Wireless Information Transmission System Lab.
Spread Spectrum Signal for Digital
Communications
Institute of Communications Engineering
National Sun Yat-sen University
Spread Spectrum Communications
Definition: The transmitted signal must
occupy a bandwidth which is large than
the information bit rate and which is
independent of the information bit rate.
Characteristics
of Spread Spectrum
Communications
Demodulation must be accomplished, in
part, by correlation of the received signal
with a replica of the signal used in the
transmitter to spread the information
signal.
Possess pseudo-randomness, which makes
the signals appear similar to random noise
& difficult to demodulate by receivers
other than the intended ones.
2
Spread Spectrum Communications
Advantages
Jam resistance
Low probability of intercept
Resistance to multi-path fading
Frequency sharing
Channel sharing, soft capacity, soft blocking
Soft handoff
Disadvantages
Self-jamming
Near-far problem
Implementation is more complex
3
Techniques for Spread Spectrum - 1
Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS)
A carrier is modulated by a digital code in which the code
bit rate is much larger than the information signal bit rate.
These systems are also called pseudo-noise systems.
Techniques for Spread Spectrum - 2
Time-hopped Spread Spectrum (THSS)
The transmission time is divided into intervals called
frames. Each frame is divided into time slots. During
each frame, one and only one time slot is modulated with
a message.
Techniques for Spread Spectrum - 3
Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS)
The carrier frequency is shift in discrete increments in a
pattern generated by a code sequence.
Fast-hop: frequency hopping occurs at a rate that is greater
than the message bit rate.
Slow-hop: the hop rate is less than the message bit rate.
Idealized Model of Baseband SpreadSpectrum System (DSSS System)
Transmitter
Channel
Receiver
7
Waveforms in the Transmitter of
DSSS
DSSS Technique in the Passband
- Coherent Binary Phase-Shift Keying
Transmitter
9
DSSS Technique in the Passband
- Coherent Binary Phase-Shift Keying
Receiver
10
Power Spectral Density
11
Power Spectral Density Relative to Narrow
Band Interference (NBI)
12
Power Spectral Density After Despreading
13
Synchronization
For proper operation, a spread-spectrum communication
system requires that the locally generated PN sequence used in
the receiver to despread the received signal be synchronized to
the PN sequence used to spread the transmitted signal in the
transmitter.
A solution to the synchronization problem consists of two
parts: acquisition and tracking.
In acquisition, or coarse synchronization, the two PN codes
are aligned to within a fraction of the chip in as short a time as
possible.
Once the incoming PN code has been acquired, tracking, or
fine synchronization, takes place.
14
Synchronization
Typically, PN acquisition proceeds in two steps:
The received signal is multiplied by a locally generated PN
code to produce a measure of correlation between it and
the PH code used in the transmitter.
An appropriate decision-rule and search strategy is used to
process the measure of correlation so obtained to determine
whether the two codes are in synchronism and what to do if
they are not.
For tracking, it is accomplished using phase-lock
techniques, similar to those used for the local
generation of coherent carrier references.
15
Wireless Information Transmission System Lab.
Orthogonal Codes: Hadamard Codes
Institute of Communications Engineering
National Sun Yat-sen University
Hadamard Codes
Hadamard code is obtained by selecting the rows of a
Hadamard matrix.
A Hadamard matrix Mn is an n x n matrix that any row
differs from any other row in exactly n/2 positions.
0 0
M2 =
0
1
M n M n
M 2n =
M
M
n
n
0 0 0 0
0 1 0 1
M4 =
0 0 1 1
0
1
1
0
M n and M n form a linear
binary code of block length n.
We can generate Hadamard codes with
1
block length n = 2 m , and d min = n = 2 m 1 ,
2
where m is a positive integer.
17
Example of Hadamard Codes
Hadamard Code of Length 8
1
1
1
1
1
1
1 1 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 1 1
18
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
Correlation of Orthogonal Codes
Correlation properties of orthogonal codes are very
sensitive to synchronization.
Orthogonality of OVSF codes (or Hadamard codes) is
achieved when codes are synchronized.
Orthogonality of OVSF codes (or Hadamard codes) may
not be maintained when codes are not synchronized.
19
Orthogonality is achieved when
synchronization is maintained.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
20
Orthogonality is maintained when codes are
not synchronized
1
8
2
3
4
5
21
Orthogonality isnt maintained when codes
are not synchronized
3
4
5
6
7
8
22
Wireless Information Transmission System Lab.
Generation of Pseudo-Noise (PN)
Sequences
Institute of Communications Engineering
National Sun Yat-sen University
Pseudo-Noise Sequences
A pseudo-noise (PN) sequence is a periodic binary sequence
with a noiselike waveform that is usually generated by means of
a feedback shift register.
24
Pseudo-Noise Sequences
A feedback shift register consists of an ordinary shift register
made up of m flip-flop (two-state memory stages) and a logic
circuit that are interconnected to form a feedback circuit.
With a total number of m flip-flops, the number of possible state
of the shift register is at most 2m.
A feedback shift register is said to be linear when the feedback
logic consists entirely of modulo-2 adders.
The all-zero state is not permitted. As a result, the period of a
PN sequence produced by a linear feedback shift register with m
flip-flops cant exceed 2m-1.
When the period is exactly 2m-1, the PN sequence is called a
maximal-length-sequence or simply m-sequence.
25
Properties of Maximal-Length Sequences
In each period of a maximal-length sequence, the number of
1s is always one more than the number of 0s.
Among the runs of 1s and of 0s in each period of a maximallength sequence, one-half the runs of each kind are of length
one, one-fourth are of length two, one-eighth are of length
three, and so on as long as these fractions represent
meaningful numbers of runs.
This property is called the run property.
By a run, we mean a subsequence of identical symbols
(1s or 0s) within one period of the sequence.
Autocorrelation property: the autocorrelation function of a
maximum-length sequence is periodic and binary-valued.
26
Properties of Maximal-Length Sequences
Convert 0 1 and 1-1. Let c(t) denote the resulting
waveform of the maximal-length sequence. The period of the
waveform c(t) is: Tb=NTc, where Tc is the duration assigned to
symbol 1 or 0 and N=2m-1.
The autocorrelation function of a periodic signal c(t) of period
1 Tb / 2
Tb is:
Rc ( ) =
c ( t ) c ( t ) dt
T
/
2
Tb b
27
Properties of Maximal-Length Sequences
The autocorrelation function of the maximal-length sequence is:
N +1
1 NT
c
Rc ( ) =
1
28
Tc
otherwise
Properties of Maximal-Length Sequences
Periodicity in the time domain is transformed into uniform
sampling in the frequency domain.
1
1+ N
n
2 n
Sc ( f ) = 2 ( f ) + 2 sinc f
N
N n=
NTc
N
n0
29
Example of Maximum-Length ShiftRegister Codes
Systematic Code
30
Maximum-Length Shift Register
31
Maximal Length Shift Register (m=5)
32
Maximal Length Shift Register (m=5)
33
Maximal-Length Sequences of ShiftRegister Lengths (2-8)
34
Maximal-Length Sequences of ShiftRegister Lengths (2-34)
Maximum-length shift-register codes exist for any positive value of m.
35
Problems with m-sequence
Problems 1: jammer can determine the feedback
connections by observing only 2m-1 chips from the
PN sequence.
Solution 1: Output sequences from several stages of
the shift register or the outputs from several distinct
m-sequences are combined in a nonlinear sequence
that is considerably more difficult for the jammer to
learn.
Solution 2: Frequently changing the feedback
connections and/or the number of stages in the shift
registers.
36
Problems with m-sequence
Problem 2: periodic cross correlation function
between any pair of m-sequences of the same period
can have relatively large peaks.
Although it is possible to select a small subset of m
sequences that have relatively smaller cross
correlation peak values, the number of sequences in
the set is usually too small for CDMA applications.
37
Correlation Properties of PN sequences
Consider two PN sequences
of period 27-1=127, one
feedback shift register has the
feedback taps [7,1] and the
other one has the feedback
taps [7,6,5,4]. Both
sequences have the same
autocorrelation function.
38
Peak Cross Correlation of m Sequences and
Gold Sequences
39
Preferred Sequences
Golds theorem:
Gold and Kasami proved that certain pairs of m sequences of
length n (e.g. g1(X) and g2(X) ) exhibit a three-valued cross
correlation function with values { -1, -t(m), t(m)-2} where:
2( m+1)/ 2 + 1
t (m) = ( m+2)/ 2
+1
2
odd m
even m
Two m sequences of length n with a periodic cross
correlation function that takes on the possible values { -1, t(m), t(m)-2} are called preferred sequences.
The shift register corresponding to the product polynomial
g1(X)g2(X) will generate 2m+1 different sequences, with each
sequence having a period of 2m-1.
40
Golden Sequences
From a pair of preferred sequences, say a=[ a1 a2 a3 an] and
b=[ b1 b2 b3 bn], we construct a set of sequences of length n
by taking the modulo-2 sum of a with the n cyclicly shifted
versions of b or vice versa.
Thus, we obtain n new periodic sequences with period n=2m-1.
Together with the original sequences a and b, we have a total of
n+2 sequences, which are called Gold sequences.
With the exception of the sequences a and b, the set of Gold
sequences is not comprised of maximum-length shift-register
sequences of length n.
The cross correlation function for any pair of sequences from the
set of n+2 Gold sequences is three-valued with possible values
{ -1, -t(m), t(m)-2}.
The off-peak autocorrelation function for a Gold sequence takes
on values from the set { -1, -t(m), t(m)-2}.
41
Generator for a Gold Sequence of Period
127
42
Cross-Correlation Function
Cross-correlation function of a pair of Gold sequences
based on the two PN sequences [7,4] and [7,6,5,4].
43
Wireless Information Transmission System Lab.
Elementary Codes in WCDMA
Institute of Communications Engineering
National Sun Yat-sen University
Elementary Codes in WCDMA
Scrambling codes
Uplink long scrambling codes
Uplink short scrambling codes
Downlink scrambling codes
Channelization Codes
Synchronization codes
Downlink Synchronization Channel
Uplink PRACH Preamble
Reference: 3GPP TS 25.211 & 25.213
45
Scrambling Codes
Scrambling codes are used to scramble the spread
sequences
Multiply the spread sequences @ chip rate
More random and orthogonal
Uplink
Long scrambling codes
Short scrambling codes
Possibility of multi-user detection at base stations
Downlink
Long scrambling codes
46
Spreading for Uplink DPCCH and DPDCHs
DPDCH
DPDCH
c d ,1
c d ,3
c d ,5
DPDCH
d p c h ,n
I+ jQ
DPDCH
DPDCH
DPDCH
c d ,2
c d ,4
c d ,6
cc
DPCCH
47
Uplink Modulation
The modulation chip rate is 3.84 Mcps.
The complex-valued chip sequence generated by the
spreading process is QPSK modulated.
cos(t)
Complex-valued
chip sequence
from spreading
operations
Split
real &
imag.
parts
Re{S}
Pulseshaping
Im{S}
Pulseshaping
-sin(t)
48
Configuration of Uplink Scrambling
Sequence Generator
clong,1,n
x
LSB
MSB
49
clong,2,n
Uplink Short Scrambling Sequence
Generator for 255 Chip Sequence
2
d(i)
mod 2
mod n addition
7
b(i)
multiplication
mod 4
mod 2
0
a(i)
3
2
3
mod 4
50
cshort,1,n(i)
zn(i)
Mapper
cshort,2,n(i)
Spreading for All Downlink Physical Channels
Except Synchronization Channel (SCH)
I
Any downlink
physical channel
except SCH
Sdl,n
I+jQ
Cch,SF,m
Q
51
Spreading and Modulation for SCH and PCCPCH
Different downlink
Physical channels
(point S in Figure of
previous page.)
G1
G2
P-SCH
GP
S-SCH
GS
52
Downlink Modulation
In the downlink, the complex-valued chip sequence
generated by the spreading process is QPSK modulated:
cos(t)
Complex-valued
chip sequence
from summing
operations
Split
real &
imag.
parts
Re{T}
Pulseshaping
Im{T}
Pulseshaping
-sin(t)
53
Configuration of Downlink Scrambling Code
Generator
17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10
I
Q
17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10
54
Channelization Codes
Each CDMA channel is distinguished via a unique
spreading code.
These spreading codes should have low crosscorrelation values.
In 3GPP W-CDMA, Orthogonal Variable SF (OVSF)
codes are used.
Preserve the orthogonality between a users different
physical channels.
Scrambling is used on top of spreading.
55
Code-tree for Generation of Orthogonal
Variable Spreading Factor (OVSF) Codes
C ch,4,0 =(1,1,1,1)
C ch,2,0 = (1,1)
C ch,4,1 = (1,1,-1,-1)
C ch,1,0 = (1)
C ch,4,2 = (1,-1,1,-1)
C ch,2,1 = (1,-1)
C ch,4,3 = (1,-1,-1,1)
SF = 1
SF = 2
SF = 4
The channelization codes are uniquely described as Cch,SF,k, where SF is
the spreading factor of the code and k is the code number, 0 k SF-1.
56
Channelization Codes
As the chip rate is already achieved in the
spreading by the channelization codes, the symbol
rate is not affected by the scrambling.
Another physical channel may use a certain code in
the tree if no other physical channel to be transmitted
using the same code three is using a code that is on
an underlying branch, i.e. using a higher spreading
factor code generated from the intended spreading
code to be used.
Neither can a smaller spreading factor code on the
path to the root of the tree be used.
57
Channelization Codes
The downlink orthogonal codes within each base
station are managed by the radio network controller
(RNC) in the network.
The definition for the same code tree means that for
transmission from a single source, from either a
terminal or a base station.
One code tree is used with one scrambling code on
top of the tree.
Different terminals and different base stations may
operate their code trees independently of each other.
58
Generation of Channelization Codes
Cch,1,0 = 1
Cch,2,0 Cch,1,0 Cch,1,0 1 1
=
= C
C
C
1
1
ch,1, 0
ch,2,1 ch,1,0
C ch, 2n , 0
C ch, 2 ( n+1 ), 0 C ch, 2n , 0
C
C
C
n
n
(
)
ch, 2 , 0
ch, 2 n + 1 , 1
ch, 2 , 0
C ch, 2n ,1
C ch, 2 ( n+1), 2 C ch, 2n ,1
C
C
C
ch, 2 ( n + 1 ), 3
ch, 2 n , 1
= ch, 2n ,1
:
:
:
C ch, 2 ( n+1 ), 2 ( n+1 ) 2 C ch, 2n , 2n 1 C ch, 2n , 2n 1
C ch, 2 ( n+1), 2 ( n+1 )1 C ch, 2n , 2n 1 C ch, 2n , 2n 1
59
