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LL.M Trimester II--- Project work on

Multi-party system in India

In course of
Election law

Under the Guidance of

Dr. Tarkesh Molia

Submitted by
Name & Roll no

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to thank Institute of law, Nirma University for giving me such
an opportunity for undergoing a project work on Multi-Party system in India
under the subject Election Law.
I would like to express my profound gratitude for the project guidance to
Prof. Dr. Tarkesh Molia who has guided me in doing this particular research
work.
I have tried to cover all the aspects of the topic and all possible care and
caution has been taken to make the project fair and error less.

Name
Roll no
17/03/15

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CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the project titled Multi-Party System in India
submitted by Name and Roll no towards the fulfillment of the requirement
for the award of the LL.M Degree for the subject Election Law is a bonafied
record of work carried out by her under my supervision and guidance.
To the best of my knowledge and belief, it contains no material previously
published or written by another person nor material which has been accepted
for the award of any degree or diploma of the University or other Institute of
higher learning, except where due acknowledgement has been made in the
text.

Place:
Date:

University

------Signature------Dr. Tarkesh Molia

Election law
Institute of Law
Nirma

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DECLARATION
I hereby declare that, I Name and Roll no has prepared this project entitled
Multi-Party System in India under the able guidance of Prof. Dr.Tarkesh
Molia for the award LL.M Degree in the subject of Election Law. The
submission is my own work and that, to the best of my knowledge and
belief, it contains no material previously published and written by another
person nor material which has been accepted for the award of any other
degree or diploma of the University or other Institute of higher learning,
except where due acknowledgement has been made in the text.

Place:
Date:

--Signature----Name
Roll no
Election Law
Institute of Law,
Nirma University

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Contents
1. Chapter 1: Introduction to the project.
a. Conceptual framework
b. Statement of problem
c. Literature review
d. Objectives
e. Hypothesis
f. Research question
g. Scope of study
h. Research methodology
2. Chapter 2: Party System in India
a. Introduction
b. Evolution of party system in India
c. Constitutional and legal frame work
d. Provisions dealing with party recognition
e. National and regional parties
f. Procedure for registration
g. Characteristics of Indian Party system
h. Summary
3. Chapter 3: Multi-Party System in India
a. Introduction
b. Changing nature of party competition
c. Development of Multi-party system
Phase 1
Phase2
Phase3
d. Coalition and minority governments
Phase 5
e. Advantages of party system and multi-party system
f. Disadvantages of multi-party system
g. Conclusion
4. Chapter 4: Comparative study of Both Single Party Dominance and Multi-Party
System
a. Introduction
b. Comparison of features
c. Comparison of advantages and disadvantages
d. Conclusion
5. Bibliography

Chapter 1

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Introduction to the project.

1.1 Conceptual framework

Politics in India take place within the framework of its constitution, as India is a federal
parliamentary democratic republic in which the President of India is the head of state and
the Prime Minister of India is the head of government. India follows the dual polity system,
i.e. a double government which consists of the central authority at the Centre and states at
the edge. The constitution defines the organisation, powers and limitations of both central
and state governments, and it is well-recognized, rigid and considered supreme; i.e. laws of
the nation must conform to it. There is a provision for a bicameral legislature consisting of
an Upper House, i.e. Rajya Sabha, which represents the states of the Indian federation and a
lower house i.e. Lok Sabha, which represents the people of India as a whole. The Indian
constitution provides for an independent Judiciary which is headed by the Supreme Court.
The court's mandate is to protect the constitution, to settle disputes between the central
government and the states, inter-state disputes, and nullify any central or state laws that go
against the constitution1.
Indian party system is unique. It does not fit into any kind of classification that is generally
used to categories the party systems. It is defined by the singular nature of Indian politics,
on the one hand, and the nature of the state-society relationship on the other. In the last two
decades, there has been a substantial change both in the nature of politics as well as in
nature of relationship between the state and the society. One of the very important
manifestations of change is visible in the context of the politicization of the greater number
of people, especially those belonging to the less privileged sections of society. That explains
the change in the nature of the party system as well. The distinctive features that defined the
party system of India in the first two decades after independence are no more to be seen at
present. In order to understand the present nature of the party system, it is important to trace
its history and to refer to its political logic in the context of the changing state-society
relationship2.
Compared to other democratic countries, India has a large number of political parties. It has
been estimated that over 200 parties were formed after India became independent in 1947.
1 M.P Jain, Indian Constitutional law, 7th edition, Lexis Nexis, Haryana, 2014.

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Some features of the political parties in India are that the parties are generally woven around
their leaders, the leaders actively playing a dominant role, and that the role of leadership can
be transferred, thus tending to take a dynastic route. Such parties include both national and
regional parties, such as the Indian National Congress (INC), which has been led by the
Nehru-Gandhi dynasty since independence, beginning with Jawaharlal Nehru who
dominated the INC and led it to victory in three consecutive elections, and continuing with,
after a brief interlude of the prime minister ship of Lal Bahadur Shastri, Nehru's daughter,
Indira Gandhi. After the split in the Congress party in 1969 she formed her own Indian
National Congress faction called the Indian National Congress (Ruling). After a further split,
she formed the Congress (Indira) or Congress (I). Indira remained the leader of the party
until her death in 1984, handing power to her son Rajiv Gandhi, who, after his death, his
widow Sonia Gandhi, the current leader of INC, took command.
This research study deals with the nature of the party system in India. It aims at underlying
the evolution of the party system in the pre and post-independence period. The study aims at
understanding the nature of the party system in India and identifies its various
characteristics, changing nature and explains the emerging patterns and discusses the socioeconomic and the political factors underlying the changing nature of party politics. Similarly
the researcher tries to analyse the Multi-Party system which is predominant in Indian society
and its impacts on Democracy.

1.2 Statement of problem

Under this research, the researcher examined the operation of a multi-party system in India.
Consequently, this paper provides information that will stimulate knowledgeable debate on
contemporary governance issues, public accountability in democratic practices in India. The
problem that the researcher addresses through this research study is about the indispensable
status of political parties in the working of a democratic government. In fact, political
parties are the life and blood of democracy. According to Bagehot Party government is the
vital principle of representative government. In the words of Prof. Harold Laski, There is
no alternative to party government save dictatorship in any state of the modern size and
they are inevitable in a democracy. In every democratic country the party system is an
2 V.s. Rama Devi & S.K. Mendiratta, How India Votes- Election Laws, Practice and Procedure,
3rd Edition, Lexis Nexis, 2014, (Pg. 548-623).

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extra-legal growth. It exists outside the legal framework of the state and is not referred to in
the Constitution. Political parties express and form public opinion and are the chief
mechanism of informing and influencing the electorate. The working of political parties in
India over more than six decades after Independence presents us a contrasting picture of
partial success, serious shortcomings and huge challenges. As such it generates mixed or
contradictory feelings in us. The researcher is steering to find out the gap between what the
party leaders profess and practice; between the expectations of people for more benefits and
the inability of parties to deliver; between the increased authoritarian leadership styles and
the larger dynamics of democracy.

1.3Literature review
1. M.P Jains book Indian Constitutional law is a book provides for all basic literature
available on constitution and administrative law. The book serves as a Bible for the
constitutional law investigators. It also offers a clear understanding of the Election laws
and party system in India. The researcher referred the above mentioned book to have a
clear understanding of the election laws in India and the constitutional provisions.
2. Smt V.S Rama Devi, the former Union Law Secretory and Secretory general to council of
states in the book titled How India Votes, Election laws practice and procedure, gives
to the readers much detailed information on all aspects of electoral system. It offers a
good understanding on the formation of parties; their working etc. the researcher used
this book to understand the present party system in India.

1.4 Objectives
Objectives of the present study are;
To understand the Party system in India
To analyse the changing nature of party system in India and its effects on the
society
To understand the system of Multi-Party system and analyse is that a challenge to
the democracy or not?
To understand the merits and de-merits of Multi-Party system in India

1.5 Hypothesis
The researcher postulates that the number of parties in a nation adversely affects its
prognostications for democracy.

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1.6 Research question

What have been the main patterns of party competition? What changes have come in
the parties and party system and how do we understand this transformation?
What are the social and electoral support bases of parties? Are there any
Changes/shifts in that and if so how and why they came about?
What are the formal structures of party organisations? How democratic are they in
their internal functioning and how much parties diverge in this aspect? Why and how
parties in recent decades have become leader-centered and family-centered?
What has been the role of parties in democratic transformation of Indias polity?
How far parties are successful in articulating peoples aspirations and acting as
agencies that led to the accommodation of diverse groups in governmental
structures? How did parties contribute to the legitimacy and stability of the state?
What are the challenges that parties face? What kinds of interventions are possible to
strengthen the parties and their democratic character?
Whether the Multi-Party system is a challenge to the democracy? And whether the
model is good for India?

1.7 Scope of Study

The scope of the research delimits itself to the legal and social field of political parties and
the Model of party system i.e. Multi-Party system prevailing in India. Hence it excludes the
same practiced in other parts of the world.

1.8Research methodology
The study undertaken by the researcher is doctrinal in nature and hence excludes field study.
This study is based on the secondary datas such as published writings of legal scholars;
other documents originating from lawmakers; the published written opinions of higher
courts; writings in legal history; and writings in philosophy; legal dictionaries; legal
encyclopedias; textbooks; law reform and policy papers; Journal articles. It is a theoretical
research on the concepts of Poverty Alleviation Programmes in India, role of UNDP in
eradicating poverty in India which is Descriptive and Analytical in Nature.
Primary Sources: Primary authorities are the rules of law that are binding upon the
courts, government, and individuals. Examples: constitutions, statutes, regulations,

treaties, court orders, administrative regulations, policy material

Persuasive Primary Authority: Commentaries on the law that do not have binding
effect but aid in explaining what the law is or should be. Examples: primary authority,

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which is not binding on the courts, viz. opinions of the judges, attorney General, law
minister, ministry of parliamentary affairs, primary authorities from foreign

jurisdiction.
Secondary Sources: Commentaries, law journals or periodicals, articles, textbooks,
legal encyclopedia, legal dictionary, annotations, legal opinions, surveys, legislative
history Secondary sources are important in legal research because they point the
researcher to primary sources of the law.

******************************************************

Chapter 2
Party system in India
2.1 Introduction
Political parties are indispensable to any democratic system. The constitution of India has
provided for representative and federal form with the parliamentary democratic
government at the Union and in the States 3. Democratic representative government
cannot function without political parties. Political parties formulate, consolidate and
express public opinion. They simplify the election process; enlighten the people on
political issues and their responsibilities. They act as the best link between the
government and the common man. According to Burke 4, Political Party is a body of
men united for promoting the principles of national interest. India has a multi-party
system56. Party system is inevitable for the existence of a democratic system. Political
parties are the social factors that enlighten, represent and protect the people in a
3 Supra 1
4 Paul Langford (et al), The Writings and speeches of Edmund Burke, Clarendon Press, Oxford,
317 (1981)

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representative democracy. There may be several organizations; the political parties have
certain peculiarities. Those are organizational structure and stability, definite objectives,
activities on the basis of ideas and principles, General stand points on public issues,
ultimate objective of attaining governmental power. It is the existing political culture that
determines the party system of a country. The political culture of a society is the sum total
of the values and participatory attitudes that the people maintain. According to the
number of political parties that exist in a nation the party system can be divided into;
single party system,
Bi-party system or multi-party system.
Based on the areas of activity, objectives and interests the political parties can be divided
into;
National party
Regional party.
Political parties and the party system in India have been greatly influenced by cultural
diversity, social, ethnic, caste, community and religious pluralism, traditions of the
nationalist movement, contrasting style of party leadership, and clashing with ideological
perspectives. The two major categories of political parties in India are National and State,
and are so recognized by the Election Commission of India on the basis of certain
specified criteria.
Definition: By a political party we mean a group of citizens more or less organized who
hold common views, ideas on public questions and acting as a political unit seeks to
obtain control of the government in order to further the policy which they profess
1. MacIver defines a political party, As an association organized in support of some
principle or policy which by constitutional means it endeavors to make the
determinant of government.
2. According to Gilchrist a party may be defined as, an organized group of citizens who
profess to share the same political views and who by acting as a political unit try to
control the Government.
3. Leacock compares it, With a joint stock company to which each member contributes
his share of political power.
5 Satri Veera Kesalu, Genesis and Evaluation Political Parties in India, International Research
Journal of Social Sciences, Vol. 2(2), 56-62, February (2013). Visit www.isca.in (accessed on
11/03/15).
6 See chapter 3.

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Functions Political parties generally perform the following functions:

Building party cadres.

Organizing public opinion on important issues affecting public.
The selection of candidates for election.
Provide leadership to the people.
Planning and execution of the election campaign.
Maintaining party discipline and loyalty.
To formulate policies and programs and implement them after coming into power.
Educate people and arouse political consciousness7.

2.2 Evolution of Party system in India

The evolution of Indian party system can be traced to the formation of the Congress, as a
political platform in 1885. Other parties and groups originated later. The Indian National
Congress was formed as a response to the colonial rule and to achieve independence from
the British rule8. After independence and with the adoption of a democratic Constitution,
a new party system emerged in the wake of the first general elections based on universal
adult franchise in 1952. During the post-independence period, the party system passed
through various phases. The first phase is known as the phase of one-party dominance
because with the exception of Kerala during 195659, the ruling party both at the Centre
and in the states was the Congress. The second phase (19671975) saw the emergence of
a multi-party system in India. In the Assembly elections in 1967, Congress was defeated
in eight States. For the first time non-Congress parties formed governments in these
states. These parties formed coalition governments. Then came the split in Congress into
Congress (O) and Congress (N). However, the Congress again became a dominant force
at the Centre after winning 1971 mid-term poll. Then came the emergency period (1975
77) which is known as the authoritarian period of Indian democracy. With the lifting of
emergency, the dominance of Congress ended. In the general elections of 1977 Congress
was defeated by the Janata Party. Janata Party came into existence as a result of the
7 Indian Government and Politics, University of Calicut, visit:
http://www.universityofcalicut.info/syl/IndianGovtAndPolitics.pdf (accessed on 11/03/15).
8 Satri Veera Kesalu, Genesis and Evaluation Political Parties in India,
International Research Journal of Social Sciences, Vol. 2(2), 56-62, February
(2013). Visit www.isca.in (accessed on 11/03/15).

P a g e | 13

merger of many opposition parties. But again in 1980 general elections Congress came
back to power and remained in power till 1989. Janata Party emerged out of the merger of
Congress (O) led by Morarji Desai, Bharatiya Lok Dal led by Ch. Charan Singh,
Congress for Democracy (CFD) led by Jagjivan Ram and H.N. Bahuguna, the socialists
led by George Fernandes and Jana Sangh led by L.K. Advani. In 1989 elections, the
National Front joined government with the support of BJP and the Left Front. But this
formation could not last its tenure and elections for the tenth Lok Sabha were held in
May-June, 1991. Congress again formed government at the Centre. In 1996 general
elections BJP emerged as the single largest party and was asked to form government at
the Centre. Since it could not prove its majority within the given time it had to resign.
The United Front which was a combination of thirteen parties formed the government at
the Centre with the external support of the Congress and the CPI (M). But this
government also could not last its full term. Although the coalition government formed
under the leadership of BJP after 1998 elections was defeated in Lok Sabha, the 1999
elections again provided them the opportunity to form government which lasted its full
term under a multi-party coalition, known as National Democratic Alliance (NDA). In the
14th general elections held in 2004, Congress emerged as the single largest party. It
formed alliance with likeminded parties and formed government at the Centre. The phase
of Indian party system which began in 1989 and is still continuing has been aptly called a
phase of coalition politics. No single party has been able to form government on its own
at the Centre9.

2.3 Constitutional and Legal Positions

The legal and constitutional position of political parties varies from country to country. In
most democratic countries, however, there is neither any direct constitutional provision
regulating the functioning of political parties, nor any legal sanction establishing political
parties as a necessary governmental institution, although there are some governmental
systems, which try to prescribe some conditions for the operation of a party system. The
Constitution of India does not directly deal with Political parties. However, there is one
provision in the Constitution which is directly relevant to the functioning of political
9 V.s. Rama Devi & S.K. Mendiratta, How India Votes- Election Laws, Practice and Procedure,
3rd Edition, Lexis Nexis, 2014, (Pg. 548-623).

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parties, the Tenth Schedule. The Tenth Schedule of the Constitution was added by the
Constitution (Fifty-second Amendment) Act, 1985. It deals with the disqualification of a
person for being a member of either House of Parliament (Art. 102(2)) or the Legislative
Assembly or Legislative Council of a State (Art.191(2)), on ground of defection. In the
absence of a sufficiently detailed constitutional provisions, the major responsibility of
framing and administering the rules and regulations governing political parties in India
has fallen on the Election Commission, a constitutional body responsible for conduct of
elections. The Election Commission of India has the ultimate power to accord recognition
and status of political parties to the association or body of citizens of India." The
Election Commission has the power to decide whether or not to register an association or
body of individuals as a political party.
The recognized political parties are accorded the status of a National or State political
party in accordance with the provisions of Election Symbols (Reservation and Allotment
Order, 19686 as amended from time to time. The number of National parties has been
varying from 14 to 4 owing to continuous review of the status based on the performance
of the parties. In 1951, there were 14 National parties while presently there are 7 National
political parties. The number of National parties was: in 1957 (4), 1971(8), and 1977 (5),
1980 (6), 1984(7), and 1989 (8), 1991 (9), 1996 (8), 1998 and 1999 (7) 2013(6). There
were no National parties in 1962 and 1967 these were at that time called multi-State
parties. It may be noted that political parties in India are also sometimes categorized by
observers, academics and political analysts based on their territorial or geographical
representation, such as: All India parties, Regional parties and Local parties. This is done
by them only as a matter of convenience to argue a particular point, or identify them in a
particular way, and do not in any way reflect either any official party classification
recognized by the Government or by the Election Commission. Similarly, any
identification of a party on the basis of its ideological orientation as a party of the left,
right, center, socialist, communist, communalist or leader- centered, etc. bears no official
recognition.

2.4 Provisions Dealing with Party recognition1011

10 Representation of peoples Act, 1951

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Representation of peoples act, 1951

Sl
no
1

Section
/Articl
e
Article
29A (1)
& (2)
Article
29A
(5)5

Explanation

It is mandatory for any association or body of individuals of India calling itself a

political party to make an application to the Election Commission for its registration
as a political party, within thirty days following the date of its formation.
2
The act also requires that the application shall be accompanied by a copy of the
memorandum or rules and regulations of the association or body, by whatever name
called, and such memorandum or rules and regulations shall contain a specific
provision that the association or body shall bear true faith and allegiance to the
Constitution of India, and to the principles of socialism, secularism and democracy
and would uphold the sovereignty, unity and integrity of India
3 Section Provides that no association or body shall be registered as a political party under this
29A(7) Section unless the memorandum or rules and regulations of such as association or
body conform to these provisions, i.e. the provisions of Subsection (5) of Section 29A.
The decision of the Commission in this matter is final.
Election Symbols (Reservation and Allotment) order 1968
4

Para 2 Political party means an association or body of individual citizens of India registered
(h)
with the Election Commission of India as a political party under Section 29A of the R.
P. Act of 1951.
Para
A political party shall be treated as a recognized National party, if, and only if, - Either
6A
A. (i) the candidates set up by it, in any four or more States, at the last general
election to the House of the People, or to the Legislative Assembly of the State
concerned, have secured not less than six percent of the total valid votes polled
in their respective States at that general election; and (ii) in addition, it has
returned at least four members to the House of the People at the aforesaid last
general election from any State or States;
B. Its candidates have been elected to the House of the People, at the last general
election to that House, from at least two percent of the total number of
parliamentary constituencies in India, any fraction exceeding one-half being
counted as one; and (ii) the said candidates have been elected to that House from
not less than three States.

11 Election Symbols (Reservation and Allotment) order 1968

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Para 6B political party, other than a National party, shall be treated as a recognized state party
in a State or States, if, and only if, Either
A. (i)the candidates set up by it, at the last general election to the House of the
People, or to the Legislative Assembly of the State concerned, have secured not
less than six percent of the total valid votes polled in that State at that general
election; and ii. in addition, it has returned at least two members to the
Legislative Assembly of the State at the last general election to that Assembly;
B. It wins at least three percent of the total number of seats in the Legislative
Assembly of the State, (any fraction exceeding one-half being counted as one),
or at least three seats in the Assembly, whichever is more, at the aforesaid
general election.

(Table 1: Provisions Dealing with Party recognition)

2.5 National Parties and Regional Parties

India has two types of political parties. Namely;
1.National parties
2. Regional parties.
National Parties: National parties are those which generally have influence all over the
country. It is not necessary that a national party will have equal strength in all the states;
it varies from State to State. A party is recognised as a national party by the Election
Commission on the basis of a formula. The political party which has secured not less
than four percent of the total valid votes in the previous general elections at least in four
states is given the status of a national party. The number of national parties has been
changing. Currently in the year 2015, Indian National Congress, Bharatiya Janata Party,
Communist Party of India (Marxist) [CPI (M)], Communist Party of India (CPI), Bahujan
Samaj Party, and the Nationalist Congress Party are national parties12.
Conditions for retaining recognition as national parties
12 Wikipedia on List of political parties in India, Visit:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_political_parties_in_India (accessed on 12/03/15).

P a g e | 17

The Election Symbols (Reservation and Allotment) Order, 1968, was promulgated by the
Election Commission on 31st August, 1968, in exercise of its powers under Article 324 of
the Constitution and Rules 5 and 10 of the Conduct of Elections Rules, 1961. The Order,
initially, made provisions, both for the registration of political parties and also for their
recognition as National and State parties, and also for the specification and allotment of
election symbols to contesting candidates. The Commission has, from time to time,
keeping in view the changes in the political scenario in the country, brought about
amendments to the Symbols Order to ensure that the provisions contained therein bear a
realistic nexus to the democratic set up in the country. The last major amendment to the
Symbols Order was carried out in 1997, where the Commission recognised the
importance of the role being played by State Parties in the countrys democratic structure
and sought to give, as far as possible, the usage of symbols on an exclusive basis, all over
the country, for all State parties.
1. Legislative presence is a must for recognition as a National or State party.
2. For a National party, it must be the legislative presence in the Lok Sabha, and, for
a State party, the legislative presence must be reflected in the State Assembly.
3. In any election, a party can set up a candidate only from amongst its own
members.
4. A party, that loses its recognition, shall not lose its symbol immediately, but shall
be given the facility to use that symbol for some time to try and retrieve its status.
Recognition should be given to a party only on the basis of its own performance
in elections and not because it is a splinter group of some other recognised party.
5. The revised criteria for recognition shall not be applied to the detriment of any of
the existing recognised National and State parties. Their current status as
recognised National or State parties under the pre-revised criteria shall continue,
till it is modified after any future general elections to the House of the People or
State Legislative Assemblies.

P a g e | 18

6. In formulating these amendments, the Commission is clearly of the view that a

National party should have a marked presence in a sizeable portion of the country,
its activities should be widespread, on the basis of which it is able to secure a
reasonable number of votes in different States; and that it must have a reasonable
representation in the House of the People. Similarly, a party, to gain recognition as
a State party, must also have, not only a reasonable following among the electors
in the State, but also a reasonable presence in the Legislative Assembly of the
State.
7. Keeping all the above in view, the Commission has decided that henceforth a
political party shall be eligible to be recognised as a National party if :i.

It secures at least 6% of the valid votes polled in any 4 or more states, at a

general

ii.

election to the House of the People or, to the State Legislative

Assembly;
In addition, it wins at least 4 seats in the House of the People from any State or
States.

iii.

Or;
It wins at least 2% seats in the House of the People (i.e., 11 seats in the existing
House having 543 members), and these members are elected from at least 3

8.
i.

different States.
Likewise, a political party shall be entitled to be recognised as a State party, if :It secures at least six percent (6%) of the valid votes polled in the State at a
general election, either to the House of the People or to the Legislative Assembly

ii.

of the State concerned; and

In addition, it wins at least two seats in the Legislative Assembly of the State
concerned.

iii.

Or;
It wins at least three percent (3%) of the total number of seats in the Legislative
Assembly of the State, or at least three seats in the Assembly, whichever is
more13.

Regional Parties: However, there are other parties in India, which do not enjoy national
influence. Their activities and influence are restricted to particular states or regions.
13 EC in press meeting

P a g e | 19

Sometimes these parties are formed to voice demands of a specific region. These parties
are neither weak nor short-lived. Sometimes they prove to be very powerful in their
respective regions. These are known as regional parties. Major regional parties are
AIADMK and DMK in Tamil Nadu, Telugu Desam in Andhra Pradesh, Akali Dal in
Punjab, National Conference in Jammu and Kashmir, Jharkhand Mukti Morcha in
Jharkhand, Asom Gana Parishad in Assam and Nationalist Congress Party and Shiv Sena
in Maharashtra. About the regional parties you will read in the following lesson.

Present Scenario
The Election Commission has called a meeting with BSP, NCP and CPI, to hear their
views on a show cause notice to withdraw their 'national party' status subsequent to their
performance in the Lok Sabha elections.
"The Election Commission has informed that among the national parties, the recognition
of BSP, CPI and NCP are under review process based on their poll performance, as these
parties have not fulfilled the conditions for retaining recognition as national parties14."
Communist Party of India: CPI in the 15th Lok Sabha election secured four seats in
Parliament's lower house; however, it was left with just one seat in 2014 general election.
It managed to secure merely 0.8 percent votes of the LS polls this year.
Bahujan Samaj Party: Although, BSP managed to stand third in 2014 election vote
share, it failed to grab even a single seat in the Lok Sabha. Partys downfall in the
16th Lok Sabha elections came after a comparatively massive victory by 21 seats in the
15th LS polls.
Nationalist Congress Party: NCP, formed in 1999 after separating from Indian National
Congress, won its first election - the 13 th LS poll - with just eight seats, which rose to
nine seats in the 14th Lok Sabha election. Although, it managed to sustain in the lower
house of Parliament with those nine seats in the 15 th LS poll too, it slumped down to six
seats in the 2014 general election, with just 1.6 percent of the total vote share. It,
however, met one of the criteria's by winning more than four seats in the Lok Sabha but
14 Law Minister Ravi Shankar Prasad informed the Lok Sabha.

P a g e | 20

could not manage to accomplish either of the remaining two. Having met one criterion, it
may have a chance to retain its national status but nothing is certain until EC's
conclusion15.
Communist Party of India and NCP on 20/08/14 defended their status as national
parties before the Election Commission which had issued them a show cause notice to
withdraw their position following their performance in the Lok Sabha elections.
The EC had called Sharad Pawars NCP, CPI and BSP for a personal hearing as their
recognition is under review following their failure to fulfill the conditions for retaining
recognition as national parties. The BSP did not turn up for the hearing. The BSP had
written to the poll body defending its national party status. Its status is yet to be decided16.

2.6. National Parties17

Sl no

Name

Symbol

Bharatiya

Janata Party
Indian

Symbol
image

Year
of
found
ation

Current
leaders

Current
Lok
Sabha
seats

Lotus

1980

Amit Shah

282 / 543

Hand

1885

Sonia Gandhi

44 / 543

Hammer, Sickle and Star

1964

Prakash Karat

9 / 543

Ears of Corn and Sickle

1925

Suravaram

1 / 543

National
3

Congress
Communist
Party of
India

(Marxist)
Communist
Party of

Sudhakar

India
Bahujan

Elephant (In all States/U.T.s

Samaj Party

except in the State of Assam,

15 The Hindu, Feb 10, 2015

16 TOI on 20/08/14.
17 Supra 12

1984

Reddy
Mayawati

0 / 543

P a g e | 21
where its candidates will have
to choose a symbol from out
of the list of free symbols
6

Nationalist

specified by the Commission)

Clock

1999

Sharad Pawar

6 / 543

Congress
Party
Table 2: National parties (Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_political_parties_in_India)

2.7 Procedure for Registration of a political Party

1. An application for registration is to be submitted to the Secretary, Election
Commission of India, Nirvachan Sadan, Ashoka Road, New Delhi-110001- in the
Performa prescribed by the Commission. The Performa is available on request by post
or across the counter from the office of the Commission. The application should be
neatly typed on the partys letter head, if any, and it should be sent by registered post
or presented personally to the Secretary to the Election Commission within thirty days
following the date of formation of the party.
2.
3. The application must be accompanied by the following documents/information:i.
A demand draft for Rs. 10,000/- (Rupees Ten Thousand Only) on account of
processing fee drawn in favour of Under Secretary, Election Commission of India,
ii.

New Delhi. The processing fee is non-refundable.

A
neatly
typed/printed
copy
of
the

memorandum/rules

and

regulations/Constitution of the Party containing a specific provision as required

under sub-section (5) of Section 29A of the Representation of the People Act,
1951 in the exact terms, which reads "------------- --(name of the party) shall bear
true faith and allegiance to the constitution of India as by law established, and to
the principles of socialism, secularism and democracy and would uphold the
sovereignty, unity and integrity of India". The above mandatory provision must be
included in the text of party constitution/rules and regulations/memorandum itself
as one of the Articles/clauses.

P a g e | 22

iii.

The copy of the party Constitution should be duly authenticated on each page by
the General Secretary/President/Chairman of the Party and the seal of the

iv.

signatory should be affixed thereon.

There should be a specific provision

in

the

Constitution/rules

and

regulations/memorandum of the party regarding organizational elections at

different levels and the periodicity of such elections and terms of office of the
v.

office-bearers of the party.

The procedure to be adopted in the case of merger/dissolution should be

vi.

specifically provided in the Constitution/rules and regulations/memorandum.

Certified extracts from the latest electoral rolls in respect of at least 100 members
of the party (including all office-bearers/members of main decision-making
organs like Executive Committee/Executive Council) to show that they are

vii.

registered electors.
An affidavit duty signed by the President/General Secretary of the party and
affirmed before a First Class Magistrate/Oath Commissioner)/ Notary Public to
the effect that no member of the party is a member of any other political party

viii.

registered with the Commission.

Individual affidavits from at least 100 members of the party to the effect that the
said member is a registered elector and that he is not a member of any other
political party registered with the Commission duly sworn before a First Class
Magistrate/Oath Commissioner)/Notary Public. These affidavits shall be in
addition to the furnishing of certified extracts of electoral rolls in respect of the

ix.

100 members of the applicant party mentioned at (vi) above.

Particulars of Bank accounts in the name of the party.

4. The application along with all the required documents mentioned above must be reach
the Secretary to the Commission within 30 days following the date of formation of the
party18.

2.8 Characteristics of Indian Party System

18 Guidelines and application format for Registration of political parties under Section 29A of
the Representation of the People Act, 1951.

P a g e | 23

1. Multi-Party System: Indian political party system happens to be a Multi-Party

System. At present there are 3 National parties19, 51 state parties20 and 1709
recognised parties21. In 1952, the number of small and national political parties was
52. Since, the formation of political parties in India is highly personalized it is
commented that, there are as many political parties in India as there are political
leaders.
2. Single Party Dominant System: The functioning of Indian political party system
displays the dominance of one party amongst multitudes of political parties operating
in the system.
3. Existence of Communal parties and Caste based Parties: In the Indian political
scene, there has been in existence parties based on caste and religion. For example,
Akali Dal, Hindu Mahasabha, Muslim League, Shiv Sena etc. Also, we find that
certain parties are organised on the basis of the support of certain caste groups. As a
consequence, the general public interest is undermined and the sectional, communal
and caste interest prevails over the party. Also, it has generated animosity among
different castes and communities.
4. Importance of Regional Parties: India is a land of diverse cultures and traditions. In
the midst of national parties having reach over different regions, there are regional
parties which have wide support in their respective regions. Telgu Desam in Andhra
Pradesh, DMK and AIDMk in Tamil Nadu, AGP in Assam etc are the examples of
some of the regional parties. The regional parties are more pronounced in the South
India and the North Eastern part of the country. Usually, their operation and influence
is confined to regional politics but in 1990s, these parties have got a foothold in the
national politics also. The increasing role and influence of regional parties in the
national politics underlines a new trend in the party system of India.
19 "Names of Recognised National and State Parties, Registered-unrecognized parties". Election
Commission of India. 12 March 2014. Retrieved 7 October 2014. ,
20 "Names of Recognised National and State Parties, Registered-unrecognized parties". Election
Commission of India. 16 September 2014. Retrieved 7 October 2014
21 "ECI Notification for Political Parties registered after 16.09.2014 till 26.09.2014". Election
Commission of India. 26 September 2014. Retrieved 20 October 2014.

P a g e | 24

5. Factionalism, Defection and Split: Almost all the political parties are suffering or
have suffered from factionalism, defections and splits in the course of time. The
problem of defection has been sought to be dealt with by 52nd and 91st amendments
to the Constitution of India.
6. Weak Opposition Parties and Lack of Unity among Opposition Parties: to a great
extent, the success of Parliamentary democracy depends upon the role of responsible
opposition parties, which check and ensure the accountability of the ruling party. But,
in India, the opposition parties have been weal and fragile due to multitudes of
political parties and lack of unity among political parties.
3.4 Significance of Parties and some facts about the parties in India
How do we evaluate the performance of parties?
Parties in India on the whole acted as key agencies of democratic transformation in
the country. In a society that had a long history of social inequalities and dogged by
poverty and backwardness it is not easy to bring freedoms to all in an equal measure
that too in a swift manner. At the time India became a republic, the democratic
political structure came in a big way. Its polity was much ahead of its social and
economic structure. Leaders of India were aware of this contradiction between
political democracy and socio-economic structure. Political parties had precisely
tried to grapple with this new situation and tasks. Change in social relations and
values cannot be brought in a second nor can the pace be forced at will. In any
democracy it has to happen only through reconciliation of all sections to the
changing realities, which is more slow and irritating to those who want rapid radical

changes.
Parties popularized notions of equality and freedom among people and also
moderated the extreme demands for individual liberty and social equality. Both
change and stability are important. Thus, even those parties that stood for radical

changes are compelled to implement incremental changes when came to power.

When a party came to power it took sufficient care to see that different castes,
communities and geographical regions get represented in the government. Parties did
use social identities, such as caste, region and religion for electoral purposes. On the
surface, it appears that parties have exacerbated social divisions and tensions for
their narrow interests.

P a g e | 25

By mobilising people around slogans of justice and equality and articulating the
interests of the socially disadvantaged and deprived groups, parties could bring them

into the political arena as partners, moderate social cleavages, and mitigate tension.
Parties enabled the democratic institutions in India to work with a large measure of
success. The parties in the initial years of post-Independence did work for the
realisation of the noble objectives of the Indian Constitution. Parties grappled with
the sudden expansion of democracy in 1950 through the sanctioning of basic

freedoms and adult franchise.

Bi-party system would make the ruling party more responsible towards their duties
and actions as any sort of apathy could leave to a protest from the other party that
could take advantage of the situation. There shall be much lesser confusion within
the system and for people too while casting their votes as there shall be fewer
options. Most importantly, in a bi-party system, the ideologies of the parties shall be
concentrated towards the development of the entire nation rather than for the

individual demands of a set of people.

In a bi-party system, the two political parties contesting in an election shall not have
to resort to methods of political gimmicks to prove their worth. It is either you are
worthy or you are not. There shall be no in between clause for confusion. The
smaller parties in a multi-party system often fail to secure a position of their own
and hence offer support to the major parties of which the nation always remains
dubious. The best example of such an imbroglio is the current situation when AAP

is doubted to be a surreptitious part of the Congress.

Another advantage of bi-party system is swiftness in making laws and policies or
for passing a bill. These are delayed in a multi-party system since there is much
antagonism that sometimes make no sense but are still a reason for a haul. It is high
time when India must overlay a way to bi-party system if changes are to happen in

present conditions.
Since independence, India has proudly been following the democratic form of
government which is believed to be possible only if multiple parties have the authority to
contest in election. No doubt, the constitution of India laid down these policies to provide
equal opportunity to individuals and parties to render their contribution to the
development of the nation. The question now is has India really benefitted from the

P a g e | 26

multi-party system that is being followed over the years? There are indeed some
advantages of a multi-party system like ensuring democracy to the people of all regions
and religions, allowing flow of ideas and concepts, and equal opportunity to prove the
worth of a party. But the disadvantages of a multi-party system are comparably too many
and unquestionably shadow the integrity of the prevailing system.

2.9 Summary
The party system in India is originated from the desire and zeal of the western educated
intellectuals in the late 19th century to form associations for social reforms. The Indian
national Congress was resulted of this enthusiasm, as some prominent individuals in the
three presidencies felt the need for an organization that approached the government on
behalf of the people to make them aware of their requirements. However, at that time, it
was transformed into a movement representing the length and breadth as well as social
heterogeneity of the country. It also brought together different points of views and
ideologies, and in the process functioned as a composite party system.
The emergence of the Muslim League and religion-based nationalism gave firm
foundation to the spirit of the party system in the country. Whether and where the
Congress party went wrong in tackling the politics of the League and whether or not it
was possible to prevent the partition of the subcontinent is a contentious question.
However, it is absolutely clear that in the triangular politics of colonial India, as British
discovered the Muslim League as a perfect foil to the Congress, the process of laying the
foundation of the party system in the country were set in motion. The emergence of the
entire spectrum of political ideologies also created a firm based on the party system in the
country. The Congress itself represented political beliefs from the right of the centre to
the left of the centre. Organizationally too, the parties began relating to each other as they
do in a mature democracy. True, India remained a one party dominant system for over
four decades of its post-independence history but seeds of a complex party system were
sown during pre-independence politics.

P a g e | 27

**************************************************

Chapter 3
Multi-party system in India
4.1

Introduction
The world of political parties in India seems to be in an unending flux. Parties have been
coming into existence and going out of existence. They have been splitting and coming
together. Even those parties that appear to be stable in name have undergone important
changes in their content and internal arrangement of constituent elements. The terms
fragmentation and federalisation are often used to characterise this situation. This
transformation is often seen in terms of several transitional points from the emergence
of one party dominant system to its break down, to incoherent multiparty system to the
present two coalitional multiparty systems. Over the past five decades, party competition
has increased. In their fight for gaining or retaining power, often they pursued adversarial
politics with confrontationist postures, policies and programmes. At the same time they
exhibited a great deal of flexibility in shifting stands and alliances when it comes to
winning elections or sharing power. This transformation can be also understood in terms
of changes in the internal structuring and functioning of parties. Decline in the quality of
leadership, increasing criminality and corruption among party leaders, undermining of
constitutional and democratic institutions by both ruling and opposition parties, growth of
factionalism, stifling of internal democracy, concentration of power in a single leader, etc.
It could be also understood in terms of the social bases of parties and the shifts in them,
strategies and tactics adopted by party leadership in managing people and government,
and in winning elections and forming governments. Growth of populism, appeals to

P a g e | 28

sentiments such as caste, religion, region, tribe and language, use of money, muscle
power and other allurements and recourse to electoral and political malpractices to gain
or retain power are some aspects of these phenomena.
Meaning: A multi-party system is a system in which multiple political parties have the
capacity to gain control of government offices, separately or in coalition. A coalition
government is a cabinet of a parliamentary government in which several political parties
cooperate, reducing the dominance of any one party within that coalition. The usual
reason given for this arrangement is that no party on its own can achieve a majority in the
parliament. A coalition government might also be created in a time of national difficulty
or crisis, for example during wartime, or economic crisis, to give a government the high
degree of perceived political legitimacy, or collective identity it desires while also
playing a role in diminishing internal political strife22.
At the national level India's first ever coalition government was formed under the Prime
Minister ship of Morarji Desai which existed from 24 March 1977 to 15 July 1979
headed by the Janata Party. The first successful coalition government in India which
completed the whole 5 year term was the BJP Bharatiya Janata Party led National
Democratic Alliance with Atal Bihari Vajpayee as Prime Minister from 1999-2004. Then
another coalition, the United Progressive Alliance, consists of 13 separate parties ruled
India for two terms from 2004-2014. Now after the elections in May 2014, National
Democratic Alliance again came into power with Narendra Modi as Prime Minister23.

3.2 Changing Nature of Party Competition

That the nature and working of parties are influenced by the nature of state and society in
which they operate is an agreed notion in literature on party politics. The countrys
history, national character, its culture, traditions, philosophy and economy influence the
parties in the way they shape up and function. Also, the legal framework, the electoral
system and the political environment influence the working of the parties. In most of the
countries, which were once colonies of the western nations, parties had emerged as
22 Wikipedia on Multi-party system, Visit: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multi-party_system
(accessed on 12/03/15).
23 Wikipedia on Coalition government, Visit:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coalition_government (accessed on 12/03/15).

P a g e | 29

associations for the purpose of fighting for national independence. In most of such
countries, the party that led nationalist movement, after attaining independence, could
place restrictions on or prohibit other parties and establish one party system because of
the absence of other political formations with popular support strong enough to maintain
a competitive framework. The party system in India, however, had taken a different
trajectory. The factors that contributed to the sustenance of democratic politics also had
contributed to the sustenance of parties and party competition in the country. These
factors inhibited forces such as military, bureaucracy and landed gentry to usurp power in
India, as happened in several other post-colonial countries24.
Long experience in mobilising and organising people, working of political parties and
politics of representation during freedom struggle kept the parties in India in good stead
after Independence. Parties emerged as hybrids on the Indian soil under the influence of
western political ideas and practice during the colonial condition, and acquired
characteristics of their own in the process of development. By the time the country
became independent, it had several parties competing with each other, although the
Indian National Congress had an imposing presence25. Congress is the oldest party in
Asia, and older than several other parties in the West. The socialists too had wide
networks during the freedom struggle. For a long time they worked as groups inside the
Congress. They formed separate parties soon after Independence. Parties such as the
Shiromani Akali Dal, National Conference, Forward Bloc, Revolutionary Socialist Party,
the Dravida Kazhagam, etc that emerged during the 20s, 30s and 40s could capture power
24 K.C. Suri, Parties under Pressure: Political Parties in India Since Independence, Department
of Political Science, Nagarjuna University.
25 The Justice Party was formed in 1917 with a view to mobilise non-Brahman sections of the
them Madras Presidency; the Shiromani Akali Dal was formed in 1921 to establish Sikh control
over gurudwaras; the Hindu Maha Sabha in 1925 to protect the rights of the Hindus; National
Conference in 1932 to promote the rights of Kashmiri Muslims; Unionist Party was formed in
Punjab in 1936; the Communist Party of India as formed in 1925; the Congress Socialist Party in
1935; the Forward Bloc in 1939; the Revolutionary Socialist Party in 1940; the Radical
Democratic Party by M.N. Roy in 1942; and the Scheduled Castes Federation in 1940s to serve
the interests of the downtrodden castes. Of course the Muslim League was formed in 1905 and,
after a long period of mild constitutional activity, became an active contestant of the Congress in
its claim to represent the interests of the Muslims. After the partition it was soon revived in 1948,
although largely confined to Kerala.

P a g e | 30

in the 60s and later. By the time the first general elections were held, India was vibrant
with several political parties, articulating different standpoints and competing for power.
53 political parties participated in the first General Elections, although most of them
vanished within a decade or reappeared in new incarnations later26.
The nature of Indian economy and the changes that were brought about after India
became Independent are also important in sustaining party democracy. By the time India
became Independent, it was the most industrially developed nation among the former
colonies or the new nations that came into existence in the continents of Asia, Africa and
Latin America. Although the industrial base was not widespread or strong enough to give
rise to a national economy, its growth during the inter-War period gave sufficient scope
for the operation of parties at the national level. The country had a developed middle
class, mostly trained in the values of western liberalism, which could articulate the
interests of the nation and different sections of society. The progressive legislation and
policies pursued by governments especially that of land reforms, industrial development
through planning and promotion of public sector, had transformed social relations and
thinking. The policy of non-alignment provided space for autonomy in economic policymaking and maneuverability in political matters freeing the country to some extent from
the pressures of imperialistic countries that led to political troubles in several developing
countries. The presence of enlightened leaders in parties and their readiness to follow the
rules of electoral democracy and to accommodate the representatives of upcoming social
groups in their fold helped the party system to consolidate in the initial years. Also the
ability of people to see the rationale of the newly established democratic institutions and
their willingness to make use of them for their advancement also helped the stability of
the parties in India. People of the lower classes and castes saw electoral democracy as
means to improve their lives, to secure a share in power; the upper classes/castes also
tended to be accommodative, rather than refusing to reconcile to the changing realities.
Principles of socialism, equality and democracy, to which most parties adhered to, paved
the way for the success of Democratic Party politics in the country.

3.3 Development of Multi-Party System

26 Supra 20

P a g e | 31

The evolution of parties and party system in India after Independence may be viewed
broadly as consisting of four phases, with each phase having its genesis in the earlier one
and flowing into the next one:
1. Period of Congress consolidation and dominance (1952-67);
2. Consolidation of opposition parties and emergence of multi-party system (196789);
3. Period of flux (1989-98);
4. Shaping of coalitional party system (1998 onwards).
1. Phase I -Period of Congress consolidation and dominance (1952-67): It has now
become conventional to begin any discussion on political parties in India with the
emergence of the Congress dominance during the 1950s and its breakdown during the 60s
and 70s. The factors that helped Congress party to assume the role of a dominant ruling
party in the wake of Independence and consolidate itself are well known. With partition,
the main rival to the Congress, the Muslim League, was removed from the electoral
scene. Electoral politics that replaced the politics of freedom struggle had severely
constricted the space available to non-Congress parties earlier. Relatively weak as they
were when compared to the Congress during the freedom struggle, they were further
rendered feeble under the first past the post electoral system followed in India. It enabled
the Congress to gain two thirds majority in the legislatures. The multiplicity of parties
and the presence of large number of independents enhanced the chances of victory for the
Congress. Thus the presence of other parties in legislatures was much below their popular
support. As the Congress eclipsed the non- Congress liberal parties, those who aspired to
continue in politics had to seek space within the Congress fold. Its ability to use the
nationalist movements organizational network, to mobilize political support and at the
same time permit dissenting elements to organize themselves into oppositional factions
within the party led to the Congress dominance. Congress enjoyed exclusive control over
governmental power at the Centre and in most of the States. Neither the preIndependence non-Congress parties nor the newly emerged parties could present a viable
alternative to the Congress. India thus produced a one-party dominance model, which is
different from one-party system. Much of the focus of political commentators and
researchers in those days was naturally centered round the functioning of the Congress

P a g e | 32

party. 27They spoke of its accommodative and integrative nature. The consolidation of the
Congress and the weak opposition led to a belief that the Congress system was invincible.
However, the beauty of democracy lies in its ability to provide ground for the working
out of the opposition to the dominant idea or institution. Alongside the blossoming of the
Congress dominance, we notice the sprouting of the second phase. New opposition
parties began to emerge in the 1950s and 1960s. Several leaders within the Congress,
who were either disgruntled with the policies of the party or denied access to power went
out of it and formed separate parties Socialist parties, Kisan Mazdoor Praja Party
(KMPP), Krishikar Lok Party (KLP), Bangla Congress, Kerala Congress, Jana Congress
in Orissa, Swatantra, Bharatiya Kranti Dal, etc. Other parties, rooted in long-standing
anti-Congress orientations, also began to gain strength: SAD in Punjab, Muslim League
in Kerala, DMK in Tamil Nadu, National Conference in Jammu & Kashmir, etc. The
Communist party too split on the question on support to the Congress party and those
who took a vehement anti-Congress position, saying that defeat of the Congress was
necessary for the advancement of peoples democracy in the country, formed the CPM in
1964, which within in three years became the ruling party in Bengal and Kerala28.
2. Phase 2 - Consolidation of opposition parties and emergence of multi-party system
(1967-89): The first strain became visible in 1967 in fourth general election, when post
Nehru era it won only 40.78 % vote and 54.62 % seat. The party also lost power in eight
states. The land reforms in late 1950s, emergence of new landowners on political scene
created an impact on the electoral outcome in second half of 1960s. The political
awakening of these new classes strengthened democracy and lead to increased
participation of peasants in the political process. In 1969, due to growing the party split.
As no other group was in the position to fill the vacuum created by the Congress, the
group under leadership of Mrs. Gandhi and a group of Young Turks regained power.
However, the Mrs. Gandhis era, was characterized by a pyramidal decision-making
body emphasized by her own image, undermining and dismantling established structure

27 Kothari, 1964; Morris-Jones, 1964; Kochanek, 1968.

28 Supra 20

P a g e | 33

of the party, confrontations approach towards other parties leading to dissolve of

assemblies ruled by opposition parties as well as its own party. During this period, the
crude and brutal way in which central leadership of the Congress party resorted to pull
down its own government in the states and unceremonious ways in which the Congress
Chief Ministers were removed, further reflects the narrowing of political space.
However, a determined opposition effectively exploited the contradictions of a
centralized and weakened Congress to put it on mat taking advantage of rising
corruption and mounting popular discontent on account 18 months long internal
emergency. 29The polarization of opposition parties into Janata Party in the elections
leads to an ouster of Congress from power as the people for the first time had a loose
alternative with least division of votes. The dual member ship issue of BJS (of the party
and Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh) rocked the Janata Party, which lead to its split in
1979 by Charan Singh and his supporters and ultimate down fall of the government
shortly. However, the collapse of Janata experiment within two years and return of Mrs.
Gandhi with overwhelming majority meant that a final social and political realignment
to give a definite shape to an Indian party system was still far away.
1980 witnessed another significant development, the creation of Bharatiya Janata Party
(BJP), which in a way addressed the problem of duel membership of BJS. During the
period 1980-89 ruled by Congress, significant development took place like assassination
of Mrs. Gandhi in 1984 followed by Anti-Sikh riots, general elections and rise on
political scene of Rajiv Gandhi by even garnering the support of RSS. BJP under the
leader ship of Atal Bihari Vajpayee was adopting Gandhian Socialism. The Janata Party
and its variants were competing with Congress (I) for centrist space. The Congress (I)
too shifted its ideological posture to court the Hindu Majority vote across north India.
Due to compulsion of VHP and RSS, the locks of Ram Mandir in Ayodhya were opened,
and darshan was allowed. Later in 1989, the Shilanyas of Mandir was also allowed. The
Bofors case30 also impacted the political realignment and consolidation.
3. Phase 3 - Period of flux (1989-98): The period 1989-96, witnessed three governments,
VP Singh led National Front (Janata Dal), coalition government with outside support from
Left and BJP, Chandrasekhars rump government with outside support from Congress (I),
29 June 1975-January 1977

P a g e | 34

and a full-term Congress (I) government led by PV Narshimha Rao, which began as a
minority government but managed the majority through defection allegedly by bribing the
defecting MPs. The period experienced expansion among the socially underprivileged, the
backward castes and the dalits towards political awakening. Leading to implementation of
Mandal Commission reports and reservation for the Backwards in Government Jobs. The
largest Indian state of Uttar Pradesh was ruled more than once in 1990s and even
thereafter by parties and coalitions championing the cause of backwards (SP), and dalits
(BSP), which indicated the silent revolution taking place through the ballot in India. The
Bihar has been ruled throughout last decade of twentieth century by such forces
represented by Lalu Prasad Yadav. Not only do these social groups have leaders and
parties representing their cause, increasingly. National parties also resorted to ethnic
strategies of political mobilization to seek their support. Despite Rajiv Gandhis
assassination and lack of absolute majority in 1991 Lok Sabha elections, the Congress (I)
sorted out the leadership issues and under leadership P V Narshimha Rao completed the
five-year term by 1996. In the process, the party suffered as the Congress (I) attempted to
gain majority through defections allegedly by bribing the defecting MPs, which created
the huge furor in public. Simultaneously, the BJPs political stock soared due to its
relatively clean image, seat adjustment with National Front in 1989 and L. K. Advanis
Rath Yatra in 199031 for Ram temple in Ayodhya, which made it Main Opposition party in
10th Lok Sabha and emerged as a single largest party in 11th Lok Sabha in 1996 and
30 The Bofors scandal was a major political scandal that occurred between Sweden and India
during 1980s and 1990s, initiated by Congress politicians and implicating the Indian Prime
Minister, Rajiv Gandhi and several other members of the Swedish and Indian governments who
were accused of receiving kickbacks from Bofors AB for winning a bid to supply India's 155 mm
field howitzer. The scandal relates to illegal kickbacks paid in a US$1.3 billion deal between the
Swedish arms manufacturer Bofors with the government of India for the sale of 410 field
howitzer guns, and a supply contract almost twice that amount. It was the biggest arms deal ever
in Sweden, and money marked for development projects was diverted to secure this contract at
any cost. The investigations revealed flouting of rules and bypassing of institutions.
31 It was in September 1990 when BJP president L.K. Advani decided to go for a padyatra to
educate the people about the Ayodhya movement. This had been the BJP's main election plank
during the 1989 elections. Read more at: http://indiatoday.intoday.in/story/1990-L.K.+Advani
%27s+rath+yatra:+Chariot+of+fire/1/76389.html (accessed on 12/03/15).

P a g e | 35

success in getting an invitation to form Government by President. However, still short of

absolute majority, as it could not attract any supporter to sustain it, the government fell
within the short period. This experience proved crucial for its coalition strategies later.
Subsequently, National Front (a thirteen party coalition led by Janata Dal) with outside
support from the Congress (I) remained in power during 1996-98. On fall off the
Government in 1998 the BJP itself under leadership of A. B. Vajpayee, entered into
coalition of 18 parties known since then as National Democratic Alliance, which though
formed government but fell by one vote as one of the allies pulled out of coalition in
1999. As a result, effort by BJP and NDA to secure the majority in 1999 elections was far
greater. Obviously, the party system in India, have become highly competitive more
democratized, in which parties depending on their social bases, internal organization and
ideologies have developed complex mode of interactions for their coexistence. In this
game of coalition during the period, the BJP has been able to gasp the reality of coalition
and federalism better than the Congress.
The decline of the Congress was not so much in terms of its own base, as it was in terms
its total neglect of the need to see the writing on the wall. The arty kept on insisting on
fighting elections alone and indeed decried the coalition arrangement as unworkable and
unstable. The Congress ultimately realized and put into practice the coalition strategy in a
better way than BJP in 2004 election and succeeded in coming back to power. If we
analyses the polling data and voting patterns of 1990s elections, there is clear indication
of voter's preference for regionally based sociocultural located parties with distinct
economic and caste grouping in society and broadening base of BJP in rural voter, which
was earlier seen as urban party. However, the process of federalism and coalition politics
is a reflection of the desire to establish links with the national theatre. Increased
participation of masses, socially under privileged and weaker section, assertion of
different regional, cultural and ethnic groups through regional parties has strengthened
democratic polity and governance.
4. Phase 4- Shaping of coalitional party system (1998 -2014): The growth of the BJP after
1989 and its coming to power in 1998 indeed marked a turning point in the history of
party politics in the country. That the difference between the first and second parties was
reduced to almost to zero showed that the BJPs performance was not a one-time affair.

P a g e | 36

The rapid expansion in the electoral support for the BJP and sudden increase in the
number of its MPs in the Parliament, and its ability to forge alliances with several parties
to come to power marked the party politics of the 1990s. We saw the emergence of
bipolarities in the States and at the Centre. While in the States it is in the form of a
competition between two parties or between two competing alliances, at the national
level it was mainly a competition between competing alliances. As the BJP gained
strength, the effort by the Janata Dal and other regional parties of the United Front to
work with the third alternative (to the Congress and the BJP) proved to be in vain. The
tri-nodal party system that raised hopes in the 1990s got slowly melted away. The
formation of alliances and coalition governments at the National and State levels
accompanied in a new phase in party competition and cooperation. It is amazing that
NDA government at the Centre during 1999-2004 had about 25 partners in it. Wallowing
in its former glory, the Congress party wanted to come to power on its own. But on the
eve of 2004 Lok Sabha elections it finally realised that it could not do so and forged
alliances with 16 parties. The ability to rope in the support of the regional and small
parties and their electoral performance decided the fate of the National parties. In 2004
elections, a loss of few allies and the poor performance of two or three of its partner State
parties caused an electoral disaster for the NDA. The reverse saw the Congress forming
the government (Yadav, 2004). Thus, the alliance affect became crucial in the defeat and
victory of parties at the national and State levels. The Congress allies added about 10 per
cent to the UPA, while the BJP allies added about 14 per cent to the NDA.
Coalitions in India at the national level seem to survive because:
a.
they are socially and politically broad based and territorially representative;
b.
consolidation of coalitions compel parties to join one or the other formation;
c.
the presence of a major party, as the mainstay around which all other parties
d.
e.

revolve, ensures stability;

a common programme provides framework for policy;
pre-poll alliances bind the parties under a moral obligation to remain with the

f.

coalition; and
coalition partners are willing to learn lessons from experience

P a g e | 37

India held general elections to the 15th Lok Sabha in five phases between 16 April 2009
and 13 May 2009, with an electorate of 714 million 32. By constitutional requirement,
elections to the Lok Sabha must be held every five years, or whenever Parliament is
dissolved by the President of India. Elections are organised by the Election Commission
of India and are normally held in multiple phases to better handle the large electoral base
and its security concerns. The United Progressive Alliance (UPA) led by the Indian
National Congress formed the government after obtaining the majority of seats based on
strong results in Andhra Pradesh, Kerala, Maharashtra, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu, Uttar
Pradesh and West Bengal. Manmohan Singh became the prime minister 33. The UPA was
able to put together a comfortable majority with support from 322 members out of 543
members of the House. Though this is less than the 335 members who supported the UPA
in the last parliament, UPA alone had a plurality of over 260 seats as opposed to 218 seats
in the 14th Lok Sabha. Hence the government appeared to be more stable than the
previous one. There was an external support gained from the Bahujan Samaj Party (BSP),
Samajwadi Party (SP), Janata Dal (Secular) (JD(S)), Rashtriya Janata Dal (RJD) and
other minor parties.
The Indian general election of 2014 was held to constitute the 16th Lok Sabha, electing
members of parliament for all 543 parliamentary constituencies of India. Running in nine
phases from 7 April to 12 May 2014, it was the longest election in the country's history.
According to the Election Commission of India, 814.5 million people were eligible to
vote, with an increase of 100 million voters since the last general election in 2009,
making it the largest-ever election in the world34. Around 23.1 million or 2.7% of the total
eligible voters were aged 1819 years. A total of 8,251 candidates contested for the 543
Lok Sabha seats. The average election turnout over all nine phases was around 66.38%,
32 It has been the largest democratic election in the world till the Indian General Elections 2014held from 7 April 2014.
33 First prime minister since Jawaharlal Nehru in 1962 to be re-elected after completing a full
five-year term.
34 Number of Registered Voters in India reaches 814.5 Mn in 2014 beating the record of 2009.

P a g e | 38

the highest ever in the history of Indian general elections. The results were declared on
16 May, fifteen days before the 15th Lok Sabha completed its constitutional mandate on
31 May 2014. The National Democratic Alliance, led by the Bharatiya Janata Party, won
a sweeping victory, taking 336 seats. The BJP itself won 31.0% of all votes and 282
(51.9%) of all seats.

35

The United Progressive Alliance, led by the Indian National

Congress, won 58 seats, 44 (8.1%) of which were won by the Congress, that won 19.3%
of all votes. It was the Congress party's worst defeat in a general election. BJP and its
allies won the right to form the largest majority government since the 1984 general
election.

1.4 Coalitions 0f governments36 (1979-2009)

S.
no.

Coalition and/or
minority
governments
(leading party or
coalition)
Janata Party
Janata
Party
(Secular)
Janata
Dal-led
National Front
Samajwadi
Janata Party
Congress 1741

6
7

BJP-led coalition MC
UF under H.D. MC

1
2
3
4

Type of
governme
nt

SC(MP)
MC 2

Nu
mbe
r of
parti
es
2
2

MC

SPMG

SPMG

1
3
9

Date of
swearing in

Date
of
resignation or
notification of
fresh
elections
24 March 1977 15 July 1979
28 July 1979
20
August
1979
2 December
7 November
1989
1990
10 November 6 March 1991
1990
21 June 1991
27
March
1996
16 May 1996
28 May 1996
1 June 1996
21 April 1997

Number of
days

843
23
340
116
1741
12
324

35 It is the first time since the 1984 Indian general elections that a party has won enough seats to
govern without the support of other parties.
36 E. Sridharan, Why are multi-party minority governments viable in India? Theory and
comparison a University of Pennsylvania Institute for the Advanced Study of India, New Delhi,
India, Visit http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/fccp20 (accessed on 16/03/15).

P a g e | 39

9
10

Deve Gowda
UF under I.K. MC
Gujral
BJP-led coalition MC
NDA
MC

11
12

UPA I
UPA II

MC
MC

10
11
12
9
6

21 April 1997

28 November 221
1997
19 March 1998 17 April 1999
394
13
October 29 February 1599
1999
2004
22 May 2004
2 March 2009 1745
22 May 2009
22 May 2014

5. Phase 5: Return of one Party Dominance: The 2014 Lok Sabha election is remarkable

for three reasons.

One, for the first time in Indias electoral history a non-Congress party has come

into power on its own.

Two, a political party has won a majority for the first time in thirty years, i.e.
since 1984. In the period between then and now coalition governments ruled at
the Centre. Small and mainly regional parties clustered around the two national
parties, the Congress and the BJP, to form coalitions, namely the UPA and the

(NDA).
Three, for the first time in thirty years, or since the death of Ms Indira Gandhi, the
image of a charismatic leader looms larger than his or her party, and dominates
Indian politics in general. Like Ms Gandhi did earlier, Mr Modi has caught the
imagination of Indians across class and caste.

After 1989, political pundits had declared that henceforth India would be governed by
coalitions, that the days of the one-party dominance of the Congress were definitively
over, and that the two national parties, the Congress and the BJP, would never be able to
secure a majority on their own. The era of coalition politics had catapulted to the
forefront the political agendas of regional parties that are more or less confined to their
states. On their own none of these parties can form a government at the national level,
simply because they are state-centric. But in alliance with either of the two national
parties, regional parties managed to wield considerable clout, even if they had only two
or three members in Parliament. As a signifier of a U-turn in Indian politics, this election
has brought back the one-party dominant system

3.4 Summary

P a g e | 40

The kind of complexity and disputes that arise due to multiple parties competing for
power totally hinders the democracy part of the system. Democracy was created to ensure
peace and equality amongst people and not to divide people on the basis of region and
religion. India has people of various religion speaking different languages and this
becomes the weapon of the political parties. It doesnt take much to move a mob against
their rival group with a promise of support and development to them. People blindly
believe what is being said to them and what more could we expect given that the majority
of the population in India are poor and illiterate. Bi-party system as in US and other
countries would ensure a more stable government and lesser political gimmicks as there
shall be only one competitor in the field. And of course, lesser government treasure shall
be spent in election campaigns. The country needs politically aware people and not
hundreds of politicians contesting from different states and regions.
Political and party elites use money and muscle power as means to overcome the
problems of mass democracy. Like the way the method of representation had been
invented to overcome the inconveniences of direct democracy and keep power safely in
the hands of the elites, party leaders may be resorting to the use of money and muscle
power to get through the elections in a mass democracy. In the olden days structured
violence and social domination were helpful to win elections. The increasing role of
money and criminals in party and electoral process are talked about widely today. Several
party leaders are also acutely aware of this problem. The Speaker of the Lok Sabha, on
the occasion of Golden Jubilee of Indian Independence, spoke of the need to wage a
second freedom struggle to end corruption and criminality in politics. The then President
of India spoke about this. The Vohra Committee pointed out the politician-police-criminal
nexus in the country. The Chief Vigilance Officer is seized with the matter. Indira Gandhi
described it as a global phenomenon, but we find it assuming horrendous proportions in
this country. There is a growing concern about the declining quality of leadership;
increasingly inability of parties to intervene in policy process and policy making in the
representative bodies; and the way party functionaries desert, split and destroy parties for
their selfish ends. Parties have come to be increasingly looked upon by leaders,
functionaries and supporters as means to fulfill personal interests.

P a g e | 41

*****************************************************

Chapter 4
Comparative study of
Single Party Dominance and Coalition Governments
4.1 Introduction
The phrase the one-party dominant system was originally fashioned by the noted
political analyst Rajni Kothari to capture a phenomenon peculiar to electoral politics in
India, and to the Congress party in particular. Indias electoral system, wrote Kothari in
1970, approximates neither to the established model of the two-party or multi-party
system, nor to that of the one-party system. For almost two decades after independence,
the Congress, which had led the freedom struggle in the country, controlled the central as
well as state governments. The domination of the Congress and the lack of a viable
opposition in Parliament could have caused concern, as the one-party system did in many
Sub-Saharan countries. Kothari, however, rescued Indian democracy from the negative
connotation attached to one-party rule in closed and authoritarian systems. He suggested
that the Congress was an umbrella party; a coalition of interest groups that often opposed

P a g e | 42

each other within the party. Party decisions were therefore the outcome of a compromise
between different and incommensurate views, forged through intricate processes of
mediation and arbitration within the party. The opposition was there, within the party,
even if it was not a significant presence in Parliament37.
What is coalition politics? Coalition politics is something where no party gets a definite
majority required to form the government in the elections. It mainly happens in a multiparty system like which India follows. Here there are more than 2 parties competing for
the same spot in the same constituencies which makes it difficult for any single
candidates to get the required cutoff. Similarly the party will also fail to get the required
number of seats to form a government. This never occurs in a 2 party system followed by
many countries where one party wins while the other loses. There is definite result which
will occur in the elections.

4.2 Comparison of Basic Features

One-party dominant system38

Multi-Party Systems

37 Rajni Kothari, The Congress System in India, in Asian Survey, Vol. 4, No. 12 (December
1964), p. 1161-1173. The argument was expanded in his 1970 work Politics in India, New Delhi,
Orient Longman.

38 According to Rajini Kothari- Political analyst.

P a g e | 43

1. coalition implies co-operation between

An open and competitive party system,
A fractured opposition that cannot provide
political parties and this co-operation may
an alternative to the government, but which
take place may take place at one of three
can press the government to do certain

things, or not do these things, and

A democratic and consensual dominant
party. Kothari seemed to suggest that the
Congress was a condensate of the
decentered and plural nature of Indian
society, where decisions are produced
through difficult and protracted
negotiations between rival views. What is
important is that in the final instance, these
decisions arrived at a consensus.

different levels
Electoral: In which contest election by
coalition of two or more parties to fight
against a common enemy. This may
range from electoral alliance between
parties at the National level to a mere
understanding at the constituency level.
Parliamentary: This coalition occurs
when no single party gains a majority
and the party asked the party asked to
form the Government refers to rule as a
minority Government on an agreement
on an understanding with another
external support.
Governmental:
The
Governmental
coalition is a power sharing coalition
and it occurs when two or more parties,
none of which is able to win a majority
of its own, combine to form a majority
Government.

The degree of ideological distance may

be discovered between different parties.

Existence of different parties differing

not only in policies but more importantly
on principal fundamentals.

4.3 Comparative study of Advantages and disadvantages

Existence of irresponsible opposition.

P a g e | 44

Government
Single

Advantages

Disadvantages

1. It helps in the establishment of stable 1. Since there is only one party in this

dominant

administration which further helps in the

Government

progress of the country. The progress of

the Soviet Union is a glaring example in

system, there is no freedom of

2.

this regard.
3.
2. In this system, formation and execution

expression.
Democracy

is

eroded

and

dictatorship emerges.
There is no regard for the views of

different classes and interests.

of long-term planning is possible.
4. The Government becomes absolute
3.
The country achieves remarkable
and the administration becomes
economic progress as the Government
irresponsible.
ends the conflicts among all the classes
5. The development of the personality
and it devotes its entire energy, towards
is hindered because all social
the increase of production in the country.
freedoms are crushed.
4. The administration becomes efficient
6. In this system there is an overbearing
because all the powers are concentrated
influence of terrorism, and the
in the hands of one leader and there
opponents are crushed with a heavy
favoritism, nepotism and black-marketing
hand.
are banished altogether.
7. The dictators make enormous
5. There is a unity and discipline in the
military preparations for maintaining
country.
their honor and position, and they
6. Time is not wasted in unnecessary
adopt the policy of war and victory
criticism and propaganda.
which is quite harmful for the
country.

P a g e | 45

Coalition
Government

2. Coalition
government
is
more 1. Coalition government is actually less
democratic, and hence fairer, because it
democratic as the balance of power is
represents a much broader spectrum of
inevitably held by the smelt parties
public opinion than government by one
who can barter their support for
party alone. In almost all coalitions, a
concessions from the main groups
majority of citizens voted for the parties
within the coalition. This means that a
which form the government and so their
party with little popular support is able
views and interests are represented in
to impose its policies upon the
political decision-making.
majority by a process of political
3. Coalition government creates a more
blackmail39. Democracy may be further
honest and dynamic political system,
under mined if the process of coalitionallowing voters a clearer choice at
making is subject to the whim of a
election time. In countries where coalition
monarch or president, able to decide
government is very rare, such as the UK
who to ask to attempt to form a
or USA, the main parties straddle a wide
government, whether to call new
spectrum of opinion and can be seen as
elections, etc.
coalitions of competing interest groups 2. Coalition
government
is
less
and ideologies. At elections, however,
transparent. Because a party has no
such parties present themselves, perhaps
real chance of forming a government
fraudulently, to voters as united behind
alone, the manifestos they present to
particular views and policies, whereas in
the public become irrelevant and often
power their internal divisions may have a
wildly unrealistic. Real decisions
serious, and often unseen, impact upon
about political programmes are made
decision-making. In countries with
after the election, in a process of
coalition governments the greater number
secretive backroom negotiation from
of political parties gives the voter a more
which the public is excluded. This
honest choice and brings differences of
undermines accountability, as voters
opinion out into the open for debate. It is
cannot expect individual parties in a
also easier for parties to split, or new ones
coalition to deliver upon their
to be formed, as new political issues
particular manifesto promises, unlike
divide opinion, because new parties still
the single-party governments in the
have a chance of a share in political
USA and UK. Accountability is also
power.
absent when a coalition government
4. Coalitions provide good government
falls, either after an election or through
because their decisions are made in the
the defection of some of its supporters.
interests of a majority of the people.
Any new administration will tend to

39 Possible examples of this might include the role of religious parties in Israel, the Greens in Germany
and France, and the demand of constitutional reforms by the Liberal Democrats in the UK as their price of
coalition support in a future hung parliament.

P a g e | 46

Because a wide consensus of opinion is

include most of the parties and
involved, any policy will be debated
politicians
from
the
previous
thoroughly within the government before
government, with just a little shuffling
it
is
implemented.
Single-party
of coalition partners and ministerial
government is much more likely to
jobs.
impose badly thought-out policies upon 3. Coalitions provide bad government
because they are unable to take a longparliament and people, perhaps for
term view. Sometimes an ideological
narrowly ideological
reasons
(for
compass is necessary for governments
example, the poll tax in the UK). When
to navigate in difficult political and
difficult or historic decisions have to be
economic waters, and coalitions lack
taken, for example in wartime, or over an
such a unifying philosophy. In
issue such as membership of the European
addition, planning for the long-term
Union or NATO, the consent of politicians
often requires decisions to be made
representing a wide range of interests and
that are unpopular in the short-term.
opinion is important in committing the
Coalitions often fail such tests because
country and its people to difficult but
temporary
unpopularity
may
necessary courses of action.
5. Coalition government provides more
encourage one of the parties involved
continuity in administration. In countries
to defect, in search of a populist
without a tradition of coalition
advantage.
4.
Coalition governments are very
governments, parties can remain in
unstable, often collapsing and
government or opposition for long
reforming at frequent intervals - Italy,
periods, and an adversarial political
for example, averages more than one
culture develops. When a change does
government per year since 1945. This
occur, the members of the new adminisgreatly restricts the ability of
tration seldom have any experience of
governments to deal with major
government to draw upon, and often
reforms and means that politicians
embark upon a wholesale reversal of the
seldom stay in any particular
previous regime's policies; neither of
ministerial post for long enough to get
these things is in the public interest. In
to grips with its demands.
states with coalition politics, however,
there are usually at least some ministers 5. At the same time, this squabbling
between political parties erodes the
with considerable experience under the
confidence of the public in their
previous government. A more consensual
political system and in their elected
style of politics also allows for a more
representatives.
gradual and constructive shift of policy
between administrations.

P a g e | 47

4.5 Conclusion
The current elections, which gave to the BJP a majority in Parliament, have brought back
the one-party dominant system that was once used to describe the hegemony of the
Congress party, and the lack of an opposition. The new one party dominant system is
however dramatically different from the original one. In India there is a need for party
reforms. This is the biggest challenge before the parties, because no reform is possible
without the willingness, cooperation and active pursuit of reform by leaders of parties,
who exercise the necessary legislative powers. Self-regulatory capacity of parties and the
will and wisdom for self-reform among leaders are crucial. They should realize that
survival and consolidation of democracy are crucially hinged upon the health of political
parties. The country needs two parties with mixed set of people representing various
regions who can concentrate on the development of the nation rather than planning
strategies to gain sympathy from their respective region by moving them against the other
region or religion. But this does not come about on its own. In the present circumstances
change in the working of parties is possible to some extent when pressure is brought on
them. The role of opinion makers, civil society organisations and the judiciary is
important in this context. But the pressure has to come mainly from below. So it depends
on the ability of the electorate to choose right people as their representatives. Indian
electorate has shown maturity to vote out parties for bad governance, but the question is:
are they able to bring in parties that could provide good governance? Several party
leaders feel that unless awareness grows among people in this direction, nothing can be
achieved in making parties more responsive and representative. We also need a social
transformation where caste identities are diluted in the political arena and corruption and
criminality are curbed in the society at large so that parties function and perform better.
Economic and industrial development, improved employment and better living standards
for the people would make parties to function better.
We also need regulations that make it mandatory for the parties to function in a
democratic manner, including the election of party functionaries and selection of
candidates. Excessive regulation may be counterproductive, but a consensus could be
worked out on the need for party reform and where and how such reform could be
initiated and implemented through legislation. There is the model code of conduct. There

P a g e | 48

are rules by the EC which make it mandatory for parties to hold elections to the policy
and decision making bodies, to submit statements of income and election expenditure by
parties, and these can be given legal status. EC has come out with several
recommendations on party and electoral reform and these can be considered by the
Parliament. Therefore, what the country needs is a larger agenda, in which the role of
parties had to be redefined and their functioning is regulated.

*************************************************************

P a g e | 49

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