Memory

For other uses, see Memory (disambiguation).

Sensory memory holds sensory information less than one
In psychology, memory is the process in which second after an item is perceived. The ability to look at
an item and remember what it looked like with just a split
second of observation, or memorization, is the example
of sensory memory. It is out of cognitive control and is an
automatic response. With very short presentations, participants often report that they seem to see more than
they can actually report. The rst experiments exploring
this form of sensory memory were conducted by George
Sperling (1963)[1] using the partial report paradigm.
Subjects were presented with a grid of 12 letters, arranged into three rows of four. After a brief presentation, subjects were then played either a high, medium or
low tone, cuing them which of the rows to report. Based
Overview of the forms and functions of memory in the sciences
on these partial report experiments,Sperling was able to
information is encoded, stored, and retrieved. Encoding show that the capacity of sensory memory was approxiallows information from the outside world to be sensed in mately 12 items, but that it degraded very quickly (within
the form of chemical and physical stimuli. In the rst a few hundred milliseconds). Because this form of memstage the information must be changed so that it may ory degrades so quickly, participants would see the disbe put into the encoding process. Storage is the sec- play but be unable to report all of the items (12 in the
ond memory stage or process. This entails that informa- whole report procedure) before they decayed. This type
tion is maintained over short periods of time. Finally the of memory cannot be prolonged via rehearsal.
third process is the retrieval of information that has been
stored. Such information must be located and returned
to the consciousness. Some retrieval attempts may be effortless due to the type of information, and other attempts
to remember stored information may be more demanding
for various reasons.

Three types of sensory memories exist. Iconic memory

is a fast decaying store of visual information; a type of
sensory memory that briey stores an image which has
been perceived for a small duration. Echoic memory is a
fast decaying store of auditory information, another type
of sensory memory that briey stores sounds that have
[2]
From an information processing perspective there are been perceived for short durations. Haptic memory is
three main stages in the formation and retrieval of mem- a type of sensory memory that represents a database for
touch stimuli.
ory:
Encoding or registration: receiving, processing and
combining of received information

2 Short-term

Storage: creation of a permanent record of the encoded information in short term or long term mem- Main article: Short-term memory
ory
Short-term memory is also known as working memory.
Retrieval, recall or recollection: calling back the
Short-term memory allows recall for a period of several
stored information in response to some cue for use
seconds to a minute without rehearsal. Its capacity is
in a process or activity
also very limited: George A. Miller (1956), when working at Bell Laboratories, conducted experiments showing
The loss of memory is described as forgetfulness.
that the store of short-term memory was 72 items (the
title of his famous paper, "The magical number 72").
Modern estimates of the capacity of short-term memory
1 Sensory
are lower, typically of the order of 45 items;[3] however, memory capacity can be increased through a proMain article: Sensory memory
cess called chunking.[4] For example, in recalling a tendigit telephone number, a person could chunk the digits
1

LONG-TERM

into three groups: rst, the area code (such as 123), then
a three-digit chunk (456) and lastly a four-digit chunk
(7890). This method of remembering telephone numbers is far more eective than attempting to remember a
string of 10 digits; this is because we are able to chunk
the information into meaningful groups of numbers. This
may be reected in some countries in the tendency to display telephone numbers as several chunks of two to four
numbers.
Short-term memory is believed to rely mostly on an
acoustic code for storing information, and to a lesser extent a visual code. Conrad (1964)[5] found that test subjects had more diculty recalling collections of letters
that were acoustically similar (e.g. E, P, D). Confusion
with recalling acoustically similar letters rather than visually similar letters implies that the letters were encoded
acoustically. Conrads (1964) study, however, deals with
the encoding of written text; thus, while memory of written language may rely on acoustic components, generalisations to all forms of memory cannot be made.

Long-term

Main article: Long-term memory

The storage in sensory memory and short-term memory generally has a strictly limited capacity and duration,
which means that information is not retained indenitely.
By contrast, long-term memory can store much larger
quantities of information for potentially unlimited duration (sometimes a whole life span). Its capacity is immeasurable. For example, given a random seven-digit number
we may remember it for only a few seconds before forgetting, suggesting it was stored in our short-term memory.
On the other hand, we can remember telephone numbers
for many years through repetition; this information is said
to be stored in long-term memory.
While short-term memory encodes information acoustically, long-term memory encodes it semantically: Baddeley (1966)[6] discovered that, after 20 minutes, test
subjects had the most diculty recalling a collection of
words that had similar meanings (e.g. big, large, great,
huge) long-term. Another part of long-term memory is
episodic memory, which attempts to capture information such as 'what', 'when' and 'where'".[7] With episodic
memory, individuals are able to recall specic events such
as birthday parties and weddings.

Olin Levi Warner, Memory (1896). Library of Congress

Thomas Jeerson Building, Washington, D.C.

to long-term memory, although it does not seem to store

information itself. Without the hippocampus, new memories are unable to be stored into long-term memory, as
learned from patient Henry Molaison after removal of
both his hippocampi,[8] and there will be a very short
attention span. Furthermore, it may be involved in changing neural connections for a period of three months or
more after the initial learning.

Short-term memory is supported by transient patterns of

neuronal communication, dependent on regions of the
frontal lobe (especially dorsolateral prefrontal cortex) and
the parietal lobe. Long-term memory, on the other hand,
is maintained by more stable and permanent changes in
neural connections widely spread throughout the brain. Research has suggested that long-term memory storage
The hippocampus is essential (for learning new informa- in humans may be maintained by DNA methylation,[9] or
tion) to the consolidation of information from short-term prions.[10]

Models

Models of memory provide abstract representations of

how memory is believed to work. Below are several
models proposed over the years by various psychologists.
Controversy is involved as to whether several memory
structures exist.

4.1

AtkinsonShirin

central
executive

phonological loop
phonological
store

visuo-spatial
sketchpad

articulatory
process

The working memory model

timodal episodic buer (Baddeleys model of working

memory).[12]
See also: Memory consolidation

The central executive essentially acts as an attention sensory store. It channels information to the three component processes: the phonological loop, the visuo-spatial
sketchpad, and the episodic buer.

The multi-store model (also known as AtkinsonShirin

memory model) was rst described in 1968 by Atkinson The phonological loop stores auditory information by
silently rehearsing sounds or words in a continuous loop:
and Shirin.
the articulatory process (for example the repetition of a
The multi-store model has been criticised for being too
telephone number over and over again). A short list of
simplistic. For instance, long-term memory is believed
data is easier to remember.
to be actually made up of multiple subcomponents, such
as episodic and procedural memory. It also proposes that The visuospatial sketchpad stores visual and spatial inforrehearsal is the only mechanism by which information mation. It is engaged when performing spatial tasks (such
eventually reaches long-term storage, but evidence shows as judging distances) or visual ones (such as counting the
windows on a house or imagining images).
us capable of remembering things without rehearsal.
The model also shows all the memory stores as being a
single unit whereas research into this shows dierently.
For example, short-term memory can be broken up into
dierent units such as visual information and acoustic information. In a study by Zlonoga and Gerber (1986),
patient 'KF' demonstrated certain deviations from the
AtkinsonShirin model. Patient KF was brain damaged, displaying diculties regarding short-term memory. Recognition of sounds such as spoken numbers, letters, words and easily identiable noises (such as doorbells and cats meowing) were all impacted. Interestingly,
visual short-term memory was unaected, suggesting a
dichotomy between visual and audial memory.[11]

4.2

Working

The episodic buer is dedicated to linking information

across domains to form integrated units of visual, spatial,
and verbal information and chronological ordering (e.g.,
the memory of a story or a movie scene). The episodic
buer is also assumed to have links to long-term memory
and semantical meaning.
The working memory model explains many practical observations, such as why it is easier to do two dierent
tasks (one verbal and one visual) than two similar tasks
(e.g., two visual), and the aforementioned word-length
eect. However, the concept of a central executive as
noted here has been criticised as inadequate and vague.
Working memory is also the premise for what allows us to
do everyday activities involving thought. It is the section
of memory where we carry out thought processes and use
them to learn and reason about topics.[12]

Main article: Working memory

In 1974 Baddeley and Hitch proposed a working memory model that replaced the general concept of shortterm memory with an active maintenance of information in the short-term storage. In this model, working
memory consists of three basic stores: the central executive, the phonological loop and the visuo-spatial sketchpad. In 2000 this model was expanded with the mul-

5 Types
Researchers distinguish between recognition and recall
memory. Recognition memory tasks require individuals to indicate whether they have encountered a stimulus (such as a picture or a word) before. Recall memory
tasks require participants to retrieve previously learned

6 STUDY TECHNIQUES

information. For example, individuals might be asked to implicit learning. It can best be summarized as remember
produce a series of actions they have seen before or to say how to do something. Procedural memory is primarily
a list of words they have heard before.
employed in learning motor skills and should be considered a subset of implicit memory. It is revealed when
one does better in a given task due only to repetition 5.1 By information type
no new explicit memories have been formed, but one is
unconsciously accessing aspects of those previous expeTopographic memory involves the ability to orient one- riences. Procedural memory involved in motor learning
self in space, to recognize and follow an itinerary, or depends on the cerebellum and basal ganglia.
to recognize familiar places.[13] Getting lost when traveling alone is an example of the failure of topographic A characteristic of procedural memory is that the things
remembered are automatically translated into actions, and
memory.[14]
thus sometimes dicult to describe. Some examples of
Flashbulb memories are clear episodic memories of procedural memory include the ability to ride a bike or
unique and highly emotional events.[15] People remem- tie shoelaces.[18]
bering where they were or what they were doing
when they rst heard the news of President Kennedys
assassination[16] or of 9/11 are examples of ashbulb 5.2 By temporal direction
memories.
Anderson (1976)[17] divides long-term memory into Another major way to distinguish dierent memory funcdeclarative (explicit) and procedural (implicit) memories. tions is whether the content to be remembered is in the
past, retrospective memory, or in the future, prospective
memory. Thus, retrospective memory as a category in5.1.1 Declarative
cludes semantic, episodic and autobiographical memory.
In contrast, prospective memory is memory for future inMain article: Declarative memory
tentions, or remembering to remember (Winograd, 1988).
Prospective memory can be further broken down into
Declarative memory requires conscious recall, in that event- and time-based prospective remembering. Timesome conscious process must call back the information. based prospective memories are triggered by a time-cue,
It is sometimes called explicit memory, since it consists of such as going to the doctor (action) at 4pm (cue). Eventbased prospective memories are intentions triggered by
information that is explicitly stored and retrieved.
cues, such as remembering to post a letter (action) after
Declarative memory can be further sub-divided into seeing a mailbox (cue). Cues do not need to be related
semantic memory, concerning principles and facts taken to the action (as the mailbox/letter example), and lists,
independent of context; and episodic memory, concern- sticky-notes, knotted handkerchiefs, or string around the
ing information specic to a particular context, such as a nger all exemplify cues that people use as strategies to
time and place. Semantic memory allows the encoding of enhance prospective memory.
abstract knowledge about the world, such as Paris is the
capital of France. Episodic memory, on the other hand,
is used for more personal memories, such as the sensa6 Study techniques
tions, emotions, and personal associations of a particular
place or time. Episodic memories often reect the rsts
in life such as a rst kiss, rst day of school or rst time 6.1 To assess infants
winning a championship. These are key events in ones
life that can be remembered clearly. Autobiographical Infants do not have the language ability to report on
memory - memory for particular events within ones own their memories and so verbal reports cannot be used to
life - is generally viewed as either equivalent to, or a subset assess very young childrens memory. Throughout the
of, episodic memory. Visual memory is part of memory years, however, researchers have adapted and developed
preserving some characteristics of our senses pertaining a number of measures for assessing both infants recogto visual experience. One is able to place in memory in- nition memory and their recall memory. Habituation and
formation that resembles objects, places, animals or peo- operant conditioning techniques have been used to assess
ple in sort of a mental image. Visual memory can result infants recognition memory and the deferred and elicited
in priming and it is assumed some kind of perceptual rep- imitation techniques have been used to assess infants recall memory.
resentational system underlies this phenomenon.
5.1.2

Procedural

In contrast, procedural memory (or implicit memory) is

not based on the conscious recall of information, but on

Techniques used to assess infants recognition memory

include the following:
Visual paired comparison procedure (relies on
habituation): infants are rst presented with pairs

5
of visual stimuli, such as two black-and-white photos of human faces, for a xed amount of time;
then, after being familiarized with the two photos,
they are presented with the familiar photo and a
new photo. The time spent looking at each photo
is recorded. Looking longer at the new photo indicates that they remember the familiar one. Studies
using this procedure have found that 5- to 6-montholds can retain information for as long as fourteen
days.[19]
Operant conditioning technique: infants are
placed in a crib and a ribbon that is connected to
a mobile overhead is tied to one of their feet. Infants notice that when they kick their foot the mobile
moves the rate of kicking increases dramatically
within minutes. Studies using this technique have
revealed that infants memory substantially improves
over the rst 18-months. Whereas 2- to 3-montholds can retain an operant response (such as activating the mobile by kicking their foot) for a week,
6-month-olds can retain it for two weeks, and 18month-olds can retain a similar operant response for
as long as 13 weeks.[20][21][22]
Techniques used to assess infants recall memory include
the following:
Deferred imitation technique: an experimenter
shows infants a unique sequence of actions (such as
using a stick to push a button on a box) and then,
after a delay, asks the infants to imitate the actions.
Studies using deferred imitation have shown that 14month-olds memories for the sequence of actions
can last for as long as four months.[23]
Elicited imitation technique: is very similar to the
deferred imitation technique; the dierence is that
infants are allowed to imitate the actions before the
delay. Studies using the elicited imitation technique
have shown that 20-month-olds can recall the action
sequences twelve months later.[24][25]

6.2

To assess older children and adults

Researchers use a variety of tasks to assess older children

and adults memory. Some examples are:

questions.[28] Earlier items are aected by retroactive interference (RI), which means the longer the
list, the greater the interference, and the less likelihood that they are recalled. On the other hand,
items that have been presented lastly suer little RI,
but suer a great deal from proactive interference
(PI), which means the longer the delay in recall, the
more likely that the items will be lost.[29]
Cued recall one is given signicant hints about
the information. This is similar to ll in the blank
assessments used in classrooms.
Recognition subjects are asked to remember a
list of words or pictures, after which point they are
asked to identify the previously presented words or
pictures from among a list of alternatives that were
not presented in the original list.[30] This is similar
to multiple choice assessments.
Detection paradigm individuals are shown a
number of objects and color samples during a certain period of time. They are then tested on their
visual ability to remember as much as they can
by looking at testers and pointing out whether the
testers are similar to the sample, or if any change is
present.
Savings Method compares the speed of originally
learning to the speed of relearning it. The amount
of time saved measures memory.[31]

7 Failures
Transience - memories degrade with the passing of
time. This occurs in the storage stage of memory,
after the information has been stored and before it
is retrieved. This can happen in sensory, short-term,
and long-term storage. It follows a general pattern
where the information is rapidly forgotten during the
rst couple of days or years, followed by small losses
in later days or years.
Absentmindedness - Memory failure due to the
lack of attention. Attention plays a key role in
storing information into long-term memory; without proper attention, the information might not be
stored, making it impossible to be retrieved later.

Paired associate learning when one learns to associate one specic word with another. For exam- 8 Physiology
ple, when given a word such as safe one must learn
to say another specic word, such as green. This
Brain areas involved in the neuroanatomy of memory
is stimulus and response.[26][27]
such as the hippocampus, the amygdala, the striatum, or
Free recall during this task a subject would be the mammillary bodies are thought to be involved in speasked to study a list of words and then later they cic types of memory. For example, the hippocampus is
will be asked to recall or write down as many words believed to be involved in spatial learning and declarative
that they can remember, similar to free response learning, while the amygdala is thought to be involved

9 COGNITIVE NEUROSCIENCE

in emotional memory.[32] Damage to certain areas in patients and animal models and subsequent memory decits
is a primary source of information. However, rather than
implicating a specic area, it could be that damage to adjacent areas, or to a pathway traveling through the area
is actually responsible for the observed decit. Further,
it is not sucient to describe memory, and its counterpart, learning, as solely dependent on specic brain regions. Learning and memory are attributed to changes in
neuronal synapses, thought to be mediated by long-term
potentiation and long-term depression.

(Moscovitch 2007).

One question that is crucial in cognitive neuroscience is

how information and mental experiences are coded and
represented in the brain. Scientists have gained much
knowledge about the neuronal codes from the studies of
plasticity, but most of such research has been focused on
simple learning in simple neuronal circuits; it is considerably less clear about the neuronal changes involved in
more complex examples of memory, particularly declarative memory that requires the storage of facts and events
(Byrne 2007). Convergence-divergence zones might be
In general, the more emotionally charged an event or ex- the neural networks where memories are stored and reperience is, the better it is remembered; this phenomenon trieved.
is known as the memory enhancement eect. Patients
with amygdala damage, however, do not show a memory
Encoding. Encoding of working memory involves
enhancement eect.[33][34]
the spiking of individual neurons induced by senHebb distinguished between short-term and long-term
memory. He postulated that any memory that stayed
in short-term storage for a long enough time would be
consolidated into a long-term memory. Later research
showed this to be false. Research has shown that direct injections of cortisol or epinephrine help the storage
of recent experiences. This is also true for stimulation
of the amygdala. This proves that excitement enhances
memory by the stimulation of hormones that aect the
amygdala. Excessive or prolonged stress (with prolonged
cortisol) may hurt memory storage. Patients with amygdalar damage are no more likely to remember emotionally
charged words than nonemotionally charged ones. The
hippocampus is important for explicit memory. The hippocampus is also important for memory consolidation.
The hippocampus receives input from dierent parts of
the cortex and sends its output out to dierent parts of the
brain also. The input comes from secondary and tertiary
sensory areas that have processed the information a lot
already. Hippocampal damage may also cause memory
loss and problems with memory storage.[35] This memory loss includes, retrograde amnesia which is the loss of
memory for events that occurred shortly before the time
of brain damage.[31]

Cognitive neuroscience

Cognitive neuroscientists consider memory as the retention, reactivation, and reconstruction of the experienceindependent internal representation. The term of internal representation implies that such denition of memory
contains two components: the expression of memory at
the behavioral or conscious level, and the underpinning
physical neural changes (Dudai 2007). The latter component is also called engram or memory traces (Semon
1904). Some neuroscientists and psychologists mistakenly equate the concept of engram and memory, broadly
conceiving all persisting after-eects of experiences as
memory; others argue against this notion that memory
does not exist until it is revealed in behavior or thought

sory input, which persists even after the sensory input disappears (Jensen and Lisman 2005; Fransen et
al. 2002). Encoding of episodic memory involves
persistent changes in molecular structures that alter
synaptic transmission between neurons. Examples
of such structural changes include long-term potentiation (LTP) or spike-timing-dependent plasticity
(STDP). The persistent spiking in working memory
can enhance the synaptic and cellular changes in the
encoding of episodic memory (Jensen and Lisman
2005).
Working memory. Recent functional imaging studies detected working memory signals in both medial
temporal lobe (MTL), a brain area strongly associated with long-term memory, and prefrontal cortex
(Ranganath et al. 2005), suggesting a strong relationship between working memory and long-term
memory. However, the substantially more working
memory signals seen in the prefrontal lobe suggest
that this area play a more important role in working
memory than MTL (Suzuki 2007).
Consolidation and reconsolidation.
Short-term
memory (STM) is temporary and subject to disruption, while long-term memory (LTM), once consolidated, is persistent and stable. Consolidation
of STM into LTM at the molecular level presumably involves two processes: synaptic consolidation
and system consolidation. The former involves a
protein synthesis process in the medial temporal
lobe (MTL), whereas the latter transforms the MTLdependent memory into an MTL-independent memory over months to years (Ledoux 2007). In recent
years, such traditional consolidation dogma has been
re-evaluated as a result of the studies on reconsolidation. These studies showed that prevention after retrieval aects subsequent retrieval of the memory (Sara 2000). New studies have shown that postretrieval treatment with protein synthesis inhibitors
and many other compounds can lead to an amnestic state (Nadel et al. 2000b; Alberini 2005; Dudai

7
2006). These ndings on reconsolidation t with the
behavioral evidence that retrieved memory is not a
carbon copy of the initial experiences, and memories are updated during retrieval.

10

Genetics

portantly, infantile amnesia is not unique to humans, and

preclinical research (using rodent models) provides insight into the precise neurobiology of this phenomenon.
A review of the literature from behavioral neuroscientist Dr Jee Hyun Kim suggests that accelerated forgetting
during early life is at least partly due to rapid growth of
the brain during this period.[44]

Study of the genetics of human memory is in its infancy.

A notable initial success was the association of APOE 12 Aging
with memory dysfunction in Alzheimers Disease. The
search for genes associated with normally varying mem- Main article: Memory and aging
ory continues. One of the rst candidates for normal variation in memory is the gene KIBRA,[36] which appears to
One of the key concerns of older adults is the experibe associated with the rate at which material is forgotten
ence of memory loss, especially as it is one of the hallover a delay period.
mark symptoms of Alzheimers disease. However, memory loss is qualitatively dierent in normal aging from
the kind of memory loss associated with a diagnosis of
11 In infancy
Alzheimers (Budson & Price, 2005). Research has revealed that individuals performance on memory tasks
For the inability of adults to retrieve early memories, see that rely on frontal regions declines with age. Older adults
tend to exhibit decits on tasks that involve knowing
Childhood amnesia.
the temporal order in which they learned information;[45]
source memory tasks that require them to remember the
Up until the middle of the 1980s it was assumed
specic circumstances or context in which they learned
that infants could not encode, retain, and retrieve
information;[46] and prospective memory tasks that ininformation.[37] A growing body of research now indivolve remembering to perform an act at a future time.
cates that infants as young as 6-months can recall inforOlder adults can manage their problems with prospective
mation after a 24-hour delay.[38] Furthermore, research
memory by using appointment books, for example.
has revealed that as infants grow older they can store information for longer periods of time; 6-month-olds can
recall information after a 24-hour period, 9-month-olds
after up to ve weeks, and 20-month-olds after as long 13 Eects of physical exercise
as twelve months.[39] In addition, studies have shown that
with age, infants can store information faster. Whereas Main article: Neurobiological eects of physical exercise
14-month-olds can recall a three-step sequence after be- Long-term eects
ing exposed to it once, 6-month-olds need approximately
six exposures in order to be able to remember it.[23][38]
Physical exercise, particularly continuous aerobic exerIt should be noted that although 6-month-olds can re- cises such as running, cycling and swimming, has many
call information over the short-term, they have diculty cognitive benets and eects on the brain. Inuences on
recalling the temporal order of information. It is only the brain include increases in neurotransmitter levels, imby 9 months of age that infants can recall the actions proved oxygen and nutrient delivery, and increased neuof a two-step sequence in the correct temporal order - rogenesis in the hippocampus. The eects of exercise on
that is, recalling step 1 and then step 2.[40][41] In other memory have important implications for improving chilwords, when asked to imitate a two-step action sequence drens academic performance, maintaining mental abili(such as putting a toy car in the base and pushing in the ties in old age, and the prevention and potential cure of
plunger to make the toy roll to the other end), 9-month- neurological diseases.
olds tend to imitate the actions of the sequence in the
correct order (step 1 and then step 2). Younger infants
(6-month-olds) can only recall one step of a two-step
sequence.[38] Researchers have suggested that these age 14 Disorders
dierences are probably due to the fact that the dentate
gyrus of the hippocampus and the frontal components of Main article: Memory disorder
the neural network are not fully developed at the age of
6-months.[24][42][43]
Much of the current knowledge of memory has come
In fact, the term 'infantile amnesia' refers to the phe- from studying memory disorders, particularly amnesia.
nomenon of accelerated forgetting during infancy. Im- Loss of memory is known as amnesia. Amnesia can result

16 STRESS

from extensive damage to: (a) the regions of the medial

temporal lobe, such as the hippocampus, dentate gyrus,
subiculum, amygdala, the parahippocampal, entorhinal,
and perirhinal cortices[47] or the (b) midline diencephalic
region, specically the dorsomedial nucleus of the thalamus and the mammillary bodies of the hypothalamus.[48]
There are many sorts of amnesia, and by studying their
dierent forms, it has become possible to observe apparent defects in individual sub-systems of the brains
memory systems, and thus hypothesize their function in
the normally working brain. Other neurological disorders
such as Alzheimers disease and Parkinsons disease[49]
can also aect memory and cognition. Hyperthymesia, or
hyperthymesic syndrome, is a disorder that aects an individuals autobiographical memory, essentially meaning
that they cannot forget small details that otherwise would
not be stored.[50] Korsakos syndrome, also known as
Korsakos psychosis, amnesic-confabulatory syndrome,
is an organic brain disease that adversely aects memory by widespread loss or shrinkage of neurons within the
prefrontal cortex.[31]
While not a disorder, a common temporary failure of
word retrieval from memory is the tip-of-the-tongue
phenomenon. Suerers of Anomic aphasia (also called
Nominal aphasia or Anomia), however, do experience the
tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon on an ongoing basis due to
damage to the frontal and parietal lobes of the brain.

15

Inuencing factors

Interference can hamper memorization and retrieval.

There is retroactive interference, when learning new information makes it harder to recall old information[51] and
proactive interference, where prior learning disrupts recall of new information. Although interference can lead
to forgetting, it is important to keep in mind that there are
situations when old information can facilitate learning of
new information. Knowing Latin, for instance, can help
an individual learn a related language such as French
this phenomenon is known as positive transfer.[52]

16

Stress

Stress has a signicant eect on memory formation and

learning. In response to stressful situations, the brain releases hormones and neurotransmitters (ex. glucocorticoids and catecholamines) which aect memory encoding processes in the hippocampus. Behavioural research
on animals shows that chronic stress produces adrenal
hormones which impact the hippocampal structure in the
brains of rats.[53] An experimental study by German cognitive psychologists L. Schwabe and O. Wolf demonstrates how learning under stress also decreases memory
recall in humans.[54] In this study, 48 healthy female and
male university students participated in either a stress test

or a control group. Those randomly assigned to the stress

test group had a hand immersed in ice cold water (the reputable SECPT or Socially Evaluated Cold Pressor Test)
for up to three minutes, while being monitored and videotaped. Both the stress and control groups were then presented with 32 words to memorize. Twenty-four hours
later, both groups were tested to see how many words
they could remember (free recall) as well as how many
they could recognize from a larger list of words (recognition performance). The results showed a clear impairment of memory performance in the stress test group,
who recalled 30% fewer words than the control group.
The researchers suggest that stress experienced during
learning distracts people by diverting their attention during the memory encoding process.
However, memory performance can be enhanced when
material is linked to the learning context, even when
learning occurs under stress. A separate study by cognitive psychologists Schwabe and Wolf shows that when
retention testing is done in a context similar to or congruent with the original learning task (i.e., in the same
room), memory impairment and the detrimental eects
of stress on learning can be attenuated.[55] Seventy-two
healthy female and male university students, randomly assigned to the SECPT stress test or to a control group, were
asked to remember the locations of 15 pairs of picture
cards a computerized version of the card game Concentration or Memory. The room in which the experiment took place was infused with the scent of vanilla,
as odour is a strong cue for memory. Retention testing
took place the following day, either in the same room
with the vanilla scent again present, or in a dierent room
without the fragrance. The memory performance of subjects who experienced stress during the object-location
task decreased signicantly when they were tested in an
unfamiliar room without the vanilla scent (an incongruent
context); however, the memory performance of stressed
subjects showed no impairment when they were tested in
the original room with the vanilla scent (a congruent context). All participants in the experiment, both stressed
and unstressed, performed faster when the learning and
retrieval contexts were similar.[56]
This research on the eects of stress on memory may
have practical implications for education, for eyewitness
testimony and for psychotherapy: students may perform
better when tested in their regular classroom rather than
an exam room, eyewitnesses may recall details better at
the scene of an event than in a courtroom, and persons
suering from post-traumatic stress may improve when
helped to situate their memories of a traumatic event in
an appropriate context.
Stressful life experiences may be a cause of memory loss
as a person ages. Glucocorticoids that are released during
stress damage neurons that are located in the hippocampal region of the brain. Therefore, the more stressful situations that someone encounters, the more susceptible they
are to memory loss later on. The CA1 neurons found in

9
the hippocampus are destroyed due to glucocorticoids decreasing the release of glucose and the reuptake of glutamate. This high level of extracellular glutamate allow
calcium to enter NMDA receptors which in return kills
neurons. Stressful life experiences can also cause repression of memories where a person moves an unbearable
memory to the unconscious mind.[31] This directly relates
to traumatic events in ones past such as kidnappings, being prisoners of war or sexual abuse as a child.

connections are not as strong, resulting in a lower retention rate of memories. Sleep deprivation makes it
harder to focus, resulting in inecient learning.[58] Furthermore, some studies have shown that sleep deprivation
can lead to false memories as the memories are not properly transferred to long-term memory. Therefore, it is
important to get the proper amount of sleep so that memory can function at the highest level. One of the primary
functions of sleep is thought to be the improvement of
the consolidation of information, as several studies have
demonstrated that memory depends on getting sucient
sleep between training and test.[59] Additionally, data obtained from neuroimaging studies have shown activation
patterns in the sleeping brain that mirror those recorded
during the learning of tasks from the previous day,[59]
suggesting that new memories may be solidied through
such rehearsal.[60]

The more long term the exposure to stress is, the more impact it may have. However, short term exposure to stress
also causes impairment in memory by interfering with the
function of the hippocampus. Research shows that subjects placed in a stressful situation for a short amount of
time still have blood glucocorticoid levels that have increased drastically when measured after the exposure is
completed. When subjects are asked to complete a learning task after short term exposure they have often diculties. Prenatal stress also hinders the ability to learn
and memorize by disrupting the development of the hip- 18 Construction for general mapocampus and can lead to unestablished long term ponipulation
tentiation in the ospring of severely stressed parents.
Although the stress is applied prenatally, the ospring
show increased levels of glucocorticoids when they are Although people often think that memory operates like
recording equipment, it is not the case. The molecsubjected to stress later on in life.[57]
ular mechanisms underlying the induction and maintenance of memory are very dynamic and comprise distinct
phases covering a time window from seconds to even a
17 Sleep
lifetime.[61] In fact, research has revealed that our memories are constructed. People can construct their memoMaking memories occurs through a three-step process, ries when they encode them and/or when they recall them.
which can be enhanced by sleep. The three steps are as To illustrate, consider a classic study conducted by Elizafollows:
beth Loftus and John Palmer (1974)[62] in which people
were instructed to watch a lm of a trac accident and
1. Acquisition which is the process of storage and re- then asked about what they saw. The researchers found
trieval of new information in memory
that the people who were asked, How fast were the cars
going when they smashed into each other?" gave higher
2. Consolidation
estimates than those who were asked, How fast were
the cars going when they hit each other?" Furthermore,
3. Recall
when asked a week later whether they have seen broken
Sleep does not aect acquisition or recall while one is glass in the lm, those who had been asked the question
awake. Therefore, sleep has the greatest eect on mem- with smashed were twice more likely to report that they
ory consolidation. During sleep, the neural connections in have seen broken glass than those who had been asked
the brain are strengthened. This enhances the brains abil- the question with hit. There was no broken glass depicted
ities to stabilize and retain memories. There have been in the lm. Thus, the wording of the questions distorted
several studies which show that sleep improves the re- viewers memories of the event. Importantly, the wording
tention of memory, as memories are enhanced through of the question led people to construct dierent memoactive consolidation. System consolidation takes place ries of the event those who were asked the question with
during slow-wave sleep (SWS).[58] This process impli- smashed recalled a more serious car accident than they
cates that memories are reactivated during sleep, but that had actually seen. The ndings of this experiment were
the process doesnt enhance every memory. It also im- replicated around the world, and researchers consistently
plicates that qualitative changes are made to the memo- demonstrated that when people were provided with misa pheries when they are transferred to long-term store during leading information they tended to misremember,
[63]
misinformation
eect.
nomenon
known
as
the
sleep. When you are sleeping, the hippocampus replays
the events of the day for the neocortex. The neocortex
then reviews and processes memories, which moves them
into long-term memory. When you do not get enough
sleep it makes it more dicult to learn as these neural

Interestingly, research has revealed that asking individuals to repeatedly imagine actions that they have never
performed or events that they have never experienced
could result in false memories. For instance, Go and

10

20

Roediger[64] (1998) asked participants to imagine that

they performed an act (e.g., break a toothpick) and then
later asked them whether they had done such a thing.
Findings revealed that those participants who repeatedly
imagined performing such an act were more likely to
think that they had actually performed that act during
the rst session of the experiment. Similarly, Garry and
her colleagues (1996)[65] asked college students to report
how certain they were that they experienced a number of
events as children (e.g., broke a window with their hand)
and then two weeks later asked them to imagine four of
those events. The researchers found that one-fourth of
the students asked to imagine the four events reported
that they had actually experienced such events as children.
That is, when asked to imagine the events they were more
condent that they experienced the events.
Research reported in 2013 revealed that it is possible to
articially stimulate prior memories and articially implant false memories in mice. Using optogenetics, a team
of RIKEN-MIT scientists caused the mice to incorrectly
associate a benign environment with a prior unpleasant
experience from dierent surroundings. Some scientists
believe that the study may have implications in studying
false memory formation in humans, and in treating PTSD
and schizophrenia.[66]

19

Improving

Main article: Improving memory

A UCLA research study published in the June 2006 issue
of the American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry found
that people can improve cognitive function and brain efciency through simple lifestyle changes such as incorporating memory exercises, healthy eating, physical tness
and stress reduction into their daily lives. This study examined 17 subjects, (average age 53) with normal memory performance. Eight subjects were asked to follow
a brain healthy diet, relaxation, physical, and mental
exercise (brain teasers and verbal memory training techniques). After 14 days, they showed greater word uency (not memory) compared to their baseline performance. No long term follow up was conducted, it is
therefore unclear if this intervention has lasting eects
on memory.[67]
There are a loosely associated group of mnemonic principles and techniques that can be used to vastly improve
memory known as the Art of memory.
The International Longevity Center released in 2001 a
report[68] which includes in pages 1416 recommendations for keeping the mind in good functionality until advanced age. Some of the recommendations are to stay
intellectually active through learning, training or reading,
to keep physically active so to promote blood circulation
to the brain, to socialize, to reduce stress, to keep sleep

SEE ALSO

time regular, to avoid depression or emotional instability

and to observe good nutrition.
Memorization is a method of learning that allows an individual to recall information verbatim. Rote learning is
the method most often used. Methods of memorizing
things have been the subject of much discussion over the
years with some writers, such as Cosmos Rossellius using
visual alphabets. The spacing eect shows that an individual is more likely to remember a list of items when
rehearsal is spaced over an extended period of time. In
contrast to this is cramming: an intensive memorization
in a short period of time. Also relevant is the Zeigarnik
eect which states that people remember uncompleted
or interrupted tasks better than completed ones. The socalled Method of loci uses spatial memory to memorize
non-spatial information.[69]

19.1 Levels of processing

Main article: Levels-of-processing eect
Craik and Lockhart (1972) proposed that it is the method
and depth of processing that aects how an experience is
stored in memory, rather than rehearsal.
Organization - Mandler (1967) gave participants
a pack of word cards and asked them to sort them
into any number of piles using any system of categorisation they liked. When they were later asked
to recall as many of the words as they could, those
who used more categories remembered more words.
This study suggested that the organization of memory is one of its central aspects (Mandler, 2011).
Distinctiveness - Eysenck and Eysenck (1980)
asked participants to say words in a distinctive way,
e.g. spell the words out loud. Such participants recalled the words better than those who simply read
them o a list.
Eort - Tyler et al. (1979) had participants solve a
series of anagrams, some easy (FAHTER) and some
dicult (HREFAT). The participants recalled the
dicult anagrams better, presumably because they
put more eort into them.
Elaboration - Palmere et al. (1983) gave participants descriptive paragraphs of a ctitious African
nation. There were some short paragraphs and some
with extra sentences elaborating the main idea. Recall was higher for the ideas in the elaborated paragraphs.

20 See also
Adaptive memory

11
False memory
Intermediate-term memory
Method of loci
Mnemonic major system
Politics of memory

21

Notes

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Schwabe L., Bohringer A., Wolf O.T. (2009).
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23 External links
Memory entry in the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
Memory at PhilPapers

Palmere M., Benton S.L., Glover J.A., Ronning R.

(1983). Elaboration and the recall of main ideas in
prose. Journal of Educational Psychology 75: 898
907. doi:10.1037/0022-0663.75.6.898.

Memory at the Indiana Philosophy Ontology Project

Ranganath C., Blumenfeld R.S. (2005). Doubts

about double dissociations between short- and longterm memory. Trends in Cognitive Science 9: 374
380. doi:10.1016/j.tics.2005.06.009.

Memory-related resources from the National Institutes of Health

Russell, Julia; Cardwell, Mike; Flanagan, Cara

(2005). Angels on Psychology: Companion Volume.
Cheltenham, U.K: Nelson Thornes. ISBN 0-74879463-8.

Memory on In Our Time at the BBC. (listen now)

Eck, Allison (June 3, 2014). For More Eective

Studying, Take Notes With Pen and Paper. Nova
Next (PBS).
Leyden, Andrea (January 24, 2014). 20 Study
Hacks to Improve Your Memory. Exam Time.

15
Memory Hackers: Discovering the precise mechanisms that can explain and even control memories.
From Documentary Mania.

16

24

24
24.1

TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

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Memory Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory?oldid=707820169 Contributors: AxelBoldt, Dreamyshade, The Anome, Ap,

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24.2

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