Design Thinking

and the Experience of Innovation

Barry Wylant

An Overview of Innovation
Discussions on creativity, creative thinking techniques, social
psychology, geography, and economic development inform much
of the commentary on innovation. Such work usually focuses on
techniques for achieving innovation; enhancing its role in increasing
productivity, and contributing to the economic betterment of a given
group or region. For instance, in economics, “clusters” often are asso-
ciated with innovation. These are the “geographic concentrations” of
companies and services that collectively link to focus on meeting the
overall needs of a given industry sector.1 Often, such companies both
compete and cooperate, enhancing the cluster. The California wine
cluster is an example which includes several vineyards, wineries,
and those companies that contribute to all aspects of productivity in
winemaking. This list covers those we might expect to be involved
with wine production such as the manufacturers of bottles, corks,
labels, and barrels; and also those who can provide a specialized
advertising and media presence, offering linkages to related agri-
businesses, the restaurant industry, and winery tourism.2
Due to geographic proximity and a linked focus, clusters
are useful in enhancing the microeconomic capability of a given
region. This occurs through improvements in the productivity of
cluster members which enables them to compete effectively in both
regional and global markets. The geographic concentration allows
for access to capabilities, information, expertise, and ideas. They
allow members to quickly perceive new buyer needs, and new tech-
nological, delivery, or operating possibilities. This allows members
to quickly recognize and identify new opportunities far more readily
than those residing outside the cluster. Pressure also exists within
1 Michael E. Porter, “Clusters and the New clusters. Competition and peer pressure can drive an inherent need
Economics of Competition,” Harvard for participants to distinguish themselves, and proactively force the
Business Review (November-December pursuit of innovation. Also cluster participants tend to contribute
1998): 78. to local research institutes and universities, and may work together
2 Michael E. Porter, “Location, Competition,
to develop local resources collectively and privately in a manner
and Economic Development: Local
Clusters in a Global Economy,” Economic
beyond the mandate of local governments and other organizations.
Development Quarterly 14:1 (February Activities such as these can enrich the work experience, and enhance
2000): 15–34, 17. innovation and the quality of life within the cluster community. In

© 2008 Massachusetts Institute of Technology

Design Issues: Volume 24, Number 2 Spring 2008 3
 providing an economic focus, clusters provide a succinct context
for idea generation and economic development through a variety
of means.3

Categories of Innovation
An early writer on innovation, Joseph Schumpeter, distinguished it
from invention, and saw it as a far more potent contributor to pros-
perity. In Schumpeter’s estimation, inventors only generated ideas,
while innovation occurs as the entrepreneur is able to implement and
introduce the new idea into a form of widespread use. He referred
to this as the entrepreneur’s ability to “get things done,” and saw it
as a definitive aspect of the innovation process.4 In this, Schumpeter
discounts the need to reinvent the wheel and allows for nonradical
innovations, such as the introduction of Deerfoot sausage.5
Others have focused on the degree of newness evident in
innovation. Thomas Robertson proposed three classifications for
innovation: “continuous,” “dynamically continuous,” and “discon-
tinuous.” 6 “Continuous” can be considered incremental or evolu-
tionary in character, a small improvement over what already exists,
such as a new flavor of chewing gum. Indicative of a general lack
of newness in its manifestation, lesser forms of continuous innova-
tion are more truly thought of as imitation. “Dynamically continu-
ous” refers to the manner in which an existing functionality can be
dramatically improved, such as the introduction of flat-screen moni-
tors over older and larger cathode ray tube monitors. “Discontinuous
innovation” is seen as the introduction of significantly different
technology or infrastructure that, in turn, leads to unprecedented
uses and functionalities. 7 It also is known as disruptive innovation
because it can interrupt, disrupt, or otherwise interfere with concur-
rent use and behavior patterns facilitated by existing technologies.8
3 Michael E. Porter, “Clusters and the New Consider the introduction and subsequent widespread adoption
Economics of Competition,” 83–89. of the Internet, and the attending boom in information technolo-
4 Joseph Schumpeter, “The Creative
gies, as providing for a wholly new manner of user interaction and
Response in Economic History” in Essays
on Entrepreneurs, Innovations, Business interface with technology that simply did not exist before. These
Cycles, and the Evolution of Capitalism, categorizations are useful in such things as risk assessment. Here, a
Richard V. Clemence, ed. (Piscataway, continuous innovation might seem less risky, being a simple varia-
NJ: Transaction Publishers, 1989): tion on something that already exists and proven in its widespread
221–224.
use; versus the greater risks associated with the potential failure of
5 Ibid., 223.
a new discontinuous innovation, which can require significant and
6 Thomas Robertson, “The Process
of Innovation and the Diffusion of expensive development work.
Innovation,” Journal of Marketing 31
(January 1967): 15. Innovation Triggers
7 Ibid., 15–16. At the scale of the individual, certain conditions can be seen to
8 P. Thmond and F. Lettice, “Disruptive
enhance the pursuit of innovation and creativity. The psychologist
Innovation Explored” in 9th IPSE
International Conference on Concurrent Teresa Amabile proposes a componential framework for creativity.
Engineering: Research and Application She identifies three main psychological components: domain-rele-
(CE2002), (2002): 1–2. vant skills, creativity-relevant skills, and task motivation. Domain-

4 Design Issues: Volume 24, Number 2 Spring 2008

 relevance refers to areas of knowledge and skill embodied by an
individual, such as factual knowledge and expertise in a given topic.9
This could include the computational skills of a mathematician, the
listening skills and manual dexterity of a pianist, and the drawing
and visualization skills of an artist.
Creativity-relevant skills include the typical cognitive
styles, work styles, and personality traits that influence how one
approaches a particular problem-solving task. Creativity-relevant
skills inform the way an individual may perceive, comprehend,
navigate, manipulate, and otherwise consider issues and problems
in novel and useful ways.10 These skills influence the degree of
novelty in a particular creative insight or product. Such skills are
further influenced by personality traits such as self-discipline, the
ability to entertain ambiguity and complexity, the capacity to delay
gratification, an autonomous outlook on the world, and a willingness
to take risks. If the domain-relevant skills constitute the knowledge
that an individual applies in conducting a task or solving a problem,
then the creativity-relevant skills inform the manner as to how those
skills are applied, ultimately influencing the degree of creativity in
the response.
While more traditional forms of education would inform
the development of domain-relevant skills, creative heuristics can
be used to develop one’s creativity-relevant skill set. This is the
focus for many of Kelley’s insights in his book The Art of Innovation.
Kelley offers many techniques that inform the process, activity, and
consideration of innovation. He notes that observation, laterally
organized group work, brainstorming, prototyping, the manipula-
tion of environments, aspects of set-breaking, the role of chance (and
by default the ability to allow for failure), and a certain perceptive
quality which he refers to as “coloring outside the lines” all represent
important cognitive devices that can be used to effectively enhance
the occurrence of innovation.11 Indeed, if Amabile’s research seeks
to establish more concrete means for the evaluation and prediction
of creativity, Kelley’s work focuses on specific techniques and ways
of thinking that ultimately will enhance the process of achieving
innovation.
Task motivation addresses the motivational state in which
the creative act is pursued. Intrinsic motivation, is understood as
those factors which exist from within the individual’s own personal
view. One can be seen as intrinsically motivated in a given task when
9 Teresa Amabile, The Social Psychology engagement in that task is perceived as a meritorious end in itself.
of Creativity (New York: Springer-Verlag Extrinsic motivation or external factors such as deadlines, payment,
1983): 67–70. aspects of supervision, etc. are understood as mitigating factors
10 Ibid., 67–69.
external to the task itself and are imposed externally to the person
11 Tom Kelley, The Art of Innovation (New
York: Doubleday, 2001): 231–246. completing the task.12 Amabile’s research into the social-psychology
12 Teresa Amabile, The Social Psychology of of creativity is rooted in the hypothesis that intrinsic motivation
Creativity, 76. represents a stronger positive influence in the pursuit of creativity

Design Issues: Volume 24, Number 2 Spring 2008 5

 than extrinsic motivational. Her efforts examine the social environ-
ment in which creativity is pursued, and how that in turn might be
manipulated to enhance the creative result.

Towards the Idea in Innovation

The discussion above spans various scales of inquiry regarding
innovation, but is a more elemental understanding of innovation
possible? A departure point to pursue such an understanding begins
with a definition for the term “innovation.” Schumpeter saw inno-
vation as the domain of the entrepreneur who “gets things done.”
He defines the activity as “simply the doing of new things or the
doing of things that are already being done in a new way.”13 The
Oslo Manual defines innovation as “the implementation of a new
or significantly improved product (good, or service) or process, a
new marketing method, or a new organizational method in business
practices, workplace organization, or external relations.”14 ITP Nelson
simply defines innovation as the “act of introducing something
new.”15 And the anthropologist H. G. Barnett considered innovation
as the result of a process in which a new “thought, behaviour, or
thing” is conceived of and brought into existence.16
Each of the definitions above note that to achieve innovation
requires an action or process of some type that introduces something
new. Evident here are the constituent elements of innovation, which
can be identified as the new thing to be introduced, the act of intro-
ducing it, and some type of arena where the introduction occurs.
However there can be some ambiguity in understanding what
exactly constitutes the new thing and its introduction. A buyer for a
given retail chain might view a new, fully developed product as the
“new thing,” and its subsequent adoption into market distribution
as its “introduction.” Others, more technically-minded, might view
the development process of that product as its “introduction” and
the idea behind the product as the “new thing.” The introduction
13 Schumpeter, “Creative Response,” also could occur at the level of the individual, such as with early
223–24. adopters of emerging technologies. Indeed, it could take place in a
14 Oslo Manual: Guidelines for Collecting variety of ways.
and Interpreting Innovation Data (3rd From the definitions, new things can take on a variety of
Edition) (OECD/European Communities,
forms such as a product, behavior, system, process, organization,
2005): 46.
or business model. At the heart of all these “new things” is an idea
15 ITP Nelson Canadian Dictionary of the
English Language (Toronto: ITP Nelson, which is deemed meritorious and, when acted upon, ultimately
1998): 702. affects the innovation. To describe an idea as “innovative” suggests
16 H. G. Barnett, Innovation: The Basis of that it should be acted upon. Given this distinction, there is a point
Cultural Change (New York: McGraw- where the innovation can be seen to exist only as an idea. Initiating
Hill Book Company, 1953): 7, quoted
some action inspired by the idea starts the process through which the
in Thomas Robertson “The Process
of Innovation and the Diffusion of eventual “introduction” can occur, and thus initiates the innovation
Innovation,” Journal of Marketing 31 process which can encompass any subsequent activity necessary to
(January 1967): 14. further the idea’s development along.

6 Design Issues: Volume 24, Number 2 Spring 2008

 The Idea Experience
Some insight into the experience of an idea is evident in Scruton’s
discussion of aesthetic perception and the experience of architecture.
The description of this experience can be used to inform a more
general insight as to how ideas are generated. Scruton notes that
one applies imagination to perceive form, order, balance, etc. in a
given architectural piece.17 At a base level, one might easily see that
a building is constructed from various materials, however, it is our
imagination that allows us to see forms in the arrangement of these
base components, such as the semicircular composition of brick in an
archway. As a cognitive mechanism, this is very similar to the abil-
ity to see a face in the clouds. Imagination allows us to entertain the
notion of the shape of a face evident in the outline of clouds, just as
one might see a pattern in the arrangement of bricks on the façade of
a building. The viewer cognitively matches the shape of the cloud or
the arrangement of bricks to a previously understood concept, that of
a particular animal or geometric form such as a circle. Scruton refers
to the acquisition of such insight as an act of imaginative percep-
tion.18 ITP Nelson defines idea as the “conception existing in the mind
as a result of mental understanding, awareness or activity.”19 With
this, it can be argued that Scruton’s notion of imaginative perception,
as evident in the aesthetic experience of architecture, represents the
genesis of an idea. Thus, in comprehending the semicircular arrange-
ment of the bricks, one is effectively arriving at an idea about those
bricks and the building constructed from them.
From this brief discussion on the occurrence of an idea, its
constituent elements can be noted. These include a stimulus of some
sort, that is, something that could arrest or hold the attention of a
potential viewer. The examples above suggest something seen or
physical, however, it could be otherwise such as a musical note or
the spoken word. Such stimuli exist in settings or contexts, such as a
cloud in the sky, a brick in a wall, or a musical chord in a song. And,
of course, there must be a viewer, someone who can then perceive
and consider the stimulus. It is in the consideration of such stimuli
that one can cognitively nest perception within a body of experience
and learning that then can inform the comprehension of a particular
stimulus and make sense of it in an imaginative way.
The key to the interplay of these idea elements is the capacity
of the stimulus to hold one’s attention and engender its consider-
ation. For example, an arresting piece of architecture can hijack one’s
focus, requiring that the viewer make sense of the building observed.
In an instant, the mere presence of architecture (or any other stimuli)
17 R. Scruton, The Aesthetics of
has the potential capacity to interrupt one’s thoughts. At times, such
Architecture (Princeton: Princeton
an interruption can be leisurely, a building may simply command
University Press, 1979): 76–78.
18 Ibid. attention during a casual stroll. At other times, the experience is more
19 ITP Nelson Canadian Dictionary of the pressing, such as the need to navigate the interior of a foreign train
English Language, 674. station to ensure one’s timely arrival at the right platform.

Design Issues: Volume 24, Number 2 Spring 2008 7

 There is another aspect that can be derived from Scruton’s
discussion on imaginative perception, and that is the malleability
of the perception itself. One can choose, at will, different ways of
seeing, comprehending, or experiencing a given piece of architec-
ture. Scruton refers to the upper story row of columns of the Palazzo
Pisani-Moretta in Venice. Here, one can perceive that neighboring
columns end in an aedicule (a pointed arch), or that every third
column anchors a semicircular arch. There is an inherent ambiguity
where one can perceive either one or the other compositions in the
architecture. Further, if someone does not immediately see one or
the other version of the columnar endings, another bystander in the
vicinity could point it out, thus providing insight as to other ways
of imaginatively perceiving the composition.20 This ability to flex-
ibly generate different imaginative responses to stimuli is open to
influence from a variety of sources, anything that could then prompt
one’s reconsideration of the stimulus.

Idea Elements
The idea elements described above can be seen to act within a cogni-
tive mechanism that engenders an idea. Certain historical instances
are useful in illustrating how these idea elements work in different
ways. For example, Archimedes’ sudden insight into the relationship
between an object’s volume and water displacement is one of these.
In noticing the water level of his bath rise as he lowered himself into
it, Archimedes realized that water, displaced in such a fashion, could
be used to measure the volume of an irregularly shaped gold wreath,
a task he was under commission to determine. Here, the water level
serves as the stimulus, and its relative position against the side of the
tub is its physical context. In the consideration of this as a stimulus,
Archimedes imaginatively contextualizes his observation within his
pressing query, and the idea was formed.21 In this instance, the previ-
ous experience is not explicit; rather it is knowledge in the form of a
perplexing question known to the idea progenitor.
A similar experience can be found in the description of
Kekulé’s discovery of the molecular structure of benzene. In this
story, Kekulé had been pursuing this question for some time, yet an
accurate theory as to benzene’s structure remained elusive. One day,
he dozed off in his study with the fire burning in the fireplace. In his
dozing state, he contemplated the flames, imaginatively seeing them
20 R. Scruton, Aesthetics of Architecture,
85–87. first as snakes and then as snakes biting their tails, forming circles
21 E. J. Dijksterhuis, Archimedes (Princeton, with their bodies. When he fully awoke, he realized that the molecu-
NJ: Princeton University Press, 1987), 19. lar structure for benzene was indeed circular, or rather it formed a
22 M. A. Boden “What Is Creativity?” in six-sided ring shape.22 Such a structure allows for a greater number
Dimensions of Creativity, M. A. Boden,
of molecular bonds than would be possible otherwise, a notion later
ed. (Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press,
1994): 82–83. confirmed by his student W. Körner.23 The constituent idea elements
23 David Knight, Ideas in Chemistry: A are at play here. The fire provides the initial stimulus in this mix,
History of the Science (New Brunswick, and one can postulate that Kekulé’s state of relaxation might well
NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1992), 123. enhance his willingness to make sense of the flames imaginatively

8 Design Issues: Volume 24, Number 2 Spring 2008

 as writhing snakes. The idea of a circular snake can be seen as a
new stimulus which, when considered in light of his research, is
contextualized within the problem of benzene’s structure. Upon his
reveille, he is able to consciously put the pieces together and explic-
itly table the new idea. Moving from the idea of snakes dancing in
the fire to that of circular snakes represents a cognitive micro-step
which is similar to the flexibility noted above regarding architectural
ambiguities. This is illustrative of how newly formed ideas can nest
as stimuli to inform the genesis of subsequent ideas.

The Considered Idea

The examples noted above echo Krippendorf’s discussion regarding
product semantics. Krippendorf postulates that in viewing a given
product, one imaginatively contextualizes the perception of that
object as a means of comprehending significance.24 In this, the viewer
formulates ideas about the object, cognitively placing it into contexts
that allow her to formulate an understanding of it. For instance, she
might consider how a chair could look in her living room while
seeing it in a store. Krippendorf notes that “Meaning is a cognitively
constructed relationship. It selectively connects features of an object
and features of its (real environment or imagined) context into a
coherent unity.” 25 The ability to comprehend a totality of meaning in
this is seen in the summation of all potentially imaginable contexts
by an individual. That potentially there is a limitless variety of
contexts which can be used to construct meaning is indicative of the
degrees of potential quality evident in any resulting idea about an
object. Some ideas are more easily arrived at than others. Perceiving
a horse in the sky or the circular arrangement of bricks can happen
in an instant. One can arrive at scores of such ideas in the course of
the day. Other ideas require more work. Often, the genesis of a useful
idea requires that one work through the generation of sequential or
chained ideas as evident in Kekulé’s contemplation of the ringed
snakes.
Given this mechanism of stimulus and context, a variety of
factors can be seen to influence the occurrence and generation of
ideas. This can include knowledge, experience, and one’s capac-
ity to fully consider and contextualize stimuli, echoing Amabile’s
components of creativity. Nesting stimuli within contexts is informed
to some degree by the conceptual space where that contextualiza-
tion takes place. Psychologist Margaret Boden states: “The dimen-
24 Klaus Krippendorf, “On the Essential sions of a conceptual space are the organizing principles that unify
Contexts of Artifacts or on the and give structure to a given domain of thinking.”26 The extensive
Proposition That ‘Design Is Making Sense knowledge base of a given profession or discipline (as evident in
(of Things)’” in The Idea of Design, Victor
Amabile’s notion of domain relevance skills) provides an example
Margolin and Richard Buchanan, eds.
of such conceptual space, where there are accepted normative
(Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press, 1995):
159, 156–184. concepts, standards, and language that underlie the conduct of the
25 Ibid. discipline. Indeed, even language forms a type of conceptual space
26 M. A. Boden “What Is Creativity?” 79. where the rules of spelling and grammar allow one to make sense

Design Issues: Volume 24, Number 2 Spring 2008 9

 of individual letters and words. As Krippendorf notes, the act of
naming something immediately places it within a linguistic context,
subsequently making it subject to the rules of language as part of
the sense- making process.27 Conceptual space also is interesting,
because sometimes that space can limit or preclude the occurrence
of an idea. Prior to Kekulé’s epiphany, available experimental data
might have been interpreted as describing a circular chemical struc-
ture for benzene. And yet if one is locked into a particular way of
viewing such data, it can occlude other interpretations.

The Idea in Innovation

The expression “thinking outside the box” is commonly used in
reference to new ideas and innovation. This colloquialism reflects
an intuitive understanding of the idea generation process: cognitive
contextualization can be seen as a space (or box) for the consideration
of a stimulus. Given the intent of the expression, thinking “inside the
box” refers to a more pedestrian form of sense-making. The need to
make sense of things via fresh contexts and/or stimuli is necessary to
break out of the “box.” There is a significant duality to the nature of
contexts in this. On the one hand, they provide the means by which
one makes sense of a given stimulus, but if this becomes staid it
then can interfere with the achievement of more useful ideas. More
accurately, in thinking “outside the box,” one is effectively thinking
in a very different box. If the role of contextualization is true in the
formation of an idea, then some kind of cognitive context or “box”
always will be required to comprehend a particular stimulus, even
if it is a radically different context.
Insights into the idea mechanism and the need to think
outside of the box can inform the discussion on innovation. For
instance, clusters allow individuals to work closely with others in
contextually matched endeavors. In this clusters play to chance and
serve, through proximity and convenient connectivity, to increase the
likelihood that one might consider a given stimulus within a related,
yet new and useful, context. This, in turn, can engender a new idea,
cultivating the likelihood of any follow-through innovation.
The quality of a given innovation also is influenced through
the idea mechanism. To move beyond imitative and continuous
innovations, greater originality is required in the generation of new
ideas. This entails the consideration of stimuli in increasingly dispa-
rate contexts. It also requires the continued motivation to reconsider
fresh ideas as new stimuli. Towards this end, the use of heuristics
and other innovative techniques, as noted by Kelley, address the
capacity to catapult one’s thinking into wide-ranging contexts. For
example, in brainstorming the type of people included, the inherent
structuring of the session, the suspension of judgment, and the use
of various media to capture ideas, comments, and notions all can
27 Klaus Krippendorf, “On the Essential be seen as significant in the generation of new ideas. Brainstorming
Contexts of Artifacts,” 159. members who come from different backgrounds (sociologists,

10 Design Issues: Volume 24, Number 2 Spring 2008

 psychologists, designers, engineers, etc.) are able to draw upon
differing creativity-relevant and domain-relevant skill sets. Such
differences can be very wide-ranging: in a discussion of “lead users”
von Hippel (et al.) notes how 3M brought together their research-
ers, veterinary specialists, and makeup and special effects industry
people to explore new product ideas for controlling infections after
surgery.28 Brainstorming members inherently will bring different
approaches to considering stimuli, both in terms of willingness and
capacity. Further, such breadth allows both for the discipline specific
rigor necessary to fully comprehend sophisticated problems, and yet
provide for various “boxes” of consideration that can lead to quite
unexpected and useful ideas.
The brainstorming session provides an interesting example as
to how the idea mechanism can play out. One member might table
a topic for consideration and discussion. This serves as an initial
stimulus. Any one of the group members can cognitively nest this
into a context to arrive at new idea. This idea, in turn, can become
a stimulus to another member, who can then contextualize it and
arrive at another idea; and so on, initiating an idea chain. Within
this dynamic, the deferment of judgment is useful because it allows
members to continue nesting new ideas as stimuli to subsequent
ideas, a process which judgment might interrupt or divert. Further,
contributions to the discussion made in a prescribed order also can
muzzle the free association between stimuli and useful contexts.
According to Kelley, in an effective brainstorming session, ideas
are not only verbally expressed but captured via notes, sketches,
the quick model, etc.29 These media are useful because they play to
people’s different capacities in their individual domain or creativ-
ity-relevant skill sets. People will respond to sketches or notes, as
stimuli, in differing and original ways leading again to more unique
ideas.

Introducing the New Idea

Amabile proposes a creative process in which components of
creativity influence activities in different phases. One can see how
the execution of domain- or creativity-relevant skills might occur in
this, and how motivation can influence the creative result.
Her theoretical process also is intended to provide a frame-
work indicative of how the overall creative process occurs, and this
can be seen to correlate with a basic design process which might
include the following steps: see Figures 1 and 2 on page 12.
In comparison to Amabile’s process, the design brief and any
relevant background research undertaken can be seen to correlate to
the preparation step. Sketches and aspects of CAD are similar to the
28 E. von Hippel, S. Thomke, and M.
response generation, while prototyping and user testing correlate
Sonnack, “Creating Breakthroughs
at 3M,” Harvard Business Review on with the response validation. Amabile’s notion of creative outcome
Innovation (2001): 31–53 and 44–46. corresponds to the resulting design itself, which takes form through
29 Tom Kelley, The Art of Innovation, 61–62. specification documents and, ultimately, in the launch of a product.

Design Issues: Volume 24, Number 2 Spring 2008 11

Figure 1
Proposed Creative Process
(from Amabile).30

Figure 2 Such similarities are useful because design can be thought of as a

A Suggested Process for Design. professionalized version of the creative process and significant in
the achievement of innovation.
Amabile’s componential theory also is useful in understand-
ing how smaller aspects of the design process, such as sketches,
might be completed. A designer can prepare for this through the
perusal of a couple of magazines or surfing-relevant Websites.
Subsequently, the completion of any number of rough, initial
sketches represents a response generation. Response validation is
evident in any evaluation of these sketches, and the designer may
then pursue more-polished sketches as an outcome. It becomes
apparent in this that the application of Amabile’s theory is scalable
to the type of tasks undertaken, whether they are small interim steps
or the entire process. Even within the completion of a single sketch
there are aspects of preparation, validation, and outcome, and so
the completion of any interim step can be seen as an execution of
the larger creative process in miniature. In turn, aspects of all the
noted creative activities are apparent in each of the larger phases
of Amabile’s overall process. Responses will be generated and
validated within the preparation phase, and there will be aspects of
preparation in the subsequent phases.
The notion of scale in the creative endeavor is interesting: if
the final creative outcome is based on a single idea, then (depending
on the complexity of the outcome) this end-state is achieved from
working through the genesis of many smaller ideas. Indeed, the
quality of the end product can be enhanced if a number of smaller
ideas are explored first; a principle design is predicated upon.
The character of consideration for these smaller ideas is evident
30 Teresa Amabile, The Social Psychology in Buchanan’s thoughts on design thinking and, specifically, his
of Creativity, 78. discussion of placements. Buchanan uses the term “placement” as

12 Design Issues: Volume 24, Number 2 Spring 2008

 something of a synonym for context with the qualification that the
boundaries of consideration are less tightly defined than one might
expect with the word context.31
For instance, a given sketch represents an idea for a product’s
design. The product does not exist, yet the designer will need to
evaluate his or her intent within the idea. In considering whether the
intended product appears attractive or ungainly, would be easy to
manufacture, or comfortable to use, the designer is placing consid-
eration of the sketched product into placements of aesthetics, manu-
facturability, and ergonomics. Even in creating the sketch, one drawn
line will be considered within the placement of other lines and the
product’s overall form. The sketch is exploratory, effectively a mini-
hypothesis in a what-if scenario used to establish relevance.32 The
use of placements here allows the designer to make sense of one’s
design intent without an undue commitment to the idea while it is
still embryonic. There is an inherent flexibility in this where ideas
evident in the sketch may be adopted, or they may be forfeited in
favor of other ideas as captured in other sketches. Further, features in
one sketch may be interwoven with ideas from additional sketches.
In evaluating the sketch using placements, the designer can learn
more about the extent of the design problem, his or her design intent,
and the necessity for further exploration.
To move the process along, other characteristics of the
placement dynamic come into play, namely aspects of temporality,
commitment, scale, and notions of dominance. While a placement
may be entertained initially on a temporary basis, if it is found to
be significantly valid, a designer can commit to it as a premise for
subsequent design work, effectively dominating the consideration
of later ideas in the process. The idea of dominance is a familiar
visual and spatial device for designers. It is evident in the Gestalt of
figure/ground relationships, and is a principle of the design peda-
gogy espoused by Roweena Reed Kostellow.33 What is interesting in
this is that it is a spatial principle which is applied to the consider-
ation of any idea (not only those of visual composition) evident in
the process. It also is interesting to note that, as with visual composi-
tion, the perception of dominance is flexible depending on how one
might focus in on a given placement. Further, a notion of dominance
evokes notions of scale. Usually, larger ideas dominate smaller ones.
For example, an understanding of a product’s position in the market
31 Richard Buchanan, “Wicked Problems in
usually is established before the design of its overall shape, and the
Design Thinking” in The Idea of Design,
Victor Margolin and Richard Buchanan, shape is established before the detailed design of features such as
eds. (Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press, keys or buttons.
1995): 10, 3–20. The idea mechanism noted above is evident in placements.
32 Ibid, 16. Features of a sketch, model, CAD, or any other design deliverable
33 Gail Greet Hannah, Elements of Design:
can act as stimuli to further consideration within the flexible contexts
Roweena Reed Kostellow and the
Structure of Visual Relationships (New of placements. It is interesting to note how Amabile’s components
York: Princeton Architectural Press, of creativity inform one’s engagement with placements. Domain-
2002), 50. relevance is evident in design skills and theoretical basis for the

Design Issues: Volume 24, Number 2 Spring 2008 13

 consideration of design deliverables, while the inherent curiosity
and discipline of the designer influences the promulgation of the
design effort. Moving beyond skills, attitude, and motivation, it also
is intriguing to note the spatial quality to the designer’s thinking
in the design effort, where aspects of temporality, dominance, and
scale are at play in the weighing of issues and the contemplation of
design problems.
Innovation often is seen as a process of finding solutions
necessary to introduce a new thing. Yet the exercise of finding solu-
tions can be deterministic, depending upon how the development
effort is conceptually framed. The continued drive to use one idea as
a stimulus to a subsequent one is indicative of curiosity. A significant
lesson that can be drawn from design thinking and the consideration
of placements is that it is more a process of raising (several) good
questions versus one for finding the right answers. That one does not
make an a priori commitment in the initial entertainment of a given
placement means that it is used to learn more about the issues under
consideration. Indeed, that one entertains a placement is indicative of
the playful quality inherent in the design pursuit. Given the curios-
ity that drives such play, and the skill with which it is executed, an
effectively broad range of issues can be raised and duly considered
in the development and introduction of innovative new things.

14 Design Issues: Volume 24, Number 2 Spring 2008