sec

cos (0

BP

$~
_

tan

</>

0)

are

b sin

sec

tan

"

"

0)

6 cos

tan

(f>

sin

(/>

or to

</>),

or proportional to
C&

sin 6 sec

(0-0)

-c

~~ C

122

GENERATING LINES OF A PARABOLOID.

COR. The equations of the generators, through the point

on the principal elliptic section whose eccentric angle is 0,
are

x - a cos 6

bsind _
~

_y
~

~bcosT0

a sin 9

These equations may also be obtained as follows

The

line

a cos 6
I

==

b sin 9

meet the

will

(b sin
~9

(a cos^Jhjr)

~aT

Hence,

^z

==

Vy

7i

where

surface,

line,

whose equations are

+ mr)* __ rrV _
"

the straight line

in order that

may be a generating

we must have

lcoB0

and

- + in sin
T

L
a

,, r ,

Whence

sin

The equations
x

=0.

^ =

cos0

?.
1

of the generators are therefore

a cos

a sin

b sin

b cos

__

To find the equations of the generating

any
through
point of a hyperbolic paraboloid.
139.

Let the equation of the paraboloid be

2

1
d

_^_9,

~"

b*

lines

123

GENERATING LINES OF A PARABOLOID.

Let the equations of any line be

#- = y -

The

= z-

7=r

of the line and the surface are

points of intersection

given by the equation

-2
Hence, in order that the straight line
line, we must have
7

/yvi

(1)

<">

!?-#-"-

=
^-C-27
6
a:

surface

we

(iii).

The equation
;

(iii)

from

(i)

we have - =

Hence the equations

(a, /3,

?o

the point

& 7) be any point on the

is satisfied if (a,

obtain

of the

is

(ii),

two generating

lines

through

7) are

a
It is clear

and, substituting in

= 7;~R
-=^1T
6

paraboloid

a generating

&-?and

may be

iv )

from the above that any generator of the

one or other of the two planes

parallel to

124

GENERATING LINES OF A PARABOLOID.

Ex. 1. Shew that the projections of the

generating lines of an hyperboloid on its principal planes are
tangents to the principal sections.

The tangent plane at any point P on a principal section is

perpendicular
Hence the projection on the principal plane of any line in

to that section.

the tangent plane at P is the tangent line which is in the

principal plane.
This proves the proposition, since the
generating lines through P are in the
tangent plane at P.

Ex. 2. Find the locus of the point of intersection of

perpendicular
generators of an hyperboloid of one sheet.
If the generating lines at
any point P are at right angles, the parallel
central section is a rectangular
hyperbola, and therefore the sum of the
of
its
axes
is
zero.
But the sum of the squares of three conjugate
squares
semi-diameters of the hyperboloid is constant and equal to a 2 + 6 s - c 2 Hence
Op2 = a 2 + 6 2 - c3 ; so that the points are all on a sphere.
This is the result we should obtain by putting tan =
in the result of
Art. 136.
We could also find the locus by using the equations of Art. 138..
.

<x>

Ex. 3. Find the angle between the generating lines at

any point of
a hyperbolic paraboloid.
The result is obtained at once from equations (iv), Art. 139. The
gene

rators are at right angles, if

Thus generators which

Ex. 4.
which are

line

moves

all parallel to

are at right angles meet on the plane z

= | (b 2 - a-).

so as always to intersect three given

straight lines
the same plane shew that it generates a
:

hyperbolic

paraboloid.

Ex.

and

5.
line moves so as always to intersect two
given straight lines
to be parallel to a given plane : shew that it
generates a hyperbolic

paraboloid.

Ex. 6. AB and CD are two finite non -intersecting straight lines; shew
that the lines which divide AB and CD in the same ratio are
generators of
one system of a hyperbolic paraboloid, and that the lines which divide AC
and BD in the same ratio are generators of the opposite system of the same
paraboloid.

EXAMPLES ON CHAPTER VI.

1.

straight line revolves about a fixed straight line, find

the surface generated.

J
If four non-intersecting straight lines be given, shew that
2.
the four hyperboloids which can be described, one through each
set of three, all pass through two other straight lines.

EXAMPLES ON CHAPTER

125

VI.

Find the equation of the conicoid, three of whose generat

= 0, s =- a ; z = 0, x = a. Shew that it
x-Q,
, y
a surface of revolution, and find the eccentricity of its meridian
3.

ing lines are

is

y=a>

section.
4.

Find

coinciding
surface y*

(i)

z*

the straight lines which can be drawn entirely

a
3a 2x ; and (ii) with the
z

all

with the surface y*

kcfx.

Normals are drawn to an hyperboloid of one sheet at

5.
every point through which the generators are at right angles;
prove that the points, in which the normals intersect any one of
the principal planes,

lie

in

an

ellipse.

6.
Given any three lines, and a fourth line touching the
hyperboloid through the three lines, then will each one of the four
lines touch the hyperboloid through the other three lines.

7.

drawn through the centre of ax 2 + by2 + cz* =

line is

two

perpendicular to

parallel generators.

Shew

that such lines

generate the cone

x2 y 2
+jb
a

^
+- =

0.

If two generators of an hyperboloid be taken as two of the

8.
axes of co-ordinates shew that the equation of the surface is

of the form
z*
9.

+ Zfyz + 2gzx + %hxy + 2wz = 0.

The generators through any point

on a ruled quadric

in
and Q. Shew
intersect the generators at a fixed point
lies on a plane section of
that if the ratio
is constant,
the quadric which passes through 0.

OP OQ
:

Find the locus of a point on an hyperboloid the genera

through which intercept on two fixed generators portions
whose product is constant.
10.

tors

If all the generators to an hyperboloid of one sheet be

11.
projected orthogonally on the tangent plane at any point, their
envelope will be an hyperbola.
12.

Find the equation of the locus

of the foot of the perpeudi-

EXAMPLES ON CHAPTEK

126

VI.

cular from the point (a, 0, 0) on the different generating lines

of the surface

Prove that the product of the sines of the angles that

13.
any generator makes with the planes of the circular sections is
constant.
If

14.

CP CD

that

TF = CD

and generators through

= CP + c*.
+ c2

If

1 5.

(xyz} of

TD>

two generators drawn from

ellipse in points

16.

be conjugate semi-diameters of the principal

P and D meet in T, prove

elliptic section,

P,

intersect the principal

at the ends of conjugate diameters, then will

The angle between the generating lines through the point

~
2
wnere
-f
+ ~ = 1 *s cos
the
quadric

GJ

~~ \~

>

\>

\>

are the roots of the equation

17.

of the

Shew

that the shortest distances between generating lines

at the extremities of diameters of the

same system drawn

principal elliptic section of the hyperboloid,

lie

whose equation

is

on the surfaces whose equations are

abz

cxy

Find the equations of the surfaces of revolution which

mx = Q~z c y + mx = = z + c and
pass through the lines y
also through the origin.
18.

The locus of points on (abcfgh) (xyz)* = I at which the

19.
generators are at right angles is the intersection of the surface
with the sphere
h,
h,

t>,

g>

f>

(x

s
+ y* + z ) =

bc

+ ca + ab

-f -g*-

EXAMPLES ON CHAPTER

VI.

127

20.
Having given two generating lines that intersect and two
points on an hyperboloid, shew that the locus of the centre is
another hyperboloid bisecting the straight lines joining the two
points to the intersection of the generators.

Shew that the volume of every parallelepiped which

21.
can be placed so that six of its edges lie along six of the generators
of a given hyperboloid of one sheet is the same.
22.
solid hyperboloid has its generators marked on it and
is then drawn in perspective
shew that the points of intersection

of the representatives of consecutive generators of the

will lie on an hyperbola.
23.

If

two points P,

same system

be taken on the surface

such that the tangent planes at those points are at right angles to
one another, then will the two generating lines through P appear
to be at right angles when seen from Q.
24.

common

If two conicoids have a

common

generator,

two of their

tangent planes through that generator have the same

point of contact.
25.
lines

If

G A, BC

AOA BOB COG

be any three straight lines, the

,
are generators of one system, and A
,
are generators of the other system, of the same hyper

AB,

CA B C

boloid.

Deduce Pascal s Theorem from Dandelin s Theorem.

Art. 135.]
If from any point on a hyperbolic paraboloid perpen
27.
diculars be let fall on all the generators of the surface of the same
system, they will form a cone of the second degree.
26.

[Ex.

6.

28.
If from any point on the surface of an hyperboloid of one
sheet perpendiculars be drawn to all the generators of the same
system, they will form a cone of the third degree.
The normals to a conicoid, at all points of a generating
29.
line, lie on.

30.

a hyperbolic paraboloid.

In every rectilinear octagon

ABCDEFGH

which

is

on

a conicoid, the eight lines of intersection of the tangent planes at

are all
A,D; A, F; G, ; G, D; E,
;
E,
;
(7, FC,
Also the lines AD, AF, GB, GD,
generators of another conicoid.
are all generators of another conicoid.
HE, HGj GF,

EB

CHAPTER
SYSTEMS OF CONICOIDS.

VII.

TANGENTIAL EQUATIONS.

RECIPROCATION.

140Since the general equation of the second degree

contains nine constants, it follows that a conicoid will pass
through any nine points, and that an infinite number of
conicoids will pass through eight points.

8=

and

S =

represent any two conicoids which

through eight given points, then the equation
S + \S = will be of the second degree, and will therefore
represent a conicoid, and it is clear that the conicoid
If

0,

pass

S + X$ = will pass through all points common

S = 0. Also, by giving a suitable value to X,

to

S=

and

the conicoid
A$ = can be made to pass through any ninth point;
and therefore will represent any conicoid through the eight
given points.
= Q not only passes through
Since the conicoid
the eight given points, but also through all points on the
curve of intersection of S =
and S = 0, we see that all
conicoids through eight given points have a common curve of

$+

S+\S

intersection.

SELF POLAR TETRAHEDRON.

Four cones

141.

will

129

pass through the curve of inter

section of two conicoids.

Let the equations of any two conicoids be F^ (x, y, z} =

and F^ (x, y, z) = 0. The equation of any conicoid through
their curve of intersection is of the form

The above equation will represent a

a t + Xa2
g
HI + X/i 2
,

cone, if

Since the equation for determining X is of the fourth

degree, four cones, real or imaginary, will pass through the
points of intersection of two conicoids.

The

vertices of the four cones through the curve of

of two conicoids are the angular points of a
tetrahedron which is self-polar with respect to any conicoid
which passes through that curve.

142.

intersection

let

Take the vertex

= and
l (x, y, z}

Then

two conicoids.
form Fl (x, y,

z)

of one of the cones for origin, and

= be the equations of the
9 (x, y, z}
the equation of the cone will be of the
= 0. But, since the origin
Z (x, y, z)

+ \F

at the vertex of the cone, its

therefore have
geneous.

equation will be

is

We

homo

or

Now

the equation of the polar plane of

any conicoid
FI (x

x +
and, from

(i),

>

y>

vi

it is

S. s.

G.

/*^i

x
>

y>

+ /^2 y + w +
i

z)

=o

/^

is

=
;

clear that this polar plane coincides with

UjX
for all values of

z}

with respect to

+ v$ + w^z +

d =
1

//,.

CONICOIDS THROUGH SEVEN GIVEN POINTS.

130

Hence
has the same polar plane with respect to all
conicoids through the curve of intersection of the two
given
conicoids.

Now the polar plane of with respect to any one of the

other cones through the curve of intersection will
pass
through the vertex of that cone, and hence the vertices of
the other three cones are on the polar plane of
with respect
to any conicoid through the curve of intersection of the
given
conicoids: this proves the theorem.

$=0

If
be the equation of any conicoid, and
the equation of any two planes, then will S
Aa0 =
be the general equation of a conicoid which passes through
=
the two conies in which S =
is cut by the
planes a

143.

aft

and

0.

a =
be supposed to move up to and
= 0, we obtain the form
ultimately coincide with the plane
S A0 2 = 0, which represents a system of conicoids, all of
which touch S = where it is met by the plane ft = 0.
and
The surfaces S \y./3
touch one another at
the two points where they are cut by the line whose equa
= 0. For at either of these points the
tions are a = 0,
surfaces have two common tangent lines, namely the tangent
= 0.
and
lines to the sections by the planes a =
If

now the plane

$=

All conicoids which pass through seven given points

144.
pass through another fixed point.
be the equations of any three
Let Si =0, $2 = 0, $3 =
conicoids through the seven given points.

Then the

A$ + /j,S9 =
$ = 0, $2 =

conicoid whose equation is Sl +

through all points common to

will clearly pass

and Sl + \S9 + fiSt = can be made to coincide

and S3 =
with any conicoid through the seven given points, for the
can be so chosen that
two arbitrary constants A, and
the surface will pass through any two other points. Now
the three conicoids Sl = 0, $2 = 0, $8 =i have eight common
=
this proves
points, all of which are on S + A$2 + pS8
;

//.

the theorem.

Thus, corresponding to any seven given points there

is

an

131

EXAMPLES.

eighth point associated with them, such that any conicoid

through seven of the points will also pass through the eighth
point and it should be remarked that in order that a system
of conicoids may have a common curve of intersection, they
must have eight points in common which are not so associated.
;

Ex. 1. All conicoids through the curve of intersection of two rectangular

hyperboloids are rectangular hyperboloids.

[A rectangular hyperboloid
pendicular generating lines.]

one whose asymptotic cone has three per

is

The asymptotic cone of a conicoid has three generators at right angles

when the sum of the coefficients of #2 y 2 and z in the equation of the surface
Now the sum of the coefficients of as2 y 2 and z^ in S + \S =0 will be
is zero.
This proves the proposition.
zero, if that sum is zero in S and also in S
2

lie

Ex. 2. Any two plane sections of a conicoid and the poles of those planes
on another conicoid.

Let ax* + by* + cz i + d = Q be the conicoid, and let (xf,y , z ) and

be any two points. The equations of the polar planes of these points will be
f

(x",

axx + byy + czz + d=0 and

The

axx"

byy"

czz"

y",

z")

+ J=0.

conicoid

X (ax + by* + c

+ d)- (axx + byy + czz + d)

(axx"

byy"

czz"

+ d) =

the general equation of a conicoid through the two plane sections.

conicoid will pass through (x y z ) if X be such that
is

The

X (ax * + by* + cz
1

or

if

+ d) - (ax 2 + by * + cz * + d)
\=ax + by + cz
x"

y"

The symmetry
through

(x",

y",

(ax
z"

x"

+ by

y"

+ cz

z"

+ d) = 0,

+ d.

of this result shews that the conicoid will likewise

mss

z").

Ex. 3. Through the curve of intersection of a sphere and an ellipsoid four

quadric cones can be drawn; and if diameters of the ellipsoid be drawn
parallel to the generators of one of the cones the diameters are all equal.
Also the continued product of the four values of such diameters is equal to the
continued product of the axes of the ellipsoid and of the diameter of the
sphere.

Let the equations of the ellipsoid and of the sphere be

and

(x-a)* + (

The general equation

of a conicoid through the curve of intersection is

92

132

EXAMPLES.

This conicoid will be a cone,

the co-ordinates of the centre satisfy the

if

equations

and

-ax-p

Eliminating

x, y, z

we have

If, for any particular value of X, the conicoid given by (i) is a cone, the
equation of the cone, when referred to its vertex, takes the form

and therefore the direction-cosines of any diameter which

is parallel to

one

of the generating lines of the cone, satisfy the equation

I

Hence the square

m2

n2

of the semi-diameter is constant

and equal

to

- X.

Hence also the continued product of the squares of the four values of
the semi-diameters is equal to the product of the four roots of the equation (ii)
and the product of the roots is easily seen to be a 2 6 2cV.
;

Ex. 4. The locus of the centres of all conicoids which pass through seven
given points is a cubic surface, which passes through the middle point of the
line joining any pair of the seven given joints.
Let &]==0, S2 =0, S8 =
points

be any three conicoids through the seven given

then the general equation of the conicoids

The equations

for the centre are

<&+&+

dx

dx

4
dx

r
g+xa+fS
dy
dy
dy

is

TANGENTIAL EQUATIONS.
Hence the equation of the locus of the
and in, is

dx

centres, for different values of

dx

dx

dS l

is

=0,

dSi
df>

dS,
dz

which

133

~d7

a cubic surface, since

<fcc.

~dz

are of the

first

degree.

have the centre of a conicoid given, is equivalent to

having three
conditions given
hence a conicoid which has a given centre can be made to
six
pass through any
points.
Hence, if A, B be any two of the seven given
points, one conicoid whose centre is the middle point of AB will
through
A and through the remaining five points; and a conicoid whose pass
centre is the
middle point of AB, and which goes
through A, must also go through B.
Thus the middle point of AB is a point on the locus of centres and so also
is the middle
of
the
line
point
of the
joining any other
to

Now,

[Messenger of Mathematics, vol.

xm.

pair
p. 145,

given points.

and

xiv. p. 97.]

TANGENTIAL EQUATIONS.
If the equation of a
plane be Ix + my + nz
then the position of the plane is determined if
Z,
145.

+1 = 0,

m, n are
known, and by changing the values of I, m and n the
equation may be made to represent any plane whatever.
The quantities I, m, and n which thus define the
position of
a plane are called the co-ordinates of the
These co
plane.

ordinates, when their signs are changed, are the

reciprocals of
the intercepts on the axes.
If the co-ordinates of a
plane be connected by any relation,
the plane will
envelope a surface; and the equation which
expresses the relation is called the tangential equation of the
surface.
th
146.
If the tangential
equation of a surface be of the n
degree, then n tangent planes can be drawn to the surface
through any straight line. For, let the straight line be given
by the equations ax + by + cz -f- 1 = 0, a x + b y -\- c z + 1 = ;
then the co-ordinates of any
plane through the line will be

a + \a
1 _l_^

+ X6

>

T~+~\7

+ \c

1 4-

these co-ordinates be sub-

CENTRE OF CONTCOID.

134

stituted in the given tangential equation, we shall obtain an

ih
equation of the n degree for the determination of X, which

proves the proposition.

surface is said to be of the 71th class when n

Def.
tangent planes can be drawn to it through an arbitrary
straight line.

We

147.

have shewn in Art. 57 that the plane

Ix

will

-f

my +

nz

+1=

touch the conicoid whose equation

a#2 +

bif +

if

is

2fyz + 2gzx + 2hxy + 2ux + 2vy + 2wz +d = 0,

Al* + Bm* + 6V + 2Fmn + 2Gnl + 211 im
cz*

where A, B,

G... are

the co-factors of

a, b,

c...

in the dis

criminant.

Hence the

tangential equation of a conicoid

is

of the

second degree.
Conversely every surface whoso tangential equation
the second degree is a conicoid.

is

of

148.
Since the tangential equation of a conicoid is of the
second degree, which in its most general form contains nine
constants, it follows that a conicoid can be made to satisfy
nine conditions and no more and in particular a conicoid
can be made to touch nine given planes.
;

149.
To find the Cartesian co-ordinates of the centre of the
conicoid given by the general tangential equation of the second
degree.

The two tangent planes to the conicoid which are parallel

= n = 0. The values
are those for which
the plane x =
z
of I are therefore given by the equation al + 2ul + d = 0.
Now the centre of the surface is on the plane midway
to

between these; and hence the centre

is

on the plane x

=
^..

DIRECTOR-SPHERE.
Similarly the centre

on the planes y

is

Hence the required

= -5

co-ordinates are

and

-,

-^

;j

^
a

-y

[See

Art. 76.]

We may take the equation of the moving plane to

150.
be Ix -f my + nz + p = 0; and the plane will envelope a surface
for
if I, m, n, p be connected by a homogeneous equation
would
be
in
m,
I,
n,
equivalent
p
any homogeneous equation
I
n
between the constants to an
;

equation

If

plane,

we take Ix+my
we may suppose

+ nz+p =
I,

Q for the equation of the

m, n to be the direction-cosines of

the normal to the plane.

To find

151.

tangential equation
If we eliminate

the

director-sphere of a

conicoid

whose

is given.

p between the equation of the surface and

the equation Ix + my + nz -f p = 0, we shall obtain a relation
between the direction-cosines of any tangent plane which
The relation
passes through the particular point (x, y, z).
will

be
2

off

+ 6m + en +

(Ix

+ my + nzj + 2fmn + Zgnl + 2hlm

2 (id + vm + wri)(lx + my + nz) =

0.

on the director-sphere, three per

y, z) be a point
(oc,
it
the above
pendicular tangent planes will pass through
relation must therefore be satisfied by the direction-cosines
Hence, by addition,
of each of three perpendicular planes.
If

we have
a

which

is

+ G - 2ux -

2vy

- 2wz + d (x* +

y*

+ z*) = 0,

the required equation of the director-sphere.

and S = be the tangential equations of

If 8
touch eight given planes, then the
which
conicoids
any two
=
will be of the second degree, and will
\S
8
4equation
therefore be the tangential equation of a conicoid; and it is
= will touch the common
clear that the conicoid $ + A$
152.

136

CONICOIDS WHICH TOUCH SEVEN PLANES.

tangent planes of 8 = and 5 = 0,

satisfy the equations 8=

for if the co-oidinates of

S+\S = 0.

also

S =

and

any plane

satisfy the equation

suitable value to X, the conicoid

Also,

0,

they will

by giving a

S + \S = can be made to
touch any ninth plane it will therefore
represent any coni
coid touching the eight given
planes.
:

153.
If Sl = 0, $ = 0, $ =
be the tangential equations
2
3
of any three conicoids which touch seven
given planes then
the conicoid whose tangential
=
equation is S + X$ -f
;

/j,Sa

will touch each of the seven

given planes, for if the co
ordinates of any plane satisfy the three
= 0,
equations $,
S9 = and $8 = 0, it will also satisfy the equation

S + \Sa +
t

Also,

by

can be

t*S9

giving suitable values to

made

to touch

= 0.

X and

/UL,

the conicoid

any two other planes

8 +X
l

4-

/*Sa

hence

the most general equation of a conicoid which touches the

seven given planes.
= 0, S2 - 0, S8 =0and S4 =
be the
Similarly, if
tangential equations of any four conicoids which touch six
will be the general
given planes, $, -f X$2 -!- fiSt + vS4 =
tangential equation of the conicoids which touch those six

is

planes.
Ex.

1.

The

centres of all conicoids ivhich touch eight given planes are on a

straight line.
If S =
and S =0 be the equations of any two conicoids which touch the
eight given planes, then S + \S = Q will be the general equation of a conicoid
The centre of the conicoid is given by
touching them.

_
= u + \u

_v + \v

_w + \w

Eliminating X we obtain the equation of the centre locus, namely

dz-w
dx-u ~
_ dy-v _
~~
dz-w
dy-v

d x~^u
hence the locus

is

a straight

line.

EXAMPLES.
Ex.

The

2.

centres of all conicoids

137

which touch seven given planes are on

a plane.

= be the equations of three conicoids which touch the

If 5 = 0, 9 = 0,
seven given planes, then the general equation of a conicoid which touches the
S"

S + \S +

planes will be

Ex.

The director-spheres of

3.

pS"

= 0.
which have eight common

all conicoids

common radical plane.

tangent planes have a

The director- sphere of the conicoid S + \S = Q is

a + b + c - 2ux - 2vy -2wz+d (x^ + 2 + z 1 }
+ \ {a + b + c -2u, x- 2ify - 2w
y"

+d

2
(a;

+ y 2 + * 2)

The director-spheres of all conicoids which touch six given planes

are cut orthogonally by the same sphere.
[P. Serret s Theorem.]
Ex.

4.

If (?!

(),

(7,5

= 0,

which touch the

<7

six

= and
planes;

= be the equations of any four conicoids

then the general equation of the conicoids

(7 4

will be

ai +

X<7

+ /i(73 + j/C 4 =0.

Now from
conicoid

S3 =

is

Art. 151 we see that the equation of the

director-sphere of a
linear in a, 6, c, &c.
It therefore follows that, if
= S =0,

and S4 =

0,

be the equations of the director- spheres of the conicoids

and C74 = respectively, the equation of the director-

Ci = 0, C3 = 0, Ca =

+ X(73 + /x(78 + v C4 =
S, + XS + j*S + vS = 0.

sphere of
will

Cj

be

Now from

the condition that two spheres may cut

orthogonally [Art. 90,
follows that a sphere can always be found which will cut four
given
spheres orthogonally; and it also follows that the sphere which cuts
the
=
four
orthogonally
=
and
spheres
0, S = 0, S =
will cut

Ex.

6], it

orthogonally any sphere whose equation

proves the proposition.

is

S,

0,

+ XS 2 + ^S- + vS. = 0.

This

Ex. 5. The locus of the centres of conicoids ivhich touch six

planes, and
have the sum of the squares of their axes
given, is a sphere.
[Mention s

Theorem.]
By Ex. 4

all

the director-spheres of the conicoids are cut

orthogonally by

same sphere; and the director- spheres have a constant radius. Hence
their centres, which are the centres of the
conicoids, are on a sphere con
the

centric with this orthogonal sphere.

RECIPROCATION.
154.
space,

If

we have any system

of points and planes in

and we take the polar planes of those
points and the

poles of the planes, with respect to a fixed conicoid (7, we

obtain another system of planes and
points which is called

138

RECIPROCATION.

the polar reciprocal of the former with respect to the

auxiliary conicoid C.
When a point in one system and a plane in the reciprocal
are pole and polar plane with respect to the
auxiliary
conicoid (7, we shall say that they correspond to one another.
If in one system we have a surface S, the planes
which correspond to the different points of S will all touch
some surface S
Let the planes corresponding to any
number of points P, Q, R... on a plane section of $ meet
in T; then T is the pole of the plane
with respect to
0, that is the plane I^QR corresponds to T.
Now, if the
move up to and ultimately coincide with the
plane
tangent plane at P, the corresponding tangent planes to S
will ultimately coincide with one another, and their point of
intersection T will ultimately be on the surface S
So that
a tangent plane to the surface S corresponds to a point
on the surface S just as a tangent plane to S corresponds
to a point on S.
Hence we see that S is generated from S
.

PQR

PQR

exactly as

is

from

S.

To a line L in one system corresponds the line

155.
in the reciprocal system which is the polar line of L with
respect to the auxiliary conicoid.
If any line L cut the surface S in any number of points
P, Q, R... we shall have tangent planes to S corresponding
to the points P, Q, R..., and these tangent planes will
all pass through a line, viz. through the polar line of L with
Hence, as many tangent
respect to the auxiliary conicoid.
planes to $ can be drawn through a straight line as there
That is to say the
are points on 8 lying on a straight line.
class [Art. 146] of S is equal to the degree of S. Reciprocally
the degree of $ is equal to the class of S.
In particular, if 8 bo a conicoid it is of the second degree
and of the second class hence S is of the second class and of
the second degree, and is therefore also a conicoid.
;

156.

The

two surfaces
surfaces.

is

of a point which is common to

a plane which touches both the reciprocal

reciprocal

139

RECIPROCATION.

two surfaces have a common curve of intersection,

the
have
an infinite number of common points
they
number of
reciprocal surfaces therefore have an infinite
common tangent planes. These common tangent planes
form a surface
and, since the line of intersection of any
two consecutive planes is on the surface, it is a ruled
If

surface, the generating lines

of consecutive

being the lines of intersection

one of the planes contains

Any

planes.

two consecutive generating lines, so that two consecutive

a developable
generators must intersect hence the surface is
;

surface.

If all the points of the curve lie on a plane, all the

tangent planes to the developable pass through a point
Hence the
the developable must therefore be a cone.
reciprocal of a plane curve is a cone.
;

by reciprocation from Art. 144, that all coniwhich touch seven fixed planes will touch an associated

It follows

coids

eighth plane.
It also follows from Art. 140 that all conicoids which
touch eight given planes have an infinite number of common
tangent planes, provided that the eight given planes do not
form an associated system.

The reciprocation is usually taken with respect to

157.
a sphere, and since the nature of the reciprocal surface is in
dependent of the radius of the sphere, we only require to
know the centre of the sphere, which is called the origin of
reciprocation.
The line joining the centre of a sphere to any point
perpendicular to the polar plane of the point. Hence, if P,

is

be any two points, the angle between the polar planes of

these points with respect to a sphere is equal to the angle
that PQ subtends at the centre of the sphere.
If any conicoid be reciprocated with respect to a
158.
point 0, the points on the reciprocal surface which corre
to the original surface
spond to the tangent planes through
must be at an infinite distance.

140

RECIPROCATION.

Hence the generating lines of the asymptotic cone of the

reciprocal surface are perpendicular to the tangent planes of
the enveloping cone from
to the original surface.
In particular, if the point
be on the director-sphere of
the original surface, that is if three of the
tangent planes
from
be at right angles, the asymptotic cone of the
reciprocal surface will have three generating lines at right
angles.

Corresponding to a point at infinity on the original

we have a tangent plane through
to the reciprocal

surface

surface.

Hence the tangent cone from the origin to the reciprocal

surface has its tangent planes perpendicular to the
generating
lines of the asymptotic cone of the original surface.
In particular,

if

the asymptotic cone of the original surface

have three perpendicular generating lines, three of the tangent

to the reciprocal surface will be at right
planes from
angles,
so that
is a point on the
director-sphere of the reciprocal
conicoid.

As an example of reciprocation take the theorem

two of the conicoids which pass through ^ight \given
points are rectangular hyperboloids, they will all be rect
angular hyperboloids." If this be reciprocated with respect
to any point
we obtain the following,
the directorspheres of two of the conicoids which touch eight given
159.

"

If

"If

planes pass through a point 0, the director-spheres of all the

conicoids will pass through
Hence the director-spheres
of all conicoids which touch eight given planes have a com
"

0."

mon
"

radical

plane."

As another example
straight line is

of reciprocation take the theorem

to cut the faces of a tetrahedron
:

drawn

A BCD

which are opposite to the angles A, B, C, D in

and d respectively. Shew that the spheres described
on the straight lines Aa, Bb, Cc, and Dd as diameters have
a, b, c

common
Let

radical

axis."

be a point of intersection of the spheres whose

diameters are Aa, Bb and Cc.
If we reciprocate with

141

RECIPROCATION.

we shall obtain another tetrahedron whose

and angular points correspond respectively to the
angular points and faces of the original tetrahedron. Corre
sponding to the four points a, b, c, d which are on a straight
line, we shall have four planes with a common line of inter
section; and, since a, b, c, d are on the faces of the original
respect to
faces

tetrahedron, the corresponding planes will pass through the

angular points of the reciprocal tetrahedron also since the
angles AOa, BOb, COc are right angles, the three pairs
of planes corresponding respectively to a and A, to b and
this shews that
B, and to c and G will be at right angles
the line of intersection of the planes corresponding to a, b, c, d
will meet three of the perpendiculars of the reciprocal
tetrahedron. But we know [Art. 135, Ex. 4], that every line
which meets three of the perpendiculars of a tetrahedron,
meets the remaining perpendicular and hence the planes
;

are at right angles, which shews

corresponding to d and
Hence
is also on
that the angle dOD is a right angle.
the sphere whose diameter is Dd.
Ex.

The

1.

reciprocal of a sphere with respect to

any point

is

a conicoid

of revolution.

Ex.
a

2.

s + 2/ + 2

Find the reciprocal of ax 2 + ly 2 + cz*= I with respect to the sphere

~2
X9 ? ,2
Ans.
=l.
+ -L + -=1.
a

Ex.

3.

Shew

that the reciprocal of a ruled surface

Ex.

4.

Shew

that

if

they also have another.

is

a ruled surface.

two conicoids have one common enveloping cone

[The reciprocal of Art. 120.]

Ex. 5. Either of the two surfaces ax z + by z =

respect to the oilier.

2z

is self

reciprocal witli

EXAMPLES ON CHAPTER VII.

When three conicoids pass through the same conic, the

1.
planes of their other conies of intersection pass through the same
line.

Shew that, if the curve of intersection of two conicoids

2.
cross itself, the conicoids will touch at the point of crossing ; and
that if the curve of intersection cross itself twice, it will consist
of two conies.

EXAMPLES ON CHAPTEK

142
3.

Shew

that three paraboloids will pass through the curve of

intersection of
4.

VII.

any two

Shew that a

intersection of

conicoids.

surface of revolution will go through the

any two conicoids whose axes are

parallel.

If a conicoid have double contact with a sphere, the square

of the tangent to the sphere from any point on the conicoid is in
a constant ratio to the product of the distances of that point from
the planes of intersection.
5.

6.

Any

two conicoids which have a common enveloping cone

intersect in plane curves.

Shew that the polar lines of a fixed line, with respect to a

7.
system of conicoids through eight given points, generate an hyperboloid of one sheet.
8.
Shew that the polar planes of a fixed point, with respect
to a system of conicoids through seven given points, pass through
a fixed point.
9.
Shew that the poles of a fixed plane, with respect to a
system of conicoids which touch seven given planes, lie on a fixed

plane.

The polar planes of a point with respect to two given

10.
conicoids are at right angles; shew that the locus of the point is
another conicoid.
All conicoids through the intersection of a sphere and
11.
a given conicoid, have their principal planes, and also their cyclic
planes, in fixed directions.
If
be any point on a conicoid, and lines be drawn
12.
parallel to equal diameters of the conicoid, these lines
through
will meet the surface on a sphere whose centre is on the normal

at 0.

be the centre of any conicoid through the intersec

If
13.
to the
tion of a sphere and a given conicoid, the line joining
with
centre of the sphere is perpendicular to the polar plane of
respect to the given conicoid.

Shew that, in a system of conicoids which have a common

14.
curve of intersection, the diametral planes of parallel diameters
have a common line of intersection.

EXAMPLES ON CHAPTER

VII.

143

If a system of conicoids be drawn through the inter

15.
section of a given conicoid and a sphere whose centre is 0, the

normals to them from

form a cone of the second degree, and
their feet are on a curve of the third order which is the locus of
the centres of

all

the surfaces.

If any point on a given diameter of an ellipsoid be

16.
joined to every point of a given plane section of the surface, the
cone so formed will meet the surface in another plane section,
whose envelope will be a hyperbolic cylinder.

A cone is described with its vertex at a fixed point, and

17.
one axis parallel to an axis of a, given quadric, and the cone cuts
the quadric in plane curves , shew that these planes envelope a
parabolic cylinder whose directrix-plane passes through the fixed
point.
If two spheres be inscribed in any conicoid of revolution,
18.
any common tangent plane of the spheres will cut the conicoid in

a conic having

its

points of contact for

foci.

If the line joining the point of intersection of three, out

19.
of six given planes, to the point of intersection of the other
three,
be called a diagonal ; shew that the ten spheres described on the

diagonals have the same radical centre, and the same orthogonal
sphere.

The circumscribing sphere of a tetrahedron which is self

20.
polar with respect to a conicoid cuts the director-sphere of the
conicoid orthogonally.

CHAPTER
CONFOCAL CONICOIDS.

VIII.

CONCYCLIC CONICOIDS.

Foci OF CONICOIDS.
Conicoids whose principal sections are confocal
160.
conies are called confocal conicoids.
The general equation of a system of confocal conicoids is
tf

x*

z*

be in descending order of magnitude.

positive, the surface is an ellipsoid, and the
principal axes of the surface will increase as X increases, and
their ratio will tend more and more to equality as X is
increased more and more so that a sphere of infinite radius
is a limiting form of one of the confocals.
2
If X is negative and less than c the surface is an ellipsoid ;
flatter as X approaches
and
but the ellipsoid becomes flatter
2
Hence the elliptic disc whose equations are
the value
c

Suppose
If

a, 6, c to

is

is

a limiting form of one of the confocals.

2
2
6 the surface
c and
If X is between

of one

sheet.

hyperboloid
plane z

is

is an hyperboloid
2
c
the
very nearly equal to
very nearly coincident with that part of the

When X

is

3?

which

is

exterior to the ellipse

r

if

z
b

2=1-

CONFOCAL CONICOIDS.

When X

145

the hyperboloid is
is very nearly equal to
that
the plane y =
with
of
coincident
nearly
part
very
which contains the centre and is bounded by the hyperbola
b",

_i_

If X is between
boloid of two sheets.

the hyperboloid
of the plane y =

is

<>

______
7
f>

i
-*

<J

a2 the surface

and

When X

an hyper
2

a?

z*

bounded by the hyperbola ^ ^ +-5 j-a = 1.

a
C
When X is between a2 and oo the surface
The two conies
V

**

is

6
very nearly equal to
very nearly coincident with that part
which does not contain the centre and is
is

a"

is

imaginary.

and
which we have seen are the boundaries of limiting forms
of confocal conicoids, are called focal conies, one being the
focal ellipse,

and the other the

focal hyperbola.

Three conicoids, confocal with a given central conicoid,

pass through a given point ; and one of the three is an
ellipsoid, one an hyperboloid of one sheet, and one an hyper
boloid of two sheets.
Let the equation of the given conicoid bo
161.

will

conicoid confocal to this

Any

is

a*
a?

A,

tf

_x

-X

This will pass through the particular point

12

(6

- X) (c - X) + g* (c2 - X) (a -

S. s.

u.

(f,

h)

if

X)

10

CONFOCAL CONICOIDS.

146
If

we

for

substitute

X the values

a?,

2
,

2
,

and

oo

in

succession, the left side of the equation (ii) will be +, -, -f,

namely one
hence there are three real roots of the equation,
2
2
2
2
between a and 6 one between 6 and 2 c and one between
2
oo
When X is between c and - oo all the
and
c
coefficients in (i) are positive, and the surface is an ellipsoid
2
when X is between c and b\ one of the coefficients is
and the surface is an hyperboloid of one sheet and
;

negative,

2
2
when X is between 6 and a two

and the surface

is

of the coefficients are negative,

an hyperboloid of two sheets.

One conicoid of a given confocal system

162.

will touch

any plane.
Let the equation of the plane be
Ix 4- my + nz = p.

The plane

will

touch the conicoid

if

which gives one, and only one, value of

focal will

163.

X.

Hence one con-

touch the given plane.

Two

conicoids of

a confocal system will touch any

straight line.

Let the straight line be the line of intersection of the

= 0.
Ix + my + nz +p = 0, I x + my + riz +p
planes
be
will
line
through the straight

Any

plane

This plane will touch the conicoid

__
+X
c*

if

+\(l + klj + (6 + X) (m + km )*
+ (c + X) (n + knj = (p + kp
2

CONFOCAL CONICOIDS.

147

if the given line be a tangent line of the conicoid, the

two tangent planes through it will coincide. Hence the roots
of the above equation in k must be equal. The condition for

Now,

the following equation for finding

this gives
2

{(a

X)J

+ (6 +X)m + ( c + x)n -p*}

{(a + X) r + (6 + X) m
= {(a + X) II + (6 + X) mm +
2

X,

4- (c

(c

+ X) n* - p *}

+ X)

un

-pp

}*.

Since the equation is of the second degree, there are two

confocals which touch the given line.

Two confocal conicoids

164.
angles at all their common points.

cut

one another at right

Let the equations of the conicoids be

and let
x y z
,

(scy z) be a common point ; then the co ordinates

will satisfy both the above equations.
Hence, by

subtraction

we have

...... (i).

Now the equations of the tangent planes at the

point (x y z ) are
*

~
*LI
+ s#!
2 +
2
,

5^x + vh + ?Tx

and

The

condition

(i)

common

=*

resP ectively-

shews that these tangent planes are at

right angles.

102

CONFOCAL CONICOTDS.
165.
If a straight line touch two confocal conicoids, the
tangent planes at the points of contact will be at right angles.

Let (x y z),
conicoids be

(x"y"z")

x2

be the points of contact, and

z*

if

FTx + ?Tx

<?Tx

let

the

a;

aM-X
The tangent planes

will

if

&

+V

+ _j?*__i

?Tx

be at right angles

(a

if

"

"

x/x

zz

+ X) (a

2
-I-

X)

(6*

+ X)

(6

+ V)

(c

+ X)

"

(c"

+X

But, since the line joining the two points is a tangent line to
both conicoids, each point must be in the tangent plane at
the other. Hence

"

x"

z"

and

By

subtraction

we

see that the condition

(i) is satisfied.

The

Ex.
difference of the squares of the perpendiculars from the
centre on any two parallel tangent planes to two given confocal conicoids is
constant,
[p^ -p^= X, X 2 .]
1.

Ex. 2. The locus of the point of intersection of three planes mutually

at right angles, each of which touches one of three given confocals, is a
sphere.
[See Art. 92.]

Ex.

3.

The

locus of the umhilici of a system of confocal ellipsoids is the

focal hyperbola.

[The umbilici are given by

a?-b*

-c 2

Ex. 4. If two concentric and co-axial conicoids cut one another everywhere
at right angles they must be confocal.

Ex. 5. P, Q are two points, one on each of two confocal conicoids, and
the tangent planes at P, Q meet in the line RS shew that, if the plane
through US and. the centre bisect the line PQ, the tangent planes at P and Q
must be at right angles to one another.
;

CONFOCAL CONICOIDS.
Ex.

Shew that two confocal paraboloids

6.

149

cut everywhere at right angles.

[The general equation of confocal paraboloids

is ,-^

= 2z + \.]

166.
We have seen that three conicoids confocal with a
given conicoid will pass through any point P, the parameters
of the confocals being the three values of X
given by the
equation

f
+
where

#, y, z are the co-ordinates of P.

If the roots of the above
equation be
to shew that
2

(a

\, X a X 3
,

it is

easy

+ X )(a + X )(a + X )
(a -6 )(a -c )
1

2
2

fl

with similar values for y* and z\

Hence the absolute values of the co-ordinates of any
point can be expressed in terms of the parameters of the
conicoids which meet in that point, and are confocal with a
given conicoid.

The parameters of the two confocals through

any
of a conicoid are equal to the squares of the axes of
the central section of the conicoid which is
parallel to the
tangent plane at P ; and the normals at P to the confocals
167.

point

are parallel

to the

Let (x, y
equation

then,

if

axes of that section.

be any point

on the conicoid

whose

is

P be

on the confocal whose parameter

1

xz

J*

and therefore

"

y"

:c

-x)

is X,

we have

150

CONFOCAL CONICOIDS.

The equation
plane at

of the central section parallel to the tangent

is

Hence the equation giving the squares

section

of the axes of the

is

r*

we see that the squares of the

Comparing (i) and
axes of the section are the two values of X.
(ii)",

The equations
normal at

to

of the diameter which

one of the confocals are

a2

is

parallel to the

-X

The length of the diameter will be equal to

one of the generating lines of the cone

(H) =
the condition that this

may be

the case

~\)
and

it is

clear

Hence an

from

(i)

2-^/X if it

Art 73
-

Ex

be

is

that this condition

is satisfied.

axis of the central section is parallel to the

normal to one of the confocals through P, and the square of
the length of the semi-axis is equal to the parameter of

that confocal.

151

CONFOCAL CONICOIDS.

COR. If diameters of a conicoid be drawn parallel to the

normals to a confocal at all points of their curve of inter
section, such diameters will be of constant length.

Two points (x, y, z), (f, 77, f), one on each of

168.
co-axial conicoids whose equations are

respectively, are said to correspond

,

-J-

two

when

/3

In order that real points on one conicoid may correspond

to real points on the other, the two surfaces must be of the
same nature, and must be similarly placed.
It folio vs at once from the equations (i), Art. 96, that if
on one of the conicoids three points be taken which are ex
tremities of conjugate diameters, the three corresponding
other conicoid will be at extremities of con
points on the
diameters.
jugate

The distance between two points, one on each of two

169.
is equal to the distance between the two
confocal ellipsoids,
corresponding points.

Let (x lt y lt
conicoid, and (f,, v^
on the other conicoid.
*!>,

2/2

),

(|

t>

^) be the two points on one

r) 2

the corresponding points

We

have to prove that

(, *,)*+ (v-

8
")

-t-

(*,-

W=

(*.

- ?.

011

-K-W + ty.-^ + K -?,)

CONFOCAL CONICOIDS.

152

which

is

clearly the case, since the conicoids are confocal,

and

2V*e focii.9
170.
the poles of a given plane with respect
a system of confocal conicoids is a straight line.
Let the equation of the confocals be
q/"

to

?^x + F^x + ^x = *
and

let the

equation of the given plane be

Ix -f my + nz = 1.

The equation

of the polar plane of the point (x, y, z]

***
yy
_i

is

zz>

^X^6 -X^c
8

Comparing
plane,

l2

-A,~

equation with the equation of the given

this

we have

therefore

Hence the

%I

a?

y -V=
=-

locus of the poles

equations are

a?l
I

_y

is

m __ z

- c\
the straight line whose
c*n

This straight line is perpendicular to the given plane, and

clearly must pass through the point of contact of that conHence the perpendicular
focal which touches the plane.
from any point on its polar plane with respect to a conicoid
meets the polar plane in the point where a confocal conicoid
touches it.
it

CONFOCAL CONICOIDS.

the

153

The axes of the enveloping cone of a conicoid are

171
normals to the confocals which pass through its vertex.

to the three
OR be the normals at
and are con focal with a given
which pass through
with
conicoid; and let P, Q, R be on the polar plane of
respect to the given conicoid.

Let

OP, OQ,

conicoicls

By the last article, the line OP is the locus of the poles of

the plane QOR with respect to the system of confocals.
Hence, the pole of the plane QOR with respect to the given
conicoid is on the line OP; the pole is also on the plane
and therefore con
is the polar plane of
PQR, because
tains the poles of all planes through 0. Therefore the point
is the pole of the plane QOR with respect to the given
are the poles of the planes
conicoid. Similarly Q and

PQR

ROP

OPQR

POQ

is a self-polar tetra
Hence
respectively.
hedron with respect to the original conicoid.
so as to
let any straight line be drawn through

and

Now

and the plane QOR

cut the given conicoid in the points A,
in 0. Then [Art. 56] the pencil
[APBG] is harmonic; and
and 00 are at right angles, hence OP bisects the angle
is an axis of any cone whose
AOB. This shews that
vertex is at 0, and whose base is a plane section of the
One such cone is the enveloping cone
conicoid through P.
is an axis of the
hence
from
to the given conicoid
can shew in a similar manner that OQ
enveloping cone.
and OR are axes of the enveloping cone.

OP

OP

OP

We

To find in its simplest form

enveloping cone of a conicoid.
172.

the

equation of the

Let the equation of the conicoid be

a?

The equation
Ix

of

any tangent plane

my + nz *J(a?l* +

is

bV + cV).

Hence the direction-cosines of the normal to any tangent

plane which passes through the point (a? y # ) satisfy the
,

fl

154

CONFOCAL CONICOIDS.

equation

aT + & m + cV f

(laoQ

+ my + ^

2
)

0.

Hence the equation

of the reciprocal of the enveloping cone

whose vertex

y Q)

is

(XQ

is

aV + &y + cV - (CCX + yy + ^
Q

=
(i>

Similarly the equation of the reciprocal of the enveloping

cone of the conicoid

is

(a

#+ (6 - X) y + (c
2

-X)

2
-X)* - OBO + 2/7/ + ** )*=

0. .(iii).
.

It is clear from Art. 60, that the cones (i) and (iii) are
co-axial for all values of X.
Hence, since a cone and its
it follows that all cones which have a
are
coaxial,
reciprocal
common vertex and envelope confocal conicoids are co-axial
;

and, by considering the three confocals which pass through

the vertex, the enveloping cones to which are the tangent
planes, we see that the principal planes of the system of
cones are the tangent planes to the coufocals which pass

through their vertex.

The enveloping cones of the three confocals which pass
) are
planes, and their reciprocals are
through (a? y
Hence the three values of X for which the
straight lines.
,

is the product of linear factors (which are

imaginary) are the three parameters \, X3 X 8 of the con
focals through (# 2/ z ).
But [Art. 77] the three values of X for which the left
side of (iii) is the product of linear factors are the three roots
of the discriminating cubic of (i).
Therefore the roots of the discriminating cubic of (i) are
so tnat tne equation of the reciprocal of the

left side of (iii)

\, \,

enveloping cone, when referred to

xx
Hence the equation

its axes, is

+ xy + x/ = o.
of the enveloping cone

is

155

CONCYCLIC CONICOIDS.
Find

Ex.

locus of the

the

vertices of the

right circular cones which

circumscribe an ellipsoid.
reciprocal cone will be right circular.

If a cone be right circular, the

Hence we require the condition that the cone whose equation

- (xx + yy + *z

may

2
)

is

= 0,

be right circular.

If

x0t

2/ ,

be

all finite,

a2 - a

[Art. 85]

the conditions for a surface of revolution are

V=

62

y<?

+ y 2 = c2 - z 2 +

BO that, unless the surface is a sphere, #

condition for a surface of revolution gives

?/

2
o

must be

Hence the enveloping cone from any point on the

zero.

If z

=0, the

focal ellipse

is right circular.

Similarly, the enveloping cones from points

on

or from points on
are right circular.

The

conic

(ii) is

the focal hyperbola,

and

(iii)

is

imaginary.

CONCYCLIC CONICOIDS.
173.

The

reciprocal of the conicoid

X^ f+ X^V ^_
+X

_**_
a

with respect to the sphere x*

y*

?, is

It is clear that the reciprocal conicoids

of X.
cyclic plaues for all values

Hence a system

have the same

of confocal conicoids reciprocates into a

of
concentric
concyclic conicoids.
system

156

FOCI OF CONICOIDS.

174.
The following are examples of reciprocal properties
of confocal and concentric
concyclic conicoids.
Three

any

ccmfocals

pass

namely an

point,

through
an

ellipsoid,

hyperboloid of one sheet, and an

hyperboloid of two sheets; also the
tangent planes at the point to the
three surfaces are at right angles.

Two

Three concyclics touch any plane,

namely an ellipsoid, an hyperboloid
of one sheet, and an hyperboloid of
two sheets; also the lines from the
centre to the points of contact of the
plane are at right angles.

Two

confocals touch a straight

at the
points of contact are at right angles.

concyclics touch a straight

and the lines from the centre
to the points of contact are at
right
angles.

Oneconicoid of a confocal system

One conicoid of a concyclic system

passes through any point.

line,

and the tangent planes

touches any plane.

The locus of the pole of a given

plane with respect to a system of
confocals

is

a straight line.

The principal planes of a cone

enveloping a conicoid are the tangent
planes to the confocals through its
vertex.

line,

The envelope of the polar plane

of a given point with respect to a
system of concyclics is a straight line.
The axes of a cone whose vertex
at the centre of a conicoid and base
any plane section, are the lines from
the centre to the points of contact of
is

the plane with the concyclics which

touch it.

Foci OF CONICOIDS.
175.

spond

There are two definitions of a conicoid which corre

and directrix definition of a conic.

to the focus

One

due to Mac Cullagh, is as follows

A conicoid is the locus of a point which moves so that its
distance from a fixed point, called the
focus, is in a constant
ratio to its distance (measured parallel to a
fixed plane) from
a fixed straight line called the directrix.
Let the origin be the focus, and the plane z =
the fixed
definition,

plane.

Also

let the

equations of the directrix be

157

FOCI OF CONICOIDS.

in

y , z be the co-ordinates of any point on the locus,

= meet the directrix
a plane through
parallel to z

Let

and

a/ ,

let

M, then

is

\f+

Now OP = e*
2

-l

PM

(z

- h), g +

^ (z

- h), z\

e being the constant

the equation of the locus of (x y z) is
.

^+ f+*= f *-/-*
The

locus

parallel to z

is

ratio.

Hence

<*

therefore a conicoid, and

are circles.

If the axes be
of the

is

changed in any manner

such that sections

(i)

will always

be

form

where A is the sum of two squares, or is the product of two

imaginary factors. We can therefore find the foci of any
= 0, from the consideration
given conicoid whose equation is 8
2
that S - X {(a? - a) + (y - )* + (z - 7) } will be the product
of imaginary linear factors if (a, /3, 7) be a focus, provided a
suitable value be given to X.

is

The other definition of a conicoid,

176.
as follows

due

to

Salmon,

conicoid is the locus of a point the square of whose

from a fixed point, called a focus, varies as the pro

distance

duct of its distances from two fixed planes.

The equation

We

of the locus

is

clearly of the

form

can find the foci of any conicoid according to this

by the consideration that

definition

be the product of real linear factors

provided a suitable value be given to X.

will

if (a, /3,

7) be a focus,

158

FOCAL CONICS.
To find

177.

We
focus

the foci

of the conicoid whose equation

have seen in Articles 175 and 176 that

/3,

7) is a

when
*)

is

(a,

is

+ (y-[Bf + (z-tf\ ...... (i)

the product of linear factors.

Hence X must be equal

Let

- a)
(6

6,

or

c.

X- = a, then
(i) becomes
+ (c a) + 2aax + 2a/%+ 2ayz - a (a + /3 +7 ) -1,
2

?/

to a, or

Hence, in order that

=
factors, we must have a

b
Similarly,

if

= b, we

if

and

have

a
and,

may be

(i)

0,

X = c, we have 7 =

0,

the product of linear

/3

arid

and

JL- -fiL-i

in rn

There are therefore three

plane, on which the foci

lie.

conies,

one in each principal

FOCAL LINES OF A CONE.

1

159

If the surface be an ellipsoid whose semiaxes are

the conies on which the foci lie are

78.

a, b, c,

are in descending order of magnitude (i) is an

These
is imaginary.
(iii)
conies are called the focal conies; and, as we have seen in
Art. 160, they are the boundaries of limiting forms of confocal

Since

ellipse,

a, 6, c

(ii)

is

an hyperbola, and

conicoids.
2
2
can
the cone ow? + by -f cz* =
be deduced from the above, or found in a similar manner.

179.

The

The

conies

focal conies of

become

JL

~~6

One

0;

of the focal conies of a cone is therefore a pair of real

lines which are called the focal lines ; the other focal

straight
conies are pairs of imaginary straight lines,
consider as point-ellipses.
Ex.

1.

Two

which we may

cones which have the same focal lines cut one another at

right angles.

Ex. 2. Shew that the enveloping cones from any point to a system of
confocals have the same focal Hues.
Ex. 3. Shew that the focal conies of a paraboloid are two parabolas.

EXAMPLES ON CHAPTER

160

VIII.

T/ie focal lines of a cone are perpendicular to the

planes of the reciprocal cone.
The equations of any two reciprocal cones referred to
their axes are

180.

cyclic

aa?

fof

+ cz* = 0,

and

- + f- + - = 0.
a
o
c

The

cyclic planes are [Art. 121]

The

focal lines are

y=0>

by the

irTn:r
a
b

last article

and

y=0>

^^
+

=a

It is therefore clear that the focal lines of one cone are

perpendicular to the cyclic planes of the other.

EXAMPLES ON CHAPTER VIII.

THREE

confocal conicoids meet in a point, and a central

drawn parallel to its tangent plane at that point.
Prove that, one of the three sections will be an ellipse, one an
1.

plane of each

is

hyperbola, and one imaginary.

2.
Plane sections of an ellipsoid envelope a confocal
that their centres lie on a surface of the fourth degree.

shew

3.
Q
P, Q are two points on a generator of a hyperboloid;
Shew that
the corresponding points on a confocal hyperboloid.
is a generator of the latter, and that PQ = P Q

FQ

Shew that the points on a system of confocals which are

4.
such that the normals are parallel to a given line are on a rect
angular hyperbola.
5.

If

three lines at right angles to one another touch a

through the points of contact will envelope

conicoid, the plane

a confocal.

EXAMPLES ON CHAPTER

161

VIII.

If three of the generating lines of the enveloping cone of

6.
a paraboloid be mutually at right angles, shew that the vertex will
be on a paraboloid, and that the polar plane of the vertex will
always touch another paraboloid.

If through a given straight line tangent planes be drawn

7.
to a system of confocals, the corresponding normals generate a

hyperbolic paraboloid.

Shew

that the locus of the poLar of a given line with respect

is a hyperbolic paraboloid one of whose
asymptotic planes is perpendicular to the given line.
8.

to a system of confocals

9.

Planes are drawn

all

and each touching one of a

passing through a fixed straight line

set of confocal ellipsoids; find the locus

of their points of contact.

10.

At

a given point

the tangent planes to the three coni-

which pass through 0, and are confocal with a given conicoid,

are drawn ; shew that these tangent planes and the polar plane of
form a tetrahedron which is self-conjugate with respect to the
coids

given conicoid.
11.
Through a straight line in one of the principal planes
tangent planes are drawn to a series of confocal ellipsoids ; prove
that the points of contact lie on a plane, and that the normals at

these points pass through a fixed point.

If a plane be drawn cutting the three principal planes, and
through each of the lines of section tangent planes be drawn to
the series of conicoid s, prove that the three planes which are the
loci of the points of contact intersect in a straight line which is

perpendicular to the cutting plane, and passes through the three

fixed points in which the three series of normals intersect.
12.
Any tangent plane to a cone makes equal angles with the
planes through the line of contact and the focal lines.

If through a tangent at any point of a conicoid two

13.
tangent planes be drawn to a focal conic, these two planes will be
equally inclined to the tangent plane at 0.
14.
The focal lines of the enveloping cone of a conicoid are
the generating lines of the confocal hyperboloid of one sheet which
passes through its vertex.
S. S.

G.

11

EXAMPLES ON CHAPTER

162

Any

15.
line,

has

16.

P, then

section of a cone

which

is

VIII.

normal at

to a focal

for one focus.

an ellipsoid be normal to a focal conic at

be a focus of the section.

If a section of

P will

The product of the distances of any point

on a focal
17.
conic of an ellipsoid, from two tangent planes to the surface which
are parallel to one another and to the tangent at
to the focal
conic, is constant for all positions of P.

18.
From whatever point in space the two
viewed they appear to cut at right angles.

Hence shew that the

focal conies are

focal conies project into confocals

on any

plane.

If two confocal surfaces be viewed from any point, their

19.
apparent contours seem to cut at right angles.

If two cylinders with parallel generators circumscribe

20.
confocal surfaces their sections by a plane perpendicular to the
generators are confocal conies.

The centres of the sections of a series of confocal conicoids

21.
a
by given plane lie on a straight line.
22.
Shew that those tangent lines to an ellipsoid from an
external point whose length is a maximum or minimum are normals
at their respective points of contact to confocals drawn through
those points and further, that the locus of these maximum and
minimum lines to a series of ellipsoids confocal with the original
one is a cone of the second degree.
:

23.
straight line meets a quadric in two points P, Q so
and Q intersect prove that PQ meets any
that the normals at
confocal quadric in points, the normals at which intersect, and
that if PQ pass through a fixed point it lies on a quadric cone.

normals are drawn to a system of

If from any point
24.
confocals (1) these normals form a cone of the second degree, (2)
the tangent planes at the feet of the normals form a developable
Consider the case of
of the fourth degree.
being in one of the
principal planes.

EXAMPLES ON CHAPTER

163

VIII.

25.
The envelope of the polar plane of a fixed point with
respect to a system of confocal quadrics is a developable surface.
Prove this, and shew that the developable surface touches the six
tangent planes to any one of the confocals at the points where the
normals to that confocal through the fixed point meet that confocal.

26.
Prove that the developable which is the envelope of the
with respect to a system of confocal
polar planes of a fixed point
with respect to one of the
quadrics, meet Q the polar plane of
confocals in a line, whose polar line with respect to the same
confocal is perpendicular to Q ; and that these polar lines generate
the quadric cone six of whose generators are the normals at
to
the three confocals through
and the three lines through
t

parallel to their axes.

Prove that if a model of a hyperboloid of one sheet be

27.
constructed of rods representing the generating lines, jointed at the
points of crossing; then if the model be deformed it will assume
the form of a confocal hyperboloid, and prove that the trajectory
of a point on the model will be orthogonal to the system of confocal
hyperboloids.
28.

The two quadrics

2ayz + 2bzx + 2cxy =

and 2a yz + 2b zx + 2c xy -

can be placed so as to be confocal if

abc
abc
M
and
V c*iivA
2
2
a2 +b 2 +c* a 2 +b 2 +c*
(a + 6 +

>2

a
3

12

(a

s
c"

+ b + c 2)3

~ *7

29.
Two ellipsoids, two hyperboloids of one sheet, and two
hyperboloids of two sheets belong to the same confocal system;
shew that of the 256 straight lines joining a point of intersection
of three surfaces to a point of intersection of the other three, there
are 8 sets of 32 equal lines, the lines of each set agreeing either in
crossing or in not crossing each of the principal planes.
30.

A variable

fixed confocals;

conicoid has double contact with each of three

it has a fixed director-sphere.

shew that

112

CHAPTER

IX.

QlTADRTPLANAR AND TETRAHEDRAL CO-ORDINATES.

In the quadriplanar system of co-ordinates, four
181.
planes, which form a tetrahedron, are taken as planes of
reference, and the co-ordinates of any point are its perpen
The perpendiculars
dicular distances from the four planes.
are considered positive when they are drawn in the same
direction as the perpendiculars from the opposite angular
points of the tetrahedron.
Since the perpendicular distances of a point from
any three planes are sufficient to determine its position,
there must be some relation connecting the four perpen
diculars on the planes of reference.
be the angular points of the tetrahedron,
Let A, J5, C,
and a, b, c, d be the areas of the faces opposite respectively
to A, B, C, D; then, if a, /3, 7, 8 be the co-ordinates of any

point, the relation will be

the volume of the tetrahedron AEGD. This

within the tetrahedron,
for any point
true
evidently
since the sum of the tetrahedra BCDP, CDAP, DABP,
is the tetrahedron ABCD\ and, regard being had to
the signs of the perpendiculars, it can be easily seen to be

where

is

is

ABCP

universally true.

TETRAHEDRAL CO-ORDINATES.

The

182.

tetrahedral co-ordinates

165

a, /3, 7,

S of any point

P are the ratios of the tetrahedra BCDP, CDAP, DABP,

ABGP to the tetrahedron of reference ABGD. The relation
between the co-ordinates

is

easily seen to

be

It is generally immaterial whether we use quadriplanar or

tetrahedral co-ordinates, but the latter system has some
advantages, and in what follows we shall always suppose the
co-ordinates to be tetrahedral unless the contrary is stated.
shall also suppose that the equations are homogeneous,
for they can clearly always be made so by means of the relation
When the equations are homogeneous we
a _j_y(5-f. -{- S = 1.
can use instead of the actual co-ordinates any quantities

We

<y

proportional to them.

The

co-ordinates of the point which divides the

/3 t , 7^ SJ and (a a ft,7 2 S2 ) in the ratio X ^
are easily seen to be
183.

line joining

184.

The general equation of the first degree represents a

plane.

The general equation

la

We may

shew that

of the

first

degree

is

m/3 + 717 -f pB = 0.

-f

this represents a plane

by the method

of Art. 13.

Since the equation la. + m/3 -f 717 + pB = contains three

independent constants it is the most general form of the
equation of a plane.
The equation of the plane through the three points

>

kj

OL

Of
>

/A

^
>

^y

"Y*

TETRAHEDRAL CO-ORDINATES.

166

To shew

185.

that the perpendiculars

the

from

angular

points of the tetrahedron of reference on the plane whose

equation is la. + mfi+ny +p8 = are proportional to I, m, n,p.

Let L, M, N,
be the perpendiculars on the plane from
the angular points A, B, C,
respectively; the perpendicu
lars being estimated in the same direction.
Let the plane
meet the edge
in
then at
we have 7 = 0, 8 =

AB

and

IOL

+ m/3 = 0:

therefore

-.

Now

L:M ::AK

But

AK AB ACDK AGDB
::

similarly
.

::

ft

1;

KB AB KBCD ABCD :::!;

-a
L M AK - KB
m;
::

BK.

::

L=

-y
I

M
m

and similarly

::

N P
each =
n

The lengths of the perpendiculars on a plane from

186.
the vertices of the tetrahedron of reference may be called the
tangential co-ordinates of the plane; and, from the preceding
article, the equation of the plane whose tangential co-ordinates
are

I,

m,

n,

is h.

+ m/3 + nj +pS = 0.

The

co-ordinates of all planes which pass through

whose
tetrahedral co-ordinates are OL I /3 lt y iy S l
point
,

connected by the relation l% 1 +

the tangential equation of a point

+ ny +p^ = 0.

m^ of the first
1

is

the
,

are

Hence

degree.

187. The equation of any plane through the intersection

of the two planes whose equations are
la -f
is

(/ +

+ ny +p$ = 0, and I a + m/3 + n 7 p 8 = 0,

a + (m + \m) ft + (n + \ri) 7 + (p + \p) 8 = 0.

m/3

\l

-I-

Hence the tangential

co-ordinates of any plane through

the line of intersection of the two planes whose co-ordinates
are I, m, n, p and l m, n p are proportional to I -f \l
y

m + \m,

+ \ri, p

-f

\p.

1G7

TETRAHEDRAL CO-ORDINATES.

To find the perpendicular distance of a point from

188.

a plane.
Let the equation of the plane be

la+ml3 + nv+pS = Q .................. (i),

and

let

its

equation referred to any three perpendicular

axes be

Ax + By +

We

Cz

+ D = Q ..................... (ii).

that the perpendicular distance of any point

is proportional to the result obtained by
(ii)
of the point in the left-hand
substituting the co-ordinates
member of the equation. Hence the perpendicular distance
of any point from (i) is proportional to the result obtained
in the expression
by substituting the co-ordinates

know

from the plane

IOL

+m{3+ny+p$.

Hence, if I, m, n, p be equal to the lengths of the perpendiculars

from the angular points of the tetrahedron of reference, the
of any other point (a (3 7 8 ) will
perpendicular distance
be let + mfl + ny +_p8
,

distance from the

plane be at an infinite
of reference, the perpen
tetrahedron
the
of
angular points
diculars upon it from those points are all equal.
If a

189.

Hence the equation

This

may

result

of the plane at infinity is

also

be

obtained in the following

manner.

Let
the
a

Jfo, k/3,

7,

+ 7 + S = _.

kS be the co-ordinates of any point; then

= 1, or
gives kz + kfi + ky + k$

relation

invariable

If therefore k

become

infinitely great,

we

fc

have in the limit a

which is satisfied by
to the co-ordinates of

+ /3 + y + S =

0.

This

is

the relation

finite quantities that are proportional

any

infinitely distant point.

Let a t ft,?,, Sj be the co-ordinates of any point P,

190.
of a point Q. Also let 0^ a
4
a
8
and
7, 8 the co-ordinates
,

&

TETRAHEDRAL CO-ORDINATES.

168

PQ

be respectively the angles between the line

and the
of the
perpendiculars from the angular points A, B, G,
fundamental tetrahedron on the opposite faces.
Then, a, b, c, d being the areas of the faces opposite to

A, B, C,

D respectively,

we have

- 7i = j c.PQ cos

The equations

of the

direction-angles are

J}

#2

and S

8t

= J d PQ cos
.

straight line through P, whose

#8 $4 are therefore
,

7-7. = 8a cos

6 cos # 2

0,

c cos

d cos

#3

Since the sum of the projections of the four faces of the

tetrahedron on a plane perpendicular to PQ is zero, we have

a cos

+ b cos

putting I, m, n,
cos # 4 respectively,

or,
eZ

Ex.

1.

#2

-f c

cos

d cos #4

acos0 l?

instead of

b cos

0,
,

c cos

Find the conditions that three planes may have a common

3,

line of

intersection.

Ex.

2.

Find the conditions that two planes may be

Ex.

3.

Find the equation of a plane through a given point

parallel.

parallel to a

given plane.

[Any plane

Hence the

parallel to la

parallel plane
la

+ mfi + ny+pd = Q

through

(a

(?,

in

is

+ mp + ny + pS = (la + m/3 + 717 + p5 )

(a

+ 18 + 7 + 5).]

The equations

of the four planes each of which passes through a

vertex of the tetrahedron of reference and is parallel to the opposite face are

Ex.

4.

Ex.

5.

Find the condition that four given points may

Ex.

6.

Find the condition that four given planes may meet

Ex.

7.

/3

+ 7 + 5 = 0, 7+5+a = 0,

+ a + /3 = 0, and

a+p

The equations

+ y = 0.
lie

on a plane.
in a point.

of the four planes each of which bisects three of

the edges of a tetrahedron are
,

and

TETRAHEDRAL CO-ORDINATES.

169

Ex. 8. Shew that the lines joining the middle points of opposite edges of
a tetrahedron meet in a point.

Ex.

9.

Find the equations of the four lines through A, B, 0,

whose equations are

respec

tively parallel to the line

la

+ mfi + ny +pd = 0,

a+m

/3

+ n y +p 3 = 0.

Ex. 10.
plane cuts the edges of a tetrahedron in six points, and
six other points are taken, one on each edge, so that each edge is divided
:
harmonically shew that the six planes each of which passes through one of
the six latter points and through the edge opposite to it, will meet in a
point.

Ex. 11.

DOd

Lines AOa, BOb, COc,

through the angular points of a

tetrahedron meet the opposite faces in a, b, c, d.

intersection of the planes BCD, bed; CDA, cda;
lie on a plane.

be (a

[If

j8 ,

the equation of bed

+l+

/3

hence the line of intersection of

BCD,

that the four lines of

DAB,

dab-,

and ABC, abc

is

l_^-~
5

Shew

a
bed

is

on the plane

If two tetrahedra be such that the straight lines joining

Ex. 12.
corresponding angular points meet in a point, then will the four lines
of intersection of corresponding faces lie on a plane.

We

shall write the general equation of the second

191.
in
tetrahedral
co-ordinates in the form
degree
2

qa*

The
F(a,

left

A y,

192.

-f

+ S7 +

rj3*

side

of

ttf

the

+ 2fl3y + 2gya + 2/b/3

+ 2uaS + 2v/3S + 2wyS =
equation

will

0.

be denoted by

S).

To find

the points

where a given straight line cuts

of the second

the surface represented ~by the general equation

degree in tetrahedral co-ordinates.

Let the equations of the straight line be

-! = ft- & = 7~7

m
n
I

<$_-

S,

=
v"

TETRA11EDRAL CO-ORDINATES.

170

To find the points common

we have the equation

F (a + lp, P + mp,
l

7j

to this line

+ np,
dF

Bl

and the

surface,

+ pp) = 0,
dF^
dF
.

or

Since there are two values of p the surface

is

To find

193,

the equation

a conicoid.

of a tangent plane at any point

of a conicoid.
be a point on the surface, one root of the
8j)
Two
in
the
preceding article will be zero.
equation found
roots will be zero, if
If (a

P^Vt,

dF

*dF

dF

dF

be a tangent line to the surface.

the equations of the straight
from
n,p
Substituting
line we obtain the equation of the tangent plane, namely

The

line will in that case

for l,m,

= is
dF ^^ dF =
dF
JQ- + 7i T~ + S TF
o

But, since the equation F(z,

dF
,
l

-J-

+ Pi
,

cfa,

&,

7, 3)

homogeneous,

t
I

ap,

"ay,

therefore the equation of the

(a,,

j3,

tangent plane at the point

7., 8,) is

It can be shewn by the method of Art. 53, that the

the polar plane of any point (a lf ^ t 7i ^i) is
of
equation

194.

dF
195.

The

To ,/md

dF

dF.dF

^.e co-ordinates of the centre of the conicoid.

of the centre is the plane at infinity,

polar plane

whose equation isa

TETRAHEDRAL CO-ORDINATES.
Hence,

if (a
1}

f$ lt

171

y^ SJ be the centre of the comcoid,

we must have

The diametral plane

196.

of a system of parallel chords

of the conicoid can be found from Art. 192.

of the plane

The equation

is

,dF + m dF + n dF

~T~

~Ja

di

aft

^T~

dy

dF

+P~7*
* d8 ~

v,

Since I +
+ n +p = [Art. 190], it follows that all the
diametral planes pass through the centre, that is through the
point for which

dF == dF == dF^dF
doL

To find

197.

d/3

dS

dy

the condition that

a given plane

may

touch

the conicoid.

The condition that the plane fa -f raft + ny 4- pB = may

touch the conicoid can be found as in Art. 57. The result is

+ Em + Sri* + Tp + 2Fmn + ZGnl

+ 2Hlm + 2Ulp + 2Vmp + 2Wnp =
2

Ql*

where Q,

JR,

0,

&c. are the co-factors of g, r t s &c. in the dis

criminant.
198.

To find

the condition that the surface represented by

of the second degree may be a cone.

the general equation

The polar planes of the angular points of the fundamental

tetrahedron with respect to a cone meet in a point, namely
The equations of the polar
in the vertex of the cone.
planes are

#a+//3-f

and

UOL

57+^8 = 0,

TETRAHEDRAL CO-ORDINATES.

172

The required condition

is

therefore

q,

h,

g,

f,

h,

r,

9,

f>

U,

V,

u
v-

s,

W,

199.
To shew that any two conicoids have a common
polar tetrahedron.

self-

We

can shew, as in Art. 142, that four cones can pass

through the intersection of any two conicoids, and that the
vertices of the four cones are the angular points of a tetrahe
dron self-polar with respect to any conicoid through the
curve of intersection of the given conicoids.
The equation of a conicoid, when referred to a self-polar
tetrahedron, takes the form
2

ga
For, since a

we have
200.

is

h=g = u = Q
To find

+ r/3 + S 7 + ttf = 0.
2

the polar plane of the point

,

and similarly /= v

the general equation

= w = 0.

(1, 0, 0, 0),

of a conicoid circum

scribing the tetrahedron of reference.

If we substitute the co-ordinates of the angular points of
the tetrahedron of reference in the general equation of the

second degree, we have the conditions q = r = s = t = 0.

Hence the general equation of a conicoid circumscribing
the tetrahedron of reference is

0.

To find the general equation of a conicoid which

201.
touches the faces of the tetrahedron of reference.

The planes a= 0, /3 = 0, 7 = and 8 = will touch the

conicoid given by the general equation of the second degree if

Q = 0,

R = 0, 8 =

T=

and
0.
[Art. 197.]
conicoids which are inscribed in the tetrahedron of
reference are given by the general equation, with the con
= =
ditions

Hence

R S=T=0.

TETRAHEDRAL CO-ORDINATES.

173

Ex. 1. Find the equation of a conicoid which circumscribes the tetra

hedron of reference, and is such that the tangent planes at the angular points
are parallel to the opposite faces.
A ns. Py + ya+ap + a6 + pd + yd = 0.
Ex. 2. Find the equation of the conicoid which touches each of the faces
of the fundamental tetrahedron at its centre of gravity.
Ans.

To find

202.

of the sphere which circum

the equation

scribes the tetrahedron

of

The general equation

reference.

of a circumscribing conicoid

is

fPy + gyoL + hzfl + uzS + v/3S + wyS = 0.

If the conicoid be the circumscribing sphere, the section

= will be the circle circumscribing the triangle ABC.

Now the triangular co-ordinates of any point in the plane
S = 0, referred to the triangle ABC, are clearly the same as
by 8

the tetrahedral co-ordinates of that point, referred to the

tetrahedron ABCD. Hence, when we put 8 =
in the equa
tion of the conicoid, we shall obtain an equation of the same
form as the triangular equation of the circle circumscribing
ABC. Hence, comparing the equations

and

we

BC*/3y

+ CA

yz

+ AB*a/3 = 0,

obtain

By considering the sections made by the other faces of

the tetrahedron, we obtain the equation of the circumscribing
sphere in the form

CD*S = 0.
To find

203.

the conditions that the general equation

of

represent a sphere.
Since the terms of the second degree in the equations of
all
spheres, referred to rectangular axes, are the same; if
8 = be the equation of any one sphere, the equation of any
other sphere can be written in the form
the second degree

may

8+
or, in the

lx

+ mP + ny + p$ = 0,

homogeneous form,

S+

(fa

m/3

+ 717

+>S)

(a

+ /3

4-

-f 8)

0.

TETRAHEDRAL CO-ORDINATES.

174

If this be the same conicoid as that

given by the general
equation of the second degree, S =
being the equation of
the circumscribing sphere found in Art. 202, we must have,
for some value of X,

also

and

five similar equations.

Hence the required

be equal to the

conditions arc that

^
-^-

should

juO

five similar expressions.

The conditions for a sphere may also be obtained by

means of the equation found in Art. 192; or in the following
manner.

To find the points, P,, P2 suppose, where the edge BO

meets the conicoid given by the general equation of the
second degree, we must put a = 0, 8 = 0; and we obtain
2
2
r/3 + *7 -f 2//3 7 =
=1
we have also
/3 -f
;

<y

and,

if

the roots be

j3 lt /32 ,

we have
r + s _
HP

2/

m>

Now
hence,

if

lengths

the conicoid be a sphere, and if t lt

the tangents from the points

of

respectively,

be the

A, B,

we have
2

t*

By

considering the edges CD,

+
~~~

2w

_q +

CA we

2<7
"

CA

_
=

have similarly
s

Hence, as above, the required conditions are that

should be equal to the similar expressions.

C,

EXAMPLES ON CHAPTER

175

IX.

EXAMPLES ON CHAPTER IX.

1

Shew

that, if qa

touch the eight planes

2.

The

r/3

+ sy + ti* =
= 0.
2

a/?y8

be a paraboloid,

it will

locus of the pole of a given plane with respect to a

which touch eight fixed planes is a straight

system of conicoids
line.

The polar planes of a given point, with respect to a system

3.
of conicoids which pass through eight given points, all pass through
a straight

line.

If two pairs of the opposite edges of a tetrahedron are each

4.
to each at right angles to one another, the remaining pair will be
Shew also that in this case the middle points of
at right angles.

the six edges

5.

Shew

lie

on a sphere.

that an ellipsoid

edge of any tetrahedron in

its

may be

described so as to touch each

middle point.

If six points are taken one on each edge of a tetrahedron

6.
such that the three lines joining the points on opposite edges meet
in a point, then will a coiiicoid touch the edges at those points.
If two conicoids touch the edges of a tetrahedron, the
7.
twelve points of contact are on another conicoid.
8.

If a conicoid touch the edges of a tetrahedron, the lines

and of the polar

joining the angular points of the tetrahedron
tetrahedron will meet in a point.

Shew that any two conicoids, and the polar reciprocal of

9.
each with respect to the other have a common self- polar tetrahedron.

78 ... are such that

series of conicoids
10.
lt U^
7r _j are polar reciprocals with respect to Ur , shew that
are also polar reciprocals with respect to Ur
r _t

The rectangles under opposite edges of

11.
the same whichever pair is taken ; prove that
of the polar
joining its corners to the corners
will meet in
respect to the circumscribed sphere

Ur+l and
Ur+t and

a tetrahedron are
the straight lines
tetrahedron with
a point.

EXAMPLES ON CHAPTER

176

IX.

If four of the eight common tangent planes of three

12.
conicoids meet in a point, the other four will also meet in a
point.

13.
plane moves so that the sum of the squares of its
distances from two of the angles of a tetrahedron is equal to the
sum of the squares of its distances from the other two ; prove that
its envelope is a hyperbolic
paraboloid cutting the faces of the
tetrahedron in hyperbolas each having its asymptotes passing
through two of the angles of the tetrahedron.

If ABCD be a tetrahedron, self- conjugate with respect to

14.
a paraboloid, and DA, DB,
meet the surface in A lt B lt (7,
respectively ; shew that

DC

15.

If a tetrahedron

have a self-conjugate sphere, and

radius be R, prove that ^-^

\)l

= 3 ^5

5OS

Zio

squares of the edges of one face, and

the edges.

where
the

s is

sum

the

sum

if its

of the

of the squares of

all

16.
Shew that the locus of the centres of
circumscribe a quadrilateral is a straight line.

all

conicoids which

The locus of the pole of a fixed plane with respect to the

17.
conicoids which circumscribe a quadrilateral is a straight line.
18. The polar plane of a fixed point with respect to any conicoid
which circumscribes a given quadrilateral passes through a fixed
line.

19.

The

sides of a twisted quadrilateral touch a conicoid;

shew that the four points of contact

20.

lie

on a plane.

A system of conicoids circumscribes a quadrilateral

shew

one conicoid of the system will pass through a given point,

(2) that two of the conicoids will touch a given line, (3) that one
Shew also that the conicoids
conicoid will touch a given plane.
are cut in involution by any straight line ; also that the pairs of
(1) that

tangent planes through any line are in involution.

If three conicoids have a common self-polar tetrahedron,
21.
the twenty-four tangent planes at their eight common points touch
a conicoid, and the twenty -four points of contact of their eight
common tangent planes lie on another conicoid.

EXAMPLES ON CHAPTER
22.
Nine conicoids have a common
shew that the eight points of intersection

IX.

177

self-polar tetrahedron;
of any three, the

eight
points of intersection of any other three, and the eight points of
intersection of the remaining three are all on a conicoid.
23.
The sphere which circumscribes a tetrahedron
self-polar
with respect to a conicoid cuts the
director-sphere orthogonally.
24.
The feet of the perpendiculars from any point of the

surface -

OL

-~

+ - +T=
o

0,

on the faces of the fundamental

tetra-

hedron lie in a plane, a, b,

of the tetrahedron formed

d being proportional to the volumes

by the centre of the inscribed sphere
of the perpendiculars from it on
any three of the
c,

and the feet

faces, and the co-ordinates being quadriplanar.
25.
The middle points of the twenty-eight lines which
join
two and two the centres of the eight spheres inscribed in
any tetra
hedron are on a cubic surface which contains the
edges of the tetra
hedron.
Shew also that the feet of the perpendiculars from
any
point of the cubic surface on the faces of the tetrahedron lie on a
plane.
26.
The six edges of a tetrahedron are tangents to a conicoid.
The plane through the three points of contact of the three
edges
which meet in the same vertex meet the face
opposite to that
vertex in a straight line shew that the four such lines are
gene
rators of the same system of an
hyperboloid.
:

27.
When a tetrahedron is inscribed in a surface of the second
degree, the tangent planes at its vertices meet the opposite faces in
four lines which are generators of an
hyperboloid.
28.
The lines which join the vertices of a tetrahedron to the
points of contact of any inscribed conicoid with the opposite faces
are generators of an hyperboloid.
29.
The lines which join the angular points of a tetrahedron
to the angular points of the polar tetrahedron are
generators of the
same system of a conicoid.
30.
Cones are described whose vertices are the vertices of a
tetrahedron and bases the intersection of a conicoid with the
oppo
site faces.
The other planes of intersection of the cones and
conicoid are produced to intersect the
corresponding faces of the
tetrahedron.
Prove that the four lines of intersection are
genera
ting lines, of the same system, of a hyperboloid.
S. S. G.

12

CHAPTER

X.

SURFACES IN GENERAL.

We

shall in the present Chapter discuss

204.
properties of surfaces of higher degree than the second.

205.

Let F(x,

y, z)

To

some

be the equation of any surface.

and the

find the points of intersection of the surface

straight line whose equations are

_y

we have

z _

_z
n

the equation

F(x + lr

+ mr,

+ nr) =

0,

or

dF

2 V dx

dF

dy

dF

dz

ih
If the equation of the surface be of the n
degree, the
ih
a
Hence
n
the
will
of
be
straight line
degree.
equation (i)
th
will meet a surface of the 71
degree in n points, and any
ih
surface in a curve of the n degree.
cut
the
will
plane

To find the equation of the tangent plane at any

a
point of surface.
If (x, y z) be a point on F (x, y, z) = 0, one root of the
for r, found in the preceding article, will be zero.
equation
206.

INFLEXIONAL TANGENTS.

Two

roots will be zero if

I

-j-f

line will

m, n

satisfy

4-

m -j- + n
t

the relation

dF = n

0.

-j-,

dz
dy
a
be
in that case
tangent

dx

The

I,

dF

,dF

179

line to the surface

and the locus of all the tangent lines is found by eliminating

means of the equations of the straight line. We
I, m, n by
thus obtain the required equation of the tangent plane

If the equation of the surface be z f(x, y] = 0, it is easy

to deduce from the above, or to shew independently, that the
equation of the tangent plane at (x , y z) is
,

The two real or imaginary lines whose direction207.

cosines satisfy both the relations
.

and

meet the surface

Hence

at

dF
-j,
dx

jT-7
dx

dF
+ m j 4f

dy

+ w-j-, + n
dy

dF
-j-,

dz

-j-,}

dz

0,

F=Q,

in three coincident points.

any point of a surface two

real or

imaginary

tangent lines meet the surface in three coincident

These are called the inflexional tangents.

points.

The tangent plane at any point of a surface will

208.
meet the surface in a curve of the nih degree and, since
every line which is in the tangent plane, and which passes
through its point of contact, meets the surface, and therefore
the curve of intersection, in two points, it follows that the
;

point of contact

is

a singular point in the curve of inter

section.

When the inflexional tangents are imaginary, the point is

When the
a conjugate point on the curve of intersection.
inflexional tangents are real, two branches of the curve of

122

180

TNDTCATRTX.

intersection pass through the point of contact

and these
branches coincide when the inflexional tangents are coin
cident.
;

The section of any surface by a plane parallel and

near the tangent plane at any point is a conic.
Let any point on a surface be taken for origin, and let the
=
Let the
tangent plane at the point be the plane z Q.
is the
equation of the surface be z =f(x, y] then, since z
tangent plane at the origin, we have
209.

indefinitely

ax*

+ %hxy -f

by*

higher powers of the variables.

we

only consider points so near the origin

neglect the third and higher powers of the
co-ordinates, the section of the given surface by the plane
as the section of the conicoid whose equa
z
lc, is the same
if

Hence,

that

tion

we may

is

by the plane z

= &;

ax*

-f

by

the section

2hxy,

therefore a conic.

is

The conic in which a surface is cut by a plane parallel and

indefinitely near the tangent plane at any point, is called the
indicatrix at the point and points on a surface are said to
be elliptic, parabolic, or hyperbolic, according as the in
;

dicatrix

210.

is

an
If,

or
ellipse, parabola,

at the point (x,

y z
,

hyperbola.

on the surface F(x,

y, z)

= 0,

we have

dF _dF
dx

dy

==

dF

==Q

dz

every straight line through the point (x, y

z) will meet the

surface in two coincident points.

Such a point is called a singular point on the surface.
All straight lines whose direction-cosines satisfy the relation

dy
will

meet the

surface in three coincident points and are

181

ENVELOPES.
called tangent lines.

equations of the line,

lines, viz.

Eliminating I, m, n, by means of the

we obtain the locus of all the tangent

the cone whose equation

d*F

is

d*F

the tangent lines at any point of a surface form a

and when all the
the
cone,
point is called a conical point;
lie in one or other of two planes,
lines
point is
tangent
called a nodal point.

When

t>e

Ex.

1.

Find the equation

of

the tangent plane at any point of the

surface x% + y% + z% = a%; and shew that the sum of the squares of the inter
is constant.
cepts on the axes, made by a tangent plane,

Ex. 2. Prove that the tetrahedron formed by the co-ordinate planes,

and any tangent plane of the surface xyz-a?, is of constant volume.
Ex.

3.

xyz-a

(x*

Find the co-ordinates of the conical points on the surface

2
a 3 = Q; and shew that the tangent cones at the conical

+ y + z2 +
)

points are right circular.

and
[The conical points are (2a, 2a, 2a,) (2a, -2a,-2a,) (-2a, 2a, -2a)
- 2a, - 2a, 2a). The tangent cone at the first point is

ENVELOPES.
of the ultimate intersections of a
whose
equations involve one arbitrary
of surfaces,
parameter.
Let the equation of one of the surfaces be

To find

211.

the locus

series

where a

is

the parameter.

ENVELOPES.

182

A consecutive

surface

is

F(x,y,
or

F(x, y

z,

given by the equation

*,

a + Sa)=0,

+ -7- F(x,

a)

y, z, a]

&a

=0.

4- ......

Hence, when Sa is made indefinitely small, we have for the

ultimate intersection of the two surfaces the curve given by
the equations

F(x
The

y, *, a)

required envelope

and

0,
is

0.

(x, y,
a)
-^
found by eliminating a from these
z,

equations.

The curve in which any surface is met by the consecutive

surface is called the characteristic of the envelope.
Every
characteristic will meet the next in one or more points, and
the locus of these points is called the edge of regression or
cuspidal edge of the envelope.
To find

212.

the equations

of the edge of regression of the

envelope.

The equations
surface

F (x

y, z,

F(x,

of the characteristic corresponding to the

= are
a)

y, z, a)

The equations

and

^F

(x, y, z,

a)

0.

of the next consecutive characteristic are

therefore

F(x,
or

y, z,

J+a

Hence

at

a+ 8a) =
... ==

and

-F

(x, y, z,

,ana

at

8a)

............

0,

= 0.

any point of the edge of regression we must have

and
^=0,=0,
da
da

=0.

of the edge are found by eliminating a from

the above equations.

The equations

ENVELOPES.

183

213.
The envelope of a system of surfaces, whose equation
involves only one parameter, will touch each of the surfaces
along a curve.

Let A, B, G be three consecutive surfaces of the system

and let PQ be the curve of intersection of the surfaces A and
B, and P Q the curve of intersection of the surfaces B and
(7.
Then the curves PQ and P Q are ultimately on the
Let R be any point on the curve PQ and let
envelope.
S, T be two points, very near the point R, one on the curve
Then the plane RST will in
PQ, and the other on P Q
the limiting position be the tangent plane at R both to the
and hence the envelo
surface B and to the envelope
touches the surface B, and similarly every other surface of t
;

system, along a curve.

214.
To find the envelope of a series of surfaces whose
equations involve two arbitrary parameters.

Let the equation of any surface of the system be

F(x,y,z,
where

a, b

= 0,

are the parameters.

consecutive surface of the system

F(x,
or

a, 6)

y, z,

a+

8a, b

is

86)

F**b + fo+8b+

0,

.........

0.

Hence, when Sa and $b are made indefinitely small, we must

have at a point of ultimate intersection

da
or,

since Sa

.,
do

and Sb are independent,

F = 0,^=0,
da

and

^=0
db
F

with any surface

Hence the curve of intersection of
consecutive to it goes through the point which satisfies the

184

FAMILIES OF SURFACES.

equations

^
v

dF =

The required envelope

the above equations.

is

and

dF

rf&=

found by eliminating a and b from

215.
To shew that the envelope of a series
of surfaces,
whose equations involve two
arbitrary parameters, touches each

surface of the series.

Let the curves of intersection of the surface
with
consecutive surfaces of the system
pass through the point
then
is a
Let
be any
point on the envelope.
z
two surfaces consecutive to F, and let Q,
be the points on
the envelope which
correspond to these surfaces. Then all
surfaces consecutive to
and therefore the surface
will
lt
pass through Q similarly the surface
will pass through R.
Hence, in the limit, the envelope and the surface
have the
three points P, Q, R, which are
indefinitely near to one
another, in common they therefore have a common tangent
Hence the envelope touches the surface F, and simi
plane.
larly for any other surface.

F F

Ex. 1. Find the envelope of the plane which forms with the co-ordinate
planes a tetrahedron of constant volume.
Am. xyz = constant.
Ex. 2. Find the envelope of a plane such that the sum of the
squares of
its intercepts on the axes is constant.
Ans. x% +
z%= constant.

y%

Ex.

Find the equations

3.

plane x sin

of the edge of regression of the

envelope of the

0-ycos6 = a6- cz.

Am.

x-

+ y- = a 2 y = x
,

tan

FAMILIES OF SURFACES.
To find

216.
tions

of

The

the general functional

conical surfaces.
equation of any cone,

origin, is

homogeneous

and

when

is

F(*-,

and

differential

equa

referred to its vertex as

therefore of the form

?Uo.

CONICAL SURFACES.

Hence the equation

point

This

(a, /3,

of any cone
of the form

is

7)

185

whose vertex

is

at the

the required functional equation.

is

The tangent plane

at any point of a cone passes through

=
the vertex of the cone.
Hence, if the equation
(x, y, z)
we
have
a
cone
whose
vertex
is
represent
(a, 0, 7),
,

dF

~.

dF

dF

(-) s -Ky-^)^-K-7)^=o
which

is

217.
tions

....

...... (iO,

the required differential equation.

To find

the general functional

and

differential

equa

of cylindrical surfaces.

A
which

is the surface generated by a

straight line
always parallel to a given straight line, and which

cylinder
is

obeys some other law.

Let the equations of the fixed straight

=
I

The equations

_ ==

line

be

of any parallel line are

x-a

n"

the two constants a and

/3

being arbitrary.

in order that the line

(i) may generate a surface,

there must be some relation between the constants a and /3.
Let this relation be expressed by the equation a =/(/3); then,

Now,

we have from

(i)

F (nx

or

which

in \
-- z = Jf,/[y -z

is

lz,

ny

mz)

the required functional equation.

............... (ii),

CONOIDAL SURFACES.

186

The tangent plane at any point of a cylinder is parallel to

the axis of the cylinder.
Hence, if the equation F(x, y,z) = Q
to the line
represent a cylinder, whose axis is parallel
x

which

= Av,
m ^j~ + n dF
-j~
dz
,

l-j-+
dx

is

=z

dF

.dF

we have

11

&-

ay

the required differential equation.

To find

218.

the general functional

and

differential

equa

tions ofconoidal surfaces.

DBF. A conoidal surface is a surface generated by the

motion of a straight line which always meets a fixed straight
other law.
line, is parallel to a fixed plane, and obeys some

The

surface

is

called a right conoid

when the

fixed plane

is

perpendicular to the fixed line.

Let the fixed straight line be the line of intersection of
the planes
lx

and

let the fixed plane, to

parallel,

be

\x + py

The equations
conditions are
Ix

and

x + my + riz+p = 0;
which the moving line is

+ my + nz + p=Q,

of

any

vz

line

to

be

= 0.

which

satisfies

the given

+ my + nz + p + A (I x + my + n z +p) = 0,
X# + MJ + y + -B = 0.

In order that the straight line may generate a surface,

must be some relation between the constants A and B.
Let this relation be expressed by the equation A=f(B)-,
then we have

there

m y+riz+p

f(

yz) .........

the required functional equation.

Tf we take two of the co-ordinate planes through the fixed
third co-ordinate plane parallel to the
straight line, and the

DEVELOPABLE SURFACES.
fixed plane, the

187

above equation reduces to the simple form

*=/

........................ (")

The differential equation of conoidal surfaces which

corresponds to the functional equation (ii), can be readily
shewn

to be

dF

*^ +

dF =

_
-

The differential equation may also be obtained as follows.

The generator through any point is a tangent line to the
surface

and the condition that

may be on

the plane

dF

dF

dF

=
X -j- + 9
-jdx y dy

is

Ex.

1.

Shew

.dF

.dF

0.

that xyz = c (x2 - y 2 ) represents a conoidal surface.

Ex. 2. Find the equation of the right conoid whose axis is the
and whose generators pass through the circle x=a, y z + z2 = W.
Ans.

axis of

z,

a?

Ex. 3. Find the equation of the right conoid whose axis is the axis of z,
and whose generators pass through the curve given by the equations
Ex.

4.

Shew

that the only conoid of the second degree

is

a hyperbolic

paraboloid.

219.
Cones, cylinders and conoids are special forms of
There are two distinct classes of ruled
ruled surfaces.
surfaces, namely those on which consecutive generators inter
sect, and those on which consecutive generators do not
intersect; these are called developable and skew surfaces
proceed to consider some properties of
respectively.

We

developable and skew

surfaces.

DEVELOPABLE SURFACES.

188

220.
Suppose we have any number of generating lines
of a developable surface, that is any number of straight lines
such that each intersects the next consecutive. Then, the

plane containing the first two lines can be turned about the
second line until it coincides with the plane containing the
second and third lines this plane can then be turned about
the third line until it coincides with the plane through the
third and fourth lines; and so on.
In this way the whole
surface can be developed into one plane without tearing.
;

221.
The tangent plane at any point of a ruled surface
must contain the generator through the point [Art. 129]. If
the surface be a skew surface, the tangent plane will be
different at different points of the same generator but, if the
;

surface be a developable surface, the tangent plane will be

the same at all the different points of a given generator, for
the tangent plane is the limiting position of the plane

through

the

given

generator

and

the

next

consecutive

generator.

Since any tangent plane to a developable surface touches

the surface at all points of a straight line, it follows from Art.
213, that a developable surface is the envelope of a plane
whose equation contains only one variable parameter.
222.

To find

the general differential equation

of develop

able surfaces.

The tangent plane at any point of a developable surface

meets the surface in two consecutive generating lines which
are the two inflexional tangents at the point.
Hence, at any point of a developable surface, the two
given by the equations
,

dF
-j-

dx

+
(l~
\ ax

and

must

dF
+ m -y- -f

coincide.

dy

dF
-j-

dz

m~-m dz
ay

=0,

lines

DEVELOPABLE SURFACES.

The

condition that this

may be

This

is

The

differential equation

the case

189
is

the required differential equation.

may

also

be obtained from the

property, proved in the last Article, that a developable surface

is the
envelope of a plane whose equation involves only one

parameter.
For, the general equation of the tangent plane
surface at the point (x y, z) is

of a

Hence,

the surface

if

a developable surface, there must

is

flf

be some relation connecting ~- and

dz
-=r

dx

and

dz
-7-

.
:

we

df
-~-

that

therefore nave

dy
dz
-7-

dx

Therefore

dz
*

dx*
d*z

and

dxdy

Hence
which

is

tfz
^-T2

dx

d?z
.

-=-

dy*

equivalent to

(i).

\dy

dxdy

/dz

dz

\dy

dy*

d*z
3 j-

\dxdyl

is,

connecting

DEVELOPABLE SURFACES.

190

We

can find the equation of the developable

223.
surface which passes through two given curves, in the follow
ing manner. The plane through any two consecutive gene
rating lines of the surface will pass through two consecutive
points on each of the given curves hence the tangent plane
to the required developable surface will touch each of the
given curves.
;

Now

the equation of a plane in

contains

three

constants,

arbitrary

its most general form

and the conditions of

tangency of the two given curves will enable us to express

any two of these constants in terms of the third, and the
equation of the plane will thus be found in a form involving

The developable surface

only one arbitrary parameter.
then obtained as the envelope of the moving plane.

is

Ex. Find the equation of the developable surface whose generating lines
pass through the two curves
2
t/

and shew that

its

= 4a#, 2 = and

edge of regression
ca;

is

a;

= 4ai/, z=c;

given by the equations

- 3ayz = = n/ 2 - Sax

(c-z).

Let one of the tangent planes of the developable be

Ix

+ my + nz + 1 = 0.

The plane touches the first curve, if lx + my + l = Q touches y z -4ax = Q; that

2
The plane touches the second curve, if lx + my + nc + l = Q
is, if l = am
touches x*=4ay; that is, if m (nc + l) = aZ2
Hence, the equation of the
.

tangent plane of the developable

is

found in the form

........................ (i).

The

surface

is

therefore given by the elimination of

m between

(i),

and

For points on the edge of regression we have also

From
This

is

(ii)

and

(iii)

we have

and

therefore,

from

(iii),

cx 2 = 3ayz.

the equation of one surface through the edge of regression.

obtain another surface through the edge by substituting

result is y z = x 2 (c-z), and at all points common
and y*z = y? (c-z), we must have cy = Sax (c-z).
3

=-*

in

(i);

We
the

2
to the surfaces cx = 3ayz,

SKEW SURFACES.

191

To shew that a conicoid can be drawn which

any skew surface along a generating line.

will

224.
touch

AB

be three consecutive generators of

Then, [Art. 134], a conicoid will have
these three lines as generators of one system, and any line
which intersects the three given lines will be a generator of

Let AB,

any skew

A"E"

surface.

the opposite system of the same conicoid.

Through any
to intersect the lines
draw the line
point Q on
Then this line passes through three con
and
secutive points of the given surface, and is therefore a tangent
and
Hence the plane through
line to the surface.
Hence the
touches both the given surface and the conicoid.
conicoid touches the given surface at all points of the line

AB

AB

PQR

A"B".

AB

PQR

A B.

By means
ruled conicoid

of the above theorem many properties of a

to be true of all skew surfaces.

may be shewn

of striction of any skew surface.

DBF. The locus of the point on a generator of a ruled
surface where it is met by the shortest distance between
it and the next consecutive generator, is called the line

To find

225.

the lines

of striction of the surface.

If we know the equations of any generating line, we can
at once find the direction of the shortest distance between it
and the next consecutive generator, and this shortest distance
is a tangent line of the surface.
Hence, in order to find the

point on the line of striction, which corresponds to any

particular generator, we have only to write down the con
dition that the normal at a point on the generator may be
perpendicular to the shortest distance between the given
generator and the next consecutive.
Ex.

1.

To

find the lines of striction of the hyperboloid

The direction-cosines of a generator,

generator, are proportional respectively to
a

sin 6,

b cos 0,

c,

and a sin

(8

and of the next consecutive

+ d0) - 6 cos
t

(0

+ de),

c.

SKEW SURFACES.

192
Hence the

direction-cosines of the shortest distance are proportional to

- be sin 0, ca cos 0, ab.

Now, if (x, y, z) be the point where the shortest distance meets the con
secutive generators, the normal at (x, y, z) must be perpendicular to the
therefore have
given generator, and also to the shortest distance.

We

--

-sintf3

and

Eliminating
surface

0,

we

cos0

c3

= 0.

get for the lines of striction the intersection of the

and the quartic

IV * ?
4.

Ex.

b3

To

2.

4. 1V- *
a2
z2

?/ \c

\a

IV
b
2

find the lines of striction of the paraboloid

whose equation

is

All the generating lines of one system are parallel to the plane

K=

.......................... ..........
<>

The

shortest distance between two consecutive generators of this system will

therefore be perpendicular to the plane (i). Hence, at a point on the
corresponding line of striction, the normal to the surface is parallel to (i).
The equations of the normal at (x, y, x) are

x_

= _

a2

Hence one

y_

62

line of striction is the intersection of the surface

Similarly, the line of striction of the generators

- + ^=
plane

is

and the plane

which are

the parabola in which the plane

parallel to the

-^-^-=0

cuts the

surface.

paper by Prof. Larmor, Quarterly Journal of Mathematics,

page 381.]

[See a
Vol. xix.

226.

To find the general functional and

differential

tions of surfaces of revolution.

Let the equations of the axis of revolution be

x a _ y b _z c

^_

equa

SURFACES OF REVOLUTION.

193

The equations of a section of the surface by a plane

perpendicular to the axis are of the form
and

lx

+ my -\-nz-p.

2
Hence, since there must be some relation between r
the
functional
is
p,
required
equation

(x

a)

-f-

by +

(y

(z

c)

=f(lx

-f

my

-f-

and

nz).

The normal

at every point of a surface of revolution

The equations of the normal at the point
are
z} of the surface F(xt y, z) =

intersects the axis.

(#

x-af
_/

By

writing

CLJj

CvJj

dx

tersect the axis,

z-z

_y-y

U?

CL-Jf

dz

dy

down the condition that the normal may

we see that at every point of the surface,

dF
dx

in

dF = 0;

dF_
*

dy

dz

m,

G
I,

this

is

the differential equation of surfaces of revolution.

NOTE.

In the above, and also in Articles 216 and 217,

functional equation and the diffe
rential equation by
independent methods. The differential
equation could however in each case be obtained from the
functional equation
this we leave as an exercise for the

we have obtained the

student.

For
is

fuller

referred to

s. s.

a.

treatment of Families of Surfaces the student

s Solid
Geometry, Chapter xiu.

Salmon

13

EXAMPLES ON CHAPTER

194

X.

EXAMPLES UN CHAPTER X.
1.

Prove that a surface

of the fourth degree can be described

to pass through all the edges of a parallelepiped, and that if it

pass through the centre it also passes through the diagonals of the
figure.
2.

Shew

that at any point on the axis of z there are two

tangent planes to the surface a?y

= xs

(c*

).

Find the developable surface which passes through a

3.
parabola and the circle described in a perpendicular plane on the
latus rectum as diameter.
Find the equation
4.
contains the two curves

y*

and shew that

4ax, z =

its

the

of

and (y

developable
a

b)

which

surface

- 4cz, x = 0;

cuspidal edge lies on the surface

(ax

by +

4-

= 3abx

cz)

(y

b).

surface which passes through the two

2
2
a
a
circles whose equations are x* + y* = a z = 0, and x + z - c y = 0,
passes also through the rectangular hyperbola whose equations are
5.

The developable

z*

6.

y
9

= -5 a*

and x -

0.

Prove that the surface

has two conical points, and two singular tangent pianos.

7.

Explain what

is

meant by a nodal

find the conditions for such a line

There
find

line

on a surface, and

on the surface

<

is

(x, y, z)

a nodal line on the surface * (x + y

0.

+ 2axy =

it.

Give a general explanation of the form of the surface

Shew that every tangent plane meets the
surface in an ellipse whose projection on a plane perpendicular to
8.

z (x

+ y*) = 2kxy.

the nodal line

is

circle.

EXAMPLES ON CHAPTER

195

X.

Examine the general form of the surface

2
xyz a x b*y c*z + %abc = 0,
and shew that it has a conical point. Shew also that each
9.

of the
planes passing through the conical point and a pair of the inter
sections with the axes touches the surface along a straight line.
If a ruled surface be such that at any point of it a straight
can be drawn lying wholly on the surface and intersecting the
axis of z, then at every point of the surface
10.

line

d?z
8

-7
dx*

+ 2xy
J

d*z
,

-f

dxdy

d*z

y*-5-s
y

=A
0.

dy*

Shew that the surface whose equation

11.
the elimination of
between the equations
x cos
a?

sin

+y

sin 6

- ?/ cos = - (cO -

a developable surface, and find

What

12.

1
sin"

family of surfaces

its
is

determined by

a,

is

is

z),

edge of regression.
represented by the equation

Describe the form of the surface whose equation

-=ntan~

1J

-.

If

n=

2,

is

prove that through any point an

number of planes can be drawn, each of which shall cut

the surface in a conic section.

infinite

a point on the surface (a; - y) z a + ax (z + a) =

there
is in general
only one generator, but at certain points there are
two, which are at right angles.
13.

At

14.

Any

meets

it

a
2
tangent plane to the surface a (oj + y ) + xyz =
again in a conic whose projection on the plane of xy is a

rectangular hyperbola.
15.

Shew

surface yx*

that tangent planes at points on a generator of the

= cut x = in parallel straight lines.

a?z

Prove that the equation x* + y* + z 3 - Zxyz = a 3 represents

16.
a surface of revolution, and find the equation of the generating
curve.
17.
From any point perpendiculars are drawn to the
2
2
generators of the surface z (x + y ) - %mxy = ; shew that the
feet of the perpendiculars lie upon a plane
ellipse.

EXAMPLES ON CHAPTER

196

X.

Shew that all the normals to a skew surface, at points on

18.
a generator, lie on a hyperbolic paraboloid whose vertex is at the
point where the generator meets the shortest distance between it
and the next.

19.
meets
generator PQ of the surface xyz k(x + y*) =
the axis of z in P.
Prove that the tangent plane at Q meets the
surface in a hyperbola passing through P, and that as Q moves
to the hyperbola generates a
along the generator the tangent at
a

plane.

Prove that all tangent planes to an anchor-ring which

20.
pass through the centre of the ring cut the surface in two circles.
Also

a surface be generated by the revolution of any conic

an axis in its own plane, prove that a double tangent
plane cuts the surface in two conic sections.
if

section about

Prove that a flexible inextensible surface in the form of

21.
a hyperboloid of revolution of one sheet, cut open along a
generator, may be bent so that the circle in the principal plane
becomes the axis, and the generators the generating lines of a
conoid of uniform pitch inclined to the axis at a constant angle.
Prove that every cubic surface has twenty-seven lines
tangent planes real or imaginary, and that
surface
which
has a double line is a ruled surface.
cubic
every
Discuss some properties of the surface whose equation is
22.

and

forty-five triple

8
2/

+ x*z + yzw =

0.

Four tangent planes to any skew surface which are

23.
drawn through the same generator have their cross-ratio equal
to that of their four points of contact.

plane through a generator of a skew surface is a

tangent plane at some point P and a normal plane at some point
on the generator such that
P-, shew also that there is a point
the rectangle OP. OP is constant for all planes through it
24.

Any

25.

Shew

that the wave-surface, whose equation

iy

is

cv

has four conical points, and four singular tangent planes.

CHAPTER

XI.

CURVES.
227.

WK

have already seen that any two equations will

By means of the two equations of the

represent a curve.

curve, we can, theoretically at any rate, express the three

co-ordinates of any point as functions of a single variable we
may, for example, suppose the three co-ordinates of any point
of a curve expressed as functions of the length of the arc
measured along the curve from some fixed point.
;

228.

To find

the equations

of the tangent at any point of

curve.

z be the co-ordinates of any point

on the
x + 8#, y + Sy, z -f- $z be the co-ordinates of an
adjacent point Q. Then, if Ss be the length of the arc PQ,
we have, since the arc is ultimately equal to the chord,

Let x,
and

curve,

y,

let

1.

PQ

are
Also, since the direction -cosines of the chord
proportional to Sx, &y, Bz, and the tangent coincides with the
ultimate position of the chord, the direction-cosines of the
tangent are equal to

dx

dy

ds

ds

dz
y

ds

so that the required equations of the tangent at

f x _rj
y _% z

dx

dy

dz

ds

ds

ds

(x, y, z)

are

TANGENT TO A CURVE.

198

If the curve be the curve of intersection of the

F(as, y, z)

and

G (x, y,

two surfaces

= 0,

z)

the tangent line at any point is the line of intersection of the

tangent planes of the two surfaces at that point. Hence the
equations of the tangent at any point (a, y, z) are
x

dF

dF

(f) S + (i-y) ;
/f .

229.

dG

+
,

dG

.,

dF =

75
.dG

;-*>

/f ,

0,

To find on a given surface a curve such that the

any point makes a maximum angle with a

tangent line at

given plane.
It is clear that the tangent line to such a curve at any
point is in the tangent plane to the surface at that point, and
is perpendicular to the line of intersection of the tangent
plane and the given plane.

Let the equation of the given plane be

0.
Ix + my -f nz

Then the direction-cosines of the line of intersection of the

given plane and the tangent plane at any point (x, y, z) of
= 0, are proportional to
the surface
(x, y, z)

dF

dF

-- ra -ym-j
dz
The

n~i

dx

-j-

dz

dF
m -j~
dx

.dF
--

dF
-- dF
7

dy

>

l-j

dy

direction-cosines of the tangent to the curve are

Hence we have
dxf
-j-

ds

dx

dy

dz

ds

ds

ds

dF
dF\ dy f dF
-- n-j-)+-f(n,
m-j
dx
/
dz
ds\

dy

dz (. dF
-r(l j

-- mdF\
=
~j-

ds\ dy

the required differential equation.

dx]

dF

J-j-

()
>

CURVES.

0, the differential
If the given plane be the plane z
line of greatest slope will be
a
of
equation

_
dx ds

=
dy ds

Ex. Find the lines of greatest slope to the plane z - on the right conoid
x = yf( z
whose equation is
The differential equation of the projection on * = of a line of greatest
slope is x dx -\-ydy 0.
Hence the projections of the lines of greatest slope on the plane s=0 are
)>

circles.

If A, B, G be three points on a curve,

230.
Definitions.
the limiting position of the plane ABC, when A, C are
with B, is
supposed to move up to and ultimately to coincide
called the osculating plane at B.
The circle A BG in its limiting position is called the circle
at B, the radius of the circle is the radius of
curvature
of
curvature, and its centre the centre of curvature at B.
The normals to a curve at any point are all in the plane
to the curve
through the point perpendicular to the tangent
this plane is called the normal plane at the point.
The normal which is in the osculating plane at any point
of a curve is called the principal normal.
The normal which is perpendicular to the osculating plane
:

is

called the binormal.

surface which is the envelope of all the normal planes

is called the polar developable.
The angle between the osculating planes at any two
the whole torsion of the arc
points P, Q of a curve is called
PQ. The limiting value of the ratio of the whole torsion to
the arc is called the torsion at a point.
The radius of the circle whose curvature is equal to the

The

of a curve

torsion of the curve at any point, is called the radius of torsion

at that point, and is represented by
The radius of the sphere which passes through four
consecutive points of a curve is called the radius of spherical
<r.

curvature.

NOTE.

In what follows we shall have frequent occasion

200
to

we

employ

CURVES.
differential coefficients with respect to the arc

shall for shortness write

dx
~7~

ds

x x
,

d*x
>

~T~9

ds*

x"

d*x
t

and

&c. instead of

~TT &C.
ds*

In the annexed figure A, B, G, D, E, F... are sup

231.
posed to be consecutive points of a curve, and p, q, r... are
the middle points of the chords AB, BG, CD..,.
Planes are

THE OSCULATING PLANE.

201

drawn through p, q, r... perpendicular to the chords AB,BC,

CD..., and LP, MQP, NRQ... are the lines of intersection of
the planes through p and q, q and r, r and s,.
The lines pL,
qL are in the plane ABC, and perpendicular respectively to
AB and BC; the lines qM, rM are in the plane BCD, and
perpendicular respectively to BC, CD.
. . .

Then, in the

become

limit,

when the chords AB, BC, CD,..

indefinitely small the planes

ABC,

BCD,... become

osculating planes of the curve; the planes pLP, qMQ,...

become normal planes of the curve ; the points L, M,
be
come centres of curvature of the curve ; the lines LP, MQP,
NRQ. become generating lines of the polar surface, and are
called polar lines; and the points P, Q, R... become con
secutive points on the edge of regression of the polar

. .

surface.

A
B

All points on the plane pLP are equidistant from

and
are equidistant from
and
points on the plane
are equidistant from C
C, and all points on the plane
and
therefore a sphere with
for centre will pass
through

B,

qMP
rMP
P

all

C, Dj hence the edge of regression of the

is the locus of the centre
of spherical curvature.

A, B,

polar surface

232,
To find the equation of the osculating plane at any
point of a curve.

Let P, Q,

R be three

consecutive points on the curve such

let s be the length of the arc
measured from some fixed point up to Q.
Then, if the co-ordinates of Q be x, y, z, those of P, for
which the arc is s - 8s, will be, if we neglect powers of 8s
above the second,
that

PQ = QR = 8s;

and

x - rfM-

Y *s\

and the co-ordinates of

of

- y Ss +

will

8s*,

-z

8s

+~

Ss*

be found by changing the sign

8s.

The equation

of

any plane through

is

of the form

THE PRINCIPAL NORMAL.

202

if this plane pass

through the points

and R,

\ve

must

have

Lx + My +Nz =0,
=
+
+
Lx"

Nz"

My"

and, eliminating L, M, N, we have the required equation of

the osculating plane, namely

f-a?,iy-y,
y

To find

233.

the curvature, at

Let P, Q,

the equations

any point of a

R be

?-

-0.

of the principal normal, and

curve.

three points on a curve such that

V be the

QV

is in the plane
middle point of PR,
PQ and QR only differ by cubes
is ultimately perpendicular to PR, and is therefore
of Ss,
the principal normal at Q.

Then,

PQR

if

and, since the chords

QV

Then, the co-ordinates of P, Q,

Hence the equations

Again, the

circle of curvature.

we have

But

being as in the

PQR,

position, is the
the
radius
of curvature,
be
p

in its limiting

Hence,

if

in the limit

QV =

(x"<

last

QV are

of

as

circle

V are

Article, the co-ordinates of

2
y"

+*

"),

and

PQ = &

THE BINORMAL.

203

Hence, the direction-cosines of the principal normal, which

are equal to
from (i) are proportional to
x",

px",

The

z",

y",

and

py"

pz".

co-ordinates of the centre of curvature are easily seen

to be

To find

234.

the direction-cosines

of the binormal.

The binormal is perpendicular to the osculating plane.

Hence, if I, m, n be the direction-cosines of the binormal, we
have from Art. 232
I

_
~
z

z"

__

x"

z"

yx"

xy"

y"

But
(y

z"

- zy J + (z
=

x"

- xzJ+

(x*

+y +*

(x"

(xy"

2
y"

-yxJ

*"*)

- (a

x"

+y

y"

+ zz J

_ 1

~?
+ y + z* = 1,
= 0.
+y +
2

x*

since

and therefore

z"

-z

To find

235.

zz"

y"

Hence the required

p (y

x"

direction-cosines are

y"),

- *V),

measure of torsion at any point of a

the

curve.

Let I, m, n be the direction-cosines of the normal to the

and let I + 81,
+ Sm, n + n be the
osculating plane at
direction-cosines of the normal to the osculating plane at Q,
= &s. Then, if T be the angle between the
where

PQ

osculating planes,
sin

we have

BT = (mSn

n$m)"

+ (nU

Ihif

(ISm

m&lf.

204

MEASURE OF TORSION.
Hence, in the

we have

limit,

dn
dm\ z
-- n ~j~]
j
j
ds
dsj

dr\*

dl

ds

dl \*
m ds
~r

cfriY

+ ( n :r-*:j~

^i

ds/

= (mri - miif + (wZ - ?i7) + (Im -

ds

or,

l =

Now

z"-z
f>(y

We
I

m)*

x"

-x

z")

(xy"

-yx

can find similar expressions for nl

and substituting in (i), we have

(i).

y");

and similarly for m and ri.

Hence mri - m n = p* (z

ril,

and

for

;
>

r.

z
>

*
y">

"

236.

To find

**

y",

the condition that

a curve may

be

a plane

curve.

Let x, y t z be the co-ordinates of any point

on the
curve, expressed in terms of the arc measured from a fixed
and let Q be the point at a distance apoint up to
;

measured along the curve from P.

will

Then the

be
.

**

a*

co-ordinates of

CONDITION FOR A PLANE CURVE.

If all points of the curve are

205

on the fixed plane

Ax + By + Cz + D =

0,

the equation

+*V +

<

+ C(g +

z"

be

satisfied for all values of

The

coefficients of all the

therefore be zero.

+~

. . .

= 0,

will

^V+

cr.

powers of

different

cr

must

Hence we have
Aaf

+ By + Gz = 0,
+
+ C/ - 0,
7

Ax"

The

elimination of

By"

J.,

B,

G gives

P is

a relation which, since

points of the given curve.

arbitrary,

0,

must be

satisfied at all

From the result of the preceding Article it will be seen

that the above condition simply expresses the fact that the
torsion is zero at all points of a plane curve.
condition that a curve may be a plane curve
be obtained in the following manner.

The
also

The

direction-cosines of the normal

to

the

osculating

plane are [Art. 234]

p (y

z"

y"\

(zx"

-x

z")

and p

(xy"

-y

may

x").

MEASURE OF TORSION.

20G

Since these are constant, we have

and

(zx"

p (x

-x
-y

y"

z")

x")

V-x

^ (x

y"

-y

z"

x"

which

is

zy")

y"

(zx"

-x

z")

z"

= 0.

x"}

Multiply these equations in order by

we then have
(y

0,

z")

ac",

(x

y"

and add

z"

- yx

y"

")

= 0,

the same condition as before.

237.

To find

the centre

and radius of spherical curvature.

The

locus of the centre of spherical curvature is the edge

of regression of the polar surface, that is of the envelope of
normal planes of the curve.

The equation

of the normal plane at the point

(t-x)*
Hence

+(i-<y)y

+(t-*)*

[Art. 212] the corresponding point

is

regression

the

of

point

(x, y, z) is

......... (i).

of

intersection

on the edge of
and the
(i),

two planes

(t-jhr+to-f)f+($-4f

= x * + y + z = l ............ (ii),
*

and

(f

x)x"

since

238

+
x"

= pL =
Sr

If

and

-y)y

+y

y"

"+

+z

z"

(S-z)z

"=

O...(iii),

0.

In the figure to Art. 231, we have

and
have

(n

= qM = rM,
p + Sp
= LqM=LPM.

qL,

MQP and
KP LP

be the point of intersection of

second order, Mq = Kq, and

to the

LP=-=
ar ultimately
or

qKL, we

............ (i).

MEASURE OF TORSION.

207

Also

where

the radius of spherical curvature.

1? is

KLP

a?,

on the axis of
Projecting the sides of the triangle
if /, m, n be the direction-cosines of the binormal,

we have,

,,

-dl ds

dl

dp

,..

therefore ultimately
or

(iii).

Since

= p(y

p*"

Similarly

and

=
py"

^^"

z"

zy")

ap (y

crp

= ap

z"

(sV"

"

(x

we have from

[Art. 234]

-z

-x
-y

+ag

y"}

z")

x")

<r

+a

z"

/</").

^ (aV

Multiply the last three equations by

then we have, as in Art. 235,

and add

(y

(iii)

W
CD",

- #V),
2/

y",z"

^)respectively

x
x

//

//

x"

.(iv).
//

z"
<?/",

and L are the

239.
Since, in the figure to Art. 231,
feet of the perpendiculars from q on two consecutive tangents
to the curve PQR, if we substitute E, p and r for r, p, ty in
/7 Y)

fJ/Y*

either of the

known formulae

-j-

dp

or

p -f

-771 f r tne radius

city

of curvature of a plane curve, we shall obtain the radius of

curvature of the edge of regression.

THE HELIX.

208

Hence the

radius of curvature of the edge of regression

is

equal to
,, dll
2i-j-

d*p
+ jr-f.
dr*

or to p

dp

and the preceding

[For this

Dr Routh, Quarterly

a paper by

see

article

Journal, Vol.

vii.]

240.
The following examples will illustrate the use of
the different formulae we have investigated in this chapter.
Ex.

1.

To find

and

the curvature

the torsion of

helix.

A helix is

a curve traced on a right circular cylinder so as to cut all the

generating lines at the same angle. Its equations are easily seen to be

# = acos

Hence

Square and add, then

We

therefore have

and also

0,

= -asin0.

"

x"

=a

y = a sin
y
2

0"

sec 2

sin

= a0 tana.
6

= atana.

a.

-^
a

- cos

a*

0, z

= a cos

cos3 a,

,y"=-

"=
"

^
2

sin

^^
a

cos3 a, z

cos

z"

"

= 0.

Hence

and

-v-

- sin
a

cos a,

cos

- sin
cr

cos a,

cos

cos 2 a,

- - sin

cos 2

cos

cos 3

cos 3 a,

a2

sin a

a,

a,

cos 6 a sin a ;

sin a cos a
It should be noticed that the principal normals all intersect perpendicularly
the axis of the cylinder. This is seen at once by writing down the equations
of the principal normal at 0, namely

x - a cos 6 _ y - a sin
cos

(9

sin

_ z - ad tan a

EXAMPLES.

209

To find the equations of the principal normal, and of the

Ex. 2.
osculating plane at any point of the curve given by the equations
x=
cos3 0, y = 4a sin 3 0, z 3c cos 20.
<la

We have

- 12a cos 2

z =.

Square and add, then

sin

12asin 2 0cos0

-6csin20

= 6 \/(a 2 + c 2

sin 20

Hence

The equations

normal are therefore

of the principal

x - 4a cos3

_y-a sin

The equation

of the osculating plane

x - 4a cos3

0,

- a cos 0,
sin

Ex.

To find

_ z - 3c cos

Id

cos0

sin

0,

is

- 4a sin 3
a sin

0,

cos

0,

0,

z-3c cos 20 =0.

-c

order the co-ordinates of any point of a curve

in terms of the arc, ivhen the axes of co-ordinates are the tangent, the principal
normal, and the binomial at the point from which the arc is measured.
3.

Let OX, OF,

to the third

OZ

of a curve.

point

from O, and
Then,

We

let

be the tangent, principal normal, and binormal at the

Let x, y, z be the co-ordinates of a point at a distance s

- and

be the curvature and torsion of the curve at O.

at the origin,

= l,

y =0,

0;

have, at any point of the curve,

Differentiating,

we have
.............. . ............ (i).

Also, by differentiating

f
we have

at

any point

s. s. o.

14

EXAMPLES ON CtiAPTER

210
Also

we know

that

c"

x",

From

(i),

Xt.

(ii), (iii)

we

Hence, by Maclaurin

y",

",

z>"

",

see that at the origin

Theorem, we have

to the third order

EXAMPLES ON CHAPTER XI.

Find the equation of the surface generated by the principal
1
normals of a helix.
.

2.

Find the osculating plane at any point of the curve

cos + b sin 0, y = a sin 6 + b cos 0, z = c sin 20,

x=a
3.

Find the equations of the principal normal at any point

of

the curve
9
x 9 + y = a az = x*,

4.

point moves on an

y*.

its direction of
ellipsoid so that

motion always passes through the perpendicular from the centre

on the tangent plane at any point shew that the
the
curve traced out by the point is given by the intersection of
the surface
ellipsoid with

of the ellipsoid

to the squares of the semim, n being inversely proportional

axes of the ellipsoid.
curve is traced on a right cone so as to cut all the
5.
same angle; shew that its projection on
generating lines at the
the plane of the base is an equiangular spiral.
Shew that any curve has an infinite number of evolutes
6.
which lie on its polar developable. Shew also that the locus of
curvature is not an evolute.
the centre of
I,

principal

EXAMPLES ON CHAPTER XL

211

If a circular helix be drawn passing through four con

7.
secutive points of a curve in space, prove that when the four

radius of the helix equals

points ultimately coincide the

its slope is

tan"

-f-

and

Shew

the osculating plane at every point of a

the curve will be plane.
Hence prove that the curves of intersection of the surfaces whose
8.

curve

pass

that

equations are x*
radius

if

through a fixed point,

2
4
2
+ y* + z = a and x + y* + z* =
,

are circles of
-^

a.

Prove that the helix

and radius

9.

circular curvature

is

the only curve whose radius of

of torsion are both constant.

drawn on the cylinder whose equation is

6V + ay - a26 2 = 0,
an angle a shew that its radius
cutting all the generators at
2
curvature at any point is p cosec a, where p is the radius
10.

curve

is

of
of

curvature of the principal elliptic section through the point.

11.

If a curve in space is defined by the equations

2
sin I, z = bl ,
x = 2a cos I,

y=2a

curvature
prove that the radius of circular
2
/( (<f+W)*_

aV
12.

In any curve

if

2
(a + 6 +

is

equal to

2
i

be the radius of spherical curvature,

- the
tortuosity at any
p the radius of absolute curvature and
<r

point

(x, y, z),

then

If the tangent and the normal to the osculating plane at

13.
with any fixed line in space,
any point of a curve make angles a, ft
Sm a
.-=-. where - - are the curvature and
shew that
:

sin/?

dp

tortuosity respectively.

<r

142

EXAMPLES ON CHAPTER

212
14.

XI.

Find the curvature and torsion at any point

of the curve

in question 5.
15.

of

the

whose

Prove that the origin is the centre of absolute curvature

s
- 1 rx* +
bj/* + cz*
ry + rz* = 1 at all points,

curve ax? +

co-ordinate.s satisfy the equation

a-r
b
16.

at the

-r

r.

X * + --- y*+ ---c

a
a-b
.

s<

= 0.

A curve is drawn on a right circular cone always inclined

same angle a

to the axis

prove that

a-

= p tan

a.

be the radii of curvature and torsion at any point

p,
of a curve in space
p, a- similar quantities at the corresponding
point of the locus of the centre of spherical curvature, then
17.

If

<r

pp

= (TO-

18.
Every portion of a curve is equal and similar to the
corresponding portion of the edge of regression of the polar sur
face ; prove that the tangent to it makes an angle of 45 with a
fixed plane, and that its projection on that plane is the e volute of
a circle.
19.
Shew that if along the tangent to any curve a point be
taken at a constant distance c from the point of contact of the
tangent to the given curve, and if p be the radius of curvature in
the osculating plane of the curve traced out by the point, then
t

,l

where p and

a-

are the radii of curvature and torsion of the given

curve.

circle of radius a is traced on a piece of paper, which

20.
then folded so as to become a cylinder of radius 6; shew that, if
p be the radius of curvature at any point of the curve which the
is

circle

now

becomes, then
p

measured along the

the curve.

-+
o cos4 a~
a
o

arc, of the point

where
>

s is

the distance,

from a certain fixed point of

CHAPTER

XII.

CURVATURE OF SURFACES.

WE

have already seen, in Art. 209, that the section

241.
of any surface, by a plane parallel to and indefinitely near
the tangent plane at any point
on the surface, is a conic,

which is called the Indicatrix, and whose centre

normal at 0.

is

on the

Let any section of the surface, drawn through the

242.
cut the indicatrix in the diameter QVQ and let
normal
of the section.
Then we
p be the radius of curvature at
have, in the limit, 2p.OV=QV*.
Hence, for different
normal sections through 0, the radius of curvature varies as
the square of the diameter of the indicatrix through which
OV>

the section passes.

243.

Since the

sum

of the squares of the

reciprocals

any two perpendicular semi-diameters of a conic is

constant, it follows from the last article that the sum of the
reciprocals of the radii of curvature of any two perpendicular
normal sections through a given point of a surface is con
of

stant.

Since the semi-diameter of a conic has a maximum

it
follows from Art. 242 that the
radius of curvature of a normal section through any point of
a surface has a maximum and a minimum value, the corre
sponding sections being those which pass through the axes of
the iudicatrix.
244.

and a minimum value,

CURVATURE OF SURFACES.

214

The maximum and minimum radii of curvature are called

the principal radii of curvature, and the corresponding
normal sections are called the principal sections.
The

locus of the centres of principal curvature at all

of
a given surface is called its surface of centres.
points
If the axes of x and y be taken in the direction of
245.
the axes of the indicatrix the equation of the surface will be,
when the terms of the third and higher orders are neglected,

Zz

+ by\

ax*

Let p lt p 2 be the principal

radii of curvature, that is the

radii of curvature of the sections

x=

respectively

then

Hence the equation

it

made by

the planes y

clear that p l

is

= -,

and

p*

= 0,

=
^

of the surface will be

Pl

The semi-diameter

ft.

of the indicatrix

which makes an

angle 6 with the axis of a? is given by

2
2
sin
cos
2^

->T

+77

If p be the radius of curvature of the corresponding

2
section, we have r
2pz.
2
sin
1
cos

Hence

-=

The

--

Pi

results of Articles 243,

P*

244 and 245 are due

to Eider.

When the indicatrix at any point of a surface is an

is the same for all
the
sign of the radius of curvature
ellipse,
all sections is
of
the
that
shews
this
concavity
sections;
turned in the same direction, so that the surface, in the
on one side of the
is
of the
246.

entirely
point,
neighbourhood
The surface in this case is said to be
tangent plane.
Synclastic at the point.
When the indicatrix is an hyperbola, the sign of the
radius of curvature is sometimes positive and sometimes

MEUNIER

215

THEOREM.

of some sections is
negative, shewing that the concavity
turned in opposite directions to that of others. The surface
in this case is said to be Anticlastic at the point.

The radius of curvature of a section which passes through

an asymptote of the indicatrix is infinite; hence the
is turned one
asymptotes divide the sections whose concavity
is turned the other way.
whose
those
from
concavity
way
In the figure of Art. 71, the concavities of the sections
= and y = are turned in opposite direc
the
planes a?
by
normal sections through the two generating
the
and
tions
are the sections of zero curvature.
lines at
;

When

is a parabola, that is to say is two

which become ultimately coincident,

the indicatrix

parallel straight lines,

one of the principal radii of curvature is infinite

and, if p y
of
curvature
the
be the finite radius of principal curvature,
C03
!
p
the tormula - any other normal section is given by
,

247.
section of

To find the radius of curvature of any oblique

a surface.

of a surface
the normal
let
and
line
in
the
indicatrix
the
cut
section through the same tangent line cut the indicatrix
be the middle
Let K,
in the line QVQ parallel to RKR.
and let p, p be the radii of
of

Let any oblique section through the point

RKR,

points

RR, QQ

respectively,

curvature of the sections

Then we

2 Po

and

ROR, QOQ

respectively.

have, in the limit,

.OV=QV*.

But OF, and therefore VK, is small compared with QF;

and QQ are ultimately equal. Also
hence

RR

where

is

the angle between the planes

ROR

and

QOQ

216

LINES OF CURVATURE.

Hence we have

ultimately,

-Z-

h~OK~
or

p
This

is

it

cos

0.

Meunier s Theorem.

From Meunier s Theorem, and

248.

245,

called

=p

follows that

if

the theorem of Art.

two surfaces touch one another, and

have the same radii of principal curvature at the point of

contact, then all sections through that point have the same
curvature.

The

249.

Dr

following proof of Meunier

Theorem

is

due

to

Besant.

Let

OT be

of a surface,
any tangent line at the point
be a point contiguous to
on the normal section
on an oblique
through OT, and Q a point contiguous to
section through OT.
Then a sphere can be described to
touch OT at 0, and to pass through P and Q; and the
sections of this sphere by the planes TOQ, TOP are
of the sections of
ultimately the circles of curvature at
the surface by those planes. Hence, as Meunier s Theorem
is obviously true for a sphere, it is true for the surface.

and

let

Ex.
2z = 6x 2

Find the principal

- 5xy - 6y 2.

1.

radii of curvature at the origin of the surface

Ans. ra

7>

Ex. 2. Find the radius of principal curvature at

of intersection of two surfaces.

- Tav

any point of the curve

Let p be the required radius of curvature at any point P. Let

surfaces intersect at an angle a, and let 6, a - 6 be the angles between
principal normal of the curve of intersection, and the normals to the
Let p v p.2 be the radii of curvature of normal sections of the
surfaces.
surfaces through the tangent line at P.
Then, by Meunier s Theorem,

pp
Hence, eliminating

0,

cos

6,

and p = p%cos (a-0).

we have
sin 2 a

r2~

PI

1
+ ft

2 cos a
PiP-2

the
the

two
two

LINES OF CURVATURE.

217

250.
DEF. A line of curvature on any surface is a curve
such that the tangent line to it at any point is a tangent line
to one of the principal sections of the surface at that
point.

251.
The normals to any surface at consecutive
points of
one of its lines of curvature intersect.
Let
be an extremity of an axis of the indicatrix which
of a surface, then 0,
are
corresponds to the point
consecutive points on a line of curvature.

Let
be the centre of the indicatrix, then
the normal to the surface at 0.

0V

will

be

The tangent

line at
to the indicatrix is
perpendicular
to the surface at
it is also
;
perpendicular to
OF; and, since is an extremity of an axis of the indicatrix,
the tangent line is perpendicular to PF. Hence

to the

normal

OF, PF,

and the normal at P are in a plane, and therefore the

normals at
and P will intersect.

and
Conversely, if the normals at
intersect, the tan
to the indicatrix will be
gent line at
perpendicular to the
and P therefore the
plane which contains the normals at
tangent line will be perpendicular to PF, and hence
is
an axis of the indicatrix.

PF

252.
To find the differential equations
curvature on any surface.

of

the

Let F(x, y, z) = be the equation of the surface.

the equations of the normal at
any point (x, y, z) are

-#

vi
"

The normal

dF

dF

dx

dy

z
=r

dF
dz

at the consecutive point

(x

%-x-dx

dx,

y + dy, z

v-y-dy

+ dz)

is

%- z - a2

lines

of

Then

LINES OF CURVATURE.

218

The condition of intersection of the two normals gives

the equation
dx,

dF

dy

dz

-r-V

d
d JL

dJF

dx

dz

dy,

dF
y

j(dF\
d

dz

w>

Since (x

dx,

-f dy, z

is

on the surface, we have

also

dF,
dx

The equations

(i)

dF

dF

dy
and

dz
(ii)

...

are the required differential

equations.

To find the principal radii of curvature,

on a surface of revolution.
curvature,
of

253.
lines

and

the

It is clear that the normals to the surface at all points on

a meridian lie in the plane through the axis and that
meridian hence normals at consecutive points on a meridian
It is
intersect, so that any meridian is a line of curvature.
also clear that the normals to the surface at all points of any
circle whose plane is perpendicular to the axis of the surface,
meet the axis in the same point, and therefore any such
Hence the lines of curvature
circle is a line of curvature.
;

are the meridians, and the circular sections which are per
pendicular to the axis.
It is easy to see that one of the principal radii at any
is the radius of curvature of the generating curve at
point
radius is the length of the
and that the other

principal

normal intercepted between

and the

axis.

The tangent plane to a developable touches the

254.
The normals
surface at all points of a generating line.
to the surface at all points of a generating line are therefore
consecutive points intersect, so
parallel; hence normals at
that one set of the lines of curvature of a developable are the

LINES OF CURVATURE.

219

generating lines, the corresponding radii of curvature being

infinite.

The other

lines of curvature are curves

which cut

all

the

generating lines perpendicularly ; and hence, if the surface

be developed into a plane, the lines of curvature will become
involutes of the curve into which the edge of regression

developes.

In the particular case of the developable being a cone,

the lines of curvature will cut the generating lines at a
constant distance from the vertex, and hence they are the
curves of intersection of the surface and spheres with the
vertex for centre.
Ex. 1. Find the surface of revolution which is such that the indicatrix
any point is a rectangular hyperbola.
The principal radii of curvature must be equal and opposite at any point.
Hence the radius of curvature at any point of the generating curve must be
equal and opposite to the normal: this is a known property of a catenary.
Hence the surface is that formed by the revolution of a catenary about

at

its axis.

Ex. 2. Shew from the general differential equations of lines of curvature,

that one system of lines of curvature on a cone are the generating lines,
and the other system are the curves of intersection of the surface and con
centric spheres.

The equations

are

dx

dy

dz

OF

dF

dF

= 0.

dz

dx

dF

(?)

<()

and
Since the surface

is

dF

(IF

dx

~dz

a cone

whose vertex

dF
dx
therefore from

(ii)

.(ii).

d_F

dy

is at

the origin,

dF_ Q
dz

we have
.(iii),

220

LINES OF CURVATURE.

Multiply the terms of the columns in (i) by x,

then on account of
(iii) and (iv), (i) will become

dx
dx

dy~

and add

xdx + ydy + zdz =0.

dF

(**.]

Hence

dy

dF

y, z respectively,

(}

either

or
dz

dy

From

( v)

shewing that one

(vi)

and concentric spheres.

dx

I,

we have

dF

where

+ z 2 = constant

series of the lines of curvature are the curves of inter

section of the surface

From

y? + y2

we have

m, n are constants.

dy

dz

Hence, from
Ix

which shews that the other

dF

dF

(iii),

we have

+ my + nz = 0,

series of lines of curvature are the generating

lines.

Ex. 3. If two surfaces cut one another at a constant angle, and the
curve of intersection be a line of curvature on one of the surfaces, it will be
a line of curvature on the other.
Let P, Q be any two consecutive points on the curve of intersection, and
Oab be the line of intersection of the normal planes of the curve at P, Q,
where
is in the osculating plane of the arc PQ.
If the curve of inter
section be a line of curvature on one of the surfaces, the normals to that
surface at P, Q must intersect, they will therefore meet the line Oab in the
same point, a suppose.
Let the normals to the other surface at P, Q meet Oab in c, c respectively.
let

OPa, OQa are equal in all respects, for PO^QO, Pa = Qa,

And, since the surfaces intersect at a constant angle,
the angles aPc and aQc are equal. Therefore the angle OPc, OQc are equal.
But the angles POc, QOc are equal, and PO = QO. Therefore Oc = 0c

The

and Oa

triangles

is

common.

This proves the proposition.

Ex. 4. If the line of intersection of two surfaces be a line of curvature

on both, the two surfaces cut at a constant angle.
For let P, Q, be any two consecutive points on the curve of intersection
let the normals to one surface at P, Q meet in a, and the normals to the
other surface meet in b.
Then, we have Pa = Qa, Pb = Qb, and ab common
to the two triangles aPb, aQb.
Hence the angles aPb and aQb are equal.
;

DUPIN S THEOREM.

221

Ex. 5. If a line of curvature be a plane curve its plane will cut the
surface at a constant angle.

Any

line is a line of curvature

therefore

is

255.

(or

on a sphere).

The theorem

4.

of surfaces intersect at right angles at

the curve of intersection of any two
of curvature on each. (Dupin s Theorem.)

all their
is

on a plane

a particular case of Ex.

line

If three

series

common points,

Take

for origin a point of intersection of three of the

one of each series, and let the three perpendicular
tangent planes be taken for co-ordinate planes. The equa
tions of the three surfaces will then be

surfaces,

2sc+ay
2y + aV
2r

At
x

0,

+1)2*
4-

6V

-f

4-

2hyz
2h zx

......... (i),

......... (ii),

+ aV+6Y+2V y+ ......... -0 ......... (iii).

a consecutive point
= z, where z
0, z

common

y=

planes to

+ ......... =
4- ......... =

(i)

and

(ii)

at

(0, 0,

to

(i)

and

(ii)

we have

very small and the tangent

z) are ultimately

is

+ hyz = 0,
y 4- dzz + h xz = 0.
tK 4-

bzz

The condition that these may be

at right angles gives

= 0.
have similarly, since the other
ultimately, h 4- h
surfaces cut at right angles, h +
+ h = 0.
0, and
Hence h = h ~h" = 0, and therefore the axes are tangents to
or,

We

h"

h"

the lines of curvature on each surface. This being true at all

points of intersection of three surfaces, it follows that all
curves of intersection of two surfaces of different systems are
lines of curvature on each.

We have proved in Art. 164 that confocal conicoids cut

one another at right angles at all their common points.
Hence, one system of the lines of curvature of an ellipsoid
are its curves of intersection with confocal hyperboloids of one
sheet, and the other system of lines of curvature are the
curves of intersection with confocal hyperboloids of two sheets.

PRINCIPAL RADII OF CURVATURE.

222

256.
To find the principal radii of curvature at any
point of a surface.
Let f, 77, f be the co-ordinates of the point of intersec
tion of the normals at two consecutive points (x, y, z) and
(x + dx, y-\ dy, z + dz) of a surface, and let p be the radius
of curvature at (x, y, z) of the normal section through those
Then [Art. 251] p is one of the principal radii of
points.

we have

curvature, and

dF
Tx

Tz

Ty
:.

?=

pdF
= y-+-pdF
?= 2 + --r
-jK dz
Kdy

pdF

ff+--r
K dx

since (f,

And,
y+

dF

~dT"

dz)

rj,

i7

dy,
equations, considering

on the normal at (x -f dx,

preceding

f) is also

we have by

f,

= rfa; +
,

77,

f,

differentiating the
p as constant,

p
- d, /c?F\
(-J- }

\dxj

/<:

rf^
- pd*
-T^-js

rfa;

/t

and two similar equations.

Since

d*F
d*F ,
d*F
dz
d,(dF\
-r- = -TT w* + j T~ a y -f
dxdz
dx*
\dxl
dxdy
,

and similarly

for

and d

d
(-TJ-}

written
z

--r^r
dx* J
p

We

r-

f^rj
.

the equations

d*F

^jdxdz

dxdy
*F\

d*F

have also

-_ dx + dF,
= dF,
-,-

dF

d* dF
-K dx
-j

die

dF

may be

223

tJMBlLlCS.

Eliminating dx, dy, dz, die we have for the determination

of the principal radii the equation

To find

257.

the umbilics

At an umbilic the

of any surface.

indicatrix is a circle.

Let the equation of the surface be F (x, y, z) = 0, and

y z} be any point on it. The equation of the surface
referred to parallel axes through (x, y, z) will be
d \2 t
d
d
/
dF
dF
dF
* + ... =0.
j +Z
y
J-/H- y
y-j-, + z j-; + i
L
^-/ + y
dz J
dz
dx
\ dx
dy
dy
let (x,

Hence the

indicatrix

T>\

is

similar

to

the section of the

conicoid

d*F

d*F

d*F

d^F

d*F
dz dy

by the plane

dF

dF

and we have already found

dF

[Art. 125, Ex. 5] the conditions

may be circular.

that a given section of a conicoid

From the result of Art. 256 it

is

clear that the

of - are the squares of the axes of the section of

two values

(i)

by

(ii).

PRINCIPAL RADII OF CURVATURE.

224

To find the radii of principal curvature, and the

curvature,
of the surface whose equation is z f(x, y\
of
ket (, rj, ) be one of the centres of principal curvature
258.

lines

at the point (x, y, z), arid let p be the corresponding radius

of curvature.
Then, the equations of the normal at (x, y, z)
will

be

?;

~7~ ~7~

=!

= T"

va+i>

= p (f z),
n-y = -q(Z-z).

therefore

and

+?y

(x+dx, y + dy, z + dz) also passes

have, by differentiating the preceding

Since the normal at

through

(f,

7j }

we

f)

equations,

- dx = - dp
dy = dq (f

z) -f pdz,

and
that

p (pdx +

dx

is

dy = q (pdx

and

Eliminating %
(1

therefore (1

which

is

s)

+ gc?^

g o?!/)

+ qdy)

from

(i)

(?-- s)

(rc?a; 4-

(f

(5c2a? -f

and

0)

(ii)

sdy)..
.

<^)

<f)

((1

+#

(ii).

(1

+7

2
)

r}

the differential equation of the projection of the

on the plane z = 0.

lines of curvature

Again, from

(
and

.(i)

we have

+ p2) dx -\-pqdy __ pqdx + (!-}dy

rdx + sdy
sdx + ^y

+/) * -pqr +

(i)

(pq

and

r p\

2
/>

(ii)

KJ

^
J

we

have, putting K for

(
dx + no
I

sp\
H

d + (l +

8
</

dy

0.

c?y

= 0.

3?j

GAUSS MEASURE OF CURVATURE.

225

Hence
or
(rt

-s 2)

which

is

+ K [t(l +/) + r

an equation giving the principal

radii of curvature.

At an umbilicus the directions of principal curva

259.
ture are indeterminate ; hence the conditions for an umbilicus
are, from equation (iii) of the last Article,
2

l+ff

_ 1 + g _pq
"

DEF. The whole curvature of any portion of a

bounded by a closed curve, is equal to the area cut
from a sphere of unit radius by radii which are parallel to
260.

surface,
off

the normals to the surface at all points of the curve.

The average curvature of any portion of a surface is the
ratio of the whole curvature to the area of that portion.
The measure of curvature at any point is the average
curvature of a very small portion which includes the point.
These definitions, which are analogous to the definitions
in plane curves, are due to Gauss.
The curve traced out on the unit sphere as above is
called the horograph of the given portion of the surface.

To shew that the measure of curvature at any point

261.
of a surface is the reciprocal of the product of the principal
radii of curvature of the surface at that point.

Consider a small portion PQRS of the surface bounded

by lines of curvature; then PQRS is ultimately a rectangle
whose area is PQ PS.
Let lines parallel to the normals at P, Q, R, S drawn
through the centre of a sphere of unit radius, meet the sphere
.

in p, q, r, s.
Then, since the principal planes at any point of a
surface are at right angles, the angles p t q, r, s are right
angles, and therefore pqrs is ultimately a rectangle whose area
is

pq.ps.
S. S. G.

But the angle between the normals

at

and

15

GEODESIC LINES.

226

pQ
is

ultimately

and

is

and the angle between the normals at

ultimately

of curvature at P.

area of pqrs

is

where p t p 2 are the principal

,

Hence pq =

PO
,

ultimately

and ps =

radii

so that the

Hence the measure

curvature at P, which by definition

1
area pqrs

PS

is

of

the limiting value of

1S

GEODESIC LINES.

DEF.
262.
geodesic line on a surface is such that any
is the shortest line which can be drawn
small element
on the surface from A to B.
The length of the line joining any two indefinitely near
But
points will clearly be least when the curvature is least.
by Meunier s theorem, the curvature of a surface through a
given tangent line is least when the section is a normal
section. Hence at any point of a geodesic line on a surface the
plane of the curve contains the normal to the surface, so that
the principal normal of the curve coincides with the normal
therefore have at any point of a geodesic
to the surface.
line on a surface
d*x

AB

We

dy

ds* __ ds*
"

dF

dF

dx

dy

<Tz

ds*

dF
dz

CURVATURE OF CONICOIDS.
Since all parallel sections of a conicoid are similar,
263.
of a conicoid is
follows that the indicatrix at any point
similar to the central section which is parallel to the tangent
Hence the tangents to the lines of curvature
at P.

it

plane

at any point

P are parallel

to the axes of that central section.

CURVATURE OF CONICOIDS.

227

Art. 167, the lines which are parallel to the axes

of the central section are the tangent lines at
to the curves
of intersection of the conicoid with the confocals which
go
Hence, as we have already proved in Art. 255,
through P.

Now, by

the lines of curvature of a conicoid are the curves

of intersec
tion with confocal conicoids.

We

can shew that the lines of curvature on a

curves of intersection with confocals in the
following manner.
264.
conicoid are

At

its

points

common

to

+ =-L
-^
a + X 6 +X

and

we

have,

by

a (a

Differentiating

+
b (b

X)

and

(ii)

xdx

+ X)

xdx

a(a + X)

The
(v)

c (c

+ X)

zdz

ydy

+X

ydy
6(6 + X)

(v).

c(c+X)

+ X,

elimination of a

we have

(iii)

and

+X

subtraction,

X, c

+X

from

(iii),

(iv),

gives

which

is

dx

dy,

dz

dx
a

dy

dz

-\

(vi),

the differential equation of the curve of intersection

and any one of its confocals and it is easy to see, by

comparing with (i), Art. 252, that (vi) is the differential
of

(i)

equation of a line of curvature.

152

LINES OF CURVATURE OF CONICOIDS.

228

The radius of curvature of any normal section of a

265.
central conicoid may be found as follows.
The radius of curvature of any central section of a coni
coid through a point
is, by a well-known formula, equal to

of

where d

and

is

the semi-diameter parallel to the tangent at P,

the perpendicular from the centre on the tangent

Hence, by Meunier s Theorem, the radius of curvature
of any normal section of a conicoid through the point P is

is

at P.

equal to

where

pQ

is

the perpendicular from the centre

on the tangent plane at P, and d

parallel to the tangent line at

for

is the semi-diameter
the cosine of the angle

between the normal section and the central section

is

P
At any

266.

point of a line of curvature of a central

conicoid, the rectangle contained by the diameter parallel to the

tangent at that point and the perpendicular from the centre on

plane at the point is constant.

be
the perpendicular from the centre on the tangent
p
of a given line of curvature, and let a, ft
plane at any point
be the semi-axes of the central section parallel to the tangent
plane at P. Then, one of the axes, a suppose, is parallel to
the tangent at
to the line of curvature, and the other axis
is of constant length for all points on the line of curvature
the tangent

Let

Hence, since px/3 is constant, it follows

constant throughout the line of curvature.

[Art. 167, Cor.].

that

py. is

At any point of a geodesic on a central conicoid, the

267.
rectangle contained by the diameter parallel to the tangent at
that point and the perpendicular from the centre on the tangent
plane at the point is constant.
The
ax*

-f

by*

differential equations of a geodesic

cz*
1 are

<tf*

dty

<ft

d? ~
= d/ _ d
"

ax

by

cz

on the conicoid

GEODESICS ON CONICOIDS.

We

ax
is

.....................

cz

by

have to prove that pr

229

where

constant,

.................. (ii),

and

= aV + 6y + cV

-2

Differentiating

cw?

by* -f cz*

-f

=1

..................

(iii).

twice with respect to

5,

we have
2

+ by* +

ax"

From

(i)

cz

"

cw%6

byy"

czz"

...... (iv).

we have

axx"

byy"

oz/

-p

fr

. .

. . .

(111)

and
<

lv)

l_dr
ds

>

- dr
1

Hence

-j-

r as

and therefore
Ex.

an

1.

1 cZp

jp

-/-

ds

from

....

.
= 0,

jsr is constant.

The constant pr

is

the

same

for all geodesies

which pass through

unibilic.

This follows from the fact that the central section parallel to the tangent
plane at an umbilic is a circle, and therefore the semi-diameter parallel to
the tangent to any geodesic through an unibilic is of constant length.

Ex. 2. The constant pr has the same value for all geodesies which touch
the same line of curvature.
At the point of contact of the line of curvature and a geodesic which
touches it, both p and r are the same for the line of curvature and for the
geodesic.

Ex. 3. Two geodesies which touch the same line of curvature make equal
angles with the lines of curvature through their point of intersection.
From Ex. 2, the semi-diameters parallel to the tangents to the two
geodesies, at their point of intersection P, are equal to one another, and are
therefore equally inclined to the axes of the central section which is parallel
to the tangent plane at P. But the axes of the central section are parallel to
the tangents to the lines of curvature through P: this proves the proposition.

EXAMPLES ON CHAPTER

230

XII.

Ex. 4. Two geodesies which pass through umbilics make equal angles
with the lines of curvature through their point of intersection.
Ex.

5.

Any

geodesic through an umbilic will pass through the opposite

umbilic.

Ex. 6. The locus of a point which moves so that the sum, or the differ
ence, of its geodesic distances from two adjacent umbilics is constant, is a
line of curvature.
Ex.

7.

All geodesies which join two opposite umbilics are of constant

length.

Ex. 8. The ]X)int of intersection of two geodesic tangents to a given Hue

of curvature, which intersect at right angles, is on a sphere.
Let -,, ?-2 be the semi-diameters parallel to the tangents to the geodesies
at P, their point of intersection.
Then, siuce the geodesies cut at right angles,
1

11

where a and /? are the semi-axes of the central section parallel to the tangent
plane at P. But, if p be the perpendicular on the tangent plane at P, then
prl =pr,l = constant, from Ex. 2. Hence, since pa/3 is constant, and also
2
it follows that OP is constant.
,

Ex. 9. The point of intersection of two geodesic tangents, one to each of

two given lines of curvature, which cut at right angles, is on a sphere.

EXAMPLES ON CHAPTER XII.

A surface is formed

1.

its

directrix

by the revolution of a parabola about

shew that the principal curvatures at any point are

in a constant ratio.
If p, p be the principal radii of curvature of any point of
with a given concentric
ellipsoid on the line of its intersection
2.

an

sphere, prove that the expression

p+ p

will be invariable.

be the equation to a surface

...... u n =
2
of x, y, z, of the rth degree,
function
a
homogeneous
r
will be the general equation of
then u + u 2 + u (Ix + my + nz) =
surfaces of the second order having the same curvature at the
If

3.

where u
l

origin.

u +u. + u 3 +
l

is

EXAMPLES ON CHAPTER

231

XII.

The normal

at each point of a principal section of an

by the normal at a consecutive point not
on the principal section ; shew that the locus of the point of inter
section is an ellipse having four (real or imaginary) contacts with
4.

ellipsoid is intersected

the evolute of the principal section.

5.

In the surface

cos

the principal radii of curvature at

6.

Shew

sin -

= 0,

(x, y, z)

that the umbilici of the surface

=
lie

are

on a sphere whose centre

the origin and whose radius

is

is

abc
-=

equal to
7.

ab + OG + ca

The centres of curvature

any point

lie

of plane sections of a surface at

on the surface
P

8.

which separates the synclastic from

a
of
surface
is a line of curvature, and that
parts

Prove that the

line

the anticlastic
it the inflexional tangents coincide.

along

The projections of the lines of curvature of an ellipsoid on

9.
the cyclic planes, by lines parallel to the greatest axis of the
surface, are confocal conies.
10.
lies

If one of the lines of curvature on a developable surface

all the other lines of curvature, other than the

on a sphere

rectilineal ones, lie

11.

on concentric spheres.

plane curve

is

wrapped upon a developable

surfaco.

If p is the radius of curvature of the plane curve at any point, p

the corresponding radius of circular curvature of the curve upon
the corresponding principal radius of curvature of
the surface,

the surface, and

.

</>

the angle at which the curve intersects the

generator of the surface,

sin

-=f =
<

1
3

- -12

EXAMPLES ON CHAPTER

232

XII.

If one system of lines of curvature of a surface are

the surface is the envelope of a sphere whose centre moves
on a given curve.
12.

ciicles,

If a geodesic line

13.

curve

it is

is

either a line of curvature or a plane

both j but a plane line of curvature

is

not necessarily

geodesic.

Shew
they are

that

if

one

series of the lines of

all repetitions of

curvature
the same plane curve.

is

geodesic

14.
Shew that if the normal to a surface always passes
through a given curve, one set of the lines of curvature are circles;
and that those normals which pass through a given point on the
curve are generating lines of a right cone whose axis is the
Hence shew that if the normal always
tangent at that point.
passes through two curves, these curves must be conies in planes
at right angles, the foci of one being the vertices of the other.
15.
Find the differential equation of the projection on the
plane xy of each family of lines of curvature of the surface which
is the
envelope of a sphere whose centre lies on the parabola
x 2 + kay = 0, z = 0, and which passes through the origin.
16.
Shew that the principal curvatures at
surface are given by the equation
<U

(tt

dy

dm

dm

Ifa

dy
dn

dn
dx
where

I,

m,

are the

of a

0,

7~
dx

any point

dz

dm

1
1

dy

dn

-T-+ dz
p

direction- cosines of

the normal at the

point.
17.
The tangent planes to the surface of centres at the two
points where any normal meets it are at right angles.

18.

Shew

and the radius

that the point for which x = y

xm + ym + zm = am,
of curvature there is

=z

is

an umbilic of

EXAMPLES ON CHAPTER

233

XII.

In a hyperbolic paraboloid, of which the principal para

19.
bolas are equal, the algebraic sum of the distances of all points of
the same line of curvature from two fixed rectilinear generators is
constant.

of an ellipsoid is measured
Along the normal at a point
of a length inversely proportional to the perpendicular from
the centre on the tangent plane at P; prove that the locus of Q is
20.

PQ

another ellipsoid, and that the envelope of all such ellipsoids is the
surface of centres," that is the locus of the centres of principal
"

curvature.
21.
Shew that the specific curvature at any point of the
surface xyz abc varies as the fourth power of the perpendicular
from the origin on the tangent plane at the point, and that at an

umbilicus
22.

stant

(abc)~*.

have one principal radius of curvature con

the envelope of a sphere of constant radius.

If a surface

it is

23.

it is

xs
Find the umbilici of the surface -

if

abc4-

^-

k*.

and

shew that at the umbilicus - = ^ = - the directions of the three

abc

lines of curvature are given

by the equations
dz
dz
= dx respectively.
and

~
abbe

dx

to

= dy

dy

-f-sa

If two geodesies be drawn on an ellipsoid from any point

24.
two fixed points, the sine of the angle between them varies as

the perpendicular on the tangent plane at the point.

Shew that on a surface of revolution, the distance of any

25.
point of a geodesic from the axis varies as the cosecant of the
angle between the geodesic and the meridian.
If a geodesic line be drawn on a developable surface and
26.
cut any generating line of the surface at an angle \}/ and at a
distance t from the edge of regression measured along the generator,
prove that

EXAMPLES ON CHAPTER

234

where p is the radius of curvature of

at the point where the generator touches
27.

Shew

XII.

the edge of regression

it.

that the tangent to a geodesic or line of curvature

line of curvature

on a quadric always touches a geodesic or

respectively on a confocal quadric.

Shew that the reciprocals of the radii of curvature

28.
torsion of a curve drawn on a developable surface are
sin

p cos a

and

sin

cos

and

da
-=-

as

where p is the principal radius of curvature of the surface at the

point, 6 the angle the tangent line to the curve makes with the
generator through the point, and a the angle between the normal
to the surface and the principal normal of the curve.
If a geodesic on a developable surface be a plane curve it must
be one of the generators or else the surface must be a cylinder.
2 J.
(

If -

and - be the curvature and tortuosity at any point

a geodesic drawn on a surface, and

of the surface at that point,

be the principal curvatures

Pi

of

Pa

shew that

30.
Through a given generator of a hyperboloid of one sheet,
draw a variable plane this will touch the surface at some point
A on the generator and will contain the normal to the surface at
;

Shew that the sum of the square roots of the

another point J3.
measures of curvature of the surface at A and B is constant for all
planes through this generator.
Hence shew that the same proposition

is

true for

any skew

surface.
31.
If w be the pitch of the screw by which any generator of
a skew surface twists into its consecutive position, shew that
&* + pp = 0, where p, p are the principal radii of curvature at the
point where the shortest distance between the two consecutive
generators meets them.

EXAMPLES ON CHAPTER
32.

to

235

XII.

If a geodesic be drawn on an ellipsoid from an umbilicus

of the mean axis, prove that its radius of torsion

an extremity

at the latter point

is

a, b, c are the semi-axes of the ellipsoid arranged

descending order of magnitude.

where

in

from any point on a surface a number of geodesic

all directions, shew (1) that those which have
least torsion bisect the angles between the
of any line,
and
(2) that the radius of torsion
principal sections,
making an angle 6 with a principal section, is given by the
33.

If

drawn in
the greatest and
lines be

equation

where p lt p a are the

34.

radii of curvature of the principal sections.

Find the equation to the surface which

is

the locus of the

Prove
central circular sections of a series of confocal ellipsoids.
that this surface cuts all the ellipsoids orthogonally, and that the
are
trajectories of the circles, drawn upon the surface,
orthogonal
lines of curvature upon

two hyperboloids confocal with the

ellipsoids.

If a cone of revolution circumscribe an ellipsoid, prove

35.
that the plane of contact divides the ellipsoid into two portions
whose total curvatures are 2?r (1 4- sin a) and 2?r (1 sin a), where

2a

is

the vertical angle of the cone.

If any cylinder circumscribes an ellipsoid

36.
portions whose integral curvatures are equal.
37.

The measure

of curvature at

any point

it

divides

it

into

of the surface

is the length of the generator through the point cut off

the
by
plane z = 0.

where r

Prove that, if radii be drawn to a sphere parallel to the

curve of continuous
principal normals at every point of a closed
38.

EXAMPLES ON CHAPTER

236

XII.

curvature, the locus of their extremities divides the surface of the

sphere into two equal parts.

Hence shew that the total curvature of a geodesic triangle on any

is equal to the excess of its angles over two right angles.

surface

Define the radius of geodesic curvature of a curve drawn

39.
upon a surface, and shew that at any point it is equal to R cot
where R is the radius of curvature of the normal section contain
the
ing the tangent to the given curve, and $ is the inclination of
<,

osculating plane to that section.

on a second surface without rotation

normal, and the trace on one surface is a
a geodesic.
geodesic, the trace on the other surface is
Hence prove that Gauss s measure of curvature is constant for
40.

If a surface roll

about the

all

common

areas enclosed by geodesies.

MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES.
THE inclinations to the horizon of two lines which are at
1.
on a plane in
right angles to one another are a, 13, the lines being
3
= sin 2 a + sin 2 /?.
clined to the horizon at an angle 6 , shew that sin
that the volume of the tetrahedron of which a pair
formed by lengths r, r on the straight lines
whose equations are
2.

Shew

of opposite edges is

y-

x-a

z-c
_ z-c and x-a!
^ y-V _
y
n
in
n
L
,

?V a - a

is

b-b

m
m

c-c
n
n

its shorter
parallelogram of paper is creased along
to make an angle
diagonal, and the two halves are folded so as
with each other find the distance between the extremities of the
it is equal to the shorter, if
longer diagonal, and prove that
3.

S\

sin

- = cot a cot /?, where a and

2

j8

are the angles the sides

make

with the shorter diagonal.

The ends of a straight line lie on two fixed planes which

4.
are at right angles to one another, and the straight line subtends
a right angle at each of two given points: shew that the locus
of its middle point is a plane.

- z = 1, x = 0;
straight lines are y
= 0; prove that the locus of all
the three lines is
straight lines which intersect
*
x* +
+ z2 - z - 2zx - %xy = 1
5.

The equations of three

=
and x-y = 1,
2/

z-x=l,

MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES.

238

Three fixed lines are cut by any other line in the points
6.
is the point on the line ABC such that [ABCD]
A, B, C, and
is harmonic: shew that the locus of D is a straight line.

7.

point moves so that

two given

its

perpendicular distances from

shew that its locus is an

lines are in a constant ratio

hyperboloid.

8.

straight line slides

upon two

fixed straight lines in

such a way that the part intercepted subtends a right angle at

a fixed point shew that the line generates a conicoid.
:

9.
sphere touches the six edges of a tetrahedron shew
that the three lines joining pairs of opposite points of contact
will meet in a point.
:

10.
straight line moves in such a manner that each of
four fixed points on the line is always on a given plane; shew
that any other fixed point on the line describes a plane ellipse.

11.
Any three points P, Q, R, and the polar planes of those
are
V
points with reference to any conicoid are taken.
the perpendiculars from
on the polar planes of Q and
respec
QPS are the perpendiculars from Q on the polar
tively
S
are the perpen
of
and
a
A
planes
respectively; and
and Q respectively.
diculars from
on the polar planes of

PQ PR

QR

RP RQ

Shew

that

PQ QR RP^ = PR QP RQ
.

12.

Shew

b\f

+ cz 2 + 2fyz + 2gzx + 2hxy = 0,

represent two planes, the planes which

them are given by the equation

ax + hy + gz,

y
kx + by +fz,
,

bg-hf

af-gh
Shew

that, if the equation

ax2 +

13.

bisect the angles

-0.

gx +fy + cz
1

ch-fg

that, if the equation

ax"

by*

cz

+ Ifyz + 2gzx + 2hxy =

0,

between

MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES.

239

represent two planes, the product of the perpendiculars on the

planes from the point (x, yy z) is

ax 9 + by 3 +

+ 2fyz + 2gzx +

U = (abcdlmnpqr) (xyzw)* =

If

14.

cz

shew that the co-ordinates of the vertex

dU

d_U

Ha _
da

15.

is

the equation of a cone,

satisfy the equations

d_U_

~db

_
9A~~9A~

where

is

2/ixy

_~dl _
~H&~"

db

~dl

the discriminant.

Shew

that, if the equation

+ 2fyz + 2gzx + 2hxy + 2ux + 2vy + 2wz + d = 0,

a.
Shew also that
represent a paraboloid of revolution, c = b
c - b + a, the equations of the axis of the
paraboloid will be
ax 2 + by 9 +

cz

cz
1 G.

Shew

w = 0,

(ex

+ u) Ja +

(cy

v)

Jb =

0.

that the three principal planes of the surface

ax 2 + by 2 +

cz

+ 2fyz + 2gzx + 2hxy =

are given by the equations

ax + hy +gz,
Gz,

where A,

C... are the

hx + by +fz
Hx + By + Fz,
,

minors of
a,
b,

*
17.

a, 6, c

h,

b,

f,

gx +fy + cz
Fy + Cz

=0,

in the determinant

If r be

any semi-axis of the conicoid

ax2 + by* + cz* + 2fyz + 2gzx + 2hxy =

prove that the values of r will be given by

if

MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES.

240
18.

- a*b* = 0,
The ellipse b*x* -f
whose equation, referred to its

of a cone

Shew

that the vertex of the cone

is

z=0

a plane section

is

principal axes, is

on the curve

s a
- (a9 + b 2 )
( a b - 6V - g
z*-a*-b a }
=
+
+
+
P y
Py ya afi

)(

19.

Shew

that the conicoid ax +

cz*

d=0

own

is its

polar reciprocal with respect to any one of the conicoids

2

ax*

by

d=

cz*

0.

20.
Find the locus of the centre of the sphere which passes
through two circular sections of a conicoid which are of opposite
systems and whose planes are equidistant from the centre.

21.
Prove that the foci of sections of an ellipsoid
a series of parallel planes lie on an ellipse.

22.

Shew

made by

that the perpendicular from the centre on the

Ou

tangent plane at any point of

"4"

---%5 =

-CLG

77

a/-

1 is

-.

where r

the length of a generator through the point cut off by the plane
of xy.

is

AB B

BC

The six lines

23.
C A are six gene
,
,
G, CA , A B,
2
+ cz 2 = 1, and
rators of the hyperboloid ax* +
,
C, CA\
are respectively parallel to A B,
C A ; shew that, if the
,
parallelepiped of which the six generators are edges be completed,

AB B

BO

the corners which are not on the hyperboloid will be on

ax 2 +
24.

Shew

bif

+ cz 2 + 3 =

0.

that at any point the rate per unit of length of

generator at which the normal to the hyperboloid

twists round a generator as

we move along

it is -^

--- =
c

ct

where r

the distance, measured along the generator, of the point from

the plane of xy.

is

MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES.
25.

angles;
,

is

ABGDQ is a twisted polygon all whose angles are

CD lying on fixed straight lines. Shew that

right

points on their respective lines, the locus of

or

AS,

D be any

C,

241

an hyperboloid

if

A,

one sheet.

of

If I be the latus-rectum of a parabola, and l ls la the

26.
latera recta of its orthogonal projections upon a rectangular system
t

of co-ordinate planes making angles a,

the plane of the original parabola, then

=+
cos^a

(3

and y respectively with

cos^y
~

cos*/3
~

If the six points on a conicoid, normals at which meet

27.
in a point, are joined in pairs by three lines, prove that whatever
set of joining lines is taken the sum of the squares of the semi-

diameters parallel to them

is

constant.

touches the three planes

conicoid whose centre is
shew that the lines
in A, 73, C respectively
through A, B, C parallel respectively to OX, OY, OZ, and the
are four generators of an hyperboloid of one sheet.
line
28.

YOZ, ZOX,

XOY

OD

Three perpendicular tangent planes are drawn, one to

29.
each of three confocal conicoids shew that the normals at the
points of contact of the planes, and the line joining their point
of intersection to the centre of the conicoids are generators of an
hyperboloid of one sheet.
:

30.

If

any

line

be taken such that

of

-rr-^

OX.

X will be a plane.
31.

-^

UA

-^=
On

m m m
+

GO

+
us -

+__ + ...; shew that the locus

UL>

If any line through a fixed point

face in the points A, B, C, D...,

meet any number of

and on the line a point

through a fixed point

fixed planes in the points A, B,

and

meet any given sur

be taken such that

then wil1 the locus of

plane.
S. S.

G.

16

be a

242

MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES.

Two

point

straight lines drawn in fixed directions through any

meet a given surface in the points A, B, C, D... arid

.,
A, B, C

32.

33.

on

its

...-,

shew that

OA.OB.OC.OD...
,

,,

is

constant.

Prove that the pedal of a helix with regard to any point

is a curve lying on a hyperboloid of one sheet ; and

axis

that, if the pitch of the helix be JTT, this curve will cut

perpen

dicularly all the generators of one system of the hyperboloid.

34.
curve is drawn on a sphere of radius a cutting all the
meridians at a constant angle ; shew (i) that the foot of the per
pendicular from the centre of the sphere upon the osculating plane
be the radii of curva
is the centre of curvature ;
(2) that if p,
2
= a 2.
ture and torsion
<r

<rp

35.

points
o-

Prove that the shortest distance of the tangents

3

PQ

of any curve

is

ultimately equal to

PQ

at

two

where p and

are the radii of curvature and torsion.

Tangent planes to a conicoid are drawn at points along a

shew that the perpendiculars from the centre
on their planes lie on a quadric cone, that the different cones so
formed are confocal, and that the focal lines of the cones are
3G.

line of curvature

perpendicular to the circular sections of the conicoid.

curve is drawn making a constant angle a with the

37.
axis of a paraboloid of revolution prove (i) that its projection
on a plane perpendicular to the axis is the involute of a circle
of radius I cot a, (ii) that its radii of curvature p and torsion a
2
2
2
2
2
2
l cot a,
are given by the equations p sin a = a- sin* a cos a = r*
where r is the distance of the point from the axis, and I is the
semi-latus rectum of the generating parabola.
:

CAMBRIDGE

PRINTED BY JOHN CLAY, M.A. AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS.

14

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