Sextant & altitude corrections

Sextant:
Sextant is a precision instrument used for
-

measuring altitudes of celestial bodies and

horizontal angles between terrestrial objects

vertical angles of terrestrial objects

Principle of sextant:
1. When a ray of light is reflected by a plane mirror, the angle of incidence is equal to the
angle of reflection, while the incident ray, reflected ray and the normal lying in the same
plane.
2. When a ray of light, suffers two successive reflections in the same plane, by two plane
mirrors, the angle between the incident ray and the final ray is twice the angle between the
mirrors.

Principle
of
sextant

To prove that
angle S = twice angle
Q
=Q+
Q=
Multiplying by 2,
2Q = 2 2
-----(i)
Again 2 = 2 + S
(Ext. angle = sum of
interior
opposite angles)
Substituting in (i)
2Q = 2 + S -

=S
Reading of Sextant:

When the sextant reads zero,

Index mirror and horizon glasses are parallel to each other.
When the index bar is rotated through an angle,
the angle between the incident ray
and the final reflected ray
is twice the angle through which the index bar was rotated.

The arc of the sextant is only 60 in extent,

but due to the principle of double reflection,
we are able to mark the arc
and measure angles upto 120.
Micrometer is provided to measure accurate reading upto 0.1.

Errors of sextant:
- Two types:
1. Adjustable errors
2. Non-adjustable errors
Adjustable errors:
a) Error of perpendicularity
Caused when the index mirror is not perpendicular to the plane of the sextant.
b) Side error
Caused when the horizon glass is not perpendicular to the plane of the sextant
c) Index error
When the index bar is set at zero, the plane of the index mirror and horizon glass are NOT parallel
to each other
d) Error of collimation
When the axis of the telescope is not parallel to the plane of the sextant.
Non-Adjustable errors:
a) Graduation error
due to inaccurate graduation of the scale on the arc or of the micrometer/vernier.
b) Shade error
due to the 2 surfaces of the coloured shades not being exactly parallel to each other.
c) Centering error
pivot of the index bar not coincident with the centre of the circle of which the arc is a part.
d) Optical Error
may be caused by the prismatic errors of the mirror or aberrations in the telescope lenses
e) Back-lash
Wear on the rack and worm, which forms the micrometer movement would cause a back-lash,
leading to inconsistent errors.
Index error, how to determine:
- During day time, clamp the index bar at zero and holding the sextant vertically, view the horizon
through the telescope.
- If the true horizon and its reflection appear in the same line, Index error is not present.
- If they appear displaced vertically, turn the micrometer drum till they are in the same line.
- The micrometer reading then is the index error, which is
on the arc if the micrometer reading is more than zero,
off the arc if it is less than zero.

CORRECTIONS OF SEXTANT ALTITUDE

Visible horizon:
Is the small circle on the earths surface, bounding the observers field of vision at sea.
Sensible horizon:
Is a small circle on the celestial sphere, the plane of which passes through the observers eye, and is
parallel to the observers rational horizon.
Rational horizon:
The observers rational horizon is a great circle on the celestial sphere every point on which is 90 away
from his zenith.
Observed altitude:
Of a celestial body is the angle at the observer between the body and the direction to the observers visible
or sea horizon.
The observed altitude is therefore, the sextant altitude corrected for any index error.
Dip:
Is the angle at the observer between the plane of observers sensible horizon, and the direction to his
visible horizon.
Dip occurs because the observer is not situated at the sea level.
The value of dip increases as the observers height.
Apparent altitude:
Is the sextant altitude corrected for Index error and dip.
Refraction:

Refraction is the deviation of light rays passing from a rarer medium to another.
When passing from a rarer medium into a denser medium, the ray refracts towards the normal to
the surface of the separation between the two medium.
The atmosphere of the earth is most dense at the earths surface and becomes rarer as the height
above the Earths surface increases.

It may therefore be considered as being composed of various layers.

Each layer being rarer than the one below it.
A ray of light from a celestial body passing through the Earths atmosphere,
is continuously refracted until it reaches the observer.
Due to this the apparent ray that finally reaches the observer
is larger in altitude than the true direction to the body.
Since refraction increases the apparent altitude of the body
refraction correction is always negative.
The value of refraction varies with the angle which the ray makes with the normal to the surface of
separation between the two media.
Refraction has a maximum value of about 34.5 when the body is on the horizon and decreases as
the altitude increases.
It is nil when the body is at the zenith as no refraction can take place when the ray is coincident with
the normal.
Refraction correction is tabulated as the function of the altitude. Tables of correction are available
both in the nautical tables and cover page of the nautical almanac.

SEMI-DIAMETER

Values of Dec & GHA of various bodies tabulated in the Nautical almanac are those of their
centers.
Therefore the true zenith is referred to the centre of the body.
The altitudes of stars & planets are directly that of their centers as they appear as point sources of
light.
The sun and Moon present discs to the observer, so it is difficult to judge their exact centers, by
sight.
Therefore we measure the UL or LL altitude, to which we apply half the apparent diameter of the
body to obtain the altitudes of their centers.
The SD should be added to an altitude of LL & subtracted of UL, to obtain the altitude of the center
of the body.

The SD of sun is tabulated for 3 days and of Moon for each day in the daily pages of nautical
almanac.
The apparent SD of these bodies depend upon their distance from the Earth.
They are max when the body is closest to the Earth & min when they are farthest.
Sun SD varies from 15.8 at apogee and when at perigee is 16.7.

SD can be calculated by the given formula:

Sin SD = radius of body / dist of body from the Earth

Augumentation of the Moons SD:

The SD tabulated in the almanac are those as would be apparent from the centre of the earth.
Augmentation of the Moons SD is the increase in the observed SD of the Moon caused due
to its distance to the observer reducing with increase in its altitude.
As the observer on the earths surface is closer to the Moon than the earths centre, the SD of the
Moon as observed by him would be larger than the tabulated value.
When the Moon is on the horizon, its distance to the observer is about the same as its distance to
the centre of the earth.
As the Moon rises in altitude, its distance to the observer becomes less than its distance to the
earths centre.
When at the zenith, the Moon is closer to the observer by the amount of the earths radius
about 4000 miles.
The observed SD of the Moon therefore increases as its altitude increases.
Augmentation is nil when the Moon is on the horizon.

It increases as the Moons altitude increases and reaches a max value of 0.3 when the Moon is at
the zenith.
To allow for this it is necessary to augment or increase the tabulated value of the Moons SD by the
amount of the augmentation correction.
The augmented SD is then applied to correct the altitude.

Horizontal Parallax & Parallax in altitude

Horizontal Parallax

Of a body is the angle at the centre of the body contained between the centre of the earth and the
observer at the surface of earth, when body is on the observers sensible altitude.

Parallax in altitude

Parallax is max. when the body is on the sensible horizon, and it reduces as the altitude increases,
till it becomes nil when the body is at the observers zenith.
Parallax of bodies will reduce as their distance from the earth increases.
Parallax is therefore
- largest in the case of moon,
- lesser in the case of planets,
- still lesser in the case of sun
and nil in the case of stars, as the radius of the earth will not subtend any measurable angle at the
centre of the stars, which are immensely distant.

In the fig., angle SOX is the altitude of the body above the sensible horizon, obtained by applying
the various corrections other than parallax.
The true altitude above the rational horizon is angle RCX.
The true alt (angle RCX) = angle XTS (corresponding angles) but
Angle XTS = angle SOX + angle OXC (being ext. angle of triangle XOT)
Angle RCX = angle SOX + angle OXC
Thus true alt.= alt above sensible horizon + parallax in alt.
Therefore parallax correction is always additive

In the fig., by sine rule applied to triangle OCX

sine parallax in alt
sin angle COX
------------------------ = ---------------------OC
CX
Sin parallax in alt = OC
----- sin (90 + angle SOX)
CX
= OC
-----Cos apparent alt

(CS = CX)

CS

= sin HP x Cos apparent alt.

As sine of a small angle is equal to the angle itself (in radians) and as both parallax in alt. and HP
are small angles,

Parallax in alt. = HP x Cos app. alt.

Also in COS,
Sin HP = OC / CS
Sin HP = Radius of Earth / Dist of body from the Earths centre

Corrections to be applied to the sextant alt:

Stars
IE
Dip
Refraction

Planets
Sun
Moon
a) IE
a) IE
a) IE
b) Dip
b) Dip
b) Dip
c) Refraction
c) Refraction c) Refraction
d) Correction
d) SD
d) Augumented SD
in parallax
and phase
(Venus & Mars only)
e) Parallax e) Parallax
in alt
in alt