1

CONTENTS
FIGURE LIST.......IV
1.INTRODUCTION1
2,.TENSION...2
2.1 Definition Of Tension.....2
2.2 Tension Members...4
3. TENSEGRITY...7
3.1 Definition And Principles Of Tensegrity ..7
3.2 History Of Tensegrity ..........9
3.2.1 Origins Of Tensegrity.....................9
3.3 Applications Of Tensegrity... 14
3.4 Characteristics Of Tensegrities.......15
3.5 Advantages Of Tensegrity Over Conventional (Continuous)
Structures.. 16
3.6 Disadvantages Of Tensegrity Over Conventional (Continuous)

Structures

..17
3.7 Topological Classification Of Elementary Cells Of Tensegrity Structures
...18
3.7.1 Rhombic configuration....18
3.7.2 Circuit configuration....19
3.7.3 Z type configuration.....20
3.8 Types Of Tensegrities.......21
3.8.1 Tensegrity prism (T-prism)......22

2
3.8.2 Diamond tensegrity.......24
3.8.3 Zig-zag tensegrity.27
4.WEAVING : MOTHER OF TENSEGRITY......28
4.1 Introduction ...28
4.2 Right Helix And Left Helix...30
4.3 Examples of Weaving in The Tensegrity System....31
5.TENSEGRITY EXAMPLES ...35
5.1 Suspension Bridge35

5.2 The Skylon Tower...36

5.3 Roof Structures37
5.4 Childs Baloon.38
5.5 Human Body....39
REFERENCES.40

LIST OF FIGURES
2.1 Tension and Compression....2
2.2 Types of Members....4
3.1 Comparison between the "Gleichgewichtkonstruktion" or StructureSculpture.........10
3.2 Simplex by Snelson, simplest tensegrity system .................11
3.3 "X-column" by Snelson ......12
3.4 (a) Assembly of rhombic configuration and (b) its pattern ...18
3.5 (a) Circuit configuration of Cuboctahedron tensegrity having 4 nontouching triangular circuits and (b) its pattern ....19
3.6 (a) Truncated Tetrahedron (T-tetrahedron) using Z type configuration,
(b) its pattern ......20
3.7 Wood X-module .21
3.8 Kite frame shape in various proportions ....22
3.9 Diamond Configuration of T-prism .....23
3.10 (a) T-icosahedron and (b) its corresponding transformation from and
back to doubled-up octahedron .................................................25
3.11 (a) Octahedral structure (b) planar view of corresponding 3-struts
single layer tensegrity system ...........25
3.12 Planar view of 6-struts two layer tensegrity system ....26
3.13 Planar view of 9-struts three-layer tensegrity system .....26

3.14 T-Tetrahedron (Z type configuration ..27

4.1 The Common Square Weave Heaxagon ..28
4.2 Three Way Triangle Weave.....28
4.3 Cross two pencils ..29
4.4 Right and Left Helix ..30
4.5 Right and Left Helixes ..31

4.6 Kagome Three-Way Basket Weave.. ....31

4.7 Kagome Three-Way Basket Weave.......32

4.8 Examples of Weaving in Tensegrity ...33
5.1 Golden Gate Bridge, San Francisco, California ...35
5.2 Skylon Tower London, England ..36
5.3 A dome designed by Robert Le Ricolais ...37
5.4 Childs Baloon .......38
5.4 Human body tensegrity model ....39

1. INTRODUCTION

The technique used in constructions by architects around the world is based on

holding the structure with the help of its weight and continuity of stresses induced
basically in compression. For example, each component of a stone dome or bridge is
pulled by tension acting downward through the structure, but the compressive
continuity is still in charge of sustaining most of the load. On the other hand,
tensegrity architecture represents a totally different principle with tension continuity
and compression discontinuity. Tensegrities represent a system of equilibrated
omnidirectional stresses and they dont need any support and are self-equilibrated
as well as pre-stressed. The theory of tensegrity structures is well known in civil
engineering or statuary while in other engineering branches the potential of these
structures is not yet fully explored.

2. TENSION

2.1 Definitions Of Tension

Tension force is a force that is exerted equally on both ends of a cable, chain, rope,
wire or other continuous object and is transmitted between the ends by that
object. On a microscopic level, objects under tension have a separation between
molecules that creates potential energy in their bonds.

It requires force to put an object under tension, but technically, tension itself is not a
force for as long as the situation is stable. Nonetheless, physicists measure the
tension in a system in units of force. Once some part of the system begins moving,
such as when one end of a rope under tension is released, the potential energy
between the molecules of the rope is converted to mechanical energy, and the
tension is converted to force. As long as an object under tension is straight, the
tension is constant for its entire length.
A force is any push or pull acting upon an object as a result of its interaction with
another object. Tension forces are one of the contact forces, which are the forces
present when two objects are in contact with one another. There are also non-contact
forces, such as gravity, magnetic force and electrical force, which act at a distance.
[1]
Compression, decrease in volume of any object or substance resulting from applied
stress. Compression may be undergone by solids, liquids, and gases and by living
systems. In the latter, compression is measured against the systems volume at the
standard pressure to which an organism is subjectede.g., the pressure of the
atmosphere at sea level is the standard, or reference, for most land animals, but the

standard for deep-sea fishes and similar specialized forms is the normal pressure of
their environment. Tension is the opposite of compression. (Fig.2.1)

Figure 2.1 Tension and Compression

2.2 Tension Members

The tension member considered for the design is a linear member which carries an
axial pull. The members undergo extension due to this axial pull. This is one of the
common types of force transmitted in the structural system. Tension members are
very efficient since the entire cross section carries uniform stress unlike flexural
members. The tension members do not buckle even when stressed beyond the
elastic limit. Hence the design is not effected by the type of section used i.e., Plastic,
Compact or Semi-compact. Some of the common examples of tension members in
structures are; Bottom chord of pin jointed roof trusses, bridges, transmission line
and communication towers, wind bracing system in multi-storey buildings, etc. The
objective of this exercise is to determine the tensile strength of a given member
having a specified end connection. The strength of these members is influenced by
several factors such as the length of connection, type of connection (by bolts or
welds), connection eccentricity, size and shape of fasteners, net area of cross-section
and shear lag at the end connection. [2]

2.2.1 Types of Tension Members

Figure 2.2 Types of Members

The tension members may be made of single structural shapes. The standard
structural shapes of typical tension members are( Fig.2.2);
(a) Rods and Bars
(d)Rolled W-and S-section

(b) Cables and Wires

(e) Structural Tee

(c)Single and double angles

(f) Buit-up Box Sections

Rods and Bars:The square and round bars are shown in Figure-2 are quite often
used for small tension members. The round bars with threaded ends are used with
pin-connections at the ends instead of threads.
The ends of rectangular bars or plates are enlarged by forging and bored to form eye
bars. The eye bars are used with pin connections. The rods and bars have the
disadvantage of inadequate stiffness resulting in noticeable sag under the self
weight.
Wires and Cables:The wire types are used for hoists, derricks, rigging slings, guy
wires and hangers for suspension bridges.
Single Structural Shapes and Plates:The single structural shapes, i.e. angle
sections and tee-sections as shown in Figure-2 are used as tension members. The
angle sections are considerably more rigid than the wire ropes, rods and bars. When
the length of tension member is too ling, then the single angle section also becomes
flexible.
The single angle sections have the disadvantage of eccentricity in both planes in a
riveted connection.
The channel section has eccentricity in one axis only. Single channel sections have
high rigidity in the direction of web and low rigidity in the direction of flange.

Occasionally, I-sections are sued as tension members. The I-sections have more
rigidity, and single I-sections are more economical than built up sections.

Built-up Box Sections:Two or more than two members are used to form built up
members. When the single rolled steel section can not furnish the required area, then
built-up sections are used.
The double angle sections of unequal legs shown in the figure are extensively used
as tension members in the roof trusses. The angle sections are placed back to back
on two sides of a gusset plate. When both the angle sections are attached on the
same side of the gusset, then built-up section has eccentricity in one plane and is
subjected to tension and bending simultaneously. The two angle sections may be
arranged in the star shape (i.e. the angles are placed diagonally opposite to each
other with leg on outer sides).

The star shape angle sections may be connected by batten plates. The batten plates
are alternatively placed in two perpendicular directions.
A built-up section may be made of two channels placed back to back with a gusset in
between them. Such sections are used for medium loads in a single plane-truss. In
two-plane trusses, two channels are arranged at a distance with their flange turned
inward. It simplifies the transverse connections and also minimizes lacing. The
flanges of two channels are kept outwards, as in the case of chord members or long
span girders, in order to have greater lateral rigidity.
The heavy built-up tension members in the bridge girder trusses are made of angles
and plates. Such members can resist compression in reversal of stress takes place.

3. TENSEGRITY

3.1 Definition And Principles Of Tensegrity

Anthony Pugh gives the following definition of tensegrity: A tensegrity system is
established when a set of discontinuous compressive components interacts with a
set of continuous tensile components to define a stable volume in space. Tensegrity
structures are distinguished by the way forces are distributed within them. The
members of a tensegrity structure are either always in tension or always in
compression. In the structures discussed in this book, the tensile members are
usually cables or rods, while the compression members are sections of tubing. The
tensile members form a continuous network. Thus tensile forces are transmitted
throughout the structure. The compression members are discontinuous, so they only
do their work very locally. Since the compression members do not have to transmit
loads over long distances, they are not subject to the great buckling loads they would
be otherwise, and thus they can be made more slender without sacrificing structural
integrity. In the realm of human creation, pneumatic structures are tensegrities. For
instance, in a balloon, the skin is the tensile component, while the atoms of air inside
the balloon supply the compressive components. The skin of the balloon consists of
atoms which are continuously linked to each other, while the atoms of air are highly
discontinuous. If the balloon is pushed on with a finger, it doesnt crack; the
continuous, flexible netting formed by the balloons skin distributes this force
throughout the structure. And when the external load is removed, the balloon returns
to its original shape. This resilience is another distinguishing characteristic of
tensegrity structures. Another human artifact which exhibits tensegrity qualities is
prestressed concrete. A prestressed concrete beam has internal steel tendons which,
even without the presence of an external load,

are strongly in tension while the concrete is correspondingly in compression. These

tendons are located in areas so that, when the beam is subjected to a load, they
absorb tensile forces, and the concrete, which is not effective in tension, remains in
compression and resists heavy compressive forces elsewhere in the beam. This
quality of prestressed concrete, that forces are present in its components even when
no external load is present, is also very characteristic of tensegrity structures. In the
natural realm, the structural framework of non-woody plants relies completely on
tensegrity principles. A young plant is completely composed of cells of water which
behave much like the balloon described above. The skin of the cell is a flexible interlinkage of atoms held in tension by the force of the water in the contained cell. As the
plant is stretched and bent by the wind, rain and other natural forces, the forces are
distributed throughout the plant without a disturbance to its structural integrity. It can
spring back to its usual shape even when, in the course of the natural upheavals it
undergoes, it finds itself distorted far from that shape. The essential structural use the
plant makes of water is especially seen when the plant dries out and therefore wilts.
[3]

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3.2 History Of Tensegrity

Tensegrity is a developing and relatively new system (barely more than 50 years old)
which creates amazing, lightweight and adaptable figures, giving the impression of a
cluster of struts floating in the air. As it is explained in Gmez Juregui [1], it is not a
commonly known type of structure, so knowledge of its mechanism and physical
principles is not very widespread among architects and engineers. However, one of
the most curious and peculiar aspects of tensegrity is its origin; controversy and
polemic will always be present when arguing about its discovery. [4]
3.2.1 Origins Of Tensegrity
Three men have been considered the inventors of tensegrity: Richard Buckminster
Fuller, David Georges Emmerich and Kenneth D. Snelson. (As a precaution, these
names have been mentioned in chronological order of their granted patents: Fuller13 Nov 1962; Emmerich-28 Sep 1964; Snelson-16 Feb 1965). Although all of the
three have claimed to be the first inventor, R. Motro mentions that Emmerich reported
that the first proto-tensegrity system, called "Gleichgewichtkonstruktion", was created
by a certain Karl Ioganson (some authors call him Johansen) in 1920 (Figure 3.1).
As Emmerich explains: "Cette curieuse structure, assemble de trois barres et de
sept tirants, tait manipulable l'aide d'un huitime tirant detendu, l'ensemble tant
dformable. Cette configuration labile est trs proche de la protoforme autotendante
trois barres et neuf tirants de notre invention."

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Figure 3.1 Comparison between the "Gleichgewichtkonstruktion" or StructureSculpture

This means it was a structure consisting of three bars, seven cords and an eighth
cable without tension serving to change the configuration of the system, but
maintaining its equilibrium. He adds that this configuration was very similar to the
proto-system invented by him, the "Elementary Equilibrium", with three struts and
nine cables (Figure 3.2).
All the same, the absence of pre-stress, which is one of the characteristics of
tensegrity systems, does not allow Ioganson's sculpture-structure to be considered
the first of this kind of structures.

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Figure 3.2 Simplex by Snelson, simplest tensegrity system

The most controversial point has been the personal dispute, lasting more than thirty
years, between R. B. Fuller (Massachusetts, 1895-1983) and K. D. Snelson (Oregon,
1927). As the latter explains in a letter to R. Motro, during the summer of 1948, Fuller
was a new professor in the Black Mountain College (North Carolina, USA), in addition
to being a charismatic and a nonconforming architect, engineer, mathematician,
cosmologist, poet and inventor (registering 25 patents during his life). Snelson was
an art student who attended his lectures on geometric models, and after that
summer, influenced by what he had learnt from Fuller and other professors, he
started to study some three-dimensional models, creating different sculptures (Figure
3.3).

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Figure 3.3 "X-column" by Snelson, his first tensegrity art piece.

Illustration donated by the artist.

As the artist explains, he achieved a new kind of sculpture, which can be considered
the first tensegrity structure ever designed. When he showed it to Fuller, asking for
his opinion, the professor realized that it was the answer to a question that he had
been looking for, for so many years. In Fullers words:
For twenty-one years, before meeting Kenneth Snelson, I had been ransacking the
Tensegrity concepts. () Despite my discovery, naming and development of both the
multidimensional vectorial geometry and the three dimensional Tensegrity, I had
been unable to integrate them, thus to discover multi-dimensional four, five and six
axes symmetrical Tensegrity.
In contrast to other authors, and serving as an illustration of how important it was
considered, he always wrote Tensegrity starting with a capital T.

14

At the same time, but independently, David Georges Emmerich (Debrecen-Hungary,

1925-1996), probably inspired by Ioganson's structure, started to study different kinds
ofstructures as tensile prisms and more complex tensegrity systems, which he
called"structures tendues et autotendants", tensile and self-stressed structures. As a
result, he defined and patented his "reseaux autotendants", which were exactly the
same kind of structures that were being studied by Fuller and Snelson.

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3.3 Applications Of Tensegrity

The qualities of tensegrity structures which make the technology attractive for human
use are their resilience and their ability to use materials in a very economical way.
These structures very effectively capitalize on the ever increasing tensile
performance modern engineering has been able to extract from construction
materials. In tensegrity structures, the ethereal (yet strong) tensile members
predominate, while the more material-intensive compression members are
minimized. Thus, the construction of buildings, bridges and other structures using
tensegrity principles could make them highly resilient and very economical at the
same time. In a domical configuration, this technology could allow the fabrication of
very large-scale structures. When constructed over cities, these structures could
serve as frameworks for environmental control, energy transformation and food
production. They could be useful in situations where large-scale electrical or
electromagnetic shielding is necessary, or in extra-terrestrial situations where
micrometeorite protection is necessary. And, they could provide for the exclusion or
containment of flying animals over large areas, or contain debris from explosions.
These domes could encompass very large areas with only minimal support at their
perimeters. Suspending structures above the earth on such minimal foundations
would allow the suspended structures to escape terrestrial confines in areas where
this is useful. Examples of such areas are congested or dangerous areas, urban
areas and delicate or rugged terrains. In a spherical configuration, tensegrity designs
could be useful in an outer-space context as superstructures for space stations. Their
extreme resilience make tensegrity structures able to withstand large structural
shocks like earthquakes. Thus, they could be desirable in areas where earthquakes
are a problem. [3]

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3.4 Characteristics Of Tensegrities

Characteristics of tensegrities can be summarized as follows :
3.4.a) They have a higher load-bearing capacity with similar weight.
3.4.b) They are light weight in comparison to other structures with similar resistance.
3.4.c) They dont need to be anchored or have to lean any surface as they dont
depend on their weight or gravity. They are stabilized in any position by equilibrium of
compressive forces in struts with tensional forces in prestressed cables. Prestrain in
the cables can be transformed into prestress only if the structure is statically
indeterminate.
3.4.d) They are enantiomorphic i.e. exist as right and left-handed mirror pairs.
3.4.e) Elementary tensegrity modules can be used (such as masts, grids, ropes,
rings etc.) to make more complex tensegrity structures.
3.4.f) Higher the pre-stress, stiffer the structure would be, i.e. its load bearing
capacity increases with the increasing pre-stress. The degree of tension of the prestressed components is directly proportional to the amount of space they occupy.
3.4.g) In a tensegrity structure the compressive members are short and
discontinuous, hence they do not undergo buckling easily and no torque is generated
in them.
3.4.h) The resilience depends on the structure assembly and material used.
3.4.i) They work synergically i.e. their behaviour cannot be predicted by considering
the behaviour of any of their components separately.
3.4.j) They are sensitive to vibrations under dynamic loading. Slight change in load
causes the stress to redistribute in the whole structure within no time and thus, they
have the ability to respond as a whole. k) Kenner introduced a term Elastic
Multiplication for the tensegrity structures. It is a property of tensegrity structure
which depends on the distance between two struts. If two struts are separated by a
certain distance the elongation of tendons (tensile members) attached to them is
much less compared to this distance.
3.4.l) The deformation response of entire tensegrity structure to load is non-linear as
its stiffness increases rapidly with increasing load, like at a suspension bridge.

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3.4.m) The tensegrities are commonly modelled with frictionless joints, and the selfweight of cables and struts is neglected. [6]

3.5 Advantages Of Tensegrity Over Conventional (Continuous) Structures

3.5.a) As the load is distributed in whole structure there are no critical points of
weakness.
3.5.b) They dont suffer any kind of torsion and buckling due to space arrangement
and short length of compression members.
3.5.c) Forces are transferred naturally and consequently, the members position
themselves precisely by aligning with the lines of forces transmitted in the shortest
path to withstand the induced stress.
3.5.d) They are able to vibrate and transfer loads very rapidly and hence, absorb
shocks and seismic vibrations which makes them applicable as sensors or actuators.
3.5.e) They can be extended endlessly through adding elementary structures.
3.5.f) Construction of structures using tensegrity principle makes it highly resilient
and, at the same time, very economical. [5]

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3.6 Disadvantages Of Tensegrity Over Conventional (Continuous) Structures

3.6.a) If the structure becomes too large it faces a problem of bar congestion (i.e. the
struts start running into or touching each other).
3.6.b) They show relatively high deflections and low material efficiency as compared
to with conventional continuous structures.
3.6.c) Fabrication complexity is a major barrier in developing floating compression
structures.
3.6.d) Adequate design tools are not available for their design, software Tensegrite
2000 (developed by R. Motro et al.) is the most advanced tool available to design
tensegrity structures.
3.6.e) At large constructions the structure cannot withstand loads higher than the
critical, related to its dimensions and prestress. [6]

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3.7 Topological Classification Of Elementary Cells Of Tensegrity Structures

3.7.1 Rhombic configuration
The name of tensegrity patterns is based on the way they are constructed (tendon
patterns). In Fig. 3.4, each strut of a system represents the longest diagonal of
a rhombus formed by four corresponding tendons and can be folded following
these diagonal. Generally, this configuration corresponds to the diamond tensegrity.
T-prism (section 3.8.1) and T-icosahedron (section 3.8.2) tensegrities are well known
examples of the rhombic configuration where rhombus represents a non-planar
quadrilateral formed by tendons. [5]

Figure 3.4 (a) Assembly of rhombic configuration and (b) its pattern

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3.7.2 Circuit configuration

In this system, the compressed members are formed by close circuits (see Fig.
3.5(a)) which do not comply with standard definition of tensegrity. This can be
constructed by closing the rhombus generated by struts and tendons of the diamond
pattern tensegrity, such as T-icosahedron (see Fig. 1.12). [5]

Figure 3.5 (a) Circuit configuration of Cuboctahedron tensegrity having 4 nontouching triangular circuits and (b) its pattern

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3.7.3 Z type configuration

A zig-zag configuration (also being an enantiomorphic) is obtained from the rhombic
configuration as the basic structure. Both ends of any strut should be connected by
three non-aligned tendons arranged to form a Z shape. Truncated tetrahedron (see
Fig. 3.6) is a classic example of Z type configuration obtained from truncated
icosahedron which belongs to the class of rhombic configurations. [5]

Figure 3.6 (a) Truncated Tetrahedron (T-tetrahedron) using

Z type configuration, (b) its pattern

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3.8 Types Of Tensegrities

The tensegrity structures are widely classified as prestressed and geodesic
structures. They are divided into three main categories: Tensegrity prism, Diamond
tensegrity and Zig-zag tensegrity. The X-module (see Fig. 3.7) build by Snelson had
given birth to tensegrity principle. This simple tensegrity structure consists of two Xshaped wooden struts suspended in air by stretched nylon cables. The simple kite
frame is the basic prestressed tensioncompression cell of X-module tensegrity
structure. It consists of two crossed struts firmly held together by a girth of four
tension members, because the (vector) sum of compression forces pushing out
equals to the sum of tension forces pulling in. As shown in Fig. 3.8, the
change in length of both struts and tendons i.e. change in proportion of frame is
related to the variation in distribution of forces, both tension and compression . [5]

23

Figure 3.7 Wood X-module

24

Figure 3.8 Kite frame shape in various proportions

It is a quasi-tensegrity structure because it is planar (2D), and the struts touch each
other. If any one of the tendons is removed, then the blank side will work as a
compressed component; this is called as strut effect. This basic principle is required
to design various elementary components of two layer and three layer tensegrity
systems. The lengths of the four tendons and the lengths of the two struts determine
the shape of the kite frame (see Fig. 3.8).
3.8.1 Tensegrity prism (T-prism)
Also known as Three struts T-prism was invented by Karl Ioganson in Moscow in
1921. It is the simplest and therefore one of the most instructive members of the
tensegrity family. The T-prism has 9 tendons and 3 struts (see Fig. 3.9) and belongs
to a subclass of prismatoids. It has been called tensegrity prism or T-prism as it can
be considered as a twisted prism consisting of two triangular faces twisted with
respect to each other. Generally, these tensegrity structures are designed by keeping
the lengths of one set of tendons and struts constant, and determining the lengths of
another set of tendons. When one end of the prism is twisted relative to the other, the
rectangular sides of the prism become non-planar quadrilaterals. Thus, two opposite
angles of each quadrilateral become obtuse and acute. For structure to be stable and

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prestressed, the prism is twisted in such a way that the distance between the obtuse
angles is least (an intermediate stage of twisting) and hence, a completely stable Tprism is formed.

Figure 3.9 Diamond Configuration of T-prism

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3.8.2 Diamond tensegrity

The tensegrity icosahedron also known as T-icosahedron depicted in Fig. 3.10(a) is a
classic example of diamond tensegrity. These tensegrities are characterized by the
fact that each triangle of tendons is connected to the adjacent one via a strut and two
interconnecting tendons. It was first exhibited by Buckminster Fuller in 1949 and is
one of a few tensegrities which exhibit mirror symmetry. This tensegrity is classified
as a diamond
type because each of its struts is surrounded by a diamond form of four tendons
which are supported by two adjacent struts making them distinct from a Zig-zag
tensegrity. It has 6 struts and 24 tendons with tendon to strut lengths ratio of 0.613.
If the quadrilaterals nested with struts are changed to squares then the tendons form
a cuboctahedron network. Fig. 3.10(b) illustrates the change in system of tendons
from an octahedral arrangement (with each strut doubled-up by presence of two
struts in the identical position) to cuboctahedron and back. Small arrows indicate the
direction of movement of the struts and of the corresponding pair of opposite points
of the quadrilateral as the tendon system goes through transformations.
Opening the octahedral structure carefully from one end gives a single layer diamond
structure as depicted Fig. 3.11(a). New tensegrity structures with spherical symmetry
can be generated by addition of new layers of struts and tendons and joining both
ends of each layer. Planar views of tensegrity systems based on this approach are
depicted in Fig. 3.12 and Fig. 3.13.

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Figure 3.10 (a) T-icosahedron and (b) its corresponding transformation

from and back to doubled-up octahedron

Figure 3.11 (a) Octahedral structure (b) planar view of corresponding

3-struts single layer tensegrity system

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Figure 3.12 Planar view of 6-struts two layer tensegrity system

Figure 3.13 Planar view of 9-struts three-layer tensegrity system

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3.8.3 Zig-zag tensegrity

The tensegrity tetrahedron also known as (T-tetrahedron) depicted in Fig. 3.14 is a
classic example of diamond tensegrity developed by Francesco della Sala in 1953.
The T-tetrahedron is the zig-zag counterpart of the diamond T-icosahedron (see Fig.
3.10). Although both structures have 6 struts, the major difference is that Ttetrahedron has four tendon triangles, whereas the T-icosahedron has eight of them.

Figure 3.14 T-Tetrahedron (Z type configuration)

In general, zig-zag structures with Z type configuration are simpler and less rigid due
to their lower number of tendons than their diamond counterparts with rhombic
configuration.

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4. WEAVING: MOTHER OF TENSEGRITY

4.1 Introduction
The ancient invention of weaving displays the basic properties of natural structure:
modular-repetition, left and right helical symmetry and the close association between
geometry and physical structure.
Two and only two fundamental fabric weave structures exist: the standard two-way
plain weave made up of squares (Fig.4.1), and the three-way triangle/hexagon
weave (Fig.4.2) used most often in basketry. Though there are many variations such
as criss-crossing, doubling, etc. these two are the only primary forms.

Figure 4.1The Common Square Weave

Heaxagon

Figure 4.2Three-Way Triangle/

Weave(In Asia: It called KAGOME)

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A single weaving event, two filaments crossing and in contact with one anothe
(Fig.4.3), each warping the other where they press in contact is, in itself, an
elementary structure. At the point of crossing the two threads create dual helical axes
one clockwise, right-rotating and the other counterclockwise, left-rotating . [7]

Figure 4.3Cross two pencils. Place a thumb and index finger on the pencils and slide
toward the center. Your hand will tend to rotate either clockwise or counterclockwise

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4.2 Right Helix And Left Helix

Figure 4.4 Right and Left Helix

Just as the individual crossings of filaments have alternating helical axes so each
square in a plain weave alternates with its neighbors like chess board squares. In
order to prove whether a weave cell is right or left handed, imagine your fingers
sliding in contact with the frame of a cell. Your hand will move down-hill in a
clockwise/ counterclockwise sense according to the cells rotation.(Fig.4.4),(Fig.4.5)

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Figure 4.5 Right and Left Helixes

Figure 4.6 Kagome Three-Way Basket Weave

In three-way, or Kagome weaving, hexagons alternate with triangles. If the hexagons

have a clockwise helix the triangles are counterclockwise. If the hexagons are
counterclockwise the triangles are clockwise.(Fig.4.6),(Fig.4.7)

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Figure 4.7 Kagome Three-Way Basket Weave

4.3 Examples of Weaving in The Tensegrity System

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Figure 4.8 Examples of Weaving in Tensegrity

Weaving and tensegrity share the principle of alternating helical directions, of
left-to-right, of bypasses clockwise and counterclockwise.
In the top row above are five primary weave figures. Below them are the
equivalent tensegrity modules. Individual tension lines strings, wires or rope are
attached to the ends of the struts as shown so that each assembly is a closed system
made of tension and compression parts. Each tension line connects individually to
the ends of two struts. They do not thread through like a string of beads. The tension
lines must be adjusted for tightness as with tuning a stringed instrument or inflating a
car tire.
Tightening the tension system stores both tension and compression forces in
equal amounts, a state that engineers call prestressing. The energy remains stored
inside the structure until it is disassembled.
In the figures above, only the 2-strut x-module and the 3-strut prism have tension
networks with total triangulation. The networks of the square prism, the pentagon
prism and the hexagon prism are not composed of triangles. In tensegrity structures
triangulation in the tension network is significant because it determines if the
structure will be firm or not. Tensegrity structures are endoskeletal, as are humans and
other mammals whose tension muscles are external to the compression members bones.

Unique to tensegrity, the compression struts are separated one from another, nontouching within their tension envelope. The exception is the two-strut x-module, or
traditional kite frame. This essentially flat figure lacks a compression force in the z

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direction. In order to separate the crossed struts a third strut or else an additional Xmodule, must be added to pull the two struts apart.(Fig.4.8)

5. TENSEGRITY EXAMPLES AND APPLICATIONS

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5.1 Suspension Bridge

This is a non-self-sufficient tensegrity. It is anchorage dependent. When it is
supported by pylons which are rigidly connected to the ground, the pylons should be
considered part of the anchorage, and the bridge should be considered a composite
structure, only the non-pylon part of which is a tensegrity. If the proper function of the
bridge depends on the gravity field coming from one way rather than another, as
seems likely given the adjective "suspension", but some local fastenings working with
gravity, as might be desirable for wind and earthquake resistance, would firmly
restore its tensegrity-hood; and a suspension bridge would not completely vulnerable
to disintegration in the absence of gravity, as opposed to the case of the Roman arch
below which would be.(Fig.5.1) [8]

Figure 5.1 Golden Gate Bridge, San Francisco, California

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5.2 The Skylon Tower

In 1951, just three years after the official discovery of tensegrity, the Festival of
Britain's South Bank Exhibition took place in London. In that occasion, a competition
was organised to erect a Vertical Feature, a staple of international exhibitions
grounds. Philip Powell and Hidalgo Moya (helped and inspired by their former Felix
Samuely) designed the Skylon , which was selected as the best proposal and built
near the Dome of Discovery. Some authors (Cruickshank, 1995; Burstow, 1996) state
that this needle like structure was a monument without any functional purpose, but it
became a symbol for the festival, a beacon of technological and social potentialities
and, finally, a reference for future engineers and architects. The 300 foot high spire
was a cigar-shaped aluminium-clad body suspended almost invisibly by only three
cables, and seemed to float 40 feet above the ground.(Fig.5.2) [8]

Figure 5.2 Skylon Tower London, England

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5.3 Roof Structures

An important example of Tensegrity being employed in roof structures is the stadia
at La Plata (Argentina), based on a prize winning concept developed by architect
Roberto Ferreira. The design adapts the patented Tenstar Tensegrity roof concept to
the twin peak contour and the plan configuration, and consequently, it is more similar
to a cable-dome structure than to a conventional roof structure. The first studies for
the design of Tensegrity grids were carried out by Snelson, but its applications were
limited. For the past few years, the main focus has been in the development of
double-layer Tensegrity grids and foldable Tensegrity systems. This kind of grid has
its most feasible possibilities in the field of walls, roofs and covering structures.
(Fig.5.3) [8]

Figure 5.3 A dome designed by Robert Le Ricolais

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5.4 Childs Baloon

Another common example of tensegrity is childs balon. The rubber skin of the
balloon continuously pulls while the individual molecules of air
are discontinuously pushing against the inside of the balloon keeping it inflated. All
external forces striking the external surface are immediately and continuously
distributed over the entire system. This makes the balloon very strong.(Fig.5.4)
Molecules of air discontinuously pushing against the continuously pulling rubber skin
of the balloon. In this example;Tensegrity is a balance of continuous pull and
discontinuous push. [8]

Figure 5.4 Childs Baloon

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5.5 Human Body

The muscles, tendons and ligaments are the purely tensile components which bind
together the bones and cartilage(Fig. 5.5). These statements could probably use the
attention of someone better versed in anatomy. Plants, fungi, single-cell creatures
and other animals should be considered for inclusion in the tensegrity category on a
case-by-case basis. [8]

Figure 5.4 Human body tensegrity model

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REFERENCES
[1] http://www.ask.com/science/tension-force-5d179244f93b3d05
[2] http://theconstructor.org/structural-engg/types-of-tension-members/4800/
[3] A Practical Guide to Tensegrity Design 2nd edition Copyright 2004-2008 by
Robert William Burkhardt
[4] Controversial Origins of Tensegrity by Valentn GMEZ JUREGUI
[5] Engineering MECHANICS, Vol. 21, 2014, No. 5, p. 355367
[6] Overview of Tensegrity I: Basic Structures by Bansod Y.D. et al.
[7] Tensegrity , Weaving And The Binary World by Kenneth Snelson
[8] http://bobwb.tripod.com/synergetics/tenseg