Vol. 33, No.

4
October 2009

Syncretism and the Eternal Word

S

yncretismthe combining of two apparently incompatible things to produce a third entityis an everyday
occurrence. Across much of Africa and Latin America, for example, horses and donkeys blend their DNA to generate the mule
a unique and extraordinarily versatile animal combining the
sure-footedness of the latter and the strength of the former. Political, social, racial, chemical, and biological syncretisms occur so
frequently that we are scarcely aware of them. It is religious syncretism that startles us.
This is surprising,
in some ways, since the
Christian faith itself
springs from the most
astonishing syncretism
conceivableGod becomes a human being; the
eternal becomes temporal; omnipotence yields
to powerlessness. This
audacious syncretism
scandalized the custodians of Judaism in Jesus
day, and it scandalizes
non-Christian monotheists still. After two full
millennia of puzzling, it
continues to far exceed
the intellectual compass
of even the most penetratRay Dirks, 2002
ing theological minds.
Sudanese Madonna and Child
In missiological discourse, syncretism has been largely confined to the vocabulary,
formulations, symbols, and systems of Christendom-forged
doctrines and practices. Syncretism, Harold Turner wrote in his
masterful summation of the subject four decades ago, arises in
the course of presenting Jesus Christ as the sole Lord and Saviour
to men of other religions living in cultures not moulded by the
biblical revelation. By translating the gospel into local languages,
and adapting or accommodating to local ideas and customs, these
are absorbed into the life of the church. Many such elements
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Jesus Imandars and Christ Bhaktas: Report from

Two Field Studies of Interreligious Hermeneutics
and Identity in Globalized Christianity
Jonas Adelin Jrgensen
The Church, the Urban, and the Global: Mission
in an Age of Global Cities
Dale T. Irvin
Declaration on Creation Stewardship and
Climate Change
Micah Network
Ivan Illich and the American Catholic
Missionary Initiative in Latin America
Todd Hartch
The Church in Nepal: Analysis of Its Gestation
and Growth
John Barclay
My Pilgrimage in Mission
David Dong-Jin Cho
Ralph Winter, 19242009
Paul E. Pierson
Thirty Books That Most Influenced My
Understanding of Christian Mission
Gerald H. Anderson
The Legacy of Philip Beach Sullivan
Jessie G. Lutz
Mission to Nowhere: Putting Short-Term
Missions into Context
Brian M. Howell
Noteworthy
Ignace Partui: Iroquois Evangelist to the Salish,
ca. 17801837
John C. Mellis
Book Reviews
Dissertation Notices
Index
Book Notes

have, however, been intimately related to another religion, and

it is often difficult to incorporate them without also absorbing
their previous religious associations and meanings. He goes on
to note that when Christian elements are themselves interpreted
and transformed in a pagan direction, it becomes again a pagan
religion, although now enriched by Christian borrowings (Concise
Dictionary of the Christian World Mission [1971], p. 580).
The essays in this issue of the IBMR point up the enduring challenge of ensuring both the fidelity and the relevance of
Christian faith across the shifting boundaries of time, languages,
cultures, and institutions. Throughout most of the Christianized
world, such concerns are most explicitly the domain of theological
seminaries, whose mandate is the transmission of sound apostolic
teaching to faithful people who will be able to teach others as
well (2 Tim. 2:2). But concerns with revelatory fidelity and cultural relevance are implicit at multiple levels across the frontiers
of Christian witness, where the letter and, it is hoped, the spirit of
biblical teaching is articulated, appropriated, and applied within
cultural settings and through languages worlds removed from
those of the theologians and missionaries who have systematized
and standardized this sound teaching. In either case, the line
between relevance and syncretism can often be exasperatingly
variable, difficult to discern, and controversial. Such concerns are
reflected in Dale Irvins elucidation of the issues facing mission
in an age of global cities. He observes (quoting Edward Said),
No one today is purely one thing. Our hybrids are proliferating
and, contrary to nature, are multiplying exponentially. As Todd
Hartch relates in his article, Ivan Illich was convinced that American Christianity was so utterly and irredeemably syncretized as
to disqualify its citizens from authentic missionary vocation. He
did everything in his considerable power to undermine his own
churchs missionary efforts in Latin America.

Jonas Adelin Jrgensens lead article shows how Christian

witness on cultural-religious frontiers raises fresh questions about
bewilderingly complex and constantly evolving issues of contextualization and syncretism in predominantly Hindu and Muslim
societies, where the word Christian has long been associated
with the worst that the West has to offer. In such environments,
identifying oneself as Christian suggests the jettisoning of basic
personal integrity. In such cultures to be a follower of Jesus is one
thing; to be a Christian quite another.
The man whose short obituary appears in this issue did
more than most to help remove doctrinal blinders that have
long ensured the theological myopia of Christian missions.
Ralph Winter opened our eyes to indisputable evidence of
Gods salvific grace outside and beyond inherited Christendom
theologies and ecclesiologies. The constructive missiological
dialogue on insider movements fostered by his International
Journal of Frontier Missiology has reminded readers of Gospel
verities that have been too readily set aside: that salvation is not
about Christianity but about Christ, and that it is not orthodoxy
but orthopraxy that ultimately distinguishes sheep from goats
on judgment day. Tjolzhitsay, the Flathead chief who had a
reputation for kindness that extended even to his enemies,
could not possibly pass the Christianity test, but his welcome of
Ignace Partui, the Iroquois evangelist whose story John Mellis
relates, places him securely in our Lords Well done! category,
according to Matthew 25.
No human system of thought, language, and behavior can
do full justice to the mystery of God revealed through history,
through a people, through events, through human languages,
through the Word made flesh. The treasure we carry is indeed
entrusted to limited, earthen vessels.
Jonathan J. Bonk

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170

International Bulletin of Missionary Research, Vol. 33, No. 4

Jesus Imandars and Christ Bhaktas: Report from Two Field

Studies of Interreligious Hermeneutics and Identity in
Globalized Christianity
Jonas Adelin Jrgensen

he emergence of numerous indigenous forms of Christianity as a consequence of its globalization is a wellknown and widely studied phenomenon in missiology. A debate
concerning criteria for discerning authentic inculturation/
contextualization and illegitimate syncretism has accompanied
these studies right from the start and has remained a fundamental
concern among missiologists. This debate is not surprising, for
the discussion of contextualization and syncretism occurs exactly
where faith and culture interact. Despite the continuing discussion,
however, no common theoretical approach to syncretism exists,
and no criteria for authentic inculturation or contextualization
have yet been agreed upon.1
This article presents the results of two field studies of the
interaction between faith and culture in the lives of believers in
Jesus Christ from a Muslim background in Dhaka, Bangladesh,
and from a Hindu background in Chennai (formerly Madras),
Tamil Nadu, India.2 The results suggest that we should not be hasty
in judging indigenous forms of Christianity as either authentic
contextualization or illegitimate syncretism but, rather, should
examine carefully the interreligious hermeneutics at work. Such
a use of interreligious hermeneutics could provide the theoretical
basis necessary for theological and missiological discussion of
the relation between Christianity and other religious traditions.
I conclude by discussing how empirical studies might inform
missiological perspectives on Christian identity and its relation
to other religious traditions in our globalized world.

Jesus Imandars in Dhaka, Bangladesh

As an independent nation since 1971, Bangladesh in its cultural
and social life continues to be deeply influenced by Islam, which
is the religion of more than 85 percent of its population. While
there are 12 percent Hindus and 0.6 percent Buddhists, Christians number only 0.3 percent of the approximately 150 million
Bangladeshis.3 Although the majority of Christians are converts
from Hinduism, Islamic culture is the background for Christianity in Bangladesh.
During my fieldwork in Dhaka, I established acquaintance
with a number of Bangladeshi men and some women from Muslim background who attended small groups of s imandars, or
those faithful to Jesus. The groups, which the imandars termed
jamaat (fellowship), met in private homes and functioned as
gatherings for worship, prayer, sermons, and social interaction.
In this condensed report, I focus on their liturgy, religious ideal
and identity, and theological reflection. Taken together, these

Jonas Adelin Jrgensen, Assistant Research Professor

in Systematic Theology at the Theological Faculty,
University of Copenhagen, teaches global Christianity, mission theology, and theology of religions. He is
the author of Jesus Imandars and Christ Bhaktas:
Two Case Studies of Interreligious Hermeneutics
and Identity in Global Christianity (Peter Lang,
2008).
[email protected]
October 2009

three areas provide a rough outline of what it means to be an

imandar (literally, faithful [one]).
Jamaat liturgy. A typical meeting in Mehrabs jamaat took place
in his office, which was connected to his apartment. On Fridays
a small signboard announcing Jamaat was placed on the front
door; all furniture was removed, and mats covered the office floor.
The meeting started in the late afternoon as the last rays of the
sun disappeared behind the houses across the small street. As
members of the jamaat arrived, each was handed a copy of the
Kitab ul Mughaldesh (the Bible in Musalmani Bengali translation)
and a homemade collection of se-songs. After five or six imandars had gathered, Mehrab welcomed everyone and announced
a song, either a translation of a classic Western hymn or a local
composition drawing heavily upon the Bangladeshi style of music
known as baul gan (folk song). In principle women were welcome
but in reality their attendance was limited to the women living
in the household where the meeting took place. This means that
the jamaat groups in practice tended to follow the somewhat
patriarchic religious culture in Bangladesh. Reading, especially
recitation of long passages in the Kitab ul Mughaldesh, was part
of every meeting. The Zabur (the Book of Psalms) and the apostolic letters were often recited. In veneration of the Holy Book it
was placed on a wooden bookstand in front of every imandar.
Mehrab, who called himself imam (leader of the prayer), would
occasionally read aloud a text himself, but he usually restricted
himself to preaching the sermon, commenting on and developing
the texts. There were always common prayers after the sermon.
In contrast to the highly ritualized mosque prayers, the imandars
did not follow any particular ritual, but everyone was free to
pray. From time to time the imandars celebrated Communion.
The ritual was simple and devoid of pomp and circumstance:
Mehrab simply read the well-known verses from 1Corinthians
and distributed bread and fruit juice.
As a whole, the liturgy thus seems to consciously adopt
a Bangladeshi and Islamic style of worship in several aspects.
On the material level, the straw mats covering the floor and the
wooden bookstands are expressions of Islamic style, found in
every mosque or Quran school. With folk songs, recitations,
and expositions of Gods deeds by the leader, the style of the
meeting itself clearly draws on the popular South Asian milad
style of religious meetings, which are commemorative religious
gatherings held to celebrate birth, marriage, or funerals. Recitation of sacred texts is widely used in Islamic religious culture
to evoke the sacred reality of divine revelation. In identification
with this practice, the imandars recite the Bible. In contrast to
Islamic practice, however, they recite the text in the vernacular.
In so doing, they seem to be shifting emphasis from the Islamic
ideal of correct recitation to the Christian ideal of correct
understanding. Interestingly, the baul gan is not simply music
but also a religious sect known for its unconventional behavior,
poetic freedom, and spiritual spontaneity. Baul is not limited to
one religion but has attracted followers among Hindus as well
as Sufis. Adopting and identifying with this style of music, the
imandars transcend the borders of structured religious life and
171

point to the key role of personal relation and inner commitment.

Another interesting feature is the role of prayers; the value of
ritualized namaz prayer4 in Arabic is played down, in contrast
to individual and personal prayers in Bengali. When it comes
to Communion, rituals are stripped down to a minimum. The
jamaats are thus not simply Islamized Christian churches but
are consciously more intimate and spiritual, in contrast to
institutional and religious mosques and churches.
Religious ideal and identity. The word iman (faith) is not just etymologically related to imandars but plays a fundamental role
in the imandars self-understanding as faithful. According to
the emic, that is, the imandars perspective, faith is not abstract
knowledge or belief but must be existential and relational,
expressed first and foremost as faithfulness. According to the
imandars, iman involves a personal totality, heart, mind, and
strength, and becoming a Jesus imandar means to fix ones iman
on Jesus, that is, to enter a relation with Jesus, who as a spiritual
master will mediate the divine and transform the believer through
his very presence.
Besides prayer and reading, the imandars enact their faithfulness ritually in baptism, which is spoken of as turiqa (binding)
of oneself to Jesus. This binding is said to be a public witness to
a loyalty and faithfulness that transcends all other boundaries,
religious and social, because it first and foremost is an individual,
personal commitment. Given this background, it seems strange
and almost paradoxical that the majority of imandars continue
to practice and argue for public baptism in the name of Jesus
Christ. However, the concepts of iman and the notion of baptism
as turiqa might be reconciled: turiqa stems from the Sufi tradition, where it refers to the mystical path in faith. As a concept
utilized in connection with baptism, turiqa seems to emphasize
a personal and emotional bond between the subject and Jesus, a
radical interiority expressed ritually. The imandars reinterpretation of Christian baptism enlarges the meaning of baptism, for
it becomes a ritual enactment and public confession of an inner
transformation.
A fundamental question is to what degree this commitment
to Jesus is compatible with the life of the wider Muslim community, and the question frequently arose whether the imandar was
still a Muslim. The imandars themselves were divided on this
question. Although most agreed that a newly baptized imandar
could continue participating in the local mosque, roughly half
the informants no longer identified themselves as Muslims,
while the other half accepted Mehrabs line of argumentation
that identifying oneself as Muslim is significant, even if it takes
some historical and textual exegesis: specifically, a Muslim aims
to submit to the will of God, and so does the imandar. According
to the apostle Paul, inner transformation is needed for a believer
to do the will of God (Rom. 12:2). When the imandar becomes
faithful to Jesus, inner transformation is initiated, and the result
is a regenerated Muslim who does the will of God from the heart
by following Jesus example, and who transcends divisions
between institutional Christian churches and Islamic mosques.
According to some of the imandars, this understanding allows for
participation in any mosque (or church) because mosque prayers
are simply outward and hold only relative value.
In the mosque liturgy, a crucial point in which social and
ritual identity come together is the collective confession, tawhid,
that is, the utterance of the Islamic creed, which implies a ritual
recognition of Muhammad as prophet of God. According to
some imandars, they simply stop after the first half of the creed,
which affirms the sovereign status of God. Instead of adding
172

Muhammad is the Prophet of God, they silently add Jesus is

the Spirit of God. The theological heterodoxy of this statement
is clear, and those imandars who argue for such a step also
acknowledge that the majority of Muslims do not agree with this
substitution. With this understanding, participation in namaz
prayer in mosques might be tolerated by majority Muslims but
could hardly be said to be welcomed.
Theological reflection among imandars. Even if the imandars insist
on their Islamic identity, there are marked differences with the
Bangladeshi Muslim community at large. We see this clearly in
their Christological reflection, which is suspended between the
notion of Jesus prophethood and his sacrificial death.
The notion of Jesus prophethood emphasizes his embodiment of spiritual and ethical qualities such as nonviolence, compassion, and vicarious sufferingthat is, his nispap (sinlessness).
Like a popular wandering, saintly Sufi pir (Muslim saint), Jesus is
therefore spiritually powerful and able to act as intercessor for
the imandar. From their New Testament readings, they furthermore affirm Jesus as messenger of truth, just like Muhammad.
A basic concern among the imandars is that Jesus is alivea
fundamental fact that both Islamic and Christian tradition agrees
upon, according to the imandars. The spiritually powerful and
continuous life of Jesus both depends on and demonstrates the
unique relation between Jesus and God. Therefore Jesus is not just
a prophet but the prophet par excellence, it is argued. Even if the
conceptualization of Jesus prophethood emphasizes similarity
with Muhammads as messenger of truth, Jesus is viewed as
hierarchically superior to Muhammad on the basis of his spiritual
power and continuous life.
Interestingly, the unique relation between Jesus and God
is revealed in the imandars understanding of Jesus death as
simultaneously gift and sacrifice. The imandars use the Urdu
theological term qurbani to describe Jesus death.5 The term corresponds somewhat to the English sacrifice, but it also means
offering. To view Jesus death as a sacrifice mainly highlights
mediation or reconciliation, an idea well known from Christian
theological tradition. But if Jesus death is also considered an
offering, it becomes a gift. According to their own logic and
values, this divine gift to the imandar makes a return obligatory;
without a return, the value of the gift diminishes. The imandar is
not able to offer himself completely, but he must act as if he was
sacrificing himself. In this way, the imandar accepts the mediation between God and himself through the death of Jesus, and he
also returns the divine gift. The return of the gift is conditioned
by love, that is, by the intimate personal relation between the
imandar and Jesus.
Summing up, it is clear that the conceptualization of Jesus
significance to a large degree has counterparts in popular Bangladeshi Islam: the notion of prophethood, intercession, spiritual
power, moral innocence, and mediation by a pir of the divine.
For the imandars, to become faithful refers to an Islamic
theological virtue, and to become a Jesus imandar is a Bengali
style of religiositybut it has a Christian subject matter, which
becomes clear in the presentation of the imandars Christology.
The meaning of the imandars Christology transcends the quranic
universe, and the notion of Jesus being superior to Muhammad
distances the imandars from Islamic theology. Ultimately, their
interpretation of Jesus death as gift and sacrifice most clearly
distances the imandars from the majority of Muslims and definitely transcends quranic Christology. From my point of view,
this ultimately places the imandars outside the Islamic theological
universe and within the broader Christian tradition.
International Bulletin of Missionary Research, Vol. 33, No. 4

Christ Bhaktas in Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India

According to the popular history of Christianity in South India,
Mylapore (now located in modern Chennai) is the place where the
apostle Thomas was martyred and buried in the first century. His
witness was not in vain, and Christianity has long been present in
the region. Whereas the majority of India is Hindu (80.5 percent)
and Muslims make up a large minority (13.4 percent), more than
24 million, or 2.3 percent of Indias population, belong to one of
the various Christian denominations.6 Interestingly, Christianity
is to a high degree an urban phenomenon in Tamil Nadu, and
among the megacities of the Indian subcontinent Chennai holds
a solid lead when it comes to the number of mainline as well as

charismatic churches, revival rallies, and public prayer halls.

Furthermore, the majority of Christians in India are of humble
origin, in terms of both caste and economic status.
In contrast to the typical urban, poor, and low-caste Christians, the group of Khrist bhaktas (devotees of Christ) that I had
the chance to follow during my fieldwork were all from a highercaste Hindu background. A large part of the material I gathered
deals with the fact that the bhaktas consider themselves to be
doubly estranged, both in relation to their Hindu birth communities and in relation to Christian communities. Caste questions
and Hindu cultural background deeply influence the form of
faith the bhaktas express. I focus here on how bhakti (devotion)
is understood and utilized as communal ritual, personal ideal,
and theological method.
Bhakti liturgy. The group of Christ bhaktas met irregularly in
a private home, but the meeting included a number of basic
elements. In contrast to the jamaat meetings, women were
welcome not only in principle but also in practice, and several
women attended the bhaktas meetings. After having met one of
the participants a number of times, I was invited to participate
in the groups devotional meeting. Sarasvat, the leader of the
group, was an elderly gentleman who dressed in saffron robes.
He prepared the room for the evenings meeting by removing
all the furniture and by drawing a large kolam (a traditional
Hindu geometric pattern) on the floor with white rice flour. He
also placed a traditional brass lamp on the floor and arranged
a small pot with incense sticks, betel leaves, coconuts, bananas,
October 2009

milk, flower garlands, and a small book stand with a Bible on

top. After lighting the lamp, the living room was completely
transformed into a room for pj (worship).
After several participants had arrived, Sarasvat announced
the first bhajan (devotional song), which could be a simple chorus
repeating sharanam, sharanam Deva (surrender, surrender to
God). Other bhajans praised with equally simple poetry Jesus
as muktiswa (giver of salvation) and satyaguru (true teacher), or
they simply mentioned names and descriptions of Jesusas
Sweet, Love, Healing, Comfort, Auspicious, Holy, Beauty, and
so forth. After an ample time of singing meditative and melodious bhajans, Sarasvat would normally give a sermon, often
in the form of a darshan (literally, sight, here beholding
of a deity). He would, for instance, ask the bhaktas to
imagine walking to a temple in early morning, sitting
down at Jesus feet, adoring his loving and beautiful face,
touching his hands, asking him to see the reflection of
his face in their hearts. This experience of Jesus love
was often pointed to as the goal of all bhakti. Coconuts,
milk, and bananas were used by the bhaktas to celebrate
Communion. Sarasvat would distribute bananas and
milk or break the coconut, collect the coconut milk, and
show the white interior to the bhaktas, announcing that
Christ was broken for you. The banana or coconut
and milk would then be distributed among the bhaktas
so that they could receive Jesus mahaprasad (literally,
large gift, here meaning spiritual nourishment in
physical form).
Although rather exotic at first glance, with its extensive use of Hindu elements and symbols, the bhaktas
liturgy is also very familiar in its focus on Jesus as Christ.
The kolam drawn on the floor is a cosmological map
popularly known as a demon trap because the intricate
design confuses the feverishly active but stupid demons.
In connection with the religious ritual, it serves to sanctify the space by keeping away demons. The singing of bhajans
draws on a Hindu devotional form of ancient origin. Bhajans are
simple but often soulful songs expressing in emotional language
the relation between the devotee and the divine. They typify
the bhaktas approach to the divine, for bhakti, as an all-Indian
form of religiosity, emphasizes devotion in contrast to jnana
(philosophical knowledge) or karma (meritorious deeds). Also,
the use of coconuts and bananas in Hindu religious practice is
well known, for the breaking of ones hard shell and the offering of ones innermost sweet is ritually enacted in every temple
visit by breaking coconuts and offering bananas. Coconuts and
bananas are offered to the god, and the temple priest offers them
back again to the devotee, now as a prasad (divine gift) to be
enjoyed for spiritual renewal. By receiving the divine prasad in
Communion and consuming the sacrificial death of Christ, the
bhakta is transformed and purified.
Bhakti as personal devotion. In order to obtain a fuller understanding
of bhakti among the bhaktas, it is helpful to look into how bhakti
is viewed in terms of personal devotion and interior reality. As a
personal form of piety, bhakti is primarily pictured in relational
terms: genuine surrender must be clearly felt and must be
inward, it is often said. The bodily metaphors found in bhajans
convey an ideal of intimacy: one should feel the touch of Jesus
Christ, see him, sit in his presence, preparing ones body,
mind, and character for him, touching his feet in respect and
adoration. The underlying logic of the darshan reveals the same
tendency, for it teaches that one develops a genuine spirituality
173

not outwardly, through religious rituals, but only inwardly,

through experience and intimacy with the divine.
In a discussion Vinod, one of the bhaktas, argued for a
distinction between selfish and unselfish spirituality. Whereas
selfish spirituality is characterized only by a quest for individual
experience of God and individual liberation, unselfish spirituality includes knowledge (jnana) and action (karma) in the wider
community. The institutional forms of religion tend to cater to
selfish spiritualities, he argued, while the bhaktas opt for a warm
and unselfish spirituality outside of structured religious life.
This is completely in line with the all-Indian concept of bhakti,
which distinguishes between a lower, impure type of bhakti and
a higher, purer type, characterized by absolute affection for the
perfect, untarnished by selfish motives. Even if it is clearly the
bhaktas own ideal, it might be questioned whether bhaktas in
fact display a higher and purer type of bhakti than occurs in the
institutional Christian churches. We cannot overlook the fact,
however, that the choice of bhakti as an authentic Indian religious
style in itself is a critique of the institutional Christian churches
and their Western theology.
The bhaktas are also critical of Hindu culture and especially of
Hindu ritual life. The daily ritual practice of Hindus depends on
caste and birth community, but all bhaktas report problems because
of lack of observance of daily family rituals. Critique of idolatry
is harsh, and the Hindus naive understanding of the nature of
divinity is criticized; nevertheless, several of the bhaktas report
that they feel free to participate in certain family rituals because
the others dont understand the Sanskrit slokas (two-line verses
from the Bhagavad Gita) and because the ritual is meaningless.
The non-sense, or emptiness, of the traditional Hindu rituals thus
sanctions the bhaktas participation. The bhaktas relation to Hindu
ritual and Hindu social identity might therefore be characterized
as highly syncretistic and, at the same time, subject to the bhaktas
interior relationship with Jesus Christ.
Theology of the bhaktas. Bhakti is instrumental not only in ritual
and personal identity but also as theological method. Bhakti
answers the question, How can one understand what is beyond
understanding? Sarasvat argued that bhakti leads to sharanam
(total and unconditional surrender), which in turn makes possible an intimate relation with God; this relation is fundamental
for salvific knowledge because, apart from a relation, one cannot
know anything about God. Thus the bhaktas grasp through devotion what is beyond intellectual understanding; that is, through
bhakti they approach and get to know the love of Jesus. Bhakti
is an inward experience with God, while theology is an outward
expression of this experience.
Although the bhaktas criticize Hindu religious life, they
are more positive toward Hindu philosophical terminology and
theology. God is described as Supreme Being and Eternal Being
and identified with Brahman, the unchanging, supreme existence,
immanent and transcendent in Vedantic theology. However, the
Brahman terminology ispurposefully and tellinglystretched
beyond its limits when the bhaktas in their bhajans sing of our
saving friend Jesus Christ as incarnated Brahman and incarnated divine wisdom, knowledge and compassion.
As noted above, the bhaktas Christological understanding
centers on Jesus as giver of salvation (muktiswa) and true teacher
(satyaguru). As muktiswa, Jesus is said to be the jaya-deva (mangod) who can destroy sins poison, vanquish temptations, and
heal all infirmities. This vanquishing and destruction take place
through his lifting up of himself, that is, in Jesus death on
the cross. This statement is not as trivial as it might first seem:
174

Jesus becomes victorious through his incarnated weakness, and

ultimately through his self-sacrifice. The eternal and impersonal
Brahman sacrifices itself through incarnate weakness and in the
suffering of the person Jesus Christ, with whom the bhakta can
enter into a loving relation. This understanding seems to underlie
the bhaktas dynamic interpretation of Communion.
A related aspect of the bhaktas Christology is their notion of
Jesus as satyaguru (literally, guru of truth). In Hindu tradition,
a guru is needed both to to strip the cover from false knowledge
and to mediate divine insight. The title satyaguru denotes both
the location of true knowledge and the imparter of this knowledge.
The guru is therefore said to embody spiritual wisdom to a degree
that opens up devotion to the guru. The bhaktas understanding
of Jesus as guru thus refers to his personification of wisdom and
life, which makes appropriate a devotional response, because
Jesus discloses the falsehood of sin and gives eternal life to the
devotee. According to the bhaktas, salvation is from ignorance,
sin, and death and to a blissful union with the divine through
Jesus, the personified love, life, truth, and knowledge.
Summing up, the term bhakti refers to a complex and
manifold phenomenon in the history of Indian religions. Over the
centuries bhakti has been elaborated by various theologians and
spiritual masters, but all agree that bhakti is open to everyone,
offers spiritual perfection, and leads to divine blessing. Bhakti
thus always carries an association of enthusiasm, fervor, and love.
While drawing on this well-known style of Hindu religious life,
the Christ bhaktas clearly center their devotion on Jesus Christ,
the incarnated divine transcendence. For the bhaktas, bhakti
becomes the solution to both the social and the theological limbo
they find themselves in.
Through bhakti religious style, the Christ bhaktas emphasize
aspects of Christian tradition that have largely been neglected
by modern, liberal Western Christianity, such as faith as devotional love, and spiritual contemplation as imbibing the beauty
of Christ. In this way, the style adopted by the bhaktas might be
said to translate Hindu religiosity into the Christian theological
universe and thereby enlarge Christian understanding. Again,
Christology seems to be the area in which the bhaktas disagree
with orthodox Hindu schools: the Christ whom bhaktas make
their focus of devotion is said to be the personal and immanent
form of the transcendent and absolute God. Unlike monistic
Hindu theology, which teaches that transmigration of ones soul
occurs through fulfillment of dharma (law; literally, that which
upholds), Christ bhaktas teach that liberation depends solely
upon their relationship to Jesus and his personal qualities. Pure
and sublime bhakti is not only a means to obtain salvation but is
in itself realization of transformation through intimate relation
with Jesus. Whereas orthodox Hindu schools have no place for
distinguishable personality in relation to the ultimate and absolute
Brahman, Christ bhaktas realize transformation in relation to a
distinguishable personality outside themselvesJesus Christ.

Missiological Reflections
At this point I return to the initial missiological question of
contextualization and syncretism: Do these two case studies
illustrate authentic contextualization, or are they examples of
illegitimate syncretism?
To sum up, faith in Jesus is experienced and expressed in
concepts that we can easily identify as Islamic and Bengali, and
as Hindu and Tamil. The new contextual meaning clearly emerges
as a translation of elements from Islamic and Hindu culture into
a Christian theological universe. On a fundamental level, the
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translation might be characterized as interreligious because it

takes place in the meeting between religious traditions and theological universes. The translation is not restricted to material or
linguistic levels but affects liturgy, personal religious ideals, and
theological understanding. It is thus accompanied by a significant recombination and reinterpretation of various elements in
the interaction between Islam or Hinduism and Christianity, as
epitomized in the imandars and bhaktas Christology.
Furthermore, we could term the process interreligious
hermeneutics because it involves determination of sameness
and difference between ones own faith and experience and
that of another religious universe. We can distinguish a number
of hermeneutical strategies, showing how determination of
sameness and difference takes place on a number of levels. It
is noteworthy that, in the strategies exercised by the imandars
and bhaktas, the meaning of other religious traditions is neither
wholly positive nor wholly negative. Both the imandars and the
bhaktas use several interpretative strategies, each in relation to
certain ideas or elements of the other religious traditions. They
are at the same time exclusivists, inclusivists, and pluralists, but
they are so on different levels and in relation to various elements.
A typology of this process would make it clear that the result of
the translation is not simply syncretistic or authentic.
The translation process is clearly syncretistic in the sense
that it mixes and blends concepts and meanings. We should view
the outcome of the syncretistic process as perfectly authentic,
however, in the sense that the centrality and exclusivity of Jesus
Christ is affirmed in both cases.

From Interreligious Hermeneutics to Missiology

How do empirical studies like these inform our missiological
reflection? I see fruitful results in three areas.
First, they show the significance of contextual studies.
Formerly, under the influence of dialectical theology, Protestant
missiology separated Christian mission from human religious
experience as expressed in other religious traditions.7 In recent
decades, however, this tendency has been criticized as demeaning,
not only of other religious traditions but potentially also of other
racial and social groups. The movement for contextualization
in missiology, which insists that the meaning of Gods sending
of himself for any context is known only in particular contexts,
not only differs methodologically from earlier approaches but
also is driven by a different theology of mission. These two field
studies point toward the validity of a contextual type of mission
theology that remains open to the experiences and interpretations

Notes

1. The field studies reported in this article are presented and discussed
more thoroughly in Jonas Adelin Jrgensen, Jesus Imandars and Christ
Bhaktas: Two Case Studies of Interreligious Hermeneutics and Identity in
Global Christianity (Frankfurt: Peter Lang, 2008).
2. The material for this article consists of data gathered by participant
observation and personal interviews. I was able to observe a number
of religious groups and to interview 35 men and 8 women from
a Muslim background, and 18 men and 5 women from a Hindu
background. The fieldwork was carried out in OctoberDecember
2002 and JanuaryOctober 2004. The first part of the fieldwork
was made possible financially by the Areopagos Foundation, and
the second part by grants from the Danish National Council for
Humanities, the Julie von Mllens Stiftelse, and the Sigurd Andersen og Hustrus Stiftelse.
3. The percentages are those given by Jose Kuttianimattathil and John
C. England, Contextual Theological Reflection in Bangladesh, in
176

of people who are called by God in his universal calling, inside

or outside of institutional churches.
Second, such studies point to the positive role of Christian
mission. The theology of mission has often had to face the accusation that mission subverts the integrity of other cultures
and faiths, that mission involves spiritual colonization of the
mind and production of a modern self more than salvation
of the soul.8 In response to such a critique, I find it interesting
to consider the imandars and bhaktas discovery (or recovery?)
of interiority. Both groups clearly argue for a new importance
of the self, a new sense of interioritybut what are the roots of
this interiority? If the imandars and bhaktas displayed a new
understanding of themselves dependent upon modern notions
of interiority, one might argue that their cultural and spiritual
integrity had been subverted or colonized. But how can such an
explanation be maintained if the imandars and bhaktas deepened
sense of subjectivity is based on their experience of conversion,
forgiveness of sin, and divine renewal?
Finally, these studies reveal the value of Christian conversion for interreligious interaction. Recent critique of mission has
argued that in a context of religious pluralism, insistence on one
religious truth hinders genuine interaction and dialogue.9 Again,
I find the imandars and bhaktas religious practice informative:
rather than hindering such dialogue, it seems that their commitment to Jesus Christ actually facilitates it. It is on the basis of
their commitment to and experience of Jesus as Christ that they
engage in interpretation of their former religious tradition. Rather
than being a hindrance, their commitment provides them a lens
through which they are able to offer a theological perspective
on other religious traditions.

Missiology and Theology of Religions

In an age of globalized Christianity in a religiously plural world,
understanding the meaning of other religious traditions can no
longer be separated from understanding the meaning of the
Christian church. That is, a missiological theology of mission and
a systematic theology of religions must be intimately related to
each other: the former focuses on the meaning of Gods sending of
himself and of the Christian church, and the latter focuses on the
meaning of the various religious traditions. Empirical investigation of actual interreligious hermeneutics can help keep these two
aspects of Christian theology in creative tension, which enables
missiologists to advance the understanding of what constitutes
genuine contextualization in the continuous historical unfolding
of Christianity in a multitude of contexts.

Asian Christian Theologies, vol. 1, ed. John C. England et al. (Maryknoll, N.Y.: Orbis, 2002), p. 170; the population count is the figure
given for Bangladesh in 2005 by the U.N. Web site.
4. Namaz (Urdu) or salat (Arabic) is one of the pillars of Islam.
5. Cf. Arabic qurba and Hebrew korban (see Mark 7:11).
6. The percentage of Christians in Tamil Nadu State is significantly
higher: 6.1 percent, or nearly 3.8 million out of a total population of
62 million, according to the official Indian 2001 census. For details,
see www.censusindia.gov.in/Census_Data_2001/India_at_glance/
religion.aspx.
7. E.g., Hendrik Kraemer, Religion and the Christian Faith (London:
Lutterworth Press, 1956), pp. 392406.
8. E.g., Peter van der Veer in the introduction to a volume he edited,
Conversions to Modernity (New York: Routledge, 1996), pp. 122.
9. E.g., John Hick in his Problems of Religious Pluralism (London:
Macmillan, 1985), pp. 2845.
International Bulletin of Missionary Research, Vol. 33, No. 4

The Church, the Urban, and the Global: Mission in an Age of

Global Cities
Dale T. Irvin

e are living in a period of enormous global transfor- became Europe. In each place it went, it rapidly adapted to new
mationthat is no secret. One of the results is that urban contexts, attracting members of the artisan and educated
cities across the globeall cities, the city in generalare rapidly (literate) classes who quickly assumed leadership of the movechanging. A majority of the earths population now live in cities or ment. Cities even then, though not of the size that we know them
megacities.1 Over the past several decades, these cities throughout today, were defining centers of religious, social, political, and
the world have undergone a transformation that is closely con- economic power. Cities were also, then as now, passageways,
nected to the transformation in
nodes along commercial and
economy, politics, and culture
political nexuses of cultures
associated with globalization.2
and civilizations. The city was
To speak of globalization and urban culture today risks
The city is no longer located
never just a particular physical
making a double errorfirst, because the phrase sugspatially at the center. It is beor geographic configuration; it
gests that cities have never before experienced periods
coming decentered and transwas and still is a way of being.
centered andgiven the accelA city isnt just a place to live,
of such intense global trade and migration, and, second,
erating forces of virtual reality
to shop, to go out and have kids
because it implies that cities produce a singular urban
and virtual livingvirtually
play, says Richard Sennett.
culture. Cities are always made by mobilityor, as in
immanent and transcendent
Its a place that implicates
current parlance, by flowsof people, money, goods
at the same time.3 Cities by
how one derives ones ethics,
their very nature seek to make
how one develops a sense of
and signs. They combine, for this reason, paradoxical
connections with other cities,
justice, how one learns to talk
extremes of wealth and poverty, familiarity and strangeseek to form networks, seek to
with and learn from people
ness, home and abroad. Cities are where new things are
facilitate contacts beyond the
who are unlike oneself, which
immediate terrain. Megacities
is how a human being becomes
created and from which they spread across the world.
and global cities realize these
human.5 Perhaps the Christian
A city is both a territory and an attitude, and perhaps
movement has always shown
ends as never before.
this attitude is culture.
a particular affinity for the city
Globalization has transprecisely because the city is in
formed many of the most basic
United Nations Human Settlements Programme
a certain sense part of what
conditions or understandings
The State of the Worlds Cities, 2004/2005:
ultimately makes us human.
of human existence upon
Globalization and Urban Culture
But the city is a complex,
which notions of church and
multifaceted reality, capable
mission have historically been
of extremes and of forming, as
constructed in the modern era.
The idea of national and even geographic boundaries of identity, much as deforming, the human. It is a process that both reveals
for instance, that gave us the here and there of missionary and conceals, notes Henri Lefebvre: Everything is legible. Urban
thinking that was famously criticized by Keith Bridston as offer- space is transparent. Everything signifies, even if signifiers float
ing a salt-water definition of missionthat is, that someone freely, since everything is related to pure form, is contained in
becomes a missionary only when she or he crosses salt wateris that form. He goes on, The city, the urban, is also mysterious,
even more anachronistic in this day of global cities than it was occult. Alongside the strident signs of visible power such as wealth
when his book was first published in 1965.4 Rather, cities around and the police, plots are engineered and hidden powers conspire,
the globe are becoming places of diaspora, places of passage behind appearances and beneath transparency.6 Theologically,
more than places of settlement, more like thoroughfares than we might say that the city, not unlike the church, is a place for
they are residences. City and world are converging formations. sinners and saints alike, and a place where one can find signs
and countersigns alike of the coming reign of God.
The implications for mission and ministry are enormous.
Christianity has had a long and complex relationship with the
city. During its first centuries Christianity was primarily an urban The City in History
phenomenon. It spread from Palestine along urban commercial
trade routes to other regions of the world, going east into Asia Lefebvre organizes the history of cities globally into several major
and south into Africa, as well as north and west into what later formations. The forms overlap, of course, and do not necessarily
progress in a linear, straightforward manner. Nevertheless as an
Dale T. Irvin, President and Professor of World Chris- organizing schema with which to think about the urban, they can
tianity, New York Theological Seminary, New York, be helpful. Lefebvres first type of city is what he calls the politiis the author (with Scott W. Sunquist) of History of cal city, the polis, the capital, the place where kings and queens
the World Christian Movement, vol. 1, 2001; vol. lived and from which they ruled in the ancient world and around
2, forthcoming (Orbis Books). [email protected] the globe. The city was birthed as the semiotic world of royalty,
the ceremonial religious center where temple and palace were
located, the place where the divine and the human came together
to shape the world.7 The political city organized the countryside
October 2009

177

outside itself and other cities of lesser power. In its most extreme form these were imperial cities: Rome, Constantinople,
Chang-an, Baghdad, or Tenochtitln. In the ancient world they
were religious, ceremonial centers that brought the historical and
the transcendent together in one community.
The ancient political city could arise in part because of
surplus production. People could begin living together in spatial arrangements whose density was greater than what their
immediate resources could meet. Cities did not grow their food
inside the gates but took it from the land that they organized
and controlled outside. Other items were also brought in to be
sold. The marketplace emerged alongside the temple and palace.
Even the most modest of kings and queens soon found that they
were not satisfied with the wealth that could be produced from
their immediate regions. The desire for goods that came from
beyond could be satisfied only by strangers who came from afar.
Cities became centers of commerce and trade, their marketplaces
filled with goods of merchants from other regions and cultures.
Eventually the merchants assumed control, giving rise to the
commercial city, which became the engine of the global network
called modern capitalism. Commercial cities were not unique to
Europe, but after the fifteenth century they came to dominate
European life and, through its modern colonial venture, the rest
of the world as well. The productive capacities of the modern
city accelerated with the industrial revolution. Meanwhile European colonialism and imperialism had reorganized the entire
globe. The result was to split the city into two: the modern, where
industrial goods were produced, and the colonial, where the raw
materials came from and the finished industrial goods of the
West were sold.8
Cities have always been places of differentiation, places where
strangers became neighbors, and neighbors became strangers.
One form of differentiation that they fostered and intensified was
what we call class. The extremes of rich and poor wereand
arein fact a function of the city. Organizing these extremes
was always a major urban praxis. Cities also fostered the differentiations that we call culture. They have always attracted
immigrants from their surrounding countryside, but also they
drew merchants who came from other cities and regions. The
merchants from afar contributed much to making the urban a
multicultural reality. The modern industrial city accelerated the
processes of cultural differentiation by attracting immigrants
from distances far away, not only to come and trade but also to
come and work.

The City and Mission

Christianity in the West, which after the tenth century had
become mostly organized into what we now call Christendom,
found a way to accommodate itself to the first waves of urban
transformation that took place under modern capitalism. The
English Puritan was an early capitalist but still a figure of Christendom. Even after the period of political revolutions that began
to disestablish the church politically in the West, Christendom
continued in its cultural form. The parish was still very much an
urban phenomenon. In the cities of Christendom in Europe and
in its settler colonies, which together constituted what we call
the West, a new social phenomenon called the slums began
in the eighteenth century, posing the first sustained challenge to
this organizing practice. Slums were among the first sectors of
Western society to slip beyond the reach of the traditional parish.
They emerged rapidly, far outstripping the ability of established
local urban parishes to minister to and within them effectively.9
178

For their part, churches in the West had long been aligned socially
and politically with the middle and upper classes, significantly
alienating them from the growing number of workers and others from the lower social classes who populated the slums. The
culture of what eventually came to be called the inner city
posed a significant challenge to the traditional moral values and
teachings of the churches of Christendom.
This was the background of the vision of the city that inspired
urban missions and ministry through most of the twentieth
century. The city that was imagined was modern, industrial, and
becoming postindustrial. It was organized into rich and poor
districts that were clearly territorial and divided. It had factories,
slums, tenements, poor people (a disproportional number of
whom, in the United States after 1945, were African-American),
incoming immigrants (who were also disproportionately poor),
and an exiting middle class (read white or Euro-American in
the U.S. context). Urban ministry meant primarily ministry in
the slums and to the poor. It was ministry in the inner city, the
ghetto, and el barrio. Urban ministry did not mean ministry to the
businessmen and businesswomen who worked in the financial
district and commuted home to the suburbs. It did not mean ministry to the artists, to the city police officers and firefighters, to the
civil servants, to the restaurant owners, or to the urban university
professors. It did not mean engaging the corporate community, the
investment community, or the media or advertising industry. The
other, regular, form of ministry that was taught in theological
schools and practiced in mainstream churches was perceived to
be quite suitable for engaging these other sectors of urban reality.
One might do mission work in the city, but one never went
on a mission to the suburbs or in ones home church. In the
United States urban ministry became a code word for ministry
to poor, especially to Blacks and Latino/as.10
We could stop to debate the merits and pitfalls of the
twentieth-century missiological project called urban ministry.
To do so, however, might allow us to miss the fact that the city
that was the basis for such ministry has changed. With the end
of the modern era and the onset of the postmodern/postcolonial
age, a new form of globalization is upon us. The modern/colonial
city has largely been displaced by another, a postmodern/postcolonial city, or what some are calling the global city and the
globalizing city.11 The phenomenon is not confined to a few
urban locations. All cities of the world are being pulled into the
processes of globalization, while some have achieved the status
of being what sociologists are calling global cities. Production
in these places is no longer based in neighborhoods but can span
entire regions of the globe. Consumption is likewise becoming
globalized. One can find goods from virtually every region of
the world in the marketplaces and malls of even modest-sized
cities all around the world.

The Changing Nature of the City

The spatial structure of cities is changing. Transnational urban
networks are replacing older spatial linkages. Images and attitudes that can be communicated globally through the media in
real time are taking the place of city walls, natural bodies of water,
interstate belt highway systems, dotted lines on a map, and other
such means that have traditionally been used to define urban
places. Instead of being based on territory, communities are
more often spatially extensive networks, consisting of channels
through which resources flowinformation, money, and social
capital.12 New processes of metropolitanization are underway,
drawing urban inhabitants, commuters, and users together from
International Bulletin of Missionary Research, Vol. 33, No. 4

around the world in new combinations of material and virtual

realities. The processes of class and cultural differentiation that
historically marked the urban have accelerated in the globalizing
city, intensifying the polymorphous while expanding the distance
between rich and poor to astronomical proportions.13
As noted above, it is now clear that urbanization and globalization are converging historical forces, two sides of the same coin,
two sides of the same cutting edge of human historical existence.
Cities around the world, as noted above, have historically, even
from ancient days, been populated by strangers, many of them
merchants, who came from distant places to exchange goods
and sometimes services.14 The city was never only a center. It
was always also a thoroughfare, a node on a nexus, one link
in an urbanizing network. Today this is becoming clearer than
ever. Those who have dwelt in cities and those who have ruled
them have always had
more in view than the
city they inhabited. They
have also had their eyes
on the ends of the earth
that they sought to draw
goods from, or to reach out
to rule over, even if only in
their imagination. Globalization has brought that
imagining practice to new
levels, joining together in
endlessly flowing new
combinations the practical
and the only imaginable,
the local and the global, the
real and the virtual.

evangelical and ecumenical, free to exercise dominance by being

unqualifiedly Christian.
Globalization has now made all such territorial constructions obsolete. Spatial configurations of the personal body, the
congregation, the denomination, the city, the culture, and the
nation are all being increasingly deterritorialized and reterritorialized, resulting in new spatiotemporal configurations and
combinations. Korean Christianity is now a global Christian
reality, with 6 million Koreans living in a global diaspora. Prosperity doctrines and G12 (Government of 12, pioneered by
Csar Castellanos Domnguez of Bogot, Colombia16) are picked
up from their places of origin north or south and circulated
rapidly in and through global Pentecostal and Neo-Pentecostal
networks. African Christianity is a growing phenomenon in
western Europe and North America. A majority of persons in
the United States now
identify themselves with
more than one particular
denominational tradition over the course of
their lives. Our thinking about ministry and
mission must become
more conversant with
deterritorialized and
reterritorialized forms
of Christian expression.
It must take seriously
the host of theological
practices and beliefs that
are circulating the globe,
landing in unexpected
places, and continuously
redefining each location.
Implications
It must do so, bringing
them into critical and
What are the implications
creative interaction at
of globalization and urbanSaint Peters Church located under the corner of Citigroup Center,
both conceptual and
ization for world ChristiLexington Avenue and Fifty-fourth Street, New York City.
practical levels in order
anity, and for churches that
to be transformative.
are mission minded (and
A second issue needing attention, and a close corollary to
for missions that are church minded) throughout the world at
the beginning of the twenty-first century? What issues call out this first point regarding the deterritorialization of Christianity,
for attention? First, world Christianity since at least the fourth is the reification of culture. The various notions of culture that have
century has been burdened with various forms of association with informed the study of missions and world Christianity in the
particular territories and cultures. This was preeminently expressed past have been particularly problematic. Culture as a concept
in the identification of Christianity with the Roman imperial order was often quite static and unchanging. The forms of culture that
and the territories that were governed by Rome or Constantinople. have been particularly attractive to contextual forms of theolThere were other, lesser territorial expressions of Christianity ogy in world Christianity have often been those of the rural,
in late antiquity, such as those of the Armenian and Ethiopian the village, the countryside, or even the nation, where purity
traditions, but these others did not rise to the level of imperial and authenticity could be assured. Urban experience in general
identification and dominance attained by Rome and Constanti- has long challenged concepts of culture that hold cultures to be
stable or unchanging. Globalization is intensifying this realizanople, or the Latin and Greek traditions of Christendom.15
The modern missionary movement in both its Catholic and tion. The city, I noted earlier, has always been both a center and
Protestant expressions was particularly plagued by territorial a passageway, a node in a nexus, a place of destination and a
notions of identity and culture that were fundamentally tied place for passing through. The street has long been a place where
to a particular place. The modern ecumenical movement did one lives and a place where one travels, something that divides
little to challenge the social reconstruction that bifurcated the and something that connects, both a boundary and a suture. As
world into Christian lands and mission lands, with its First more than half of the worlds population now lives in intensely
World and Third World theologies and its critical discourses urban contexts, and 3 percent of the worlds peoples now live
setting in place the West and the Rest. World Christianity as a as immigrants outside the lands of their birth, most of them
discipline is today in danger of being reduced to what happens in cities, life on the street and the culture of the streets take on
in the territories of the global South and East, leaving the ter- intensely new configurations of inter- and cross-cultural experiritorial definitions of Christianity in the North and West, both ence and meaning.
October 2009

179

Training people for mission and ministry in this context

means attending to the traditional formations of church life
from a multitude of contexts and assisting churches to engage,
if not always embrace, what is different. It means attending to
the new formations of religion that are taking place as well, and
thinking through what preparation for ministry means in the
various contexts of hypercapitalism, the Internet, megachurches,
global immigration, and more.17 World Christianity as a whole
is far more inclusive than any particular local expression of it
can possibly be. Ministry that takes as its context both its own
location and the global reality will move in the direction of
inclusion while continuing to affirm distinct identities. The
church will once again be able to cross boundaries, including
those of race, ethnicity, gender, class, sexual orientation,
confession, and more. These identities can be played out and
factored in multiple ways that are both inclusive and exclusionary. Regarding identities as such, however, we are finding more
and more the words of Edward Said to be true, No one today is
purely one thing.18 Our hybrids are proliferating and, contrary
to nature, are multiplying exponentially.19
The third implication of the convergence of globalization and
urbanization in world Christianity concerns the authority of biblical
texts. Not only the context but the very texts of our various theological traditions become destabilized in the rapidly changing world
of globalized cities and cultures. New forms of reading biblical
texts and ecclesial traditions alike are proliferating. In the midst
of this proliferating difference, the Bible itself reemerges to play
a critical connective role in our experiences of world Christianity
in cities throughout the world. It is a common book, even when
read from different locations, perspectives, commitments, and
confessions and in different contexts and languages. It is a meeting
place of sorts, a movable site to which is ascribed authority and
from which is derived meaning. For some, biblical authority and
meaning are central. For others, they are peripheral. But whether
the Bible is read at the center or the margins of ones religious
identity, and whether it is read from the center or the margins of
social life, it is still a common book, a site of intertextual engagement, itself a context and a pretext.20 The Bible remains a place,
a site, a textual location marking various communities formed
by liturgy, devotion, and social praxis.
In such multiperspectival readings of the Bible the temptation lurks to ascribe to the text a degree of translocationality that
might give it the appearance of floating free from any particular
context and location, including that of the original world of its
production. This is one important reason why the hermeneutics
of social location must continue to play an important role in the
production and reproduction of biblical knowledge in world
Christian life, for such a hermeneutics helps reground biblical
readings in various Christian contexts and experiences. There is
always the danger that even this particular method will be seen
as an avenue toward a new universalizing discourse, brought
about at the cost of ignoring other authoritative sources for
faith.21 The danger can be avoided only by keeping the Bible in
community.
The fourth implication that I see for mission and ministry in
the context of global cities north and south concerns the levels of
engagement with other religions. Religious pluralism has long been a
dominant reality for churches in Asia and Africa, beginning with
the first centuries of the Christian movement. Christians who
lived under Muslim rulers in the political entity of the dar al-Islam
(house of Islam) have had centuries of experience with being
religious minorities. In the West Christianity was the dominant
religion, although it was never the only religion and there were
180

always forms of Christianity that were considered to be deviant

or heretical by the majority parties and traditions. Globalizing
and globalized cities in all parts of the world today are witnessing a degree of multifaith living that seems to be unprecedented
in its depth and dimensions. In Hong Kong, Singapore, Tokyo,
Baghdad, Jerusalem, Lagos, Dar es Salaam, So Paulo, Mexico
City, New York, Toronto, and more, churches of all confessional
persuasions are finding they have to learn new ways of living
with their non-Christian religious neighbor.

The New Look for the City in Mission

Within the ecology of the new urban formations arising within
the globalized city, we are finding renewed meaning in the
local church and its ministry when the context becomes world
Christianity. Churches from every part of the world, speaking
languages and nurturing cultures that were historically born in
places at a great distance from one another, are now flourishing
next to one another in cities all around the world. The traditional
model of parish ministry is not dead, but it is finding diverse
expression in the globalized city.22 Ministry has also moved
outside the church in new and interesting ways. The rise of the
entrepreneurial model of individuals heading ministrieswith
their own Web pages, incorporation papers, TV programs, and
various pastoral conferencesleads the way in this effort. The
more traditional forms of urban and industrial ministry such as
ministry in the law office, in the university halls, in prisons, and
among firefighters continue.
Poverty is still a focal point in our theological reflections on
ministry in the city, but it comes in multiple constructions today.
We talk of anthropological poverty, political empowerment, and
the need for communities of faith and resistance to gain access
to information and knowledge of production. The commitment
to justice has a stronger transformational dimension as our
pedagogy is increasingly aware of the global cultural context in
which we are living.23
Global networks are becoming ever more important for
engaging in mission and ministry in the world Christian context
of the global city. Bilocationality and circulating patterns of migration and return are becoming more common in churches throughout the world. Powerful charismatic clergy serve widely scattered networks of congregations among the various diasporas
that wrap around the globe. All of us are busy finding our way
fumbling along, some might sayin this new global urban
experience. Contextualization was the first step in the direction in
which we are heading. But it turns out to have been far too neat,
far too simple a model. The real and virtual worlds of this global
community of discourse decontextualize and recontextualize
us constantly, calling for a more active form of transpositional
theological reflection. Culture itself gets quickly transformed in
the accelerated flows of globalization that we are experiencing.
Even what counts as knowledge is brought into question.
The city has been on the agenda for mission studies for
more than a century. Unfortunately, the manner in which the
city too often has been imagined is as a place of need or despair.
In many instances the city was reduced conceptually to being a
function of poverty, lack, or neglect.24 The reduction of the city
to its poorest neighborhoods has always been problematic in the
theology of urban ministry. The city has always been more than
just a slum or a ghetto, even in its poorest neighborhoods.
Certainly preparation for ministry to, with, and of the poor ought
to occupy a prominent place in the mission agenda, but urban
ministry cannot be reduced to this one focus.
International Bulletin of Missionary Research, Vol. 33, No. 4

In all places our urban theologies are being challenged by

the very nature of the city itself. A more vital and engaging
form of mission and ministry in the postcolonial, postindustrial,
postmodern, and, in some instances, post-Christendom city is
needed. Global cities are the visible manifestations of a new global
reality that has become the context of world Christianity. Our
theologies unfortunately tend often to continue to conceptualize
the world in territorial terms that were part of the modern and
colonial frames of reference, placing various theologies in their
respective geographic locations and even trying to keep them
there. Korean theology is taken to refer to theology that is done
on the peninsula of Korea. Brazilian theology is taken to mean
theology that is done on location in Brazil and by people whose
ancestors lived in Brazil. The actual world that we are living in,
however, is one of transnational migrations, hyphenated and
hybrid identities, cultural conjunctions and disjunctions, and
global theological networks or flows. Korean-speaking Christian leaders from around the world gather outside of Korea

Notes

1. See Philip Berryman, Religion in the Megacity (Maryknoll, N.Y.: Orbis

Books, 1992).
2. Peter Taylor, Ben Derudder, Pieter Saey, and Frank Witlox, eds., Cities in
Globalization: Practices, Policies, and Theories (London: Routledge, 2006),
look specifically at European and North American cities but uncover
the connections well. Jane M. Jacobs, Edge of Empire: Postcolonialism and
the City (London: Routledge, 1996), implicitly extends the discussion
of globalization in the direction of neo-imperialism by looking at
urban spaces through a postcolonial lens.
3. See Peter H. Sedgwick, ed., God in the City: Essays and Reflections from
the Archbishops Urban Theology Group (London: Mowbray, 1995).
4. Keith R. Bridston, Mission, Myth, and Reality (New York: Friendship
Press, 1965). On p. 33 Bridston writes: It would be foolish to suggest
that the geographical frontier ever was, or will ever be, insignificant in
the missionary activity of the church. But if the religious significance
of salt water is seen in any other than a poetic and mythical way, the
whole meaning of the mission of the church is in danger of being
lost, or so perverted that it would be better lost. The geographical
frontier, symbolized by the seven seas, only represents what the
Christian mission is; it does not exhaust it. Ocean trips have never
made Christian missionaries, and, in itself, salt water never will.
5. Richard Sennett, The Civitas of Seeing, Places 5, no. 4 (1989), quoted
in Bo Grnlund, The Civitas of Seeing and the Design of Citieson
the Urbanism of Richard Sennett, Urban Winds, http://hjem.get2net
.dk/gronlund/Sennett_ny_tekst_ 97kort.html. It is interesting that the
Latin word urbs denoted an actual city, while the word civis referred
to the manner of life of those to whom belonged its privileges; only
later was it extended to be an alternative term for the city itself.
6. Henri Lefebvre, The Urban Revolution, trans. Robert Bononno
(Minneapolis: Univ. of Minnesota Press, 2003; French orig., 1970),
p. 120.
7. On the ceremonial origins of the city in world history and on
the relationship between human religiosity and urbanization
more generally, see Paul Wheatley, The Pivot of the Four Quarters:
A Preliminary Enquiry into the Origins and Character of the Ancient
Chinese City (Chicago: Aldine Publishing, 1971); Davd Carrasco,
City of Sacrifice: The Aztec Empire and the Role of Violence in Civilization
(Boston: Beacon Press, 1999); Nezar AlSayyad, Cities and Caliphs: On
the Genesis of Arab Muslim Urbanism (New York: Greenwood Press,
1991); and Joel Kotkin, The City: A Global History (New York: Modern
Library, 2005).
8. On the relationship between colonial and modern cities, and the global
impact of postcolonial urbanization in particular, see Ryan Bishop,
John Phillips, and Wei-Wei Yeo, eds., Postcolonial Urbanism: Southeast
Asian Cities and Global Processes (New York: Routledge, 2003). For an
examination of the manner in which global charismatic Christianity
operates in and through the postcolonial city, in this case specifically
October 2009

in congresses on the global mission of the Korean diaspora.

Portuguese-speaking congregations form among people who
have emigrated from Brazil and engage in theological reflection
in Tokyo, Newark, or Lisbon, while many who are doing theology in So Paulo or Rio de Janeiro are recent immigrants from
other continents to Brazil.
This new, complex global urban reality is posing a challenge
to the way mission is understood around the world today. In
each place this urban reality takes on distinctive features, even as
the overall process of global urbanization is tying these realities
together in new, complex, expanding, interlocking, differentiating networks of relations. Theology in general needs to grapple
with these new global configurations and the realities they are
generating, virtual and otherwise. The challenge for us is always
to reflect upon and engage theologically from our various locations and perspectives, a challenge present in each place, even as
we find ourselves increasingly relocated within this new global
urban context.

Singapore, see Robbie B. H. Goh, Deus ex Machina: Evangelical Sites,

Urbanism, and the Construction of Social Identities, in Postcolonial
Urbanism, ed. Bishop, Phillips, and Yeo, pp. 30521.
9. One can argue that the intellectual challenges of the de-Christianization
of Europe that were posed by the middle classs cultured despisers
of religion were addressed far more successfully by Schleiermacher
and others in the streams of liberal Protestant theology that followed
him through the nineteenth and twentieth centuries than were the
challenges of the new urban working class who were gathering in
the slums. On the history of nineteenth- and early twentieth-century
mission work in slums in the United States, see Norris A. Magnuson,
Salvation in the Slums: Evangelical Social Work, 18651920 (Metuchen,
N.J.: Scarecrow Press, 1977).
10. The tendency to focus or even reduce urban ministry to addressing
issues of urban poverty, and in the U.S. context to ministry in the
inner city (i.e., the slums, the ghetto, or el barrio), is apparent in
even such excellent recent work on urban ministry and theology
as Andrew Davey, Urban Christianity and Global Order: Theological
Resources for an Urban Future (Peabody, Mass.: Hendrickson, 2002),
and Mark R. Gornik, To Live in Peace: Biblical Faith and the Changing
Inner City (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2002).
11. See Saskia Sassen, The Global City: New York, London, Tokyo (Princeton: Princeton Univ. Press, 1991).
12. United Nations Human Settlements Programme, The State of the
Worlds Cities, 2004/2005: Globalization and Urban Culture (London
and Sterling, Va.: Earthscan / UN-Habitat, 2004), p. 5.
13. According to the most recent U.N. figures, nearly 200 million persons,
or approximately 3 percent of the worlds population, are now
immigrants, living outside the territorial boundaries of their natal
cultural community, most of them living in cities. In New York City
alone, according to the mayors office, representatives from every
nation on earth are now living as immigrants in the city.
14. The tradition that St. Thomas traveled to India from Palestine in the
first century of the common era is quite telling for world Christian
identity, for Thomas is held by some strands of the tradition to have
gone to India not as a merchant but as a carpenter, recruited in a
Mediterranean seaport by agents of an Indian ruler seeking skilled
labor from the Roman Empire.
15. It should be noted that there were always Christians within the
imperial traditions who did not accept imperial domination, and
many who opposed it openly. There have also always been churches
of the world whose traditions lay outside the range of imperial reach,
especially the churches of Asia who lived as (often persecuted)
minority communities in multireligious societies. Although the
imperial forms of Christendom were not universal, their impact
touched in one way or another all churches and traditions. The legacy
of Christendom has been felt by all churches and traditions of the
181

world, even if its effects have been weighted differently among the
various churches.
16. For information on Government of 12 program, see www.visiong12
.com.
17. Manuel A. Vsquez and Marie Friedmann Marquardt, Globalizing the
Sacred: Religion Across the Americas (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers
Univ. Press, 2003), pp. 5455. The authors note on p. 55, By changing
our sense of time, space and agency, globalization clearly affects
the viability of religious congregations. The latter, however, are
not mere passive subjects of more foundational economic forces.
Religious congregations are also active in transmitting and shaping
globalization. They cite Pentecostalism as being particularly effective
in creating transnational networks, but include the Roman Catholic
Church and other global religious networks in their consideration
of globalizing religion.
18. Edward Said, in Culture and Imperialism (New York: Alfred Knopf,
1994), p. 336, writes: No one today is purely one thing. Labels
like Indian, or woman, or Muslim, or American are not more than
starting-points, which if followed into actual experience for only a
moment are quickly left behind. Imperialism consolidated the mixture
of cultures and identities on a global scale. But its worst and most
paradoxical gift was to allow people to believe that they were only,
mainly, exclusively, white, or Black, or Western, or Oriental. . . . No
one can deny the persisting continuities of long traditions, sustained
habitations, national languages, and cultural geographies, but there

seems no reason except fear and prejudice to keep insisting on their

separation and distinctiveness, as if that was all human life was
about. Survival in fact is about the connections between things; in
Eliots phrase, reality cannot be deprived of the other echoes [that]
inhabit the garden.
19. See Nstor Garcia Canclini, Hybrid Cultures: Strategies for Entering
and Leaving Modernity, trans. Christopher Chiappari and Silvia L.
Lpez (Minneapolis: Univ. of Minnesota Press, 1990).
20. See Dale T. Irvin, Contextualization and Catholicity: Looking Anew
for the Unity of the Faith, Studia Theologica 48, no. 2 (1995): 8.
21. Francisco Lozado, Jr., Reinventing the Biblical Tradition: An
Exploration of Social Location Hermeneutics, in Futuring Our Past:
Explorations in the Theology of Tradition, ed. Orlando O. Espn and
Gary Macy (Maryknoll, N.Y.: Orbis Books, 2006), pp. 11340.
22. On the various models of urban church experience, see Lowell W.
Livezey, ed., Public Religion and Urban Transformation: Faith in the City
(New York: New York Univ. Press, 2000).
23. On the problems and possibilities for transformative adult education
in the context of globalization, see Sharan B. Merriam, Bradley C.
Courtenay, and Ronald M. Cervero, eds., Global Issues and Adult
Education: Perspectives from Latin America, Southern Africa, and the
United States (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 2006).
24. The classic formulation of this thesis in urban sociology remains that
of Edward C. Banfield, The Unheavenly City Revisited (Boston: Little,
Brown, 1974).

Declaration on Creation Stewardship and Climate Change

Micah Network
We present here a recent declaration by the Micah Network, whose international president is C. Ren Padilla (office in Surry Hills, New
South Wales, Australia). In the words of Padilla, an IBMR contributing editor, this declaration may perhaps in time be regarded as
the most significant document coming out of the evangelical movement on a subject that has hardly received in the past the attention it
deserves from people who confess the triune God as the God of Creation.... Established in 1999, the Micah Network has grown into a
worldwide movement of over 500 Christian relief, development and justice organizations, churches and individuals. It includes over 330
active members and 230 associate members from over 80 countries. Its primary objective is to encourage the practice that, according to the
text from which it derives its name, God requires of his people: To act justly and love mercy and to walk humbly with your God (Micah
6:8) (from foreword to the declaration; see www.micahnetwork.org/en/home).
Editors

e, members of the Micah Network, 1 gathering

together from 38 countries on all 5 continents, met at
Limuru, Kenya from 1318 July 2009 for its 4th Triennial Global
Consultation. On the matter of Creation Stewardship and Climate
Change, we sought Gods wisdom and cried out for the Holy
Spirits guidance as we reflected on the global environmental
crisis. As a result of our discussions, reflections and prayers, we
make the following declaration:
1. We believe in GodFather, Son and Holy Spirit in community
who is the creator, sustainer and Lord of all. God delights in His
creation, and is committed to it.2
2. In the beginning, God established just relationships amongst
all of creation. Women and menas image-bearers of Godare
called to serve and love the rest of creation, accountable to God
as stewards. Our care for creation is an act of worship and obedience towards the Creator.3
3. We, however, have not always been faithful stewards. Through
our ignorance, neglect, arrogance and greed, we have harmed
the earth and broken creations relationships.4 Our failure to be
182

faithful stewards has caused the current environmental crisis,

leading to climate change, and putting the earths ecosystems at
risk. All creation has been subjected to futility and decay because
of our disobedience.5
4. Yet God remains faithful.6 In Christs incarnation, life, death
and resurrection, God is at work to reconcile all of creation to
Himself.7 We hear the groaning of creation as in the pains of
childbirth. This is the promise that God will act, and is already
at work, to renew all things.8 This is the hope that sustains us.
5. We confess that we have sinned. We have not cared for
the earth with the self-sacrificing and nurturing love of God.
Instead, we have exploited, consumed and abused it for our
own advantage. We have too often yielded to the idolatry that
is greed.9 We have embraced false dichotomies of theology and
practice, splitting apart the spiritual and material, eternal and
temporal, heavenly and earthly. In all these things, we have not
acted justly towards each other or towards creation, and we have
not honoured God.
6. We acknowledge that industrialization, increased deforestaInternational Bulletin of Missionary Research, Vol. 33, No. 4

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Now
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I challenge students to dig deeper, to develop a level of analytical and reflective thinking. I serve
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tion, intensified agriculture and grazing, along with the unrestrained burning of fossil fuels, have forced the earths natural
systems out of balance. Rapidly increasing greenhouse gas emissions are causing the average global temperature to rise, with
devastating impacts already being experienced, especially by the
poorest and most marginalized groups. A projected temperature
rise of 2C within the next few decades will significantly alter life
on earth and accelerate loss of biodiversity. It will increase the
risk and severity of extreme weather events, such as drought,
flood, and hurricanes, leading to displacement and hunger. Sea
levels will continue to rise, contaminating fresh water supplies
and submerging island and coastal communities. We are likely
to see mass migration, leading to resource conflicts. Profound
changes to rainfall and snowfall, as well as the rapid melting of
glaciers, will lead to more water stress and shortages for many
millions of people.
7. We repent of our self-serving theology of creation, and our
complicity in unjust local and global economic relationships. We
repent of those aspects of our individual and corporate life styles
that harm creation, and of our lack of political action. We must
radically change our lives in response to Gods indignation and
sorrow for His creations agony.
8. Before God we commit ourselves, and call on the whole family of faith, to bear witness to Gods redemptive purpose for all
creation. We will seek appropriate ways to restore and build just
relationships among human beings and with the rest of creation.
We will strive to live sustainably, rejecting consumerism and
the resulting exploitation.10 We will teach and model care of
creation and integral mission. We will intercede before God for

those most affected by environmental degradation and climate

change, and will act with justice and mercy among, with and
on behalf of them.11
9. We join with others to call on local, national, and global
leaders to meet their responsibility to address climate change
and environmental degradation through the agreed intergovernmental mechanisms and conventions, and to provide the
necessary resources to ensure sustainable development. Their
meetings through the United Nations Framework Convention
on Climate Change process must produce a fair, comprehensive,
and adequate climate deal. Leaders must support the efforts of
local communities to adapt to climate change, and must act to
protect the lives and livelihoods of those most vulnerable to the
impact of environmental degradation and climate change. We
recognize that among the most affected are women and girls.
We call on leaders to invest in the development of new, clean
technologies and energy sources and to provide adequate support to enable poor, vulnerable and marginalized groups to use
them effectively.
10. There is no more time for delay or denial. We will labour
with passion, persistence, prayer and creativity to protect the
integrity of all creation, and hand on a safe environment and
climate to our children and theirs.
For those with ears to hear, let them hear.12
Micah Network Fourth Triennial Global Consultation
Limuru, Kenya, July 17, 2009

Notes

1. Micah Network is a global network of Christian agencies and

churches involved in relief, development and advocacy, and
responding to poverty and injustice.
2. Colossians 1:1516, Romans 11:36.
3. Genesis 1:2630, Genesis 2:15.
4. Genesis 3:1324.
5. Romans 8:20.

6. Romans 8:21.
7. Colossians 1:1920, Philippians 2:68.
8. Romans 8:22, Revelation 21:5.
9. Colossians 3:5, Matthew 6:24.
10. Matthew 6:24.
11. Micah 6:8.
12. Mark 4:23.

ARIS Reports U.S. Roman Catholic Population Shift to Southwest

The Roman Catholic population of the United States
has shifted away from the Northeast and toward the Southwest, while secularity continues to grow in strength in all
regions of the country, according to a study by the Program
on Public Values at Trinity College, Hartford, Connecticut.
The decline of Catholicism in the Northeast is nothing short
of stunning, said Barry Kosmin, a principal investigator
for the American Religious Identification Survey (www
.americanreligionsurvey-aris.org). Thanks to immigration

184

and natural increase among Latinos, California now has a

higher proportion of Catholics than New England. Conducted between February and November 2008, ARIS 2008 is
the third in a series of large, nationally representative surveys
of U.S. adults. The percentage of Christians in America, which
declined in the 1990s from 86 percent to 77 percent, has edged
down to 76 percent. Ninety percent of the decline comes from
the non-Catholic segment of the Christian population, largely
from mainline denominations.

International Bulletin of Missionary Research, Vol. 33, No. 4

Ivan Illich and the American Catholic Missionary Initiative in

Latin America
Todd Hartch

n 1966 Ivan Illich sent the National Catholic Reporter an

antimissionary article, but it was returned to him as
needlessly polemical. Having declined the magazines offer
to resubmit a milder version, Illich sent the article to the Jesuit
journal America, which not only accepted the article as written
but also timed its publication to coincide with the Catholic
Inter-American Cooperation Program (CICOP), a conference
designed to foster American Catholic support of the church in
Latin America. Illich arrived at CICOP with 3,000 copies of The
Seamy Side of Charity, enough for every participant to read
his indictment of the American Catholic missionary initiative
in Latin America.1
The article succeeded admirably in provoking controversy,
just as Illich hoped. First, he condemned the American hierarchy
for starting a missionary program on an impulse supported by
uncritical imagination and sentimental judgment. Second, Illich
attacked the results of the initiative. Foreign aid drastically
increased the costs of the Latin American churches and made
these churches dependent on foreign funds and personnel, resulting in a patently irrelevant pastoral system that was impossible
to sustain. Third, Illich confronted American missionaries about
their self-deception. They were pawns in a world ideological
struggle and a colonial powers lackey chaplains.2
From the podium of the conference, Louis Luzbetak of the Society of the Divine Word characterized the article as profoundly
misguided and contended that missions was beneficial to both the
United States and Latin America because cultures tend to grow
in proportion to their exposure to cross-fertilization.3 Cardinal
Richard Cushing, who had advocated sending Americans to Latin
America, denounced the article as an attack on the pope that contained colossal lies and constituted a grave injustice to those
who were laying down their lives for Latin America.4 Around the
world, bishops, priests, religious sisters, and missionaries read
the article and reacted with surprise and anger but also, in some
cases, a surprising degree of agreement. Whether they agreed or
disagreed, Catholics interested in Latin America could not avoid
responding in some way: After the article appeared, few people,
if any, could carry out their assignments without re-examining
what they were doing, without asking themselves if, perhaps,
there was something after all to what Illich was saying.5 The
article then spread to mainline Protestant groups and became
an antimissionary classic.
The Seamy Side of Charity brought Ivan Illich to the
attention of many missionaries and church leaders and remains
one of his main claims to fame, but few remember today that the
article represented a final, public stage in a campaign that Illich
had been waging, mostly in private, since 1961. After Pius XII
Todd Hartch teaches Latin American history and directs
the history graduate program at Eastern Kentucky
University, Richmond, Kentucky. He is the author of
Missionaries of the State (Univ. of Alabama Press,
2006), a history of the Summer Institute of Linguistics
in Mexico.
[email protected]

October 2009

and John XXIII had called for a major program of aid to Latin
America in the late 1950s and early 1960s, the Catholic bishops
in the United States organized a Latin America Bureau in their
organization, the National Catholic Welfare Conference, and
began a serious missionary effort in Latin America.6 John Considine, the head of the Latin America Bureau, chose Illich to train
these missionaries because of Illichs successful ministry among
Puerto Ricans in New York City and his apparent commitment
to training missionaries. What Considine did not realize, even
as Illich was setting up the Center for Intercultural Formation
(CIF), a missionary training center in Cuernavaca, Mexico, was
that Illichs interest in the program stemmed primarily from his
desire to subvert it.
Born in 1926 in Vienna to a Croatian father and a Jewish
mother, Illich earned masters degrees in theology and philosophy
and a doctorate in history by age twenty-four; he was adept in
German, Yiddish, Italian, French, Serbo-Croatian, Latin, Greek,
English, Spanish, and Portuguese.7 He came to the United States
in 1951 to study at Princeton University, but his fascination with
New Yorks Puerto Rican population led him to a position as a
parish priest in a Puerto Rican neighborhood. Cardinal Francis
Spellman greatly appreciated Illichs efforts with the Puerto
Rican community, gave him the title of monsignor, and then
gave him the position of vice-rector of a Catholic university in
Puerto Rico itself. While spending most of the 1960s and 1970s
in Cuernavaca, Mexico, Illich became a prolific social critic who
enjoyed mainstream success with books such as Deschooling Society, which characterized public education as part of a global
process of degradation and modernized misery.8 He lived with
colleagues in Germany in the years before his death in 2002.

Training Missionaries to Go Home

As Illich prepared his missionary training center in the spring
of 1961, he understood that two popes had called for massive
aid to Latin America, but he believed that missionary work by
Americans for Latin Americans would be harmful for both groups.
Most missionaries that he had encountered were stunted, or
wholly destroyed by their work; all they accomplished was to
impede the revolutionary changes needed in Latin America.
The projected crusade had to be stopped, he thought. Therefore, Illich ensured that the Center for Intercultural Formation
had impeccable credentials that would attract many would-be
missionaries. It was affiliated with Fordham University and
enjoyed the support of Cardinal Spellman of New York, of the
Latin America Bureau, and of Cardinal Cushing of Boston.
Through our educational program for missionaries we intended
to challenge them to face reality and themselves, and either
refuse their assignments orif they acceptedto be a little bit
less unprepared, Illich later admitted.9
Thirty-five lay Catholics and twenty-seven clergy attended
the first session in 1961, and similar numbers attended two
four-month sessions each year during most of the 1960s.10 The
training began with language instruction of the highest quality, designed to produce fluency in Spanish by the end of the
course. A team of local teachers gave the trainees five hours a
185

day of instruction in classes of no more than four students: three

hours in guided drills, an hour in the language laboratory, and
another hour in directed conversation.11 Not surprisingly, the
rigor of the five-hour-per-day language classes stressed some
students to the breaking point. It was so intensive that youd
have people almost breaking down, remarked one. This was
Illichs approach, of course. If you cracked, fine; hed either build
you back up or hed lose you.12
Comments from the language staff on some of the trainees
in the first session gave a hint of their attitudes toward their
charges. One young man, for example, was judged to be neither
articulate in any language nor will he learn Spanish too well. A
young woman was seen as psychologically unfit to the adaptation necessary to learn any language well. Another candidate
was believed to lack capacity to accept another language.13
The stressful language classes softened students up for
classes specifically focused on missions, history, and culture,
as well as for conversations with the staff. Many of the ideas
that Illich presented were similar to those he had developed in
Puerto Rico (for priests and sisters he had trained to work with
Puerto Ricans in the mainland United States), but warnings
and negative examples assumed a larger role. He affirmed the
mystical nature of missionary service, especially its connection to
Christs incarnation through suffering; but he spent much of his
time drawing out the dangers of faulty missionary preparation.
In doing so, he inevitably suggested to many neo-missioners
that they were unqualified and ill-prepared.14
For example, Illich emphasized the high level of academic
preparation required by prospective missionaries. Candidates
needed increased receptivity for the poetic, the historical, and
the social aspects of reality. If they had this prerequisite, they
must use the conceptual instruments of social scientists, including role, status, function, community versus society, self-image
versus expectation; public opinion and social pressure; movement
and organization; institutionalization and charismatic leadership, to gain a sociological, anthropological, political, economic,
cultural, and historical understanding of the societies in which
they wished to work. He believed that today it would be folly
to try to think of the Church and its growth without reference to
these aspects which relate it to any society or community.15 He
did not say it directly, but he strongly implied that prospective
missionaries had to be not only intelligent but also well educated
before they began training; if they passed this hurdle, they had
to become experts on Latin America in several different areas.
How many trainees could meet these standards?
One visitor admitted that Illich might produce a missionary
elite but lamented, The Monsignor is aiming high, too high
for me and others of my capacity. Another asked, Is rigorism
needed today, or sanctity coupled with skills?16 Complaints that
Illich was being too tough on his charges also came from Cardinal
Cushing and the papal nuncio in Peru, Romulo Carboni, perhaps
the two most important leaders in the churchs efforts to send
United States personnel to Latin America, but Considine, still in
the dark about Illichs real goals, defended the masterly job
that Illich was doing.17

Use of Controversy
Another element of Illichs approach was controversy, or what
some called the shock-treatment approach. He liked to surprise earnest sisters and young priests with semiscandalous
ideas, for instance, yelling I hate Yankees! at a nun, or claiming that an ideal missionary may have little pastoral feeling
186

for his people and might merely assist in a cold and technical
way. He also enjoyed presenting difficult or challenging ideas
in forms attributed to others, for example, by quoting a Latin
American bishop who allegedly said, I need to ordain many of
my older married men to the priesthood. In another instance he
mentioned a scholars idea that the church was the foundation
of aristocracy in Colombia. Time reported, Illich and his staff
deliberately make the students angry, start arguments, challenge
cherished beliefs.18
In one instance, a group of sisters came to Illich in great
distress because a speaker had told them not to share their God
with Latin Americans and that their God could not be adopted
by Latin Americans. In another case, Illich asked his students if
they loved Pedro, a hypothetical migrant to Mexico City from
the countryside. Do you love him for himself, for what he is? Or
do you love God in him? If you love him because you love God
in him, you are wrong. There is no worse offense. It is a denial of
the natural order. In both cases, Illich could cluck at their lack
of insight and explain what he or the other speaker really meant,
but both the scandal of the near-heresy and the seed of doubt
planted by Illichs explanation would remain.19
Even intelligent and mature students who had devoured
the literature of the social sciences and mastered the ethics of
intercultural communication faced a gauntlet between two terrible dangers. On one hand was the risk of holding onto ones
own culture. Now Illich added the corresponding hazard of
identification with a group in process of being marginalized.
Improper identification with host cultures could result in marginalization of Church and in destruction of the church from
within.20 Illich did not explain how one could avoid holding
too tightly to ones own culture while simultaneously avoiding
improper identification with host cultures; these two challenges
seem designed more to scare off potential missionaries than to
help them adapt to the mission field.

An Exclusionary Agenda
What was the poor neo-missioner to do with these high expectations? Many of them, Illich hoped, would realize that they were
not equipped to be missionaries, that not every man can be a
missionary.21 In fact, Illich listed seven types who should learn to
recognize their unsuitability for missions: (1) those fleeing home
in a sort of psychological escapism, (2) aggressive nationalists,
(3) missionary adventurers with sensuous dreams of a jungle
or martyrdom or of growing a beard, (4) the ecclesiastic conquistador devoted to heaping up baptisms, (5) those more
interested in apostolic tourism than in self-sacrifice, and (6)
the unreflective missioner who introduced songs, and stories,
and folklore from the home country, resulting eventually in the
alienation of the host culture from its roots; this last type was
particularly dangerous.22
The seventh group, the one that Illich found most objectionable, was the Papal Volunteers for Latin America (PAVLA),
the major lay component of the missionary initiative in Latin
America. Theoretically, lay Catholics would volunteer their
expertise to meet specific needs for periods of two to five years,
but in practice many of the 177 volunteers who were serving by
March 1963 did not offer needed skills, and few had any clear
idea of what they would be doing in the region. To Illich, the
programs goals for its short-term lay missionaries were irrelevant, misleading, and even offensive because Latin America
did not need unskilled volunteers looking for short-term spiritual
highs; rather, it needed highly trained professionals. Why, then,
International Bulletin of Missionary Research, Vol. 33, No. 4

give them any space at CIF? The answer was, They are on their
way, with or without a CIF course. He continued, Painfully, we
have learned how to help such volunteers shed their misguided
missionary zeal.... They are welcome guests on equal footing
with all other students.23 Unspoken was the fact that being on
equal footing with other students meant being equally subject
to Illichs attempts to send them home.
When the PAVLA director warned a volunteer named Sue
Maloney that she would have to reimburse PAVLA the cost of her
time in Cuernavaca if she did not accept her assignment to Lima,
Peru, Illich objected that this action was against all academic,
ecclesiastical, and human traditions. Illich then presented an
interesting definition of the CIF as a
place where volunteers for missions
do make up their
minds, to find out
if they are suited.
You have no right
in any way to construe the tuition and
travel paid for Sue
as an amount you
can ask back from
Sue if Sue decides
not to act for you,
he insisted.24 To him
it was a matter of
principle, but it was
also a matter of his
goals for the center. If
volunteers with second thoughts could
be pressured into
Latin America, all
of his tactics would
amount to little.
Illich also believed that many proIvan Illich later in life
spective missioners
did not know their own hearts. They saw themselves as sacrificing for the church, but instead they were merely seeking fulfillment and adventure. Please do not imagine yourself a saint or a
missioner because you volunteer your services to the Church!
he begged. To one such volunteer who appeared to Illich to be
on an adventure, on her own terms, for her own satisfaction, he
stated, The principal danger I can see in your decision to accept
employment by the Church under the conditions you seek it is
that you fool yourself, that you believe yourself to be what you
are not: a totally dedicated, totally consecrated woman.25
Gradually Illichs vision for the center became more and
more evident. A signal of a new, more public chapter of Illichs
antimissionary campaign came when he announced proudly on
the pages of the New York Times, We are not training missionaries. We are training people to have a deep sense of humility, who
will seek to make their faith relevant to the society in which they
will be working.26 Later, astute observers, such as journalist
Francine du Plessix Gray, recognized that the center was not so
much designed to train missionaries as to keep all but the most
progressive of them away [from Latin America].27
Therefore, in late 1966, when Illich first sent out The Seamy
Side of Charity, he was beginning the last phase of his campaign
October 2009

against the missionary initiative in Latin America. He believed

that CIF had succeeded in subverting the missionary initiative
among the educated groups in the American church through
its training programs and its publications, and he calculated that
less than 1 percent of American and Canadian clergy had heeded
the papal call to Latin America, far from the desired 10 percent.
Still, he detected continuing support for the initiative among the
hierarchy and uneducated Catholics because of an intense
public relations campaign by the Latin America Bureau. The
combination of the upcoming CICOP gathering and news of an
imminent expos in Ramparts of the CIAs infiltration of student
groups in Latin America convinced him that the time was right
to stop the enthusiasm once and for all. Under these circumstances, he argued, public and intensive controversy had to
be sponsored.28
In the end, Illich and his center played a major role in the
failure of the Catholic missionary initiative in Latin America,
which never achieved the numbers or impact envisioned by the
Vatican. As his center attracted more and more negative attention, in 1968 Illich was summoned to Rome for a trial by the
Congregation of the Doctrine of the Faith (successor to the Holy
Office). Although he was not convicted of heresy, Illich renounced
his priestly powers and privileges in 1969 and lived more or
less as a layman for the rest of his life. The center in Cuernavaca
became a sort of secular think tank that attracted intellectuals
from around the world. Seeking to avoid entangling the church
in controversy, he focused his intellectual energies on social
issues and won widespread acclaim for his critiques of education, economic development, and medicine. He became an itinerant intellectual, teaching at American and German universities
in the 1980s before settling with friends and disciples in Bremen,
Germany, where he stayed until his death in 2002. Few understood
that his criticisms of the Wests major institutions were a form of
apophatic theology, laments for the corruption of the church.

Explaining Illich
In the context of Illichs comprehensive antimissionary program
and continuing denunciations of the church, it is important to note
that he never saw his project as antichurch or anti-Christianity
and that he could conceive of missionary activity in a positive
sense. In Mission and Midwifery, a speech to other missionary
training directors in 1964, for instance, he spoke insightfully about
mission as the growth of the Church into new peoples and the
interpretation of the Word of God through its expression in ever
new languages, in ever new translation.29 He always believed
that he was serving the church through his antimissionary work
at CIF. The atmosphere that he engineered there, with its nearly
impossibly steep intellectual challenges and confrontational
tactics, was designed to weed out as many neo-missioners as
possible, but not to turn them away from God. In fact, he offered
spiritual solace to his students from morning to night and framed
their studies in a pervasive Catholic spirituality. He scheduled
daily Masses at 6:15 and 6:45 each morning, offered an hour for
adoration of the sacrament every night, and on Thursday nights
had his colleagues volunteer for one-hour shifts so that students
could adore the sacrament all night.30 He was trying to safeguard
the honor of the church, not to destroy it; he was trying to protect
the souls of students, not lead them astray.
Throughout his life Illich loved the mystical, universal body
of Christ and tried to serve it as best he could. Much of his own
ministry was cross-culturalas a Jewish-Croatian working with
Puerto Ricans or Irish Americans or Mexicans, it could hardly
187

be otherwise. What was the problem, then? What was the root
cause of his passionate, ongoing, semideceitful crusade against
the American Catholic missionary initiative in Latin America?
At the heart of it lay his own imposing example, his view of
Americans, and his fear that too many of the latter could destroy
the region he loved. He was brilliant simultaneously as theologian,
philosopher, historian, scientist, and priest, one who could pick

In many cases he was

right to cringe but, for all
his learning, Illich had
a limited understanding
of the dynamics of the
missionary encounter.
up a new language in weeks and who quickly imbibed the history, literature, poetry, art, culture, and philosophy of any society
that attracted him. He related easily to churchmen, intellectuals,
politicians, students, peasants, and whoever else came across his
path because of his powers of perception and understanding. In
fact, delicacy, an ability to perceive nuance and to respond with
appropriate subtlety, was one of Illichs highest values and one
of his great abilities. For instance, Illich taught about the time
and effort and delicacy needed by missionaries as they learned
to speak a foreign languageand learned how to be silent, to

Notes

1. Gerald Costello, Mission to Latin America: The Successes and Failures

of a Twentieth-Century Crusade (Maryknoll, N.Y.: Orbis Books, 1979),
pp. 12224; Ivan Illich, The Seamy Side of Charity, in Celebration
of Awareness: A Call for Institutional Revolution, by Ivan Illich (Garden
City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1970), pp. 5368.
2. Illich, The Seamy Side, pp. 57, 60, and 65.
3. Louis Luzbetak, International Cultural Problems, CICOP Working
Paper C-34-67, CICOP Working Papers (Davenport, Iowa: Latin
America Bureau, 1967), p. 10.
4. Costello, Mission, p. 127; Four Join Cushing in Jesuit Rebuke, New
York Times, January 28, 1967, p. 15.
5. Costello, Mission, p. 125.
6. Pius XII called for more attention to Latin America in his apostolic
letter Ad Ecclesiam Christi of June 29, 1955. The first inter-American
Episcopal Conference on strengthening the Latin American Church
was held November 24, 1959. In 1961 Pope John XXIIIs representative Agostino Casaroli called for U.S. major superiors to send 10
percent of their personnel to Latin America within ten years.
7. Francine du Plessix Gray, Divine Disobedience: Profiles in Catholic
Radicalism (New York: Knopf, 1970), p. 242.
8. Ivan Illich, Deschooling Society (New York: Harper & Row, 1970), p. 2.
9. Illich, The Seamy Side, p. 54.
10. Students According to Their Superiors [CIF, 1961], National Catholic Welfare Conference Papers, Latin America Bureau section, American Catholic History Research Center and University Archives,
Catholic University of America, Washington, D.C. (hereafter referred
to as CUA), box 186, file 63.
11. Ivan Illich, Report, September 22, 1961, CUA 186:63; Boot Camp
for Urbanites, Time, October 27, 1961, accessed at www.time.com/
time/magazine/article/0,9171,873496,00.html.
12. Held Griffin, quoted in Costello, Mission, p. 93.
13. Midterm Report from Guidance Committee and Language
Department, August 13, 1961, CUA 186:58.
14. Illich, Mission and Midwifery, in The Church, Change, and Devel188

communicate delicately through silences. He portrayed growth

in delicacy as one of the sure signs of missionary maturity.31
The problem Illich saw in American volunteers, therefore, was
not selfishness or even lack of preparation but a lack of delicacy.
For example, he mentioned a South American bishop who was
rightly frightened of a group of fine, well-prepared, generous
Americans messing up his very delicate operation. In the same
vein, he unleashed one of his most venomous speeches at a group
of American volunteers for the sin of an abysmal lack of intuitive delicacy.32 Consequently, when he imagined Americans at
work among Latin Americans, he cringed with embarrassment
for the church that he loved.
In many cases he was right to cringe. Those Irish American
priests in New York City whom he first started working with
and their brother priests in Puerto Rico did butcher the Spanish
language and had little appreciation for Puerto Rican poetry, and
those religious sisters did come to Peru with all sorts of cultural
baggage that would take decades to work out of them, if it ever
did get worked out of them. But Illich, for all his learning, had
a limited understanding of the dynamics of the missionary
encounter. He did not spend much time with missionary letters
and journals and reports, all of which show us the deeply transformative nature of missionary experience on the missionary
and on the host culture alike. He does not appear to have read
Pauls letters with missionary eyes, nor did he give missionary
biography the attention that he gave to medieval philosophy
or to Latin American anthropology. Ultimately, Illich did not
have enough trust in the Gospel message, which can transform
cultures regardless of missionary ineptitude and can bring even
American missionaries to Pauline humility.
opment, by Ivan Illich, ed. Fred Eychaner (New York: Herder & Herder, 1970), pp. 85111.
15. Illich, Mission and Midwifery, pp. 87, 90; Illich, Principles of
Mission Education, CIF Reports 2, no. 7 (December 1963): 3032.
16. Donald Hessler to John J. Considine, August 9, 1961, CUA 191:18;
John Stitz to Considine, December 12, 1961, CUA 186:54.
17. Considine, Diary, October 7, 1961, John J. Considine Papers, Maryknoll Archives, Ossining, N.Y.; Considine to Laurence McGinley,
October 11, 1961, CUA 186:51.
18. Costello, Mission, p. 65; Illich, Mission and Midwifery, pp. 91, 93;
Boot Camp for Urbanites; Illich, Principles, p. 31.
19. Illich, Mission and Midwifery, p. 88; Boot Camp for
Urbanites.
20. Illich, Mission and Midwifery, p. 95.
21. Ibid., pp. 99100; Illich, Principles, p. 31.
22. Illich, Mission and Midwifery, pp. 99100; Dialogue Among
Directors: Workshop for Directors of Training Formation Centers
in Latin America, CIF Reports 3, no. 4 (July 1964): 12.
23. Illich, Dear Father Kevane, in Illich, The Church, pp. 3841.
24. Illich to Michael Lies, October 14, 1961, CUA 186:52; Illich to Michael
Lies, November 13, 1961, CUA 186:52.
25. Illich, Dear Mary: Letter to an American Volunteer, in Illich, The
Church, pp. 4244.
26. Henry Giniger, Mexican Center Trains a New Kind of Priest for
Latin America, New York Times, December 26, 1965, p. 15.
27. Gray, Divine Disobedience, p. 253.
28. Illich, The Seamy Side, pp. 5355.
29. Illich, Mission and Midwifery, pp. 87, 105.
30. Illich, Report, September 22, 1961, CUA 186:63.
31. Illich, The Eloquence of Silence, in Illich, Celebration, p. 46; Illich,
Mission and Midwifery, p. 109.
32. Illich to Considine, August 23, 1961, CUA 186:52; Illich, Ivan
Illich Speech in Chicago to CIASP, April 20, 1968, www.ciasp
.ca/CIASPhistory/IllichCIASPspeech.htm.
International Bulletin of Missionary Research, Vol. 33, No. 4

The Church in Nepal: Analysis of Its Gestation and Growth

John Barclay

ntil recently Nepal was the worlds only Hindu kingdom.1

The mighty Himalayas and the fact that Nepal was a
closed land until the middle of the twentieth century enticed many,
but from 1881 to 1925 only 153 Europeans are known to have
visited Nepal and none became a resident.2 This tiny mountainous country, sandwiched between India and Tibet, had resisted
the might of the British Empire since King Prithvi Narayan Shah
from Gorkha (hence Gurkhas, the renowned soldiers) unified
the country into one kingdom in 1769. From 1848 until the middle
of the twentieth century, the country was controlled by the Rana
prime ministers, who had usurped the monarchy and had vested
interests in keeping the world out. Their century of control was
ended by an Indian-facilitated coup on February 16, 1951, that
placed King Tribhuvan Shah in power.
The earliest recorded entry of Christians into Nepal was
the visit of a Father Cabral, a Jesuit priest, in 1628. Capuchin
monks were given permission by the Malla rulers to reside in
the Kathmandu valley in 1715, but they were forced to leave
by Prithvi Narayan Shah in 1769. The few national Christians,
expelled at the same time, migrated to Bihar, India.3 For almost
two centuries Nepal was totally closed to any Christian presence
or influence.
The revolution in 1951 was a turning point in the countrys
development and in its openness to the outside world. Surprisingly, part of this story, the founding and growth of the church
in Nepal, which is among the fastest growing anywhere in the
modern world, has been recorded in only a handful of books.4 From
just a single secret Christian residing in Nepal in 1951, the number
of Nepali Christians grew to about 40,000 baptized believers by

For almost two centuries

Nepal was totally closed to
any Christian presence.
1990 and has increased more rapidly since then.5 Estimates of the
number of Nepali Christians vary widely, and government census
figures have been unreliable. The most comprehensive survey of
churches and Christians in Nepal was conducted by the Nepal
Research and Resource Network. Begun in 2001 with the results
published in 2007, the survey covered all seventy-five districts
of the country. It showed a total of 2,799 churches and 274,462
baptised church members. The survey counted 379,042 persons
attending churches and presumed to be Christian; this number
equals about 1.5 percent of Nepals population. Ten percent of
the churches have sent out a missionary or evangelist, and one
out of five churches has planted one or more daughter churches.
John Barclay was born on the Indo-Nepal border and
spent the years 196069 growing up in the hills of
Nepal. He returned with his family to serve with the
United Mission to Nepal in a school for Nepali children in Pokhara (198896). He and his wife, Janine,
continue to serve with Interserve in Asia in the field
of education, with a particular focus on third-culture
kids.
[email protected]
October 2009

Some, however, question the approach used in the survey, and

several church leaders consider the figures obtained to be unduly
low.6 K. B. Rokaya, general secretary of the National Council of
Churches of Nepal, estimates that there are 800,000 Christians
in Nepal.7 Whichever figure is correct, this growth during the
churchs formative years is striking and merits examination.

Background Factors (16281950)

Following the visits by the Jesuit and Capuchin monks, other
significant factors spanning more than a century helped to prepare for entry of the Christian Gospel into Nepal. For one thing,
Protestant interest in Christian mission to Nepal has been present from the time of William Carey. The Serampore translation
of the New Testament into Nepali, completed in 1821, was superseded only when the British and Foreign Bible Societys Nepali
translations of the New Testament (1902) and the Old Testament
(1914) were completed.8 Although in 1950 only 2 percent of Nepalis were literate, Christian literature had been used sporadically
during the nineteenth and twentieth centuries to penetrate the
border, despite laws that prohibited its sale, possession, or use
within Nepal.
Second, as the map on page 190 illustrates, from the later nineteenth century numerous Protestant missions and missionaries in
northern India were poised to enter Nepal when the opportunity
came.9 Prior to 1950 all the towns underlined (and more) had
ongoing mission work among the itinerant Nepalis who crossed
the Indo-Nepal border. Four accounts, from among many more,
underscore the high degree of anticipation and vision present
during what Cindy Perry calls the century of preparation.10
Darjeeling, on the eastern border of Nepal, was developed
by the British, and a large community of Nepalis settled there
to labor in the tea plantations. William MacFarlane, a Church of
Scotland missionary, began the Eastern Himalayan Mission in 1870,
a work active in education, Christian literature, Bible translation,
and village evangelism. All were important foundations for the
future as the Darjeeling and Kalimpong region became the main
center for the nascent Nepali church.
Another group was the Australian Nepalese Mission (ANM),
which began in a prayer meeting in Fitzroy, Melbourne, in 1911.11
Founding missionary John Coombe with his wife, Lillian, and
two children in 1917 established a base in Ghorasahan, Bihar,
near the Nepal border. Although not one of the small band of
ANM missionaries ever entered the closed land just across the
border, their focus for three decades was on Nepal. They were
typical of other missionaries and groups that, though seemingly
insignificant, served faithfully in anticipation of Nepals border
opening.
A third group was the Regions Beyond Missionary Union
(RBMU), along with the Raxaul Medical Mission. Work by RBMU
commenced in Bihar in the late nineteenth century, but the missionaries eyes were fixed on Nepal. The railhead border town
of Raxaul, directly south of Kathmandu, was chosen as the site
for Duncan Hospital, established in 1930 by Dr. Cecil Duncan
(son of a missionary in Darjeeling). The site was well chosen and
Duncan Hospital subsequently played a vital role in the entry of
both church and mission into Nepal. 12
Finally, mention must be made of Dr. Kitty Harbord, the
189

Nepal Evangelistic Band (NEB) at Nautanwa, another railhead,

and the Nepal Border Fellowship (NBF). Harbord, of the Zenana
Bible and Medical Mission (later Bible and Medical Missionary Fellowship, and now Interserve), opened a dispensary at
Nautanwa in 1927. She recruited Dr. Lily OHanlon and Hilda
Steele, who in 1943 founded the Nepal Evangelistic Band (now
the International Nepal Fellowship). NEB was later, in 1952, to
pioneer the move into Pokhara, west of Kathmandu. Harbords
article The Closed Land of Nepal: A Modern Jericho (1939)
influenced many, including Jonathan Lindell, andbuilding
on conferences organized by Cecil Duncan in Raxaul in 1934
and 1937led to the formation of the Nepal Border Fellowship.
The NBF was a loose association that brought various missions
along the Nepal border together for encouragement, planning,
prayer, and cooperation in terms of a Statement of Aims (May
17, 1948), a literature committee, and an advisory council. Later
mission collaboration in Nepal grew from seeds sown in these
conferences.13

Nepali Christians and the Darjeeling Church

Show us the way by a cloudy, fiery pillar. . . .

There are citiesThapathali, Bhatgaon, Patan, Kathmandu,
Our prayer is to make them your devotees.
Up, brothers, we must go, leaving wealth, home, people, and
comfort,
To do this holy task.16

Forty-three years after Ganga Prasad had been expelled, his

great-grandson Rajendra Rongong, Robert Karthak, and a small
group of Darjeeling Christians entered Kathmandu with a strong
sense of missionary calling instilled by RBMU missionary Elisabeth Franklin. And forty years later, in 1997, Rajendra Rongong
and Robert Karthak were the key persons to lead one of the earliest Nepali missionary teams into Myanmar, where they helped
establish the Myanmar Gurkhali Christian Fellowship.17
Buddhi Singh, a humble watchmaker from eastern Nepal who
was converted in Darjeeling by Ganga Prasad, was for many
years an itinerant village evangelist with the Gorkha Mission,
an indigenous Nepali mission founded by Darjeeling Christians
in 1892 to evangelize Nepalis. In his later years he influenced
the young David Mukhia, who in 1952 became the first pastor
in Nepal, at the Ram Ghat Church in Pokhara.18
Colonel Nararaj Shamsher Jung Bahadur Rana was a member of
the Rana aristocracy who retired from the army and lived in the
Terai region, not far from Raxaul. He visited Duncan Hospital

Key Nepali men and women became Christians during the

century of preparation. One was Chandra Leela, the daughter
of the Brahmin priest to the royal family in Kathmandu. Born
in 1840, married at the age of
seven, widowed at nine, and orphaned at fourteen, she became a
sunyasi (Hindu holy woman) and
for seventeen years searched the
depths of Hinduism in her quest
for solace and peace. Eventually
she abandoned her quest but soon
after met a young girl with a Bible.
After reading the Bible she became
a Christian and went back to Kathmandu to speak of her new faith. She
baptized her older brother shortly
before he died, but then returned
to India as an itinerant evangelist
until her death.14
Another early Christian was
Ganga Prasad Pradhan, who was
born into a wealthy Newar family
in Kathmandu in 1851. When he
Courtesy of United Mission to Nepal
was ten his father took him to DarMissions
poised
to
enter
Nepal
before
1951
were
based
in
towns
underlined.
jeeling to join his older brother in
MacFarlanes school, where Ganga
Prasad was educated and converted, which led to a remarkable with his sick grandson, met Ernest Oliver (then field leader of
life of Christian service. He was the first ordained Nepali pas- RBMU but later a founder of the United Mission to Nepal and
tor, translator of the Nepali Bible (completed in 1914 after forty its first executive secretary),19 and became a secret believer. The
years of laborhe was made a life governor of the British and Colonel Sahib (as he was known) was baptized by Oliver on Easter
Foreign Bible Society), pioneer in Nepali literature, and owner of Sunday, 1952, and was instrumental in hosting the first church
the first Nepali press.15 In 1914 Ganga Prasad returned with his services in Kathmandu in his home there in April 1953. He was
extended family to Kathmandu to establish a Christian presence also a major contributor to the revised translation of the entire
there, but they were expelled by the Rana rulers with the words, Nepali Bible, published by the Bible Society in 1977.20
There is no room for Christians in Nepal! A great legacy of
Ganga Prasad was a hymn he wrote that for fifty years expressed The First Generation (195190)
the expectant prayers of the waiting clusters of missionaries and
exiled Nepali ChristiansPrabhu arji suni leu, Gorkhali le mukti When King Tribhuvan opened Nepals borders in 1951, he invited
the world to assist in Nepals development. It was then, by almost
paune dhoka kholi deu . . .
any criteria, one of the worlds poorest countriesand it still is.
Three distinct groups converged to contribute to the formation
Lord, hear our prayer, open the door of salvation for the Gorkhalis. . . .
of the church in Nepal.
190

International Bulletin of Missionary Research, Vol. 33, No. 4

Chronologically, the first group consisted of foreign Christians society.25 At the time of the 1990 revolution, the UMN comprised
entering from India, beginning with Father Moran, a Jesuit priest 39 member missions, 420 expatriate missionaries, and over 2,000
working in Patna, Bihar, who established St. Xaviers School on Nepali staff.
the edge of the Kathmandu valley in July 1951. In 1952 the Nepal
The second group contributing to the formation of the church
Evangelistic Band in Nautanwa was given permission to establish in Nepal consisted of Nepali Christians, including a small but
medical work in Pokhara, and in October Dr. OHanlon and Hilda significant contingent from the Darjeeling-Kalimpong region.
Steele, with four expatriate colleagues and five Nepali Christians, While the foreign missions were constrained from evangelizing
including David and Premi Mukhia, trekked for nine days from and church planting by the terms of their agreements with the
Nautanwa to reach Pokhara. The Shingovernment, the Nepali Christians began
ing Hospital soon became renowned,
to engage in Christian outreach and to
and the mission later developed into
form small congregations of believers.
the International Nepal Fellowship
Nepals first church was formed at
(INF). Its work continues to be primarily
Ram Ghat, Pokhara, in 1952 with David
medical, but it has spread and diversiMukhia as pastor. Others followed in the
fied through many parts of western
Kathmandu valley. Tir Bahadur became
Nepal.21
the pastor at Bhaktapur in 1954. Rongong
Formation of the United Mission
and Karthaks small group that arrived
to Nepal (UMN) came about through
from Darjeeling in 1956 appointed
several remarkable coincidences. During
Robert Karthak as pastor the following
the 1951 revolution, fighting took place
year. This group developed into the
just over the border from Raxaul, and
Nepali Isai Mandali, commonly known
wounded combatants from both sides
as Gyaneshwar Church, which today
were treated at Duncan Hospital. As a
is the largest congregation in Nepal.
result of this service, after the revolution
Other Darjeeling Christians became an
Bir Bahadur Rai, Prem Pradhan, and Dil
Dr. Trevor Strong and Ernest Oliver were
integral part of the work of the UMN in
Bahadur Thakuri in Tansen prison
invited by His Majestys Government of
remote projects and were instrumental
for their faith in Christ, 1961
Nepal (HMGN) to visit Kathmandu to
in establishing small congregations that
explore the possibility of mission work. They were told that medi- have continued. Many have grown into substantial churches, and
cal and educational work would be welcome, but open preaching several have multiplied.
would be prohibited.22 These discussions dovetailed with a sepaA third, smaller group consisted of four Christians from the
rate approach made by authorities in Tansen, a large hill-town Mar Thoma Church in Kerala, South India, who arrived early in
west of Kathmandu and halfway between Nautanwa and Pokhara, 1953.26 They were led by C. K. Athyali, whose mother had been
to American missionaries Bob and Bethel Fleming (Methodist) so challenged at the Kerala Marama convention in the 1920s by
and Carl and Betty Friedericks (Presbyterian). Contact had been Sadhu Sundar Singhs accounts of his trips through Nepal to
made earlier as a result of ornithological trips into Nepal in Tibet that she dedicated her unborn child to be a missionary to
October 1949 and in the winter of 195152, during which med- Nepal. The group joined with the Colonel Sahib, who hosted
ical assistance had been given to the people of Tansen. Even- worship services in his house in central Kathmandu. Later, he
tually, permission was granted to open a hospital in Tansen helped them purchase land in Putali Sadak, close to the parliament buildings, on which Kathmandus first church building
and clinics in Kathmandu.
Lindell rightly refers to the foundation of the UMN as some was constructed.27 Over the years many Christians from Kerala
of the finest missionary statesmanship that has been exercised in have given exemplary, lifelong service to Nepal, especially in the
the modern missionary movement. Influential Methodist bishop fields of education and medicine.
During this early phase (195161) numerical growth was
J.Wascom Pickett circulated HMGNs letter of invitation to other
missions in conjunction with the National Christian Council gradual, but three important features should be noted. First,
(NCC) of India, with a view to establishing a Christian mission Nepals constitution and legal code prohibited conversion to
in Nepal on the widest possible cooperative basis, a combined another religion. The flow of converts was only a trickle during
interdenominational and international approach.23 The NCC these early years and only a few baptisms took place. Second,
endorsed Picketts proposal, and the United Christian Mission although the NEB and the UMN were not engaged in church
to Nepal was founded in Nagpur in March 1954.24
planting and were not officially linked to any of the churches, a
There were eight founding missions; Pickett became the symbiotic relationship between the churches and the missions
founding president of the board and Ernest Oliver the first did exist with mutual benefit and encouragement as the church
executive secretary. The Flemings had already commenced med- was being established. Third, the independence of the churches
ical work in Kathmandu in January 1954, and the Friederickses from the missions was fully evident: the leadership was entirely
began work in Tansen in June 1954, but the work quickly ex- Nepali, the churches were self-funding, and there were no depanded and diversified to include education, engineering, and nominations. Each congregation was autonomous.
rural development. The activities of the UMN were defined and
Two important events marked the end of the first decade:
reviewed in a series of five-year agreements with Nepals govern- the outbreak of state persecution and formation of the Nepal
ment. There have always been clear prohibitions on proselytiz- Christian Fellowship. The first official persecution by the state
ing, but the Christian nature of the UMN and the personal faith took place following baptisms in Nepalgunj (1958) and Tansen
of its workers are known and accepted. The Mission takes the (1959) by Pastor David and in 1960 by Pastor Prem Pradhan. In
terms seriously ... and has learned that its stay in Nepal rests November 1960 Prem Pradhan and six baptized believers (three
on a mixture of invitation, permission and mutual agreement; married couples) were imprisoned in Tansen, and the Supreme
that it is temporary ... [and] that it is in partnership with Nepali Court convicted them a year later: the women were sentenced
October 2009

191

for six months, the men for twelve months. Prem Pradhan was
sentenced for six years (though he was released by royal pardon
after four and a half years). Pastor David was included in the
conviction, but he escaped across the border to Nautanwa and
returned only in 1969. Sporadic arrests, which became the pattern
for the next two decades, occurred elsewhere. Vilification and
ostracism by families and communities were common responses
to baptism.28
Although the congregations were independent of the missions, the initiative of Ernest Oliver resulted in formation of the
Nepal Christian Fellowship (NCF) in 1960, something that he
regarded as the most significant event in the first ten years of the

Government restrictions
ensured that church
and mission remained
officially distinct and that
evangelistic activity was
done only by Nepalis.
church.29 Pastor David from Pokhara was appointed president,
and during his time in Nautanwa the NCF met there in 1962 and
1963. In 1966 Robert Karthak was appointed president; thereafter
the NCF met biannually in Nepal and was the means of bringing the autonomous young churches together for fellowship
and mutual encouragement.... This was an effective means of
uniting almost all of the [Protestant] Christians in the country
until the late 1970s.30
For the churchs first ten years (195161), there was not much
growth in numbers, but a strong foundation was laid. During
the 1960s churches were established in key areas and wherever
mission groups were working, even though government restrictions ensured that church and mission would remain officially
distinct, that evangelistic activity would be done only by itinerant Nepali evangelists, and that the churches would remain
nondenominational though they were united in fellowship and
purpose. Perry observes, The Nepali church was clearly set on
an independent course. . . . The stage was set for an explosion
of growth over the next 20 years [197090].31

Freedom and Expansion (1990 to the Present)

The dramatic events of the first half of 1990 marked a watershed
both in the history of Nepal and in the growth of the Nepali
church. The bloody Democracy Revolution in February/March
1990 culminated on April 6 with King Birendras announcement
of a return to multiparty democratic government. A year passed
before general elections were held and six months more before
the new constitution was promulgated, but a new atmosphere
of freedom and hope replaced the repression of the previous
three decades.
It took months for the country to recover from the postrevolution upheaval. At that time there were about 60 Christians in
jail, and 200 cases against Christians were pending in the courts.
The general amnesty granted by King Birendra on June 2, 1990,
heralded a new era of freedom for Christians and the church. Still,
though Section 19 of the 1990 constitution gave every religious
community the right to maintain its independent existence ...
192

and to manage and protect its religious sites and trusts, Christian
organizations experienced difficulty obtaining official recognition and registration. And although freedom to profess and
practice [ones] own religion32 was acknowledged, prohibition
of conversion continued, with penalties of three to six years in
jail specified by the Civil Code. Nevertheless, churches found
ways of owning land and buildings, and public worship was
open and without threat, although individuals continued to face
persecution at personal and social levels, and sporadic cases of
state persecution continued through the 1990s.
Following 1996 Nepals attempts to establish democracy
were destabilized by the activities of the Maoist Peoples War.
The massacre of King Birendra and his family in June 2001
stunned Nepal and the world and gave rise to suspicions of
treason within the country. After the February 2005 sacking of
the government by King Gyanendra, political upheaval led to
further unrest and instability until peace talks, brokered by the
United Nations, led to an interim government that included the
Maoists. The general election in April 2008 resulted in a Maoistdominated coalition government with P. K. Dahal, popularly
known as Comrade Prachanda, as prime minister. On May 28,
2008, Nepals Constituent Assembly, in a virtually unanimous
vote, abolished the monarchy, establishing a federal democratic
republic, and on July 23 Ram Baran Yadav was sworn in as the
countrys first president.
At present Christianity is recognized publicly in many ways,
a change foreshadowed by inclusion of Christian as an option
in the religion category of the 1991 census. Christians regularly
hold public meetings and processions at Christmas and Easter,
to which senior politicians and dignitaries are invited. Ramesh
Khatry states that during the Peoples War the government had
the Maoists to deal with full time, thus the church grew unhampered, and now with the change to democracy Christians have
boldness to make their demands known to the government. . . .
Political instability remains despite the elections held in 2008, but
Nepal has been declared a secular state and freedom of religion
is now guaranteed.33
But there have also been less salutary developments. Denominationalism has entered Nepal, often by infiltrating existing
churches.34 Alongside this development, the NCF has fragmented
into various groups (e.g., National Churches Fellowship of Nepal,
Agape Churches, and Four square). Still, in many places fellowship and cooperation continue between the churches. On the
positive side, a large number of parachurch organizations and
Christian NGOs, both national and international, have emerged,
including the National Council of Churches, Nepal (NCCN;
known in Nepali as Nepal Rastriya Mandali Parisad), founded in
1999. K. B. Rokaya, who became the NCCN general secretary in
2003, was actively involved in the political peace negotiations,
and the NCCN initiated an interfaith Peace and Reconciliation
process.35
Mission organizations have had to rethink both the nature
of their own work and their relationship to the Nepali churches.
The UMN and the INF have undertaken significant restructuring,
which has entailed a degree of confusion and misunderstanding among some sectors of the Nepali church, but relationships
overall continue to be strong and cordial.
A dearth of trained leadership arising from inadequate opportunities in Nepal for pastoral and theological training is a
matter of concern. Only a handful of Nepalis possess advanced
training in theology. Ramesh Khatry was the first Nepali to earn
a Ph.D. in New Testament studies, from Oxford University. He
founded the Nepal Bible Ashram and heads the fledgling AssoInternational Bulletin of Missionary Research, Vol. 33, No. 4

ciation for Theological Education in Nepal, which commenced a

B.D. program under Serampore University in July 2005. He also
writes commentaries in Nepali.
The Nepali church continues to grow outside Nepal as well.
The Nepali diaspora is estimated at 10 million, and Nepali congregations meet in many cities of India and in other countries.
Cindy Perry and colleagues in Himalayan Ministries (now HIMServe), based not far from Darjeeling, pioneered work among
the Nepali diaspora.

Factors Contributing to Growth

Parallels between the first generation of the Christian church
which grew rapidly despite being situated within a hostile Roman Empireand the first generation of the church in Nepal
are apparent and have been explored elsewhere.36 From just a
single believer residing in the country in 1950, the number of
Christians in Nepal has grown, by a conservative estimate, to 2
percent of the population.
Several factors present during the three decades 196090
helped to form the character of the Nepali church and contributed
to its growth and spread.37 First, there was an unprecedented
degree of cooperation among various Christian groups, including those from Darjeeling and Kerala, together with expatriate
missionaries. The NCF promoted unity and the church remained
nondenominational.38
Second, rapid development in Nepal, encouraged by His
Majestys Government of Nepal, resulted in openness among the
common people to new things. The expansion of missions, especially the UMN, into remote corners of Nepal inevitably resulted
in new fellowships and churches springing up. At the same time
the restrictions and constraints imposed by the government on
missions and missionaries ensured the independence of these
churches, and this independence was intentionally encouraged
by mission leaders.39
Third, the prohibition of conversion and the reality of persecution from the outset prevented nominalism and kept the church
strong. Oppression of Christians increased in the late 1980s, along
with widespread political agitation against the government.
Fourth, most converts were young, vigorous, and vibrant,
with a keen sense of evangelistic outreach to the majority society.
Also, family conversions were not uncommon, and mass conversions occasionally took place among tribal groups (e.g., the
Tamangs of Dhading District).
Fifth, retired Gurkha servicemen who had converted to
Christianity while in the Indian or British army returned to their
villages and established small Christian communities.
Sixth, new Christians were trained in India at Mirik Bible
School in Darjeeling and Union Biblical Seminary in Pune to fill
the need for pastors and church leaders. Locally, the NCF sponsored short-term training schools and conferences.
Seventh, several parachurch groups, especially student and
youth organizations, worked alongside the churches to spur
evangelism and to support new Christians. The womens movement of the early 1980s resulted in the first nationwide womens
conference in 1985, more than 300 womens prayer groups, and
their increasing involvement in churches across the country.
Eighth, Christian literature, including translation of portions
of Scripture into several tribal languages by SIL/Wycliffe and
the translation released by the Bible Society in 1977 of the whole
Bible in Nepali, spread the Christian message. Radio ministries
such as the Far East Broadcasting Company and Trans World
Radio transmitted the message. Bible correspondence courses
October 2009

offered by the Nepal Gospel Outreach Center and others provided

instruction to thousands of new believers.40
Ninth, the Nepali songbook brought together various earlier collections of indigenous songs as well as hymns translated
from English and Hindi.41 The predominant use of indigenous
songs and tunes reflected the general pattern of indigenous
worship that included such culturally appropriate practices as
meeting on Saturdays (Sunday being a working day in Nepal)
and gender-segregated seating on the floor, often in ordinary
village homes.
In 2004 Betty Young, UMN archivist, added the following: A
very widespread means which God has used in the rapid spread
of the Gospel is healing, not in any dramatic way, but quietly, one
to anotherthere must be thousands who have come to the Lord
through healing. Another answer given by Nepali Christians to
explain why the church was growing so quickly was because it
was a praising, worshipping church.42

Conclusion
The growth of the Nepali church in numbers and spiritual depth
can be attributed to a mix of factorshistorical, theological, and
missiological. The century of preparation included Christian
literature, translation of Scripture, and development of Nepali
songs. Key Nepalis became Christians, and missionaries were
strategically placed around the borders, ready to enter the
country. Expatriate missionaries and Nepali Christians showed
wisdom, humility, and foresight to ensure that known errors in
mission practice were not repeated. Nepali Christians showed
great courage in the face of persecution, which in turn refined
and purified the church in the early decades. Factors external to

Perhaps the most

significant factorcertainly
the single most recurring
theme in the short history
of the Nepali churchis
the place of prayer.
the church, such as the political revolutions of 1951 and 1990 and
the presence of the Nepali language as a lingua franca within the
country (as Greek was in the first century), have been additional
catalysts in the churchs growth.
Another factor in its growth is that the church represents
the whole spectrum of Nepali society. There is no more dramatic
demonstration of the Gospels power to transcend the entrenched
social barriers of caste and to unify disparate and segregated
groups in the mosaic of Nepali society than the practice of the
Lords Supper in a Nepali church, as men and women, young
and old, high caste, tribal, and Dalit break bread together and
share a common cup.
Perhaps the most significant factor, and certainly the single
most recurring theme in the short history of the Nepali church, is
the place of prayer. A quarter of a century before Nepals borders
opened, Gordon Guinness wrote these prophetic words: Prayer
can penetrate anywhere. Long before we enter the valleys of Nepal
prayer can be doing a concrete work in laying the foundations for
the future kingdom.... When we have prepared the way with
193

the Spirit of God in prayer, he will answer those very prayers

in permitting us to occupy Nepal.43 The truth of these words is
seen in all of the following: Ganga Prasads prayer-song and the
Darjeeling Nepali Christians who prayed for their closed land
for decades; the NEB prayer groups across Britain spawned by
Kitty Harbords enthusiasm; John Coombes prayer group in
Fitzroy, Melbourne;44 the NBF (and later NPF), which prayed
for decades in anticipation of Nepals borders opening; Ernest
Oliver and Trevor Strong praying as they overlooked the Kathmandu valley in April 1951;45 Elizabeth Franklin, who prayed for
twenty-three years before entering Nepal; and the Kerala mother
who, like Hannah, prayed for a son and then dedicated him to
be a missionary in Nepal. The list is too extensive to record, and
it continues to grow today.46

Notes

1. This article is based on work done at the Bible College of Victoria in

2003 as part of an Australian College of Theology D.Min. course on
church growth. Extensive reference was made to archival documents
in the Nepal Church History Project (NCHP), Centre for the Study
of Christianity in the Non-Western World, New College, University
of Edinburgh.
2. Jonathan Lindell, Nepal and the Gospel of God (Kathmandu: United
Mission to Nepal, 1979), p. 42. The map on p. 190 is adapted from
Lindell, pp. vi-vii; used by permission.
3. Details of these early visits are recorded in ibid., pp. 137; and in
Cindy Perry, A Biographical History of the Church in Nepal, 3d ed.
(Kathmandu: Nepal Church History Project, 1990), pp. 19.
4. Mark Arnett, Himalayan Vision: Fifty Years in Nepalthe Story of the
INF (Pokhara, Nepal: International Nepal Fellowship, 2002); Norma
Kehrberg, The Cross in the Land of the Khukuri (Kathmandu: Ekta
Books, 2000); Lindell, Nepal; Perry, History.
5. Cindy Perry, e-mail to author, July 29, 2009. Perry was a consultant
to the Nepal Church Survey Project, 198687.
6. For example, Bhab Ghale, e-mail to author, August 2, 2007.
7. K. B. Rokaya, PowerPoint presentation, copy provided to author,
October 10, 2007.
8. Only 4,500 copies of the whole Bible were printed. Until the new
Bible Society translation of 1977 was published, there were hardly ten
copies of the whole Bible extant in Nepal (Perry, History, p. 41).
9. Lindell lists twenty-five Christian missions (Nepal, p. 115) and Perry
lists forty groups operating along the Indo-Nepal border in the
century before the 1951 revolution (History, pp. 11618).
10. Perry, History, p. 23.
11. My paternal grandparents were founding members of this group;
see note 44.
12. Gordon Guinness, Quest for the Nepal Border (London: Marshall,
Morgan, & Scott [ca. 1928]), p. 118.
13. Perry, History, pp. 8689.
14. Lindell, Nepal, pp. 8789; Perry, History, pp. 1517.
15. Perry, History, p. 29.
16. Nepali Khristiya Bhajan (Kathmandu: N.C.F/Samdan Publishers,
1996), p. 196; Lindell, Nepal, p. 78; Perry, History, p. 33.
17. Cindy Perry, e-mail to author, June 16, 2005.
18. Perry, History, pp. 3537; Arnett, Himalayan Vision, pp. 13867.
19. See Richard Tiplady, The Legacy of Ernest Oliver, International
Bulletin of Missionary Research 29, no. 1 (January 2005): 3841.
20. For the stories of key Nepali Christians in the formative years after
1951, see the works by Lindell, Perry, Kehrberg, and Arnett cited
above.
21. For the story of the NEB/INF, see Lindell, Nepal; Perry, History; and
most thoroughly, Arnett, Himalayan Vision.
22. Elizabeth Pritchard, For Such a Time (Eastbourne, Eng.: Victory Press,
1973), p. 91.

194

The church in Nepal today stands as a testimony to those

prayers. In November 2007, at the fiftieth anniversary of Nepali
Isai Mandali, Nepals largest church (Gyaneswar Church in
Kathmandu), my father and I were among thousands of Nepali
Christians singing Ganga Prasads prayer song, Prabhu arji suni
leu, Gorkhali le mukti paune dhoka kholi deu . . . (Lord, hear our
prayer, open the door of salvation for the Gorkhalis . . . ). Less
than forty years after Ganga Prasad was told in 1914, There is
no room for Christians in Nepal, the Rana regime was ousted by
the Shah dynasty. Today, less than 100 years after Ganga Prasad
was turned out of the country, King Gyanendra has abdicated
and the Shah dynasty itself has been abolished, but the church
is firmly established and growing in Nepal.

23. Lindell, Nepal, pp. 14344.

24. In 1956 the name was changed to the United Mission to Nepal (ibid.,
p. 181).
25. Ibid., p. 200. Details of UMNs founding and work are in Lindell,
Nepal, pp. 13381.
26. These four were graduates of the Union Biblical Seminary, Yeotmal
(now in Pune).
27. Kehrberg, Cross, p. 99; Lindell, Nepal, pp. 12830; Perry, History,
pp. 60, 95.
28. Kehrberg, Cross, pp. 1059; Perry, History, pp. 103, 110.
29. Perry, History, p. 109.
30. Ibid., pp. 10910.
31. Ibid., p. 85.
32. The words in quotations are from Section 19 of the Constitution of
Nepal 2047 B.S. (1990).
33. Ramesh Khatry, e-mail to author, December 11, 2007.
34. In addition to the Roman Catholic Church, the Assemblies of God
and Seventh-day Adventists were present before 1990. There are now
several denominational churches, including Presbyterian, Baptist,
and Foursquare, as well as groups such as Jehovahs Witnesses and
Mormons.
35. K. B. Rokaya, PowerPoint presentation, copy provided to author,
October 10, 2007.
36. See Peter McDowell, Early Church History in Nepal (unpublished
essay, 2002).
37. The following points have been adapted from a paper by Howard
Barclay presented to the UMN Annual Conference, 1980, NCHP
AO215010043000.
38. Kehrberg, Cross, p. 116.
39. The NBF had earlier established the pattern of collaboration, and
indigenous leadership of the church was another imperative for the
founders of the NEB and UMN.
40. Perry documents the many sources of Christian literature and the
process whereby the organizations combined resources (History,
pp. 11923).
41. Nepali Khristiya Bhajan; a comprehensive revision by Loknath
Manaen, Ron Byatt, and others, was published by NCF in 1985
(NCHP A1010010007000) and again in 1996 and 1999.
42. Betty Young, UMN archivist, e-mail to author, March 1, 2004.
43. Guinness, Quest, pp. 11617.
44. Elizabeth Barclay, a founding member, prayed for forty years until
Nepals borders opened, and for another forty years until she died
in 1990 at the age of ninety-seven.
45. Pritchard, For Such a Time, p. 91.
46. Bhab Ghale, nephew of a British Gurkha soldier converted in the
1960s, coordinates the Prayer for Nepal Global Network (www
.prayerfornepal.org).

International Bulletin of Missionary Research, Vol. 33, No. 4

My Pilgrimage in Mission
David Dong-Jin Cho

was born on December 19, 1924, near the Yalu River, at

the Korean border with China. I was the eldest son of a
prominent Korean resistance leader against the Japanese military
regime, which had occupied Korea since invading it in 1905. My
father received Christ as his Savior when he was ten years old, and
I was raised as a Christian from childhood. I was baptized as an
infant by Donald A. Swicord, a missionary from the Presbyterian
Church in the United States.

Divine Calling
My calling came to me in December of 1945 at a revival meeting
at the small rural church where I was serving as a deacon. The
revival meeting was led by an evangelist who had spent seven
years in prison for refusing to bow to the Shinto shrine of the
Japanese. On the third day of this revival meeting, I was broken
down by the Spirit and confessed and repented of all the iniquities, falseness, and sins I had committed and concealed since my
childhood. I wept and prayed for three days and three nights
without sleeping, eating, or drinking. I took an oath to obey my
calling to be a servant and witness of the Lord, and the pastor
of the church and the speaker of the revival meeting laid their
hands on me. I later took an exam to become a candidate for
pastor in the synod.

Training in Theology and Evangelism

I fled from the Communist rule of North Korea into South
Korea, where I studied at the Presbyterian Theological Seminary. I graduated in June 1949 with honors in theology. Immediately after graduation I married Shin Bock Rah, a seminary
classmate of mine. I began to evangelize in order to plant a
church, but I failed to reach nonbelievers. I soon realized that
my seminary training had not taught me how to evangelize the
unreached. I then decided to study evangelism.
In 1956 I went to the United States to pursue studies in mission and evangelism. In the 1950s the Korean government did
not allow people studying abroad to take along their families,
and so I was alone until 1960, when I finished my training in the
States. I began at Providence Bible Institute, Providence, Rhode
Island, then went to the WEC Missionary Training Center in
Fort Washington, Pennsylvania, and later to Bethany Missionary
College in Minneapolis, Minnesota. I continued my studies under J. T. Seamand (mission) and Robert Coleman (evangelism)
at Asbury Theological Seminary, in Wilmore, Kentucky, where I
received a Th.M. in mission in 1960. I later received two honorary
doctor of divinity degrees: from Belhaven College, in Jackson,
Mississippi, and from my alma mater, Asbury Theological Seminary. Finally, in 1993, I earned a Ph.D. in international developDavid Dong-Jin Cho has been a pastor in Seoul,
South Korea (196078), and a professor in the United
States and in both South and North Korea. In 1963
he established the International School of Mission
in Seoul. He also was instrumental in founding the
Asia Missions Association (1975), the Third World
Missions Association (1989), and the Asian Society
of Missiology (2003).
[email protected]
October 2009

ment at William Carey International University, in Pasadena,

California.
From 1960 to 1978 I served as the senior minister of the
Hoo-Am Presbyterian Church in Seoul, Korea. Beginning in 1961,
I advocated for mission studies courses at seminaries in Korea.
I began to teach mission and evangelism at the Presbyterian
Seminary, the Methodist Seminary, and the Holiness Seminary
in Seoul. In 1963 I established the International School of Mission
in Seoul, which later, in 1973, expanded to become the East-West
Center for Missions Research and Development. It was the first
missionary training and research institute in the non-Western
world.
My wife, who passed away from cancer in 1992, was a wonderful coworker in my various ministries. When I was pastoring,
she sought out and comforted those in the congregation who
needed special care. She became an effective counselor and a good
listener, especially for those who were isolated or hidden in our
church, which eventually had several thousand members. When
I was concentrating more on missionary training, she cared for
missionary candidates and their wives as though they were her
own children. When I visited mission fields, she traveled with me
and was especially attentive to the needs of the wives and children
of missionaries. The Lord gave us a son and four daughters, each
of whom has been a cooperating supporter of my ministries over
the years. Currently my daughter Helen is executive director of
the David Cho Missiological Institute, which is sponsored by the
Global Mission Society of the Presbyterian Church of Korea. The
latter is Koreas largest mission organization, with over 2,000
missionaries now serving all over the world.

Efforts for Partnership with Western Missions

I dreamed of building a partnership with Western missions to
develop leadership for the newly emerging Asian missions. I
began making contacts at the Asia Pacific Congress on Evangelism, held in Singapore November 513, 1968. While there, I
visited the Overseas Missionary Fellowship headquarters, located
in Singapore, and shared with the chief executives my vision for
cooperating to train missionaries of the Korean mission agencies. After a short discussion, however, they coldly refused my
proposal.
I continued to contact Western missions operating in Asia,
asking for their cooperation with the newly emerging Asian missions. I traveled to the United States and contacted the Christian
and Missionary Alliance (C&MA) mission in New York, where
I met Louis King, general secretary of the C&MA board, and
proposed that they work together with Korean missionaries in
Vietnam. Vietnam was a major mission field of C&MA in Asia,
and a number of Korean missionaries had recently begun mission work there. After a long discussion, however, they gently
declined my proposal of partnership with Korean missions. I
next went to Wilmington, Delaware, to meet the CEO of the
World Presbyterian Mission and propose a partnership, but
they also refused. I then went to Wheaton, Illinois, to meet the
head of The Evangelical Alliance Mission (TEAM), as I had
been heavily involved in the missions attempts to open the
Word of Life Press and a mission radio station in Korea. I was
also responsible for much of their progress in literature and
195

radio ministries in Korea. TEAM, however, as with the previous missions I had contacted, chose not to accept my proposal
of partnership. My yearlong effort to build a partnership with
Western missions had failed.

Inter-Asian Network and East-West Cooperation

I decided to build an Asia-wide network first and then later pursue
contacting Western missions. In 1971 I traveled to twelve Asian
countries, meeting with Akira Hatori in Japan, Philip Teng and
Timothy Dzao in Hong Kong, David Liao in Taiwan, Witchean
Wataki Charowen in Thailand, Chandu Ray in Singapore, G. D.
James in Malaysia, and Greg Tingson in the Philippines. I also
contacted Doan Vau Mieng in Vietnam and met Samuel Kamaleson and Theodore Williams in India, Bashir Jiwan in Pakistan,
and Sabuhas Sangma in Bangladesh. All were major leaders of
the Asian missionary movement in the 1960s. They unanimously
agreed to help launch a network of Asian missions and to cooperate in fostering mutual relationships among partners. We finally
reached a consensus to call the All-Asia Mission Consultation,
which would take place in Seoul in August 1973.
In September 1971 I attended the Green Lake Conference
of the Interdenominational Foreign Mission Association (IFMA;
now CrossGlobal Link) and the Evangelical Foreign Missions
Association (EFMA, later the Evangelical Fellowship of Mission
Agencies and now The Mission Exchange), where I announced
the upcoming All-Asia Mission Consultation planned for August
1973 and gave an open invitation to the leaders of Western missions. Responses came from the following mission professors and
executives: Arthur Glasser, dean of Fuller Theological Seminarys
School of World Mission (now School of Intercultural Studies),
Pasadena, California; Ralph Winter and Peter Wagner, professors
at Fullers School of World Mission; George Peters, professor at

Ralph Winter, 19242009

alph Winter was born in 1924 into a creative Christian

family in Pasadena, California. Ralphs father, even
without a university degree, designed the Pasadena freeway,
the first in California. Ralph joined the U.S. Navy during World
War II and finished a degree in civil engineering at
the California Institute of Technology. But from his
early years he was passionately committed to the
world mission of Christ. That focus led to him to
complete a Ph.D. in structural linguistics at Cornell
University and a B.D. at Princeton Theological
Seminary. From the beginning he was asking
new questions about the missionary enterprise
in ways that combined his training in engineering, anthropology, linguistics, and theology. This
unique background, combined with a brilliant
mind, made him one of the most outstanding
missiological entrepreneurs and thinkers of the
last half century. I first met him at Princeton in the early 1950s,
when we were part of a small group focused on world mission.
Even then, he constantly bombarded his friends with questions
that were always challenging, pushing out the parameters of
conventional thinking about mission.

196

Dallas Theological Seminary, Dallas, Texas; Edwin (Jack) Frizen,

executive secretary of IFMA; Clyde Taylor, executive secretary of
EFMA; Waldron Scott, general secretary of the World Evangelical Fellowship (WEF); and Horace Williamson, Asia director of
Worldwide Evangelization for Christ (WEC), U.S.A. With this
invitation to high-level Western mission leaders, I achieved my
goal of cooperation between the East and West for Asian missionary leadership development.
The All-Asia Mission Consultation was held in Seoul from
August 27 to September 1, 1973. The participants were twentysix leading figures from thirteen Asian countries; four specially
invited Western missiologists; three executives of IFMA, EFMA,
and WEF; two representatives from WEC and Wycliffe Bible
Translators; and twelve observers who were Western missionaries working in Korea.
The consultation resolved to form a continuation committee to carry out the following three functions: (1) sending out at
least two hundred new Asian missionaries by the end of 1974;
(2) encouraging the formation of national missions associations
in every country of Asia; and (3) working for the establishment
of the East-West Center for Missions Research and Development
in Seoul. The Continuation Committee accomplished all of these
functions, including sending two hundred new missionaries
before the end of 1974 to two unevangelized areas: Kalimantan
Island of Indonesia and northeastern Thailand. In addition,
national missions were formed in Japan, Korea, Hong Kong,
India, and Indonesia before the end of 1974. The East-West Center for Missions Research and Development was established immediately after the consultation in 1973, and it opened the first
Summer Institute of World Mission on the day following the
consultation. Sixty-seven students from five Asian countries were
enrolled, and four professors who attended the consultation were
invited to be instructors for the centers first Summer Institute.

Ordained in the Presbyterian Church, Ralph and his wife,

Roberta, went to Guatemala in 1956, where they worked with
the Mams, an indigenous people group. At the time, most future Mam pastors were sent away from home for theological
training in Western-style institutions. Ralph soon recognized
the inadequacy of that model and became the key architect
of the program of theological education by extension (TEE), which sought to take training to those
already engaged in ministry, in their own contexts.
The seminary, which began with five students,
soon grew to over one hundred. He also started
seventeen businesses to aid in economic support
of pastors and churches. TEE, in different forms,
is now used widely all over the world.
In 1966, after ten years in Guatemala, Ralph
joined the faculty of the newly established School
of World Mission at Fuller Theological Seminary,
in Pasadena. Seeing the need for publication of
the theses and dissertations being produced, he
established the William Carey Library in 1968. He was also
instrumental in the formation of the American Society of
Missiology. At a time when most older denominations were
folding their mission boards into broader churchly structures
and consequently losing focus, Ralph stressed the continuing

International Bulletin of Missionary Research, Vol. 33, No. 4

As the executive director of the Continuation Committee, I

initiated the formation of the Asia Missions Association (AMA),
which became the first regional missions association in the world.
AMSs inaugural meeting met from August 28 to September 1,
1975, at the Academy House in Seoul, with delegates from thirteen
Asian countries: Bangladesh, the Republic of China, Hong Kong,
India, Indonesia, Japan, Korea, Malaysia, Pakistan, the Philippines,
Singapore, Thailand, and Vietnam; and with Western fraternal
delegates from Germany, the Netherlands, the United Kingdom,
and the United States. The inaugural convention of AMA affirmed
the Seoul Declaration on Christian Mission, which I drafted and
which became a counterpart of the Wheaton Declaration of 1966
and the Frankfurt Declaration of 1970.
AMA grew quickly and was influential even beyond Asia
in Africa and Latin America. The Nigeria Evangelical Missions
Association was formed by Panya Baba, who attended the second
triennial convention of AMA in Singapore in 1978. The Association
of Brazilian Cross-Cultural Missions Agencies was formed by
Jonathan Santos, who attended the third triennial convention
of AMA in Seoul in 1982. In addition, the Third World Missions
Association was launched in May 1989 as an intercontinental
network of missions in Asia, Africa, and Latin America.
Many Western mission leaders took notice of these ventures. I
was invited by Billy Graham to join the Preparatory Consultation
for the International Congress on World Evangelization, Lausanne,
Switzerland, and I was honored to serve as chairperson at the
third meeting of the Preparatory Consultation. In 1974 I was appointed as a speaker for the plenary session on mission strategy
at the congress. In my paper at Lausanne, entitled Innovation
of Mission Structure for the New World, I stressed the need to
move away from the one-way mission of the Western world to a
two-way approach to missions. I also emphasized that both East
and West have needs and resources, and input and output must

need for committed communities of men and women focused

on world mission. Borrowing a term from anthropology, he
called them sodalities.
But Ralphs greatest contribution during the period was
his 1974 address at Lausanne, Cross Cultural Mission, the
Highest Priority. Building on the work of Donald McGavran,
William Cameron Townsend, and others, he demonstrated the
need to identify and cross the cultural barriers that made it
difficult if not impossible for a given people group to hear the
Gospel in terms they could understand. This led to a major
paradigm shift in mission thinking. Culture, not geography,
became the most important category. And if the Great Commission was to be taken seriously, it would lead missions
away from the concern only for various nation-states, to a
focus on each specific culture, or people group, wherever
it might be found.
Constantly restless, Ralph left Fuller and established the
U.S. Center for World Mission in 1976. His goal was to create
a think tank for frontier mission, the cause that was closest
to his heart. The story is well known of how the fledgling
organization acquired its sixteen-million-dollar campus while
asking for offerings of $15.95 from a host of individuals. Ralph
always insisted his primary goal was not to buy the campus
but to raise the awareness and deepen the commitment of

October 2009

therefore come from both sides. The East and the West should
join hands in order to research and analyze the availability of
resources and the areas of need, and in this way to produce new
forces for mission from both worlds.
In these ongoing efforts, the Lord gave me a number of
loyal partners from the West to fulfill my dream of East-West
cooperation in missionary leadership development. The first
was Donald McGavran of the Fuller School of World Mission.
He encouraged me in an article he wrote in 1972 in his Church
Growth Bulletin. Even though I had not had opportunity to meet
him personally, he had heard about my efforts to stimulate the
missionary movement in Asia and spoke highly of my labors.
He came to Seoul in 1974 to teach at the Summer Institute of
World Mission, which I had started in 1973. He advised me in
my work toward developing Asian leadership in mission. Until
his death, he was a loyal supporter of my efforts to bring East
and West together in mission cooperation.
The second was Ralph Winter, one of my mentors and
a partner in East-West cooperation of mission leadership
development. For thirty-six years, from 1973 until his death in
May 2009, he was associated with my activities of missionary
leadership development and the networking of Third World
missions. I often requested him to join me in mission workin
Seoul, Manila, Thailand, Moscow, Ephesus, and elsewhereand
he never said no. He also never hesitated to write to North Korean
leaders, inviting them to William Carey International University
for my peace mission movement with North Korea.
The third special partner in mission has been Dale Kietzman.
He was the U.S. director for Wycliffe Bible Translators and became
vice-president of the East-West Center for Missions Research
and Development in Seoul, assisting my efforts for East-West
cooperation. He has served with me since 1974. While he was
serving as executive vice-president of William Carey International

evangelical Christians to frontier mission. The journal Mission

Frontiers and the Frontier Mission Fellowship continued that
emphasis. He created the course Perspectives on the World
Christian Movement to enlarge the understanding of and
mobilize thousands of believers for world mission by showing
that mission is integral, not peripheral, to the biblical story.
The course is now offered widely in the United States and in
at least two dozen other countries.
After the death of Roberta, who had been his closest
collaborator for nearly half a century, Ralph married Barbara
in 2002. With her support, Ralph was able to continue his
worldwide ministry, despite failing health. After fighting cancer
since 2002, he died on May 20, 2009, surrounded by family and
friends. He is survived by his wife, his four daughters, fourteen
grandchildren, and one great granddaughter. Perhaps his life
can best be summed up in the words of an e-mail that Barbara
sent after his death: He never stopped thinking about new
approaches to fulfilling Gods purposes here on earth.
Paul E. Pierson
Paul E. Pierson is Dean Emeritus and Senior Professor of History
of Mission, School of Intercultural Studies, Fuller Theological Seminary, Pasadena, California. He served as a Presbyterian missionary
in Brazil, 195670, and in Portugal, 197173.

197

University, he visited North Korea with me three times as my

fellow worker for the mission to North Korea. Ralph Winter,
Dale Kietzman, and I were all born in 1924 and have ministered
together for the advancement of mission from the non-Western
world.

Ministry of Teaching Missiology

mer president Jimmy Carter in order to extend an invitation

from Kim Il Sung to Carter to come to Pyongyang. I made the
arrangements for Carters visit in 1994, as well as for a visit to
North Korea by Billy Graham in 1992.

Mission to Russia

From 2000 to 2003 I served as a missionary in Russia. I established

In 1974 I was appointed as a member of the Ad Hoc Com- the Russian Institute of Christian Leadership Development in
mittee of the Missions Commission of the World Evangelical Moscow and formed the Moscow Synod of the Church of Christ,
Fellowship (now World Evangelical Alliance). As a
member of this committee, I convened its inaugural meeting in Seoul in August 1975. Beginning in
1979 I also served as a professor and, from 1983 to
1989, as director of Korean studies at William Carey
International University; in the Korean Program
at Western Seminary, in Portland, Oregon; and as
a visiting professor at the School of Intercultural
Studies of Fuller Theological Seminary from 2002
to the present.
In 1988 I called Third World mission leaders to a
consultation in Portland, Oregon. The outcome of that
consultation was the formation of the Third World Missions Association in 1989 at Western Seminary. I was
elected as the chairman of the association and served
until 1995.
Since 1988 I have also been a major speaker at the
Korean World Mission Conference, held every four
Samuel Kim (left), George Peters, Arthur Glasser, and Ralph Winter
years at Wheaton College in Wheaton, Illinois. I have
with David Cho at the All-Asia Mission Consultation, 1973
lectured at various missiological schools in the United
States, including Wheaton College Graduate School;
Moody Bible Institute, Chicago; Trinity Evangelical Divinity Russia, in 2002. I hosted the eighth triennial convention of the Asia
School, Deerfield, Illinois; Westminster Theological Seminary, Missions Association, which was held in Moscow in September
Philadelphia; Dallas Theological Seminary, Dallas, Texas; and 2003. I also formed the Asian Society of Missiology, which in 2007
elected Timothy K. Park as its first president. In November 2006
Reformed Theological Seminary, Jackson, Mississippi.
the ninth triennial convention of the Asia Missions Association
was held in Ephesus, Turkey. The theme of the convention was
Mission to North Korea
Mission, the Apostolic Way.
Between the years 1989 and 2000 I visited North Korea over
twenty times on peace and reconciliation missions, hoping to David Cho Missiological Institute
open the door for Christian ministries in North Korea. Several
times I met personally with Kim Il Sung, the former leader of In 2004, thirty-six younger mission scholars who are following in
North Korea. I officially and publicly donated, in the name of my footsteps in developing Asian missiology gathered in Seoul
William Carey International University, 2,700 Christian books and decided to establish the David Cho Missiological Institute
on theology, biblical studies, and church history to the library of and the World Mission History Museum and Library. They also
Kim Il Sung University. In recognition of the official donation, resolved to continue and to reshape the East-West Center for
Kim Il Sung signed each volume. Kim Il Sung University opened Missions Research and Development that I had founded in 1973.
a religion department to teach Christianity and other religions, They elected Timothy K. Park, a professor at Fuller Theological
and I was appointed as a visiting professor at both Kim Il Sung Seminarys School of Intercultural Studies, as the new general
University and Pyongyang Seminary in North Korea. Whenever director of the East-West Center.
It is hoped that these ventures will carry forward my endeavI visited North Korea I also preached regularly at two newly
ors to lead Asian missions back to the biblical way of mission
opened churches in the capital, Pyongyang.
In June 1991 I accompanied Han Shi Hae, the North Korean and to restore the apostolic way of mission within the Asian
ambassador to the United Nations, to the Georgia home of for- missionary movement.

198

International Bulletin of Missionary Research, Vol. 33, No. 4

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Thirty Books That Most Influenced My Understanding of

Christian Mission
Gerald H. Anderson

hen I was a graduate student, my interests developed

in the areas of mission history and ecumenics, then
focused on the theology of mission and the theology of religions,
with particular orientation toward Asia. There my wife, Joanne,
and I worked for nearly a decade.
The first books that captured my interest and attention were
Kenneth Scott Latourettes History of the Expansion of Christianity
(7 vols., Harper & Brothers, 193745) and William Richey Hoggs
Ecumenical Foundations: A History of the International Missionary
Council and Its Nineteenth-Century Background (Harper & Row,
1952). At the Bossey Ecumenical Institute we had a seminar
devoted to Hendrick Kraemers recently published book
Religion and the Christian Faith (Lutterworth Press, 1956), which
challenged my theological views at that time, especially in discussions with students from Asia.
A small paperback book by Wilhelm Andersen, Towards a
Theology of Mission: A Study of the Encounter Between the Missionary
Enterprise and the Church and Its Theology (SCM Press, 1955), was
helpful as I wrote my doctoral dissertation, The Theology of
Missions in the Twentieth Century (Boston University, 1960).
I recognized the importance of Dutch and British mission
scholars. So I studied Dutch and for several years in the Philippines I subscribed to two Dutch mission journals: De Heerbaan
(The Lords HighwayProtestant) and Het Missiewerk (Mission
WorkRoman Catholic), and I always read Max Warrens CMS
Newsletter with great interest and benefit. Johannes Blauw, secretary of the Dutch Missionary Council, wrote The Missionary
Nature of the Church: A Survey of the Biblical Theology of Mission
(Lutterworth Press, 1962), which was much needed.
Teaching in the Philippines during the 1960s was an exciting time to be in Asia, especially in a Roman Catholic country
while the Second Vatican Council was going on. The Documents
of Vatican II, edited by Walter M. Abbott (Guild Press, 1966), with
an introduction to each document by a Protestant or Orthodox
scholar, was required reading. The 1960s was also a time of
great turmoil and transition in many Asian countries. For me,
The Christian Response to the Asian Revolution, by M. M. Thomas
(SCM Press, 1966), was the most profound and provocative book
on the subject by an Asian churchman.
The three Ns were authors who became very important and
influential in my understanding of mission: D. T. Niles, Stephen
Neill, and Lesslie Newbigin. Each of them wrote many important
books, but I mention here only one from each. At the request
of the World Council of Churches, D. T. Niles held a series of
consultations around the world in preparation for writing Upon
the Earth: The Mission of God and the Missionary Enterprise of the
Churches (Lutterworth Press, 1962), which gave an overview of
Gerald H. Anderson, a senior contributing editor, is
Director Emeritus of the Overseas Ministries Study
Center. He taught on the faculty of Union Theological
Seminary in the Philippines, 196170.
[email protected]

200

the state of mission and the theological challenges at a time when

the International Missionary Council had just been integrated
with the World Council of Churches.
I first met Stephen Neill in Singapore in the summer of 1963,
when he was lecturing at a study institute for those of us who
were teaching church history at seminaries in Southeast Asia. He
asked three of us to help him proofread his latest book, A History
of Christian Missions (Penguin, 1964), which is still a classic textbook. In his preface he commented that he had received valuable
help in the correction of the proofs from three distinguished
missionaries of the younger generation, and then mentioned
our names. So my friends and I are perpetually of the younger
generation!
Lesslie Newbigin wrote so many influential books that it is
hard to choose one. For my purposes, however, The Open Secret:
Sketches for a Missionary Theology (Eerdmans, 1978; rev. ed., 1995,
The Open Secret: An Introduction to the Theology of Mission) was
particularly important, because it was profoundly biblical and
balanced in its treatment of the subject.
Water Buffalo Theology (Orbis Books, 1974; 2d ed., 1999), by
Kosuke Koyama, written when we were both teaching in Southeast
Asia, set a new standard for doing theology from the rice-roots
of Asian society. It was the first in a series of books that he wrote
with his unique perspective as an Asian missiologist.
R. Pierce Beaver, director of the Missionary Research Library
in the 1950s, was the founder of this journal when it began as the
Occasional Bulletin from the Missionary Research Library. Later, at
the Overseas Ministries Study Center, I joined him and became
his successor. He was a prolific author, and two of his books were
pioneering works of permanent importance for me: Ecumenical
Beginnings in Protestant World Mission: A History of Comity (Thomas
Nelson, 1962) and All Loves Excelling: American Protestant Women in
World Mission (Eerdmans, 1968; rev. ed., 1980, American Protestant
Women in World Mission: A History of the First Feminist Movement
in North America).
Two books on the history of women missionaries that have
been valuable for me are Dana L. Roberts American Women in
Mission: A Social History of Their Thought and Practice (Mercer Univ.
Press, 1996) and Ruth A. Tuckers Guardians of the Great Commission: The Story of Women in Modern Missions (Zondervan, 1988).
Contemporary Missiology: An Introduction (Eerdmans, 1978), by
Johannes Verkuyl, is a masterful textbook by the leading Dutch
missiologist after World War II. Another valuable text from a
Dutch missiologist is Philosophy, Science, and Theology of Mission
in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries (2 vols., Peter Lang,
199597), by Jan A. B. Jongeneel, a work that is encyclopedic
in its scope and detail. Transforming Mission: Paradigm Shifts in
Theology of Mission (Orbis Books, 1991), by South African David
Bosch, was probably the single most important textbook in
missiology in the late twentieth century. All of these have been
influential in my work.
I admired Alan Neelys skill in using case studies for teaching
courses in mission, and students have always responded with
appreciation when I have used his book Christian Mission: A Case
Study Approach (Orbis Books, 1995) in my classes.
Because of my special interest in Asia, I am indebted to SamInternational Bulletin of Missionary Research, Vol. 33, No. 4

uel H. Moffett for his definitive two-volume History of Christianity

in Asia (Orbis Books, 19922005).
As a historian, I appreciate everything written by Andrew
Walls, especially his book The Missionary Movement in Christian
History: Studies in the Transmission of Faith (Orbis Books, 1996).
Translating the Message: The Missionary Impact on Culture, by
Lamin Sanneh (Orbis Books, 1989; 2d ed., 2008), was a landmark
book that helped many of us to understand better the remarkable
relationship of the missionary enterprise with cultures.
The Myth of Christian Uniqueness: Toward a Pluralistic Theology of Religions (Orbis Books, 1987), edited by John Hick and
Paul F. Knitter, is an example of radical theological relativism,
which, as one of the authors says, has devastating theological
effects. He believes the results to be desirable, but such relativism would actually be a form of theological cancer for the
Christian mission.
The writings of Kwame Bediako from Ghana, such as Jesus
and the Gospel in Africa: History and Experience (Orbis Books, 2004),
have helped me to better understand a theological response to
the Gospel from an African perspective.
The Missionary Movement in American Catholic History, by
Angelyn Dries (Orbis Books, 1998), is essential for understanding the contribution of American Catholic missions. For mission theology and practice, Redemption and Dialogue: Reading
Redemptoris Missio and Dialogue and Proclamation, edited by
William R. Burrows (Orbis Books, 1993), provides commentary
and discussion about two of the most significant official Catholic

statements on mission in our time, which have been important

for my understanding.
Missionary biographies and autobiographies have always
been of special interest to me. Many have been influential and
inspiring, but if I had to choose only one biography, it would
be To the Golden Shore: The Life of Adoniram Judson, by Courtney
Anderson (Little, Brown, 1956); and the one autobiography would
be Unfinished Agenda: An Autobiography, by Lesslie Newbigin
(Eerdmans, 1985; updated ed., Saint Andrew Press, 1993).
As I was involved in editing two mission dictionary projects,
I developed great admiration and appreciation for the accomplishment of the Encyclopedia of Missions, edited by Edwin Bliss
(2 vols., Funk & Wagnalls, 1891; 2d ed., 1904). It is a massive global project with historical information of enormous value.
The World Christian Encyclopedia: A Comparative Study of
Churches and Religions in the Modern World, AD 19002000,
edited by David B. Barrett (Oxford Univ. Press, 1982; 2d ed.,
2 vols., 2001), was a monumental achievement. For the first time
it gave us reliable statistical information on the whole church in
the whole world.
For my special interests, there is one book that has never
been written: a comprehensive history of Christian attitudes and
approaches to people of other faiths, from the early church to
the present. To my knowledge, such a comprehensive study has
never been published in any language. If I were starting over, I
might try to do it myselfbut now I wait and wish for someone
else to undertake it!

The Legacy of Philip Beach Sullivan

Jessie G. Lutz

hilip Beach Sullivan (18981957) was part of a trend

toward professionalization among the China Christian colleges during the 1920s. The institutions, most of them
originally founded as aids to evangelism, were by the 1920s
giving greater emphasis to the academic aspects of their work.
In order to compete with the Chinese national universities, they
needed to raise their standards and expand their curriculum;
so in recruiting teachers, they sought individuals with higher
education in the academic disciplines. These educators were
not necessarily expected to be religious proselytizers, though of
course they should be committed Christians. A devout and active Episcopalian, Sullivan did not go to China as an evangelist;
instead, he went to fill a temporary position in the Department
of Economics at St. Johns University in Shanghai. There he met
his future wife, Bess Lipscomb, a microbiologist who had gone to
China to visit her sister. The two married and decided to remain
in China, and for twenty years Philip Sullivan was a member
of the St. Johns economics department. As home and family
Jessie G. Lutz is Professor Emerita of Chinese History,
Rutgers University, New Brunswick, New Jersey.
Her publications include China and the Christian
Colleges, 18501950 (Cornell Univ. Press, 1971);
(with R. R. Lutz) Hakka Chinese Confront Protestant Christianity, 18501900 (Sharpe, 1998); and
Opening China, Karl Gutzlaff and Sino-Western
Relations, 18281953 (Eerdmans, 2008).
October 2009

responsibilities permitted, Bess worked as a medical technician

at Margaret Williamson Womens Hospital.
Philip Sullivan may also be viewed as representative of those
missionaries who had a dual career. Because missionaries acquired
language facility and knowledge of the local culture and society
where they were stationed, they were frequently called into government service, either temporarily or permanently. Accordingly,
after Sullivan was interned by the Japanese and then exchanged
for Japanese prisoners and repatriated in 1943, he worked for
the United States government, first as an educator and then as a
labor adviser with the Department of State. In recognition of his
service to church and country, upon his death in 1957 his ashes
were placed in the Washington National Cathedral.

Birth and Training

Philip Sullivan was the third son of Daniel Peyton Sullivan and
Elizabeth Gay Beach.1 He was born in Ypsilanti, Michigan, where
his father was a businessman and an accountant. The family soon
moved to Wyandotte, Michigan, and then to Detroit. A closely-knit
family, the Sullivans participated in both the Episcopal church
and a mission society in Detroit. Besss mother had been general
secretary for the Womens Missionary Society of the Southern
Methodist Church, and Philips sister went to China in 1921 to
serve as secretary to Frederick Graves, bishop of the Diocese
of Shanghai of the Anglican Church in China. As a high school
student, Philip was active in the YMCA and in sports, particu201

larly basketball. A brief stint in the army, from September to

December 1918, preceded his college career, first at Wayne State
University and then at the University of Michigan. Immediately
after graduating with a degree in economics in 1922, he left to
teach basic economics and business courses at St. Johns.
Bess Lipscomb left the same summer for Shanghai, where she
worked as a laboratory technician, trained Chinese as medical
technicians, and established the first modern medical laboratory
at Margaret Williamson Womens Hospital. Bess and Philip were
married on July 31, 1924, and settled down in a house on St.
Johns campus. They had three children: a daughter, Elizabeth,
and two sons, Daniel and McDonald.
During the 1920s and 1930s, St. Johns students came primarily
from the Westernized upper middle class of urban China. Despite
the political turmoil, this was an era of economic growth and
rationalization. Both Chinese and Japanese entrepreneurs established factories in Shanghai, particularly for textile manufacture.
Attempts to regularize the banking and currency system met with
some success, and the building of railway and communication

As a coach, Sullivan
established a personal
relationship with his
players, and dinner at
the Sullivan home was
a gala affair.
links went on apace, many under foreign auspices. China needed
businessmen, engineers, bankers, and other professionals. To
help supply trained personnel, Philip Sullivan worked steadily
to expand and upgrade St. Johns department of economics
and business administration; by 1928 he had become chair of
a department offering a wide gamut of courses and attracting
increasing numbers of majors. During furloughs, Sullivan also
upgraded his own training, obtaining an M.A. in economics from
the University of Michigan in 1928.
Sullivan had become interested in the Shanghai labor scene,
for Chinas economic growth and the political competition between the Guomindang and the Chinese Communist Party made
the 1920s a time of labor unionization and upheaval. Impressed
by the need for organized labor to protect workers, Sullivan
wrote his masters thesis on the labor movement in China and
continued his research on Chinese workers for his Ph.D. dissertation. He never received the doctorate, however, for although he
completed all his course work, copies of his dissertation were
lost when he was interned by the Japanese in 1943.

Stalwart at St. Johns, Shanghai

During Sullivans twenty-year tenure at St. Johns, over half
of its graduates in arts and sciences majored in economics and
business administration, and the institution gained national recognition as a major center for training future business leaders of
China. Song Ziwen (T. V. Soong), governor of the Central Bank
of China and a member of the Guomindang inner circle, was
one of St. Johns eminent alumni. Song not only served on the
St. Johns Board of Directors but also was a major supporter of
202

the institution. His financial aid and political protection greatly

aided Sullivan in strengthening the economics department, while
alumni connections facilitated employment and rapid advancement for St. Johns graduates. An analysis of Whos Who in China
for 1933 indicates that 21 percent of those listed had attended a
parochial school; of these, one-third had studied at St. Johns.2
Since the Whos Who was oriented toward the coastal regions,
the statistics accentuate the prominent role of St. Johns alumni
in the modernizing sector of the economy.
St. Johns, largely located in the International Settlement,
was able to continue academic work after the Japanese captured
Shanghai in 1937, and Sullivan remained at his post. When most
of the national and Christian universities fled to the interior,
refugees and students from coastal China flocked to St. Johns,
Fu Ren in Beijing, Lingnan in Guangzhou and Hong Kong, and
the few other institutions able to continue operations in occupied
China. Enrollment at St. Johns reached a peak of 1,571. Crowded
conditions prevailed, textbooks and materials were in short supply, and classes could be interrupted at any time by warfare, but
teachers continued to meet with their students.
During the civil war between the Guomindang and the
Chinese Communist Party, from 1946 to 1949, St. Johns staff and
students split into factions, and the Communist Party gained
control of the student union. Strikes broke out, classroom work
was disrupted, and students devoted much time to political protests and demonstrations. The victory of the Communists in 1949
and the closing of St. Johns in 1952 by the Peoples Republic of
China scattered its students and alumni. Some remained on the
mainland, but many emigrated to Hong Kong, Taiwan, Southeast
Asia, Canada, the United States, and elsewhere. Again, the bonds
formed at St. Johns helped many migrs in building industrial
and banking empires in their new overseas homes.
Former teammates of St. Johns basketball and baseball
teams were particularly notable for their loyalty to their alma
mater. Philip Sullivan, ever fond of sports, had early assumed
the position of basketball and baseball coach at St. Johns. He
himself played center on the Shanghai YMCA basketball team.
Sports and physical training had not been a part of traditional
Chinese education, and when the Christian colleges and the
YMCA first introduced them, Chinese students were less than
enthusiastic. By the twentieth century, however, physical and
military training had become closely associated with national
strength, and the performance of Chinese athletes became linked
with national pride and the international status of China. The
St. Johns basketball teams coached by Sullivan won championships in the Chinese collegiate circuit, and St. Johns initiated
the first international basketball game in which Chinese teams
participated; this inaugural competition was held in Japan in
December 1923. In 1927 the St. Johns basketball team was the
Far Eastern collegiate champion, a matter of pride for St. Johns
students and for the whole Chinese nation. A record of the St.
Johns teams coached by Sullivan and pictures of the 192425 and
1926 teams are now in the American Basketball Hall of Fame,
and a picture of the first jump ball between China and Japan, in
Kobe in 1923, is included in James Naismith, Basketball, Its Origin
and Development.3
As a sports coach, Sullivan established a personal relationship
with his players, and dinner at the Sullivan home at the conclusion
of the basketball season was a gala occasion. Alumni of basketball
and baseball teams and of the economics department, in letters
to Sullivans son, relate fond memories of their association with
Philip Sullivan, especially the celebratory dinners at his home.
Sullivans sports activities contributed to the popularization of
International Bulletin of Missionary Research, Vol. 33, No. 4

team sports, to the association of sports competitions with national

pride, and to the long-standing loyalty of St. Johns alumni.
Branch alumni associations have been established in several
countries, and in 1986 the Beijing St. Johns Alumni Association
invited representatives of the Hong Kong branch to visit. Hosting
them was honorary president of the Beijing alumni, Rong Yiren,
head of the China International Trust and Investment Corporation.
Since then, several international meetings of St. Johns alumni
have been held. Despite the association of St. Johns graduates
with capitalism and Westernism, their business acumen and
investment capital have been welcome in China since China
began to open up to a market economy. Professor Xu Yihua
(Edward Xu) of Fudan University and McDonald Sullivan, son
of Philip Sullivan, are currently engaged in a study of Philip Sullivans tenure at St. Johns, the curriculum of the Department of
Economics and Business Administration, and the careers of the

Courtesy Univ. of Nebraska Press

Opening jump ball, China (in white) vs. Japan

Far Eastern Championship Games, 1923

economics majors. This study is only one example of a renewed

interest among Chinese scholars in the legacy of the Christian
colleges, which has generated several conferences, the cataloging of archival materials, and studies of specific institutions. The
role of the colleges in the modernizing of China has received
particular attention.

U.S. Government Trainer and Labor Specialist

Sullivans second career was in the service of the U.S. government, and it drew on both his experience in East Asia and his
knowledge of economics. After the Japanese attack on Pearl
Harbor in December 1941 and the U.S. entry into the Pacific war,
the Japanese placed Sullivan and other Americans under house
arrest. In February 1943 the American prisoners were interned
at Pootung Internment Camp, and in September 1943 they were
exchanged for Japanese prisoners in the United States and returned
home on the SS Gripsholm. Even while interned, Sullivan taught
economics to his fellow inmates, writing his own textbook. He
October 2009

was reunited with Bess and their three children in New York in
December 1943. At this juncture the American government was
already preparing for the possible invasion of Japan and postwar
occupation of the country, and it needed personnel who were
fluent in spoken Japanese and broadly informed about Japans
politics and economy, social mores, and culture. These specially
trained officers were to staff the temporary occupation government of Japan. Sullivan was called on to supervise a program
being set up at the University of Michigan, the East Asia Area and
Language Army Specialized Training Program. New intensive
language courses for rapid mastery of spoken Japanese had to
be devised, and courses covering a broad spectrum of subjects,
rather than specific disciplines, had to be developed. A twelvemonth program with emphasis on contemporary conditions
was envisioned.
Philip Sullivans evaluation of the first year of the program
is a frank discussion of its challenges, difficulties, failures, and
successes.4 Among the problems were the lack of texts and skilled
teachers for both the intensive language and the area studies
courses, and the fact that recruits had not volunteered but had
been drafted for the training, with the result that some had little
interest in studying Japanese. The students were under military
discipline, and the demands of the military training in combination with a heavy course load meant that they had inadequate
time for home study and little or no leisure time. Yet there were
some successes. The staff devised new techniques for teaching a
foreign language in which the emphasis was on mastery of the
spoken language rather than reading of character texts. Students
were required to carry on conversations and engage in dialogues
and discussions, despite their limited vocabulary. So that the
students would learn to think in Japanese as soon as possible, no
English was allowed in the classroom. Drills in sentence patterns
were an important component of the training, and extensive use
was made of recording machines. Fluency was more important
than complete accuracy. This methodology, modified and refined,
has since been widely adopted in foreign language training in
many university departments. Area studies, also an innovative
approach to the study of civilizations, has gained acceptance
and has been expanded to include American as well as many
other cultures. At the University of Michigan and other schools
where the army had language training programs, the area study
programs became the foundation of major centers for East Asian
and Southeast Asian studies.
In April 1945 Sullivan accepted a position as chief of the Far
East Section, Labor Problems Branch, Division of Labor, Social,
and Health Affairs, Department of State. For the remainder of
his career he would work as a labor adviser with the Department of State; generally, he concentrated on providing policy
information papers rather than on research studies. He and
Bess transferred their residence to Arlington, Virginia, where
they were active in St. Marys Episcopal Church. Bess resumed
work as a medical technologist and served as president of the
Arlington Council of Church Women and secretary of the Board
of Managers of the Overseas Mission Society of the National
Episcopal Church.
Convinced that strong labor organizations were major
forces for democracy and social stability, Sullivan encouraged
the government of the Supreme Commander Allied Powers
(SCAP) in Japan to foster the formation of independent labor
unions, and a draft document of his (SWNCC#92) became the
basis for SCAPs labor program there. In addition, he guided
SCAP in the formulation of labor legislation, the design of labor
administration agencies, and the development of employment
203

and unemployment policies in Japan. In his position as labor

representative for the State Department, Sullivan maintained
contacts with labor leaders in the United States, both the AFLs
Victor Reuther and George Meany, and the CIOs Philip Murray,
Michael Ross, and Walter Reuther.5 He was thereby able to keep
both the labor leaders and the State Department informed concerning the impact of the labor policies of U.S. companies abroad
on the international image of America. He also represented the
United States at meetings of the International Labor Organization (ILO), the International Confederation of Free Trade Unions,
and other international organizations. On his overseas trips he
often met with St. Johns alumni and labor leaders of Japan and
other Asian countries. He helped select and train labor attachs
for American posts in East Asia, and he arranged for key labor
figures from foreign countries to come to the United States to
meet with American union leaders and learn about the American
labor movement.
In 1952, however, the cold war, the new Republican administration, and John Foster Dulless doctrine of containment
brought policy changes. To strengthen Japan as a counterweight
to the Peoples Republic of China, the State Department became
more concerned with restoring Japans industrial base than with
fostering Japans labor movement. The interests of the former
zaibatsu (lit. wealthy clique) leaders, rather than those of labor,
came to the fore, leading to the abolishment of the position of
Far East labor adviser. Sullivan, however, a fervent believer that
the needs of labor should be a concern of the State Department,
fought for reinstatement of the position. He was successful, and
within a few months he was back at his old post.
Through his China contacts, Sullivan kept abreast of events
in the P.R.C. Having observed the Communist infiltration of
Chinese labor unions and their utilization of the unions in their
drive for power, he deplored the use of labor unions in Japan for
political rather than economic purposes. He was distressed by
the purges carried out by the Chinese Communist Party during
the anti-Rightist campaigns of the early 1950s, the confiscation of
property, and the mistreatment and even execution of individuals
labeled Rightists. Some of his own friends who were Christians
had been abused in peoples courts. Sullivan often assisted
former students in finding a safe haven. He became an outspoken
advocate of the Chinese Nationalist government, for he thought
that recognition of the P.R.C. would enhance the Communist
role in Southeast Asia to the detriment of free labor, and also of
private enterprise, much of it in the hands of overseas Chinese.
He sought to assist the Guomindang government in retaining
its seat in international labor organizations. In working on the
agenda for ILO conferences, he urged that the ILO concentrate

Notes

1. McDonald W. Sullivan, A Genealogical History of the Family

of Philip Beach Sullivan (unpublished MS, Seattle, 1998). I am
grateful to McDonald Sullivan for making available to me materials
about his father. Most of the papers of Philip Sullivan are held by
his descendants. Some correspondence and other materials are
located in the Archives and Historical Collections of the Episcopal
Church, Austin, Texas; the Bureau of East Asian and Pacific Affairs,
Department of State, National Archives, Washington, D.C.; and the
Shanghai Municipal Archives. The picture on p. 203 is from James
Naismith, Basketball: Its Origin and Development (Lincoln: Univ. of
Nebraska Press, 1996; orig. 1941), opposite p. 158.
2. H. D. Lamson, Geographical Distribution of Leaders in China,
China Critic, February 16, 1933. See also Lamson, Whos Who in
China, China Critic 3 (1930).

204

on such issues as child and slave labor, freedom of association,

labor standards, and trade union rights, while avoiding politics
insofar as possible.
In combination with a meeting of the ILO in India in 1957,
Philip and Bess planned a visit with their daughter in Tokyo and
with Besss sister in Hong Kong. On November 9, however, Pan
American Flight 7, which they boarded in San Francisco, went
down in the Pacific Ocean between California and Honolulu, Hawaii. Though Philips body was recovered, Besss body was never
found. Philips remains were cremated, and his ashes were placed
in the Washington National Cathedral; Lloyd Craighill, former
bishop of Anjing, China, presided over the memorial service. In
memory of Philip and Bess, their three children presented the
cathedral with an English Yorkshire oak table, which is placed
in the center of the cathedral as the Holy Table at large public
services of Communion.6

Assessment
Though Philip Sullivan did not perceive himself as a Christian
evangelist, he expressed his Christian faith in his lifestyle and in
his relations with his students and colleagues. He was dedicated
to providing Chinese students with a quality education that would
contribute to their economic welfare and moral integrity, as well
as to the modernization of China. These facets of the Christian
college experience are frequently cited by alumni of all the colleges, and they tell us much about the contribution of Christian
higher education to China. Though alumni infrequently mention
the overt Christian instruction, the worship services, or the courses
on the Bible and Christian doctrine, they speak with nostalgia
about the personal interest that their teachers took in them and
the inculcation of an ideal of social service and personal integrity.
Chinese scholars today have increasingly come to recognize the
role of the parochial schools in the modernization of education
in China, especially the expansion of the curriculum to include
formal education in professional and vocational subjects. Even if
they criticize the foreign domination of the institutions, they see
them as instruments for change, which was essential for a strong
China able to take its place in the international arena.
As a civil servant, Sullivan helped to devise new approaches
to teaching foreign languages and to introducing students to
foreign cultures. He had perhaps less success in achieving his
goals as labor adviser in the Department of State. The strong,
independent labor movement that Sullivan envisioned for Japan did not become a reality; nevertheless, the foundations for
Japanese labor unions were laid, and legislation guaranteeing
basic protection for workers was put in place.

3. McDonald Sullivan, Li Baojun, and Zhu Longyi, Philip Beach

Sullivan, Basketball Coach of St. Johns University, Shanghai, China,
1922 to 1942 (unpublished MS, October 10, 1993); James Naismith,
Basketball, Its Origin and Development (New York: Association Press,
1941).
4. Philip Sullivan, Final Report of the East Asia Area and Language
Army Specialized Training Program at the University of Michigan
(unpublished MS, 1944), vol. 1.
5. Philip Sullivan, Labor in Japan (notes and MS of a speech delivered
to a meeting of the AFL-CIO, January 6, 1955).
6. Elizabeth, Daniel, and McDonald Sullivan, A Report on Two Lives
(MS presented to the Washington National Cathedral, March 23,
2002).

International Bulletin of Missionary Research, Vol. 33, No. 4

For me, the professors missions experience has

helped me better understand how I can use my
passion to teach English as ministry, and further
the Great Commission.
Mark herBst

( '07, M .A . T ESO L)

B i o l a U n i v e r s i t y i s p l e a s e d to c e l e B r at e

The 25Th AnniversAry

o f t h e c o o k s c h o o l o f i n t e r c U lt U r a l s t U d i e s

ies has been

o and make
elebrating its
a Belle Cook
its tr iti
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logy,

pology.

of

to i m p a c t t
o mak

Mission to Nowhere: Putting Short-Term Missions into Context

Brian M. Howell

hort-term missions have experienced explosive growth

in the past two decades.1 In addition to the many parachurch organizations promoting such trips, for many congregations this sort of mission has become a key component of youth
group activities. In the United States short-term mission trips
are widely promoted as a key means through which average
church members can become involved in mission outreach and
by which they can make a direct, even sacrificial contribution
in the foreign missions work of the church. Today more than
1,600,000 adults and young people from the United States travel
abroad yearly on short-term mission trips, most for two weeks
or less duration.2
A phenomenon of this scope certainly merits social-scientific
observation, as well as missiological reflection. My expertise
is as an anthropologist. Over a two-year period I observed a
high school mission team in their preparation and visit to the
Dominican Republic. My research uncovered multiple ways
in which the groups preparation, travel, and return narrative served to minimize the contextual specificity of the trips
destination in favor of a more generic short-term mission

Short-term missions merits

social scientific observation
as well as missiological
reflection.
experience. The language of short-term mission (STM) too
easily becomes an all-engulfing category, subsuming a wide
variety of trips by creating a discursive commonality between
disparate places and experiences.
In this article I focus on four elements of short-term mission practice that contribute to decontextualization. First, participants in short-term missions strive rhetorically to present
what they are doing as something distinct from tourism, with
the unintended consequence of losing focus on the context to
which they are going. Second, the language of missionary call
as understood in short-term mission practice works against
engagement with the specific realities of a particular location.
Third, the meaning of mission embedded within short-term
mission too often leads to a mission based on plight and need.
Fourth, post-trip pictorial representations of short-term mission
trips meant to connect the sending congregation to the experience of STM become, paradoxically, a means of distancing the
Other and decontextualizing the place visited. In these ways,
the mode of travel unique to short-term missions can create a
Brian M. Howell, associate professor of anthropology,
Wheaton College, Wheaton, Illinois, is the author of
Christianity in the Local Context: Southern Baptists in the Philippines (Palgrave, 2008) and coeditor
(with Edwin Zehner) of Power and Identity in the
Global Church (William Carey Library, 2009).
[email protected]

206

sort of missionary gaze (akin to the tourist gaze) that serves

to homogenize locality.
After identifying these tensions in a bit more detail, I show
how they played out in the experience of one STM group. Finally,
I suggest steps that can be taken to bring context intentionally to
the fore in STM trips in ways that have the potential to reshape
the experience of participants on both sides of the exchange.

Rhetorical Positioning
The Web site of a Christian short-term leadership mission
organization declares in the large print that, for their organization, trips are not about the destination. The text that follows
goes on to distinguish the organizations trips from tourism that
emphasizes a photo album filled with snapshots and maybe
some deepened friendships. Instead, they hold out the promise
of a trip that will challenge your students to make a difference
in your youth group.3 This promotional message illustrates a
tension present for participants in short-term missions generally and certainly for those of my research: it is important to
distinguish STM trips from mere tourism. In this way, seemingly ego-focused motives are rejected in place of ones that have
theological significance and that hold out long-term benefits for
both the receiving and the sending groups.
An unintended consequence of this emphasis, however, is that
short-term missions become decontextualized. In marginalizing
touristic impulses and elevating the theological/missiological
significance of these trips, short-term mission organizers often
de-emphasize the particularities of the location and context in
which the trip will take place. Instead, a generic STM language
and practice emerges that serves to make STM trips the same
for participants, regardless of the specific location they visit. A
particular place becomes transformed into a typology of place:
Europe is the secular Other; developing countries are undifferentiatedly poor; urban life, particularly black urban life, is the
chaotic inner city.

Sense of Call
The rhetoric of mission is often rooted in the individual motive
for travel. Although STM participants are recruited and encouraged to sign up for particular trips, the correct motive is framed
as a missionary call. Sacrifice and a sense of calling have a long
history in the discourse and theology of missions; as recounted
below, both call and sacrifice remain central for short-term missions and for the manner in which many people speak about
their motivation for going on an STM trip.4 But use of sacrificial
mission language discourages trip participants and STM leaders
from placing emphasis on or expressing enthusiasm about the
educational or cultural benefits to be gained from the trip. Focus
on the specifics of the location is seen, whether consciously or not,
as virtually incompatible with the language of call, of service, and
ultimately of mission as embraced by short-term missions.

The Meaning of Mission

The dynamics involved in the formation of STM teams and the
distinctive character of STM trips serve to reinforce a particular
International Bulletin of Missionary Research, Vol. 33, No. 4

construal of what mission is or means. In my research a valued

quality on the part of potential team members was openness in
regard to the group of which they would be a member, the task
to which they would be assigned, and the destination to which
they would go. The meaning of mission came to be a kind of
sacrificial availability for carrying out an assigned task and a lack
of connection to any particular place. Together, sacrificial availability and nonspecificity of location worked to position every trip
as first and foremost a journey to accomplish a specific task and
to meet needs out there. The language used privileged activity
over destination and reinforced seeing a relationship between
the need for missions (both long-term and short-term) and the
necessity of bringing something to a place where there was
some demonstrable lack. Because every trip was mission and
all missions involved meeting needs or accomplishing projects,
every trip, regardless of destination, became a movement from
plenty to want, from have to have-not, from wealth to poverty.
Mission became, in the words of Native American church leader
Craig Smith, plight-based ministry.5

Pictorial Representation
Most U.S. Christians are familiar with at least one feature of
short-term missions: the slide show. Though these mission
reports now tend to be PowerPoint presentations, the idea is
the same. Members of STM trips return with a pictorial narrative of their trip as a way of giving testimony to the efficacy of
the money spent, often money donated by the larger church
body. These representations require a great deal more analysis
than can be provided here, but it is clear that they became
another site where the paradox of decontextualized Otherness is produced. What is remarkable is the picture shows
degree of standardization. Typically, the slide shows proceed
chronologically, beginning with candid shots of team members
during the stages of preparation. These are followed by staged
group pictures reflecting departure and arrival, pictures of or
from the airplane, particularly with shots of the approaching
field (often a literal field around the airport). Next come
pictures of luggage being moved, the home where the team
stayed, and the team working, ending with multiple pictures
of the team surrounded by those served, particularly groups
of smiling children.
A great deal of research in the anthropology of tourism has
focused on the role of photography in creating constructed versions of sites and cultures, showing how photographic representations are framed in ways that serve the purposes, expectations,
and contexts of those who take the photos, as well as how those
images shape the experiences of subsequent travelers to those
sites.6 I cannot reproduce the entire discussion, but the idea that
photographs reflect the interests and issues of the photographer,
rather than some objective state, is of relevance here. There is
no question that student members of STM trips are looking to
highlight the kind of poverty, need, and otherness for which
they initially prepared and which their audience expects. At the
same time, as an experience of travel, there are tropes and images
that come directly from a touristic genre, in spite of the explicit
rejection of such impulses as appropriate motivation. Images
of (usually) white faces surrounded by (generally) brown children, smiling with arms interlocked, suggests the centrality and
importance of the project and the missionary. At the same time,
pictures of small, rural, or decrepit urban homes (often with a
short-term missionary in the foreground, as if visiting a site of
touristic interest), or shots of bathrooms considered unhygienic
October 2009

or primitivealongside images of the team working to improve

conditions for the inhabitantsbecome stock tropes of the shortterm mission presentation.
The standardization of these presentations turns all the specific images of rural Ghana, urban Mexico, the periurban setting
of the Dominican Republic, or even the Chicago metro area into
a general field of mission.

Recontextualizing Short-Term Missions

The various elementspreparatory linguistic practice, field
projects among the poor, and subsequent presentations about
the tripsconspire to reduce the particularities of the places
involved and to blend STM travel into a generic short-term
mission experience. Even those who have never gone on an
STM trip, through exposure to the images and discourse of the
trips, find themselves constructing a view of the mission field
as an undifferentiated place of generic spiritual and material
needand find themselves with a corresponding inability to
delineate the myriad political, economic, and cultural specificities
involved. This missionary view of the world corresponds to
the tourist gaze described in the anthropology of tourism. This
gaze, writes John Urry, is often collective and depends on a
variety of social discourses organised by professionals, including
photographers, travel writers, travel agents, tour operators, TV
presenters and tourism policy-makers.7 To this list we might
now add youth workers and STM leaders.
What is significant, for present purposes, about the gaze
as it is constructed in contemporary tourism is its potentially
homogenizing effect on the varieties of experience tourists
actually have.8 For the short-term missionary, as for the tourist,
ability to perceive the experience of travel outside the preformed
grooves of the gaze becomes difficult at best. The result for the
tourist may be a lamentable but ultimately innocuous blandness
in which real human connection is lost in favor of an experience. For Christian missionaries, whose goals both religious
and humanitarian depend on the host country inhabitants
perception of their actions, lack of connection would certainly
pose significant problems.
In a study of short-term mission trips to Ecuador, education
scholar Terry Linhart noted that without substantive knowledge
and reflection, the trip possessed a spectacle quality with a curricular hope that students would somehow positively grow from
the formative encounters.9 Lack of growth and a spectacle
quality, I would suggest, are directly connected to decontextualization, something that is frequently found both during trip
preparation and throughout the trip. Rather than removing barriers, STM packaging too often makes it difficult for students to
examine history, context, and culture closely.

One Short-Term Mission Experience

These tensions gain concreteness and specificity when viewed
through the lens of their outworking in the experience of one
churchs youth program. The following material draws on
research I conducted over a two-year period. During that time
I joined a high school mission team in their preparation and
STM visit to the Dominican Republic.
STM trips have been integral to the mission program of
Central Christian Church (not its real name), a large nondenominational Midwestern congregation, for ten to twenty years. With
the visibility and institutional prominence given to STM programs,
not surprisingly the current high school studentsthe majority
207

of whom have attended the church their entire livesare well

acquainted with the Global Challenge Project (GCP), an STM
program specifically for their age group. Of the twelve students
on the Dominican Republic team, five had older siblings who
had gone on a prior GCP trip, either to the Dominican Republic
or to another country. In the previous year two of the team had
been to the very site of our planned visit.
Linguistically, the practice of short-term missions is structured
and expressed in many ways in the congregation.10 For the point
at hand, I want to focus on one principal semiotic element, the
idea of what constitutes a mission. The GCP trips are explicitly
intended to provide students with insight into career missions.11
Fund-raising and public vision for the trips are framed in terms
of helping career missionaries supported by the church through
the work the youth would be doing, thus making the trips real
missions themselves. Leaders and trip organizers frequently
framed the educational benefits of the trips in opposition to the
real purpose of the trips, which was to do missions. In one GCP
board meeting, a member pointedly interjected, Its important

we remember this is real ministry. This isnt just travel. I mean,

its important that the kids are learning, right? But theyre
doing real missions. People need to see that these kids are
with the missionaries, working alongside them. There is real
benefit; these are real missions.
Student members of the team also expressed the importance
of placing the educational benefits of the trip as secondary to
the mission or ministry work, understood primarily as that
which benefits the long-term missionaries, as well as what benefits the local people, including direct evangelism. One students
response in a pre-trip interview about her motivations expressed
themes echoed by all the students at various points: Im excited
to just help people. I dont know so much about missions, you
know, but well be working with the missionaries doing real
missions work, like sharing Christ and, you know, the Gospel.
To the question, Are there any other reasons you want to go?
she continued, Well, ... I want to see what its like. Ive never
been to the D.R., so I just want to see what its like and stuff. But
thats not really why I should go, just to see, right? I mean, its

Noteworthy
Announcing

The Association of Polish Missiologists, Stowarzyszenie

Misjologw Polskich (SMP), was formed in 2007 and now
serves thirty-three missiologists from the major universities
and seminaries of Poland, including members from Katowice,
Warsaw, Krakw, Lublin, Pozna, Opole, and Olsztyn. With
leadership from president Jan Grski (Katowice) and vice
president Wojciech Kluj, O.M.I. (Warsaw), SMP promotes
interdisciplinary collaboration in the study of missiology
and is the local affiliate of the International Association for
Mission Studies and the International Association of Catholic
Missiologists. Each year the association publishes Studia misjologiczne, an academic journal that focuses on mission history
and theology, portions of which are now being published in
English, Italian, and German. For additional information, go
to www.misjologia.pl.
Urban mission is the theme of the American Society of
MissiologyEastern Fellowship of Professors of Mission
annual meeting, November 67, 2009, at Maryknoll Mission
Institute, Ossining, New York. Doug Hall and Bobby Bose,
respectively president and global urban ministries education
coordinator of the Emmanuel Gospel Center in Boston (www
.egc.org), will be among the speakers. For conference information, visit www.asmef.org.
The Sociology of Religion Study Group (SOCREL, www
.socrel.org.uk) of the British Sociological Association will hold
a conference April 68, 2010, at the University of Edinburgh on
the topic The Changing Face of Christianity in the Twentyfirst Century. Brief proposals for papers and panels are
being solicited until October 31, 2009, particularly if these are
focused on contemporary Christian performance and belief,
world Christianities and migration or Diaspora Christianities,
(or) Christianity in the public arena. The University of Edinburgh Institute of Geography and the New College School of
Divinity are cosponsors. The conference organizers include
Afe Adogame ([email protected]), New College lecturer
in world Christianity.
The Andrew F. Walls Centre for the Study of African

208

and Asian Christianity, Liverpool Hope University, will hold

its third annual world Christianity conference June 1113,
2010, on the topic Christian Unity in Mission and Service.
Brief proposals for papers and panels are being solicited until
December 18. Center director Daniel Jeyaraj is professor of
history of missions and an IBMR contributing editor. For more
information, contact conference coordinator Ursula Leahy,
[email protected].
An international conference on the theme Politics, Poverty, and Prayer: Global African Spiritualities and Social
Transformation will convene July 2225, 2010, at the Nairobi
Evangelical Graduate School of Theology, Kenya. The conference
will provide a platform in which researchers on African and
African-derived religions and spiritualities encounter practitioners of religious traditions and communities firsthand and
will provide information on beliefs and practices of religious/
spiritual traditions and how they impact their communities
and the larger society. For details, contact program organizers Afe Adogame ([email protected]), Ishola Williams
([email protected]), Grace Wamue (gwamue2000@
yahoo.com), and Mark Shaw ([email protected]).
Indian missiologist Siga Arles has announced expansion of the scope of the Consortium for Indian Missiological
Education and the Indian Institute of Missiology Research
Centre through the launching of a postgraduate research
study centerthe Centre for Contemporary Christianity,
Bangalore. The center will offer master of theology and doctor of philosophy degrees in missiology and in holistic child
development, with accreditation from the Asia Theological
Association and in cooperation with the Global Alliance for
Advancing Holistic Child Development. Arles, editor of the
Journal of Asian Evangelical Theology, is also developing a journal called Contemporary Christian. For additional information,
e-mail Arles, [email protected].
Historical records, including financial reports, correspondence, committee memos and minutes, articles, and
newsletters related to the work of the Evangelical Committee
on Latin America are available at the Billy Graham Center

International Bulletin of Missionary Research, Vol. 33, No. 4

really about missions, and I think itll be, I guess, fun or good.
Yeah ... its just like a chance to do missions.
The emphasis on missions and the explicit connection of
these short visits to the long-term work of missionaries supported
by the congregation gave theological, social, and institutional
validity to trips that are certainly open to criticism as religious
tourism.12 Like pilgrims visiting a religious holy site, the members of these teams reject the idea that the purpose of their trips
is principally the opportunity to visit sites, see sights, have fun,
or otherwise engage in what can be portrayed as tourism-like
activities.13 The girl quoted above articulated that, in doing
real missions, motives of seeing the Dominican Republic were
clearly secondary, if not even in tension with what it meant for
her to do missions.
The strategy of downplaying the relevance of location in
favor of mission work and a specific attitude toward that
work began in the earliest stages of team preparation. During
prescreening interviews, questions never went into the specifics
of culture or context beyond practical issues such as allergies

Archives (www.wheaton.edu/bgc/archives/guides/646
.htm). Founded in 1959 as a joint committee between the Evangelical Fellowship of Mission Agencies (EFMA) and Interdenominational Foreign Mission Association (IFMA), the ECLA
served as a liaison between the two organizations and Latin
American church leaders for the effective growth of the regional
church, providing assistance through consultation, conferences,
and research. The committee was disbanded in 1977.
The Congregational Library and Archives, Boston, has
compiled an index of obituaries of Congregational clergy and
missionaries (www.congregationallibrary.org/resources/
necro-search). Patrons may search by last name to find obituaries in Congregational yearbooks and missionary periodicals,
most of them from after 1850.

Personalia

Appointed. Graham R. Kings, 55, vicar of St. Marys Church,

Islington, London, as bishop of Sherborne, U.K., effective
June 24, 2009. After ordination Kings served as a curate in
inner city London for four years. In 1985, as a Church Mission Society mission partner, he taught theology for seven
years at St. Andrews College of Theology and Development,
Kabare, an Anglican Church of Kenya affiliate. An IBMR
contributing editor, Kings moved to Cambridge in 1992 to
become the first Henry Martyn Lecturer in Mission Studies in
the Cambridge Theological Federation, founding director of
the Henry Martyn Centre for the Study of Mission and World
Christianity, and affiliated lecturer in the universitys Faculty
of Divinity. He founded Fulcrum (http://fulcrum-anglican.org
.uk), a network and online journal for evangelical Anglicans
seeking to renew the center of the evangelical tradition within
the Church of England. Kings served on the Mission Theological
Advisory Group of the Church of England and the Anglican
Communion Network for Interfaith Concerns.
Died. H. Eugene Hillman, C.S.Sp., 84, missiologist, author,
and Congregation of the Holy Spirit member, in Bethel Park,
Pennsylvania, August 5, 2009. A native of Boston, he worked
for eighteen years in the missions of East Africa in Tanzania,

October 2009

or relevant skills (e.g., language). Rather, the focus was on

putting together teams that could effectively accomplish the
tasks (the mission) the various groups would undertake.
In one interview with a prospective leader for a trip to Costa
Rica, it became obvious that the candidate was not informed
about the country. The committee, however, did not suggest
to her that it would be necessary for her to learn about Costa
Rica herself. Rather, they spent more time on her gifts and the
sorts of work she could do in helping the team prepare for and
accomplish their specific projects. The chair did comment that
she would learn what she would need during the preparation
phase of the trip, although follow-up interviews made clear
that little if any time was spent on Costa Rican history, culture,
or economic information.

Openness
Related to the logistic need for flexibility was a theological significance of openness, that is, being willing to go wherever the

Kenya, Uganda, and Ethiopia, as well as in Nigeria, South

Africa, and Zambia. In 1965 he attended Vatican Council II as
a guest of Misereor Foundation. Beginning in 1974 he taught
for over twenty-five years at the Institutes of the University of
San Francisco, St. Johns (Jamaica, N.Y.), Yale Divinity School
(New Haven, Conn.), Weston (Mass.) Jesuit School of Theology, Maryknoll School of Theology (Ossining, N.Y.), Duquesne
University (Pittsburgh, Pa.), Salve Regina University (which
included the U.S. Naval War College, Newport, R.I.), Nairobis
Institute for Development Studies, and Brown Universitys
Watson Institute for International Studies (Providence, R.I.).
He was the recipient of many fellowships and awards and
the author of numerous books and articles, especially in the
fields of missiology, ecclesiology, and social ethics. His noted
books include The Church as Mission (1966), Polygamy Reconsidered (1975), and Toward an African Christianity: Inculturation
Applied (1993).
Died. James Hudson Taylor III, Sinologist and theologian,
in Hong Kong, March 20, 2009. The great-grandson of missionary pioneer J. Hudson Taylor, founder of the China Inland
Mission in 1865, he was born August 12, 1929, in Kaifeng,
Henan, and was raised in China. In June 1955 Taylor and
his family arrived in Kao-hsiung, Taiwan, to join the staff of
Holy Light Bible School, founded that year by his father. The
younger Taylor worked there as a lecturer before succeeding
his father as principal in 1960. In 1970 he became president of
the new China Evangelical Seminary in Taipei. From 1980 to
1991 Taylor served as general director of the Overseas Missionary Fellowship, now OMF International, the mission founded
by his great-grandfather. He was the first Taylor descendant
in this role, and under his leadership OMF saw growth in
Japan, Philippines, and Hong Kong, as well as in publishing.
In 1994 he formed Medical Services International, now MSI
Professional Services, to bring teams of Western professionals
into China to work on health and community-development
projects. He is coauthor of a book on the life of Hudson Taylors
father-in-law, Even to Death: The Life and Legacy of Samuel Dyer
(OMF, forthcoming).

209

leadership deemed it necessary or, phrased more theologically,

where God calls. Although the prospective travelers were invited
on the application to give their preference for the team on which
they wished to serve, in most of the interviews the panel asked
the students some version of How would you handle it if we
wanted you to go on another trip? In none of the interviews I
observed did the applicants define their desire to go in terms of a
specific location. Rather, all answered as did this high school girl:
Oh, its not really important to me where I go. I mean, Id like
to go to the Dominican, because Ive heard so much about it and
how its a great trip, but I just want to go where God wants me.
During one interview an applicant told the committee, I
really just want to be a servant. I dont care where I go or what
I do. Id be happy just holding kids or washing dishes or anything. Its really just about missions. Given this rhetorical link
between, on the one hand, true missions as willingness to be
flexible and available and, on the other hand, an indifference to
the destination, it becomes difficult for members of the teams to
ponder the contextual particularities of a trip or to think about
reasons other than meeting spiritual or physical needs why they
might choose one country over another.

Plight-Based Mission
The STM team I accompanied traveled to the Dominican Republic
to build a second story on an educational center. The center was
run by a North American Christian development group (sponsored by Central Christian Church), which also hosted our trip.

Few of those reinterviewed

months after the trip
made any comments
about the middle-class
and professional life they
encountered on the trip.
The center provided after-school care and Christian education to
local children in an impoverished neighborhood. This particular
organization has developed an extensive program of hosting
STM teams, which in turn provide the labor and materials for
the work. Each person on the team provided approximately $200
toward the general operating expenses of the ministry, plus paying for the materials used in the construction. The team was often
told that the various buildings were erected by North American
teams and how invaluable their work was. It is only through
the work of teams like this, the missionary told us, that any
of this exists.
Even for GCP teams traveling to wealthier (First World)
countries, mission was framed in terms of poverty and need. In
the case of trips to Spain and the Czech Republic, the poverty
was framed more in terms of spiritual need than material need,
but the language of poverty remained. One leader on the Czech
Republic trip, noting the Reformation history of the country,
saw the trip as bringing some hope back to a country that was
spiritually desolate. Similarly, those traveling to Spain framed
the work in terms of the lack of any Christian presence and
the need for the team to bring a Christian witness to a country
where there was total spiritual poverty.
210

By framing the GCP trips in terms of poverty (material

or spiritual), all five trips gained a commonality that not only
obscured significant differences between the teams but also obscured dynamics within particular contexts. Several months after
the trip to the Dominican Republic, I interviewed team members
about the experience, asking each person some version of the question, What do you feel youve learned about Dominican culture?
A few mentioned something about the importance of family or
community, but each person described the culture as poor. One
girl, when asked to characterize Dominican culture, said, I just
learned that Dominicans really live with, like, nothing. They just
have to make do with almost nothing. I mean, I know America
is well off or whatever, but when you compare our cultures, its
just so amazing that Dominican culture is just totally poor. Aside
from the confused conceptual issues of culture versus economics
(not surprising, given the age of the respondent), the comment
is striking given that the team spent its time in a mountain town
that serves as a summer getaway for wealthy Dominicans. The
team bus regularly passed massive summer homes and elegant
neighborhoods where Lexus SUVs and Mercedes sedans sat in
the driveways. Many students commented on these at the time,
but in retrospect, their memories of Dominican culture became
paved over with the gloss of poverty. Given that the stated
purpose in going was to meet the needs of the poor, it is not
surprising that the entire culture would become characterized
as poor, providing little in the way of language or conceptual
framework for identifying or recalling the evidence of economic
inequality. Few of those reinterviewed months after the trip made
any comments about the middle-class and professional life they
encountered (if briefly) in visiting a Protestant church, during
time in tourist areas, or through the Dominican teachers and
other workers at the ministry where they served.

Team Preparation
By this point it will not be surprising to learn that pre-trip team
preparation focused on attitudes and ministry tasks and contained
virtually nothing about the location and context to which the team
was going. After selection or assignment, each team was expected
to meet at least monthly to prepare for the trip. The Dominican
Republic team chose to work through a curriculum titled Before
You Pack Your Bag, Prepare Your Heart.14 The booklet provided
twelve lessons in the form of inductive Bible studies on everything
from goal setting and defining a purpose for the trip (lesson 1),
to cultivating the right attitude (lesson 3), to identifying cultural
patterns of U.S. behavior and thought (lesson 5), to developing
good team dynamics (lessons 10 and 11.) The team did not go
through every lesson, although it did several, including lesson
5, about identifying cultural patterns. What the guide could not
accomplish, of course, was to provide information specific to the
context of the Dominican Republic.
One teamone going to the Czech Republicdid have a
twenty-minute PowerPoint presentation on Czech history and
culture given by a church member who had traveled there on a
previous mission trip. The Dominican Republic team watched a
video about the ministry in which it would serve, which included
some information about the country, but it was largely ministryspecific without much context.
In addition, the teams were encouraged to attend a workshop on evangelism given one evening by the churchs pastor of
evangelism. This workshop, open to the entire congregation, was
not specific to the short-term mission teams; rather, it was geared
toward church members generally. The message was particular
International Bulletin of Missionary Research, Vol. 33, No. 4

to the North American context, without giving a sense that this

would need to be adapted to another cultural context. That is
not to suggest that those on the trips were not expecting cultural
difference (generally), but such workshops served to further
mute the cultural specificity of the tripsnot only between the
different trips, but even between ministry in the U.S. context and
the sorts of adaptations that might be necessary in the places to
which the teams would go.

Four Suggestions
How, then, might the most glaring shortcomings of current modus
operandi for short-term mission trips be ameliorated, and the trips
positive potential be reinforced and enhanced? The suggestions
below, framed as questions, seem congruent with experiential
education thought generally. They seek to encourage reformation
of the ongoing discourse around short-term missions.
Would it not be advisable to spend more time in the
preparatory phase focusing on, for example, the history,
politics, and religious context of the trips destination,
rather than giving attention solely or primarily to preparation for the trips project?
Could not the return presentation be made more constructive by deliberately selecting photos that depict
local Christians and others in positions of authority and
power, rather than focusing exclusively on the short-term
team members themselves?

Notes

1. Robert J. Priest et al., Researching the Short-Term Mission

Movement, Missiology 34 (October 2006): 43150.
2. This figure comes from the Global Issues Survey conducted by Robert
Wuthnow. See Robert Wuthnow and Stephen Offitt, Transnational
Religious Connections, Sociology of Religion 69, no. 2 (2008): 218. Other
researchers, however, have put the figure far higher, as Wuthnows
data do not include high school students, nor do they necessarily track
those who have participated through parachurch or college trips. Cf.
Priest et al., Researching the Short-Term Missions Movement. See
also A. Scott Moreau, Short-Term Mission in the Context of Missions,
Inc., in Effective Engagement in Short-Term Missions: Doing It Right!
ed. Robert J. Priest (Pasadena, Calif.: William Carey Library, 2008),
pp. 133.
3. LeaderTreks, Student Leadership Development Resources, www
.leadertreks.com/trips.asp.
4. For historical perspective on volunteerism and the individual sense
of call in mission, see David Bosch, Transforming Mission: Paradigm
Shifts in the Theology of Mission (Maryknoll, N.Y.: Orbis Books, 1991),
pp. 32734.
5. Craig Stephen Smith, Whitemans Gospel (Winnipeg: Indian Life
Books, 1997), p.68.
6. See Stanley Milgram, The Image Freezing Machine, Society 14,
no. 1 (NovemberDecember 1976): 712; also Mark Neumann,
Making the Scene: The Poetics and Performances of Displacement
at the Grand Canyon, in Tourism: Between Place and Performance, ed.
Simon Coleman and Mike Crang (Oxford: Berghahn Books, 2002),
pp. 3853.
7. Carol Crenshaw and John Urry, Tourism and the Photographic
Eye, in Touring Cultures: Transformations of Travel and Theory, ed.
Chris Rojek and John Urry (New York: Routledge, 1997), p.176.
8. George Ritzer and Allan Liska, McDisneyization and PostTourism: Complementary Perspectives on Contemporary Tourism,
in Touring Cultures, ed. Rojek and Urry, pp. 96109.
9. Terry Linhart, They Were So Alive! The Spectacle Self and Youth
Group Short-Term Mission Trips, Missiology 34 (October 2006):
452.
October 2009

Would it not be desirable to build, at the congregational

level, a partnership approach to short-term missions and
to cultivate specific relationships over the long term, possibly involving exchanges in which leaders from partner
congregations abroad could visit their counterparts on
this continent to serve and learn in their own short-term
mission experiences?
Finally, should not every trip be framed in terms of the
larger missio Dei, the whole mission of God? This would
permit inclusion of relationship-building activities, conversations with local leaders, and time spent listening
to those in the field, including long-term missionaries.
Such reconceptualization, rather than detracting, would
greatly enhance the real work of short-term mission
teams.

Conclusion
These are simply suggestions. It has not been my intention to suggest that short-term missions are fatally flawed or irredeemable,
theologically or pedagogically. The comparison to tourism may
suggest I have a negative view of these trips, but as an anthropologist who encourages my students to travel and experience
cultural difference, nothing could be further from the truth. In
order, however, for STM trips to meet the goals of sending bodies and for them to be beneficial to the receiving communities, a
minimal requirement is surely that the trips foster real connections with real places throughout the world.
10. The theory of linguistic practice as a structuring force of social
life is most fully developed in the work of Pierre Bourdieu, The
Logic of Practice (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford Univ. Press, 1990), and
anthropologists such as William Hanks, Discourse Genres in a
Theory of Practice, American Ethnologist 14 (1987): 66892. Although
I refer to and rely on the theory here, space constraints prevent a
fuller explanation of these ideas.
11. Many proponents of STM have claimed that participation in shortterm trips increases the likelihood of career missions, suggesting
that exposure is both central and influential for the short-term
visitors. See Roger P. Peterson and Timothy D. Peterson, Is ShortTerm Mission Really Worth the Time and Money? (Minneapolis:
STEM Ministries, 1991); Paula Harris, Calling Young People to
Missionary Vocations in a Yahoo World, Missiology 30 (2002):
3350; Susan G. Loobie, Short-Term Mission: Is It Worth It?
Latin America Evangelist, JanuaryMarch 2002; Steve Whitner, The
Value of Short-Term Missions, in Short-Term Missions Today, ed.
Bill Barry (Pasadena, Calif.: Into All the World Magazine, 2003),
pp. 5458. These findings have been challenged by subsequent
research; see Priest et al., Researching the Short-Term Mission
Movement, p. 435.
12. See Miriam Adeney, Shalom Tourist: Loving Your Neighbor While
Using Her, Missiology 34 (October 2006): 46377; also Edwin Zehner,
Short-Term Missions: Towards a More Field Oriented Approach,
Missiology 34 (October 2006): 50921.
13. See Erik Cohen, Pilgrimage and Tourism: Convergence and
Divergence, in The Anthropology of Pilgrimage, ed. A. Morinis
(Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1992), pp. 4761; Brian Howell
and Rachel Dorr, Evangelical Pilgrimage: The Language of ShortTerm Missions, Journal of Communication and Religion 30 (November
2007): 23665.
14. Cindy Judge, Before You Pack Your Bag, Prepare Your Heart: Short-Term
Mission Preparation Guide, with Twelve Bible Studies Plus Trip Journal
(Wheaton, Ill.: Campfire Resources, 2000).

211

Ignace Partui: Iroquois Evangelist to the Salish, ca. 17801837

John C. Mellis

t is perhaps amazing that Christianity has survived at all

among the indigenous peoples of North America when
one considers the pain, abuse, and broken promises brought by
so-called Christian civilization over the past five hundred years.
A prominent native leader once quipped, We accepted Jesus
but got the church!1 Yet as native Christians and their respective churches struggle to find healing, there are surprising signs
that the Good News of Jesus has not been rejected. Rather, the
healing of past hurts is being sought from deep within Christian
and traditional sources. In that search, the congruity between the
Christian message and traditional teachings, which first attracted
many First Nations of this continent to Christian faith, is being
explored with renewed interest.2
Ignace Partui exemplifies this natural, perhaps spontaneous,
transmission of the Gospel among indigenous peoples of North
America. Ignace was an Iroquois storyteller and voyageur whose
fervent commitment to the Christian faith sparked the interest
of an entire nation years before any European missionaries had
ventured into the headwaters of the Missouri and Snake Rivers.
Scattered references to him are found in diaries and journals that,
when put together, tell quite a story.

Iroquois Voyageurs
Sometime around 1816, not long after European explorers (e.g.,
Lewis, Clarke, Fraser, and Thompson) first traversed the continent of North America, twenty-four Iroquois fur trappers came
to settle among the Flathead Salish in the Bitterroot Valley of
present-day southwestern Montana. These trappers, under the
auspices of the North West Company, came from villages near
Montreal. They were led by Ignace Partui, whose nickname La
Mousse (Big Ignace) suggested something about his stature
and supported his reputation for being both honest and gentle.3
Although little is known about his early life, he became known
among the Salish for the wealth of stories he would recall from
his childhood spent in the Jesuit village of Caughnawagastories
about God, the beautiful ceremonies, and the black-robed teachers who taught him those stories.4
The Flathead chief at that time, Tjolzhitsay, had a reputation
for kindness that extended even to his enemies. He welcomed
the Iroquois and listened intently to all that Big Ignace said, often
long into the night. Ignaces references to black-robed teachers
even echoed a number of Salish legends that anticipated their
future arrival.5 One day someone asked Ignace, Why dont
those Black Robes of whom you so often speak also come to us?
Ignace replied, Why dont you seek them? You will find them
in the lands of the suypi [white people], and I am certain that
they would come if you would seek them.6
As Ignace settled into Salish life, marrying a Salish woman
John C. Mellis, an Anglican priest, has served for
twenty years in pastoral work and theological education with native peoples in Canada and the United
States. Currently he is the Provost of Queens College
Faculty of Theology in St. Johns, Newfoundland and
Labrador.
[email protected]

212

who bore them two sonsCharles, born around 1821, and Francis Xavier, around 1825life began to change for the Iroquois.
Competition intensified between the North West and Hudson Bay
Companies. In 1823 the British Parliament legislated a settlement
to end their fur war, and under the newly reconstituted Hudson Bay Company the Iroquois no longer had unlimited access
back to their home villages in the east. Moreover, their livelihood
was increasingly squeezed by new company policies, reaching
the point that during the winter of 1825 most of the Iroquois
defected, deciding instead to cast their lot with Jedediah Smith
of the American Fur Company, which operated out of St. Louis
and Kansas City, Missouri.
Through this new relation, Ignace came to learn that blackrobed teachers (i.e., Jesuits) lived in St. Louis, as well as in his
home village near Montreal. Even though getting to Montreal
was no longer a possibility, a new way seemed to be opening up
to seek them out in St. Louis. All these events converged during
the summer of 1831, when, on their annual buffalo hunt, the
Flathead Salish and their Nez Perc neighbors decided to send
a small group to St. Louis to investigate these legendary teachers and to request instruction from them. The small delegation
could travel with the American Fur Companys caravan, which
returned there each fall to deliver the seasons furs from the summer Rendezvous on the Green River (in what is now southwestern
Wyoming). The Rendezvous, started by the Rocky Mountain Fur
Company in 1825, was an annual gathering for trappers where
they could exchange pelts for supplies. It quickly became a major
social event of the region.

The Search for Black Robes

Motivated by Ignaces stories, the two tribes chose six people
(three from each tribe) to make the arduous pilgrimage to St. Louis
to try to make contact with the Black Robes. At the last minute
another young Nez Perc man volunteered as well, enlarging
the group to seven. Although the three Salish returned before
reaching their destination, the other four members of the party
arrived in St. Louis early that fall. Sadly, two of them died shortly
after their arrival, and another died on the way home. The young
man who had volunteered at the last minute was the only one to
make it back to his tribe to recount the story. Nevertheless, the
request for Christian instruction had been delivered.
The seed in fact fell on fertile soilthough not initially with
the Jesuits. General William Clark, who had traveled through
Salish territory in 1805 and 1806 with Meriwether Lewis, took a
great interest in the delegation from the mountains. Despite the
language barrier, he seemed to understand the spiritual nature
of their quest and introduced them to both Catholics and Protestants in St. Louis. The two who died there did so in the care
of Catholic priests at the cathedral. On the basis of their devotion to the crucifix during their illness, both were baptized and
given full Christian burials.7 Fascinated by their presence and
quest, Protestants published their story in the Christian Advocate
(March 1, 1833) as a Macedonian call, which in turn sparked
widespread interest.
During the next few years both tribes eagerly waited for a response. Evidence from missionary diaries suggests that Big Ignace
and Chief Insula of the Salish both attended the Rendezvous in
International Bulletin of Missionary Research, Vol. 33, No. 4

1834, where they met the Methodist missionaries Jason Lee and
Daniel Lee (Jasons nephew). The Lees, however, did not accept
their invitation to accompany them home, despite assurances of
an openness and desire to learn. The next year, at the Rendezvous
in 1835, Chief Insula and an older shaman named Chalax met two
Presbyterians, Marcus Whitman and Samuel Parker. Although
Whitman and Parker chose to settle further west among the Nez
Perc, Insula and the other Flatheads joined the escort for them
on their own way back home, at least as far as Pierres Hole, on
the border of present-day Idaho and Wyoming.8
Meanwhile Big Ignace made plans to take his two sons to St.
Louis to be baptizedplans alluded to in his conversation with
Jason Lee in 1834. The trio did make the trip in 1835, arriving on
December 2 at the Jesuit seminary in Florissant, near St. Louis.
In his journal Father Ferdinand Helias described Ignace as very
tall of stature and of grave, modest, and refined deportment. He
estimated Charless age as fourteen, and Francis Xaviers as ten.
Helias instructed the boys in French while Ignace translated for
them into Salish. Ignace then knelt with them during their baptism,
tears of joy and thanksgiving streaming down his face.9

U.S. Great Plains, circa. 1830

CAN A DA
Pa cifi
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47 5 m oas t
iles

Missouri

! Bitterroot Valley

S n a ke

o
Yell

to
ws

ne

M
is s

Pierre's Hole

is s

ip

pi

No rth
Pl

t
!e
Fort Laramie

M is

Ash Hollow
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Council Bluffs
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Nonetheless, Big Ignace decided to accompany Gray and

Tjolzhitsays two sons on their trip back east. Two other Flatheads
and a Nez Perc nicknamed The Hat went with them. Against
the better judgment of others, Gray decided not to wait for the
caravan that was returning to St. Louis for supplies. Instead, he
pressed on ahead with his own little group. At Fort Laramie he
was warned to wait, since some hostile tribes had recently killed
a man nearby. Gray would not listen and went ahead. Just a few
days out, at a place called Ash Hollow, he asked two of his companions to investigate what looked like buffalo. Instead of buffalo,
however, they found a Sioux warrior who began circling them
on his horse, a signal to his companions, who quickly arrived
at full gallop. The warrior ordered Grays group to accompany
them to their village. Gray refused, and he and The Hat broke
for the river, followed by the others. Although they all made it
across, so did the warriors, and, once on the other side, Grays
horse was shot from under him.11
As Ignace and the others prepared to make a stand, Gray set
his rifle aside and walked forward to talk. The warriors kept firing,
which forced him to retreat. Suddenly, a Canadian trader traveling with the Sioux appeared. He asked how many
whites were in the party. Gray answered three
and was told that the three should step forward
immediately or all would be killed. Gray asked to
meet the trader halfway and told Ignace and the
two whites to accompany him while the rest stayed
back. The two followed Gray, but Ignace refused
to leave his comrades, especially the sons of Chief
Tjolzhitsay. Then, while Gray and the trader were
still talking, the warriors suddenly rushed past them
toward Ignace and his companions, who defended
themselves as best they could. The small band killed
three of the Sioux warriors, but soon Ignace, The
Hat, and all the Flatheads, including the chiefs
nd a
la g
two sons, lay dying in the prairie grass.12
e a aw a s
r
t
e

The Search Continues

ip

is s

pi

As a result, William Gray never did establish a

mission among the Flatheads, nor did he ever quite
live down the reputation he acquired for abandoning those entrusted to his care. Chief Tjolzhitsay,
together with the whole tribe, mourned the death of his two
sons and of Old Ignace, who had been so eager to have blackrobed teachers. Despite the loss of his sons and his friend Ignace,
Tjolzhitsay, a deeply spiritual man and no stranger to hardship,
enlisted help from the remaining Iroquois as he continued his
quest for the Black Robes, unwavering in his desire for their
teaching that Ignaces stories had awakened in him.
Of the original twenty-four Iroquois who moved west, only
four remained among the Flathead. In the spring of 1839, two of
them, Pierre Gauch (Left-Handed Peter) and Le Jeune Ignace
(Young Ignace), volunteered for yet another mission to request
a black-robed teacher.13 From the Rendezvous, they accompanied
the fur traders down the Yellowstone and Missouri Rivers. Near
Council Bluffs (on the Missouri River, in western Iowa) they
visited the Jesuits living among the Potawatomis. There they
met Father Pierre De Smet, who listened intently to their story
and gave them letters to present to his superiors in St. Louis. In
his diary he wrote, I have never seen any [tribes] so fervent in
religion. By their instructions and examples they have given all
that nation a great desire to have themselves baptized.14
A month later, when Pierre and Young Ignace were in St. Louis,

Map by Global Mapping International

Following the ceremony Ignace shared his whole story. He

told Helias about the seven tribes, with a combined population
of six thousand, who asked him to bring a Black Robe to them.
Twice he asked that the boys might stay at the college, and offered
to pay what he could. But nothing came of either request. After
spending the winter with some of his fellow Iroquois who had
retired in Westport (near Kansas City), Ignace and his two sons
returned home to the mountains in the spring of 1836.

Tragedy on the Prairie

That same spring the Presbyterians who settled among the Nez
Perc traveled back east and in the fall returned with their wives.
Chief Tjolzhitsay had become acquainted with one of them, William Gray, who was working among a neighboring Salish tribe,
the Spokane. In the spring of 1837 Tjolzhitsay arranged for Gray
to take his two sons back east to receive religious instruction.
Ignace, being a bit suspicious of the Presbyterians, tried to tell
the chief that Gray and the others were not true Black Robes,
since the ones he knew in Caughnawaga and in St. Louis were
not married.10
October 2009

213

they talked with Father Verhaegen and Bishop Rosati, who were
as impressed as De Smet had been with their understanding of
the Christian faith and with their ability to express it in French.
After making their confessions and receiving Holy Communion
in the cathedral, the two Iroquois were confirmed by the bishop,
who expressed the hope that he could soon provide them with
a priest.15 The following day they left for the Iroquois-Flathead

The Iroquois fur trader

and storyteller played a
pivotal role in introducing
the Salish people to the
Christian faith.
settlement in Westport. There Ignace spent the winter waiting
for the Black Robes promised arrival and the departure of the
spring caravan to the mountains. Pierre, however, immediately
started for home, hoping to reach the tribe in time to arrange a
welcome for Young Ignace and the Black Robe at the summer
Rendezvous on the Green River.

A Joyful Welcome
By the time Pierre arrived home in the Bitterroot Valley, it was
too late to arrange for the entire camp to meet the Black Robe at
the Rendezvous. But Chief Tjolzhitsay sent ten warriors to meet
him and escort him back to Pierres Hole for a proper welcome.
Meanwhile, Father De Smet met Ignace in Westport as promised
and traveled west with him in the caravan. At the Rendezvous of
1840, the warriors greeted De Smet with tears of joy and gratitude,
eagerly recounting how miraculously they had been delivered
during a five-day battle with two hundred Blackfoot warriors. De
Smet responded with prayers of thanksgiving and protection.16
A week later he arrived at the summer camp in Pierres Hole
to another enthusiastic welcome. Hardly was his tent in place
before men, women, and children began arriving to shake his
hand. Elders wept and children leaped with excitement as he was
led to the chiefs tent. All grew quiet as Tjolzhitzay spoke:
Black Robe, you are welcome in my nation. Today Kyleeyou has
fulfilled our wishes. Our hearts are big, for our great desire is gratified. . . . We have several times sent our people to the great Black
Robe at St. Louis that he might send us a priest to speak with us.
Speak, Black Robe, we will follow the words of your mouth.17

For the next month De Smet accompanied the Flathead as

they moved north on their annual buffalo hunt. Each time they
camped, he called them together, four times a day, for prayer
and instruction. Before leaving he baptized nearly six hundred
people, including the two elderly chiefs. The aging shaman
Chalax spoke before being baptized:
When I was young, and even as I became old, I was plunged in
profound ignorance of good and evil, and in that period I must
no doubt have displeased [Kaikolinzoetin]; I sincerely implore
pardon of him.18

Chalax was baptized Peter, and Tjolzhitsay, Paul.

When the time came for De Smet to return, three chiefs
and seventeen select warriors escorted him through Blackfoot
214

country to meet the caravan on the Yellowstone River. Outside

his tent, in the early morning light, De Smet led them once more
in the morning prayers, urging them to serve Kaikolinzoetin
faithfully. Chief Tjolzhitsay then rose to his feet and offered a
heart-felt farewell:
Black Robe, may Kaikolinzoetin accompany you in your long and
dangerous journey. We will pray evening and morning that you
may arrive safe among your brothers at St. Louis. We will continue
to pray until you return. . . . When the snows disappear from the
valleys, after the winter, when the grass begins to be green again,
our hearts, so sad at present, will begin to rejoice. As the grass
grows higher, our joy will become greater; but when the flowers
appear, we will set out to come and meet you. Farewell.19

The following year (1841) De Smet returned with five Jesuit

companions. Four years after Ignace Partuis death his dream
was fulfilled. His adopted family the Flatheads now had Black
Robes living among them. Not only were Ignaces sons baptized,
but many others as wellnearly 200 on the feast of St. Francis
Xavier (December 3, 1841), including Chief Insula, who was
named Michael for his brave and gentle spirit. On Christmas
Day 150 more were baptized. Within that week, the great chief
and shaman Chalax, Peter, received last rites, becoming the
first Flathead to receive Communion. As he requested, he was
wrapped in the red prayer flag he raised each Sunday and was
buried at the foot of a large cross standing on the site chosen for
the new church, St. Marys.

Unless a Seed Fall to the Earth...

For five years the Flathead made great strides incorporating both
the Gospel and the Black Robes into the life of their tribe. By
1846 a number of other Salish tribes had also embraced the Good
News brought by the Black Robes. Even some Blackfoot tribes
responded by asking for their own Black Robe. But just when
things seemed to be going so well, they began to fall apart.
Settlers and traders were now pouring into the area, claiming land and bringing strange new diseases and other adverse
influences, including new access to vices that undermined the
moral fiber of the culture. Jesuit missionaries arriving later
refused to accompany the Flathead on their extended hunting
expeditions. Upset with the inevitable skirmishes with other
tribes who competed with the Salish for a dwindling supply of
buffalo, these missionaries tried to advocate a more sedentary
(and civilized) agricultural life for the Flathead. Also, if the
Black Robes were to have joined the hunt, the tribe members in
the village would have been left without their moral and religious
support for significant periods of time. And without warriors in
the village, those who remained were vulnerable to enemy raids.
The Flathead elders, especially one named Victor, remained loyal
to the Black Robes, but he found himself increasingly alienated
from a younger generation of leaders. Finally in 1850, following
some devastating enemy raids, the Jesuits decided to abandon
what they had established as the St. Marys Mission.20
Although the seed planted among the Flathead seemed to die,
it continues to live, there and throughout the Salish nation. The
Coeur dAlene tribe still hosts an annual pilgrimage on August
15the Feast of St. Maryat the Cataldo Mission to celebrate
their cultural heritage, their Christian faith, and, as foretold in
their legends, the arrival of a black-robed man with crossed
sticks who would bring news of ... a savior of the world.21
Today we rightly celebrate the lives of missionaries like Father
De Smet and the other Jesuits who generously responded to the
International Bulletin of Missionary Research, Vol. 33, No. 4

Salish request. But in many respects it was their privilege to reap

the harvest already sown by the Holy Spirit in the hearts of Chief
Tjolzhitsay and his people through Old Ignace.
For the Salish people, the Iroquois fur trader and storyteller
Ignace Partui played a pivotal role in introducing them to the
Christian faith and to the black-robed teachers of whom their

Notes

1. Rev. Mervin Wolfleg, at the Anglican Council of Indigenous Peoples,

Lethbridge, Alberta, June 1997.
2. Homer Noley includes a number of such stories in his chapter The
Interpreters in Native American Religious Identity: Unforgotten Gods, ed.
Jace Weaver (Maryknoll, N.Y.: Orbis Books, 1998), pp. 4860. See also
James Treat, Native and Christian: Indigenous Voices on Religious Identity
in the United States and Canada (New York: Routledge, 1996).
3. In 1839 two of the Iroquois, nicknamed Le Jeune Ignace (Young
Ignace) and Pierre Gauch (Left-Handed Peter), told Bishop
Rosati of St. Louis that twenty-four of them had settled with the
Flathead Salish around 1816, led by Ignace La Mousse (Big Ignace)
(John Rothensteiner, The Flat-Head and Nez Perce Delegation to St.
Louis, 18311839, St. Louis Catholic Historical Review 2 [1920]: 188).
With Ignaces leadership and seniority in mind, I have estimated
that when he arrived in 1816, he was about thirty-six years of age.
For more in connection with the early presence of Ignace and other
Iroquois among the Flatheads, see John Mellis, Coyote People and
the Black Robes: Indigenous Roots of Salish Christianity (Ph.D.
diss., St. Louis Univ., 1992), pp. 5964.
4. References to Ignaces conversations with the Salish are found in
Gregory Mengarini, Recollections of the Flathead Mission, trans. and
ed. Gloria Ricci Lothrop (Glendale, Calif.: Arthur H. Clark, 1977),
pp. 17273.
5. For further reference to these legends about Circling Raven (Coeur
dAlene) and Shining Shirt (Flathead), see Mellis, Coyote People,
pp. 5359.
6. According to Mengarini the Flatheads referred to white people as
soiapi (Recollections, p. 173). Francis Haines thought that suypi was
likely a variation on the Nez Perc word soyappo, meaning crowned
ones or people with hats (The Nez Percs: Tribesmen of the Columbia
Plateau [Norman: Univ. of Oklahoma Press, 1955], p. 27).
7. See Gilbert J. Garraghan, The Jesuits of the Middle United States, 3 vols.
(New York: America Press, 1938), 2:23738. Bishop Rosatis letter
and the mens burial records can be found in Edmond Mallett, The
Origin of the Flathead Mission of the Rocky Mountains, Records of the
American Catholic Historical Society of Philadelphia 2 (1888): 18990.
8. Mellis, Coyote People, pp. 12025; see also The Diary of Jason
Lee, Oregon Historical Quarterly 17 (1916): 13842; Samuel Parker,
Journal of an Exploring Tour Beyond the Rocky Mountains (Ithaca,
N.Y.: Mack, Andrews & Woodruff, 1838), pp. 77, 8891; Marcus
Whitman, Journal and Report by Dr. Marcus Whitman of His Tour
of Exploration with Rev. Samuel Parker in 1835 Beyond the Rocky
Mountains, ed. F. S. Young, Oregon Historical Quarterly 28 (1927):
248.
9. See Gilbert J. Garraghan, The Jesuits of the Middle United States, 3
vols. (New York: America Press, 1938), 2:24647. The entry from the
baptismal register at St. Louis University is published in Edmond

ancient legends spoke. In the process Ignace traveled half a continent to assure that his own sons were baptized. And he gave
his life trying to protect the lives of Chief Tjolzhitsays sons. No
doubt the time has come to honor Ignace Partui, not only as an
evangelist to the Salish, but as one who lived and proclaimed the
faith that drew him as a child and that he loved as an adult.
Mallett, The Origin of the Flathead Mission of the Rocky Mountains, Records of the American Catholic Historical Society (Philadelphia) 2 (1888): 194.
10. Mellis, Coyote People, p. 129; see also Alvin Josephy, The Nez Perce
Indians and the Opening of the Northwest (New Haven: Yale Univ. Press,
1965), pp. 143, 16668.
11. Bernard A. DeVoto, Across the Wide Missouri (Boston: Houghton
Mifflin, 1947; repr., 1964), pp. 33033. The battle took place August
7, 1837. For other sources on this encounter see notes in Mellis,
Coyote People, pp. 13031.
12. Gray seems to have included Ignace among the whites in his count.
One later report suggests that the Sioux would have spared the group
had they known they were Flatheads (Mellis, Coyote People,
pp. 13031).
13. Le Jeune Ignace is clearly a different person from Ignace Partui, who
following his death became known as Le Vieux (Old) Ignace. Both
of them were among the twenty-four Iroquois who settled among the
Salish, making them somewhat contemporary, though the nicknames
were likely used to distinguish them from each other, perhaps also
indicating Partui as the elder of the two.
14. Hiram Martin Chittenden and Alfred Talbot Richardson, Life, Letters,
and Travels of Father Pierre-Jean De Smet, S.J., 18011873, 4 vols. (New
York: Francis P. Harper, 1905), 1:1318, 2930.
15. Garraghan, Jesuits, 2:24850.
16. Chittenden and Richardson, De Smet, 1:220; also see Lawrence B.
Palladino, Indian and White in the Northwest (Baltimore: John Murphy,
1984), p. 24.
17. These events and the speech are based on three different accounts
by De Smet, two in Chittenden and Richardson, De Smet, 1:22324,
263, and one in E. Laveille, The Life of Father De Smet, S.J. (18011873),
trans. Marian Lindsay (New York: P. J. Kennedy & Sons, 1915),
p. 108.
18. Chittenden and Richardson, De Smet, 1:226. The addition in brackets
is from Laveille, Life, p. 110.
19. Chittenden and Richardson, De Smet, 1:227, with variation by Laveille,
Life, pp. 11213.
20. For further analysis of the circumstances leading to the closing
of St. Marys, see Mellis, Coyote People, pp. 200209. For
current information on the historic St. Marys Mission, see www.
saintmarysmission.org/FatherDeSmet.html.
21. In 1992 Peter Campbell, a Salish holy man who taught in the American
Indian Studies Program at Eastern Washington University in Cheney,
Washington, first told me of the annual commemorations held
at the Cataldo Mission, in Cataldo, Idaho. For brief descriptions
of this yearly pilgrimage, see www.indiancountrytoday.com/
archive/28180129.html and www.companysj.com/sjusa/040925
.htm#gonzagauniversitystudents.

Post Positions Available Online

As a free service to readers of the International Bulletin of
Missionary Research, the Overseas Ministries Study Center
maintains an online listing of mission-related Positions Open.
Summarize a proposed announcement in fewer than one

October 2009

hundred words including Web and e-mail links back to the

details on your Web site. Positions Open will be listed for four
months and may be renewed. Send notices of positions open
to Daniel Nicholas, managing editor, [email protected].

215

Book Reviews
The World Missionary Conference,
Edinburgh 1910.
By Brian Stanley. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans,
2009. Pp. xxii, 352. Paperback $45.
The Edinburgh missionary conference
of 1910 has achieved iconic status in
Protestant historical consciousness. It
provides a unique snapshot of the modern
European and American missionary
movement at the height of its power
and self-confidence. As the centenary
approaches, it is appropriate that Brian
Stanley, director of the Centre for the
Study of Christianity in the Non-Western
World at Edinburgh University, should
have written this account of the origins,
proceedings, and impact of Edinburgh
1910. It is a magnificent labor of love,
beautifully written, based on painstaking
research in archives scattered throughout
North America and Europe, and replete
with acute observation and analysis.
Given the centrality of this event in the
birth of the modern ecumenical movement,
Stanley notes how ironic it is that questions
of faith and order were rigorously excluded
from the agenda of the actual conference.
This was essential to secure Anglo-Catholic
participation. Joe Oldham, the organizing
secretary, was successful in gaining the
wholehearted and positive participation
of such Anglican High Churchmen as

Bishop Charles Gore and Walter Frere.

But there was a price to pay: not only the
formal exclusion of questions of church
unity, but the actual exclusion of Protestant
mission work in South America and the
division of the world conceptually into
Christian lands (largely European) and
the mission field (all the rest).
One of the great values of Stanleys
work is to show how, even in 1910, this
triumphalist imaginaire was already collapsing. Notoriously, Edinburgh 1910 was
a conference of foreign missionaries;
indigenous Christians were regarded
by cash-strapped mission societies as a
dubious and expensive luxury (p.104).
Nevertheless, eighteen delegates from
Asia (China, Japan, Korea, and India)
did attend. One of the most fascinating
sections of the book consists of the
biographies of these menthe Korean
delegate, Yuin ChIho, for example, was
subsequently arrested for his participation
in the Christian nationalist movement
that opposed the Japanese occupation of
his country. Stanley magnificently shows
the profound importance, theologically
and practically, of the contribution of

Christian Mission: How

Christianity Became a World
Religion.
By Dana L. Robert. Chichester, West Sussex,
U.K.: Wiley-Blackwell, 2009. Pp xi, 214. 45
/ $89.95 / 54; paperback 14.99 / $23.95 /
18.
This latest entry in Blackwells Brief
Histories of Religions Series is a masterful
survey of mission in Christian history
from the very origins of the religion to
the present. The depth and breadth of
scholarship that underpin this work are
worn lightly and never intrude on the
narrative. This study provides an excellent
starting point for further exploration
of the main themes and controversies
surrounding the missionary enterprise.
It should be required reading for any
undergraduate course on Christianity or
world religions.
Most impressively for a survey
text, Robert has developed a clear and
compelling thesis: that mission history
216

is not a peripheral subject but central to

the history and theology of Christianity
because Christianity is a sending religion
in fulfillment of Christs final command
to make disciples of all nations. Hence
mission was at the core of the formation
of Christianity as a religion distinct from
the Judaism from which it sprang. Even
more important, Robert argues that it
was the actual history of missions from
the fifteenth century onward that made it
possible for Christianity to evolve from a
Mediterranean/West Asian and European
religion into a genuinely global and
multicultural religion of the twenty-first
century, in which the South is dominant,
and yesterdays converts are todays

these fascinating and outstanding Christian statesmen, theologians, pastors, and

educators. Africa was much talked about
at the conference, but only one delegate
from that continent, Christian Casely
Hayford, actually attended (though
there were some African Americans).
Africa, according to the dominant racial
categorization, was deemed to be at
a lower stage of development than
the civilizations of Asia. But Stanleys
book rightly shows how the time-bound
goals and aspirations of the missionary
movement were already being redirected
and subverted, even as they were
celebrated in Edinburgh.
This book is essential reading for
all who, one hundred years later, wish
to understand the worldwide scope and
mission of contemporary Christianity.
Kevin Ward
Kevin Ward is Senior Lecturer of African Religious
Studies in the University of Leeds. He is a trustee of
the Church Missionary Society and a member of the
General Synod of the Church of England. For sixteen
years he was a CMS mission partner in Uganda.

missionaries. Although she discusses

the many shortcomings and critiques
of Christian missions, especially its role
within the structures of a brutal European
colonial and imperial system, hers is
fundamentally a sympathetic account. She
sees postcolonial discourse as providing
a new and exciting theoretical space in
which to re-evaluate missions (p. 96). She
finds the concept of hybridity especially
useful to move beyond seeing missionaries
and converts as agents of colonialism
instead of as the bridges to the more
indigenous and intercultural world
Christianity of today. This approach, which
confuses means with ends, will inevitably
provide for lively debate.
The study is divided into two parts:
the survey history and three thematic
chapters. The themes are mission and
politics/empire, women in missions, and
conversion and Christian community.
Her theses are most fully developed in
the thematic part, and throughout she
draws most heavily from her expertise on
Africa. While understandable, that choice

International Bulletin of Missionary Research, Vol. 33, No. 4

is sometimes limiting. For example, as a

balance to the discussion of missionaries as
agents of imperialism, she describes their
role in the antislavery campaign. Inclusion
of the more complex and tortured history
of China missionaries and the opium trade
might have provided a more nuanced
picture. Yet in itself this example shows
how this text can be most fruitfully used
to teach a topic that remains contested.
Margo S. Gewurtz
Margo S. Gewurtz is Professor Emerita of
Humanities, York University, Toronto. She has
published numerous essays on Canadian missionaries in China and their Chinese coworkers.

Transformation After Lausanne:

Radical Evangelical Mission in
Global-Local Perspective.
By Al Tizon. Eugene, Ore.: Wipf & Stock,
2008. Pp. xix, 281. Paperback $36.
Tizon is assistant professor of evangelism and holistic ministry at Palmer
Theological Seminary, Wynnewood,
Pennsylvania, and director of Word and
Deed Network. His book discusses the
understanding and practice of Christian
mission promulgated by a group of
evangelicals who coalesced during
the 1970s and early 1980s and became
enormously influential in the decades
that followed. The argument at Lausanne
and afterward about the meaning, nature,
and breadth of Christian mission has been
largely successful, something that was not
a foregone conclusion at the time.
There are heroes to Tizons story.
Significantly, they came largely from
places thought in the mid-twentieth
century to be on the margins. The villains
on stage are few. Tizon provides informed
interpretation of pivotal conferences,
organizations, internal communications,
proclamations, and confrontations that
occurred along the path.
Transformation in this account is
multivalent. It has to do with mission that
transforms the bearers of the missionary
message, as well as those to whom it is
directed. And it involves transforming
truncated conceptions of mission. Not
at all least, it concerns the founding of
the journal Transformation and related
entities as vehicles for expressing the new
perspective.
By the time Tizon comes to present the
Philippine context, where he served for a
decade as a missionary in the 1990s, he has
already established a pattern of interflow
between the local and the global. As Ren
Padilla, Samuel Escobar, Tito Paredes, and
many others brought understandings of
October 2009

WESLEYAN
WORLD MISSION

his volume is a veritable

Whos Who of Wesleyan
missiologists which promises to
be one of the most important
books in Protestant missiology to
be published during this decade.
It will be a classic text read
by pastors, missionaries, mission
executives and students of mission
the world over. It will be required
reading in my missions courses.
Charles Van Engen
Professor of Biblical Theology of Mission
Fuller Theological Seminary

his volume represents a significant milestone in mission studies

and fills a void in the scholarly literature in missiology. The editors
have assembled an impressive list of international contributors. This
tour de force makes World Mission in the Wesleyan Spirit a
veritable goldmine. It is a magnificent service to world Christianity!
Tite Tinou
Dean and Professor of Theology of Mission
Trinity Evangelical Divinity School

his edited volume represents a diversity of voices from different

backgrounds, and comes at a pivotal moment in the history of
the world Christian movement as the offspring in many ways of the
missionary movement. While the work is a worthy tribute to the
vision of John Wesley it is equally importantly a manifesto of
modern times.
Lamin Sanneh
Professor of Missions and World Christianity
Yale University

Available from the publisher at 1-800-321-5692 or

www.providencehouse.com. Distributed by Ingram
Book Group and Baker & Taylor

Edited by Darrell L.Whiteman and Gerald H. Anderson

978-1-57736-424-5 376pp $24.95

217

Eastern
offers
education that
transforms
lives.

the Gospel nurtured in local settings to

global conventions and shared them, and
as they took enriched perspectives back to
be put into practice in their own locales,
only to return to other regional and global
convocations with an understanding of
the Gospel and mission enlarged and
deepened by further experience at the local
level, so did Philippine mission leaders. In
illustrating as it does the way that mission
as transformation is grounded in local
experience, even while being enriched

through global reflection and discernment,

the Philippine account integrates and
anchors the argument of the work.
Transformation After Lausanne is a
substantive study of a significant theme
and movement. I strongly recommend it.
Dwight P. Baker
Dwight P. Baker is Associate Director of the Overseas
Ministries Study Center and Associate Editor of
the International Bulletin of Missionary
Research.

Buddhism: A Christian Exploration

and Appraisal.
By Keith Yandell and Harold Netland. Downers
Grove, Ill.: IVP Academic, 2009. Pp. xvii, 230.
Paperback $22.

Eastern offers undergraduate and graduate degree

programs that prepare students to become effective
leaders committed to transforming the lives of people
thoughout the world.
faith reason justice

This is an exceptional book for at least two

reasons. First, it succeeds in summarizing
the entire sweep of Buddhisms historical
development. The story begins in India
(Nepal) with Siddharta Gautama (the
Buddha) and spreads to Southeast Asia,
China, Japan, Korea, Tibet, Mongolia,
Europe, and the West. Second, the authors
manage to give readers an accurate
summary of basic Buddhist teachings:
the Four Noble Truths, then Theravada,
Mahayana, Zen, and Vajrayana. It is
especially strong in summarizing what
Buddhism has become, and is becoming,
in the West.
For a short book to be able to
summarize the history and teachings of a
world religion as complex as Buddhism
is a remarkable accomplishment. The
approach Yandell and Netland take is
especially satisfying for its Christian
audience because this is what Christians
value most in their own traditionhistory
and doctrine. Buddhists themselves
perhaps would consider practice
especially meditationto be a more
important focus. But this book, as the title
indicates, is a Christian exploration and
appraisal of Buddhism.

Which brings us to the most remarkable contribution of this introduction to

Buddhism. In the genre of introductory
books on Buddhism, one can find scores
of religious studies books that succeed to
one degree or another in summarizing the
buddhadharma. And one can find quite a
large number of missional books aimed
at critiquing Buddhism from a Christian
point of viewand even suggesting ways
a Christian might talk about his or her
faith to a Buddhist. This book is rare in
that it manages to do both and do both
well. It is an accurate, fair, respectful presentation of Buddhism. But the authors
both sincerely believe that Christianity
is the better religion. They say that also,
fairly and accurately, and in a way that
does not diminish the picture painted
of Buddhism. That is to say, this is an
honest book all the way around. Highly
recommended.
Terry C. Muck
Terry C. Muck is Dean and Professor of Mission
and World Religion at the E. Stanley Jones School
of World Mission and Evangelism of Asbury
Theological Seminary, Wilmore, Kentucky.

The New Shape of World

Christianity: How American
Experience Reflects Global Faith.
Mark A. Noll. Downers Grove, Ill.: IVP
Academic, 2009. Pp. 212. $25.

800.732.7669
218

What, in fact, has been the American

role in creating the new shape of world
Christianity and what is now the relation
of American Christianity to world

Christianity? (p. 67). These are the

questions that Mark A. Noll, professor of
history at the University of Notre Dame,
considers in his insightful and provocative

International Bulletin of Missionary Research, Vol. 33, No. 4

book The New Shape of World Christianity:

How American Experience Reflects Global
Faith. Nolls thesis is straightforward:
recent transformations in Christianity
around the world are not the result of
direct American influence. Rather, global
Christianity increasingly resembles
American Christianity because much of
the world is coming more and more to
look like America (p. 189).
While acknowledging that American
military, monetary, and missionary
efforts have had substantial effects on
the development of global faith, Noll
insists that the history of American
Christianity is far more significant for
understanding how Christianity is
taking shape in Africa, Asia, and Latin
America. These regions, Noll argues, are
undergoing social and cultural changes
similar to those that marked American
experience during the nineteenth century.
As globalization continues to transform
conditions in the non-Western world,
Christians in nations like India, South
Korea, and Brazil are embracing forms of
the faith that reflect the new realities of
their increasingly competitive, marketoriented, and modernizing societies.
Just as nineteenth-century Americans
fashioned a Christianity that fit with
the individualistic, entrepreneurial, and
egalitarian spirit of the fledgling United
States, so too are Christians in the Majority
World stressing the importance of personal
choice, innovation, and voluntarism.
Taking this argument a step further,
Noll suggests that churches (and missionary programs) that adopt and promote
the voluntary patternbecoming selfsupporting, self-propagating, and selfgoverningare more likely to flourish
than those that assume a necessary link
between church and state.
Nolls cogent study carefully nuances
interpretations of missions history that
condemn or celebrate American influence
abroad, presenting a more complex picture
of the emergence and development of
contemporary world Christianity.
Heather D. Curtis

The Mission and Death of Jesus in

Islam and Christianity.
By A. H. Mathias Zahniser. Maryknoll, N.Y.:
Orbis Books, 2008. Pp. xv, 268. Paperback
$35.
The author of this book, professor emeritus
of history of religions at Asbury Seminary,
Wilmore, Kentucky, is now teaching at
Greenville College, Greenville, Illinois.
Christians and Muslims have
historically differed on the question of

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the nature of Jesus mission and his death.

Evidence for this disagreement appears
in the Quran and in the earliest debates
between them from the ninth century.
Understandably, a lot has been written on
this subject. Christian positions on these

Louvain Theological and Pastoral Monographs

Plattis book engages both classical and

contemporary readings of the Islamic tradition
and offers a nuanced, challenging view not
only of its past but also of its present and the
directions it might take in the years ahead.
ISBN 978-0-8028-6355-3 273 pages
paperback $40.00
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8519

219

Eastern
offers
education that
transforms
lives.

points have shifted significantly over

the years from absolute disagreement to
attempts to reconcile the quranic position
with the Christian. In the latter case, the
differences have been attributed to the
intervening history of Muslim-Christian
relations. Recognizing the apparent
impossibility of bridging the gap between
the different narratives and purposes of the
Quran and the Bible, and those of Muslims
and Christians, there has also been an
attempt simply to avoid these issues
altogether. As intractable questions, they
are seen to obstruct the allegedly higher
purposes of reconciliation and pragmatic
joint engagement in society.
This book is forceful in challenging
this activist view and draws readers into a
substantial evaluation of the fundamental
differences. First, though, it considers the
equally substantial common grounds,
which include our shared notions of
God, Scriptures, Jesus, and apostles and
prophets (pp. 114). It then considers the
verses in the Quran that apparently deny
crucifixion (pp. 1531), reexplores these
questions in the classical and modern

commentaries and the traditions (pp.

3278), considers the question of whether
someone else was crucified in place of Jesus
(pp. 7994), and reviews early marginal
Christian beliefs about these questions
(pp. 95114) before proceeding to closely
examine the relevant New Testament
references that tell us about Jesus final
days (pp. 130ff.).
This is a valuable resource for those
who wish to revisit the impasse between
Christians and Muslims over the questions
of Jesus mission and death. Its value
lies in honestly acknowledging that these
differences exist and in exploring them
squarely across the foundational sources
of the Muslim-Christian traditions. The
book was published under the Faith
Meets Faith series of Orbis, which seeks
to promote inter-religious dialogue. I
do not doubt its potential for achieving
this goal on a subject close to the heart of
both Christianity and Islam.
David Emmanuel Singh
David Emmanuel Singh is Research Tutor at the
Oxford Centre for Mission Studies, Oxford.

A History of Christianity in
Indonesia.
Edited by Jan Sihar Aritonang and Karel
Steenbrink. Leiden: Brill, 2008. Pp. xvi, 1004.
179 / $265.

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Historians and missiologists will want

to get this superb single-volume history
of Christianity in Indonesia. Guided by
the editorial oversight of the doyens of
Christianity in Indonesia, Jan Aritonang
and Karel Steenbrink, this volume, which
appears in Brills Studies in Christian
Mission series, is the first English summary
of the history of Christianity in Indonesia.
Making accessible for the first time a
massive amount of archival and other
documentary data for an English-speaking
readership, the history of Reformed,
Lutheran, Evangelical, and Pentecostal
churches is illuminated through Dutch and
Indonesian scholars of the region.
Aiming to provide an encyclopedic
view of the varied history of Christians
in Indonesia (p. vii), the book is organized into three parts that combine broad
historical coverage with thematic depth:
(1) historical presentation, up to 1800,
of the precolonial period, during which
Christianity and Islam entered the
archipelago; (2) focus on the most
important Christian areas, including
political, economic, and social developments; and (3) a discussion of some of
the more salient aspects of Christian
life, such as theological developments,

ecumenical opportunities and obstacles,

and Christian art and media. The
books massive sweep concludes with
the contemporary period, marked by
proliferation of expressions of Islam,
vigorous growth of evangelicalism and
Pentecostalism, and increasingly complex
relationship between race, religion, and
nation making.
Along the way, readers are treated to a
discussion of mission methods, theology of
mission, ecumenism, tension both within
and between missions, pastoral-care issues,
initiatives of theological training, and
Christian-Muslim relations. Newcomers
to the history of Christianity in Indonesia
will be introduced to the more widely
recognized missionaries to the region,
including such notables as Frank Cooley,
Ludwig Ingwer Nommensen, Albert
Kruyt, Hendrik Kraemer, Carl Ottow,
and Johann Geissler. These and other
missionaries became experts in linguistics,
Bible translation, and ethnology. Readers
more familiar with Christianity in
Indonesia will learn of the numerous
local missionaries and church leaders
who carried the weight of mission and
evangelism throughout the archipelago,
contending with the cultural, religious,

International Bulletin of Missionary Research, Vol. 33, No. 4

social, and legal contexts that helped give

rise to the diversity of Christian churches
and movements throughout the nation.
Some editorial oversights are
understandable, given the large size of
the book. Also, the designation inner
islands and outer islands (e.g., p.
159) to describe the massive archipelagic
nation is unnecessary and unhelpful, since
such labels too easily turn Java into the
cultural and religious fountainhead of
the nation, making outer islands (e.g.,
Maluku, Papua) subsidiaries of nonlocal
economic, cultural, and religious lifeways.
Unfortunately, the book contains only a
few photographs.
A History of Christianity in Indonesia
makes a major contribution to the field
of mission studies and missiology. It
is highly recommended for libraries,
faculty, and college and university
students studying Christian mission,
Asian history, comparative missiology, or
colonial studies. The books dozen regional
histories, along with impressive thematic
chapters, such as Theological Thinking by
Indonesian Christians, 18502000, give
good reason for paying the high price.
Charles E. Farhadian

history of the period (which included

several disruptive wars and famines) and
a briefer look at the Tranquebar mission in
this period (including standard missionary
biographies), Liebau develops her real
storynamely, that Tamil workers played
an important role from the very beginning.
They helped Bartholomus Ziegenbalg
and others learn Tamil and translate documents, including the Bible. They preached,
instructed far-flung converts, ran schools,
and negotiated with local rulers. The
mission also employed Tamil women in

many more diverse roles than were open

to European women in the mission.
Liebaus greatest achievement lies in
her penetrating and sensitive treatment
of Tamil leaders. Acknowledging the
potential for abuse, that of (she quotes
another historian here) kidnapping the
native as symbol and object of European
imagination, she notes, by way of profiles
of several individual nationals, that
the full brutality of such accusations
does not apply to the early Tranquebar
mission (p. 91; my translation). To the

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Catherine E. Clifford, editor
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for Christian Unity as a time when Christians pray not only for one another
but also with one another. . . . This book is testimony that prayer truly is
the soul of the ecumenical movement.
Lorelei F. Fuchs, SA

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TESTING THE SPIRITS

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Foreword by Craig Van Gelder
An interesting and provocative work. Rather than viewing congregations
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theology is done, Patrick Keifert and his colleagues view congregations as
communities of faith-based moral deliberation and action that play a key
role in generating theology.
Jackson W. Carroll

Charles E. Farhadian is Associate Professor of World

Religions and Christian Mission at Westmont
College, Santa Barbara, California. He has written
Christianity, Islam, and Nationalism in
Indonesia (Routledge, 2005) and The Testimony
Project: Papua (Deiyai Press, 2007).

ISBN 978-0-8028-0740-3 215 pages paperback $24.00

The World Missionary Conference

Edinburgh 1910

Die indischen Mitarbeiter der

Tranquebarmission (17061845):
Katecheten, Schulmeister,
bersetzer.

StudieS in the hiStory of ChriStian MiSSionS SerieS

Brian Stanley

This long-awaited book is the definitive history of the World Missionary

Conference held in Edinburgh in 1910. Stanleys thorough scholarship and
elegant prose bring the conference to life and make a case for its enduring
importance to the history of world Christianity. Scholars of missions,
ecumenism, world religions, education, and Christian internationalism will
find this superb study essential for their work.

By Heike Liebau. Tbingen: Verlag der

Franckeschen Stiftungen Halle im Max
Niemeyer Verlag, 2008. Pp. x, 483. Paperback
79.95 / $112.
As Heike Liebau demonstrates, the 140year career of the Danish-Halle mission
in Tranquebar in South India cannot be
properly understood without considering
the lives and contributions of workers
native to the country. Since these workers
are largely present only in the background
of communications between European
missionaries and their supervisors, Liebau
has had to embark on a textual marathon,
reading about these Indian intermediaries
through the eyes of their employers. In
several archives in Europe and India,
these stories are complemented by Tamil
or Telugu palm-leaf manuscripts left by
Indians themselves, many of which have
been found in German archives.
After an Indocentric glance at the
October 2009

Dana L. Robert

ISBN 978-0-8028-6360-7 384 pages paperback $45.00

WHAT IS JUSTIFICATION ABOUT?

Reformed Contributions to an Ecumenical Theme

Michael Weinrich and John P. Burgess, editors

A collection of significant contributions to the ecumenical discussion
growing from the Lutheran-Catholic Joint Declaration on the Doctrine of
Justification. But, more than that, it is also a wide-ranging contribution to
Reformed thinking about the substance of Christian faith and life, and a
practical resource for congregational preaching and teaching.
Joseph D. Small
ISBN 978-0-8028-6249-5 288 pages paperback $30.00
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or call 800-253-7521
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9028

221

contrary, these indigenous workers,

especially during the 1740s, appear as
true missionaries, fully equal to their
European coworkers. Several were highly
educated and operated with substantial
independence. Furthermore, in gaining
access to hinterland cities, then off-limits
to the Europeans, as well as brokering
relationships between and among Hindu,
Muslim, and Christian communities, they
were missionary pioneers themselves.
Liebau has gone beyond merely
introducing unknown missionary leaders:
she is correcting the historical record.
Several of the Tamil men and women
introduced here were fully competent in
working with Sanskrit, Greek, and Hebrew
texts, in addition to several European and
Indian languages. As the same cannot be
said for many scholars who could put
Liebaus impressive research to great use,
this volume truly needs to be translated
into English.
Paul Grant
Paul Grant is a graduate student in the Department
of History, University of WisconsinMadison. He
has previously worked in the Missions Department
of InterVarsity Christian Fellowship/USA. He is the
author of Blessed Are the Uncool (InterVarsity
Press, 2007).

Confronting Confucian
Understandings of the Christian
Doctrine of Salvation: A Systematic
Theological Analysis of the Basic
Problems in the ConfucianChristian Dialogue.
By Paulos Huang. Leiden: Brill, 2009. Pp. iv,
352. Paperback 114 / $169.
The origins of this book lie in Huangs own
experience. He is at once a Lutheran and
a Confucian. How can a self-cultivating
Confucian be a Lutheran Christian? By
comparing Lutheran and Christian ideas
of salvation, Huang hopes to answer the
question both for himself and for Chinese
culture as a whole.
His argument is long and thorough,
but the main point is straightforward.
The ideas of Shangdi (Sovereign on High)
and Tian (Heaven), which appear in the
Chinese classics, are at least potentially
monotheistic. By the time Jesuit missionary
Matteo Ricci arrived in China in the 1580s,
however, Confucianism had become an
impersonal monism. Heaven and earth
were made of the same stuff; it was
possible, by disciplined self-cultivation,
for anyone to become a junzi, a superior
person. Christianity, in contrast, teaches

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and humanity, one that can be crossed only
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grace can create a superior person.
This ontological difference is serious,
but Huang sees reason for hope. On the
one hand, Christians were and are often
disinterested gentlemen who take the
Chinese classics seriously, who argue
rationally, and who, in some cases, follow
the Thomistic dictum that grace does
not destroy nature but completes it. On
the other hand, modern Confucians are
inclined to take the classical ideas of
Shangdi and Tian more seriously than did
their predecessors.
Huang has made a useful contribution
to interfaith conversations. ConfucianChristian dialogue is doubtless a good
ideaif indeed there are still a significant
number of Confucians around. The
imperial examinations were abolished
over a century ago, however, and since
then, generations of Chinese have been to
school with the Enlightenment. Huangs
thesis is rewarding reading, but one
wonders how many people riding the
streetcars of Shanghai today ever think
about monism and dualism.
Geoff Johnston
Geoff Johnston, a retired professor, taught almost
twenty years at the Presbyterian College, Montreal.

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Migration and Christian Identity

in Congo (DRC).
By Emma Wild-Wood. Leiden: Brill, 2008. Pp.
235. 85 / $126.
This study shows how the Christian identity of a minority church in northeastern
Congo has contributed to the construction
of other social and cultural identities
and has in turn been shaped by them. It
carefully follows a century-long process,
beginning with the foundation in 1896
by Apolo Kivebulaya, a Ganda missionary, of the mother church of the present
glise anglicane du Congo. Now based in
Cambridge, Emma Wild-Wood has long
familiarity with a region whose history
has always been that of a crossroads
between ecological milieus, socioeconomic
and political systems, and linguistic and

International Bulletin of Missionary Research, Vol. 33, No. 4

ethnic cultures: suffice it to note that we

are here at a point of confluence not only
of different languages but also of three
unrelated linguistic groups. Today, across
three political boundaries, people are still
in constant flux. The decision to make
the world of migration the locus of her
research was thus appropriate, and her
book deservedly finds its place in the Brill
series Studies of Religion in Africa.
Resting upon a massive collection of
mostly Protestant local sources, oral and
written, this study is organized along two
guidelines. One, chronological, follows the
evolution of an Anglican identity, born
in an offshoot of the Buganda church in
Congo and evolving as members of the
community moved through a succession of
westward migrations, adapting on the way
to changing contexts, up to the dramatic
crises of today and the development of
hybrid forms of popular Christianity. As
a second guideline, the narrative follows
the changing tensions and combinations
between two poles, referring respectively
to hierarchy and order, and to progress and
joy, all felt by Anglican members to define
their church. Max Weber is not cited, but
we are close to his distinction between
the ideal representations of institution
and charisma shared by the adherents of
a religious movement.
Though repetitive at times, the present
study is presented with subtlety, and it
carries conviction. Elsewhere, however,
Wild-Wood has shown awareness that
this model does not fully come to grips
with the unleashing of all-round violence,
which now casts a shadow upon Christian
identities in the region. Demonstrating
that both African-initiated and missionary
churches share local and global histories,
not only does this original book take us
far from the colonial vs. local binary
form that has marred the study of African
Christianity, but it also invites us to
wish for a history of Christianity that
would integrate Catholic, Protestant, and
Independent narratives.
Jean-Luc Vellut

century played a leadership role, not

only in already established religious
movements, but also in Christianity. The
writer, a self-proclaimed feminist historian
who teaches church history at Columbia
Theological Seminary, Decatur, Georgia,
has consulted primary and secondary
materials in a variety of languages,
including Portuguese, Latin, and Japanese.
Her dedication to her subject is beyond
doubt.
There is more that I would like to
say about the book itself, much of it

positive. Given the number of words I

am allowed, however, I must concentrate
on urging caution to all readers who lack
a broader knowledge of the history of
Japan, including the role of Christianity,
in this period. Regrettably, the writer is so
determined to emphasize the role of female
religious leaders that she reads more into
the evidence than is actually there and
neglects the wider historical picture.
The clearest example of both these
tendencies is her amazing claim that the
shift in politico-religious ideology in

New and Notable from

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Clarity in Christian-Muslim Relations
CHRISTIAN W. TROLL

Faith Meets Faith Series

Presents a reasoned approach to the theological issues that both unite and divide
Christians and Muslims . . . . I strongly
recommend the work to all those seeking
to learn the points of convergence and
divergence between Christian and Islamic
faiths.
Thomas Michel, S.J.
978-1-57075-856-0 paper $34.00

International Bulletin of Missionary Research

Outstanding Books of 2008 for Mission Studies

Beyond Christendom

Globalization, African Migration,

and the Transformation of the West
JEHU J. HANCILES
A profoundly important book on a major current of
the global religious situation . . . a brilliant, in-depth
interpretation of the subject matter. Jacob K. Olupona
Harvard University
978-1-57075-790-7 paper $35.00

Jean-Luc Vellut is professor emeritus at the Universit catholique de Louvain (Louvain-la-Neuve,

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The Mission and Death of

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A. H. MATHIAS ZAHNISER
A model of sensitive dialogue and apologetics that
J. Dudley Woodberry
starts with common ground.
Fuller Theological Seminary

Women Religious Leaders in

Japans Christian Century, 1549
1650.
By Haruko Nawata Ward. Farnham, Surrey,
Eng.: Ashgate, 2009. Pp. xv, 405. 65.
This extraordinary book seeks to
demonstrate that women in Japan from
the mid-sixteenth to the mid-seventeenth
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the first half of the seventeenth century

[toward Neo-Confucianism] and Japans
total rejection of Christianity was [sic]
caused largely by the unprecedented
apostolate of Kirishitan [Roman Catholic]
women (p. 289). This assertion is
unsupported by any direct evidence or by
any consideration of the work of scholars
such as Ronald Toby (in English) or
Ohashi Yukihiro, Murai Sanae, and Takase
Koichiro (in Japanese) on Tokugawa policy
regarding either religion or contacts with
the outside world. There are other cases of
what might be called wishful speculation
(on pp. 6466, 12325, 206), inaccuracies
regarding basic dates and other matters
(pp. 75, 242, 255, 264, 346, etc.), and
(astonishingly) no mention of the possible
appeal to women of Catholic belief in the
Virgin Mary, despite her clear importance
in the beliefs of underground Christian
communities.
Helen Ballhatchet
Helen Ballhatchet, who is British, is Professor in the
Faculty of Economics, Keio University, Tokyo.

by Marla Alupoaice

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224

Chinas Christian Colleges is the product of

a project entitled The American Context
of Chinas Christian Colleges, funded by
the Henry Luce Foundation. The essays
were presented at a conference in 2003
and then were competently edited for
publication. All of the essays demonstrate
extensive research in a number of archives,
primarily in the United States.
In the 1960s a number of celebratory
histories were written about the thirteen
Protestant and three Catholic colleges in
China. The participants in the present
volume were committed to moving
beyond such essays to probe the crosscultural phenomenon represented by
these colleges. The topics of the thirteen
chapters range from the personal motivations of the 33,726 volunteers in the
Student Volunteer Movement between
1893 and 1920 to the cross-cultural
sources of the architecture of the colleges,
the relations between the Seven Sisters
(womens colleges in the northeast United
States) and China from 1900 to 1950,
Anglo-American law as taught at Soochow
University, the teaching of civic duty at
the colleges, the plans for the colleges
after the conclusion of World War II, and
many others. Two essays are devoted not
to China but to Japan and Turkey.

International Bulletin of Missionary Research, Vol. 33, No. 4

The postface describes the evolving

of international scholarship on Chinas
Christian colleges. For some years the
scholarship devoted to the colleges has
been more extensive in China than in the
United States. The essays produced by
this project, however, make clear that U.S.
scholarship on this topic is beginning to
match that in China.
The volume is dedicated to Jessie
Lutz, who pioneered the exploration of the
cross-cultural dynamics of the colleges
with her publication China and the Christian
Colleges, 1850 to 1950 (Cornell Univ. Press,
1971). The diverse essays in this volume
represent an excellent contribution to
the ongoing study of their cross-cultural
impact, both in China and in the United
States.
Marvin D. Hoff

baggage of manifest destiny. Personally,

I believe that it subtly continued to be
present throughout the 126 years of the
mission, especially seen in the resistance
to more integration. I agree that, in the
light of hindsight and of new missiological perspectives, Arnolds study reveals
clear mistakes made and lessons to be
learned.
This book is a treasure for all of us
whose stories are intertwined with the
history of Brazilian Presbyterianism. It
elucidates the dynamics and tensions of

the former northern and southern

streams and the reunited PC(USA) and
of the three Presbyterian denominations
in Brazil with whom we have worked.
Furthermore, it shows how partnerships
have now replaced parallel structures as
a way of doing mission together.
Sherron K. George
Sherron K. George is Liaison and Theological
Education Consultant for South America for the
Presbyterian Church (USA). She has resided in
Brazil as a mission worker since 1972.

Marvin D. Hoff retired in December 2006 after

serving for twenty-nine years as Executive Director
of the Foundation for Theological Education in
South East Asia.

Long Road to Obsolescence: A

North American Mission to Brazil.
By Frank L. Arnold. Bloomington, Ind.:
Xlibris, 2009. Pp. 232. Paperback $19.99.
Frank Arnold, the last general secretary of
the Presbyterian Mission in Brazil, served
with his wife, Hope, for thirty-three years
as Presbyterian mission workers. He offers
a case study of the mission structures of
Presbyterian denominations from the
United States over a period of 126 years,
beginning with the arrival of Ashbel
Green Simonton on August 12, 1859, until
the formal dissolution of the mission on
December 31, 1985. It is a valuable, concise
account.
In his book Arnold wishes to raise
critical missiological, cross-cultural questions about structures and relationships:
How does one define maturity? Was
the obsolescence of foreign mission
structures truly an intentional goal of the
missionaries? Was an autonomous parallel
structure the right option over against
(partial) integration? Could and should
the dissolution have happened sooner? He
even tackles the issue of manifest destiny
and the degree to which it affected the
pioneer missionaries.
Arnolds answers are based on
primary documents and personal participation in the final negotiations of the
dismantling of the mission structures, as
well as secondary documents. I laud my
colleague for wrestling with these issues
with openness and transparency and for
admitting the influence of the cultural
October 2009

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225

Dissertation Notices
(Left to right) John W. Spaeth, Treasurer, the Rt. Rev'd Andrew D. Smith,
President, the Rev'd Erl G. Purnell,
Vice President.

Church
Missions
Publishing
Company
A Granting Agency of the
Episcopal Diocese of
Connecticut
Founded in 1891, the Church
Missions Publishing Company
entertains proposals which encourage the worldwide missionary
activity of the Episcopal Church as
part of the Anglican Communion.
CMPC supports the publication
and/or distribution of Christian
materials (in print or other media)
that foster and extend the ministry
of the Episcopal Church, and
encourage conversation and mutual understanding between Christianity and other world religions.
Grants rarely exceed US$5,000.
The Board of Managers only considers applications which adhere
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which demonstrate respect for
the dignity of every human being.
This Policy Statement and an application may be found at http://
www.cmpc-grants.org or e-mail
[email protected] for more
information.

226

Adoyo, Priscilla Anyango.

The Application of Biblical Principles
of Conflict Transformation in EthnoReligious Situations in Jos and
Kaduna, Nigeria.
D.Miss. Pasadena, Calif.: Fuller Theological
Seminary, 2008.

Koeshall, Anita Louise.

Toward a Theory of Dynamic
Asymmetry and Redeemed Power:
A Case Study of Reflexive Agents in
German Pentecostal Churches.
Ph.D. Pasadena, Calif.: Fuller Theological
Seminary, 2008.

Chi, Duk Jin.

Rethinking the Concept of Diakonia
for the Korean Immigrant Church in
Brazil.
D.Miss. Pasadena, Calif.: Fuller Theological
Seminary, 2008.

Krayer, Patrick Edwin.

Gender in Pashtun and Pauline
Communities: Insights for
Development Workers.
Ph.D. Pasadena, Calif.: Fuller Theological
Seminary, 2008.

Choi-Kim, Grace.
Congregation as a Healing
Community: A Framework of a
Systemic Approach to Christian
Education for Korean American
Women.
Ph.D. Evanston, Ill.: Garrett-Evangelical
Theological Seminary, 2009.

Lawanson, Tesilimi Aderemi.

Exploring Organizational
Performance: A Case Study of Four
Christian Organizations in Nigeria.
Ph.D. Pasadena, Calif.: Fuller Theological
Seminary, 2007.

The IBMR can list only a small sample of recent

dissertations. For OMSCs free online database
of nearly 6,100 dissertations in English, compiled in cooperation with Yale Divinity School
Library, go to www.internationalbulletin.org/
resources.
Elefson, Todd Philip.
Negotiation for Allahs Blessing
(Baraka, Berkah): An Ethnography of
Socio-Religio-Political Power Among
Males in the Santri Islam Region of
Demak, Java.
Ph.D. Pasadena, Calif.: Fuller Theological
Seminary, 2008.
Im, Jong Pyo.
Incarnational Bonding Process in
Relation to Effectiveness of CrossCultural Adjustment Through FieldBased Training Model for Korean
Missionaries.
Ph.D. Pasadena, Calif.: Fuller Theological
Seminary, 2008.

Lim, Ah Kie.
Holistic Member Care of YWAM
National Cross-Cultural Workers in the
Context of India.
Ph.D. Pasadena, Calif.: Fuller Theological
Seminary, 2007.
Lyu, Jaesang.
Marginality and Coping: Communal
Contextual Narrative Approach to
Pastoral Care with Korean American
Christians.
Ph.D. Denver: Univ. of Denver and Iliff
School of Theology, Joint Doctoral Program,
2009.
Mamo, Ermias Guisha.
Knowing God in Ritual Context in
Special Reference to the Hamar People
of Southwest Ethiopia.
Ph.D. Pasadena, Calif.: Fuller Theological
Seminary, 2008.
Mathew, Samuel.
Issues Facing Missiological Formation
for Mission in India.
Ph.D. Pasadena, Calif.: Fuller Theological
Seminary, 2007.

Kawamura, Steve Akio.

Toward the Design of Contextualized
Resources for Cross-Cultural
Communication by Japanese Brazilian
Evangelicals in Japan.
D.Miss. Pasadena, Calif.: Fuller Theological
Seminary, 2007.

Meme, D. Kinoti.
The Missing Piece in Peacebuilding:
The Role of the Church in Interethnic
Relations in the Twenty-first-Century
City.
Ph.D. Pasadena, Calif.: Fuller Theological
Seminary, 2008.

Kim, Shin.
Christianity and Korean Nationalism,
18841945: A Missiological
Perspective.
D.Miss. Pasadena, Calif.: Fuller Theological
Seminary, 2008.

Muller, Jay Whitaker.

Isa the Healer: Inner Healing and
Deliverance in Sundanese Insider
Ministry.
Ph.D. Pasadena, Calif.: Fuller Theological
Seminary, 2008.

International Bulletin of Missionary Research, Vol. 33, No. 4

Mutambara, Maaraidzo Elizabeth.

Towards a Land Conservation
Ethic in Zimbabwe: An Ethical and
Religio-Cultural Analysis of Land
Conservation Policies and Practice in
Communal Areas.
Ph.D. Denver: Univ. of Denver and Iliff
School of Theology, Joint Doctoral Program,
2008.
Nieto, Adriana Pilar.
From Black-Eyed Girls to the
MMUMujeres Metodistas Unidas:
Race, Religion, and Gender in the
Borderlands.
Ph.D. Denver: Univ. of Denver and Iliff
School of Theology, Joint Doctoral Program,
2009.
Redford, Shawn Barrett.
Constructing a Biblically Informed
and Spiritually Grounded
Missiological Hermeneutic: In Search
of Grace-Filled Mission Practice.
Ph.D. Pasadena, Calif.: Fuller Theological
Seminary, 2007.
Stache, Kristine Marie.
Feminist Theology and Missional
Church: An Exploration into
the Doctrine of the Trinity
and Its Understanding in Four
Denominations.
Ph.D. St. Paul, Minn.: Luther Seminary,
2008.
Swanson, Rosanne Amnell.
Who Am I Now That I Am Not
Who I Was? Cultural Uprootedness,
Dynamics of Faith, and the Re-making
of Self in Oromo Christian Women.
Ph.D. St. Paul, Minn.: Luther Seminary,
2008.
Taylor, Thomas F.
The Supreme Court and Religion
in Public Grade Schools: Framing a
Christian Response.
Ph.D. Pasadena, Calif.: Fuller Theological
Seminary, 2008.
Villacorta, Wilmer Guillermo.
Unmasking Machismo: From
Malleability to Transformation of
Andean Pentecostal Leaders in Central
Peru.
Ph.D. Pasadena, Calif.: Fuller Theological
Seminary, 2008.
Watts, Steven Richard.
From Failed State to Functioning
Society: The Role of Corporate
Citizenship and Community
Collaboration in Fighting Poverty and
Corruption; A Study of Exxonmobil
and Chad.
Ph.D. Pasadena, Calif.: Fuller Theological
Seminary, 2007.

October 2009

West, Amy Carolyn.

Response to Death: The Powerful
Influence of Assumptions,
Relationships, and Ritual on
the Balangao Christians in the
Philippines.
Ph.D. Pasadena, Calif.: Fuller Theological
Seminary, 2007.

Williams, W. Vaden.
Tsunami, Thai Cultural Themes, and
Christian Values.
Ph.D. Pasadena, Calif.: Fuller Theological
Seminary, 2009.
Zahnd, Derek Allan.
The One and the Many:
Globalization, Leadership, and
Trinitarian Ecclesiology in Sonora,
Mexico, in Dialogue.
Ph.D. Pasadena, Calif.: Fuller Theological
Seminary, 2008.

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227

International Bulletin of
Missionary Research
IndexVolume 33

January through October 2009

(pp. 156 are in the January issue;
pp. 57112 in April; pp. 11368 in July;
and pp. 169232 in October)

Articles
Africa and the Christian Mission [editorial], by Jonathan J. Bonk,
33:5758
Anglicans and Reconciling Mission: An Assessment of Two Anglican
International Gatherings, by Mark Oxbrow, 33:810
ARIS Reports U.S. Roman Catholic Population Shift to Southwest,
33:184
Bill Burrows Retires from Orbis Books, 33:82
Christian Mission and the End of Time [editorial], by Jonathan J.
Bonk, 33:11314
Christian World Communions: Five Overviews of Global Christianity,
AD 18002025, by David B. Barrett, Todd M. Johnson, and Peter F.
Crossing, 33:2532
Church Communions and Mission [editorial], by Jonathan J. Bonk,
33:12
The Church in Nepal: Analysis of Its Gestation and Growth, by John
Barclay, 33:18994
The Church, the Urban, and the Global: Mission in an Age of Global
Cities, by Dale T. Irvin, 33:17782
The Computer Revolution and Its Impact on Evangelical Mission
Research and Strategy, by Michael Jaffarian, 33:3337
David Bosch: South African Context, Universal MissiologyEcclesiology in the Emerging Missionary Paradigm, by Timothy Yates,
33:7278
Declaration on Creation Stewardship and Climate Change, by Micah
Network Fourth Triennial Global Consultation, Limuru, Kenya, July
17, 2009, 33:18284
Dictionary of African Christian Biography, 33:86
Equipping for Gods Mission: The Missiological Vision of the 2008 Lambeth Conference of Anglican Bishops, by Ian T. Douglas, 33:36
Eschatology and Mission: A Jewish Missions Perspective, by Susan
Perlman, 33:12428
Four Conferences to Commemorate Edinburgh 1910, 33:118
Ignace Partui: Iroquois Evangelist to the Salish, ca. 17801837, by John
C. Mellis, 33:21215
The Impact of the Sexuality Controversy on Mission: The Case of the
Episcopal Church in the Anglican Communion, by Titus Presler,
33:1118
The Implications of Christian Zionism for Mission, by Andrew F.
Bush, 33:14450
The Influence of Premillennial Eschatology on Evangelical Missionary
Theory and Praxis from the Late Nineteenth Century to the Present,
by Michael Pocock, 33:12936
International Association of Catholic Missiologists: Third Plenary
Assembly, Pienino, Poland, 33:10

The International Impact of the Formation of the Church of South

India: Bishop Newbigin Versus the Anglican Fathers, by Mark
Laing, 33:1824
Ivan Illich and the American Catholic Missionary Initiative in Latin
America, by Todd Hartch, 33:18588
Jesus Imandars and Christ Bhaktas: Report from Two Field Studies of
Interreligious Hermeneutics and Identity in Globalized Christianity,
by Jonas Adelin Jrgensen, 33:17176
Last Things: The Eschatological Dimensions of the Church, by Edward
Rommen, 33:11518
The Legacy of Franz Mayr, by Clemens U. Gtl, 33:8891
The Legacy of Vincent J. McCauley, by Richard Gribble, 33:9295
The Legacy of Philip Beach Sullivan, by Jessie G. Lutz, 33:2014
Making Friends with Locusts: Early ABCFM Missionary Perceptions of
Muslims and Islam, 181850, by John Hubers, 33:15154
Mission to Nowhere: Putting Short-Term Missions into Context, by
Brian M. Howell, 33:20611
Muslims and Christians: Eschatology and Mission, by David W.
Shenk, 33:12023
My Pilgrimage in Mission, by David Dong-Jin Cho, 33:19598
My Pilgrimage in Mission, by Harold Kurtz, 33:8386
My Pilgrimage in Mission, by Lawrence Nemer, 33:3941
Noteworthy, 33:1415, 7475, 14647, 2089
Obstinate Pastor and Pioneer Historian: The Impact of Basel Mission
Ideology on the Thought of Carl Christian Reindorf, by Heinz
Hauser-Renner, 33:6570
Premillennial Theology, Christian Zionism, and Christian Mission, by
Colin Chapman, 33:13744
Ralph Winter, 19242009 [obituary], by Paul E. Pierson, 33:19697
Rejoicing in Hope: A Tribute to Kosuke Koyama [obituary], by
Dale T. Irvin and Akintunde E. Akinade, 33:13839
Remembering Evangelization: The Option for the Poor and Mission
History, by Paul V. Kollman, 33:5965
The Roman Catholic Churchs Southward Shift, 33:38
Syncretism and the Eternal Word [editorial], by Jonathan J. Bonk,
33:16970
Thirty Books That Most Influenced My Understanding of Christian
Mission, by Gerald H. Anderson, 33:200201
U.S. Catholic Missioners: More Laity, Greater Focus on North America,
33:24
What Happened Next? Vincent Donovan, Thirty-five Years On, by
John P. Bowen, 33:7982

Contributors of Articles
Akinade, Akintunde E. See Irvin, Dale T., and Akintunde E. Akinade
Anderson, Gerald H., Thirty Books That Most Influenced My Understanding of Christian Mission, 33:200201
Barclay, John, The Church in Nepal: Analysis of Its Gestation and
Growth, 33:18994
Barrett, David B., Todd M. Johnson, and Peter F. Crossing, Christian
World Communions: Five Overviews of Global Christianity, AD
18002025, 33:2532
228

Bonk, Jonathan J., Africa and the Christian Mission [editorial],

33:5758
, Christian Mission and the End of Time [editorial], 33:11314
, Church Communions and Mission [editorial], 33:12
,Syncretism and the Eternal Word [editorial], 33:16970
Bowen, John P., What Happened Next? Vincent Donovan, Thirty-five
Years On, 33:7982

International Bulletin of Missionary Research, Vol. 33, No. 4

Bush, Andrew F., The Implications of Christian Zionism for Mission,

33:14450
Chapman, Colin, Premillennial Theology, Christian Zionism, and
Christian Mission, 33:13744
Cho, David Dong-Jin, My Pilgrimage in Mission, 33:19598
Crossing, Peter F. See Barrett, David B.
Douglas, Ian T., Equipping for Gods Mission: The Missiological Vision
of the 2008 Lambeth Conference of Anglican Bishops, 33:36
Gribble, Richard, The Legacy of Vincent J. McCauley, 33:9295
Gtl, Clemens U., The Legacy of Franz Mayr, 33:8891
Hartch, Todd, Ivan Illich and the American Catholic Missionary Initiative in Latin America, 33:18588
Hauser-Renner, Heinz, Obstinate Pastor and Pioneer Historian: The
Impact of Basel Mission Ideology on the Thought of Carl Christian
Reindorf, 33:6570
Howell, Brian M., Mission to Nowhere: Putting Short-Term Missions
into Context, 33:20611
Hubers, John, Making Friends with Locusts: Early ABCFM Missionary
Perceptions of Muslims and Islam, 181850, 33:15154
Irvin, Dale T., The Church, the Urban, and the Global: Mission in an
Age of Global Cities, 33:17782
Irvin, Dale T., and Akintunde E. Akinade, Rejoicing in Hope: A Tribute
to Kosuke Koyama [obituary], 33:13839
Jaffarian, Michael, The Computer Revolution and Its Impact on Evangelical Mission Research and Strategy, 33:3337
Johnson, Todd M. See Barrett, David B.
Jrgensen, Jonas Adelin, Jesus Imandars and Christ Bhaktas: Report
from Two Field Studies of Interreligious Hermeneutics and Identity
in Globalized Christianity, 33:17176
Kollman, Paul V., Remembering Evangelization: The Option for the
Poor and Mission History, 33:5965

Kurtz, Harold, My Pilgrimage in Mission, 33:8386

Laing, Mark, The International Impact of the Formation of the Church
of South India: Bishop Newbigin Versus the Anglican Fathers,
33:1824
Lutz, Jessie G., The Legacy of Philip Beach Sullivan, 33:201-4
Mellis, John C., Ignace Partui: Iroquois Evangelist to the Salish, ca.
17801837, 33:21215
Micah Network Fourth Triennial Global Consultation, Limuru, Kenya,
July 17, 2009, Declaration on Creation Stewardship and Climate
Change, 33:18284
Nemer, Lawrence, My Pilgrimage in Mission, 33:3941
Oxbrow, Mark, Anglicans and Reconciling Mission: An Assessment of
Two Anglican International Gatherings, 33:810
Perlman, Susan, Eschatology and Mission: A Jewish Missions Perspective, 33:12428
Pierson, Paul E., Ralph Winter, 19242009 [obituary], 33:19697
Pocock, Michael, The Influence of Premillennial Eschatology on Evangelical Missionary Theory and Praxis from the Late Nineteenth Century
to the Present, 33:12936
Presler, Titus, The Impact of the Sexuality Controversy on Mission:
The Case of the Episcopal Church in the Anglican Communion,
33:1118
Rommen, Edward, Last Things: The Eschatological Dimensions of the
Church, 33:11518
Shenk, David W., Muslims and Christians: Eschatology and Mission,
33:12023
Yates, Timothy, David Bosch: South African Context, Universal MissiologyEcclesiology in the Emerging Missionary Paradigm,
33:7278

Books Reviewed
Anderson, Emma, The Betrayal of Faith: The Tragic Journey of a Colonial
Native Convert, 33:1067
Aritonang, Jan Sihar, and Karel Steenbrink, eds., A History of Christianity
in Indonesia, 33:22021
Arnold, Frank L., Long Road to Obsolescence: A North American Mission
to Brazil, 33:225
Bauman, Chad M., Christian Identity and Dalit Religion in Hindu India,
18681947, 33:105
Bays, Daniel H., and Ellen Widmer, eds., Chinas Christian Colleges: CrossCultural Connections, 19001950, 33:22425
Becker, Marc. See Clark, A. Kim
Bergunder, Michael, The South Indian Pentecostal Movement in the Twentieth
Century, 33:1012
Clark, A. Kim, and Marc Becker, eds., Highland Indians and the State in
Modern Ecuador, 33:5051
Daneel, M. L., All Things Hold Together: Holistic Theologies at the African
Grassroots; Selected Essays by M. L. Daneel, 33:99100, 108
Daughrity, Dyron B., Bishop Stephen Neill: From Edinburgh to South India,
33:4950
Delgado, Mariano. See Koschorke, Klaus
Franzn, Ruth, Ruth Rouse Among Students: Global, Missiological, and
Ecumenical Perspectives, 33:1034
Frykenberg, Robert Eric, Christianity in India: From Beginnings to the
Present, 33:15556
Gabra, Gawdat, and Gertrud J. M. van Loon, with Darlene L. Brooks
Hedstrom; edited by Carolyn Ludwig, The Churches of Egypt: From
the Journey of the Holy Family to the Present Day, 33:53
Groop, Kim, With the Gospel to Maasailand: Lutheran Mission Work Among
the Arusha and Maasai in Northern Tanzania, 19041973, 33:1023
Grypma, Sonya, Healing Henan: Canadian Nurses at the North China Mission, 18881947, 33:45
Hanciles, Jehu J., Beyond Christendom: Globalization, African Migration,
and the Transformation of the West, 33:9697
Harding, Christopher, Religious Transformation in South Asia: The Meanings
of Conversion in Colonial Punjab, 33:161
Harrison, K. David, When Languages Die: The Extinction of the Worlds
Languages and the Erosion of Human Knowledge, 33:16162
Hedstrom, Darlene L. Brooks. See Gabra, Gawdat
October 2009

Huang, Paulos, Confronting Confucian Understandings of the Christian

Doctrine of Salvation: A Systematic Theological Analysis of the Basic
Problems in the Confucian-Christian Dialogue, 33:222
Jaenike, William F., Black Robes in Paraguay: The Success of the Guaran
Missions Hastened the Abolition of the Jesuits, 33:48
Jenkins, Philip, The Lost History of Christianity: The Thousand-Year Golden
Age of the Church in the Middle East, Africa, and Asiaand How It Died,
33:15859
Jeyaraj, Daniel, Robert W. Pazmio, and Rodney L. Petersen, eds., Antioch Agenda: Essays on the Restorative Church in Honor of Orlando E.
Costas, 33:4445
Joseph, Suad, ed., Encyclopedia of Women and Islamic Cultures. Vol. 6:
Supplement and Index, 33:100101
Kalu, Ogbu U., African Pentecostalism: An Introduction, 33:46
, Clio in a Sacred Garb: Essays on Christian Presence and African
Responses, 19002000, 33:5253
, ed., Interpreting Contemporary Christianity: Global Processes and
Local Identities, 33:110
Kim, Sebastian C. H., ed., Christian Theology in Asia, 33:165
Koschorke, Klaus, Frieder Ludwig, and Mariano Delgado, eds., in cooperation with Roland Spliesgart, A History of Christianity in Asia, Africa,
and Latin America, 14501990: A Documentary Sourcebook, 33:43
Kraft, Charles H., Worldview for Christian Witness, 33:156
Lara, Jaime, Christian Texts for Aztecs: Art and Liturgy in Colonial Mexico,
33:96
Levitt, Peggy, God Needs No Passport: Immigrants and the Changing American
Religious Landscape, 33:1078
Li, Jieren, In Search of the Via Media Between Christ and Marx: A Study of
Bishop Ding Guangxuns Contextual Theology, 33:16465
Liebau, Heike, Die indischen Mitarbeiter der Tranquebarmission (17061845):
Katecheten, Schulmeister, bersetzer, 33:22122
Linden, Ian, Global Catholicism: Diversity and Change Since Vatican II,
33:160
Loon, Gertrud J. M. van. See Gabra, Gawdat
Ludwig, Carolyn. See Gabra, Gawdat
Ludwig, Frieder. See Koschorke, Klaus
Lutz, Jessie Gregory, Opening China: Karl F. A. Gtzlaff and Sino-Western
Relations, 18271852, 33:4243
229

Makdisi, Ussama Samir, Artillery of Heaven: American Missionaries and

the Failed Conversion of the Middle East, 33:15758
Malek, Roman, ed., The Chinese Face of Jesus Christ: Contemporary Faces
and Images of Jesus Christ. Vol. 3B, 33:10910
Matthey, Jacques, ed., Come Holy Spirit, Heal and Reconcile! Called in Christ
to Be Reconciling and Healing Communities, 33:160
Musk, Bill, The Certainty Trap: Can Christians and Muslims Afford the Luxury
of Fundamentalism? 33:9899
Netland, Harold. See Yandell, Keith
Noll, Mark A., The New Shape of World Christianity: How American Experience Reflects Global Faith, 33:21819
OShea, Stephen, Sea of Faith: Islam and Christianity in the Medieval Mediterranean World, 33:4849
Pachuau, Lalsangkima. See Stackhouse, Max L.
Pazmio, Robert W. See Jeyaraj, Daniel
Petersen, Rodney L. See Jeyaraj, Daniel
Piwowarczyk, Darius J., Coming out of the Iron Cage: The Indigenists of
the Society of the Divine Word in Paraguay, 19102000, 33:1045
Ramachandra, Vinoth, Subverting Global Myths: Theology and the Public
Issues Shaping Our World, 33:16263
Robert, Dana L., Christian Mission: How Christianity Became a World
Religion, 33:21617
, ed., Converting Colonialism: Visions and Realities in Mission History, 17061914, 33:44
Ross, Cathy. See Walls, Andrew F.
Salters, Audrey, ed., Bound with Love: Letters Home from China, 19351945,
33:106
Sanneh, Lamin, Translating the Message: The Missionary Impact on Culture,
33:42
Seat, Karen K., Providence Has Freed Our Hands: Womens Missions and
the American Encounter with Japan, 33:47

Sharkey, Heather J., American Evangelicals in Egypt: Missionary Encounters

in an Age of Empire, 33:15960
Spliesgart, Roland. See Koschorke, Klaus
Stackhouse, Max L., and Lalsangkima Pachuau, eds., News of Boundless
Riches: Interrogating, Comparing, and Reconstructing Mission in a Global
Era, 33:5152
Stanley, Brian, The World Missionary Conference, Edinburgh 1910, 33:216
Steenbrink, Karel. See Aritonang, Jan Sihar
Stott, John, The Living Church: Convictions of a Lifelong Pastor, 33:100
Strong, Rowan, Anglicanism and the British Empire, c. 17001850,
33:16364
Svelmoe, William Lawrence, A New Vision for Missions: William Cameron
Townsend, the Wycliffe Bible Translators, and the Culture of Early Evangelical Faith Missions, 18961945, 33:1089
Tan, Jonathan Y., Introducing Asian American Theologies, 33:15657
Tizon, Al, Transformation After Lausanne: Radical Evangelical Mission in
Global-Local Perspective, 33:21718
Wakerley, Vronique. See Roberts, R. S.
Walls, Andrew F., and Cathy Ross, eds., Mission in the Twenty-first Century:
Exploring the Five Marks of Global Mission, 33:9798
Wang, Peter Chen-main, ed., Contextualization of Christianity in China:
An Evaluation in Modern Perspective, 33:4647
Ward, Haruko Nawata, Women Religious Leaders in Japans Christian
Century, 15491650, 33:22324
Widmer, Ellen. See Bays, Daniel H.
Wild-Wood, Emma, Migration and Christian Identity in Congo (DRC),
33:22223
Yandell, Keith, and Harold Netland, Buddhism: A Christian Exploration
and Appraisal, 33:218
Zahniser, A. H. Mathias, The Mission and Death of Jesus in Islam and
Christianity, 33:21920

Reviewers of Books
Akinade, Akintunde E., 33:9899
Amaladoss, Michael, 33:161
Anderson, Allan Heaton, 33:46
Asamoah-Gyadu, J. Kwabena, 33:5253,
160
Athyal, Jesudas M., 33:1012
Baker, Dwight P., 33:21718
Baker, Mark D., 33:9798
Ballhatchet, Helen, 33:47, 22324
Bohr, P. Richard, 33:4647
Chan, Mark L. Y., 33:165
Chapman, Colin, 33:4849
Chia, Edmund, 33:15657
Curtis, Heather D., 33:21819
Deans-Smith, Susan, 33:96
Escobar, Samuel, 33:5051
Essamuah, Casely B., 33:100
Farhadian, Charles E., 33:22021
Frykenberg, Robert Eric, 33:42
George, Sherron K., 33:225
Gewurtz, Margo S., 33:21617
Grant, Paul, 33:22122
Grundmann, Christoffer H., 33:45

Whats New at OMSC?

For the latest, go online to:
www.OMSC.org/notices

Linked there you will find information on

public lectures, an audio library, the latest
Hearth newsletter, art books for sale by
OMSC Publications, and more.

230

Hanciles, Jehu J., 33:15859

Hartch, Todd, 33:1089
Hedlund, Roger E., 33:16263
Hillman, Eugene, 33:1023
Hoff, Marvin D., 33:22425
Jeyaraj, Daniel, 33:43
Johnston, David L., 33:15758
Johnston, Geoff, 33:222
Kalu, Ogbu U., 33:44
Kohler, Girard, 33:1023
Lingenfelter, Sherwood G., 33:110
Lodwick, Kathleen L., 33:4243
MacLeod, A. Donald, 33:1034
Mellis, John C., 33:1067
Muck, Terry C., 33:218
Norris, Frederick W., 33:53
Pocock, Michael, 33:48
Porter, Andrew, 33:16364
Rivera-Pagn, Luis N., 33:1045
Ross, Kenneth R., 33:9697
Ruden, Sarah, 33:108
Schreiter, Robert, 33:160
Schroeder, Roger, 33:5152

Seton, Rosemary, 33:106

Sharkey, Heather J., 33:100101
Singh, David Emmanuel, 33:21920
Skreslet, Stanley H., 33:15960
Staples, Russell L., 33:99100
Van Engen, Charles, 33:1078
Vellut, Jean-Luc, 33;22223
Ward, Kevin, 33:216
Watters, John R., 33:16162
Webster, John C. B., 33:105, 15556
Whiteman, Darrell L., 33:156
Wickeri, Philip L., 33:16465
Wiest, Jean-Paul, 33:10910
Yates, Timothy E., 33:4950
Yeh, Allen, 33:4445

Other
Book Notes, 33:56, 112, 168, 232
Dissertation Notices, 33:54, 166, 22627
Fifteen Outstanding Books of 2008 for Mission Studies, 33:97

Light in the East: Art Rental Exhibition

Featuring the artwork of prominent Asian Christian artists and former OMSC artists
in residence, the exhibition features framed works in various painting and print media.
These images interpret the timeless Gospel story as seen from the East in a striking and
contemporary visual manner. The rental is available for $300 for exhibitions lasting from
four to six weeks. The art work, packed in custom shipping crates for safe transport, may
be viewed at www.OMSC.org/art. For more information, contact Sam Sigg, artist liaison,
at (203) 285-1575 or e-mail him at [email protected].

International Bulletin of Missionary Research, Vol. 33, No. 4

Renewal for Mission in the 21st Century

Seminars for International Church Leaders, Missionaries, Mission
Executives, Pastors, Educators, Students, and Lay Leaders

2010 Student Seminars on World Mission

. . . so that by all possible means I might save some (1 Cor. 9 22)
Ways and Means of Christian Mission

womens experience of the church, African culture, Christology, power,

and decision making. Cosponsored by United Methodist General Board
of Global Ministries.

Student-focused seminars on the Christian world mission cosponsored by 30 seminaries. Reduced rates for students from cosponsoring
schools and mission agencies. Schools offer students credit for one,
two, or three weeks. To register, visit www.OMSC.org/january.

March 2226
Whole Gospel, Whole World, Whole Person. Dr. F. Albert Al
Tizon, Palmer Theological Seminary, Wynnewood, Pennsylvania, provides an overview of the history, theology, and spirituality of the holistic missionary movement among evangelicals since Lausanne 1974.
Participants will become better equipped to engage their own contexts
with the full implications of the Gospel. Cosponsored by Evangelical
Covenant Department of World Mission.

January 1115
Viewing the Atonement Through a New Lens. Dr. Mark Baker,
Mennonite Brethren Biblical Seminary, Fresno, California, uses experience in a Tegucigalpa barrio as a lens to help missionaries view
the atonement with new eyes.
January 1822
The Gospel and Our Cultures: Postcolonial Anthropology for
Mission in a Globalizing World. Dr. Michael Rynkiewich, professor of anthropology, Asbury Theological Seminary, Wilmore, Kentucky, introduces the contributions an anthropological perspective
offers for missionary practice. Cosponsored by United Methodist
General Board of Global Ministries.
January 2529
Ethnicity as Gift and Barrier: Human Identity and Christian
Mission. Dr. Tite Tinou, dean, Trinity Evangelical Divinity
School, Deerfield, Illinois, works from first-hand experience in
Africa to identify the tribal issues faced by the global church
in mission. Cosponsored by Black Rock Congregational Church
(Fairfield, Connecticut).
February 2226
Digital Video and Global Christianity. Dr. James M. Ault, James Ault
Productions, Northampton, Massachusetts, in a practical workshop,
covers how to use digital video to portray the life of faith in community.
March 15
Christian Faith and the Muslim World. Dr. Charles Amjad-Ali,
Martin Luther King Jr. professor for justice and Christian community,
Luther Seminary, St. Paul, Minnesota, examines contemporary Christian-Muslim tensions in the light of Islamic philosophy and jurisprudence. Cosponsored by First Presbyterian Church (New Haven).
March 1519
Gender and Power in African Christianity. Dr. Philomena Njeri
Mwaura, senior lecturer in philosophy and religious studies, Kenyatta
University, Nairobi, Kenya, and OMSC senior mission scholar in
residence, will draw on the writings of African women theologians
to discuss key themes in African Christianityfor example, the Bible,

April 1316
Incarnational Mission in a Troubled World. Dr. Jonathan J. Bonk,
OMSCs executive director, examines theological and ethical implications of violence, poverty, migration, and religion as contexts for Christian life and witness. Cosponsored by Park Street Church (Boston) and
Wycliffe International. Four morning sessions. $145
April 1923
Models of Leadership in Mission. Rev. George Kovoor, Trinity
College, Bristol, United Kingdom, brings wide ecclesiastical and international experience to evaluation of differing models of leadership
for mission. Cosponsored by Lutheran ChurchMissouri Synod World
Mission, and Wycliffe International.
April 2630
Music and Mission. Dr. James Krabill, Mennonite Mission Network,
builds upon insights from musicology and two decades of missionary
experience in West Africa to unfold the dynamic role of music in mission. Cosponsored by Mennonite Central Committee and Mennonite
Mission Network.
May 37
Personal Renewal in the Missionary Community. Rev. Stanley W.
Green, Mennonite Mission Network, and Dr. Christine Sine, Mustard Seed
Associates, blend classroom instruction and one-on-one sessions to offer
counsel and spiritual direction for Christian workers. Cosponsored by the
Baptist Convention of New England and Mennonite Mission Network.
Unless noted, the seminars are eight sessions for $175. More informationincluding directions and a registration formmay be found
online at www.OMSC.org/seminars.

OVERSEAS MINISTRIES STUDY CENTER

490 Prospect Street, New Haven, CT 06511
(203) 285-1565
[email protected]

Book Notes
Ariarajah, S. Wesley.
We Live by His Gifts: D. T. NilesPreacher, Teacher, and Ecumenist;
A Personal Account.
Colombo, Sri Lanka: Ecumenical Institute for Study and Dialogue, 2009. Pp. xix, 169.
Paperback. $10.
Camara, Dom Helder.
Dom Helder Camara: Essential Writings. Selected, with an Introduction by
Francis McDonagh.
Maryknoll, N.Y.: Orbis Books, 2009. Pp. 189. Paperback $16.
Darch, John H.
Missionary Imperialists? Missionaries, Government, and the Growth of the
British Empire in the Tropics, 18601885.
Bletchley, Milton Keynes, Eng.: Paternoster Press, 2009. Pp. xxii, 279. Paperback 24.99
/ $39.99.
Gallagher, Robert L., and Paul Hertig, eds.
Landmark Essays in Mission and World Christianity.
Maryknoll, N.Y.: Orbis Books, 2009. Pp. xiii, 272. $35.
Heim, Joseph A., ed.
What They Taught Us: How Maryknoll Missioners Were Evangelized by the
Poor.
Maryknoll, N.Y.: Orbis Books, 2009. Pp. 126. Paperback $15.
Howell, Brian M., and Edwin Zehner, eds.
Power and Identity in the Global Church: Six Contemporary Cases.
Pasadena, Calif.: William Carey Library, 2009. Pp. vi, 245. Paperback $16.99.

In Coming
Issues
From the Poor Heathen to the
Glory and Honour of All Nations:
Vocabularies of Race and Custom
in Protestant Missions, 18441928
Brian Stanley
The State of Mission Studies in
India: An Overview and Assessment
of Publications and Publishing
Siga Arles
Religious Conversion in the
Americas: Meanings, Measures,
and Methods
Timothy J. Steigenga
Mother-Tongue Translations and
Contextualization in Latin America
William E. Bivin
U.S. Megachurches and New
Patterns of Global Ministry
Robert J. Priest
The Missiology of Old Testament
Covenant
Stuart J. Foster

Kerr, Nathan.
Christ, History, and Apocalyptic: The Politics of Christian Mission.
Eugene, Ore.: Wipf & Stock, Cascade Books, 2009. Pp. xv, 206. Paperback $28.

Lesslie Newbigins Missionary

Encounter with the Enlightenment,
197598
Timothy Yates

Kriel, Lize.
The Malaboch Books: Kgalui in the Civilisation of the Written Word.
Stuttgart: Franz Seiner Verlag, 2009. Pp. 377. Paperback 54 / $87 / SFr 91.80.

Not Yet There: Seminaries and the

Challenge of Partnership
Leon P. Spencer

Meja, Markina, with foreword by E. Paul Balisky.

Unbroken Covenant with God: An Autobiography in the Context of the
Wolaitta Kale Heywet Church, Ethiopia.
Belleville, Ont.: Guardian Books, 2008. Pp. 239. Paperback $15.

In our Series on the Legacy of

Outstanding Missionary Figures
of the Nineteenth and Twentieth
Centuries, articles about
Thomas Barclay
George Bowen
Hlne de Chappotin
Carl Fredrik Hallencreutz
Thomas Patrick Hughes
Hannah Kilham
George Leslie Mackay
Lesslie Newbigin
Constance Padwick
Peter Parker
James Howell Pyke
Pandita Ramabai
George Augustus Selwyn
Bakht Singh
James Stephen
Philip B. Sullivan
James M. Thoburn
M. M. Thomas
Harold W. Turner
Johannes Verkuyl
William Vories

Moon, W. Jay.
African Proverbs Reveal Christianity in Culture: A Narrative Portrayal of
Builsa Proverbs Contextualizing Christianity in Ghana.
Eugene, Ore.: Wipf & Stock, 2009. Pp. xiii, 220. Paperback $26.
Neufeld, Dietmar, ed.
The Social Sciences and Biblical Translation.
Leiden: Brill, 2008. Pp. ix, 188. 80 / $129.
Pelton, Robert S., ed.
Aparecida: Quo Vadis?
Scranton, Pa: Univ. of Scranton Press, 2009. Pp. xii, 229. Paperback $25.
Richardson, Joe M., and Maxine D. Jones.
Education for Liberation: The American Missionary Association and African
Americans, 1890 to the Civil Rights Movement.
Tuscaloosa: Univ. of Alabama Press, 2009. Pp. xix, 287. $49.50.
Tinker, George E. Tink.
American Indian Liberation: A Theology of Sovereignty.
Maryknoll, N.Y.: Orbis Books, 2008. Pp. vi, 170. Paperback $22.