Boulldary-J~ayer Theory

McGRAW-HILL SERIES IN MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

JACK P. IIOJJMAN, Southern .Methodist University Consulling Editor

Dr. HERMANN SCHLICHTING

Prof('~~or Emer!t.lIR Itt the Enginc('ring Univoraity of Brrtllll~ehwcig. GCrIlH\lly Former Director of tho Acrodynall1ische Vonmch"ltlJstalt Giittingcll

BARRON . Cryogenic Systems

ECKERT' Introduction to Heat and Mass Transfer

ECKERT AND DRAKE . Analysis !if Heal and Mass Transfu ECKERT AND DRAKE· Heat and Mass Transfer

HAM, CRANE, AND ROGERS· Mechanics if Machinery HARTENIIERO AND OENAVIT' Kinematic Synthesis of fjnkages HINZE' Turbulence

JhCOTlSF.N AND AYRE . Engineering Vibrations

JUVINAU~ . Engilleerin,g Considerations of Stress, Strain, and StTen/~/h KA YS . Conuectiue Heal and Mass Transfer

LICHTY· Combustion Ellgine' Processes

MARTIN· Kinematics and Dunamics of Machines

PHELAN· /)1/llOmics fir Machinery

PHELAN· Fundamentals of Mechanical De.rign RAVEN' Automatic Control Engineering

SCIIF.NCK . Theories ~f Ellgineerillg Experimentation SCHLICHTING . Boundary-Layer Theory

SIlIOLEY . Ihmamic AIlIliYJis oj Machines

~IIIOLF.Y . Kinematic AnaIYJi.1 if Mechanisms SIIIGI.EY . Mechanical Ell/1,ineeri71g Design

SIIIOLlW . Simul ation of Mechanical Systems STOECKER· Reji"ip,l'ratioll and Air Conditioning

Translated by

Dr. J. K ESTIN

Professor at Brown University in Providence, Rhocio Island

Seve" th r'~(lit.i(jn

McGRAW-HILL BOOK COMPANY

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Contents

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Copyright © 1!1711. I(WH, 10lil), I!J:;:; hy ~k(:I'I1\\'-"i". III!'.

All right~ rr-scrvcrl. ('l'int(,,1 in lh" Cnil<'" Slnll's of ,\ltl!'ri!'ll. Xo 1'111'1 of lhis I'nbli('l1lio" 'IIny h!'. rcprndlu'l'd. !-lton·rI i n u rot ricvnl "'ystf'lII. or t rnnsm it tr-d, in nny form or hy allY III(,HIl~, (·lp('lrollie. 1IH'(·hnf};('al. phol o('opyi IIg. record ing. or 01 fH'fWis(', wit hou t t Iw prior wr it fCII ,,,'rlllissioll of II", p,,"'ish('r.

Llst of Tables Foreword

Atrlhor'" I' rr ·fn".~ to tI", SovclIl.h (l~ngli"") I~dil.ioll 'I'rnnslntor's Preface to tho Seventh (Il;nlllislr) I~dil.ion From 1.1r" Au t horeProfn.oc 1.0 the I"il'st (O(,l'lI1nn) I';dit.ioll In troduct ion

r~ut A.. Jo'nrul:tlll("Il,,,1 laws o( rnotion ror a vi ... rou.-;; fluid

Library or COlIgre .• ~ r.nlnlogillg ill It"blicnlioll [)nln

CIIA(,TI;;n I. Ou t line of f111id mot ion wit h fridioll a. Hr-nl and (>el'f('d (lrri"8

h. ris,',mil.r

('. ('olllprt,,"ihilily .

d. TIr{' IIrrg('II.l'ois"IIill ... o quut ions of 111111' (hrough n 1"1'''

P. I"'ill('il"(' of sirr,illll'ity: the ({('.runl"" ,,,,,I ~tll.:1r 1111111",,1'" •

f. C"u'parisoll ho t wocn the theory of perfect flu,ds ,,",1 f'Xpr'rllllent Hd('rt'n('('.

Sdrlichting, Hernuum, B,,"ndnry.lllyel' theory.

plcGra \\'·11 ill series in ntcchauioa.l cngiIH'f'ring) 'l'rn ualn.t ion 01 GI'f'uzsclrieht.'fheol'ic.

Bibliography: 17 p. 1rH'I"d{'s indr-xcs.

1. Boundary layer. I. Tille.

TI,;,74.BM-i2H:l I!m) 0211.1:12':17 78·17794

ISBN (J·m -O!i5:l:14-:1

CIL\PTI':n. II. O"tlill" of ',olllldllr,Y·ln,l"'1' tl,,'ory n , The hOlllld:'l'y.la,yr'r ('on('cl't.

h. S{~IHH'at.ion and vortex Iormnt.inn

e. Turbulent flow ill n pi pc tlnd ill n hOllndary Iny,,!' (l.(·lel·",H'CR

en "(,TEll tIl. Dorivntion of tho c'lllaliollR of "'O( inn of II ,'n'"preARi"'" visr-oua flt,id (N n vier- :-ilnke" "'lUll tionR)

1\. Fuudamnntu.l oqun tions of motion n url con t.i nui ty n p pl icrl 10 lI\lid flow h. (:clleml slresR srsl.elll in a dcforrllnhle body

c. The rate "I "hi;·h a fluid element is strnincd in flow

d. H"lat.ioll het\\('{'n S(I'CRs nnd rut .. of doforumtion

c. Stoltf'"" hypothesi. .

f. BlIlk viscosif.v unci tllI'rIllO"YIIIIIIII(' prc"""r"

g. Thc Nnvicr-Stokes oqunt.ions Ikl""('IIc('s

This hook WlIS RC'I ill Alii iqun. 'I'ho .·ditnr \\'~H Fru nk ,J, (;"1'1'1\ n nr] tire production suporvisor wns .Iohn F. l Inrto.

CHA[YI'I~H. IV, C:"II"rlll proport.ios of thn Nn.vior-Stokea oquutions

n . J)",·ivnt.inll of ItcYllolds's principle of Rillliinrit,.y Irorn I.h .. NIL ~ier.RI.()I{{' .• ("1'"11 iUIIA

h. Frictioulcse lIow'l1s "solutions" of the N"vicl'-Sl~ll~cs equnf.ions .

C. '1'11('. Nnvie r ·Rtoltcs r-qun.t.ious interpreted as \'01'1.,(,,1.), Irarrsport. ('fjlll.t.'OIlR

d. 'I'h« limit.ing ellRe of very Inl'gc viseosit,y [very amnl] ReYllold" 1I11"IIr" r )

e. The limiting cnso of very R"",II viscous for!'cs.(v or y IlIrge.H;y",,'ds ",,",1,,·1")

f. 1\1 a (.)1""1" t.icnl illust.rnfion of t.ho proc('ss of gOlllg to (.1." limit. R -o- 00 Reforeuces

Fir," I'"hli,""d ill 11](' (; .. ,.11':111 In.lIl(uIIgn under (.he t.it.lo "nRI~N%:-iCHICIIT-TlJgOH.TJo;'· and Copyright. In,,1 hy C. Brnun [vor-m . G. Ilrnlllls"Ir" lIofhu .. hdn;ekf'fei II. Y('('lng) GmbH, Karlsruhe FirHt ,i;"glish Edilioll (S""OIld Edition of Ihe hook) 1'"lIli,I",,1 ill 1!)55

Rf'('fIIHI I';"glislr J~dilioll (Fourth Editioll of tho book) published in 19GO

Third 1~l1gli"h R,litinll (Six!.h T<:.lif·ioll of fl", hook) prrhlishf'd ill I!JBS

x iii xv x vii xix x xi

!i Ii \1

I I I;! 211 2:1

47 47 4!) Ii:! r,H liO iiI H4 HH

711 70 72 7:1 71; 77 HO H2

vi

Contents

Contents

vii

CIIi\PTgg V. Exnct solutions of the Navior-Stokes equat.ions

a. Parallel flow

1. Parallel flow through a straight, channel and Couette flow

2. The Hngen-Poieeuille theory of flow through a pipe

3. The flow between two concentric rotating cylinders

4. The suddenly accelerated plane wall; Stokes's first problem

5. Flow format, ion in Couebbo motion O. Flow in a pipe, starting from rest

7. The flow near an oscillating flat plate; Stokes's second problem

8. A geneml class of non-steady solutions

b. Other exact solutions

9. Stagnation in plane flow (Hiemenz flow)

9a. Two-dimeusiona.l non-steady stagnation flow

10. Stngnntion in three-dimensional flow

11. FIO\~' ncar n rotating disk

12. Flow in convergent and divergent channels 1:1. Concluding remark

References

83 83 84 85 87 90 91 92 93 94

h. Flow in the inlet length of It st.rnight channel 185

i. The method of finite differences 187

j. Boundary layer of second order 1!)4

References lfJS

95 95 99

100 102 107 109 110

CIL\ PTI'~H, X. Approximnto mcthods for the solution of tho: two-dimonsionul, s{.e.uly

hOllluIHI"'y-1a._y<'r ('rpl(l.t.ioIlR 201

ft. ,\ppli(·.'l.t,ion of the 11I0menbl1H cfJllnt.ioll t.o tho now PIlRt n flltt pluto nt zero

incidence 201

b. The approximate method due to Th. von K"xm{m and K. Pohlhausen for two-

dimensional Rows 206

c. Comparison between the approximate and exact solutions 21*

I. Flat plate at zero incidence 214

2. Two-dimensionnl stagnation flow 214

3, Flow past a. circular cylinder 210

d. 1"11 rt IH'I' oxumples 217

e. Ln m innr flow with nrlve r eo prCHR"n' grrulicnt; sepnrat.ion 2tl)

HdcrcncT.g 22:1

CHAI'TI'~I~ Xl. Axially synuuot rirnl and throe-dimensional boundary layers

22r;

CII" PTI~R VI. Very slow motion 112

a. The differential equations for the case of very slow motion 112

b. Parallel Row past It sphere 113

o. The hydrodynamic theory of lubricntlon 116

d. The l lole-Shaw flow 123

References 12"

n. Exact solution" for n.x in lly SY"lllclrielll boundary Iltyers 225

I. Rotnt ion nC1I1' the ground' 22:,

2. The circular jet 2:JO

a, The nxially evmmetric wake 2:14

4. Boundary'la,i"cr on a body of revolution 23!)

h. Approximate solut ious for axially symmetric bOllndrtry layers 2:l!J

l . Approximate solutions for boundary layers on bodies which do not rotate 2:J!l

2. Flow in the entrance of n pipe 241

:J. Boundary layers on rotating bodies of revolution 24:!

c. Rclut ion between nxinlly synunet.rical and two-dimensional boundary In)'C'rs;

:'tlnllgl"r'. t rnusformnt ion 245

d. Three-dimensional boundary layers 247

I. The boundary layer on a yawed cylinder 248

2, Boundary layers on other bodies 254

HdcrcIlI'cs 2GO

CII.\ I'T I·; n X II. Thcrmul boundnry lnycrs in lmuinnr flow 2(l!i

II. D .... ivntion of l he energy cquntion , 2(l:;

h. Tem pcrnt.ur-o increase through ndinbnt.ic compression; stagnation tcmpera ture 2118

c. TIIl'orY of sunilnrit.v in heat transfer 271

d. I<:xnct~ solutions for' the problem of tompornture distribution in a viacous now 27U

I. Couet t e flow 277

2, l'"iH(,lIille Ilow throngh n clllulIIel with flat wltlls 280

c. BOIIII,lnry.lnyer simpliflcnt.ions 2H2

f. C:l'n['rnl properties of thermn.l boundary layers 2!o!!J

l. FOIT(,d n.nd nn t urnl flows 2RIi

2. Adiuhnt ic wn ll :lHIi

:J. Annlogy ln.t.wccn heltl transfer and Akin friction 2HIi

4. 1';ll'('ct i)f I'randtl number ~8\J

g. Thr-rnut l houndn 1'\' I" vers in forced flow 2HZ

I. Purn llr-l flow 1;'''Ht va flat plate at. zero incidence 2HZ

Z. ,\dditiollal sim ilnr solutions of the equations for thermal bonndnry layers :100

:1. Thr-rmu l boundary layers 011 isothermal bodies of arbitrary shape 3l);l

4. Th"I'II1,,1 boundary layers on wnlls with an arbitrary temperature distribution :IO!J

:;. '1'11 cr 111,,1 boundnry layers on rotat.ionnlly symmetric and rotating bodies :111

Ii. ~leasllr!'''I!'nts on cylinders nnd other body shapes :Hl

7, 1';IJ'('r:t Olf Irec-st reum turbulence 313

h. '1'1"'1'1",,1 b""",I"IT layers in nnt ural Ilow 315

H..r('I'{'I"'I'S ~. :J21

Pari B, Laminar boundary layers

CHAPTEH VII. Hcundnry-lnycr equation for two-dlmcnsionnl incompressible flow;

boundary layer 011 [1 plate 127

[1. Derivation of bouudnry-Inyer equations for two-dimcnsiona.l flow 127

b. The acparution of It boundary layer 131

c. A remark on t.he intcgrution of the boundary-layer equations 133

d. Skin Irict.ion 134

e. The boundnry layer along a flat. plate 135

f. Boundary lnyer of higher order 144

Rd"fences 148

CIIAl'TgH VII£. General properties of the boundary- layer equations 150

o. Dependence of tho chnructerisf.ioa of n boundary layer on the Reynolds number 150

b. "Similar" solut.ions of tho boundary-layer equntions 1!i2

c. Trn nsformnl.ion of UJn houndary-Iayer equat.iona into the heat-conduction

equal.ion 157

d. The momentum and energy-integral equations for the boundary layer 158

H.c[erCnl'CR 162

Gil A rTlm, I X, Exn.et. solutions of the stendy-atate boundnry-layer equations in two-

dhuensionnl motion 163

a. Flow pnst a wedge 104

b. Flow ill a convergent channel 166

c. Flow past. a cylinder; symmetrical ease (Blasius series) 108

d. Boundary lnyer for the potential flow given by U (x) = Uo - ax" 173

e. Flow in the wake of nat plate at zero incidence 175

f. The two-dimensional lnminnr jet 179

g, Pnrnllel stll1fl.llIR in lnminnr flow 183

VIII

Contcnfs

ell A PTEll, XII I. Laminar boumln.ry IlIyer" in oompressihlo now n. PhYRkal considcrn.tions

h. H~iltt,ion botwocu the velocity a.nr] IIIP t empcrnt.uro field" I. Adiahalic wall

2. Hent. trnuafor (nat, plnto, dp/,Lr ~ 0)

e. The [lnt. pln.to at zero incidence

d. BOUlldary layer with non-zero prossuro gradient I, I'~x"et. solut-ions

1.1. The l lliugwort.h-St.ewnr tson t.rnnsformul.ion 1.2, /.;,,1 [·"il1li 1:>1' 8011l1.ion"

2, Apl'J"()xillllllc 'lld-horl"

c. l nt eruct ion bet.wr-en shook wu vr- "lid houndnry layer It"II'!"('II('"R

ellA PTI·:n X IV. BOllnrlal"y.laycr r-ont.rol in lnminnr flow

a. l\1f'1.1.",Js of hOlllldary.lay('r conlrol I. MoUoll of Ihe soii.! ';'all

2. Ac('el('ral inn of t.h« hOlllldary layer (blowing] :l. HlIC'f·ioll

4. I njcf'l ion of a dltlr-rent gil"

Ii. Prev,,"1 ion of t rnnsit.ion by t.he provision of sultnble shnpos. Lnminnr nerofoils II. Coolillg of t he wall

h. Bolltlllnrv·lnYl'r "'H'I ion

I. Th"o;'I'I,i,:nl reslIlls

1.1. 1<'111111"m('IlI,,1 eqlla,l.ioIlS 1.2. I';xad "Ollll,iolls

1.:1. '\Pl'l"Oxilllal(' solut ions

2. I~x perintent,a I rTRlllb~ 011 suction 2.1, l ncrcasc in lift,

2.2. 1>""1""""(' ill (Irag

1', IHjedi,," of a <lilr r-r (·nl gil" (Biliary 1"""Hlary luycrs)

I. '1'11<'01'('1;",,1 ,"(,s"IIA

1.1. Th .. flllld" 111('111,,1 (''lll"li",," 1.2. Exact, solutinn«.

I .:~ . .:\ I'pro;..: illiate !';olnt,ioIlR

2. 1':\ I'l'I"ill"'III,,1 rcsults 1~(·f(,l'f'r1(T~

(:11"1''1'1';)( XV. 1\"II.sl .. ,,,ly ho""d,,I'Y IaY"I'A

n , 1:1'11"1",,1 n·"",,.)," 011 t hr- cn k-ulatiou of Ilnll'At"ady hOlllldary ),')"('1'" I. llolllldal'y.lay'·1' (''1"al iOIlA

2. Tht: ,,, ... h,,d of ""(·,·,,s"iv(' n pproximn t iOIlR

:1. ('.('. Lill'" 1III'Iholi fo,' 11("'io,li(, ext or nul llows

4. 1·~\P;lIl .... ioll into a !·wriI'R when n st.e:HI,y st rcu m is IWl"tllrhed F:.liHhtly ft, Silllilill' u nd K"llli~silllilllr solut ions t"'I • Ii. .\I'I'I"O,i"",ll'sollllinIlR

h. BOlllldary.I"Yl'l' fOrll1Htioli nrlpT' im pulsi vr- stnrt or mo l ion I. 'l\nl·dillH'llsioIWII'HHn

2. ,\ X ill II.\' "YlIllIl<'ll'il',,1 problcrn

(', BOlllldnry.liI'TI' fOl'lIlHlioll illlU'(,('h'ralf'd mot ion d. I';x pr-ri 111;'11 I ,;1 ill\"l'sl iga I inn of II,,· st nrt illg proc('ijA r-. 1'(,l'i"di(' hOl""lal"\'.lay,·r "')I\'s

I. OSl"ilialill" ,·,·iilld;'r ill Il uirl at I'I'Ht

2. (',('. ITill'; tllco!'\' of luumonir- I)~(·illati()m~

:1. 1';,ll'I"lIal fI,,\\· \\·il), ~II",II. ),"l"lIlOlIi .. I"'rlllrhalion .1. (h.·illalillg tlo«: I "rollgh " pip"

f. ;'\()n.~II',,,ly. "()llll'r,,~sihl{' houndllry 111.1'1'1""

ix

I. Boundary layer behind a moving normal shock wu vr

2. Flltt plate Ilt. zero incidence with vnrinble frec·stre'\lll velocity and surface

!ell'perature

lteferelw"R

Pnrt C. T .... nnRilioll

CITAI'TEIt XVI. Origin of t.urbulonco I

0.. f-\,"ne ex per imcutn.l rcsulta on tmnHil,ioll from 111111;'1111' In turhul r- nJ, flow I. Trrurait.iou in pipe now

2. Tl"ItllRitioll in t.he boundary I"yer Oil 1\ solid hotly

h. Priuciplcs of the theory of st'l,hiliLy of laminar flows

1. Introductory remarks

2. Foundation of the method of amn ll d isturboncos :I. The Orr,Sollllllcr["ld c'lIlEttioll

4. The cigenvulue problem

5. GClwml properties of the Orr·Rollllllerfdd oqun.t.iun

c. Results of the theory of stability as they apply to tho boundary layer Oil It 1Ia.1; plate at zero incidence

l , Rome older inveAtigntionR in to .. tahilif,y

2. C'lieulat,ion of tho curve of nr-ut.ral RI.nhility :3, ItcRIIII .• fOI' t.ho 1I"t, pluto

d. COlllp"riRon of tho theory of HI.ahilily with r-x perimont I. Older mcaaurcments of t.rnnsil.iou

2. Verificnl.ion of the theory of sl,,,hilily by nxporimont.

c. Effed of oseillat.ing free st r erun on transition f. Concluding rr-mnrk

Referencea

41ili 40:' 41i1i 41lH 47:1 47:1 4711 4H2 ,P:;:J

484

CIIAI'TI';R XVII. Origin of t.urhulonce IT

a.. 1';O',,('t of I"'('",nrll grn.!illllt Oil l.rnnsl t.ion ill houndn r y lny« r along smnot.h wall" h. Determination of t.ho position of the poi lit of instnhi lil.y for prc,erihc,1 body '"''I''' c. Elfect of suction on transition in a boundn.ry layer

d , 1';lr"ct of hotly forces nn trrmsi t.ion

I. Boul1'l:try'layer 011 convex walls (centrifugal rOI"(·"R) 2. '1'1", flow of non-humogenous fluids (strnt.ilieution}

e. J<:lr"el.~ duo to heat. Lrunsfer nllt! eOlllprcsRihilit.y I. lnt.roductory remark

2, The effect of heat transfer in iucomprcsalhle flow :1. The effect of courpressibilif.y

f. f-\Iahilil,y of It boundary layer in the presellcc of t.hrr-c-ditnonsiounl dist.llrhanl·('A I. Flow between concentric rotut.ing cylin.!ms

2. Bound"ry layers on concave wn lls

. :I. Stnhilil.y or I hrcc-dimouaiunul hOlllldnry luycrs ig.'l Th" intluenco of roughuess 011 t.ruuait.inn

, / I. lul roductorv remn.rk

2. Ringl!', cylil;drieal nJughncRR (l1(,1l1fl1l1~ :1. Dist.ril: u ted I'OlIghrl('ss

h. Axially symmot.rk-nl flows Rr-Icrcnr.cs

4H!l 4nO 4!H; "O!i "It) lilt) !i12 1i14 !i I ,1 lil4 lilU !it!l 52!) r,:J2 {l:H) Ii:W :':111 :.:17 !i40 M2 li'l,j

40H 408 408 410 411 413 41" 41!) 4li:i 4 iii 420 42:1 42/j 4:,!!l 428 ,1:12 4:14 4:11; ,1:1[1

Pari D, Tllrb"I"1I1 l,ouIHlary Inyers

(~II,\I'TEH XVIII. 1"1I1ldnnlllniais of t urhulcnt flow

fl. 11111"0<111('101'), filII'" rb

x

Contents

h. Mean mot.ion uncl Ilucbun t ions

c. J\ddit,i()lIa~, "u.ppnront." Lurbul cnt At.n'~SCR

d. Derivation of t,he Rt,rc~3 tensor of npparcnt turbulent, friction from the Navier-

Stokes "filiations

e. SOIl1C measuromonts 011 tluot.unting tllrhulcnt velocit ics

f. Engcrgy diatribut.ion in 1,11 rbu I en I. atronma

g. Wind-I.nnnel t.urb ulunoo Hdcren"cs

cn A PT 1~1t X I X. 'I'hooret.icnl assumpt.ions for the cnloulaf.ion of turhulcnt flows 1\. Fuudruuontal equations

h. I'randt.l's mixing-length theory

c. Further nssumptiona for t.he turbulent. shearing st.ress

d. Von 1{(lrm{t.lI'R similarity hypothesis

c. Uuivcraal vclocity-diat.ribut.ion 1(\\V8

J. Von Kftrlll{lIl's velocity-distribution law 2. I'randt.!'a volocity-dist.ribution law

f. Furthor development. of (,heorct·icnl hy pot.heses It('fNNH'cS

CIlAPT1~lt XX. Turbulent. flow through pip(,B

a. Experimental results for smooth pipes

b. Rclat.ion between law of friction and velocity distribution

c. Un~vcr8al vclocity-diatribution luws for very largo Reynolds numbers

d. l!.llIvnrsnl reSl~tance law for smooth pipes rtt very large Reynolds numbers

e. Pipes of non-circular croes-section

f. Hough pipes and equivalent, sand roughness.

g. Ot.hor t.Y pes of rough ness

h. Flow in curved pipes and diffusers

i. Non-steady flow t.hrough n pipe

j. Drng rr-dur.tinu hy the nddit.ion of p"lyulers

H!",!prf"H'CR .

ell A PTI~H. X X 1. Turbulent boundary layers nt. zero pressure gradient.; flnt plnto ; rotating diRk: roughness

a. The smoot h flat. plate

l. HC'R!stance formula deduced from the '/7·th·powcr velocity-diaf.ribution law 2. HPR,st'''lee formula deduced from t.he lognrithmic velocit.y-rliatribut.ion law :1. Furt.hor refincmonta

4. I';flc('t. of flnitr. dimoueious ; boundnry lnyera in corners n. Boundnry InYNs with suction 1t11l1 hlowing

h. Th~ ~'ot~ ~ i ng .(,tis~ l. .1 he free disk

2. The disk ill 0. housing

c. The rough plate

I. The rcsist aucr- ffll"lllul't for a uniformly rough plate 2. 1\](,IIRIII'CI1lClltS on single roughness elomouta

:1. 'I'rnnsit.ion from n smoot h to It rough surface

d. Arhnisaihlo roughneas 1~..r"I·('n('e~

f'IIAI'TElt XXII. The incompreesible turbulent boundnry layer with pressure gradient 0.. Some cxpr-rimcntu! 1·('slIlt.s

. h. The ,·,,It-uillt.ion of two-dimensionn.l t.urbuk-ut. boundn ry layers I. Gcnom I remnrks

2. 'i'l"Ildwnhroclt.'R intl'grnl 1I1el hod :1. HUHie !'qulI.t ions

Contents

557 55!}

4. Quadrature for t.he calculn.t ion of plane turbulent boundary layers

5. A pplicnt.ion of the method

6. Remnrks on tho behaviour of the turbulent boundary layers in t.he prcsence of n pressure gradient

7. Turbulent. boundary layers with suet.ion and lnjcction

8. Boundary lnycrs on eumhr-rcd wnlls

e. Tu rbu lcnt. hOllHdn.I'y InyprH 011 Ill'rofoilR; mnx iunnn lift

,I. Thrco-dimcnstono l hf)II;,dllry Illyerll

I. Boundary layers 011 bodies of rcvolution

2. Boundary lnyers on rotating bodies

3. Convergent and divergent boundary lnyers References

GOO ijG4 1i71 572 6115

578 579 583 585 586 586 587 591 G!J4

eH APTER XX Ill. Turbulent boundary layers in compreseible flow

a. Gcnernl rernar ka

1. Turbulent heat. tranafer

2. The fundamental equations for compressible flow

3. Relation between the exchange coefficients for momentum and heat

b. Relation between velocity and temperature distribut.ion

1. The transfer of heat from a flat plate

2. The transfer of heat from rough surfuccs.

3. Temperature distribut.ion in compresaible flow

c. l nfluence of Mach number; laws of friction I. The flat plate at zero incidence

2. Variable pressure

References

596 !)!)6 600 602 600 612 615 623 ()26 629 6:10 r.:n

CHAPTER XXIV. Free turhulent flows; jets and wakes

a. General remarks

b. Estimation of the increase in width and of the decrease in velocity.

c. Examples

l. The smoot.hing out of a velocity discontinuity

2. Free jet boundary

3. Two-dimensioual wake behind a single body

4. The wake behind a row of hars .

5. The two-dimensional jet

6. The circular jet

7. The two-dimensional wall jet

d. Diffuaion of t.em perature in free turbulent flow References

{i36 6:37 640 643 (l44 1145 H47 H47 (j49 6(,2 6('2 (j55 657 657 (ill5

CHAPTgn XXV. Dctormination of profile drag

a. Gencrnl rcmnrks

b. The experimental method due to Bet?

c. The experimental method due to .Iones

d. Calculation of profile drag

e. Losses in t.he flow through cnscades

1. General remarks

2. Influence of Reynolds number

3. Effect of Mneh number

References

Bibliography Index of Authors Subject Index Abbreviations

List of most commonly used symbols

6H8 (j68 (i71 In 1 li72 f,7ii

XI

677 f184

H8f, HR7 li!ttl H!I() (1!l2 H!IZ (i!lij (\!)(l (HJ7

702 702 702 70:J 706 707 707 7J2 71:1 71:, 7]() 72:3 724

720 729 731 n5 n5 7:17 739 744 741; 747 71m 71;2 755

7ii!! 75B 75!J 7(l1 704 7f,!! 7(jIJ 772 775 777 780 797 807 813 815

List of Tables

'I'a hlo I. I: VhwtH·.j Iy ('onv(·n .. dol1 faetOI'R S

Tah1e 1.2: »PII:-;ity. vis{'o~il.y. nnd kinerun t i« \'hwo~il.y of wn.t r' .. Hlld n ir ill tnnlls or 1.('111-

pr-rul ure 1'1

Ta.hle 1.:1: Kill(,I1"" it' vi,,,,,,"il.y !I

Tn hle 2.1: ThidW("f!" or bOlllldary layer, ,I, al lnoilillg I'dge of lIal pialI' ,,1. Zf'I"lI illdd"II""

ill para lid l urhulr-nl. tlow ,J:!

Table Ii. I: Fuuctlons occurrillg in the solul ion of plnue IIn<1 n xinllv ".1'111111('1 ";<"111 flo,," wi t h stagnation point. Plane case from L. Howarth 114J; axilll'y s)'Ill"wlril"1I1 .a<"

[rorn N. I<'ro('""li,,1,( 11'11 !IS

V"I"es of the fun(·tiol1~ 11<'('.1,,<1 for the clf'H<Til'lioll of III(' lIo\\" of" t lisl; rolatillg

ill n tluid ul. r"A(, cnh-ulutcd nt. 1.1,,· wnll I"ul ,,( a lorge "i"I",,,·,· frolll II,,· wn ll,

"" (,,,"',,I,,t,,d "y K M. fll"uTOW lind ,J. L. I1l'1'gg 1:121 IW.

'I'll" [uuot.ion /(If) for t,I", bounrlury lnyc-r ,,11l"g a filii pial,' n.t. z(,"o ill,·;,I"11'·",

"[(('I' L. l lownrt.h I J(j I I :1!1

H.""II" o[ t.hr: cnk-ulnf.iou of II", boundary luyor [01' It fiat, pial<' III l.'·ro ill,

dch'!lwp hURPd 011 npproxinui!« t h('ol',Y ~OH

Auxiliary f"""lio"" 1(>1' II,,· 1I1'1'1'I)"i,,,,,lo ,·"It'ltI"li,," of lmninn r "011 lid ''''.1'

I"YN", n ltor l l olstoin uud Bohlen [r.] 212

Conrpnriaou of o xru-f and npproximat.r: vu lur-s or HlP houlldary-laY('J" pnnl-

111('(,"1'" for I,It" eaRC of f.wo-rliun-usinnul RI"gllal,ioll flow 211i

Tit" funot.inns for t.he vclor-it.v distribution for t.ho eIlR!' of ro t n l.iun 0\"'1' a

stnt.ionury wall, afler .J. K Nydnhl PHIlI 22S

Ta hie 12.1: I'hy"i",,1 l'ollstall18 21 ill

Ta hlo 12.2: DimclIRiolileRR cooffieiont. of I"·,,t I . ra "" f ... r, fI" ,,",1 diml':IRiolllcRR a(linhal.ie

wrrll tmlll'eraillre. b, for n 11,,1, pln to "I, "ern iIWid('II"I', from ()(I"~. (12.70) n nr]

(12.7!;) 2!1!)

Tallie 12.:1: The ('Ollsl·:IIII, II ill lim «quut iou Ior II", calt-Illatioll of II", """fli"i"III, or ,,,,,11,

t.rnnsfor' in t.lro IwighhollrilOod of" "I "gllntioll poi II I , uf tr-r II. B. ~'1uj,·" 11:111 :Hlii

'1'"",,, 12.4: Nunu-rjcal vnlues or Ihe Iunvlion 11(/') :1II1i

Tn hlo 12.!i: V"llIeR of the Iuuotion F(X) I'm' 'he ("denlalioll of a IIwl'l II " I houlldary la.\'er

on a 1I0IliRoll)(,I'II1,,1 wa.ll ; aftcr D.Il. ~l'nl(li"g {120I :1I0

Tnhlo 12.11: (;""ffj('i(,I1I'8 of hcnt. t-ransfer Oil u hr-ated vort.ivul pialI' ill untnru l r-o nvoct.ion

(huuinar), ne"ordillll; (.0 refs. [!I:I, !l4, IO!J, 121;J :119

'l'nble 1:1.1: The function F(Xl for the I'I'CRRIII'C distr ihut.ion "Ionl( u lIal pial" in the neighbourhood of a shock wavr-, in uccorrlanco wit.h ('q"s. (1:I.H!I) "nd (I:UUI),

nrter N. Curlo 124J :171

'I'ublo H.I: l>illw"sionl('H" houmln ry-Iuycr l,hi"'(II('s" ')1 "lid "1,,,1''' Fnct.o r '\1/'\2 for Ih .. velocity proflles in tho initial I"ngl.h 0" a lln t. "1:tI,, ,.1. zero ill('i"I'II(," wit h

uniform suet.ion, after H. Iglisch [40.1 :lsn

T"bl" fi.2:
Tabl" 7.1 :
T"hle 10.1:
T,d,l" 10.2:
Ta"'" 10.:1:
Ta"'" I I. 1 : xiv

List of Tables

T"hln I Ii. I: WI1V1'II'l1gth ,\1)1 nnd frequency Ii, (~IIU~ of neutral dlsturbnncos in terms of the HeYllolds 11111"1,('1' R for the bouudury layer 011 n n",1. phtt,,, nt. zero incidence (Blnsills.l'rolilc). Theory n.ft.or W. 'I'ollmlon pm]; numerical cn.k-ulat.ions by H. .• lordinson 147] and D. R. Houston. both for parallel now. See Figs. Hi.[O

and [f). I 1 4G9

'I'o.bl e 17.1: Dependence of crit.icu.l n"Yllolds number of velocity profiles with suet.ion on

dinH·n.qionlc"R suet.ion volume fadm' ~, after Ulrich (24:1 J liO!)

Table 20.1: Rn.t.io of mean to maximum vclocit.y in pipe liow in terms of the exponent n

of t.hc velocity distribution, neeording to eqll. (20,li) GOO

Tuhle 20,2: Coefficient. of resistanee for Rll100th pipes in terms of tho Reynolds number Gll

Tuhlr- 21.1: fksist,ance formula for flat plato oomput.ed from the logarif.hmic velocity

profile in eqns. (21.14) and (21.15) 642

Tu hlo 21.2: Admissibl» height. of protuberances in terms of the Reynolds number 659

Tn hlo 21.:1: l~x:lI11plcA on tho cnlculnl.ion of ndmissible roughness from Fig. 21.16 GGI

Tl1hle 22.1, SUIlll1lltry of the qunuti ties which occur in the equntions for the cnlculation

of tho dimensionless moment.urn thickness, Rz, of thc dimensionless energy

t.hickncss, R3, ami of the sha.pc factor; see eqns, (22.lla, b) (l7R

Tahir. 22.2: i-illllllllary of numcrioal constnuts that occur in t.he explicit cquat.ions for t,he cnlculut.ion of mnmcutum ami energy thlcknoss: SI'C eqns. (22. ltl), (22.17), and

(22.1!») 679

Tahlc 23.1: The constants" and b for the calculation of the eoofflolont, of heat transfer

Irom eqn. (23.20) and of the recovery. factor from eqn. (2:1.27), nftor H. Rei-

chn rdt. [73] and .J.C. Rot.tn [81] 712

Tnblo 24.1: l'OIl'N 111\\'8 for t.h« incronso in width awl for the dcerenso in the centre-line

"elocity in terms of distance " for problems of free turbulent. flow 7:1-i

Forewnrd

To the First English Edition

Boundarylnycr thcory is the cornerstone of our knowledge of the flow ~f air nru l ot.hor fluids of small viscosity under circumstances of interest, in many engineering n pplications. Thus many complex problems in acrodynumics have been clarified by a st.udy of the flow wit.hin the boundary layer and its effect on the general flow around \.110 body. Such problems include the variations of minimum drag and maximum lift of airplane wings with Reynolds number, wind-tunnel turbulonco , and ot.hor parameters. Even in t.hoso cases where a complete ma.thomut.ical nnnlysls is at, present impruot.icablc, the boundary-layer concept has been extraordinarily Iru i lfu l and useful,

The development. of boundnry-Iayer theory during its first fift.y years is a Ias(:inat.ing illust.rat.ion of the birth of a new concept, i\.s slow growth for many yen.rs in the hands of its creat.or and his associates, its belated aooeptancc by others, and the subsequent, almost exponential risc in the number of contributors to i ts furt.her development.

The first. decade following the classical paper of Prandt.l in 1904 brought forth fewer fhn.n 10 papers by Prandt.l ami his studcnta, a rate of about one paper per yonr. Durillg t.he past year over 100 papers wore published on various nspccts of boundnry-Inycr theory and related oxpcrimcnt.s. The name of n. Schlicht.ing first. appears in 1930 wit.h his doctoral thesis on t.he subject of wake flow. Short.ly thereafter Schlioht.ing devoted major effort, to UIC problem of the st.ahility of laminar houndary-Iayer 1I0w.

My own interest in l.ho experimental aspccte of boundary-layer flow began in the luto 1.w01l1.ie8. \Vith t.ho a.ppearance of Seh lichting's papers int.cnsivc nt,kmpt,:; were made to find the amplified disturbances predicted by the theory, For 10 years the experimental results not, only failed to confirm this theory but, support.cd t.he idea that t.ransit.ion resulted from t.he presence of turbulence in the free air at.ronm as described in 11 theory set forth by G. 1. Taylor. Then on a well-remembered day in August, 1940, the predicted waves were seen in the flow near a flat pln.to in It wind tunnel of very low turbulence. The theory of stability described in Ow papers of Tollmien and Schlichting was soon confirmed quantitatively as well as qualitat.ively.

German periodicals available in the United States after the war referred to It series of lectures hy Sehlicht.ing on boundary-layer theory which had been published in 1942. This document of 279 pages with 116 figures WaS not available for some time. An English translation was given limited distribution as NACA Technical Memorandum No. 1217 in 1949. These lectures were completely rewritten to include material previously classified, confidential, or secret from Germany and other countries.

xvi

Foreword

The result wn.s l.ho hook of 4R:l pages and 21)G figureR puhlishod in 1951 in the German language. Wlwil this book became known to research workers and educators in HIP Unit.o<l ~(,ates, thoro was an immediate request from several quarters for an English l.rn.nslnf.ion , since IlO comparable book was available in the English language.

The technical eon tent of (.IH) present. r~lIgli~h edition is dcsoribod in the author's prr-fru-o. The cllIphaRiR is Oil HI{) fllnc\;tm{'ntal physical ideas rather UUUI 011 maf.hemnt.ioal rr-flnomeul .. Mdhodl'! of t.hoorct.ical nnnlysis are !;et forth along wit.h such oxpr-rimon+nl dat.a all are porf.inont to r1dino t.ho regions of applicabilit.y of I he t.hr-orut.ir-nl r('sIIH,R Of 1.0 givn physicnl illRight; into UIP phouomcnn.

Acrrmn.ut.ien] cnginoors nud research scir-nt.ists owe a debt of gratitude (,0 I'r(lI('~ROr Schlieht.ing for this t.imely review of tho present stnt.o of boundary-Iuycr t.hcory.

Author's Preface to the Seventh (English) Edition

Washington D. C., December 11)54

Hugh L. Dr y d o n

The sixth (r~llgliRh) ",mion of t.his ht)()k appeared in 1\)08; it, differed v0r'y liHle from the fiH.h (German) edition "I 1!JGG. Tho firRt. (Oet'man) edit.ion of t.his book wns published in 10GI. In UH' lime interval between I!J!)! and Hlns n.n I~l1gti,..h mlilion always followed a German edition. All t.runalut.ions have been prepared by I'rufesHo~' Kcsf.in in n n accomplished fashion.

When I decided in 11)75 to write a new edition of t,iliR book I came to UIC eonelusion Ulat. tho IlI'eeNling sC!lIlcnec of a German odit.ion followed by an Engli.~h cdit.iou was no longer prnct.icnhlo. The reason for it was Ute heavily incroasod cost. of print,ing. Consequently, I Ruggested to tho two publishing companies, G. Braun ill Knrlsruho and McGraw·lIiII in New York, to produce a new edition only in the English language. I exprCRR my thn.nks to bot.h Publishers for their consent.

As in t.he previous editions, I at,t.elnpt.ed t.hia time nlso to seled for inrlusion t.he most importn.nt. oont.rihut.ioua from Ilmon~ t.ho nbuurlnnt. m'or (,fm.(. n'PP('arcd ill 010 moant.i me in the field of boundary. layer theor-y, wil.hout., however, alkri ng Ule hnsic structure of m'y hook. I hope t.hat, tho principal thrust of UIC book remained intact. namely the intent to emphnsizc and 1.0 present thcoroticnl considernt.ions in 11, form aooesaihlo to engineers.

The subdivision of the book into four parts (Fundamental laws of motion of n viscous fluid; Laminar houndnry layers ; Transition; Turbulent boundary laY('l'H) hns boon rctnincd . Concerning (h(' additions I wish to mont.ion a few. Owing to t.ho advont (If large clocfrouic computers it. became possj hlo to t.acklo many pmbl(,IllH that. were considered unsolvable in the nnst., These include numericn l aolut.ion» of I.he Navier-Stokes equations for moderately large Reynolds numbers (Chap. IV). numerical integration of the boundary. layer cquntions for laminar and turbulent flows (Chap. IX), ns well ns the explicit numerical iut.egrat.ion of the Orr-Som merfcld equat.ion of the theory of stabilit.y of laminar boundary layers [Chnp. XVI). Another subject newly taken into account are exact solut.ious of the Nnv icr-St.okos cquntions for the non·steady Rt.agnation [low (Chap. V), t.he theory of l.hr- ln nrinn.r boundary layer of second order (Chap. VI [ nnd LX). The soct.ions on the cn.louln t j,)JJ 01 two.d imensionnl , incomprcsaiblc , turbulent boundary layers (Chnp. XXll), 011 the stabj lity of laminar boundary layers with compressibility and hea.ttrnnsfor elrpets (Sec. XVII e), and on losses in cascade [lows (Chap. X XV) have bee II (,o!l1l'lctdy revised.

xviii

Author's Preface 1.0 the Seventh (English) Edit,ion

Translator's Preface to the Seventh (English) Edition

Along with this new mn.terial, I feel that I ought to mention the topics which I specifically omitted to include, I do not, discusa the effect of chemical reactions on flow processes in boundary layers as they occur in the presence of hypersonic flow. The same applies to boundary layers in magneto-fluid-dynamics, low-density flows and flows of nou-Ncwtonin.n fluids. I sbill thought that I ought to refrain from giving an exposition of tho stnt.ist.icnl theory of turbulence in this edition, as in thc previous OI]('S, hocnuse nowndnys thoro are nvniln.hlo other, good presentations in book form.

Onco again, the lists of references have been expanded considerably in many chapters. The number of illustrations increased by about 65, but 20 old ones have been ornit.ted ; the number of pages increased hy about 70. In spite of this, I hope that the original character of this book has been retained, and that it, still can provide the reader with a bird',~.eye view of this important branch of the physics of fluids.

As I worked on the new manuscript I once more enjoyed the vigorous aasistanoe that, I received from several of my professional colleagues. Professor K. Gersten contributod sections on boundary layers of second order to the part, on laminar boundary byers (Sees. VUf and IXj). This is a special field which he successfully worked out in recent years. Professor T. K. Fanneloep contributed the completely reformulated section on the numerical integration of t.he boundury-Iayer equations included in Sec. IX i , In the part on turbulent boundary layers, Professor E. Truokcnbrodt provided me with a new version of the largest portion of Chapter XXII on twodimensional and rotationally symmetric houndary layers. Dr. L. M. Mack of the California Institute of Technology was good enough to contribute a new section on the stahility of boundary layers in supersonic flow, Sec. XVIIe. Dr. J. C. Rotta thoroughly reviewed Part D on turbulent boundary layers and made many additions to it. For the Russian lit.craf.nro I received much help from Professor Mikhailov. The translation was once again entrusted to Professor J. Kestin's competent pen. I express my sincere thanks to all th'ose gcnUemen for their valuable cooperat.ion.

I should also like to repeat my aclmowledgement of the help I received from several professional friends whcn I worked on the fifth (German) edition. Naturally, their contributions have now been retained for the seventh edition. This is the extcnsive contribut.ion on compressible laminar boundary layers in Chapter XIII written by Dr. F. W. Riegcls, Professor K. Gersten's section on thermal boundary layers in Chapter XII and Dr . .J.C. Rotta's text on compressible turbulent boundary layers in Chapter XXIII.

I express my thanks to Frau Gerda Wolf, Frau Hilde Kreibohm and Mrs. Leslie Giaoin for the careful preparation of the dear copy of the manuscript; Frau Gerda Wolf was also very helpful for me in the library. Messra. Rotta, Hummel and Starke were kind enough to assist. with the reading of the proofs.

Last" hut not lonst, thn.nks arc due to Verlag Braun for their willingness to accede to my' wishes and for the pleasing appearance of the hook.

The present is the fourth edition in the English language of Professor H. Schlichting's "Grcnzechicht-Theorie". Once again, the new edition was prepared in close coopornt.ion wit.h the Ant,hor whom I viaited several t.imcs in GoeU,ingl'n t·.o [i nn.l izrthe contents and t.he wording. I wish to t.hnnk Professor Seh! icht,ing fOI' his hospitn] it.y and Messrs. McGraw-Hill for part.in.l financial assistance in eonncxion with t.hcso t.rips.

This time there was no German printed edition and the modiflcationa introduced by the author were transmitted directly to me.

lowe a debt of gratitude to Professor H. E. Khalifa for his help in the task of proof-reading. My wife, Alicia, prepared the authors' and the subject indexes n.nd competently typed them under difficult circumstances. My secretary, Mrs. Giacin in Providence, and Mrs. Kreibohm in Goettingen expertly typed the manuscript; I express to them my sincere thanks for their patience. Both publishers, Mossr«, G. Braun of Karlsruhe and Messrs. McGraw-Hill of New York, spared no trouble, as on past occasions, in meeting our wishes regarding the production of thc book.

Providence, Rhode Island, August 1978

,J. Kc s t i n

Goettingen, August, 1978

Hermann Schlichting

From Author's Preface to the First (German) Edition

Rinee nhout t.ho heginning or l.ho eurront eont.ury modern reseuroh in l.h« lid.! of fluid dYlHullics lHtR uohiovnd great, suoccssos and has been able to provide It f,ll(1. orct.icn.l elnt-iflcnt.ion of observed phenornonn which Uw science or elnssieul hyclrodynamics or t.ho preceding century railed to do. l~sRelltially three brnnches or lluid dyllamie.~ have become particularly well developed during t.ho last Iift.y years; t.hoy include boundary-layer theory, gas dynamics, aIHI aorofoil t.hoory. The present book ia concornod with the branch known as boundary-layer theory, This is the oldest, brand. of modern fluid dynamics; it was [ounrlod by L, Prundl.l in ]!)04 when he succeeded in showing how flows involving fluids of VCI'y smn.ll viscosity, in particular water and air, the most, imporbnnf ones from the point of view of applications, can be mnrlo umouublo to mnl.hcmut.icnl unnlysia. This Willi nchiovod by t.ltlling the dred~ of friction into account only in regions where they arc essontial, namely in the thin boundary layer which exists in tho immodiato noighbourhood of a solid body, Thi« concept made it possible to clarify many phenomena which occur in flows and which had previously been incomprehensible, Most important of all, it, has become posaibl» to subject, problems connected with t.he occurrence of drag to a theoret.ieal analysis. The science of aeronaut.ioal engineering was making rapid progress and was soon able to utilize these theoretical results in practical applications, H did, furthermore, pose many problems which could he solved with the aid of tbe new boundary-layer t.heory. Aeronaubical engineers have long since made the concept of a boundary layer ono of everyday use and it is now unt.hinkablo to do without it. In other fields of machine design in which problems of flow occur, in particular in the design of Lurbomnchinory, tho theory of boundary layors made much slower progres~, hut in modern times t.hose new concepts ha vc come to t.he fore in such applications as well.

The present book has been written principally for engineers. It is the outcome of II. course of lectures which the Author delivered in t.he Winter Semester of H)41{42 for t.ho scient.ific workers of the Aeronautical Research Institute in Braunschweig, The 811 hjed. matter has been ul.ilizod after t.J1C war ill many special lectures held at. Lito I~ngineering University in Braunschweig for student • ., of mechanical engineering and physics. Dr. II. Hnhnemann prepared a set of lecture notes after Ute first, sel'i(~s of lecture" hall been given, These were read and amplified by t.ho Author. They were 8U bscqucntly published in mimeographed form by the Office for Scientific Doellmental.ion (Zentrnlo fiir wissenschnft.liohcs Borichtswosen) and dist.ributcd 1·0 .t limitod circle of interested soicntiflo workers.

Several years after the war tho aul.hor decided coruplct.oly to ro-edit this older compilation and to publish it in the form of a book, The t.irno seemed pnrt.ioula.rly propitious because it appeared ripe for the publication of a comprehensive book, and because t.ho results of tho research work carried out during the last. ton 1,0 twenty years rounded off the whole field.

x xii

1"1'0111 Aut.hor's P r r-r,w(' to I.h" VirRt, (O"rl1lal1) E,lit,iol1

The book is divided into four main purts. The first; part contnins two int.roductory chapters in which t.ho fundamentals of boundary-layer theory are expounded without. t.ho usc of mathematics and then proceeds to prepare the mathematical and physical justification for the theory of luminur boundary layers, and includes the theory of thermal boundary layers. The third part is concerned with the phenomenon of transition from laminar to turbulenf flow (origin of turbulence), and the fourth purt is devoted to turbulent flows. It is now possible to take the view that the t.heory of laminar boundary layers is complete in its main outline. The physical relations have been completely clarificd ; thc met.hods of calculation have been largely worked out and have, in many casos, becn simplified to such an extent; t.hat they should present no difficulties to cngineers. In discussing turbulent flows use has been made esscnf.ially only of the semi-empirical theories which derive from Prandtl's mixing length. It is true that according to present views these theories possess a number of shortcomings but nothing superior has so far been devised to tako their place, not.hing, that. is, which is useful to the cngineer. No account of the statistical theories of turbulence has been included because they have not yet attaincd any pract.ioal significance for engineers.

As intimnt.ed in the title, the omplmsis hns been laid on the thcoretical treatment of problems. An nt.tempt has been made to hring these conaidcrnt.ions into a form which can be onsily grl1l~ped by engineers. Only a smal] numbcr of results has been quoted from among the very voluminous experimental mnterial. They have been chosen for their suitability to give a clear, physical insight into the phenomena and to provide direct, verifioation of the theory prcsentcd. Some examples have been chosen, namely those associated wit.h t.urbulont flow, because t.hey constitute the foundation of the semi-empirical theory. An attempt was made to demonstrate t.hat essent.in.l progress is not made through an accumulat.ion of extensive experimental results but rather through a small number of fundamental experiments backed by theoretical considerations.

Introduction

Braunschweig, October 1050

Hermann Schlichting

Towards the end of the 19t.h century t.he science of fluid mechanics bcgan ~o develop in two directions which had practicnlly no points in common. On the one side there was the science of theoretical hydrodynamics which was evolved from Euler's equat.ions of motion for a frictionless, non-viscous fluid and which achieved a high degree of completeness. Since, however, the results of this so-called classical science of hydrodynamics stood in glaring contradiction to experimental results - in particular as regards the very important problem of pressure losses in pipcs and channels, as well as with regard to the drag of a body whieh moves through a mass of fluid - it had little practical importance. For this reason, practical engineers, prompted by the need to solve the imporf.anb problcms arising from the rapid progress in technology, developed their own highly empirical science of hydraulics. The science of hydraulics was based on a large number of experiment.al dat,a and differed greatly in its methods and ill its objects from the science of l.hcorot.icn.l hydrodynamics.

At the beginning of the present century L. Prandt.l distinguished himself by showing how to unify these two divergent branches of fluid dynamics. lIe achieved a high degree of correlation between theory and experiment and paved t.he way to the remarkably successful development of fluid mechanics which has taken place over the past seventy years. It had been realized even before Prandtl that the discrepancies between the results of classical hvdrodynamics and experiment were, in very many cases, due to the fact that the theory neglected fluid Iridian. Moreover, the complete equations of motion for flows with friction (the Navier-Stokes equations) had been known for It long time. However, owing to the great mathematical difficulties connected with the solution of t.hese equations (with the exception of It small number of pn.rt.icular cases), tho way to a theoret.ieal treat.ment of viscous fluid motion was barred. Furthermore, in the case of the two most important fluids, namely water and air, the viscosity is very small and, consequently, tho forces due to viscous friction are, generally speaking, very small compared with the remaining forces (gravity and pressure forces). For this reason it was very difficult to comprehend that the frictional forces omitted from the classical theory influenced the motion of a fluid to so large an extent.

In a paper on "Fluid Motion with Very Small Friction", read before the Mathematical Congress in Heidelberg in l!)04, L. Prandtl t showed how it was possible to analyze viscous flows precisely in cases which had great practical importance. 'Vit.h

t L. I'randtl, Ubor Fliissigkrilsbewc.,gung hei sohr kleincr RCirih ~~e. Thinl Intern. Math.

Congress, Heidelberg 1004, pp. 484 -401; sec also !>. Prui' '{~'Be!,te Abhandlungcn .zur angewandten Moclmnik, Hydro- und Aerodynnmik (Co~ .J Wo.r~ '~(1. by W. Tollrnlen,

H. Schlichting and H. Gortfer, vol. II PI'· 575-584, Sprft,.. cr!!~~llIa ~'I"

2

Introduction

Introduction

3

the aid of thooretienl oonsiderat.ions and several simple experiments, he proved that th:- flow about a solid body enn be divided into two regions: a very thin layer in the neighbourhood of tho body (boundm'Y la.yer) where friction plays an essential part, and UIC remaining region outside t.his layer, where friction may be neglected. On the bnais of this hypot.hesis Prundt.l succeeded in giving !l. physically pellPt.ro.t.ing oxplannt.ion of tho importnnco of viscous llowa, achieving at the sn.mo time n mnximum degree of simplification of the attendant mnt.hcmn.tical difficulties. The theoret.ieal considerations were even then supported hy simple cxperimcnt.s performed in a small water tunnel which Prnndtl built. with his own hands. He t.hus took the first step towards a rouniflcat.ion of theory and practice. This boundary-layer theory proved extremely fruitful in tlutt. it. provided an effective tool for the development of fluid dynamics. Since the beginning of the current century the new theory has been developed at. a very fast rate under tho addit.ionnl stimulus obtained from t.he recently founded science of aorodynnmies. J n a. very short time it became one of the foundation Rt.OIl('S of modern fluid dynamics t.ogetJlCr with tho other very jrn porbn.nf developmcnts -- tho acrofoil theory and the science of gas dynamics.

I n more recent t.imes a good deal of at.tention has been devoted to st.udiea of the mat.hcmat.ioal jusf.ificat.ion of boundary-layer theory. According to these, houndarylayor theory provides us with It first approximat.ion in the framework of a more general t.hcory designed to calculate asymptof.ic expanaiona of t.he solutions to the complete equat.ions of motion. The problem is reduced to It so-called singular pert.urbation whieh is then solved by t.he method of matched asymptotic expansions. Boundary-layer theory thus provides us wit.h It classic example of the application of the met.hod of singular por+urbat.ion. A geneml presentation of perturbation methods in fluid mechanics wns prepared by M. Van Dyke]. The basis of these methods can be traced t.o L. Prandt.l's early cont.ributions.

The boundaryInyor theory finds its applioa.tion in the onlcnlat.ion of the skinfriction drag which nets on n body ns it. is moved t.hrough a l1uid: for example the drag experienced by a flat. plato atc zero incidence, tho drag of a ship, of an aeroplane wing, aircraft. nacelle. or t.urhino blnclo. Boundary-layer flow has tho peculiar property that under certain conditions Lho flow in the immediate neighbourhood of a. solid wall becomes reversed causing the boundary layer to aoparate from it r, This is accornpanicd hy a more or less pronounced formation of eddies in t.ho wake of tho body. Thus the pressure distribution is changed and differs markedly from that in a Iriotiouloss stroam. The deviat.ion in pressure distribution from the ideal is the cause of form drag, and it.s cnloulat.ion is thus mado possible wit.h t.he aid of boundarylayer t.heory. Boundnry-lnyor theory gives an answer to tho vcry important question or what shapo must. a body he given in order to avoid t.his dct.riment.al separation. RqJltmt.inll can n lso ooour in t.Iw int.ernul flow t.hrough a channel and is not. confined to cxterna l flows pnst. solid bodies. Problems connected with l.ho flow or fluids through the channels formed by the bladeA of turbomachines (rotary ()ompressors and t.urbines) call abo he t.rcatcd with the aid of boundary-layer theory .1~lIrt.J}()rIllOre, pliellonwlla which occur at. t.ho point. of maximum lift. or an aero foil and which arc ass()(·iat.e~d with st.alling ea.1I he understood only on t.11(' hasia of boundary-layer

t.heory. Finn.lly, problems of heat. Lransfer between It solid body and a fluid (gas) flowing past it also belong to the elnss of problems in which bou·I1<lary-la.ynr phr-nomenn play It dcciaivo part,

At. first the houudnry-Iayor theory was developed mainly for t.hc cnso of laminar flow in an inoomprosaiblo fluid, a.s ill t.lris case t.ho phunomouologj cn! hYl'ot.lief<if< for slwltrillg At.resses already nxist.erl ill Urn form of ~t.()lwR'fl law. 'I'hi» i.ol'in waH suhsequently developed in a large number of reaonrch paperA and rn:whcd such a stage of perfection t.ha.t at present UlC problem of lnminnr 1I0w call be e'ollsid<'fe(1 to have been solved in itR main outline. Luter the t.hcory was ()xt.ell<bl t.o include t.urhulont, incompressible boundary layers which arc more im portnnt. from t.ho poilil. of view of practioal applications. It is true that in the ease of t.urbulont flows O.H.eynolds introduced the fundamentally important concept. of appnront, or virf.un.l I.nrhulent. stresses as far back as 1880. However, thia concept was in itself insufficient. to make the theoretical analysis of turbulent flows possible. Great progress was achieved wit.h the introduction of Prandtl's mixing-length theory (1025) which, together wit.h sysLemat.ie cxperirncnta, paved the way for the theoretical treatment of turbulent flows with the aid of boundnry.Inycr t.heory. However, a rational t.heory of fully developed turbulent 110ws is still nonexistent, and in view of Ute extreme complexit.y of such flows it will remain so for a considerable t.ime. Ono cannot even be certain tl~at science. will ever be successful in this task. Tn modern t.imes t.he phenomena which occur III t.he boundary layer of II. compressible flow have become the subject of intensive investigat.ions, tho impulse having been provided by the rapid increnso in tho speed of flight of modern aircraft .. In addition to a velocity houmlnry layer such flows develop a thermal boundary layer and its existence plays nn importent part in the process of heat transfer hctween the fluid and the solid body past. which it. flows. At very high Mach numbers, the surface of UIC solid wall becomes heated to a high temperature owing to the production of frictionnl heat ("thermal bnrrior "). This phenomenon presents a difficult annlyt.io problem whose solut.ion is impor tnnb in nircraft design and in t.ho underst.anding of t.lle motion of sat.ellites.

Thc phenomenon of transit.ion from laminar to turbulent flow which is fundumentnl for t.he science of fluid dynamics was first. invest.igatod at. the end of tile J!)t,h ccnt.ury , namely by O. Reynolds. In 1014 L. Pra.ndtI carr ied out. his famous experiments with spheres and succeodod in showing that the flow in I.he boundary layer can also be either laminar or turbulent and, furthermore, that. the problem of separation, and hence the problem of the cnlculat.ion of drag, is governed by this transit.ion. Thooret.ieal invest.igations into the process of t.rnnsit.ion from laminar to turbulent flow arc based on tho aocept.anco of Reynokls'a hypothesis that, t.ho latf.or occurs as a COIlRequcnce of an instability developed by t.he laminar boundary layer. Prnndt.l init.int.erl his thcoret.icn.l invcst.igntion of transition in the ycar 1021 ; aft.or many vain efforts, success came in the year 1929 when W. Tollmien computed thoorct.ioally t.he critical Reynolds number for trnnsit.ion on a Aat plate at zero inoidence. However. more than ten years were 1.0 pn.ss before 'I'ollmicn's t.heory ('.oulel he veriflcd t.hrough t.he very careful experiments performed by 1I. 1 ... Dryden and his coworkors. TIl(' stn.bilit.y theory is capable of taking into account the cITcct of a numbor of parameters (pressure gradient., suction, Mach number, transfer of bent) on t.rnnsifion. This t.heory has found many import.ant applications, among them in the design of aorofoils or vcry low drag (laminar aerofoils}.

lilt rod notion

Modern irrvost.igal.ions in UlC field of fluid dynamics in general, as well as in the field of boundary-layer research, are characterized by a very close relation between theory and experiment. The most irnporbanb steps forwards have, in most cases, been t.al{cn as a result of a small number of fundnmcnt.al experiments hacked by theorotical considornt.ions. A review of the development of boundary-layer t.heory which st.rcsscs t.hc mutual cross-fort.iliznt.ion between theory and experiment, is oont.aincd in an articlc written hy A. Bctz ]: For about, twenty years after its inception by L. Prandt.] in ]()04 l.he boundary-layer theory was being developed almost exclusively in his own inst.itu te in Goett.ingen. One of the reasons for t.hia st.nt.o of affairs may well have been rooted in the circumstance that. Pmndtl's first publication on boundnry-Iayor t.heory which appeared in ]904 was very difficult to understand. This period can be said to have ended with Prandtl's Wilbur Wright Memorial Lecture" which was delivered in 1027 at a meeting of the Royal Aeronautical Society in London. In later years, roughly since 1930,0t.her research workers, particularly UlORC in Gren.t, Britain and in the U.S.A., also took an active part in its development. Today, the study of boundary-layer theory has spread all over the world; together with other branches, it constitutee one of the most important pillars of fluid mechanics.

The first 6urvey of this branch of science was given by W. Tollmien in 1931 in two short, articles in t.ho "Llundbuch del' ]~xperimentalphy8ilt" t. Short.ly aftorwards (10:l5),Prawltl published a oom prchonsivo proscntn.t.ion ill "Aerodynamic Theory" edited by W. F. Durnndt. During tho intervening four decades the volume of research into t.his subject, has grown enormouslyji. According to a review published by H. 1,. Dryden in 1955, the rate of publication of papers on boundary-layer theory reached one hundred per an1t11.m at that time. Now, some twenty years later, this rate has more than tripled. Like several other fields of research, the theory of boundary layers has reached a volume which is so enormous that an individual seientist., even one working in this field, call not be expected to master all of its specialized subdivisions. It is, therefore, right that. the task of describing it in a. modern handbook has he en ent.r ust.od to several authors t The historical development. of boundary. layer theory has recently been traced by I. Tani*.

Part A. Fundamental laws of motion for a viscous fluid

CHAPTER I

Outline of fluid motion with friction

II. Henl nllll I .. ~rrcct fluid"!

t A. Betz, Ziclo, Wogo und konst.rulct.ivo AIIRwcrt.lIl1g der StriirnungAfomc:hung, ZciLschr. VDI VJ, (HHIt) 253.

o J,. Prandtl, The, g("1cmlion of vortices in fluids of smnll viscosity (l!"it.h Wilbur Wright Memorial Lecture, 1!)27). J. Roy. Aero. Soc. 3J, 721-741 (1\)27).

C}. the hihliography on p. 7S0. .

L. i'rallcit.l, The mechanics of viscous fill ids. Aororlynarnio 7'hcoJ"y (W. F. Durand, ed.), Vol. 3, :14 208. Berlin, 1 !I:II;.

§ II. Schlichting. Some developments of houndnry-Inyer research in the past thirty years (The Thinl Lancheator Memorial Lecture, I!Jr.!). J. Roy. Aero. Soc. 64, 63-S0 (l!)(lU).

SCI' nlso: H. Schlichting, Recent progress in bounrlary.lnyer research (The 37th Wright. Brothers M(,1I1ori,,1 Lr-ct.n rr- 1\17:1). ,\lAA ,1 nur II n I 12,427 - 440 (1!)74).

* I. Tnni, II istory of houndnry-luyer research. Annun I Rev. of VIII if! Mechanics 9, 87 - II I (l!177).

Most t.heoret.ical iuvcstigat.ions in the field of fluid dynamics are based on the concept of a perfoot., i. e. frict.ionlcsa and incompressible, fluid. In the motion of such a perfect fluid, two contacting layers experience no tangential forcos (shearing st,resses) but act. on each ot.hor wi th normal forces (pressures) only. This is equivalent; to stnt.ing tim!; a perfect. fluid offers no internal rel-1iRt.arh~e to a change in Rhape. Thc t.heory dcscribing UlC motion of a perfect fluid i9 mat hr-mnt.icn.lly very far developed and supplies in many cases a satisfactory dcscript.ion of real motions, such as e. g. the mot.ion of surface waves or the formation of liquid jets in air. On the ot.her hand the theory of perfect fluids fails completely to account. for the drag of a body. In this eonnoxion it leads to the statement that a hody which moves uniformly through a fluid which extends to infinity experience" no drag (rl'Alcmbcrts paradox).

This unaoceptablc result of the theory of a perfect Iluid can be traced to the fact that I.he inner layers of a real fluid transmit tangential as well as normal stresses, this heing also t.hc case near a solid wall wetted by a fluid. These tangent.ial or friet.ion forces 111 a real fluid arc connected wit.h a property which is called the viscosity of t.he fluid.

Because of the absence of tangential forces, on t.he boundary bctween a perfect lIuid and a solid wall there exists, ill gt"~neral, a. differenec ill relative t.angclltial velocit·ies, i. e. there is slip. On t.ho ot.hcr hand, in "1':11 fluids l.ho e xisl.cnoe of int.crmolecular attractions causes thc fluid to adhere t.o a sol id wall and t.his gives rise to Rhearing stresses,

Thc exist.ence of tangential (shearing) st.rossr-s and the condition. of no slip nen.r solid walls const.itut.e tho essential differences between a perfect and a real fluid. Certain fluids which are of great practical import.ance, such as water and air, have very small coefficients of viscosit.y. In many instances. the motion of such fluids of 811Ulll viscosity agrees very well with t.hat of a perfect fluid, because in most cases the shearing stresses are very small. For this reason the existence of viscosity is completely neglected in the theory of perfect fluids, mainly because thia introduces a far-reaching simplification of the equations of mot.ion, as a result of~~ext.cnsive mathematical theory hccomos possible. It. is, however,imp~ltr.-!.~~~,ss t.he fad that

6

I. Outline of fluid motion with Iriot.ion

7

even in fluids with very small viscosil.ies, unlike in perfec]. f1ui.JR, t.IH1 condit.ion of no slip near II. solid boundnry provn.ils. Thi« condit.ion of no slip int.rod uces in llJal1Y eases very large discropnncics in t.ho laws of motion of perfcet and real fluids. Tn port.iculn.r, t.ho vcr'y largc discrepancy between t.he value of drag in a real n.ncl a perfect. Iluirl haH its physical origin in the condition of no slip ncar a wall.

This hook (lclIl~ wit.h t.ho motion of fluids of smn.ll v isooait.y, Iwcnllse of t.he great. pracl.ical importance of Ute prohlorn. During t.ho course of t.hc st.udy it will become clear how t.his part.ly consistent and pn.rt.ly divergent bohn v iour of perfcct and real fluids can be oxpluined.

The quant.it.y f1, is a property of the fluid and depends to II. great extent on it.s tornpernt.ure. It. is a ruensurc of tho 7Ji8CO,~it!l of t.he fluid. The law of Iriet.ion givcn hy CfJlI. (1.2) is 1010WII as Neiotan?« law 0/ friction. 1<:()I1. (J ,2) can bo rcgnnlpd :t.H t.ho dclinit.ion of viscosity. It. is, however, neccsf1ary to st.ross t.hat the oxn.mplo considorod in Fig. 1.1. oonstitut.c« a purt.icularly airnplo Cl11lC of fluid mot.ion. A gelll'rali;>;al,ion of t.his simpk- cnso is eont.n.inod in flt,olwA's law of Iricl.inu ic]. Chap. III). 'I'h« dilllPllsiorlH of' v iscoxit.y can lie deduced without, difficulty from eqn. (1.2)"1'. The shearing sln'sH is measured ill N/m2 ~.C Pn and the velocity gradient, dn/dy ill scc". 111'1)(:('

h. Viscosity

p = [~] 0,=0 Pn sec,

In ace

Till' nn t.uro of v iacosit.y can best. he visualized with the aid of the following expcrimcnt: Conairlcr "he mol.ion of a fluid bet.ween two very long parallel plates, aile of which is at, rost, tho ot.hor moving wif.h a oonstanb velocit.y parallel to it.self', as RhoWII in "'ig. 1.1. Lct. t.ho distano« bet.ween t.ho plates be h, the prcRsnre being const.ant

where the square brackets arc used t.o denote units. Tho above is 1101. t.ho only, or even tho most, widely, employed unit of viscosity. Tuhlo 1.1 list,1l UI(] various unit.1I toget.her wit.h their conversion factora.

Eqn. (1.2) is rela.tcd to Hookc's law for all dasUe solid body in which case the shoaring stress is proport.ional to tho st.rnin

T = Gy with

at:

Y =ay'

(1.3)

Fig. 1.1. V dod ty Ii ist.ri bu t.ion ina viscous flllid between t.wo para 1101 rlat, walls (COIICtt.P flow)

Here (J denotes the modulus of shear, y the change in angle between two lines which were originally ILt right angles, and!; denotes t.ho diaplaccmcnf ill the direction of n hscissae. Whorcas in tho case of an clnst.io solid the slwaring st.rcss is proport.iona.l 1,0 t.he maqnitude 0/ the strain., y, experience tcuchcs that in t.he case of fluids it is proportional t.o thc rate 0/ chanqc of strain dy/df. If we put

t.hrouuhout tho fluid. F:xpcriment, t.ca chcs I.hat Lhe fluid adhcros t.o bot.h walls, so I,hal, i1.:" volocit.y at, t.ho lower plat.c is 7;(>1'0, and !.Imt. at, t.lio upper "Ial.n is equal 1,0 t.hc velocity of t.he plate, II. Furt.hormore, t.ho velocity distrihut.ion ill the fluid bot.ween t.he plnf.os is linear, so that the fluid volocity is proport.ional t.o thc dist.ance y from Ih.· lower plato, and we have

we shall obtain, aR before,

11 u(y) = h U.

(U)

011

T = /1 <hi

because!; = 11.1. However, this analogy is not. cnmplet.o, because t.he RI,f($SCS ill a fluid depend on one constant" UIC v iacosi l.y II, whoroas i.hoso in an isot.ropic "Iastie solid depend 011 two.

In order 1.0 support t.he motion it is necessary 1.0 apply a t.allgent.ial foroo to t.ho upper plntc, tho force being in equilibrium with the Frici.ional forces in t.he fluid, I L is known from experiments t,hat t.his force (taken per unit aren of t.he plat.o) is proport.ionnl t.o t.IlC velocity U of tho IIppcr plnt.o, and inversely proportional t.o the diRt,ane!' h. The Fricl.ionnl force por unit, area, denoted hy T (frietional Rhcaring stress) i8, t.hcroloro, proport.ionnl i.o II/h, for which in gencral we may als,o subst.it.utc dl//lly. 'l'h« proportiouulit.y fador between T and du~dy, which we shalldenote by u, Ilepcnds 011 t.ho nature of UIO fluid. It. is Hlllall for, "Lhin" Ilnids, suoh 'ItS water or n.leohol , hut, largr in t.ho caso of very ViRCOIIS liquids, such as oil or glycerine. 'I'hus we have ohtninod U[() fundnmontnl relation for fluid fricf.ion in the form

)

Tn all Iluid nrol.ions ill which Iriot.iouul and inert.iu Ioroes inl.ernot. it. is import n nt, to consider tho rnt.io of tho viscosit.y, II, 1,0 tho dnnsit,y, (!, known lLS t.lro kinenuuic viscosity, and denot.ed hy I':

v = "

o

(1.'1)

du

(1.2)

t Wo shall cousistonf.ly lise ill t.hi~ hook the gravitat.ional or f'ngirH~()rillg sysl.em of unit": in accordnuoo with iutematiounl ngroement tho "ymhol" kl' :111<1 lbf will I", ",,,,,I to .Ienot" II", respcct.ive units of force; t.he corresponding units of mfl,,<,< will hc deuotcd bv t,h" ahhrcvi.u.ions kg nnrl Ib respectively. III some tablos, the units will be thos« of the SI ~)'Rt(,lll.

T = It dy

s

I. Out.line of fluid motion with friction

Table 1.1. Viscosity conversion factors n. Absolute viscosity I'

e. Compressibility

Pa soc

Numerical values: In tho case of liquids the viscosity, It, is nearly independent. of pressure and decreases at a highrnt.o with increasing temperature. In the case of gases, to a first approximut.ion, the viseosity can he taken to be independent of pressnre hut, it. increases wit.h tcmjtornt.uro. Tho kinomnt.io vlscoslty, I', fol' liqui.la has t.ho same t,ype of t.cmpern.t.uro dcpcndonco as fl, bccnuso Ute donsit.v, (!, (,lrltllgl'fl only slightly with temperature, However, in tho CItSO of gn,ses, for which (! deen,a.ROA considerably with increasing tcmpcruture, II increases rapidly wit.h temperature. Table 1.2 contains some numerical values of e, Jl and v for water and air.

Table 1.3 contains some additional useful dat.a.

kp sec/mz kp hr/m2 Po sec kg/m hr .I Ibf see/ft2 Ibf hr/ft2 Ib/ft sec

kp scc/rn2

3,GOO

1·0197 X 10-1 2·8325 X 10-5 4·8824

1·7577 X 10' 1·5175 X 10-1

kp hr/m2

2·7778 X 10-' I

2'8:J25 X 10-5 7·8682 X 10-0 1-:l5G2 X 10-3 48824

4·215:1 X 10-5

9·8067 3·5:l04 X 10' I

2·7778 X 10-4 4·7880 X 101 1·7237 X 105 1·4882

Table 1.3. Kinemat.io viscosity

kg/m hr

Ib/ft sec

3'5316 X 10' 127·1 X 10'

•

0·1724 X 10·

620-8 X 10" r;'358 X 10'

1M sec/ft'

2·0482 X 10-1 7'3734 X )02 2'088.5 X 10-2 5·8015 X lO-" I

3,600

"·1081 X lO-2

Ibf hr/ftZ

5·0893 X 10-5 2·0482 X 10-1 5·8015 X 10-" HH15 X 10-9 2·7778 X 10-4 I

9·63:J6 X 10-8

0-5898

2·3723 X 10· 6·7197 X 10-1 1·8666 X 10-' 3,2174 X 101 )·1583 X 105 I

Temporature f' X 10·
Liquid
°C [m2/s]
Glycerine 20 680
Mercury, 0 0'126
Mercury . . . 100 O'O!Jl
Lubricating oil 20 400
Lubricat.ing oil 40 100
Lubricat.ing oil 60 30 h. Kinemat.ie visoosity v

I m2/sec I m2/hr I crn2/scc ft'/sec I ft2/hr
rn2/ace I 3,600 1 X 10' 1-0764 X 101 3'8750 X 10
m2/hr 2·7778 x 10-' I 2·778 2-9900 x 10-3 1·0764 x 10
em 2/sec (Stokes) 1 X 10-' 0'36 I 1·0764 X 10-3 3'8750
ft'/scc 9·2903 X 10-2 3·3445 X lO2 n·2n03xI0' I 3,600
fV/hr 2·5806 X 10-5 9·2H03 x lO2 2·fi806x10 2·7778 x 10-4 I e. Compressibility

Compressibility is a measure of the change of volume of a liquid or gas under the action of external forces. In this connexion we can define a modulus of el.a8ticity, E, of volume chango, by the equation

LlV

LIp = - EVa' (1.5)

Table 1.2. Densit.y, viscosity, and kinomat.io viscosity of water and air in terms of temperature

Air
Watcr at a pressure of O'O!)!) MPa
Tcmperature (14·G9!llbf/in')
~~- -- ------
Viscosity Kinemnt.io Viscosit.y Kinematic
Density (! viscosity Density (! viscosity
v X 10· /t V X 106
-----~-~ kg/rn3 It Pn sec rftz/sec 1 kg/rn3 I' Po. sec m2/sce
°C
-20 - - - . 1'39 16-6 11·2
-10 - - - 1'34 16·2 12·1
0 9!)!)·3 1795 1·80 ! 1·29 16·8 13·0
10 999'3 1304 1·30 1·25 17·4 13·9
20 997'3 10lO iot 1·21 17·9 14·8
.40 991-6 655 0·661 1·12 19·1 17·1
60 982·6 474 0·482 1-06 20·3 19·2
80 971·8 357 0'367 0-99 21'5 21·7
Ion 959·1 2!!3 0'2!15 0·94 22·9 24·4 Here LI VJVo denotes the relative chunge in volume brought about by n. pressure increase LIp. Thecomprcssibility of liquids iavory smnll : e.g. for water E = 280,000lbf/in2 which means that It pressure increase of 1 atrn (14.7 IbfJin2) cuuscs a relabivo change in volume of about 1/20,000, i. e. 0·005 pcr cent. Other liquids show similar properties so that their compressibility can he neglected in most cases, and flows of liquids can be regarded as incompressible.

In the case of gases, the modulus of elasticity, E, is equal to the initial pressure Po, if the changes are isothermal, as can easily be deduced from the perfect-gas Iaw ] For air at NTP (atmospheric pressure and ice-point temperature) E b 14·7 Ibf/in2, which means that air is about 20,000 times more compressible than water. Similar conditions obtain for other gascs.

t From the perfect gns law it can be deduced that the change in volume, /I V, eausod by a change of prcssure ,lIp. satisfieR the relation (p" -+ ,'Ip) ( V n + J V) = 110 Vo' Hcnce lip::::: - Po ;1 V / V".

10

r. Out.line or fluid motion wlf.h rriction

d. The Hngcn.l'oiscuillc C'l"ntioJl" of flow t.hrough n. pipo

II

r n orclor t.o n nswr-r t.ho quest.ion of whet.her it, is necessary t.o take into account HIP (",0111 pn'""ihilit.y of gall(,R in prohl"mR of 1111 id lIow it, is 11('('I)S8;'lry t.o consider whether ~,IH> ,,"angl'" in pn's811~'e bro.lIgh!, ahoul, hy t,I~" ~lIot.i()II of UIl:_f1l1id onuso large changes ~" volll,nll', Illxt,(':ul of eO""lcI"rlJlg volumes It, I" ulso possibln to csl.imato tho change III dCIIslt,y, U' OWIJlg to t.ho eonaervnt.ion of I1lft8", we oa n write : ( Vol- 1'1 V) (el) + LIe) = VII eo. xo t.hnt. fIU/t!n ceo·_ II 1'/ I'n, and ('11". (1,1)) can he written as

cl. The IIngcn-Poiseuille e'luatioJls of Oow through 8 pipe

!lp = [i) .tIU • go

(l.I)Il)

The elementary lnw of Iriot.ion for a simple flow wil.h shear described ill Sect.ion I b call hn applied to UIC important, nnd moro gennml, case of 11011' t.hrough a st.raight, pipe of circular cross-sect.ion having a consbn.nt diameter J) = 2 fl. The volocil.y at the wall is zero, hecauso or adhesion, awl ronches a mnximu rn 011 the n xis, Fig. 1.2. The velocity remains const.n.nt 011 cyliudricn.l surfaces which arc conccut.ric with t.he axis and the individun! eylindrieltl laminae alido OVOI' ('ll.I'h ot.hor, t.ho voloeit.y ('"inl-( purely axial cvorywhorovA motion of l.his kind is eallod laminar, AI. n Rliniei,~nUy largo dist.aueo from I.he onl.ranco sect.ion t.ho vl'iodt.y diHt,rihllt.ioll aero",s l.ho ,,,~,,t,ioll 1,,,.' comes independent of Lhc eoorrlinnf.c along the d iroct.ion of flow,

Conseqllcllt.iy t,he llo w of a gas cn.n h" considered irwomprcHsible when the relat.ivo ehalll-(e ill ,h~nRit.Y romn ins very small, 110/(!o ~ I. As known from Bernoulli's equation p I- ~ e 1IJz = eon~t, (III c-r: vdocit.,y of flow). the ehange of pressure, LIp, hrought, about, hy t.ho now IS of UJe order of t.he dynamic head 'l = ! (! w2, so that C'In, (I ,5a) I)(,,~ollles

(1.6)

Fig, 1.2. Laminar flow t.hrough a pipe

If, t,hm'dore, Ilo/eo should hl~ small compared with unity then, as seen from eqn. (1.6), we ~nll"t, also h.ave 'II I~ ~ 1.1 t has OllIS been proved that flows of gases can be treated as HI eo III IH'CSSI hlo, WIth a good degree of approximation, if HIC dynamic head is small comparod with the modulus of clust.icit.y.

. TIIP. 8a~lle result. can he expressed in a different way if the velocity of sound is iut.roduoerl 1111,0 I.ho equation. According to Laplaee's equal.ion tho velocity of sound is ~2 -= RI(!w 1T"llec HIC condit.ion Ae/uo ~ I from eqn. (l.6) can also he writtcn

!!e ~(!o Il!_' R1 1 (~_)2 ~ 1 .

eo 2 E 2 e

The fluid moves under the inllucnec of the prnsllure gradient which adll in tho direction of the axis, whereas in sections which arc perpendicular 1,0 it t.ho presslll'e may be regarded as constant. Owing to friction individual layers act on each other wit.h a shearing stress which is proportional to the velocity gradient lhl/dy. Hence, a fluid part.iclo is accelerated by the pressure gradient and retarded by the frictional shearing stress. No additional forcos are present, and in pnrtioular inertia forecs arc absent, because along every streamline the velocity remains constant. In order to establish the condition of equilibrium we consider a coaxial fluid cylinder of Iongth 1 and radius y, Fig. 1.2. The condition of equilibrium in t.he z-dircction requires that the pressure force (PI-P2) 7T. y2 acting on t.ho faces of t.hc c.ylindcr he cqun l to t.ho shear 2 7T. 1/1 . T aet.ing on the ciroumforent.inl area , whence we ohtain

The rntio of nl(' velocity of flow, us, t.o I.he vclocit.v of sound, c, is known as the Mach number

M = _1/)_ • c

(1.7)

PI - p, Y

T = -['2'

(1. !J)

:I'he preeeding argument, leads (,0 t.ho condusion t.hnt. compressibility call he neglected 111 UH1 t.rcu.t.moul. of tho 11011' of gases if

In a.ooordnnce with the law of friet.ion, eqll. (1.2), we have III t.ho present cn s«

~ M2 -e: 1 (approximately incompresaib lo},

( 1.8)

L = - It Il1t/d1/

i. e. if f,he Mach number is small compared with unil.y, or, in other words, if the flow velocity is smnl! (:omparedwiUI the velocity of sound. In tho case of air, with a volooit.y of sound of ubout c = J 100 n,/sec, t,he change in den8i(,y is !Jelen = ~. M2 = ~ ~).Ol) for allow velocit,'y 11/ =, :I:m H/sec. This value can be accepted as the outside limif whon a g"'8COIIS flow can ho eOIlRidcred incompressible.

In whn.t follows we shall often assume t.ho fluid to be incomprcssible, which 'will resl.ri«t. UII~ rcsult.s to small Mach IlU III hers, .l lowever, 011 several occasiona ill pn.rt.iculn.r ill (:hIII'R. X II, X I I I, n.nd X X II I, our results will be ext.ended to include "0111 pn~s"i ble 1111 id8,

because 11 decreases with y, so t.hnt cqn. (I.H) loads t.o

d1t PI - P2 Y

~fy ~0-2

and upon int,egmt,ioll we find

u(y) = PI - P2 Ie _11') .

,.1 \ 4

The ('01181.:1111'. of integrat.ion, C, is obtained from t.ho condition of 110 slip nt. t IJ(~ 1I';t11. 'I'hus 1/. ,-,Oat. y -c-: H, so that. C = Jl2/4, and finally

12

I. OuUi"" of IIl1id motion with Friction

e. Principle of similnrity; the Reynolds and Mach numbers

13

(1.10)

In the present, section we shall endeavour to answer a very fundamental question, namely that concerned with the conditions under which flows of dilTerent fluids about two geomet.rically similar bodies, and with identical initial flow directions (Iisplny geomet.rionlly similar streamlines. Such mot.ions which have gcomet.rlcolly sim ilnr st.rcumlines arc called rlynrr.mimlly similar, OJ' similar [loio«. For two fi()Wfol about, geometrically sim ilur hodicH. (e. g. about two aphorce) wit.h dilr(~I'(\JII. nuidH, (1llferent velocities and dil1~r~!I~_ linoar dimensions, to be Bimilnr, it,ill ovident.ly necessary that the folIo5vi.iig.G~!I!lit,i()nshouldbe satisfied :.at l!-1I_g~_o~c::t~Le11:lly similar I;olnts the forcesacU~g on a fluid part.icle mustLear a fixedEati~_at every instailt

.of t.ime., .---- .. '. . -. .

We shall now consider the important case when only frictional and inert.ia forces are present. Elastic forces which may be due to chn.ngcs in volume will he excluded, i. c. it will be assumed t,hat t.he fluid is incompressible. Gravitat.ional forces will also be excluded so that, consequently, free surfucos arc not admitted, and in the interior of the fluid the force of gravity is assumed to he balancod by buoyancy. Under these nssumpbions the condition of similarity is satisficd only if at all corresponding points the ratio of inertia and friction forces is the same. In It motion parallel to t.he z-axis the inertia force per unit volume has the magnitude of f! Un/Dt, wherc u denotes the component of velocity in t.he z-diroction and D/Dt denotes the substantive derivative. In the case of steady flow we can replace it by e au/ox· dx/dt = e 'IJ. alL/aX, where all/aX dcnotcs thc ehange in velocity with position. Thus the inert.ia force per unit, volume is equal to e u (Ju/8x. For tho friction force it. is easy to deduce an expression from Newton's law of friction, eqn. (1.2). Considering a fluid particlc for which thc z-dircction coincides with thc direct.ion of motion, Fig. 1.3, it is found that the resultant of shearing forces is equal to

(T + ~ dy) dx dz - T dx dz = ~~ dx dy dz .

Hence the friction force per unit volume is equal to &r:/8y, or by eqn. (1.2), to fl 82u/8y2.

Consequently, the condition of similarity, i. e. the comlition that at all corresponding points the ratio of the inertia to the friction force must be constant, can be written as:

The v cloeij. . " , "

the . Y IS •. C('II. to he dist ributod parabolically

, mnXllnum vclomty on tire axis hecomes . over tho nLdillS, I<'ig. '.2, alld

u _P, - P. R2.

m - 4;d

Thc volume Q flowing t.hrough a spe( ion er II it t i

the V()11I1l11' of UII' paraboloid of r~~ J ;.' ~Il, Inre can be casily evaluated sinc« lienee ' 0 II .ron IS oqua] to -!-. X baon nr I' I '

2 • me .. ea X wIg It r,

Q _ IT 1>2 ;r R'

-"2 • u", = --. (p )

~ I' l 1 - P2 . ( I . II )

I~IJII. (1.11) states that tho volumo ret f fl .

tI .• e 0 ow IS pro ti I

re p~essurc drop pcr unit length (p _ ) )Il' 1 por 101111. to thc first power of

the pIpe. If the mr a.n vcloeity ov~r 1.112 anr to t.I~\l fourth power of the radius of

(1 I I) '<. ie cross-scchon ( - I'll 1l2' .

eqn.u t. can be rewritt.en :18 /, -. '-r; n IS rntrod need,

(1.I2)

Eqll. (I. [I) was first :Ieduced by (' II selli.llc [IIJ.l1. is known IJ.S t.he ir:H:~n_I~J.~n ~611J and .~I.lort.ly nfter\\>ards by ,J. Poi-

a prpc. ... SCIII c c(luatlOn of I . 11'

t • , , l1111111ar ow through

• Eqn. (1.11) can he utilized for the ex e .

rhe method consists in thc measlll'en;e~ro~I:i::I~t.al dctermination .(If !.lIe viscosity, 11. acro~s a fixed portion of .t eal,ilJary t.ubo of kn a~ of flow 1.1I? of t.ho pressur« drop provided (,0 dctcrmine 11 from eqn , (I.ll). 0 II rnrlrus. 1 hils enollgh data Rle

The typc of flow to which cqns (1 10) and (I 11) .

rcln.tiveJy small radii and flow I ,:t' . F I . n.pply exists in reality only for

f tl' ve OCI ues, < or arger velocities d I" t.1 I

o io motion changes completd . U· an rae II re c raracter

t,hefirst power of the me~n v('locit~' a I.e fre~sur~ drop ceases to be proportional to matcly proportionnl to the 'se 'd s HI( rca er y eqn. (1.12), hut becomes approxia section becomes much' mor~con 'rPower °If tIt. The velocity distribut.ion across

I I UlillOrm anr t; io well orde I I .

rcp acer by a flow in which irre ular d fl : -. ,rec ammar motion is

ponents are superimposed on J a~1 uc~uatmg radial and axial velocity com-

" . IC malll mohon so that e tl'

nllxlng rn a radial direction takes III I 'I ,onsequen y, lnt.ensive

(I 2) • ace. n sue I cases Newton's Iff' .

eqn. . ,ceases to be applicabl« TIl' . thr f' aw 0 rrotion,

in great detail later in Chap'. XX. IS IS re ease 0 turbulent flow, to be discllssed

Inertia force = JL,,!:~~ax = const .

Friction force '" a'u/(Jy'

e. f>rincil·le of similarity; the Reynolds and Ma 1 h

.' C I nrrrn ers

The type of fluid motion disCU~R()d in t.he' I . r .

because every f1l1id partl'cle III I I. I .1 recoc mg Section was very simple

.' • '., ovor lIIH er the influ f f ict.i .

forc(~s only inert.in forces b " I onoo 0 rio ·1Onn.1 and pressure

I . , ' "ClIIg cvcrvw icre equal to zer I I'

() lalHld fluid pa.rticlf's arc act' I . ,'~ . '." . o. n a c I. ve .. rgcnt or convergent

f· . '. ....C( upon Ily mert.ia forces' I lit.i t

rtdlon forces. " . 1Il ar C I ·Ion ·0 pressure and

"

, '1'---'----,.'-'-----: T' at dy

---t, ily

: dy

It-------

," \ ---

~:::':---4; - 02

d"

Fig. 1.3. Frictional forces acting on.a lIuid particle

T

It is now necessary to investigate how these forces are changed when the magnitudes which determine the flow are varied. The latter include the density e, the viscosity II, It representative velocity, e. g. the free stream velocity V, and a characteristic linear dimension of the body, e. g. the diameter d of the sphere.

14

1. Outline of flui,1 motion with friction

c. Principlo of si m ilar it.y ; II", Reynolds 0.11,1 Mneh numhera

If>

The velocity u. at some point, ill t.ho volocit.y field is proportional to the free stream velocit.y V, the velocity gradient, ()11/8:r. is proport.ionnl 1.0 V [d; and similarly [)2nloy2 is proport.ionnl to V Id2. Hence the ratio

Equat.ing the oxponcnt.s of L, T, and F 011 hot,h sides of tho cx prossion we ohtain three cqual.ions :

IIIpdi" fore" _ (! 1l (lu/Ox _ (! J"/rl _ e Vrl

i"ridioJl force .~ ,; aziijijyZ - ,;V FI" ... _. I~ .

F : r + ,5 = 0,

L : -/ (1-- 4y·_ 2 ,~.c () ,

T:

Therefore, the oondit.ion of similarity is sat.isfierl if t.he glln,ntH,y e V dill, has the same value in bol.h flows. The quantity e V d/ll, which, with pie = 1', can al.~o he wri l.tcn as V ell I', is a dirnonslonloss number booauso it is t.hc rnt.io of t.ho two forces. His known as the /{eynouls number, R. Thus t.wo flows are similar when the Reynolds number

the solution of which IS

{J = I ,

y = I,

This shows I.hat, there cx iat.s a unique dimensionless eombinut.ion of !.lIe Iou r qun.ntit.ios V, d., e and Il, namely tho Reynolds Humber R,

R = o I'd

I" v

I'd

(1.13)

Dimensionless quantities: The reasoning followed in tho preceding dorivat.ion of tho Reynolds number nan be extended to include the case of different Roynolds numbers in the considorat.ion of the velocity field and forces (normal and tangen1.i;LI) for flows with geometrically similar boundaries .. Let t.ho posil.ion of It point. in the space around the gcomctrionlly similar bodies be indicated by the coordinates .r , lI, z ; thon t.lio rat.ioa :1:/<1, !JIll, z/d arc it.s dimensionless coordinates. Tire vdo(,ily COII'pononts nre made dimenaionlcsa by referring them to the Free.stroam vdocit.,y V, thus 11./ V, vi V, to] V, and t.ho normal and Rhcaring stresses, p und T, call be madn dimensionless by referring them too the double of tho dynamic head, i. e. to e V2 t.hus : rlo 1'2 and Tie V2. The previously ell un cia ted principle of dynnrnion] slmilnrity can he ('xprcRsed in an alternative form hy uasort.ing UlItt, for t.he two goomctrlcally similar systems with equal Roynolda numbers the dimensionless quant.it.ioa n/ V, ... , pie V2 and Tie V2 depend only on the dimensionless coordinates «[d, yld, zjd. If, however, the two systems are geomet.rieally, but not dynamically, similar, i. e. if t.heir Roynokls numbers are different, then the dimensionless quunt.ities under cousidom.tion must, also depend on tile characteristic quantities V, d, e, p of the t.wo syst.cms. Applying the principle t.hnt physical laws must he independent of the aystcm of units, it, follows that the dimensionless quantities nIV, ... , pie V2, Tie V2 can only depend on a dimensionless combination of V, d, e. and Ii, which is unique, being tho Reynold" number R = V de/I)" Thus we are led to tho conclusion that for UIC two geometrically similar systems which have different Reynolds numbers and which are being compared, the dimensionless quantities of the field of flow can only be funcf.ions of the t.hree dimensionless space coordinates xld, yld, zld and of the Reynolds number R.

The preceding dimonsional analysis call be utilized to make an importunt. assertion about the total force exerted hy a fluid stream on an immersed body. The force acting on t1lfJ body is the surface integral of all normal nud shearing flt.rCSS(~8 acting on it. If P denotes the component of the resultant force in any given diroct.ion , it is possible to write a dimensionless force coefficient of the form Pld2 (J V2, hut instead of the area d2 it is customary to choose a difloront chnraotcrist.io area, A, of the immersed body, e. g. the frontal area exposed by the body to the flow direction which is, in the case of a sphere, equal 1,0 n d2/4. Hence the dimensionless force coefficient becomes PIA (! V2. Dimensional n.nulysia leads to f.he conclusion that for gcomet.rieally similar systems this coefficient, can depend only on the dimensionloss group formed with V, d, (!, and u, i. e. oil Ute Royuokls number. The component.

is equal for both. This principle was first enunciated by Osborne Reynolds [12] in connexion with his investigations int.o t.he flow through pipes and is known as Reynolds's principle of similarity.

The faot. that the Reynolds JlIIIll her 11'1 dimonsionloss oan he at once verified dir"dly by oonsidoriug the dimensions

( Ihf R(,C2]

e ... fti '

J1 l !I'_] ,

sec

d[n,] ,

Hence

. !!~rl = ~br_ll~~ . __ ~t . ft . ft' = I

I' rtf ace ibCsec

which proves that the Reynolds Humber is, in fact, dimensionless.

Method of indices: r nst,clt(l of l.h o cOIlRidemt.ion of t.ho condition of dynamic similarit.y, Reynolds'S principle can also be deduced by eonsidcring dimcneions by Om method of ind iecs. 1n t.hiR conncxion use is made of the observation t,hat, all physical laws must be of a form which is independent, of the particular system of 1Illlt~ employed. In the case under cousidorat.ion the physical qunnt.it.ies which def,C'nnir1l' t.ho flow arc: the free st.rcam velocity, V, a reprcscntat.ivo linear dimcnsion of tho body, d, as well as the delll'{it,y, e, and the viscosity, It. ""Ve II0W ask whct.hr-r there ox iat.s a comhinat.ion of these qunnt.it.ios in t,he form

V~ rl~ e)' !t~ ,

which would hc dimellsiolllcsfl, IfF riPl1ot;l's force, L length and T t.imo, a. cl imenainnloss (,ollli>illll,j,ioll will he oht,ailll'd if

, .

\Vit.lront, rORt.rieting tho gnH'ralil,y of t.hc arglllllent, if, if; pprmi,q,qil,le t.o assIgn til()

vn luo of unit.y 1,0 ono or !.Ill' Iour indice8 0:, (I,)" '), because any nrhit.ra.ry power of a dimr-nsionloss Ijnnnt.ity is also elimcnsioulcss. Assuming IX. = I, we obtain

L (I(FP)'(F:r)~

T L L' L2

16

e. Principle of aimilurif.y ; the Reynolds and MItch numbers

17

J. Out.line of fluid motion with fridioll

of UHl resultant force parallel to the undisturbed initial velocity is referred to as the drag D, and tho component perpendicular to that direct.ion is called lift, L. Hence t.he dimensionless coefficients for lift and drag become

C - /:__ D

I. - II! V' A and Cn = I e Vi A '

(I.H)

fftt,7.fUfrd .y Wi(,5('lsb('r9~r

3.0

~~ ~:- 1=- '-~_-+' ~-'~I-'~H--il--~ - ,=- ~ J~J

--..J.--++H-~--r-" t:~ ...... ... rheorydu<IO lamb

.r-r::-~~-h~++tF**tlT=-1'

.. r"\ .

~-=llt

fO ... - - -- .n

if t.ho dynamic head ~ (! V2 is selected for reference im;tcad of Lho quant.it.y (! V2. Thus the argument leads to the conclusion that the dimcnsionless lift and drag coefficients for geometrically similar systems, j, e. for geometrically similar bodies which have the same orientat.ion with respect to the Ircc-sbrea.m direction, are functions of one variable only, namely the Reynolds num her:

6 --

< -.-.- --

o.~ ~I_·-_j....f_-I-_++_+-_-_-l-·~·_-· t=".:= f-_I_=

0.6 .. -~- - -.- -- 1- - - --- -

o.~ - +-- --1- - +- -- -

(1.15)

t-- --- --.

It is necessary to stress onee more that this important conclusion from Reynolds's principle of eirniia.riby is valid only if the assumptions underlying it are satisfied, i. e. if the forces acting in the flow are due to friction and inertia only. In the casc of compressible fluids, when elastic forces arc important, and for mot.ions with free surfaces, when gravite.ttonal forces must be taken into consideration, eqns. (1.15) do not apply. In such cases it is necessary to deduce different similarity principles in which the dimensionless Froudc numher F = VIY!id (for gravity and inertia) and the dimensionlesll Mach number M = VIc (for compressible flows) are included.

The import.ance of the similarity principle given in cqns, (1.14) and (1.15) is very great, as far as the sciences of theoretical and experimental fluid mechanics are concerned. First, the dimensionless coefficients. CM CD' and R are independent of the system of units. Secondly, thoir usc leads to a considerablc simplification in the extent of experimental work. In most cases it is impossible to determine the funct.ions 11 (R) and 12(R) thcorctically, and experimental methods must, be 11""'1.

Supposing that; it is desired to determine tho dm~ noofficiont ell for a Hpc('i(ied shape of body, e. g. a Rpherc, then without the applicat.ion of the principle of similarity it would be necessary to carry out drag measurements for four independent variables, V, d, e, and u, and I,his would const.ituto a tremendous programme of work. H follows, however, that the drag coeffioiont for aphoros of different. diameters with different stream velocities and different, fluids depends solely on onc vnrinblo, Ute Reynolds number. Fig. 1.4 represents the drag coefficient of circular cylinders as a function of Lho Reynolds number and shows the excellent agreement between experiment. and Reynolds's principle of similarity. The experimental points for Ute drag coefficient, of circular cylinders of widely differing diameters fall on a sinqle curve. Tho same applies to points obtained for thc drag coefficient of spheres plotted against tho Reynolds number in Fig. 1.5. The sudden decrease in the value of the drag coefficient which occurs near R = 5 X 105 in the case of circular cylinders and near R = 3 X 105 in t.he case of spheres will be discussed, in more detail. later. Fig, 1.6 reproduces photographs of the streamlines about circular cylinders in oil taken by F. Homann [7]. They give a good ide~ of the changes in the field of flow associated with various Reynolds numbers. For small Reynolds numbers the wake is Inminar, but at inoreasing Reynolds numbers at first very regular vortex patterns, known as Kn.rrnan's vortex streets, are formed, At still higher Reynolds numbers, not shown here, the vortex patterns become irregular and turbulent in character,

0.2 t-\--+-

'-1-

---1--

Fig. 1,4. Drag coefficient for circular cylinders nR a function of the Reynolds number

-r-",,--,-'r- .

t----. - - - -- - ~~rTl~jj~L..L . --I - --

f-- - - - . -- "" -- - _:[r LL

- - Heasurtd ~f:

o Schiller - Scnrmeaet

-

• tiebster E> All,,!)

" 1921}

. o 1976 Wle5elsb"'ger

--_ ...

-_ ... _..-

C?)

--I·-t-

70

10 -c--r- 8

6

-- ._ ... ,

-----1

1- _.-I--+-H-t· ---f--~ - ·t--t--t-

---

o~- -_-_·1-++1-+-_:-::-

06 - -. I· ~

0<

02 .-. - - - O. -t-- - --t--r---

a 08 - 1- -- - 1-' -

a.1M - ~~--6-'B t-- 2-- 4' 68 2 4

10-1 100 10t

~.-

--. 1

- ..... ~-

Fig. 1.5. Drag coefficient for spheres as It Iunction of tho Reynolds number Curve (1): Stoke.'. theory, eqo. (6.10); curve (2): Oseen's theory, eqn. (6.13)

18

J. Out.line of Huid motion with friction

R = 32

'" .

&1"'- "

.J .

R = 102

R = 22r;

R = 71

CD

t-

e. Principle of similarit.y ; tho Reynolds and Ml\ch numbers

I ,

I T I

\
1.0 \
\
0.8 .\
\
0..6 0..4

0..2

-

R 101

0. '-~_-+..J_!--'--O-W.-'-._J_....L__'__L.L.LU.J

105 5 7 106 5 7 107

Ffar-hwbnrt (1032)

o lto,lIk" (11161) a NAf;A (1069)

Vi!\. 1.7. Drag eOf'ffieiellt of It c-irr-uln r rvlill;kr HI '·f'r." large' H".\"IlOld.< 11(11111,,:1'< lind for 111:1"'1 n um hcrs M <': (}.:! afl"r th .. 1II(,:l8111"(,III('nls of .-\. Hoshi", [l:IJ and G. W. .Iones, J. J. Cinot.ta and It. W. wer. kr-r [8)

R .c 281

Fig. 1.6. Field of now of oil about 1\ cireulnr cylinder at varying Reynolda numbers after Homann Pl; Lrnnaition from la.minn.r now to n vort.ex sln'd. in ln minar [low. 'I'he frequency range for R = (lr; 1.0 R = 2RI cn.n he taken from I<'ig. 2.!l

11 -('2 2.1J J.D ;l5
10
Co f.5
Oft 11
08
/0
0.1 .. ', .. _. ~ .- .. - .. - .. - .. ~ .;1J..9. --- )9

o --~ ------1---.---1------- f------ f--------- •. ~

Z J, 5 G 70MOJ

R - ~

Fig. 1.8. Drag "ol'flil'il'nl of sphl'r,·, ill t orms of t h« It"Yllolds and 1I1a['h II urn 1)('1'8 ,IS l11<'aSIl, Terl hy A. Nu umu un [II. 101

Influence of conlJlressihility: Thr- prc('(·ding nrglIJIl('nl. was r:onduef·erl unrlr-r the assumption that t.he fluid was incompressible, and it, was found that, the diruonsionloss dependent. quant-it-ies were functions of one dimensionless argumellt., t.ho Rc vnolds number, only, \Vhen tho fluid is compressi hlo t.hey depend 011 nil addit.iona l djm~nsjonless Humber, t.ho Mnch number M = VIc which can he rcga.rdc,l, as shown ill RI'I'. 1(', as a mensure of the comprossihilit.y of til" tlowil,g medium. In the case of such flows, i. e. when com prcssibility plays an csscnt ial part., t.ho dimensionless coefficients (]epelH] on bot.h parameter R a.nd M. Equation (1.11i) is thcn replaced by

In later t.imcs such pictures for low Reynolds numbers up t·o R = 3 were produced hy S. Tnnedn l141·

It is seen in Fig. 1.4 t.hat. Ow dmg ('oefficient. of n r-iroulnr cylinder roaches a minimum of Cn "'" 0.3 at. a Reynolds number hr-f.wor-n R = fJ X 105and 106. A regular vortex skeet. docs not exist in this range of Reynolds nil III hers. At. very high Roynolda numbers exceeding R ~ lOr" t.J1<' dmg eoofficicnt. increasos at, a eonRidera.ble rate, ns Been from Fig, 1.7 which is baaed Oil the measurements pr-rformed by A .. Roshko [1:1J and G. W .• Iones, .1. ,J. Cinot.t.a and R. W. Walker (8J. At R = 107 t.hc drag coefficient reaches a value of Co "'" (Hiii. According 1-0 t.he preceding nuthors, a "eglliar vortex st.rr-et. ('st.ahlishes itself again al· R > :1·5 X 106.

The drag of spheres has reeently also boon invesl.igll.!.ed at. very high R.cYllolds numbers [I J. Here too, as was the case wit.h the cylinder, the drag coefficient, increases appreciably heyond it,s minimum a.t, On "'" 0,( at. about R = I) X 105 u.t.t,aining CD "'" 0·2 nt, Reynolds Bum bers close to R = 107.

Crit.iell.l reviews of dl'llg mcn,<;ul'cmellls on spheres as It function of t.hc Reynolds number and t.III' Mach number wcre prepn.red hy J\. B. Bailey and ,J. ITiaU. [In] as 11'(,1 [ aK hy A. B. Hailey and H,. F. Starr [Ill].

(1.1 (i)

An example of such a r elat ionsh ip is given in Fig. I.R wh ich shows :1 plot. of Ihe drag coefficient. e]) of splr(~J'(':,\ ill terms (If t.he IkYllolrl" numbor R :.~ V /1/1' and the Maeh numb!'!' M = V [c, 'I'ho curvo for M =oc O':J iR pract.ica Ily coillcide"t, wi! h that in Fig. 1.5 for incom [1('('s8i ble flow wh ich proves Iha t. "p 10 M =~ 0·:1 01(' ill f1111'1l('c of the Mach number is negligible. On t.he othr-r hanrl at. high!'!' l\ln.eh 1I111111wl's the influence is large. In t.his conncxion it, is notr wort hy t.ha.f. ill t.he range of Rcvnokls numbers covered by t.ho din-gram, its inlluour-o re('('d"R more u nrl more as t.h~ i\lach number is increased.

20

1. Oublino of fluid motion wit.h Iricl.ion

f. Comparison between the theory of perfect fhiids and experiment

21

f. Comparison between the theory of perfect Ilulds nnd expcrj ment

In the cases of the motion of water nurl air, which are the most important ones in engineering applications, UIC Reynolds num hers arc very largo because of tho very low viscosit.ioe of these fluids. It would, t.herefore, appear reasonable to ox poet very good agreement, between experiment. and a thoory in which the influence of viscosity is noglocted altogether, i. c. with the theory of perfect Iluirls. In any case it seems useful to begin the comparison with experiment by reference to I.ho theory of perfect fluids, if only on account. of the large number of existing explicit mathematical solutions.

In fad, for certain classes of problems, such as wave formution and tidal motion, excellent results were obtained with the aid of this theory'[. Most problems to be discussed in this book consist in t.he study of bhe motion of solid bodies through fluids

I I .

at rest, or of fluids flowing through pipes and channels. In such cases t, io lise 01

the theory of perfect fluids is limited because its solutions do. not satisfy thc condil.ion of no slip at the solid surface which is always the ease/with real fluids even at very small viscosities. In a perfect fluid there is slip at a wall, and this circumstance introduces, even for small v iseosit.ica, such Iundnmedtnl differences t.hn.t it is rather surprising to find in some cases (e. g. in the oase of vbry slender, st.rcam-Iine bodies) that the two solutions display a good measure of agrcemcnb. The greatest discrepancy between thc theory of a perfect fluid and experiment exiets in the consideration of drag. The perfect-fluid theory leads to the conclusion that when an o.rbitrary solid body moves through an infinitely extended fluid at rest it experiences no force acting in the direction of motion, i. e. that its drag is zero (d' Ale~borb's paradox). This result is in glaring contradiction to observed fact, as drag IS measured on all bodies, even if it can become very small in the case of a streamline body in steady flow parallel to it:'! axis.

By way of illustration we now propose to make some remarks concerning the flow about a circular cylinder. The arrangement of streamlines for a perfect fluid is given in Fig. 1.9. It follows at once from oonsiderat.ions of symmetry that the resultant force in the direct.ion of motion (drag) is equal to zero. The pressure distribution according to the theory of frictionless motion is given in Fig. 1.10, together with the reeults of measurements at three values of the Reynolds number. At, tho leading edge, all measured pressure distributions agree, to a certain extent, with that for a perfect. fluid. At the trailing end, the discrepancy between theory and measurement becomes large because of the large drag of a circular cylinder. The pressure distribution at, UIC lowest, subcritieal Reynolds number R = 1·9 X 105 differs most from that given by potential theory. The measurements corresponding to the two largest Reynolds numbers, R = 6·7 X 105 and R = 8·4 X 106, are closer to the potential curve t.han those performed at the lowest Reynolds number. The large variation of presRure dietrihution with Reynolds number will be discussed in detail in the next chapter. A corresponding pressure-diatribul.ion cur.h around a meridian section of a sphere is reproduced in Fig. 1.11. Here, too, measurements show large differences for the t:W() Reynolds numbers, and, again, the smaller Reynolds number lies in the range

Fig. l.ll. Frictionless flo" about ... circular cylinder

Fig. l.lO

Fig. 1.10. Pressure distribution on a circular cylinder in thc suberifioal and supercrition! range of Reynolds numbers after the measurements of O. Flaohabnrt. [4] and A. Roshko [13]. qoo = _!_!? 1'2

2 is the stagnation pressure of the oncoming flows

-_ Irtctlonle ... now Flach.h",t

-_ -: .: : ::: g ~ :g: } (1932)

....• R = 8'4 x 10' lto.hko (1061) I i:O

p q:'

Fig. l.ll. Pressure distribution around II. sphere in the suberitical and eupercriticnl range of Reynolds numbers, as measured by 0_ Flo.chsbart [3]

of large drn.g coefficients, whereas tho larger value lies ill Ute run go of small dmg coefficients, Fig. 1.5. In this case the mcasurod pressure-distribution curve for the large Reynolds number approximntes the theoretical ourve of frictionless flow very well over the greatest part of the circumference.

Considerably better agreement between the theo~et.ical and measured pressure distribution is obtained for a streamline body in a; flow parallel to its axis [5), Fig. 1.12. Good agreement exists here over almost the whole length of the body, with the exception of a small region near its trailing end. As will be shown later this circumstance is a consequence of the gradual pressure increase ill the downstream direction.

Although, generally speaking, the theory of perfect fluids does not lead to useful results as far as drag calculations are concerned, the lift can be calculated from it very successfully. Fig. 1.13 represents the relation betwecn the lift coefficient and angle of incidence, as measured hy A. Botz [2] in the ease of It Zhukovskii nerofoil

t t"], p. g. B. It. Lmub : lIydr"dY"Illlli{"R. lit.h "d .. Dover, New York. 1!l4!i.

22

I. Outline of f1nid mot.ion with friction

HefcrClleCR

2:1

of infinite spltn ami provides It oompnrison wii.h t.hoory. In the range of !neidcnec allgl('~ o: ~~ -- 100 to 100 t.ho agreement. is seen to bo goo(lan(l tho srnn.ll dlITcrcllces call L)(' oxpln.ined hy till' influence of friction .. Th~. IIH'flSlll'e,(~ nnd .el1.lclllnt,m~ pres~lIrc dist.ribution« agrec vcry well too, as shown 111 l'1g. 1.14. ]J~c discropnnoj between theory and measurement displayed in Figs. 1.13 and .1.14 IS a consequence of th,e displacement. act.ion of tho hOllndal'f I:LYC~ and ?onst,ltutes a boundary-layer effect of higher orclor. as will be shown ngnll1 m Sec. IXl.

Fig. 1.14. Comparison between t.ho t.heol'<'Ii,·,,1 n.nd mr-nsurr-d Jltr"~"I''' r1i,ld]'ulioll for a Zh ukovskii profile 1\1 ('(I II n I lifts. an er A. H .. fz [21

p q;;,

o

-1

1.0

,n

fjff> 04

06

_v_ 0.8

-2

R = ~} =105 a-v·

~---L_~~ ~ __ ~_.L- -J

0.2

ilcfrrrnCCA

o

Fig. 1.12. Pressure diatrihution abou t n. sbrenm-Iine body of revolution: compnrison betwoon theory and measurement, after Fu hrmnnn [5)

[I J [Ia] ,I hI

[2] L:l)

[4]

Achenbach, K: Expcrimcnl.,. on the Ilow I'M!; AphNC. at very high H"'ynold~ "111,,1,"1'8. ,JlrM ,5,1, fj(l5-~li75 (J!l72).

Bailey, A. H., nnd Hill(,(',.1.: i5phcrc drag cocmcient.~ for It broad range of ,\tach n.nd n",V"olds numhera, AI/Il\ ,1. W, 14:1(J·1440 (J!172).

Bailey, A. B .• and Sf.m 'r, R. F.: Sphere dmg at transonic .lwcrlA and high It-cynolds numbers. AlAA .1. u, W:H (1070).

Bel.?, A.: Untersuchung Pille)' .Ioukowsk isr-hnn Trngfliichc. Z I.'M 6. 17:1 170 (I!II fj). Flaehsbart., 0.: Neucrc Uutcreu-hungon iiber den LuCtwidel's',n.wl von Kugelu. I'hys. 7,. 2.'i, 4(jl--~4ml (1!l27).

FI,,,,hsbn.rt, 0.: Winddrur-k auf n,,~behalt.er. Reports of the A V A ill C'li\f.tingen. 1 VI,h Series, 134-1:18 (HI:l2).

Fuhrmann C.: 'I'hcorotische uml oxpori 1l1cnt,,-,IIe Uutersuchungon :tTI Bn llonmodellou. Diss r;c;tl,ingen UHO; .Ib. JIIotorlnfl<lchifl'.I:H,lIdil'llgeH. V (j:J·-12:1 (1!)11/12).

Hagen. G.: Ober die Bcwegung do", \Vassm''' in engon 7.ylilull'iR"hcn .IWhren. l'ogg. Ann. Hi, 423-442 (18:10).

Homann, If.: Einnuss gro~Rcr Ziihiglwit, bei St,riill111ng (JIn Zylindor. Forschg. Ing .. Wes. 7, 1 .. -10 (I!);jll).

.JoneR. n. \V .• Ciuotta., .T .• 1., and Walker •. R W.: Acrrxlynnmic forces 011 a stn.tionnry and oReitJ;tting circular cylinder at high Reynolds numbers. NACA TH, H.-:JO() (HIGH). Naumann, A.: Luftwiderstand von Kugeln bel hohen UnterAchn.llgcRchwindigkcit,cn. Allgl'm. Wiirnlcf.echnik .f, 217 - 221 (I f)1i:lj.

Nn.umunn, A .• Iwd "{'cill'"r, II.: Ilbor din (lrenzRchicht.qtrihllllng UIIl Zyliudor hoi hohcn Oeschwindigl{cif.ell. Advances in Aoronaution! Sciences (Th. von Kftl'nllln, cd.) Vol. .1. ISii--201l, London, I!)I\2.

Polsouillo, .T.: lU·dlcrdwR oxpcrimcntcllcs Rill' le mouvnm ent. dCA li'lIli"(,8 duns I(,A tubes dc tn\s petits dinmetrcs. Comptes Renrlua f J, 061·-(l(j7 and I041-~·1()48 (1840); 12. 112---lIii (1841); in more detail: Mcmoire« des Sav:l.nt<l E:trangers.9 (184(J).

Reynolds, 0.: An experimental investigation of tho circumat.n.ncos which determine ",hell!"1' the motion of wnlcr shall be direct 01' siuuous , and of the law of rcsiatnnco in pnrnllel .. h'HlnI'IR. Phil. Trans. Hoy. Soc. 171, !J:J5-!)82 (188:1) or Scientific Papers 11.51.

Roshko, A.: Experiment", 011 tho flow PILst It circular cylinder n.t vnry high Reynolds numbers. JF.M 10, :J4ii--~:15tl (1%1): sec nlso : On tho norodynamio drag ofcylindcrs n.t high Reynolds numbcra.T'nper presented at, the US .Inpnn Research Sominn.r 011 'Vin" LOllds 011 SI,I'II('lurPR, Univ. of Huwn.ii, Oct. 1070.

Tauocln., K: Expcrinlf'lIt.a1 investignt.ion of (,he wnkes behind cylitulors ami plateR at, low Reynold" numbers. .I. Phys. Soc .• Inpun 1J. :102 ·-·307 (HmO).

un

r-.---. '~ -=1=r2=P\ -t

f--- . CL 1.4 ~-I- :\/~~7lL - I\.~ - .-- --~ - ~t;l.f-I- - I-i-

-- --'-- 1.21- :~f - ~- - - -

-~- ~~ -- .~. ,; /1 r-- ~ j~~ -=-~-I=-

J _

- 09 / .- R - ~,t 1(; t;

- 0.2 -

" Oraq V

....• \~' - I T- ±r- -

120-81 1,° 1,° 8° 12° 160

-,ry --I~ - " - aiL I

I 0.4' .... -

[Ii)

[(j] [7] fRI [n]

(10)

[11]

[12]

[1:1]

.Fig. 1.13. Lift and drag coefficient. of It 'Zhllkovskii profile in plane now, ItS measured by Bctz 121

[141

3. The boundary-layer concept

25

CHAPTER II

pla~, with the dimensions across it considerably exaggerated. In front of the leadmg edge o.f the plat~ the velocity distribution is uniform. With increasing dietnnco from t~lC leadlllg edg? III the downstream direction tho thickness, (5, of UlC retarded I~y~r meronsos eon tin 11 ously , n.A innreasillg qunnl.if.ios of lIuid become n.fTnd!'d. IWJ(lclltly the thickness of the boundary layer deernl1ACR with dpnrcl1fling viAcoHit.y.

a. The boundary-layer concept

Fig. 2.2. Sketch or" boundary layer on a flat plato in parallel flow at zero incidence

Outline of boundary-layer theory

In the ease of fluid motions for which the measured pressure distribution nearly agrces with the perfect-fluid theory, such as the flow past the streamline body in Fig. 1.12, or the aero foil in Fig. 1.14, the influence of viscosity at high Reynolds numbers is confined to a very thin layer in the immediate neighbourhood of the solid wall. If the condition of no slip were not to be satisfiod in the case of a real fluid there would he no appreciable difTerenee between the field of flow of the real fluid as compared with t.hnb of a perfect fluid. The fact that at t.ho wall the fluid adheres to it means, however, bhnb frictional forces retard t.he motion of the fluid in a thin layer near the wall. In that, thin layer the velocity of the fluid increases from zero at the wall (no slip) to ite full value which corresponds to external frictionless flow. The layer under consideration is called the boundary layer, and the concept is due to L. Prandtl [25].

l'ig. 2.1. Motion along a thin flat plate, from Prandtl-Tietjena

I ~ lenRth of plate ;

llcynotds number R = l~ll" = 3

o~ ~he other hand, even with very small viscosities (large Reynolds numbers) t.he frictionn.l shearing stresses T = It au/a!! in the boundary layer are considern.hlo because of UlC large velocity gradient, ucroaa tho flow, whereas outsklo l.ho bouudury layer t.hey .fl.rc very small. 'I'his physical pieLure BuggeRt.s that the field of flow ill t.I;e case o~ fI~JI(ls of smal.1 viscosity call he divided, for t.ho purpose of mnt.homnt.ioal ann.lysis , into two regIOIIS: the t.hin boundary layer nca.r the WIlli, in which friction must be taken into account, nnd the region outside the boundary layer, where the forces due. to friction are small and may be neglected, and where, therefore, the perfect-Iluid theory offers a very good approximation. Such a division of the field of flow, as we shal.l see in more detail later, brings about a considerable simplification of the mat.hematIcal theory of the motion of fluids of low viscosity. In fact, t.he t.heoretieal study of such motions was only made possible by PrandU when he introduced this concept.

~e now propose.to ~xplain the .basic concepts of boundary-layer theory with the aid of purely physioal idons and Without the use of mathematics. The mut.hornat.i. ?al boundary-layer theory which forms the main topic of this book will be discuascd III the following chapters.

. The ~lecclerated ~uid particles ill the boundary laycr do not, in all cases, remain III t,he t.hin layer which adheres to the body along the wholo wetted Icngt.h or (.IJ() wall. In some .case~ the boundary layer increases its thickness considerably in the downstream direction and the flow in the boundary layer becomes reversed. This causes the decelerated fluid particles t.o be forced outwards, which means that the bo~ndary .layer is separated from the wall. We then speak of boundary-layer separation: ThIS phenomenon is always associated with the formation of vortices and.with large e!lergy loss:s in the wake of the body. It o~~~r~.pr_irnl1r!IYI_lea.r.bltJ~nt bgdle~~S?_~I~S ~1~culllr~yhn??r~::I~~.~p!!..C.~,§,: Behind sucha body there exista 11 region of strongly decelerated flow (so-called wake), in which the pressure distribution ~eviates consi~erably from tha~ in a frictionless fluid, as seen from Figs.Lf O and 1.11 In t he r!'~p('etl\'e cases of a cylinder and 11 sphere. 111.e large dr.ag of such bodies oan ~e ?xplamed by the existence of this large deviation in pressure distribution, which IS, m turn, a eo".seqllence of boundary-layer separation.

Figure 2.1 reproduces a picture of the motion of water along a thin flat plate in which the atroamlinos were made visible by the sprinkling of particles on the surface of Ute water. The traces Icft by the particles arc proportional to the velocity of now. It iR seen that, there is a very thin layer near the wall in which the velocity is' considerably smaller than at a larger distance from it. The thickness of this boundary layer increases along the plate in a downstream direction. Fig. 2.2 repref;ent~~ diagrammatically the velocity distribution in such a boundary layer at the

20

I r. Out.line of boundnry-Iayer theory

n. The boundnry.Inynr eonoopt

27

Estimation or bouudary-laj'er thickn e ss ; The t.hickneas of a boundary layer which has not aeparnt.od can he easily estimated in the following way. Whereas friction forces can be neglected with respect to inert.ia forces outside the boundary layer, owing to low viscosity, they arc of a comparable order of magnitude inside it. The inert.in force per unit volume is, as explained in Section I e, equal to {! 11, onlox. For a plnl.o of length 1 tho gradient. f)u/():r is proport.ional to U Il, where U denotes t.he velocil.y outside the boundary layer. lienee the iuort.io force is of the orrler (! (J211. On i.he ot.hor lrnud the friction force per unit volume is eqnal to oTloy, whir:h, on tho assumption of laminar flow, is equal to fl,02nloy2. The velocity gradient anlf)y ill a direction porpcndiculnr t.o UIC wall is of t.ho order U 1,5 so t.hat OJ() friction force pcr unit. volume is ihlf!y '"-' It 'fl'P. From t.ho oondit.ion of equality of the friction and inert.in forces tho following rdation is obtained:

where subscript, 0 denotes the value at the wall i e for y - 0 W'tl 1.1 t.i L

(0 /(1) VIr5· ' ,.. -. J 1 ie es ima e

u .y n ">' we obtain To r-..J fl V/() and, inserting the value of J from crm (2 I)

we have .". . ,

'to r--.J Il V I /~tJ_ _ 1/j·-e-U3 r: y,.l-Y-T

(2,3)

Thus tho Iriol.ioua] RtreRR ncar I.hc WILli iR prnport.innn I to l!~/2.

. 'Ve can now form a dimensionl!'lls sl,resR wit.h ~

III Chap. I, and obtain ro ornnco t.o (! lJ2, a1-t t~xp1ain"d

lit. r--.J VeiTi = y'~-, (2.:l a)

~his I~esult .ag~ecs with .Uw dimensional analysis In Chap. I, which "redid",] thnt lC : :menslOn ess shon.ring st.re!;;R eOIlI(1 depend Oil til(: Reynolds uumbr-r only.

Plat 1~1~ Lu!:al (~rtalf!, II) OJ~'It.he plnl.o is equal to blTo whr-ro Ii denoks t.l}() wiclt.h of I.ho .e. once, WI , I t. IC au of cqn. (2.3) we obtain

or, sol v ing ('01' the hou ndury-laycr t.hicknosa ,) t:

(2.1)

]) r--.J " v'e/~U3 I ,

(2.4)

" ,j-;' 5

T = 5 V tJ i = ~R, '

(2.2)

Thc .Iarni.nnr fri~t.~)Jjnl drag iF; thus seen to ho proport-ional to (P/2 Hlld [1/2 Pro. ]>OItl()J~n!Jt.y 1.0 l I mea.us !.lUll; doubling Hlc plat" Inllgl.h <1,,,,s !lot. d('lIhle ;,h','''1'1I' and this result. can be understood hv cOllsidering t hat t.ho (10\ t t f tlg•

It. .t '. .'" vns .rca m par, 0 ,1('

fa c .ex)~rIenccs a srnnller dr~~ Ulan tho leading portion because thc hOlllld:n';

ayor IS (, .lIcker. towards t.he t.raJh~g ed~e. Finally, we can write down an cxprcssio;1 for tho dllnenslOnl~ss drag coeffioiont III aocordaneo wit," eqrJ. (1.14) in which the refcrence area A WIll be replaced by tho wetted area bl: Hence e'ln. (2.4) gives that:

C/) r--.J V?~'l = -}7~ .

Thc numericn.l factor follows from II UlrIsl'\lS'S exact I I· I

h ' . ,.. •. so U ,1011, nIH IS 1·:128 Sf) 1.1 t

t e drag of a plat.e III parnllci laminar now becomes . . ,. uu.

The nnmer ical fn.ct.or whi eh is, so far, still undotorrnined will be deduced later (Clmp. VIl) from t.he exnot solution given by H. Blasius [4.1, and it will turn out t.hat it is r-qunl to 5, approximately. l lonco for laminar flow in the boundary layer we have

(2.1a)

The dimensionless bounrlnry-lnyor t.hieknesa, referred to the length of the plate, l, becomes:

whore Rl donot.es I,he Roynokls number related to the length of the plate, L. It is seen from eqn. (2.1) t.hat tho boundary. layer thickness is proportional to v'~ and to v' 1. If 1 is replaced by tho variable dist.ance x from the leading edge of the plate, it is seen t,hat ,5 increases proportionately to y' x. On tho other hand the relative boundary. layer t.hicknoss ,5/1 doorenses with increasing Reynolds number as ] Iv' R so that in t.ho limit,jng case of frictionless now, with R --? oo, the boundary-layer t.hickness vanishes.

We arc now in a position to cst.imate the shearing stress To on the wall, and cOlIseqllently, t.ho t.ot,al drag. According to Ne~on's law of friction (1.2) we have

To = P. (~~)o '

(2.:')

t II more rigo[OlIR dofinil.ion of boundnry-layor thickno"" iR givcn ILt the end or this section.

L Tire r~lIowill¥ numerical ex~mplo will serve 1,0 illllst.i-,d,(l t.he prcceding est.imnt.ion . aminal' ow, sl,Jplllatcd here, IS obtained, as ill known from experiment. for Itey'

nokls numbers UI/v not exceedinrr nhou! I) x ]05 to I()G 1" I 'I> I" .

b I I h' • , ' • or nrger \eyllo d~

rllm et,rl~ t'klC )ouf.lldary layer l)eeO~les t.urbulont.. w- shall now ealclIlnt.e the iJolJll{lary·. ayer ,IlC ness or the flow of all' ()' = 0·144 X 1O-~ ft2/S('c) "t 11 'I fl'

f I tl l 3' '. .. .. .ne en. 0 a pate

o eng I = ft at a velocity U = 48 ft/sec. This giveR R "" Ul] __ IO" I

from eqn. (2.2) . I . v- ant

" I)

r = 103 = 0·005; d O'.'c 0·18 ill .

The drag coefficient from 0'111. (2.5) is C = 0'001') '. 'I' I

I . I I' Ii·J I. c. eX[('(l( IIlg Y smnll when

eon~~nre( WIt, l.t Ia.t for a CIrcular cylinder, Fig. 1.4, bcenuse the drag coefficient. f:)r a ej hnder alao includes pressure forees.

28

II. Outline of boundary-layer theory

h. Separation and vortex formation

29

Definition of boundary-layer thickness: The definition of the boundary-layer t.hickncss is to a eert.ain extent. arbitrary because tranaition from the velocity in t.ho boundary to that, out.sido it ta.kes place asymptotically. This ia, however, of no praot.ica.l import.anco, because the velocil.y in thc boundary Il1ye.r at.tltin~ a, vnluo which is very dose to tho oxtcrnn.l volocit.y alrcady at; a small dist.anoo [rom t.he wall. It. is I)(;ssihln to define UlC bouudn.ry-luycr t.hidoless as t.hn.L dist,:tnce fl·.om th.!) Willi whorl) t.ho vclocit.y difTers by I per ('(:nt from the oxt.ornn.l v clooity. \Vlf,h !.IllS definition the numerical fuctor in eqn. (2.2) has the value 5. Instead of t.he boundarylayer t.hiokness. anot.her qnant.it.y, the dieplacemen! thickness 151, is somet.imes used, I~ig. 2.:1. I t is defined by tho equat.ion

half from D to E, and decelerated on the downstream half from E to F. Hence t.he pressure decreases from D to E and increases from E to F. When the flow is starter] up the motion in t.he first, instant is very nearly frictionless, and remains so as hng as the boundary layer rcmnins thin. Outsido tho boundnry layer there is It tmlHlfoJ'JlllltiOJl of pressure into kinetic energy l\long TJ g, tho revorso t.nking plueo nlollg I~' F, so that It particle nrr-ivcs nt, P with tho HIlIIW v clooll.y lUI jf, hnd nt, 1>. A tluid part,j",,, which moves in "'10 iUlIl1ediatc vicinity of t.ho wall in the bOlJlldn,ry lnycr rcmui ns under the influence of the same pressure field as that existing outside, because the external pressure is impressed 011 the boundary layer. Owing to the large friction forces in the thin boundary layer such a particle consumes so much of its kinCtic

U (~1 = f (U - u) dy . o

(2.6)

Fig. 2.3. Displacement. t.hioknosa (~, ill It boundnry layer

Fig. 2.4. Boundary-layer separation und vorbex formation 011 " circular cylinder (diagrammatic) S - point or scpRral.lon

The displacement th icknoss indicates the distance by which the external strearnlines are shifted owing to the formnt.ion of UlC boundary layer. In t.he case of a plato in parallel flow and at zero ineidcnce the diaplaoernent. thickness is about, t of tho boundary-layer thickness (~ given in eqn. (2.1 a).

I,. Separation a 1111 vortex formation

energy on its path from D to E that the remainder is too small to surrnount !.lIe "pressure hill" from E to F. Such a particle cannot move far into the region of increasing pressure between E and F and its motion is, eventually, arrested. The external pressure causes it then to move in the opposite direct.ion. The photographs reproduced in Fig. 2.5 illustrate the sequence of events near the downstream side of a round body when .a fluid flow is started. The pressure increases along the body contour from loft to right, Ute flow having been made visible by sprinkling aluminium dust. on the surface of the water. The boundary layer can be easily recognized by reference to the short. traces. In Fig. 2.5a, ta.kcn shortly after the start, of t,)1C motion, the reverse motion has just begun. In Fig. 2.5b the reverse motion has pCl13tn.te(1 a considernhlo distance Iorwnrd and Ute boundary layer has thiokoned nppreciuhly. Fig. 2.5e shows how this reverse motion gives rise to a vortex, whoso size is incrc.isod still furf.hcr in Fig. 2.5<1. The vort.ex becomes scparntod short.ly nft.orwurr!s n.nd mo vos downstream in the fluid. This circumstance changes completely Ute field of flow in tho wake, and the pressure distribution suffers a radioal change, as compnrod with frictionless flow. The final stato of motion call be inferred from Fig. 2.!i. III the eddying region behind tho cylinder there is considerable suction, as seen from the pressure distribution curve in Fig, 1.10. This suction causes a large pressure drag

on t.he body. I

At a larger distance from the body it is possible to discern a regular pattern of vortices which move alternately clockwise and counterclockwise, and which is known as a Krirrnrin vortex street [20J, Fig. 2.7 (see also Fig. 1.6). In J?ig. 2.6 a vortex moving in a clockwise direction can be seen to be about to detach itself from the body before joining the pattern. In a further papcr, von Karman [21) proved that such vortices are generally unstable with respect. to small dist.urbances parallel

The boundary layer ncar a flat plate in parallel flow and aI, zero incidence is part.ioulnrly simple, because the static pressure remn:ins cOlls~nnt in t.he whole field of flow. Since outside tho boundary laver the velocity rcmams constant the same applies tv the pressurc because ill t.ho frictionless flow Bernoulli's equation remains valid. Furthermore, the pressure remains sensibly constant over UlC width of tho houndary layer at a given distance z , Hence t~te prnssure over the width of the boundary layer has thc some magnitude as outside the boundary layer at the same distanco, and the snmo applios La cases of arbitrary body shnpos when t.lio prcssure outside l.ho boundary lay('" varies along Ute wall with the Icngt.h of arc. This fact is expressed by saying t.hat. t.he external presstlr(' is "impressed" on tho boundary la.ycr. Hence in the case of tho motion past, a pink t.ho presFlllre remains constant, throughout, t.ho bourula.ry layer.

The plwllomcnoll of hOlllHlr~ry.!aye: sCJ~nraLi:'l~ 111~~llt,i~!~~(! p~~)~io.t1sly'i!:l i~ttiI11'L.t_~!y oonnectcd wit.h Uw.pressure distribution 111 trlC .boundary layer. In the boundary layernn aplato no sopnrntion takes place as no IHick:f1~\\;OCCi.if~.

. r II 01'<)('1' 1,0 ox plniu tho v('ry import.ant plu-nomunon of boundary-layer separation lot. us consider tho flow n bout a blunt. body, e. g. about. 11 circular cylinder, as shown ill Fig. 2.4. III frictiouh-ss flow, the fluid part.iolcs are accelerated Oil the upstrenrn

ao

lJ. Outline of hounrlnry-lnyer theory

:11

Fig.2.5a

Vig.2.!lc

h. Separation ant! vortex formntion

Fig.2.5b

Fig. 2.6. lnstnntanf'ouR photogrnph of flow with c()1l11'Iet{) houndnry-lnynr ~('Illll'uf,ion in tlu- wnko of a. circular cylinder, nftcr l'rnndll.Tieljel1s 127]

Fig. 2.7. Karman vortex strect, from A. Timmc [:18]

Fig. 2.8. St,mnmlillCR in a vortex street (hll = 0'28). The fluid is nt, reRt, at inllnit,y, and t.he vortex street moves to the Il'ft,

Fif.(. 2.!ia, h, e , d. U",'eIOI'1l1Cllt, of boundary-Iuyor scparntiou with lime, after Pranrlt.l-Tiot.jens 1271, ::l"e 0.1"0 I·' iJ.'! , 11i.1i

Fig.2.Ii<l

Fig. 2,8

Circular cylindcr. The frequency wit.h which v orf.icoa nrc shed in a K:l.nn{"n vortex st.rect hehind R circular cylinder wns first cxtcnsi vely measurod by II, Blenk, n. Fuchs an. I L. Liebel'S [5]. A regular KArIn:in street. is observed only III Ule rallOn of Reynolds nurulx-rs J! /)/v from about GO to 5000. At, lower' Hl'\'l1olds 11111711)('1'''; the ~ake is luminal' and has the form visible in tho first two phot.ogl:llphs of Fig, I.n; at higher Reynolds numbers thoro is complete turbulent mixing. Measurements show that, in tho regular range given above, the dimClmionless frequency,

nD

-V' = S , [Strouhal number)

to IheIllRdv(~s, The only arrangement which RhoWR neutral equilibrium is t.hat with h/l c ()·281 ('·'ig. 2.8). ;1'he vortex sf.roob moves wit.h a vclocil.y It, wl~ich i~ sm~lIe( thnn tho now volocity lJ ill front or the body, It call be regarded as a IlJghly Idealized picture of tho motion in the wake of the body. The kinet.ic energy contained in the volocit.y fid.! of the vorl.ex street must be continually created, as the body moves through the fluid. On the basis of this representation it is P?ssible to d~duee an expression for tho dra.g from the perfect-fluid theory. Its magnit.urle per 1IIlIt lengt.h of Ih" cylindrical body is given by

D = e CJ2 h [2'8371 - I,! 2 (.ij n .

'1'1)(· widt.h h. aile! t.ho vdocit,y rnt.io 1/./ U must bo 'known from experiment.

Mor« T"",,"t, oxpcrimont.al inveAf,ignt.iolls due to W, W. Durgin nnd others [J:I] f),:lablishcd t.hn t. ill 1111 "e."·le,,al.ing vortex AI ... 'd, t.h .. ratio 01 t.he longil.urlinal to the 1,,,?nRv,""Re "parllll!: of ,I he vort.ices ('hang"" eousidornhly. 1\" It r(,RIII!., I he regular arrangcmcnl, of vor t.ir-ea IS t.rnusfnrmcd 1Il1" a turbulent. wake.

also known IlR Lho St.rouhn.l number I:nl, d"lll'ndR only Oil thr- 1lf',l'Ilolds 11111111".1', This relnt.ionehip is shown plotted ill Fig. 2.!) which is based 011 monsurcmcnts per. formed by A. Roshk« [32.1; sec also [15J. The experimcnt.al point.s which were ob. tninod with cylinders of differcnt, diarnet.cnl /) nnd at, dilTnent, vclouil.ios J! HI'I'Hngc themselves well all I\, single curve. At, the higher Reynolds numbers t,IIC Strnuhn.l number remains approximately constnnt. at. S = ()'21. Thifl value of S, 11.:-; :-;1'1'11 [roru F'ig. 2,0, prevails up to I\, Reynolds number R = 2 X lOr., t,hat. is ill Uw subcrit.ien l range (see also Fig, 1.4). At, higher ReYlJolds numbers, Hay around R = lOG, a regular vortex atreet does not exist. According to A. Roshko 1311. such a regular street, rc-nppeam at extremely large Reynolds numbers (R > :1 X l(6) when t,he St,l'OlIhnl

32

) I. Ontlino of boundary-layer theory

;

h. N"paml ion amI yo r tcx [urtnation

0.30 0.l8 -S'4,fl.

• 0.16-

0.l4 0.22 0.20

'YD=3+IO('m F'rtmberger

(I) D- 2 + 18 em Drescher

• J):= 0," + " em Rlb ner nnd ]~tklnR (2) /1- 26 em Buhlltz;

o J)~ 4f, em Jloshko

(3) ])~ III ern Jones et a.l.

, . .-

0.3 -- -----

1-

-

1

~ .--.

0.18

O[cm] 00.0235

OJ r---------.-.

00.0613

0.16 - .- .. - v 0.0989 -+- -- - ...

0." - ..-- - (j 0.3180 .. ,-.

0.12 II ~,O~6/5~ L ... _

10,2 1.6,O;} £6'0]7 £6'01.1 1.6105] '6'067--'-6-10,

:13

T

M... I

___ ~ d

V 1_ / _I f

aD

0.3

I·
o dll= 0.03
• d/l=0.05
0.6 Mm 0.9
6 7 8-10'
R·J'l
v R= ~O

I"ig. 2.!1. The Strouhal number, S, for the ){Rrlllltll vortex atreet. in tho flow past a ciroular cylinder in terms of the Reynolds number, R. Measurement" performed hy A. Roshko [31. 32), H. S. Ribner, B. l~tkillB and K. K. Nelly [30]. K F. HeIr and L. F. G. Simmons (28) as well as G. W. Jones et at. ([8] of Chnp I). In t.he range R = 3 x 10" to :I X lOR [suporcribical regime with very low drng, Fig i.4) the Karman vortex street iA no loger regnlar. It is only at R > 4 X 10· t.hat. a regular pa ttern forms again; its St.rollhal number is now higher at. S = 0·26 to 0·30 compared with S "'" 0·2UIlI. R ~c 10" to 3 x lOs

o 2 3 4 5

Fig. 2.Hl. Von Khrm(m vort.ex stroof behind a flat plato at zero incidence at a Mach nu mber M = 0·61 and 1\ Reyuolds number R = VI/v = 6'5 x lOS after H. J. Heinemann ct. al. [18). Length ofplnte 1= 60 m m , t.hickncas rntio d/l = 0·05. Exposure time approx. 20 nanosec (20 X 10-9 BCC)

Fig. 2.11. Hll'olllllll II U mbnr S .. , nil! V ill terms of the Mach number for the vortex street behinrl a flat pluto Itt zero incidence. afterH. J. Heinemannet al, [18]

number assu mes vnluos around S = 0·27. In this connexion the paper by P.''''. Bearman [:Ja] may also be consulted. When the diameters of the cylinders are small and the velooit.ics a.re moderate, the result.ing frequencies lie in the acoustic range. For example, the familiar "aeolian tones" emited by telegraph wires are the result of these phcnomena. At a velocity of V = 10 m/sec (30'48 ft/sec) and a wire of 2 mm (0·070 in) in diameter, the frequcncy becomes n = 0'21 (10{0·002) = 1050 sec-I, and the corresponding Reynolds number R I':::! 1200.

an .earlier paper by L. Rosenhead [32a] may also be ~onsulted. The reader may also be interested to look up the text of a remark made by L. Prandtl on the occasion of a lecture by K. Friedrichs ("Bemerlmng tiber die ideale Strornung um einen Kerper bei versehwindender Zahigkeit." Lectures on aerodynamics and allied subjects, Aachen 1929, Springer, Berlin 1930, pp. 51, 52).

Flat plate at zero incidence. The fact that It regular vortex street establishes itself, among others, behind slender bodies as well as in compressible streams has only been estllhlishcd reecntly by H .• J. Heinemann et 111. [18]. Thc photograph of Fig. 2.10 shows such a regular vortex street behind a flat plate at zero incidence for a Mach number Moo = 0·61. The diagram in Fig. 2.11 contains a plot of the Strouhal number, S = n.d] V, former! wit.h t.he plate thickness, d, in terms of the Mach number, but only for t.hc subsoni« mngf' M = 0·2 to o·gli. The diagram pmves that here too S ~ 0'2, 110' \III" , he nl"l" for tire drndnrcylinder in Fig. 2.9. The corresponding Reynolds numbers, referred to t.he length of the plate, are in the range R = Vl{v = 3 X 105 to 8 X 105 in which the flow is laminar.

Separation. The boundnry-Iayor theory succeedsin this manner, i.o. with the aid of the explanation of the phenomenon of Reparation; in throwing light on the occurrenee of pressure or form drag in add ition to viscous drag. The danger or boundary. layer separation exists always in regions with an adverse prcssure gradicnt and the likelihood of its occurrence increases in the case of steep pressure curves, i. e. behind bodies with blunt ends. The preceding argument explains also why the experimental pressure distribution shown in Fig. 1.11 for the case of a slender streamline body differs so little from t.hat predicted for frictionless flow. The pressure increase in the downstream direction is here so gradual) that there is 110 separation. Consequently, there is no appreciable pressure drag and the total drag consists mainly of viscous drag and is, tberofore, small.

The streamlines in bho boundary layer near sopural.ion arc shown diagrammatically in Fig. 2.12. Owing to the reversal of the flow there is It considerable thickening of the boundary layer, and associated with it" there is a flow of boundary-layer material into the outside region. At the point. of scpnrn.tion one st.rr-n mlinc intor-

,

Two papers by C. C. Lin. [22] and U. Domm [II] concern themselves with the theory of the KArman vortex street. The formation of a vortex pair behind a flat plat.e ill cross- flow at. right. angles to it has bcen investigated theoretically by E. Wedemeyer [38 a], whereas T. Sarpkaya [:13 h] conducted t.heoretical and experimental st.ud ics for a plnll' nrrangerl nt a large angle of at.tuck (see Fig. 4.2); in t.his conne xion

II. OUUillC of "01lndncy-layer thcory

h. Sopa rnlion and vortex formutiou

sr-cts the wall at a <lennit.e angle, and t.ho point. of separation itself is determined hy the coudit.ion that the velocity gnldient norma I to the wall vnnishoe there:

S = point or.rpnmt,lon

(81~) _ 0 (sPp:lI'nliolt).

811 11'011 _-

(2,7)

Fig. 2.12. Diltgnulll11ltt.ic represent.nl,ioll of flow ill t,he hound"r)' layer near 11 point. of soparnt.ion

The precise looat.ion of the point of sopnrutiou can he determined only with the aid of an exnct culou lnl.iou, i. e. hy tho integration of f.l1(~ hou ndury.Iayur oqunt.ion».

Separal,ion, as dcscrihod for the cnsc of a «irculur cylinrlor , CltII also occur in a highly divergent channel, Fig. 2.13. In front of the throat t.ho pressure decreases in the direct.ion of flow, n.nd t.he flow adheres completely to the walls, as in a [riot.ionlcss fluid. However, behind Ute throat t.ho divergence of I.IIC channel is "0 large I,hal, H", boundary layer- becomes separated from both walls, and vortices nrc Iorrnod, The stream fills now only n small portion of tho cross-sectional area of tho channel. However, separation is prevented if boundary-layer suction is applied n.t. the wall (Ii'igs. 2.14 and 2.15).

Tho photographs in Figs.2.1Ii and 2.17t prove t.hat t.ho ndverso pn'RRlII'l1 gradient I,oget.her with Iriction Ileal' the wall determine the process of separation which is independent of such other circumstance as e. g. the curvature of the wall. The first picture shows the motion of a fluid against a wall at. right. angles to it (plano stngnat.ion flow). Along tho streamline in t.he plane of symmetry which leads to the stagnation point there is a considerable pressure increase in tho direction of flow. No separation, however, occurs, because no wall fricl.ion is present. There is no sepnrat.ion ncar the wall, either, because here the flow in the boundary layer takes place in the direction of decreasing pressure on both sides of t.he pla-ne of symmetry. If now a thin wall is placed along thc plane of symmetry at right angles to the first; WII-II, I"ig. 2.17, the new boundary layer will show a pressure increase in tho direction of flow. Consequently, scpnrat.iou now occurs Ileal' t.iIC plane wall. The incidence of soparat.iun is often rather scnsit ivc to small changes ill the shape of the solid body, pnrt.ioularly when the pressure distribution is st.rongly affected by this change in shape. A very instructive example is given ill the pictures of Fig. 2.18 whieh show photographs of the flow field n.bou t a model of a mot.or vehicle (the Volkswagen delivery va n ), [23, 35]. When t.ho n08C was flat, giving ii, an angula-r shape (a), the flow past the fairly sharp corners in front caused large suction followed by 11 large prp,ssurc iller-case along the side walls. This led to complete separation and to the formation of a wide wake behind the body. The drag coefficient of the vehicle with this angular shape hnd a va.luo of CD ,= 0·76. The large suet.ion ncar tho front end and the sepnrut.ion along the side walls werc eliminated when t.he shape was changed by adding tho round nose shown at [h). Simultaneously, the drag eocfflcienb became markedly smaller and had a value of CD = 0·42. Further rosoarch on such vehicles have been performed by W. H. Hueho [II)J for the case of a non-symmet.rie stream,

Fig. 2.1:1. ICiow with Reparatioll ill a highly divergent ehnnnel, from l'ramltl-Tietjcns [27]

J1ig.2.14. Flow with boundarylayer 8tH·.Lion on upper wall of highly (livcrgcnt, channel

Fig. 2, Iii. Flow wit,1t boundarylayer Auction on hoth walls of highly divergent channel

t Fig, 2.16. and 2.17. have heen taken from the ~ "Stromnngon in Darnpf koasclnnlagcn" by fl. Foet.tingcr, Mitteilungen dor VcrcinignO!! ~",,(ff-trIi;KesAclbeRit.zer, No. 7:1, p. llil (I!l:lfl).

30

H. Outline of boundary.layer theory

b. Reparation and vortex formation

0.76

Separation is also important for the lifting properties of an aerofoil, At small incidence angles (up to about 10°) the flow does not separate on either side and closely npproximatos frict.ionloss conditions. The pressure disbribut.ion for such a oaso ("sollnd" flow, Fig. 2.1lllt) wns given in Fig. 1.14. Wit.h Inorcnsing ineidonon Uwn~ is danger of sr-parnt.ion on t.he suet.ion side of the norofoil, bcouuso t.lio lH'es'HII'o ill. crease becomes stcopor. For n given angle of incidence, which is about Hio, separat.ion filially occurs. The separation point is located fairly closely behind the leading cdgn. The wake, Fig. 2.19b, shows a large "dead-water" area. The frictionless, lifb.oroat.ing flow pattern has become disturbed, and thc drag has become very large. The ,beginning of separation nearly coincides wit.h the occurrence of maximum lift of the aerofoiL

Structural aerodynamlca, Flow around land-based bluff bodies, such as st.ructures and buildings, is considerably more complex than flow around streamlined bodies and aircraft. The principal cause of complication is the presence of the ground and the shear created in the turbulent wind as It consequence. The interaction bctween the incident shear flow and the structure produces coexisting static and dynamic loads [8, 9, IO]. The fluctuating forces produced by vortex formation and shedding can induce oscillnt.ions in tho atructurcs at. their natural frcquencies.

The flow pat.terns observed on a detached rectangulnr building is shown schomat.ically in Fig. 2.20. In front of thc building f.lrero appears a bound vortex which n.riscs from the interaction of the boundary layer ill the sheared flow (d V/dz > 0) and thc ground. There is, furthermore, strong vortex shedding from tho sharp corners of thc building and a complex wake is created behind it. So far no theoretical methods have been developed to cope with this extremely complicated flow pattern. It is, thcrefore, necessary to resort. to wind-tunnel studies with the aid of adequately scaled models.

Fig. 2.16. Free stagnation flow without scpnration.ns photographcdhy Focttlugcr

Fig. 2.17. Decelerated stagnal,ioll flow .wit,h sepnrnt.ion, as photographed by Focttlllgcr

(3) AnglJlar nose

a)

( b) {{ollnd nose

flU sepilfilion

o.tZ

"1'1 I 1 lol of fl motor vehicle (Volkswagen (klivery van). after g_ Moeller

FIg. 2.IR .• ow a HIlI. a 1Il0!, ,. • f

12:1]. a) Angulllr n080 with Bcpn.mtcd flow along tho whole of tho RIde wn.1I n.nd.ln.rge <lra._: ~~:2' flcicnt (e}) = 0'7(;); h) Round nose with no separnbion and small drug eoeffloicnt (CD - )

Fig.2.19a..b. Flow around an aerofoil, nftor Prnndtl-Tietjens [27]. a) 'sound' flow, Il) flow with soparnt.ion

:38

If. Outli"e of boundary.layer theory

Fig. 2.201'

Fig.2.20b

v

-

Circular cylinder

f ld I

I ~167rl

v

Fig.2.22a

lfig. 2.22b ' I

:m

Fig. 2.20. Overall view of flow pat.t.ern (schematic) around 8. rectangular .t.nle· ture [34). It) Side view with foreward bound vortex in the stagnation zone ann " separated roof houndary layer; h) upwind fnce and vortex Bhed(ling from tho t.ho windward corner of the roof

To conclude this section, wc wish to discuss a particularly telling example of how effectively it is possible to reduce the drag of a body in a stream when t.he separation of t,he boundary layer is completely eliminated and when, in addit.ioll, the bod v ih·wlf is given a shape which is conducivc to low resistance. Fig 2.21 illustrates UIP eflect. of a favorable shape (streamline body) on drag: a symmcLl'lc aorofoil and II circular cylinder (thin wire) have been drawn here to a relative scnlc which !I .. ssurca (~qtllll drag in streams of equal velocity. The cylinder has a drag coefficient en ~ I with rc"pect. to its frontal area (sec also Fig. 1.4). On the other hand, tho drag coefficient.of 11)(' n ernfoil, referred to it,s cross-sectional nren, has the very low value of Of) = (l·oon. The extremely low drag of t.hc acrofoil is achieved as a result, of It carefully f'!IORI'1I profil;, which assures that the boundary layer remains laminar over almost t.hr: whole of its wetted length (laminar norofoil). Irr this conncxion, Chap. xvrr and, eSI)ceilllly, Fig. 17.14, should he eonsult.cd.

c. Turbulent flow ill a pipe and ill a 'JOIIIlI'ary layer

Fig. 2.21. Aorofoil ann circular cylinder drawn in such relation to each other as to produce t.he same drag in parallel flows (parallel to axis of symmetry of aerofoil) of the same velocity. Aero· /oil: Laminar aorofoil NACA 6:14 - 021 with laminar boundary layer. Drag coefficient ~DO ~ o-ooo at R, = lOS to 10', Fig. 17.14. Circular cylinder: Drag coefficient en = 1·0 at R~ = 104 to 105; Fig. 1.4. Thus .the rat.io of the chord of the aerofoil, I, to the diameter, d, of the cylinder is lid = 1-0/0'006 = 167

Monsurements ::;how that UIC type of motion t.hrough a circular pipe which was calculated in Section] d, and ill which lite velocity distribufion was ,HI.mbolic, exists only at, low and moderate Reynolds numbers. The fact that ill the laminar motion under diecussion r1uid laminae slide over each other, and that there arc 110 radial velocity componcnta, so t.lmt t.ho pr{,~8ure drop is proporf.ional to tho firsf. power of the moan flow velocity, oonstit.utes an essential (·.hnr:w1.cri«t.ie of this typo of flow, This ohura.otoriat.ic of the motion can be made clearly v isihle by introducing a dye into the st.ren.m anti by discharging it through a thin t.ubc, Fig. 2.22. At. UIC moderate Reynolds numbers associated wit.h la.minar flow I.ho dyo is visi hlo in t.Il(' form of a dearly defined thread extending over tho whole length of t.ho pipr-, Fig. 2.22n. By increasing Ute How volocity it. is possible 1.0 roach a stage.vhcn the fluid particles cease to move along st.rnight. Iines and t.he regulnrit,v of the motion breaks down. The coloured t.hrcad become" mixed with t,11<' fluid, its aharp out.line becomes blurred a url event.nnlly the whole orosa.ser-l.io n hpcollle& colourr d , Fig. 2.22h. On the axial motion there are 1I0W supprimpM(,d irregular radial Iluct.un.tioua which ofloct. the mixing. Such a flow pat.tern iH called turbulent, The dye oxporimonf wa~ first carried out by O. Reynolds l29], who ascertainod t.hnt. Ute tra.nsition from t.ho laminar to t.he tnrbulout type of motion tn.lccs place at, a definite valuo of tit" Rcynolrh. number (critical Reynolds number]. Tho act.ual value of the cl'ii.ie,tI Reynolds number depends further on I,he dot.ails of t.h" cxporimcntal nrrangomont.. in pnrticular all tho amount of disturbnnco sullcrod by tho lIu id before (,1I1,tH'jllg the pipe. Wit.h an nrrnngemonf which is as free from disturbances as possible crit.ir-n l Reynolds numbers (iid/ll)r.rU exceeding 104 can hc uttainr-d (17 = denotes the moun velocit-y averaged over the cross-sectional area). ,,'jth a sharp-cdged ont.rnnee the «rit.icnl Iteynolds number becomes npproximntcly

( ii. d)

---;. . = ReTf! ~ 2300

1 crit

Fig. 2.22. Th" Reynolds dve 1'){l'eriment. Flow in water made visiblfl by the injecf.ion of It dye. after W. Dubs [l2J; a) laminar flow, .R";'" 1150; h) turb ulent. ~ow,

R e-e- 2!i20

(pip!') .

(2.8)

'I'hi» vn.lur- can be regarded as the lower limit. for t.ho (rit.ical Rnynoldf; number ",,10\\' which even Ill,rong disburbanccs do nof CHIlS!' I.he llow In hooom« l.urbulcnt..

40

I I. Outline of boundary-layer theory

41

In the t.urbulen t. region the pressure drop .becomes app~oxim~te~y propo;:!:~;~

th f the menn flow velocity. Tn this case a considerab yarger p . '

t(~ , e squ~re ; lIir~(1 in' order to pass' It fixed qunnt.ity of fluid through the pipe, difference lSI I' '11 I' l' nr flow This follows from tho fact t.ha t 1.110 phenomenon of as com parer WI, 1 n.n .111< . • ." r 'T which ('aI1SI'S the rcaiat.a.nco t.urbulr-nb mixing diSSIpates a large quunt.it.y (~energy [' , iI' I II w I he volo-

to now t.o increase considerably. Furf.hormoro, "' t.hee~,,(~ 0 Lur J11le~I;.tI~ in 'h'rni~ar

-it distribut.ion over the cross-scct.ional area IS mue I more ?v.el ". '

(,I Y I,· 1. I' 1 b t bulent nuxmg which causes an flow. Th is ciroumatunce is also to ue exp amcc y ur . f tl et b d II ose near

€>xehan c of momentum between the layers near t~lC aXI~ 0 .IC U e .an ,1,

II' Igl'Most pipe flows which are encountered 111 engmeenng appha, nces occur atf

' io wa s., , "J . I The laws 0

such high Reynolds numbers that turbul?nt. motl?Il pre,:a~ s as a IU e.

t.urbulent motion through pipes will be discussod HI doba.il in Chap. X.X.

In a way which is similar to the motion through a pipe, the fl~w I? a bf~"~ld~?

I I g a wall also becomes turbulent when the external velo:.lty IS su cient y aycr a on '... I t ibi f om laminar to turbulent large. Experiment,n.l Invostigations into t~? I ran:1 ~onJ ~ Burgers (6) and B, G.

fI w in the boundary layer were first can ICC ou y .. , ..

() '7, ,,' [17] II as by M. Hansen [16J. The transl,tHlIl from

IeI' Hegge ',IJnen as we'd' ibl

v~~~i~ar to turbulent flow in the boundary layer becomes most cle~rl'y Iseerm. e

i}y a sudden and large increase in the boundn.ry-l~yer thiclme~ ~Ild /t the she~r~l~

st,ress ncar the wall. According to eqn. (2.1), With l reP/~?~e. y .no curl', en t 'Ot

I t.hi k <5/l l' x] U becomes cons an

ordinate x, the dimensionless boundary- ayer ie ness. t I 00 It r:; Fig 2 23

for laminar flow and is, as seen from cqn. (2.1 a), approxlma e y eq.ua 0,). . i I

eon;ains ~ plot ~r t,his dimensionless boundary-layer .thieknes~ agalmslt thr: ~;~yno ( ~

I TJ I At R > 3·2 X 105 a very sharp increase IS c carry VISI) e, am

num ier (co X v. x

18 ,- .~- -_.- -- - ,- -~ _. -- -

c. Turbulent. Ilow ill a pipI' nnd ill It bounrln r )' Inyer

an idont.ionl phenomenon is obsorvml in a plot of wall "hearing at.ross. Tho sudden increase in t.hese (luantil,ies denotes that, the flow has chang!'d from luminnr to turbulent,. The Reynolds number R, basod 011 the current I('ngt,h x iH rdakd 10 t.ho Ite,Vllolds nu m hnr RJ ,., U", ,5/1' I",~('d on 1,1", hOllll<1,ll'y-IaY!'I' Ihi(,lult's>< Ihroogh I,hn ("Illal,ioll

as seen from cqn, (2.1 a). Hence to t.he crit.ienl Rr-ynotds num her

Rxcril = ((J~X) ,-= :1.2. IO~ (plate)

'J.' ail

there corresponds R6 ert« f':>j 2800, The bouudn.rv layer Oil a plato is laminar near Ow leading edge and becomes turbulent Iurt.hor dowllst,ream. The auseiH'la XCril of the point. of transit.ion can be determined from the known value of R" erst- ] n t.ho case of a plato, as in the previously discussed pipe flow, t.ho numerical valuo of Rcrlt depend" to a marked degree Oil the o.mou n L of diRt.urhance in Ule external flow, n.nrl the value R", crit = 3·2 X 105 should be regarded as a lower limit. \Vith oxccptionnlly dist,urimnee·free cxtcrnal Ilow, values or R, crtt = 106 and higher huvo been att.ained.

A l'art.ieul:trly remnrkn hle phenomenon connected with the tmnsit.ion from laminar to turbulent flow occurs in t.hc case or blunt, bodies, such ItS oirculnr cylinders or spheres. It will be seen from Fig». 1.4 and 1.5 that the drag coefficient of a circular cylinrlor or a sphere suffers a sudden and considornblr, decrease ncar Reynolds numbers V D]» of aboub 5 X lOr. or:l X 105 respectively. This Iact was Iirst observed on spheres by G. EilTel 114]. It. is a consequence or t.ransit.ion which causes r.he point of separation to move downstream, because, in the case of a turbulent boundary layer, the accelerating influence of UlC cxtcrnn.l flow cxtcmls furl.her due to i.urbu lonf mixing. lIenee the point of separation which lies ncar the equator for a laminur bOllndary layer moves over a eonsiderahle distancc in the downstream direct.ion. In t.urn , the dead area decreases conaidorably, and tho preflsure dist,ribution becomes more like that for friet,ionless motion (Fig. 1.11). The decrease in the dead-water region considerahly reduces the pressure drag, and that shows itself as a jump in the curve eT) = j(R). L. Prandtl [26] proved the correctness of t.he preceding rell.l1ollillg lry 1Il011llt,jng a !,trin wire ring at It short, !Iist,allee in front or the equator of a sphere. This cnusos the boundary layer to become art.ifieially turbulent at, a lower Reynolds number and the decrease in t.ho drag coefficient takes plaec earlier than would otherwise be the case. Figs. 2.24 and 2.25 reproduce photographs of flows which have been made visible by smoke. They represent the subcritical pattern with a large value of the dmg coefficient and the supercritical pattern with a small dead-water area and a small value of the drag coefficient. The supercritieal pattern was achieved with Prandt.l's tripping wire. The prcceding experiment shows in a convincing manner thn.t the jump in the drag curve of a circular cylinder and sphere can only be interpreted as a boundary-layer phenomenon. Other bodies with a blunt or rounded stern, (c. g. elliptic cylinders) display a type of rcln tionslnp between drag coefficient and Rcynolds number which is f1ubstantially similar. \Vit.1t increasing slenderness the jump in tho curve becomes progressively less pronounced. For 11 streamline body, such aR that shown ill Fig. 1.12 t.horo is 110 j limp, because 110 appreciable sepa.rat.ioll occurs ; t.he v('ry gradual 1~I'es~ure increase on I.he hack

Fig.·2.23. Boundary-layer thickness plot.. ted, against the Reynolds ,!lumber ba.sed on'the current length x along B plate in parallel flow at zero incidence, M measured by Hansen [16]

42

H. Outline of houndnry-Iaver theory

c. Turbulent flow in a pipe and in a boundary laycr

43

or such bodies can he overcome by tlw boundary layer wit.hout soparat.ion . As we shn ll n.lsn sec lnt.er in great.er dct,;il, tho pressure distribution ill the external flow ('xprt,H a dp,!'il'ivc influence on the position of the transil,ion point. The boundary ln.yr-r is laminar in the region of pressure decrease, i. e. roughly from the leading mlgp 1,0 t.hr- point of minimum pressure, and becomes turbulent, in most eases, from thnt point, on wn rrl t.hroughout t,II(' region of prCf,gllre increase, 1 n this eonriexion it is im porf.an t to st.at« thn.t separat.ion can only be avoided in regions of increasing pressure when the now in the boundary layer is turbulent, A laminar boundary layer,

Tahle 2.1.

Thickness of boundary layer, 0, a.t trailing edge of flat plate at zero incidence in parallel t.urbulent flow

(frY> '""" tree etrcam veloclty : I = IcnR:th or plaf.~; .. := klnrmn.Uc \'i~(":o1lil.y

I floc I

[ ft/Rcc]

I Iff]

(~

i

,wei

,

III
Air 100 :J 2'0 X 10" 0·73
v = I!i() X 10-· ft'/Ae" 200 :J 4·0 X lOft 0·(;4
200 15 2·0 X 10' 2·:10
,,00 2;; !I·:I X )0' 2·110
750 2ft 1·25 x lOA zes
\VaLer !i 5 2-:1 X 108 1-19
v = II x 10-6 ft'/RCC 10 15 )·35 X 10' 2'52
2!) 150 H X 10· 13·l
!i0 !iOO 2·3 X 10· 29·8 r I

Boundary-layer thickness: Generally speaking, t.he t.hickness of a t.urbulent boundary layer is larger than that. of a laminar boundary layer owing to greater energy losses in the former. Near a smooth flat plate at zero incidence the boundary layer'increases downstream in proportion to XO'8 (x = distance fro.m leading ?d~e). It. will he shown later in Chap. XX [ that the boundary-layer t.hiokness varint.ion

in t,llrhlllf'nt, flow is given hy the eflllation '

( )-1/5 I

,t = 0·37 U:,I '= 0·37 (R,)-1/5

(2.9)

Methods for the ?rcvc'l~ion or separation: Sopnrnt.ion j" most Iy an uudcsirablc phenomenon because It, ent,nrlfllnrge energy 10RseR. For t.hiR renson IIlnt.ll<)d~ hn.ve 1,,>(," <levis.ed for. the art~ficia~ prevention of separation. The simplest met.hod, from t.he physical point of VIew, IS to move the wall with the stream in order to reduce t.ho velocit.y difference. b~tween th?m, and hence to remove the cause of boundary-layer f~nnatIon, but this IS very d~ffieu.lt to aehi:ve in engineering practice. However, 1 randtl t has shown on a I'Olnlmg circular cyll1l.der that this method ill very clfect.ivo. On the SIde where the wall and stream move in the same direction separat.ion is comp~etel.y prevented. !"f0r~ov~r, on the side where the wall and stream move in opposite (hreet~ons, sepaflttlO~ IS s.lIght so that on UIC whole it is possible to obtain a good experimental approximation to perfect. flow with circulnt.ion ami a large lift.

Anot~lCr very ~lTective method for tho prevent.ion of separation is 1I00Lnd((ryUtY('.1· suction, In this ~etl~od t.hc dce~lcrated .lIuid. particles in the boundary laYPI' are remove~ through slI~s m the wall Int.o the interior of the body. With sufficient.ly strong .!'mctlOn, s~parat.Jon can be prevented. Boundary-layer suction wns used on a CIrcular cylinder by L. Prandtl in his first. fundamental invost.ign.t.ion int.o boundary-layer flow. Separation can be almost completely eliminated wit.h suet.ion through a slit, at the back of t.he circular cylinder. Instancos of the elTect, of suet.ion c~n be seen in Figs',2.14 and 2.15 on the exam pic of (lows through a highly dlverge?t ch~nneJ. Flg.2.13 dernonstrntes that without suction there is strong s;-par.atlOn .. FIg. 2.14 shows how the flow adheres to tho one side on which suetion IS applied, w,hereas from Fig ', 2.15 _it is seen that the (low completely fills the channel cross-sect.ion when the suotron slits arc put into operation on both sides. In I,he latter case the streamlines aBSUIllC a pnt.tcrn which is very similar 1,0 t.hat ill Irictiunlcss ~ow. In. later ycar~ suotion was ;snecessfully used in aeroplane wings to ill('refl~(' Ow lift.. OWJllg t,o SUd,101l on the uppcr surface ncar the trailing edge, t.he [low ru lhr-res

Fill. 2.2,t, Flo\\' I'''HI, n "pherc at. a R1Ihedt.i(·,,1 H"Yl1oldR 111111111",,: [rrnu \'\'it'RriRhNg('r 1:1111

Ti'iJ:(. 2.2!i. Flow 1'""1. a AphNe nt, n. supercril.ical ]{cy"oldR 11111111",r: from \vip~"IRhergN [:I!l]. The auporm-it.icnl flow pnt.tcrn is a.·hie· ved by the mounting of a, thin wire ring (t,ripping wire)

as we shall see Inter. can support only a very small pressure rise so that scpnrat.ion would or-cur even wit.h very slender bodies. In par t.icula.r , t.his remark I\lso applies to the flow past. all aerofoil with a pressure dist.ri but.ion similar to that in Fig. 1.14, In this ease Repamt,ion is most, likely to occur on the suet.ion side. A smooth flow pattern around n.n n.erofoi l, conducive to t.ho creabion of lift, is possibh- only w il.h a t.urbulent boundary layer, Summing up it, may be st,at.eli that the small rlra.g of slender bodies as well itS the lift of aerofoile are made possible through the ex ist.cnce of a t.nrhulent.

boundary layer.

which eorrnsponds t.o (''Ill. (2.2) for' laminar flow. Table 2.1 gives values for the 1101l1l"ary-lay(~r t,hi.,)OIOSS calelilat.ed from eqn. (2.!1) for several I,ypieal cnsos of air

:uHI wuu-r flows.

t Prnndtl-Ttot jcna. Hydro- and Aerodynamics. Vol. II, Tnhlr-a 7, Rand 0.

44

II. Outlinc of boundary-layer theory

References

45

References

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11)II~rJ\gl"II' ~V. w., n nd J<1I.rJS"OIl, R. K. F.: On tho phenomenon of vortex sl.red brr·"kdnl\·n

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[12J

to the aerofoil at considerably larger incidence angles than would otherwise be the case, stalling is delayed, nrul much larger maximum-lift values are achieved [36).

After having given a shorb out.line of t.ho fundamental physical principles of fluid motions with very small friot.ion , i. c. of the boundary-layer theory, we shall proceed to develop a rational t.hcory of t.hos» phenoTllena from t.ho nquut.ions 01' motion of viscous fluids. The description will be arranged in the following; way: We shall begin in Part A by deriving the geneml Nnvicr-Stokcs equations from which, in t.urn, we sha ll derive Prandt.l's boundary-layer equat.ions with the aid of the simplifications which can be introduced as a consequence of the small values of visoosit.y. This will be followed in Part B by a description of the mcthods for the integration of these oqunt.ions for the case of laminar flow. In Part, C we shall discuss the problem of tho origin of t.urbulent flow, i. e. we shall discuss the process of transition from laminar to turbulent flow, treating it, as a problem in the atability of laminar motion. Finn.lly, Part D will contain the boundary-layer theory for completely developed turbulent motions. Whereas the theory of laminar boundary layers can be treated as a deductive sequence based on the Navier-Stokes differential equations for visoous fluids, the same is not" Itt, prcscnt., possible for turbulent flow, because the mechanism of turbulent flow is so complex t.hat it cannot be mastered by purely thooret.icnl methods. For this reason a t.rcat.iso on turbulent flow must, draw heavily on experimental results and t.ho subject must he prescnted in the form of a semi-

em pir icul theory.

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[I) [2) [3)

[3a) (4) [:j) (0) P) [8)

[(0)

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n. Outline of bounrlnry-Iayer theory

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[:18] 'I'irnmo A.: Ohm' rlio ()cRchwindigkcit .. v('rt"illlng in Wirhcln. r 1l!':,·An·h. 2!i. 20fi- 22!i (1!l!i7). [:lRn.1 WerlclII".ver. K: Auabildung oincs Wirhelpal\l'('R nil den Kanton einer Plat.te. Ing .. Arch . .30.

IA7 200 (111(;1).

[:In] WicRelsbcrgcr, C.: Dr>r Luff.widerstand von Kugcln. ZFM ,S, 140-· 144 (1!l14).

f: II A I' T E n I I I

Ucrivation of thc cquntlons of IHot.ion of a comprcssihlc viscous fluid

(Nnvier-Stokes eqllalioll8)t

H. Fundamental equations of lIIotion and continuity Hllpli".1 to fllliel flow

We shnll now procoed t.o derive UIC oquat.ions of mot.ion of a coruprcssiblo. v iscous , Newtonian fluid. In the general ellse of t.hree-dimensionul mot.ion, Hw Ilo w field if; :<pecified by t. he velodt.y vector

II' = ; 11, + iv -I- k to

where u, v, II) are t.he three ort.hogonal oomponents, by the pressure ]i, a.nd by the density (1, all conceived as functions of the coordinates :1;, y, z, and t.imo t. For the rleterminnf.ion of t.hose five quantities there exist. five equations: t.ho cont.inuit.y equation (conscrva.tion of mass), the three equations of motion (oonsorvat.ion of momentum) and the thermodynamic equation of state p = I(e).:

Thc cquat.ion of continuity expresses tho fnct, t.hat, for a unit; volume t.hero is a balance between the masses cntering and leaving per unit. t.imc, and t.he ehange in density. In tho case of non-steady flow of a comprcssihlo fluid t.his condition leads to Uw cqunt.inn :

De . ve

TIt· + edlV W = iii + div((1w) = 0,

(3.1 )

whereas for an incompressible fluid, with e = consf Ow equat.iou of I'Ollt.illuit.Y assumes t.he simplified form

div III = 0 . (:1.1 :1)

The symbol De/Dt denotes here the substantive derivative which oonsists of t.he local contribution (in non steady flow) oe/at, and I.ho convect.ive cont.ribut.ion (rlue to t.rnnslation), ,,·.grad (!.

t In the Rixth Edition thiR chapter Ims been revised hy the Trnnslntor at the Allthor'R invitation. : If the equnt.ion of st.ate contains temperature a..q an addit.ional variable, a further equation is supplied by the principle of the eonservat.ion of energy in the form of the First Law of Thermodynnmics: r]. Chap. XII.

48

III. Derivo.lion of the cqunt,ions of motion of It compressible viacous fluid

b. General stress system in a deformable body

49

The oqunt.ions of motion are derived from Newton's S()cond Law, which st.at.es t.hat the product of mass and nccelemtion is equa.l to the sum of the externa.! forces acting on t.ho hody. In fluid motion it is noccssnry to consider t,h~ fo~lowlII~ two classes of forces: forces acting t,hroughout the mass of the body (gmvltatlOllal forces) and forces ading on the boundary (pressure and friction). If F = e g dell?t,es the gravit:ttional force per unit volume (f{ c.= vector of acceleration due t~ gravity) ~nd I' denotes the force on the boundary per unit, volume, then UIC equa.tions of motion can he writ.ton in t.he following vect.or form

I,. General 8tl"e88 system in a deformable body

In order to write down expressions for the surface forces acting on tho boundary, let us imagine a small pnru.llopiped of volume d V = dx dy liz iflOlltt,lld illst.nllt,anI'OIlHiy from the body of the fluid, Fig. 3.1, and let its lower left-hand vert.ex coincide with t.he point z, y. z. On the two faeoa of area dy' dz which nrc perpendicular t,o t.ho z-nxis there act two resultnnt stresses (vectors = surface force pcr unit area):

oPx

px and p. + -ax- dx respectively.

(~.5)

e~~' = F + I'

(3.2)

DII'

bi

Fig. 3.1. Dcrivution of the expressions for the atresa tensor of an inhomogeneous stress system and of its sym metry in the absence of It volumetric distribution of local moments

P • ~~dx % ()x

with

F=;X+jY+kZ

body force

(3.3)

and

l' = i r, + j P'I + k r,

S\l rfaco force .

(3.4)

Tho symbol UII'/Dl dcuotcs here I.he subst.ant.ivc ;weclcr~tt.iOl~ whi:-h, like t.ho substnnt.ivo dcrivat.ivc of .lem<it.y, consists of I.he loon] conl.nbuhon (111 non-steady flow) auF)I. and t.he eonvcct.iv·c cOllt,ribut,ioll (due to translation) dw/dt = (w.grad) wt

cu: dill at + dt

x

TIl!' hody forces arc to be regarded as given oxtm-nal forces, ~ut, t.he surface f~)re~s dC)l(md 011 t.he rat» at, which t.hc fluid if; strained by the ,velOCIty field prese~lt I.n it., The system of forces dot.crm incs a slat« o] etres«, and it IS now our task to lI1(iJ:ato t.ho r~lat.ionship between sl.ross and rut.o of st.raill: noting ~,hat it. can o.nly be gl~en empirically. Tn our present derivat.ion we shall rest.riot at.t.cntion to isotroqnc, Neuxonian [luid« for whieh it mny hI] assumed t.liu t, t.his relation is a linear one. All gaRes all,d m any liquid" of interest. in boundo.ry-la.ycr t.hcory , in par+iculnr wat-er, belong to this class. A fluid is said t.o be isotropic when the rr-ln t.ion het.ween t.he components of st.rcss and UIOSO of t.ho rat,!' of strain is t.ho same in all directions; it is said to be Nr-wt.o nia.n when t.his relation is linon r, t.hn t is when t.he fluid obeys St.okoa's law of frict.iou. ] n t.ho ease of isotropic, elastic solid bodies, experiment t.cachcs t.hnt. t.hc state of streRR dqJOll!ls Oll tho magnit.ucle of strain itself, most engineering matcrin.ls obeying Hooke's lincnr law which is ROllJ()wh.at ana~ogo\ls ·.t.o St?k~s's law. Whereas t.he relation hof.ween stress and strain for all isotropic olast.ic solid involves t.wo COIlsl.ants wh ieh elw,racteri7.e 1.1](1 properties of a given material (c. g. elastic modulus and l'oiRROII'S r at.io}, UIC rr-lut.ion bet.ween stress and rate of strain in an isotropic Iluid involves fl. singlr constn nt. (tho viscosity, /1.) as long as relaxation phenomena do not occur within it., as we shall sec in Sec. I Ire.

(Subscript x denotes that the stress vector acts on an elementary plane which is perpendicular to the z-direction.) Similar terms are obtained for the faces dz : de and dx . dy which are perpendicular to t.he y- and z-axes respectively. Hence the three net components of t.he surface force are:

?/:

OPx

D;';- . dz . dy . dz

OPy

-81/ . dx . dy . dz

apt

z : -az' dx . dy . dz .

plane ..1 direction x:

"

and t.he resultant surface force I' per unit volume is, therefore, given by

aI' l'= __ x

ox

(3.6)

t III order to exprC~R t.i1e vector (lI'gr,,,I) II' in an nrbit.rary sysl.(,1lI of ('oordinntcR, the following g""l'l'nl roln.t.iou shou hi be used

(""g:l':ul) II' ~ grn.1 i"" - II' X cur l II' •

The quantities PX' J'y' Pe arc vectors which can be resolved into componcnts perpendicular to each face, i. e., into normal stresses denoted by (J with a suitable subscript indicating the direction, and into components parallel to each face, i. e. into shearing stresses denoted by T. Tho symbol for a shearing stress will be provided

whr-r« 11,2 --:": II" II' •

50

Ill. Dcrtvation of the equations of mntion of a compreasiblo viscous fluid

51

h. General stres~ system in a deformable body

with two subsoripts : the first subscript indicates the axis to which the face is perpendicular, and thc second indicates the dircction to whieh the shearing stress is parallel. With this notation we have

The surface force per unit volume can be calculated from eqns. (3.G) (3.7) a ·1 (3 10)

and becomes ' ,IH •.

1

( 0(1 aT + ~~z-)
• :J: zy
P = I -a:i:~ + -aj; ..... compo x
( aTXII 0<111 o;:~)
+j -~ + -ay- + ..... comp, ?I (3.IOa)
0%
( aTx• OTJlZ O~z)
+k ----+ 8y + ..... (~omp. z ,
0%
~ ~ ----
face face face
yz zx xy I'z=iax +jTx,,-+kTxz I'v = ; TIIX -I- j ay -+ k 1:"yz P» = ; Tzx -+ j Tzy -+ k at .

(3.7)

The st.ress system is seen to require nine scalar quantities for its description. Those nine quant.it.ios form a .~I.re.~.~ tensor. The sot of nine components of the stress tensor is somet.irnes ca lled the st.ress matrix:

Tho st,reRI' tonsor and t,ho corresponding matrix are symmetric, which means that two shearing stresses with subscripts which differ only in their order are equal. This cnn be demonstrated with reference to the equations of motion of an element of fluid. Tn general, its mot.ion ean he separated into an instantaneous translation and an inst.antanoous rot.at.ion, and only t.ho latt:er needs to be considered for our purpose. Denoting the instnnt.aneoua angular aocelcra.tion of the element hy (u (a):r, ({Iy, (.0.), we can writ.o for t.ho rot.at.ion about, t.ho y.axis t.hab

(;)y d/y= (r,; ely dz) dz - (Tzx dz dy) dz = (Txz - Tzx) d V

where !II II is t.he elementary moment of inertia about, the y-axis. Now the moment of inertia, dl, is proport.ionnl to t.ho fifth power of the linear dimensions of the parallelepiped, whereas its volume, d V, is proportional to t.heir t.hird power. On contracting t.hc olcmnnt to a point" we notice that t.ho left-hand side of the preceding equation vanishes faster t.han the right-hand side. IT once, ultimntoly,

Tru ,_ TVr: = 0

!ntrodlleing the expression (3.10a) int.o the equaf.ion of motion (3.2), and rcsolvin

into components we have: g

e ~ = X + (_~? + ~;~y + 0;;)

e~v = y + (OT:ZII -+ O<111__ -+ arllz_)

DI ox oy 02

Dw (aTxz aT • 0(1 )

e nl = Z + -ax + -a;- -+ azz- •

(3.8)

(3.11 )

If th~ fi.uid is "friet~onless" all shearing stresses vanish; only the normal stresses rernam III the equation, ~nd they are, moreover, equal. Their negative is defined as the pressure at the pomt x, y, z in the fluid:

T:tll = Txt = 1:"1/' = 0 a", = aJl = az = - p .

,iY2 = Tzu'

(:l.g)

In such a hydrostatic stress sy.stem, the fluid pressure ill equal t.o t,hc ar it.hrnot ir-al mean of the norm~l stresses taken with a negative sign. Since measurements which lead to the esta~h.shment of t~le th~rmodynamic equation of state arc performed under such conditione, the fluid bemg at rest, this pressure is identical with the therm~dynaJ~lc pressure in the equat.ion of state. It is convenient to introduce the aribhmetionl mean of the three normal stresses - their sum being called the lra~e ?f the stress tens?r - as a useful numerical qUltntit,iy in tho cnso of It niscau« {lutd III a stat? of motion also. It is still called the pressure, but its relation (,0 t.ho therrnodynamin pr?ssure requires further investigation. Although it then ceases to be eq~,al ~o a partlCu!ar stress which is normal to the surface, -it has the property of ?eJ.ng m:ana~lt WIth respect to branaformations of t.he system of coordinates, as It IS an invariant of the stress tensor, being defined as .

if (;)y ill nob t.o hooomn infinit.ely large. Analogous equat.ions call he writ.t.on for tho remaining t.wo axes, and tho symrnot.ry of t.he stress tensor call thus he dernonst.rat.od. Jt, is dear from UIC argument t.hat t.ho at.ross tensor would cease to be symmot.rio if tho fllli,l developed a local momonf which was proporbionnl to its volume, d V. The lnttcr ma.y occur, for example, in an olectrostnt.ie field.

Owing t.o UlC fact t.hnt.

t.ho slress mnf.rix (:l.R) contains only six diffcrent'st,rcSR components and becomes svmmct.rion.l with respect to the principal diagonal:

(as

11 = Ts:v T""

t (a.., +- all -+ az) = - p.

(:l.12)

"Ve shall sec in Sec. lIIe that it remains equal to the t,hermo(lynamie .

the absence of relaxation. pressure III

(3.10)

52

HI. Dr-rivat.ion of the cqun tions of mot.ion of a compressible viscous fluid

c. The rate at which a fluid element is strained in flow

53

The system of I he t.hroo cqun.t.ions (3. J I) cont.ains the six al.rcssoa ax, au' a" T:rv' Txt, Tv" Thc next t,ask is to determine the relation between them and the strains so as to enable us to introduce t.ho velocity components 11, v, to into eqn. (3.11). Before giving this relation ill Sce. I I l rl wc shall investigato t.ho eystcm of st.rains in greater detail.

Tt. is convenient to rearrange the expressions for the rclat.i vo vnlocil.y pomporwnls

dlt, dv, dw from eqn. (3.1:3) to the form .

du. = (i:x dx .+ E ... u d?! + Fn dz) -I- (11 dz -- 1. dy)

tlv = (i:.vx (h; -I- i]1 II!! + ryZ dz)+ (1. d:r. --- ~ dz)

e. The rate at which a fluid element is strained in flow

dl/J ~ (izx c1.y- + iz!! d!l + (';z dz) -I· (~dy ~ 1] !Ix) ,

When a cout.inuous body of Iluid is made t.o flow, every clement ill it is, generally speal{illg, displaced to a new position in the course of t.imo. During this motion o lemeuls of fluid become st.ra.incd, and since the mot.ion of the fluid is completely determined when t.he velocity vector w is givcn as a function of t.irne and position, II' = w(x,y,z,t), there exist ~dl1ematic relations between the components of the rate of strn.in and t.his function. The rate at which an element of fluid is strained depends on the relative motion of two points wit.hin it. We, therefore, consider the t.wo neigh homing points A ami B whic-h are shown ill Fig. 3.2. Owing to t.he presence of t.he vcloeit.y field, point A will be displaced to A' in time dt by a distance s = w dt; since. however, t.hc velocity :Lt, TI, imagined at a distance dr from A, is different, point, B will move to B' displaced from B bys + rIs = (II' -1-(\",) dt. MOI'e cxplicitly, if the compouents of velocity have the values ?t, v, II! at A, then, at the neighbouring point. B, the velocity compouont.s will be given to first order by the Taylor-series

it being easy t.o verify I.hat the new sym VOIR havc the
C ;") (: i!u 1 (av
Exy a;; -;- --I
2 ex
( An ~:':_ ) ()"
f'f ~ ~y~ lOy Eyz oy + ox ay
€~X eZy e. ( ~; + 0!') . 2 (al! _I
2 ax ' ilz following meanings

;)Il). 1 (ow _1_

()!! ' T &;

I (VW

:1 oy +

~~-)) ,)

oz ,

(Jill

'fJz

and

I (aw al! )

~ =.- --- ~--.- .

2 ay ec ::

1 = _~ (an _ .(JW) . 7 2 {)z ox'

e x pnnsions 1
+dn an dx elf. d?! an dz
1/. =1(, f- ox -I- ely -+- oz
+ Ilv vv .Ix -I i)v dy + an rlz (3.13)
l' =v + fix a!l vz
111 + !III' = 10 + em dx -I oW dy -I- all! dz.
ox vy oz It. is noted that the matrix eij is symmetric, so that

(:U5c)

and thnt. ~, '1, , nrc related t.o t.he component.s of t.he vector

w = curl II'

(3.15d)

( ou AU OU
ox 0.11 ()z
ov ()" a" (:~.13a)
ox ay , )
aw aw 0':
2x- ay- ,1z
8' Each of the new tcrms can be given a kinemat.io interpretation, and wc now proceed to obtain it ..

Since we concentrate our attention 011 t.ho immediat.e neighbourhood of point, A, and since. i~terest i~ centred on the motion of B relative to A, we shall place point. A at. t.he origm, and interpret, dz, dy, dz as the coordinnt.oa of point H in a Cart.esian system of coordinates. Tn this manner, the cxprcsaions in ll'lIlS. (3.14) will define a field of relat.ivo velocities in which t.hc eomponent.s dn, dv, <lw arc linear 1'1I11d.io1lS of t.ho spae(~ coordinnt.o». In order to undorst.n.nd t.ho ITlPllning of I,hn dil1"el'{'l1l, terrnH in t.he mnt.ri x (3.15a) and in oqns. (:l.J5h), wo proceed t.o interpret t.horn one by one.

The diagram in Fig. 3.3 represents the field of relative velocit.ies when all terms except, on/ox vanish on t.he assumption that ()u/ox > O. The rclat.ive velocity of

any point B with respect to A is now .

Thus, t.he relative motion of point, B wit.h respect. to A is described by the following mnt.rix of nine partial rlerivat.ives of t.he local velocity field

(011 )

d1t =ax dx,

Fig. 3.2. Rolnt.ivo displnoement

and the field consists of planes x = const which displace themselves uniformly wit.h a velocity which is proportional to the distancr, dx away from the plane x = O. An elementary parallelepiped with A and B at its vertices placed ill such a velocity field will be distorted in extension, its face Be receding from AD wil.h an increasing

54

TI r. D('rivat.ion of tho equations of motion of n compressible viscous fluid

c. The rato at which a fluid element. is strain(',) in 1I0w

Y Ify

y dy

r dr

Fig. 3.3. Local distortion of fluid ('Iemcnt when Oil/OX ::- 0 wil.h all ol.hor torrns being equal to zero; uniform ex tenainn in the zdirection

l·'ig. :lA. Local distortion of fluid clement when au/vy > 0 with all other terms being equal to zero : uniform shear dcformatiou.

vcloeit.y. Thus f:x represents UIC rate of olonqaiion. in t.ho z-dircct.ion suffered by the element. Similarly, the additive terms f:y = o,,/ay anrl f:z = ow/ilz dosor ibn the rn.l.o of elongat.ioll ill {.he ?/- and z-diroot.ions, respectively.

It. iR IIIlW ('HAY to v isun.lizo the distorbion imparted t.v a fluid clement by the HillllJlt.II.IH'OIiH net.ion of all t.hreo dingon:l.1 elements of matrices (3.130.) or (3.1530). 'I'll" 1'1('111('111, ex pnndH ill all Ulr('(~ dinw.t.ioIlH, n.nll the change ill t.ho lengt,h of its t.JlI"(~(~ HidcH prod lIees 11 dHtllgc in volumo Ill, It rolnt.ivo rate

{d:l"~ + :: IIx lit} {dy + ~~ dy dt} {dz + ~: d~~r.}=_dx!~~z.

. ... -- a;: dii a;rli"

y dy

~':)lfYlfl

--1--

....-~'+-J. ~~}dXlIl Fig. 3.13.

l-r.-r::7"1~""r-~_l--r---o- when

Local distortion of fI"i,1 el"",,,"I.

flu. + 01' + VW = div ", ,

vx Vii 02

(3.IG)

x

dx I':%V = 1':1/% = j {(au/oil) + (ov/ilx)} > 0

with all other terms being equal to znro ; distortion in shape, (The diagram has berm drawn for Oll/?!! = av/ox )

t.o first order in tho derivatives. During t.his rliRt.orl.ioll, however, t.he shape of t.ho clement. described by the angles at its vertices, remains unchanged, since all right angles continue 1,0 he t.hat. way. Thus e describes the local, inst.nnt.ancous volumetric dilatation of a fluid element. When t,hc fluid is incompressible, e = 0, as must, be expected. In a compressible fluid the cont.inuity equation (3.1) shows thab

y dy

e = div w = - ~. ~(!.

I! J)t

(3.17)

Fig. 3.6. Local distortion of fluid element when

t.haf is l.hn.t, Ole volumet.rio rliht.at,ion, Ow rclnl.ive chango in volume, IR equal to 1.Il(' Ilf'gative of UlC relnt.ivo rate of change in the local densit.y.

The rolal.ive velocity field prcsent.s a different appearance when one of the off-diagonal terms of matrix (3.lila), for example au/ay, has a non-vanishing, say positive, value, The corresponding field, sketched in Fig. 3.4, is one of pure shear strain. A rectangular clement of fluid centred on A now distorts into a parallelogram as indicnl.ed in the diagram. The original right angle at A changes at a rate measured hy the angle YXll = [(01tjay) dy dtl/dy, t.hat, is at n rate au/ay. When both au/ay

l; = ~ (em/ox) - (au/ay)} ~ 0 ; instantaneous rigid-body rotnt.ion

56

III. Derivation of the equnt.ions of mol.ion of II eompressiblo viscous fluid

e. The rate n.t which Il fluid element is strained in flow

57

ami all/Ax have posit.ive nonvanishing values, f.ho right angle at A will distort owing to t.he supcrposit.ion of t.wo mot.ions, tho stuto of affairs being jlluat.rater! in Fig. 3.5. I t. is clear tlin.t. t.ho righl. angle at. A now dist.orts at. twice the rate

e yx = fry = ~ (~~ + ~~-)

(a) A pure translation described by the velocity components 11-, v, 1(1 of ur. (b) A rigid-body rotation described by tho components .;, '/], t, of 1 curl ur. (c) A volumetric dilatation described by e = div ur, the linear dilntut.ions in

tho direction of the axes being described hy ix, €y and €" rcspcct.ivoly. (d) (\ (.Iistort.ion in shape dr-soribod by the components Ex" etc with m ixed IIIdICC:'I.

Only the last. two motions produce an int.rinaio doformnt.ion of a fluid element. sur:olllldin~ the reference point A, the first two causing a mere, general, displaccmonf of its location.

The eloments of matrix (3.15 a) constitute t.ho components of a svrnmcl.rio tensor known as t.ho rate-ol-strain. tensor; its mnt.hemat.ioal properties nro ;nalogous to tl?o~e of the equally symmet.rin st.ress tensor. It. is known from the theory of elasticit.y [3,7) or frOl~ ~enera.1 considerations of tensor algebra 1I1) t.hat with every s~mmetne t~llsor It IS possible to associate three mut.unlly orthogonal])rincipf1l axes w!ueh dotcrmino three. rnut.ua lly orthogonal principal planes that. it'< a privilegcd Cnrbesinn system of coordinates. In this system of ooordinntos, Ute st.ross vcct.or ~)r Lho inabnnl.ancous motion in any one of t.ho prineipn! planes is normal to it, that, IS, parall~l to one of the axes. 'Vhen such a special system of coordinates is used, the mat.rioes (~.IO) or (3.1511.) retain their diagonal terms only. Denot.ing the vnluos of the respective components by symbols with bars, we would be dealing with the mat.rices

dcscrib!'d by two of tho off-diagonal terms of matrix (3.15a). In general, the three off.diagonal t.orms EXIJ =f:I/X' Exz =izx, and EZy = Ey, describe the rate of distorf.ion of a right. angle located in a plane normal to t.he axis Ute index of which does not appear as a subscr-ipt.. The distort-ion is volume-preserving and affects only t.he shape of t.he clement.

Circumsl.nnccs arc again different. in t.ho particulnr case when au/By = - ov/ox illust.rnt.ed in Fig. :-I.H. From t.ho preceding considerat.ions and from the fact that. 1l0W i X!I = 0 we can infer a.t. once thnt. tho right anglo at A remains undistorted. This iR also clca.r from t.ho diagram which shows t.hat the fluid element rotates wit.h respect. 1.0 t.hr- reference point A. Lnstanlaneouslu, this rotation occurs without distortion and can he dcscri hcd as a rigid-bmly rot.at.ion. The inst.aul.ancous angular veloc-ity of t.his rotation is

(ov/ox) dx dt --d~

QV ox

or

ou oy

It. is now e:lsy t.o see that the component. t, of ~ curl us from eqn. (3.15 b), known as t.he vort.ir-it.y of t.ho velocity field, reprosent.s t.ho angular velocity of this inat.arrtnn eous rigid.j,ody rol,n.t ion, and t.hnf

(~:r

o

o

;) c 0
f'
:tnd o L: f:"
o . () 2 (~~- -~;) + 0 .

o

It should, finally, be remembered t.hut. such It transformut.ion of coordinn ics docs not affect. the sum of the diagonal terms, so t.hat

In tho 11I0re complex case when (()v/a:r) of, - (ou/a!l), the element. of fluid rotut.es and i t.s "hap!' is diRI.ort.ed simult.nuoously. We can still interpret the term

ixy = €yx = .~. (~~ -1- ~~)

ar +. all 1 az ---. ax + (J II 1 0", , (:U!)a)
and
-I + iz ~ -I ~ -I (= div
s; Ell ._-- Fr f. u Ez e -_ ... - W) , (:1. I!I ") as d('sl"'ihillg t.hc rat·" of distort.ion in shn.pc, the Lerm

bocuus« t hoy oonst.il.ut.e in vuriuut« of t.ho t.ellsor8, as already int.imnt.r« l r-n rl ior, Viewed in such t.wo systems of «oordinates (both donot.ed by burs), an ok-mcut.

desl'fihing II", rato at. which till' olcnu-nf. of fiu,id pnrt.icipatcs in It rigid-body rot.at.ion.

I

The Iinonrit.y or e!jns. (:U:l) or of the ('lIt.irel}, equivalent cqns. (3.14) signifies

t.hat. UII' most. general cnso arises by :t superposition of the simple cases just deseribed. Therefore, if at.t.ention is fixed 011 t.wo neighbouring points A and B in a body of fluid which sust ains a continuous velocity field m(x,y,z), t-he motion of all element of fluid surrounding I heRe l.wo points 1':1 11 he uniquely decomposed into four compouont. mot ions :

Vig. :1.7. Principial axes for st.reRS and rnto of st.rnin

58 Ill. Dcrivnt.ion of the equntions of mot.ion of II. compressible viscous fluid

of fluid is atrossed in t.hrce mutually perpendicular directions, and its faces arc displaced instantaneously also in three mutually perpendicular directions, as suggested by Figs. 3.7 a and h. Thi« docs not" of course, mean that there exist no shearing stH'RRC1I in ot.hc r planes or t.hat. t.ho shape of t.he clement remains IIl1!listortecl.

I'm of which e?lJi<.'i:ies with it and on the sum of the three, each with a different factor; of proportlonalIt.y. Thus we record, direcl,l}, in terms of I,he spaee.derivat,ivcs, that,

d. Rclation bctwecn stress and rate of deformabinn

,I. Relation between stress and rate of deformation

iT' =J(Oii ... ov ._ ow) Oii

J: ox I f>fi I 8z + 2 f.LiJ£

-, _ J (Oii + 8v ow) OV

(1" -ax vy + 0% + 2 flOfj

-, A (<hi fJij ow) arD

(J'. = ax + au + vi + 2 f.L a;- .

(3.21)

It. should, perhaps, he stressed once more that tho oquat.ions which relate the surface forces to tho flow field must, be obtnincd by a perceptive interpretation of experimental results and that our interest is restricted to isotropic and Newtonian fluids. The oonsidornt.ions of the preceding section provided us with a useful mathematical framework whieh allows UR now to stat·e t.he requiremonts suggested by experiments in a somewhat. more precise form.

When tbo fluid iR at rest, it develops a uniform field of hydrostatic st.rcss (negative prl'RSUre - 7)) whieh is identical with the t.hermodynamio preRsure. When the fluid is in mol.ion, tho equation of state still determines a pressure at. every point ("principle of local st.atc" 14]), and it is convenient to consider t,he deviatoric normal sf.resse»

a: = (1. I· p ;

(:3.20)

T!,,~ qunut.it.ics u: v w and ~ r d ' .

iust I' d I ' , 1], ~ 0 not appear III t.hoso cxpressrons for t.ho reasons

JUs. cxp a~nc . ,.n each expreSSIOn, the last term represents the appro. riate rate

of 1:lle~~r (1JIaltat.lOn '. tha.t is, ~n essence, a change in shape, and the first, t~rm rel;r~~ sents re vo umctnc dilatatIOn, tAlat is the rate of change in volume .

a cJ . d it TI r· ' " In essellee

, Jan~e 111 ensl'y: re tactors 2 111 the last terms are not essent,iai, bein merelv

(.onvelll?nt ~o faClht,ate the interpretation, as we shall see later. The f:etors Yf

proportionalit d J t . II . ,,, 0

. ' ,y, fl a~ ,wo III a ,must be the same in each of the three reeedin

efjllatlOlIlI to secure Isotropy. It. is easy to sec that int I b t p g

. tI t' , an III erc lange e ween any two

~xes, ~a IS an IIlter.change of any of t.J1C three pairs of quant.it.ios : (ii, :i:), (v fi) (ii> z)

caves t ic s~t of.relat'lons invariant, as they must be ill an isotropic medium. Mor~ov~r

t.he preceding IR tho only combinat.ion of sput.in.l di t I ' I ... . '

. I " . ' , , . gra len oS w lie 1 possessos the

r?fJlllrp, propcrtios. If the reader cannot see this directly, he may commit a more

rigorous proof III a treatise on tensor algebra (or c. g. [IIJ p. 89): '

The relat.ions in eqns (321) carl b itten t I' .

f' di ' . "' e re-wrr .en (,0 app y 1Il I1n arbitrary system

(~ coor nat.es by. performing a general rotation with the aid of the a )1'0 ria.te linear transformat.ion formulae. We shall refrain from putting down t.Il~1 "pf.tiled ~Icps teeause, !.hougl~ tedious if performed directly, they arc quito stmigh'(,ron~l1rd

,. I;Y ele?me simple If tensor calculus is used. The approriate direct formulae ilia'; re .0111]( III refs [3 (j 7J wh tl' t . I ',I

S ,I .:'" ereas lei I' eusorra countcrpnrta arc givPII ill ref. IIII , u(. I a denva('101l would show that . .

together wil.h the IInehanged shearing ~tTl)SReR. The six quanl.it.ios so ohl,aifled eonsf.ituto a symmol.rio sl.rcss tensor the existence of which is due to the motion because at lest. all it;;; components vanish identically. From what has been said before it follows that t.lio componcnt s of this dcvintoric tensor; arc creak, I solely by the components of t.ho rak·of·st.rain tensor, that is to the exclusion of tho cornponents 11,17,111 of velocity as well as of the components ~, 1), c of vort.icit.y. This is cquivnlent. t.o saying (.ha\; t.ho inst.ant.ancolls t.ranslnt.ion [component motion (a)J as well as t.he iust.n.ntn.nooua rigid-body rot.ation [component mol.ion (b)] of an dement of fluid produce no surface forces on it, in addition to t.he exist.ing COIllponl'nt." of hydrost.nt.io prf'S811re. The prece(ling "t,atemellt., ov idcnl.ly , merely reprc· Am",s a precise local Iormulnt.ion of what. we expect to observe when 11 finite body of fluid performs a general mot-ion which is indistinguishable from that of :UI n(luivalcnt rigid body. Wc thus ooncludo t.hat t.he expressions for the components ax', rr~', ... , T e. ~ of tho dov iatorio st.ross tensor can contain in t.hem only the velocity gradients ou/O.'l:, ... , ()w/oz in approprinto combinations which we now procced 1,6 determine. These rclnt.ions are postulated 1·0 he linear; they must remain unchangod by a rotation of the system of coordinates or by an interchange of nxes to ensure isotropy. Isotropy also requires that, at, eVl1ry point, in the continuum, t.he principal axes or t.ho Hh'eHS tensor muat coincide wit.h tho principal axes of t.he rat.e-of-atrain t,el1140r, for, ot.lu-rwiso. a. proIcrrcd d irecl.ion would be introduced. The simplest way to achieve our aim is t.o select an arhitrarj point, in t.he continuum and 1.0 imngino t,ha.1. t.ho local system of coordiunt.os X, g,'z has been provisionally RO chosen Ill' t.o coincide with t.he t.hroo common principnl axes of the two tensors. The COIll· 1'0"(,11,"'1 of 01(' velocity lidrl in this systcrn of coordinates are denoted by ii, ii, ib.

I I if< !lOW C'1('a I' t.hal isotropy cn.n lw sonurr« l only if each one of t.he t.hre« normal ,,1.1''''''''''' (j;, i1 :" (1: i:-: IIll1dl~ t,o d('p'~lId 011 t.Iw component. or rnt,(~ or struiu t.ho direot.ion

(1x r = J divw I- 2/1, au
ax
(1.,,' = A div 1IJ + 2 fl ov
ay.
a/ = J div II!'+ 2 f.L ow
vz' ,
Tru =TJlx. = 11, (~~ + ~)
AX
Ty. = TZII = 11, (~i ~. ~)
v., ( ml aw)
r-r-; TXt =P Dz + ;
()r. (:1.22a)

(:1.22b)

60

I l l , Derivation of the cquarions of motion of a compressible vlacous fluid

f. Hulk viscosity and thermodynnmio pressure

61

where div w has been used for brevity. The reader mo.y notice tho regularity with which the indices x, y. z, the oompononts 11., v, ui, and the coordinates x, y, z arc permuted].

Applying these equations to the sim pie case roprcsont.cd in Fig. 1.1, we recover eqn. (1.2) and so confirm t.hnt the preceding more general relation reduces to Newton's law of friet.ion in UlC caso of simplc shear and dOCR, therefore, const.itutc its proper generali,mtion. At. t.he same time, we identify the factor f" wit.h the viscosity of the fluid, amply disCIISSe(1 in Scc lb, and, ineidentully, justify the factor 2 previously inserted into eqns. (3.21). The physical significance of the second factor, A, requires furt.her discussion, but we noto that, it plays 110 part, in an incompressible fluid when div '" = 0; it then disappears from the cquat.ions nltoget.hor, and so is seen to be import.ant for compressiblo fluids only.

tho shearing stresses remaining unchanged. Making use of cqns. (3.20), we obtain the so-culled consliiutioe equation for an isotropie, Newtonian fluid

2 It div w I- 2/1 ill/.
ax - -- 11 - :1
ax
2 It div II' + 2 " (J1I
all = -p - 3 By (:l.25a)

2 ow

az - p - 3 It div II' -I 2!1 fli

e. Stokes's hypothesis

Try =T"x = It (~~ +.~) T yz = TZII = It (~i + .~~.)

(3.21) u)

Although the problem t.hat we are about to discuss has arisen more than a century and a half ago, t.he physical Interpretation of thc second factor. A, in e<Ins. (3.21) or (3.22a, b) and for flows in which div II' does not vanish ident.ieally, is still being disputed, even t.hough the »alue whieh should be given to it in the 1()()rking equations is not. This numerical value is determined wit.h the aid of a hypothesis advanced by C. C. St.okcs in 1845 [13]. Wit.h out., for t.he moment, concerning ourselves with the physical reasons which justify Stokes's hYJlothesis, we first state that according to it., it, is necessary to assume

( an ~I~') .

TZ,T = Txz = It ilz + ax

2

3 11.

(3.23)

III it.s final form, noting that T' rcpresent.s the local thormodynamio pressure'].

Regarded as a pure hypothesis, or even guess, eqn. (3.23) can certainly be accepted on the ground that the working equations which result from t.he subst.itut.ion of eqns. (3.25a,b) into (3.11) have been subject.od to an unusually large number of experimental verifications, even under quito extreme conditions, as tho reader will concodo after having studied this book. Thus, even if it should not represent the state or affairs exactly, it certainly const.itutce an excellent approximat.ion.

Since the deviatorie components are the only ones which arise in motion, tlioy represent those components of stress which produce dissipation in an isot.hermal flow, there being further dissipation in a temperature field due to thermal conduction, Chap. XII. Furthermore, since t.he factor A occurs only in the normal com pouont.s (r,,', al/', a/ which also contain the t.horruodynarnic pressure, eqns. (3.20), it becomes r lcar l.hn.t t.ho physical significance of A is connect.cd with tho mechanism of dissipnt.ion when t.hn volume or the fluid element is changqd at a finite rate 3,8 well as wit.h l.ho rolut.ion hctwoon the total st.ross tensor and t.hormodynamio pressure.

This relates tho value or the factor A to the viscosity, 11, of t.he compressible fluid and reduces the number of properties whieh characterize the field of stresses in a flowing compressible Iluid from two t.o one, t.hn.t is to the same number as is required for n.n incom pressible fluid.

Su bst.it.uting t.his value into e<IIlR. (3.22a), we obtain the normal components of deviatoric stress:

. 2 f1 div II' + 2 !1 Ou
ax 3 ax
, 2 /1 div w + 2 f1 ov (:1.24)
all 3 ay
r 2 f1 div III + 2.f1 ow
az 3 a~ , r. Bulk viscosity aIIII thermodynamic pressure

\Ve now revert to the general discussion, without. necessarily accepting the vulidit.y of Stokes's hypothesis, but. confine it to the cnsc when no shearing st.resses are involved, because their physical significance and origin is dear. Consequently, ..

t TIH~ nboye Act. of six equat.ions can be cont.ra.ctod to a ~ingle one in Cartesinn-tensor notation (wit.h Einstein's summat.ion convention):

al/ = A Of}~~~ + " (Oll.' + ~~J) (i, j, k ~ 1,2,:1)

ilXk ax} ox,'

where t.he Kronecker delt.a 0" ~ 0 for i >+ j and Oil ~ I for i = j .

t In the oompaof tonsorial notution we would write

62

III. l Ir-riva.t.ion "r t I", {''1"atinl)x or mot.ion or It coml)JTR~ihl" viscous fluid

r. Bulk viscosity and thermodynamic pressure

we eomdri(, r a f10id Rysl.f'm, say t.he sphere shown ill Fig. 3.8a w~Jiel~i,s sub~ected to It uniform normal stress, a, on it.A boundary. Tn tho absonco of mot.ion (J IS OhVIOURly equal nnd oppol<it.(, in Rign to I.II(~. ~h,el'modynnmi,c prCfI~ure, 'P, ',I'aking t.llf' SIII11 of t.ho t.h reo eqllat ions (:~.21) and ut.lhzlIlg eqm;_ (3.20), we find t.hut

at. a finite rate, '.1'11(, hulk viscosif.y would t.hus eonstitut-c a. second propnt.y of a comprossible. isotropic, Newt.oniau IIllirll1('(,ded 1.0 dcterrniuo it.fI (·ollst.it IItiv""'IlIlIt iOIl a.lld would have to 1)(' 1111·:lSIII,(·t! ill addit.ion 1.0 I/.. It. is cv idr-nt t.hn t.

2

a - ---1) I (.l. I :i/l)divw,

rt' ~, 0

1(,'1 0

im plies irn plies

11 = ---- (J

JI I (J.

'fhlls l.ho nec('pt.anf'c of fit.ollf'H·s hypoliwsiR is equivaloul. to HII' n><slIllIl'tioll III:lt. Lhe thormodymunio pn)SHUre 11 is oqunl Ow ono-t.hirrl of t.lw invuriuut. sum of 110 rmu I sl·rCHSCR even in caseR whnn eOIllI"'('~Rioll 01' IlXpa.lI"ioll procen.!" Hf· It lini'l' rail". Furt.hormorc, it. is also equivulont to the assumption t.hn.t t.ho ()scilllll.ory mot.ir ru of a large. spherical "'ystf'm would he revoraihlo if if, were isot.hr-rrnnl, Morn d('fnil('d I·ollsiderat.ions ill t.orms of t.ho concepts of t.hermodyuanucs aR if. applif':-I 1,0 irrr-vr-rsiblf~ pror,I~RRf'S in cont.inuous aystems can he found ill t.he works of J. Mf'ixllf'r IHI. I. Prigogine[12] lind S. R. de Groot, nnrl P. Ma7.llr [If.

III order to dcf.crmine under whnt. condit.ions t.he bulk viscnsit.y of n com prossihl« IIlIid vn.nishos, it. is nccossary 1.0 hnvo recourse to ('XI)(~I'iIl1l'"f, or t·o t.he nwt.llOds of sl.at.ist.iea.l thormodynn.mios which permit, us 1,0 onlculnto t.ruusport. eoeffieil'lItH from first. principles. The direct. moasuromonf of bulk viscosity is very difficult. t.o PI'I'form, and no definit.ivo results arc in ex istence. Stat.ist.ical methode 1'01' dense gases or liquids have not yet. been developed to a point which would allow us to make a complete st.atcment 011 t.he subject. H. appears, however, t.imt the hulk viscosit.y vanishes identically in gases of low density. that is under condit.ions when Dilly biliary collisions of molecules need to be t.nken into acoount. In dense ga.«'", t.ho numerical value 01' bulk viscosit.y appears to be very small. This means that. eqll8. (:1.2(ia,h) continue to describe the work in a continuous system in tho absence of shonr 1.0 all excellent. !legree of approximnt.ion and that dissipnt.ion at constant. tcrn pernt.ure, even in tho general cnso. occurs only through the intervention of 0111 devintoric stresees. Thus, onoo again, we arc led to flt.okes's hypot.hosis and so 1.0 (,C]n(:1.20). This conclusion docs not. oxt.cnd to fluids which am capahle of undergoing rela.xat.ion proe('sscs by virtue of a locn.l departure from a state of chemical equilibrium I_ 1,8 j. Sueh relaxation processes OCClIr, for example, when a ohom ion.I reaction can t.ako place, or, in gases of complex structure, when a comparatively "low transfer of energy bot.ween the translational lind rotatiouul degrees of freedom 011 tho 0111' hand, and the vibrational degrees of freedom 011 UlC ot.hor, becomes possible. Thus when roluxnt.ion processes arc possible, UIC thermodynamic preRsllI'c is no longer equal 1.0 ono-Lhird of the trace of t.he sf.rose tensor.

It is sometimes argued that fho adoption of St.okes's hypol.llf'~is. t.hnt i" 1.111' supposition t.hat the bulk viacosity of Newtonian Iluid vanishes, does 1101. uccorrl wil.h our intuit.ivo feding that, a sphorn of [luirl whoao boundary oHcill:tt,I'S 1-10 I.ha f. there i!'! It eyeli(~ Rcquence of compression and expansion. l"ig. 3.Sb, would diHsipat.e no energy_ This would, indeed, be t.he ease, as is easily seen from UIC preceding argument, because the dissipative part of the stress field vanishes under such conditions. It must, however, not be forgotten t.hat. such a conclusion is valid only if the temporature of the sphere of gas were to be kept constant during the oscillation throughout tho whole volume, Normally this is impossible, Consequently, an oseillat.ing sphere of gas will soon develop a temperature field and I'llergy will hf' dissipnted down t.ho exist.ing tom pornt.uro gradients [Ii I.

I t.i 1.11',11. (JIll' r-qunf.ions re(l('('.t, this fad, a" already pointed out earlier. Now,

[til! no .ico v . II II

t.hc f(IICRt.ioll ,,(JROR it.solf aR to what, thi" relnt.ion sholiid be in a gelleral flow ro ( .

t!

a)

" 'I R Q.II:lRiRt.af.ic compression and oscillutor y motion or a spherienl maRR or fluid ]'Ig .•. ,

b)

When Ute system is compressed <]tIIt!list.atieally and ,reversibly, we again ~ecov~'r t.hc previous ('aRC because then div III _)-? a8ympt(}t.t(~ally, .We note t.I~at III !HI(',h

. t.l ~te ~t wlrich work is performed 111 a t.hermodynlunlcally re verai hle process

eases ,1C r... . c:L' .. "

per unit volume becomes

which is t.he same as

IV = ]J div II'

(3_26b)

in t.he not.at.ion ellRt,omary in t.hormodynnrnlcs.

\Vhell div II' is finite, ami the fluid is compressed, expanded or made t.(~ oseillat.e,' nt. a finite rat.o, ef(uality between 7i and -- p persist.c! only if the eoefficlCnt

2 (3.27)

p' 0= AI :1 It

. I 'I t' II (St()ke,s's hy pol.hosis}; otherriRe it does not. If -: cl=, 0, ,the

vnnrs INl If en .Iea y -

oscillatory motion of a spherical system, Fig, .8 b, would produce dlsSlpatl~n,

even if the tompcra.ture remained constan,t, throughout tI~e bulk of ~he gas, ~,he same would be true in the case of oxpansron or oompression at a, filll,l.e rate, .I: or this'rcason, the coefficient /l' is called tho bulk lJi,~('.osity of the flu~d: ,It repre8~nt.'l t.hnt. proper(;y. likn t.he shear viscosity 1'. for deformation in Rh~pe, which IS r?RpOllfHble for energy diRsipation in a fluid of uniform temperature during Il chango III volume

64

II r. Dorivn.t.ion of the equations of motion of II. compressible viscous fluid

g. The Navier-Stokes cquntiona

65

g. The Navier-Stokes equations

Wit.h t.ho aid of eqns. (3.20) tho non-visooua pressure terms can he separated in t.ho equation of motion (:1.11) so t.hn.t t.hoy become

It. is necessary to include hero the equation of continuity which, as seen from cqn. (:1.1), assumes t.he following form for compressible flow:

~f + O~(1"_) + o(pv) + o(q_UJ) _ 0

01 ox oy OZ - •

(3.:10)

Du op c: OTry

(! 1)1 = X - ax + ax + oy

oa,,' + oy

(3.28)

Tire above cquaf.iona do not give a com plct« dcscripbion of (.1)(1 mot.ion or :t l'OIl1- prossible fluid because changes in pressure ancl density elfeet tomporat.ure vnrint.ions, and principles of thermodynamics must, therefore, once more enter into t.ho eonsiderntions. From thermodynamics we obt.ain, in t.he first. place, the oharnct.oristie (~quat.io? (equation of state) which combines pressure, clensit.y, and tcm pr-rn.t.uro, and which for a perfect gas has t.he form

J ntroducing the const.ibul.ivc reln.tion from cqns. (3.24) we oht~in ~he reBultar.lt surface force ill torms of the velocity oomponcnts, e. g. for the x-dIrection we obtain

with t.he aid of eqn. (iUOa):

oa", OT",V Ih",. op o(J./ + aT:rv + OT",z

P % = a;" +fJii +. fJz = - ax + ax oy az

P%=-~~+:x [2/1~:-~lldiVII'] +~[/l(~~+:~)] +:z [1l(~:+:)1

p-eR1'=O,

(3.31)

These very well known diffcrcn I.inl oqua.t.ions form the hasis of the whole science of fluid ~echanics. They are usually referred to as the Navier-Stokes equations.

with Tl dcnot.ing the gas constant and 7' denot.irrg t.he absol uto tomperaturc. Secondly, if the process is not isothermal, it is further necessary t.o ma.ke lise of thc cncrgy e.(!nat.ion which draws up a balance bet.ween heat. nnd moohn.nicn.l encrgy (Fit'St La w of Thermodynamies), and which furnishes a dilferent.ial equation for the temperature disf.rlbution. The energy equation will be discussed in greater detail in Chap. XI L The final equation of the system is given by the empirical viscosity law 11(7'), it.s dependence on pressure being, normally, neglected. In all, if the forces X, Y, Z are considered given, t.here are seven equations for the seven variables u; v, to, p, e, T, fl.

For isothermal proocssoa these reduce to five equations (3.2!)a, b, c), (3.30) nnd (:1.31) for t.he five unknowns u., v, W, p, (!.

Incompressible flow: The above system of equations becomes further simplified in the case of incompressible fluids (e = const) even if the temperature is not const.ant. First, as already shown in cqn. (3.In), we have div IV = O. Secondly, since t.emperat.ure variations are, generally speaking, small in this case, the viscosity may be taken to be constant'].

The equation of state as well as t.he energy equat.ion become superfluous as far as the calculation of the field of flow is concerned. The field of flow can now be considered indepcndcnt.ly from the cquat.ions of thermodynamics. Tho cquat.ions of motion (:J.2!)a, b, c) and (3.30) can be simplified and, if the acceleration terms arc written 0111, fully, they assume the following form:

(a,l au au ou) ap (aZu 0',£ a'u)

e ·fJi· + 1/. ax + Vay + W az = X - ax + f1- ax; + 8y' +&;0

(av av Ov .av) y ap (02V o'v a'v)

f2 -at + U ax + v fly + We; = - ay + f1- Iii' -I- By' + oz'

(alii OW aw ow) ap (o'w iJ'w 02W)

(!ai' -I- u ax + Vjjy + waz = Z - az + f1- ox' + a!j2 +&2

(3.32a, b, e)

and corresponding expressions for the 1/- and z-eomponents. In the general case of a compressible flow, the viscosity /J. must be regarded as dependent on tho space coordinates, because 11 varies considerably wit.h temperature (Tables 1.2 and !2: 1), and the ehanges in velocity and pressure t.oget.her with the heat due to friction bring about considerable temperature variations. The temperature dependence of viscosity /t(T) must be obtained from experiments (c/. See. XTIIa).

If thcse expressions arc introduced into the Iundamcntnl equal ions (3.11), we oht.ain

e J~:' ~." X ~~ + 8~ [/l (2~~ --; div W ) 1 +;; [fl (~~ + t~)] ·1- ;; [/1 (~: + ~;) l.

Dv a a [ (8V 2 )] a [(ov aw)] a l (all av) 1

(} Di = y -iJ~ + 8ii fl 2ay-3 div III + az Ila;i + &1/ + ax P fJy + ax

Dw op 8 [ (ow 2. )) (} [ (awou) ) _a [ (av. + ?1!') 1.

e i)i = Z - a~ + iJi fl 2 a~- -:3' div II' + ax P a~' + 02: + oy Il OZ oy

(3.29a, b, c)t

t In inrlioial notation:

I! (-~-,I. +- "I °a-Vx-IJ-) = XI - 8p t- ~ f Ii (~~I_ -+ ~l2 __ 2 (jll ~~~)} (i, j, k = 1,2,3) .

" OXI oXJ \ ax, aXI 3 OXk

(3.33)

t This condition iR mom nearly satisfied in gnSCR thnn ill liquida.

66

HI. Derivation of the equations of motion of a compressible viacous fluid

g. The Navier-St,okes equations

Wit.h known body forces there are four equations for the four unknowns '1)" v, W, p.

If vector nol.at.ion is used the simplified Navier-Stokcs equations for ineompres. aiblo flow, eqns. (:1.32 a, b, e), can be shortened to

D",

f2I)i = F -- grnrl p + It V2 111 ,

(3.31)

(3.36b)

where t.he symbol \72 denotes UHl Laplace operator, \/2 = ()2/0X2 -I- (j2/()!l2 -I- eJ2/()Z2. The above Nnvier-Stokes equa.t.ious dilTer from Euler's equations of mot.ion by tho viscous term!': It \! 2 ",.

The solutions of the above eqnations become fully determined physically whcn thl' boundary and init.inl conditions are specified. In the case of viscous fluids tho condition of 110 slip on solid boundaries must be satisfied, i. c., on a wall both the normal and tallgential components of the velooity must. vanish:

(3.3(;0)'

t'n = 0,

Ve = 0 on solid walls.

(3.35)

OVr vr 1 (Jv", (Jv.

ar + r + r~ + (Jz =0.

The stress components assume t.he form

(3.36d)

The equations under discussion were first derived by M. Navier [9] in 1827 and by S. D. Poisson [10] in 1831, on tho basis of an argument which involved the consideration of intermolecular forces. Later the same equations were derived without the use of any such hypotheses by B. de Saint Venant [14] in 1843 and by G. G. St.okos [13] in 1845. Their dorivat.ions were based on the same assumption as made here, namely that the normal and shearing stresses are linear functions of the rate of deformation, in oonformity with the older law of friction, due to Newton, and that, the t.herrnodyna.mic preBsure is equal to one-third of the sum of the normal stresses taken with an opposite sign.

Since the hypothesis of linearity is evidently eompletely arbitrary, it is not a priori certain that. t.he Navier-Stokes equations give a true description of the motion of a fluid. It is, therefore, neeesBary to verify them, and that can only be achieved by exper-iment. In this conncxion it should, in any case, be noted that the enormous mathematical difficulties encountered when solving the Navier-Stokes equnt.ions ha ve so far prevented us from obtaining a single analytic solution in which the convectivo terms interact, in a general way with the friction terms. However, known solutions, such as laminar flow through a circular pipe, as well as boundary-layer flows, to be discussed later, agree 80 well with experiment that the general validity of Ute NaviorStokcs equations can hardly he doubted.

Cylimlricnl coordinates: 'We shall now transform the Navier-Stokes oquntiona 1.0 cylindrical coordinates for future reference. If r, cp, Z denote the radial, azimuthal, and axial coordinates, respectively, of It three-dimensional system of coordinat.es, and Vp V",,!1, denote Ute velocity components in the respective directions, then thc t.ransformnt.ion of variables [3, 11] for the case of incompressible fluid flow, eqns. (3.33) and (3.34), leads to the following system of equafions :

avr o; = - p + 2 f1. 7h ;

0", = - p -I- 2 It (+!;; + -~)

ov. az = - p + 2 f1. az

(3.37)

~urvilinea~ co.ordinates: It is often useful to employ a ourvilinonr system of cfloordllllates which IS adapted to the shape of the body. In the case of two-dimensional

ow a ong a d II't' .

bsci . curve wa, I IS POSBIUlp t,o select a coordinate system whose

til. ~ClIs~.a, x, IB measu.red along the wall, the ordinate, y, being moasurerl at right angles

OIl. <Ig 39 Th I} '1' c

. , .... us, ie curvumear net coneista of curves which are parallel to the wall

Fig. 3.!l. Two·dilllen~ional boundary layer along a curved wall

(3.360.)

~nd of straight lines perpendicular to them. The corresponding velocity components are b en~tc~. h.y .n an~ ~, respectively. ,!,he radius of curvature at, position x is deno;,ed

y (a), It IS positive for walls which are convex oubwards and negati I tl

wall' .' ' , 1",. .ive w ion ,IC

b lSI c~neavc, The appropriate form of the complete Navier-Stokes equaf.ions has cen derived hy W. Tollmien [15]. They are:

68

TIl. Derivnt.ion or the equations of motion of a compressible viscous fluid

Reforr-ncos

69

ou_ + __ l_l_ u,!'!::_ -I- 1)!'!::_ + ~ = __ l_l _ _!_ op -f

f)t Ill" OX oy II -I " II -I- 1I (! ox

{ R2 82u 82u I OU U

+)' TIl I ,,)2 (Jx2 + - 0.'12 + R -I- II oll - (/l + y)2 +

2 R vv II ~ v -I- fly ~ ou } .

+ TR-I y)2 ox - (Il -I- 1/):1 dx (Il + y)3 (Il: 0" ,

(a.38a)

[OJ Nn vicr , M.: Mi'rnoire sur leA lois (1\1 mouvemont (Ies Iluidos. IIU·III. de I'Aca(1. de S"i. G, 380 -·41fl (1827).

[IOJ l 'oisson, S. n.' 1I1,,,"oil'e aur Jes equations gent·ralcs de 1't((l'lilibrc ct rlu mouvcmont. des

eol'ps solidos i·lnAtiqlleR ct des fluicles. ,J. do I'l':colo )loly!p('iln. la, 13!J .. ·18H (IS:!!). [IlJ ('ruger, W.: Introduction to mechanics of continun. Gill1l &. Co., 1!l(jJ.

l12] I'l'igoginc, I.: l~t."de Lhormndyunrniquo des phcnonll\nes irt'l·verAihleA. J)ullod·D"s,,,,I', ID47. ll:lJ i-:tol",s, 0.(:.: 0" the t.hcorics or inLel'lll11 Irlction or IIl1ici" in motion. Trnns. C,,,,," r.

Phil. Soc. 8, 287 -301i (UHIi).

(14] de St.. Venant., B.: Note it joindre un memoire sur 111 dY":tllliqllc des Iluidos. Comp tes Rondus 17, 1240-1244 (184:n

[Iii] Tollmicu, W.: Gl'enzschiehttheoric. Ilnndbuch der Exper .. Physik Vol. I V, Pari .. I, 241-- 287 ' (Win ).

8v R VV 0" u2 1 op { (J2V 2 R Olt

iii +- R -I- 11 It 03. + v oy - II 1- 11 = _ Q oy + l' 01/2 - (N -I- y)2 i)" +

1 VV R2 02V "

-I- ~--y fJy' (II + ?/)Z 0302 - (Il + 11)2 +

+ 1l _dll 1l + 11 '/ dR OV }

(II + y)" ()" (R~' !I)" & ax ;

(3.38b)

__ fl_~-I-~+ __ V_=O

III II OX fly III 11 .

The st.rcas components are

(a.38e)

ax = _ p + 2 p(_R_ Du. -I _V_) Jl f 11 vx - R + 1/

(3.39)

and t.he vort.icity [see eqll. (4.5)J becomes

1 ( 11 i)v OU I )

co = 2 R + y -a-; - oy -7fTY) 11. .

(3.40)

References

[IJ de Groot, R.R, nud Mawr, P.: Non-oquilibrium thermodynamics. Nort.h-Holland Publ, Co .. \!)(l2.

[2J Fiippl, A.: Yorlosungcn uber tcchnischo Mochnnik, Vol. 6, Teubner, Leipzig, 1922.

[:l] Hope L., 2tihc l"liissigkeilen. Contribution to: Hnndbuch rlor Physik, Vol. VII (H. Geiger and J(_ Sehecl, cd.), Herli II, 1 !l27.

[4J Kcat in, ,J.: A course ill thormodynumics. Vol. T, Blrtifdell, 1!J(l6.

[IiJ i(CSt.ill, ,J.: Etude thermodynnmiquo des phenom('lle$ irreversiblcs. Rep. No. 60-·-7, Lab. d'A'\rnt.hcrllliqllc, 1I1e1l<1on, I!Hi(i.

IOJ La.mh, II.: l lvdrodynmnics. Olh od., Cambridgo, 1!J1i7; also Dover, 1!J4fi.

J7 J I.""", A. K II.: Thc mnt.hemuficnl theory of clnst.icit.y. 4t.h cd., Cambridge Univ. Press, I ()1i2.

[HJ Meixner. ,J .. 1\11(1 Rcik , II. (1.: Thcrmorlynn.mik rlor irroversihlon Prozesse. Contribution to ",,"dlllIeh dr-r Physik. Vol. 111/2 (H. 1"liigg(', ed.], Np.-ing('r, 1!)r;0, pp. 413-523.

n, Dorivn.tion of Reynold"',, principle of sim ilur ity

71

CHAPTER IV

the Reynolds numbers must. he e(Jlml (Heynolds's principle (If Rimilaril.y). This conclusion WaR drawn by estimating the forces in the stroam ; we now pr;)pose 1,0 deduce it again directly from tho Navior-Stokca equal.ions.

The Nnvier-Stokes oquat.ions express Ute condition of equilibrium, namely that, for each particle t.here is equilibrium between body Ioroes (weight.], surface fon~es nnd incrtin. forcl's. The surface Iorcos consisl, of pr!'f<Rnrl' fnrpps (uormn.l lill'cm;) ami friction forces (shear forces). Rody forceR are important, only in (~a.s('s wlu.n thoro is It free slllfnee or when t.he df>lIsit.y dist.rihut.ion is inhornogouoous, III IIIe (~alle of a homogelwous liuirl in the n.hRelwe of n frpe slIrfuf'e Uwm is I'IJllilihr-i1l1lJ Imtweeu t.J1C wI,ight of e:wh pltd.ide alld itA hyrlrost,tttie hUO.YIlIWY fo)"(:n, ill the salll" way as nt rest. Honco ill t.he mot.ion of a homogonooua fluid, ill the nbscnoo or a free surface, body forces can he cancelled if 1'rell11l1ro is t.akon to mean Ul() diffCl'('nee botwoon thab in mot.ion and at rest. In UIO following argument. we shall rpst.rict: our attention to cases for which t,his assumption is true bceauso t.hey Itl"(~ t.l1O most. imporf.ant ones in applications. Thus I,hc Nnvier-Stokos equations will now contain only forces due to pressure, viscosity, and inertia.

Under these assumptions and conventions tho Navier-Stokos r-qunt.ions for all incompressible fluid, restricted 1.0 steady now and in vector Iorm, f;illlpli(y to

Gencral propertics of the Navier-Stokes equations

Before passing Oil to f,J1O integral.ion of the Nnvier-St.okes equal.ions in t.ho following chapters, it now seems pertinent lo discuss some of their general properties. In doing so we ahull restrict ourselves to incompressible viscous Iluids.

a. Dertvntlon of Reynolds's principle of similnrity from the Nnvier-Slokes equations

Until I.he prosont. day no general a.nn.lyf.i c nwt.hod" hnvo become available for the intcaration of t.hc Nnvior-Stokes equations. Furthormnre, solutions which arc valid for ~ll values of viscosity are known Oil Iy for some part.iculnr cases, c. g. for Poiseuille flow through a circular pipe, or for Couette flow between two parallel walls, onc of which is at rest" the other moving along its own plane with a constant velocity (see Fig. 1. I). For this reason the problem of calculating the motion of a viscous fluid was attackcd by first tackling limiting cases, that is, by solving piO. bloms for very large visoosities, on the one hand, and for very small viscosities on the other, bor-aus« in this manner the mathematical problem is considerably simpli fled. TI owevcr, t.ho case of moderato viscositios cannot he interpolated between MICRO two cxt.remes.

Even the limiting eases of very large and very small viscosities present great mathemabioal difficulties so t.haf research into viscous fluid motion proceeded to a large ex t.ent, by experiment. In this connoxion UIC Navj~r.S~,okes equ!l.ti~ns furnish very useful hinta whieh point to a considerable roduol.ion III t,h~ qnunt.ity of experimcntal work required. It is often possible to carry out, experiments on models, which means that in tho experimental arrangement a geometrically similar model of the aotual body, but reduced in scale, is investigated in a wind tunne!, or other suitable arrangement. This a,lways raises the question of the dynamtc simif.arity of fluid motions which is, evidontly, intimately connected with the quesf.ion of how far rosulta obtained with models can be ut.ilized for the prediction of

the behaviour of the full-scale body. '

I

As n lrondy f~xplflin()(1 in Chap. I, two fluid mot.ions are dynamically similar if, wif.h g<~ornel.rieally similar boundu.rios, I,he v olocit.y fields are geometrically similar, i. e., ·if t.hoy have geomet.rically similar at.reamiines.

This quest.ion was answered in Chap. T for t.he case in which only inertia and viscous forces take part. in t.he process. It. was found there that for the two motions

(! (",·grad) ur = - grail P + Il \,72", .

(4.J )~

This differential equation must he independent of the choice of the unit,s for the various physical quantit.ies, such as velocity, pressure, ctc., which appear in it.

We now consider flows about two geometrically similar bodies of differenL linear dimensions in streams of different velocities, e. g., flows past two spheres in which the densities and viscosities may also be different. 'Ve shall investigate the COil. dition for dynamic similarity with the aid of the Navier-Stokcs equations. Evi. dently, dynamic similarity will prevail if with a suitnblo ehoiee of the units of lengt.h, lime, and force, the Navier·Stol<cs eqn. (4.1) is so transformed Lhat. ii, heeolllcs ident.ioal for the two flows with geomotrieally similar boundaries. Now, it is pOf;sihle to free oneself from t.he fortuitously selected units if dimensionless quanl,ities are introduced into cqn. (4.1). This is achieved by sdcef,ing oert.ain suitable cham(:. teristic magnitudes in t.llC flow as our u nil.s, and by rofcrring all otlwn; 1.0 UH~TJI. ThuR e. g., j,lIe Irco-strcnm velocit.y and the dinmcf.cr of UIf' sphere ca n 1m f<ell~d~,d as t.he respoetiv« units of velocit.y ami length.

Let V, l, and PI denote these characteristic rofcrcnoo magl:itudes. I f we now introduce into the Nnvier-Sf.okcs eqll. (4.1) UIC dimensionless ruf.ios

velocity

JJ' _ UJ - V'

lengths

y= .y

I '

Z-..2.

- I'

pressure

p = P.

PI

t See footnote on p. 48.

72

IV. (lclleml properties of the Nnvier-Stokes equations

c. The Navier-Stokos equations interpreted as vorticity trnnsport equations

73

or, divid ing hy (J j!2/t:

1'1 d P I /' 2 JI'

("'grad) W = - (! IIi gra T (! VI \J .

The llu id JlIot.ion~ 11111((-r l'cOI1l:\id(,J";1t.ion can iweome sil1l!iar only if. the. s()llIj,':)l~S

I· terms of the I'('SI1Peliv(' d imouaion less vnriablcs nro idout.icnl. I'h is

pXl'n'RsP' III " ".., ," , SIt'

requirml t.hat for bot.h motions t.hc rt'spediv(, dimensionless Navior-c to {es equa .rons

differ only hy a [ado!' common to all tenns. The quantity, PIle .V2 represents the ratio of pr"s~lIre to t.hc double of t.ho dynamic l~ca(~ and IS UI,nmport.ant for the dynamic similarity of t.IIC two motions hocauso In Hlcomprcsslblc flo_w a change ir~ pressufe cauR(o~ 110 ehange in volume. The seeond [act.or (!.V lilt. IS, however, very important, a.nd must. MSlIl11e t.ho same value for both ~ot'IOI1S If t.hey ar? to bo ;Iynamically similar. Hence dynamic similarity is assured If for thc two mot.ions

(4.2)'f

Thus the frictional terms in eqn. (4.1) vanish identically for potential flows. but generally speaking both boundary conditions (3.35) for the velocity cannot then be satisfied simultaneously. If the normal component must aS811me 'prescribed values along a boundary, then, in potential flow, 1.110 tolingont,if\1 cornponent iR theroby dntorminod RO Uliit t.h!' no slip oondil.ion nuuuo]. loll 81\tisllcd lIt tho 81\1110 t.imo, For thia r'laROII ono cannot rognrd pctontlul tlows aR physic:ttlly meaningful solutions of tho Nn.vier-Stokos equations, bocnuso they do not sRt.isfy the 1"'''Rl'rilled boundary conditions. There exists, however, an important exception to tho preceding st.at.c· ment which occurs when tho solid WILli is in motion and when this condition does not apply. The aimplesb particular case is that of flow past a rotating cylinder when the potential solution does constitute a meaningful solution to the Navier-Stokes equations, as explained ill greater detail 011 p, 80. The reader may refer to two pupera, one by G. Hamel [~J and one by. J. Aekereb [1], for furt.her details.

The following sectjons will be restricted to the consideration of plane (Lwo-dimonsional] flows because for such cases only is it possible to indicate some general properties of the NavierStokes equations, and, 011 the other hand, plane flows constitute by far tho largest olnss of problems of practical importance.

we obtain

V• P /1 V

(• 1) '" I gra(l P + 1'2 V' 2 W.

o I lJ·graf = --i

c. The Navier-Stokes equations interpreted as vorticity transport equations

elVl'l /"

In the case of twodimensionnl nonsternly flow in t.ho x, y.plane tho velocity vector becomes

This principle was diRCOVCre(1 hy Osborne Reynolds when he. iJ~vest,ig:L~,e(~ f1~lid mot.ion t.lirough pireR and is, therefore, known as t.he Reynolds principie of similariis],

The dimensionless ratio

w = iu(x,y,t) + jv(x,y,t),

eV!=Vl=R

I-' v

is callcd the H.eynol(ls number, Hefe the rat.io .of ~he (~ym1mie visco.sit,~ fl, to the density e, denoted by JI = l"le, is tho kinematic VISCOSity of ~hc f1U1(~, ~ntfodIlC?d earlie~. Slimming lip we can state that, flows about gcolllct.neally SHU liar bodies arc dynnmically similar when the Reynolds numbers for the flows arc equal.. .

Thus Reynolds's similarity principle has been deduced onr;e more, t.IJ1S t.imo from t.he Na~ier.St,okcs oquat.ions, having he?l1 previolls~y derived first. from an c"t.imat.ion of forces :tnd secondly from dimenSIOnal analysis.

(4.3)

and the system of equat.ions (3,;32) and (cUl3) transforms into

~ + u :: + v ~ = .} X - ,~ ~~ + v

(4.4a, b, c)

••. Frictionless flow aB "solutions" or the Navier-Stokes equntions

It mny be worth not.ing, pnrent.hef.ically , that the solutions for inco,?,prcRsible /rie!ionlest Ilows ilia also be regarded as exact aolut,ionR of tho Nnvicr-Stokes eqllat"Q~s, .because 10 sue 1 caSCR 1.I.lrrictional terms vanish identically. In the case of i~comprcRsiblc, [riol.innless flows tho velocity vector can he r"present,,,,1 as the gradient of a potont.ial :

w = grad <1>.

which furnishes t.hree equations for u, v, and p,

,"Ve now introduce the vector of vort.icity, curl w, which reduces to the one component about the z-axis for two-dimensional flow:

.~, curl III = W, = W =,.~ (~~ - ~~) .

(4,())

Frictionless motions are irrotat.ional so that curl III = 0 m such cases. Eliminating pressure from eqns. ('iAa, b) we obtain

0;[ + u~: + v ~~ = v (~~~ + ~~~) (4.6)

where t.ho potontinl <1> satisfies the Laplncc equation \72<1>=0.

'"\Ie then also have grad (\7 2 <1» ~ \J 2 (grad 111) = 0, thnt is, \J 2 W = 0 .

or, in shorthand form

Dw •

Dt = v 'V-w.

(4,7)

t See footnote on p. 48.

This equat.ion is referred to as the vorticity transport, or transier , equation. It, sLaks that the substantive variation of vorticity, which consists of tho local and oou vecl.iv o

c. The Nnvicr-Stokea equntlons interpreted lUI vor tieiby tran~p()rt eqnntions

75

74

IV. General propcrti"R of the Navior·Stokell equutiona

terms, is equal to the rate of dissipation of vorticity through friction. Eqn. (~.6), toget.her with the equation of continuity (4.4c), form a system of two equations for tJIC t.wo velocity components 11. and 1).

Finally, it, is possible to t.rnnsform t~]CSC two. equations wit,h. two. unknowns into one oqunt.ion wit.h one unknown by introducing t.ho stream funetion 'I'(x, y). Plltt.iug

In this form the vorticity trnnsporb equation contains only one unknown, 1/,. The left-hand side of eqn. (4.10) contains, as was the case with the Navicr-Stokos equations, the inorbiu t.erms, whereas t.JlC right-hand side contains the frict.ionnl terms. It. is a fourth-order partial differcntial equation ill the stream [unot.ion lJ'. Us solution in general terrns is, again, very difficult, owing 1;0 it.s being non-Iinour.

0", U = ail ;

alP v = - ox'

V. G, Jenson 15J found n solution t.o t.hc vorticity trnnsporf equation (4.10) for f.he case of a sphere by numerical integration. The rcsulting patterns of streamlines for different Reynolds numbers arc seen plotted in Fig. 4.1 which also contains diagrnms of the distribution of vorbieit.y in the flow field. The smnllcsl. Reynolds number included, R ~ !) in Figs. 4.1a and 4.ld, corresponds to the case when thc viscous forces by far outweigh the inertia forces and the resulting flow call be de. scribed as creeping motion, Sec. TV d and Chnptcr VI. In this case the whole flow fit'ld is rotational and the patterns of strcnmlinos forward and aft are nearly ident.ical. A!! tho Reynolds number is increased the sphere develops on itA rear a separated region with back- flow and the intensity of vorticity is progressively more concentrated near the downstream portion of the sphere, whereas in the forward portion thc flow becomes nearly irrot.efional. The flow patterns under considornt.ion which have been deduced from the Navier-Stokos equation, allow us to recognize the characteristic changes which take place in the stream Its the Reynolds number is made to increase, even if at the highest Reynolds number reached, R = 40 in Figs. 4.1 c and 4.1 f, the boundary layer pattern has not yet had 0. ehnnco to develop fully.

(4.8)

we see that. the cont.inuit.y equation iss:lt,isfied n.ut.nmu.t.ion.lly . In addil,ioll l.lio vorl.icit.y from 0(111. (4.!) becomes

(4.9)

and the vort.ieity trnnsport, r-qual.ion (4.U) bcoomos

a~~.'f.. + ~'! O\l t tp a,l' 0<:;7 2 tp _ V V4lJ) .

at By ex' _ .. - Bx'oy -- -

a)

b)

c)

(4.10)

d)

The development of very efficient olcct.ronic computers in modern times has made it possible to solve the Navlcr-Stokoa equations for flow past geometrically simple bodies by purely numerical methods. In order to do this, the differential equations are replaced by difference equations. The numerical techniques used for this purpose will be explained in Sec. IXI. Without discusaing this matter here in any depth, we quote one interesting result. Figure 4.2 shows the flow past a rectangular plate placed at right angles to the stream calculated by J. E. Fromm and F. H. Harlow [3J, At the back of the plato there forms a vortex street similar to that behind a circular cylindcr shown in Figs. 1.6 and 2.7. Figu"e 4.2ashowsan experimentallyrleterminerl pattern of streamlines, whereas Fig. 4.2 b represents the calculated ficld, both for n Reynolds number Vd/v = 6000, The agreement between UIC two pnttcrns is rernnrk . ably good, in spite of the fact that in this range of Reynolds nurn bern the flow ncquircs an oseillatory character, Fig. 1.6. The earliest attempts to obtain such numerical solutions to t.he Nuvicr-St.okr-s e«lIatiollH can he tra()(~d t.o A. Thorn [61 who performed such oalculations for a circular cylinder at. the low Reynolds numbers R =c 10 to 20. Later, the calculations were carried to R = 100 [2J. As the Reynolds number increases, the degree of difficulty of such numcrical integrat.ions increases steeply. In this connextion it is worth consulting the comprehensive summary by A. Thorn and C .• 1. Apclt [7], as well as the work of C. J. Apelt. l' a] and D. N. de G. Allen and R V. Southwell [I b] and of If. B. Keller nnd II. Tnkami [lin!.

Very extensive experimental investigations of the wakc behind a circular cylinder in the range of Reynolds numbers () < R < 40 are described in two papers by M. Coutanceau and R. Bouard [lc, ld] who covered both steady and unsteady flows,

e)

n

aot

Fig. 4.1 Pat torus of mol.inn in It viscous flow paRt. a. sphore at (lifTcrcJlt, ReYllold", numbers R - I' D]» " .. rived from t,he vort.icity transport. "'Illation (4.10) hy Y. (j, .r .. IIRon [5J.

I Pal,t-crnR of st.ronm lincs ; d. c, f, Dist.ribut.ion of .tort.icil.y ",0/ V = eonst

a, ',P,

a,d b,e I'. f

R = !), R = 20, R = 4{),

en = 8·0, C» = zn , en = in ,

110 separat.ion .,. Reparation at '" ~- 17 J 0 sr-pnruf.ion at", ~~ 1480

76

IV. Genoml propertioa of Ute Navior-Stokes equuf.ions

c. The limit.illg CaR" or very sma.ll visoous rom!'s

77

Fig. 4.211.

omission of t.he inert.in terms is permissible from the mathcmut.ioal point, or view Lor-nuse t.he order or the cquat.iou is not, I.hereby reduced, so I,hat with UH~ simplilied rliffcrent.inl el]lI. (4.11) it, i~ possiblo to sat.isfy ns many hOllnda!'y condit.ions a.s with I he full eqll. (,LlO).

Fig. 4.2. Pat.torn of atrcamlinea behind n roctnngulnr Ilnt. plate (ll /d = (.(\) plucorl at right. !t"gl!' to the flow at. It H,PYliolds number R ~ V Il]» = noon, after .1. g_ Fromlll and F. H. Harlow [3J. (II = Iwight of pluto, d = thickness of plate) a) streamline pattern determined oxperimentnlly,

b) st.reamline pattern oa.lcula ted by 1111- merical integration of t.he Navler-Stokos equntion for T = t V/1J = 2·7R (I = time from start of motion). Numerical intcgrulion performed 011 an I HIlI 70!)O computer

("ig.4.211

Creeping mot.ions <::111 "hHl hI' J'('ganl"d as soluf.ion» of (.]'" Nn.vir-r-Ht.okr-s cquat ions in t.lic limitins, case o] vcry small HCYlwlds IIU1n.llCr8 (R c- 0), 1"''''LIIsn t.ho Roynolds number reprosont.s l.ho rat.io or incrt.iu to friction forces.

Solut.ions of cqn. (4.11) for the creeping mot.ion of a viscous f1l1id wen' 1'01l1)(1 by G. G. Stokes ill the cilsc of a sphere and by U. Lamb in tho ease of It circular cylinder. Stokes's solution "an be applied to tho falling of part.iclos PI' mist. ill air, or to UIC mot.ion of smnll spheres in a very viscous oil, when the velocities are so 81111111 that inert.in forces can he neglected with good accuracy. Furthermore, I he hyrll'lldy"(('mic theory of lubriration, i. e. the theory of t.ho mot.ion of luhrienf.iug oil ill t.lio vel'y narrow channel between t.he journal and bearing uses this simplified equnt.ion of motion as its st.art.ing po iut.. In tho lat.t.or ease it will he obacr-verl t.hat, if tlJIl velocities arc not very smn.ll, the vcry small clcarunco heights, and t.Iw rcla. t.ivoly large v iscosit.y of t.ho oil, ensure l.hut. (,]10 viscous forces arc milch largl'r t.lmu l.ho incrt.iu f(lrecH. l lowovor, apart. 1'1'0111 tho t.hcory of lubrication, t.he liPid of n pplical,inll of t.hc t.hcory of crce ping motion is fairly insignificant.

e. The limiting case of very small viscous forces (very large Reynolds numbers)

(4.11)

From the point, or view of practical npplieat.ions t.ho second ext.rome case, namely t.huf of very small viscous forces in cqn. (4.10) compared with the inert.in forces, is of Iar greatm' importance. Since Uti' two most import.aut fluids, nn.mclv water and n ir, have very small visco.dt.ies, the case under consideration ocelli'S, gencrally speaking, already at, moderately high velocities, This is the limitin(f mse o] very larq« Reynolds numliers (R ~>- 00). In t.his caao the proeeHS of muf.homal.icnl simplification of the differential eqn. (4.10) requires a consideruble amount of care. I I, is not. permissible simply to omit t.he viscous terms, i. c., the right.-hand side of eqn. (4. (0). This would reduce the order of t.ho equation [rom four to t.wo, uncl t.h" solution of the simplified equation could not be made to satisfy t.he full boundnry coudit.ious of t.he original cquat.ion. The problem which was outlined in the preceding sentences belongs essentially to the realm of bou.ndr(1·y-layer lheors], We now propose to discuss briefly the goneral stnt.omcnts which can he made about the solutions of the Navicr-St.okes oquat.ions for t.hc special case of small viscous forces as eOITlpared wit.h t.ho inort.ia forces, t.hat. is in I.he limiting case of very large Reynolds

numbers. '

The following analogy may serve to illustrate th':~ character of the solutions of the Nn.vier-Stokcs equnt.ions for UlC limiting case of very small viscosity, i. C., of very. small friction terms, all compared with the inert.ia terms. The temperature dist.ribution O(x, y) about a hot, body in a fluid stream is doscribod by the following diffcront.ial equation, Chap. X I r

.1. The limiting case of very large viscosily (very small Reynolds numhcr)

III very slow molions or in motions wit.h very large viscosity the viscous forces a ro consirlorubly greater t.han t.ho inertia forces because the latter arc of the order of I he volocity flqllared, whereas the former arc linear with volocit.y. To a first approx imal.ion it, is possible to neglect, the inertia t.errns with respect to the viscous terms HO that from cqn. (4.10) we obtain

Tid,. is, mnt.ir-n l ,lroep('!1

1I0W, n. linonr cquat.ion which is considerably more amenable to mat.hetrent.mont. t.hau t.he com plct.o eqll. (4.10). Flows described by c<Jn. (4.11) wit.h vpry smull vr-locit.ios and are sornet.imos onllod crer.pinq motions. The

78

IV. General properties of the Nnvier-Stokos equntions

e. The limiting case of very smnll viscous fnrcos

7!I

e c (~ -I- u ~~ -I- v ~~) = k (~:~ + ;~~) .

l lcro g, r, and k (ifmol,p' tho d(1nsit,y. specific heat , and conduetivit.y or t,hc fluid n>Rpcdiveiy; () i", UH1 difl'erClH:o bet.ween 1.110 locul temperat.ure ami Utat at 1\ v(~ry large dist·:tlwP. [rom t.he hody, where t.ho tom porut.uro. T, is {)on:;t,ant, and oqunl to 'I'",. i. e., (). 'l' -- '1'",. The velodi1.y 1i(,ld 71,(X. y) and 11 (x, y) in c<Jn. (4.12) is assumed to bo known. TIIP. tomporaf.uro diHt.ribution on the boundnrics or the body defined by 'I'o?': 7'm is proscribed and in tho sim plest ease it, is constant with respect to spaco and Limo but, generally spoaking. it. varies with both. From the physical point, of view ell". (4.12) roprosonts the heat bulanne for an olomonbary volume. The left.. hand side represenfs t.he quantity or hont. exeh:tlIged by convect.ion, whereas the righbhund side itl tho CJIHIIII.jt.y of heal exr.hungcd by conduct.ion. The Frict-ional heat, gcncrat.nd in the fluid is neglected. If 'l'n > T,,,,, UJ() problem is that. of determining t.he temperature field around a hot body which is cooled. J3y inspection it is seen that cqn. (4.12) is of t.he same form as eqn. (4.6) for the vorticity w. In fact t.hey become idont.icn l if 1.11() vorticity is replaced by the tempcraturc difference and the kinemat.ic viscosity v by t.ho ratio k/e r, known as the thermal diffusivit.y, The boundary condit.ion () = 0 at a large dist.anco from the body corresponds to tho condition (II = 0 for tho undisturbed parallel st.ream also at a largo distance from tho body. IIence we II1l1y expect t.hat the solut.ions of the two equations, i. e. t.ho distr-ibution of vorfioity and t-hab of tcmpcrabure around the body will be similar in chnractcr,

(4.12)

remains, practically speaking, free from vortioity (see Fig. 4.1). It. is. t.heroforc, to be expected t.lln.t in the limiUng case of very small viscous forces, i. e. at htrgn Reynolds numbers. the solutions of tho Nn.v ior-Stokos equut.ions arc II() (·ollsl,if.ul,ed ns 1.0 permit 1\ subdivision of tho field of !low int.o an ext.ernul rogion wlrich i" fn'll from vorticity, and a thin layer ncar t.he body together with a wake behind it., In t.Iw fimt. rngion tho flow may bo nXl'cct.n(1 to sltt.isfy tI", cquut.ions of f'ri...t,i""I,·,,,,, flow, tho potential 1I0w theory being used for its evaluation. whereas in the 81'('011.1 region vorticity is inherent, and, therefore, the Nnvicr-Stokos equnt.ions III list, ho used for its evnlunt.ion. Viscous forces arc important" i. e. of tho same order of magnitude !1.'i inert.in forces, only in the scoond region known as l.hc 1)()1J.1ull/r?lI(/?I~r. This concept of a. boundary layer was introduced into the science of fluid mechanics by L. Prandt.l at thc beginning of the present century: it has proved to hc very fruitful. The subdivision of the field of flow into the friot.ionloss oxtcrnnl flow and t.he essentially viscous boundary-layer flow permitted the reduction of the mat.hemuf.ioal difficulties inherent, in t.he Navinr.Stokes equations to such an ex tent. t.hat. it, became possible to integrate them for a large number of eMCS. The doscript.ion of t.hose methods of integration forms t.ho subject of the boundary. layer t.heory presented in the following chnpters.

Now. t.he t.emperat.llrc dist.ribution around the body may be perceived intuit.ively, 1.0 a certain extent. In Lho limiting case of zero velocity (fluid at rest] the influence of the honf.od hody will extend uniformly Oil all sides. With very small velocities tho fluid around t.he body will still be affected by it in all directions. Wit.h increasing velocity of flow. however, it, is clearly seen that the region afTeeted by the higher temperature of tho body shrinks more and more into a narrow zone in the immediat.e v ieinit.y of t.ho hody, and into a t.ail of heated fluid behind it, ]?ig.4.3.

From a numerical analysis of t.he avnilable solut.ions of tho Navier-Stokcs equat.ions it is also possible to show directly that. in the limit.ing case of very large Reynolds numbers there exists a thin boundary layer in which the influence of ViR· eosity is concentrated. We shall revert, to this topic in Chap. V.

rTl (ill

,,/~!:~.-~.-.- .....

.:» .. /~~ ~~~

U,,,._.,' ~. , .. 1;,." ' ~'\.~~

.--~__:~~--

Fig. 4.3. Analogy between tempernture and vorticity distribution ill the neigh. bourhood of a body placed in a. strearn of fluid

• ), b) Llrnlts nf r('~ton of Incff'R..Cl.rrl tf'mll("{RtllH~ III for smAll vr.loclUo"

b) for lR.fRP. vf':lor.lUr,R of How

The previously discussed limiting case in which viscous forces heavily outweigh inertia foroes (creeping motion, i. c., very small Reynolds number) results in a CO;l. siderable mathematical simplificat.ion of the Navier-Stokos equations. By omitting the inertia terms their order is not reduced, but they become linear. The second limiting ease, when inertia forces outweigh viscous forces (lJou1Ulary layer, i. e. very large Reynolds numbers) presents greater mathematical d.ifficulties than creeping motion. For, if we simply substitute v = 0 in the NaviorStokes equations (3.32), or in the stronm-function equation (4.10), we thereby suppress the derivatives of the highest order and with the simpler equut.ion of lower order it is impossible to satisfy simultaneously all boundary conditions or the complete diflorcnf.ial cquu.tions. However, this does not signify that the solutions of such an equat.ion, simplified by the oliminnl.ion of viscous terms. lose their physical meaning. Moreover, it. if; possible to prove that this solution agrees with the complete solution of the full Navier·E-itokes equations almost. everywhere in the limit.ing case of very large Reynold" numbers . The exception is confined to a thin layer near the wall - the boundary layer. Thus, thc complete solution of the Nuvicr-Stokcs cqunbions can he t.hough" of ItH (!oIlHiHI,ing of two solutions, thc so- called "outer" solution which is obtained with the aid of Euler's equations of motion, and a so- called "inner" 01' boundnry-Iayor solution which is valid only in the thin layer adjacent to the wall. The "inner" solution satisfies the so- called boundary. layer equations which are deduced from tho NavierStokes oquations by coordinate stretching and p!1.'1sage to the limit. R ~ 00. ns will be shown in Chap. VII. The outer and inner solutions must be matched to each other by exploiting the condition that there must exist an overlapping region in which both solutions are valid.

Tho solution of eqn. (4.12) muat., as ment.ioned, be of a character similar to that for vort.iciby. At small velocities (viscous forces large compared with inertia forces) there is vorticity in the whole region of How around the body. On the other hand for' large velocities (viscous forces small compared with inertia forces}, we may cxpoct It field or flow in which vort.icity is confined to a small layer a.long the surface of U)() h()(ly and in a wake behind tho body, whereas the rest of the field of flow

IV. Cr-nernl properties of t.he Nnvier-Stokos oquut.ious

f. Mathematical Illustration of the prOCeAS of going t.o the limit R ->- 00

81

f. Mathematical illustration of the process of going to the limit R 4- oo j Since tim preceding nrglllncnt const it utes OIIf' of tim Iundnmontul prilldplt'A of boundarylayer theory, it mny he wort.h while to ilillstl"at.,. t he busio idenA hy quot.ing n mn.t.horna.t.ica l nnniog which wns first given by L. Pmnclt.l".

Let. U8 consider the dumped vibrations of a point-mnss described by t.he ciiO'er(,lllinl cqunt.ion

d2x (b:

m dt2 + k ill I- c :r ~ IJ.

In spit.c of t.ho aimpliflcut.ion, the din'crential equation (4,20) is one of second dcgrcc; it can he mnde to snt,iAly the initio.l condition (4.14) hy t.hc choice

(4.22)

Th" vuluo of constn nt .42 follows hom t.ho IlIl1t('hing to t ho "out.cr" solul.ion, eqn. (4.17). III nil ovorlnpping range, tho.t. is for modoruto VIII(I('8 of t.imo, t.h .. sol nt.ious in "'1"A. (4 17) ,,"d (4.21) must. IIgree. Thlls we muat. huve

lim Xi (t*) = lim "0 (t)

t· -~ 00 t. -)- 0

(4.2:l)

Here 111 denote", the vibmting mnss, c the "pring constant, lc t.h« dalllping r;u:l.or, x t.lie Iengt.h coordlnnte mensuretl from t.he poait.ion of equilibrium, and t t.lu- time. The initial conditions arc aaaumed to he

or, in words: The "outer" limit of t.he "inncr" solution IllIIAt, he equal to the "iI1l",r" l imit. of UlI' "Oilier" solution. Condit ion (4.2:1) lends at. once to

x ~ 0 at t = O.

(4.14)

A2 =.4,

0.24)

In analogy with the Nnvier-Stokos equntions for t.he ease when t ho kinematic viscosity, ", is very smnll, we consider here t.he limit.ing case of very amall mnss m, beonuse this too caURf'S t.he term of the highest order in oqn. (4.1:3) to become "(1I'Y Am n l!.

The complete solut.ion of cqn. (4.13) Rllhjed tn the initia.l condit.ion (4.14) has tho form

nnd 80 to the inner solut.ion

;t,(t*) = A {1 - exp (-- k: 1*)).

(4.25)

x = A {exp (- d/k) -- exp (--k tjm)}; III ->- n,

(4.15)

The en me form cn.n be ob t.n ined from t.he comple-te "'01 11 t ion from '''In. (' •. IIi) hy eX!';llHling the first. term for 81110.11 values of I nnd retuining tho first term only. 1.I111t, is hy put.t.ing

whore A is n free constant whoso vn lue ran he d('iernlined with relereuce to II second initial condition.

If we put. 111. = 0 in eqn. (4.1:3), we arc led to t.hr- simplified equation

kdx lc,t:=O, cll

lim (,xl' (- - e Ijk) = I. l-~ (I

(1.~ii)

(4.lfi)

The t.wo solut.ions, t.he outer solut.ion from eqn. (4.17) lind the inner solution rrOIll "'111. (4.2;;), toget.her f01'1II the complete solution on eoudition thnt ouch is 118('(1 in its pl'opel' range of validity. At finite I, eqll. (4.15) tends 10 the outer solution for 111 -e- O. whereas nt constnnt t* eqn. (4.15) tends t.o the inner aolu tion. The par tinl solutions give the complr-tc, composite solut.iou which is valid in the entire range of values of I by ndding them together, remembering that, the common t erm from eqn (4.2:3) must. be included only once, fhat is Auj,trad!',1 from the SIIII1 "I"'orcling to the prescription

which is of first. order, n.nrl whose solut.iou IR

"0(1) = A ex p (-- cljk).

(4.17)

x(t) = xo(l) + .1:£(1*) -lim X, (t") = XO (I) + x,(l·) --lim :1'0(1.).

,. _)o 00 t -~ {)

(4.27)

This solution is identlcal with the first term of the complete soll1tiol1 due to the felicitous choice of t.he IIdjuRtlLhle COIIRtnnt .. However, this solution cannot he made to satisfy the init.ial conrl it.ion (4.14); it. thus represents It solut.ion for In.rge values of tho time, t ("ollter" solution). The solut.ion for small values of time ("illllflr" solution} sat.isflea another differential equation which can also be derived from eqn. (4.13). ln order to nchiove t.his, t.he independent va.riable I is "stretched" in t.hut n new "inner" variable

t* = 11m

(4.18)

A graphic,,1 representation of the complete solut.ion from o'ln. (4.15) is shown in Fig, 4.4 for the cnse when A> O. Curve (a) corresponds to the outer solution (4.17). Curves (b), (c) nnd (d) represent. solutions of the complnto differcntinl equntion (4.1:1) with 111 rlecrensing from (h) to (d).

Jf we noll' compnre this examplo with Llw Navicr-Stokos equations, we conclude that. t.he complot.o equation (4_1:3) is auulogous to t.ho Nnvior-Stokos equations for 0. viscous fluid. whereas I ho "illlplifh-d "'luaUolI (·t,lt;), corresponds to 1·;,,101"" oqun tions for 1\11 ideal Iluid . '1'1", illit,i,d

is int.roduood. In this marmcr, eqn. (4.1:1) is transformed to

d2x do:

Jj*2" + lc &*1 111 C x = O.

(4. Ill)

Xl (1*) = A I exp ( k t*)

(4.21)

Fig. 4.4. S"llIi iOlls of the vihrut.ion oquation (1.1 :1). (II) Rollllioll of the simplified e'l'",liOIl (.1.11), III -,0; (h). (c), (<I) represent solutions or IIIP ('(lIlIpkt" difforential cquat ion (4.1:3) wit.l: various vn lucs of '/11. 'Vhell !II is very smnl l. solution (d) '1{''1l1ires boundury-Inynr Piml'll('lrr

In t.he limit. 111 = 0, we deduce t.hc diflcrent.in l cquut.ion

d21' d:>:

r1t*2 I k di* = 0

(4.20)

which gnvP'"I1H flu' "juuer' solut.ion. Tho sol ut ion now is

t I am indebted toO Professor Klaue Gersten for the revised version of t.his seot.ion.

.. L. Prn.udt.l, Anschnuliche lind nuet.zl iche Mnt.hemntik. Lectures deliverer! nt, Goet.t.ingen Univeraity in t.ho Wint.fOr·Sl'moRt.er of In:l1j:12.

82

IV. nOIl(\rnl proper-tics of t.ho Navicr-Stokos eqllations

condif.ion (4.14) play" a part which is similar to t.ho no-slip condition of a real Iluid. The latter om be Rat.i"lied hy !,ho snlut.ions of the Nuvicr-Stokos equations hut not by those of Euler's equationa. The alowly-varying solution is ,malogotls (., tI", frictionless solution (pol.cntial flow) which fails to satisfy the 1I0.Rlip condition. The f'Lst-v.trying solution reprcecnts the counterpart of the bounrlary-Iayer solul.ion whieh is determined by tho presence of viscosity; it differs from zero only ill a narrow zone ncar tho wall (boundary layer). It is to be noted that the second boundary condition (no slip at the wall) can only be satisfied if this boundary-layer solution is added, t.hu" making the whole solution physically real.

This simple example exhihits tho same mathematioal feature" a" those discussed in t.ho preceding chaptor. It is, namely, not pCrtlli..aiblo simply 1.0 omit. tho vlacoua terms ill tI,o Navior-Stokos oqun.tiona when performing tho proc"". of going over to t.he limit for very amall viscosity (very large H.eynolds number). This Can only he done ill the int"'grlll solut.iou it_""'r.

CHAPTER V

Exact solutioDs of the Navier-Stokcs equatiODS

References

. I n genera I,. the problem of finding exact solutions of Uw Navicr-Rt.ok(~H c(llIa-

t.ions presents I~lsur~nountab~c mnthcmaf.ionl difficulties. This is, primarily, a eonseCJ~I?nce of .thClr being non-linear, so t.hat tho application of the principle of superpOSItIOn, which serves so well in the case of frictlonless potential motions, i8 excluded. Nev ert.helesa, it, is posRihlo to filHI ClX'Ld, Holllt.iollR in e(~rt"LiIl JI'lrt,imrlllr '''If.l,,". ", .. "Uy when the quadrut.ie convective terms vanish in II. nat.urul way. J n LlliR chupter ~fl «hall devote our attention to t,he discussion of several exact solutions. Incidcntally, it. will be shown t.llIl.t in the case of small viscosity many of tho exact solutions have a boundary-layer structure which means that the influence of viscosity is confined to a t.hin layer near the wall.

A comprehensive review of solutions of the Navier-Stokes equa.tions has been given by It. Berker [4].

We shall domonstrato later in greater detail that, it. is not IJc('e~sary t.o retain tho [ull Nnv ior-St.olcos cquaf.ions for the pnH:eSS of finding the limit for R -:,. 00. For the sake of mathomat.icnl airnplifioat.ion it will prove possible to omit certain terms in it" particularly certain small viscous terms. It is, however, important to note thaI. not all viscous t.erms can be noglcctcd. as t,hiR would depress the order of the Nnv ierStokes equations.

[2J [:lJ

Ackerot, .L: Ober exakto Li'sungen ,Icr Stokes-NaviN. Gleichungen inkompressihler Fliil1.Qigkeiten bei vorandorten Orrll7.(,,,,jjngungell. ?';AMl' J, 25!l--271 (191)2).

Apelt .. (~ . .r.: The ~Ieltd.v fin IV of a viscoua fluid past a circular cylinder at Reynolds numbers 10 and 44. British AltO RM 3175 (I !lUI).

Allen, D.N. Do G., amI Sout.hwell, It. V.: Relaxation methods applied to determine the 1II0I.ion, in t.wo dimen .. ions, of a viscous fluid past a fixed cylinder, Quart. ,). Mech. Appl. Math. 8, 12U·-141i (1IHili).

Coutancoau, M., and BOllard, R.: Expmirnc'llJtl determinnl.ion of ,.It" main features of the viscous flow ill tho wake of a circular cylinder in uniform trnnslul.iun. Part I. Steady now. J.FM 79, 231-25{\ (H)77).

Coutanoenu, M.; "lid BOilard, n..: RxpcrinH'ntal detorminabion of tho main fcat,uTes of the viscous n"w in the wake of a circular cylinder in uniform translation. Part 2. Unateady flow. ,j I'M 79, 2fi7 -272 (11177).

Dennis, S.C.H. .• and Gau·?,;u Chang: Numcrionl soluf.ions for steady flow paRt:. a circular ovlindcr ai, Reynolds numbors "l' 1.0 100 .• JFM 42. 471···-48!) (l!l70).

J';l"Ol11m. ,J.I~.:nnd Harlow, F.II.: Numericnl solutlons of the problem of vortex atreot devolopmont., [,hYR. of Fillids 6, !J7fi -- !lH2 (I !)(i:l); Ace also : AlII A Selected Roprinte, G<?ll1pu, f,,,t.ionall.'h,i,l Dynarntp"" (C.K. Chu, ,,,I.). H2-8!J (l\lH8) and AGARD Loct.ure Senes 34 (Ul7!).

Hamel. G., tlher die Pot.ent:iall<l.riirnllng ?iihcr FliiRAigl,eitcn. 7.AMM 21.121) I:m (1!l41). .Ionsou, V. G.: Viscous flow round a sl'iu.rc nt low Reynolds 1I111111",("s « 40). Proc. Roy. Soc. London A 21.'J. :l41l--:W(l (UlIiH).

Koller, II. B., nnd Taknmi , JI..:N"",crical st.udies of stoudy viscous flow about. eylin""1"8. Numerical solutions of nonIinoar diflcrentiul equnt.ions. Proc. Arlv. Syrup. lit. Univ, of WiSf'OIlRill, MadiAon. Imin (D. Greenspan, ed.), J. Wile.Y & SOilS, Ncw York, 1!)(,Ii, pp. 110-140.

R. Parallel flow

[I] [I a] Ilh]

£I 0]

Parallel flows constitute a particularly simple class of motions. A flow is called parallel if only one velocity component is different, from zero, all fluid part.ioles moving in one direction. For example: if the components v and l1J arc zero everywhere, it, follows at once from the equation of continuit.y t.hat. au/ox _ 0, which means that. the component u cannot depend on z. Thus for parallel flow we have

[hI}

U = u(?/,z,t); tJ '= 0; w =" O.

(5.1)

[4] [iii

Further, it also follow» immediately from the Navier-Stokes oqua tions (:1.:12) for I.he y- and z-dircotions t that, op/oy = 0, and op/oz = 0, so that the pfessllre depends only on x. In addition, ill the equation for the z-diroction all convective Icrms vanish. lIcnC'c

(fi.2)

I

[0) Thorn, A.: FI()w past. circular cylind"I"R at. low speeds. Proc. R0.Y. Roc. London ,\ 14/.

(i5J· fitil) (I!J:3:I).

[71 '1'110111, A., tI",1 Apell .. f) •• J.: Field oomputat.ions in clIgilleering and physics, Van No. "t.!"nlld, ]'011(1011, 11)(,1.

which is a linear different.ial equat.ion for 11 (y, z, I).

t In the following argumont the term "pressure" denotes tho difference botwoon the totnl pressure and tho hydrostatic pressure (pressuro at, rest). This eallEK',s tho body forces to caucel , n.q they are in equilibrium with tho hydroatatio presaurc.

84

V. Exnd solutions of the Nnvicr·Stokcs equations

a. Pa.ra.II.,1 tlow

8.')

1. Parallel How through a straight channel and COllette f1o~. A very siIll~le solution of equat.ion (5.2) is obtained for tho case of steady flow l!l a channel wibh two parullel lint walls,F'ig . .').1. Let. t.he distance bctwcen the walls be denoted by 2 b,

1'0 t.hnf e(jll. (.').2) call he written

u

u = __ 1. !11' (1)2 _ !/2) . 2,t dx

The rosult.ing v('loGit.y profile, Fig. 5.1, is parabolic.

(5.4)

o

0.2

06

O.B

1.0

12

Z4

dp d'l1 dx = P iiii'

(5.3)

wit.h the boundary corulition : u. = 0 for !I c." :1:: b. Sillee op/Dy = 0 UlC pressure gradient. in the dircd'ion of flow is corrst.a.nt .. as ~een from eql1. (5.3). Thus rlp/!Il' = const

:111<1 t.ho snlul.ion is

-0'1 -0.2

u U

Fig. !i. I. Pnrallel flow wjl.h pn.rnbolic velocit.y df at.r ibu t.ion

Fig. 5.2. COllette flow hetw"nll two pamllnl flat. Willi ..

I' > 0, prcssnre dc~rrn~o In direction or wnl l tuut.lnu : l' < o~ Jlr("H).I\lI'~ irH'rt'a~e; I' ~ O. xero pr-cssu re gr:ulicnt

_ !I U _h> ~P !I (1 _ Y)

tL --- h.' 2" d x " h

(5.5)

over a port.ion of the channel width can become nogntivc, t.hnt is, back-flow may occur ncar the wall which is at, rest, and it is seen from Fig. 5.2 that, this happens when P < - I. In this case the dragging action of the faster layers exerted 011 fluid part.iclos in the neighbourhood of the wall is insufficient, to overcome tho influence of t.hc adverse pressure gradient. This type of Couette flow with a pressure gradicnt has some importance in the hydrodynamic theory of lubricat.ion. The flow in the narrow clearance between journal and bearing is, by and large, identical with Couctto flow with a pressure gradient (c/. See. VI c).

2. The Hagoll-I'oiscuillc theory of flow through a pipe. The flow through a st.rn ight. tube of circular cross-sect.ion is t.he case with rot.a.tiouul symmol.ry which corresponds to tho preceding case of Lwo-dimcrlRiolllll flow through It channol. Ld. the :l:-axiR be selcd-cd along l.ho axis of Ow pipe, Fig, 1.2, and let, ?I dellot,n tho rudiul coordinate measured from the axis outwards. The vclocit.y components in UIC tangcnt.inl and radial directions arc zero; the velocity component parallel to the a.xis, denoted by 71, depends on !/ alone, and the pressure is constant ill every erosssection. Of the three Nuvicr-Stokes equations in cylindrical coordinates, C!]nR. (:l.:l6), only t.he one for the axial direction romains, and it. simplifies to

Another simple solution of cqn. (5.3) is obtained for the so-called C?\lct~.e flow betwcen two parallel lIat walls, onc of which is at rest, t.he ,o~.her moving HI its own plane with a velocity U, Fig. 5.2. With thc boundary oondit.ions

we obtn.in the solution

whjoh is shown III Fig. 5.2. Tn particular for a vanishing pressure gradient. we have

(5.5a)

This pa.rt.iculnr case is known as simple C?~ett.c flO\~, '" simple shca,[ flow. The gcneral case of Couette flow is a BU perpm\ltlol~ of this sl~n pic cas~ 0\ er the fio~v between two flat walls. The shape of t.ho veloclt,y.profile If' dct.crmltlcd by t.he di-

Jlwllsionl!'ss pressure grad ion t. ,

P = 2;~'U (- ~i) .

For J> > 0, i. c., for a pr('ssufe decreasing in the direction of motion , t.he veloc~ty is posit.ivo o vor the wholc wirlt.h of the channel. For negat.ive value!'; of P the velocity

/l (~~~ + ~, ~~) = ~~,

the boundary condition being u = 0 for y = R. The solution of cqn. (G.G) gives the velocity distribution

(5.6)

(5.7)

86

V. I'~xad solut inns of the Navier·:-itAlI<es equa.tions

n. Pnrnllnl now

where ... dp/d.1: . (PI 1Iz)/l = const. is t.ho prcssurc gradient" ~,o be reganlc.l. as given. Solut.ion (!i.7), which was obt:J.!ined here as all exact ~olutJOn of U~e N~vJCrStokes equat.ions, agrecs with thc solution in cqn: (1:10). wh.lCh wa~ ohtainod III an ('lement,ary way. The velocity over the eross.~ect.lOn IS dml'~ll~uted 111 Lho form of a paraboloid of revolution. The maximum volocil.y on tho I!.XIS IS

un! = f;. (- ~:)

0.40 =.

0.20 =::..

0.10

The mr-au vr-loeit.y ii. ,..-, 111"" that iii,

R' ( dr)

u=·· _ ....

8" d%

0.06

(5.8)

Fig. n.:!, Luminnr IIfJW through pipe; rcsi"t,ance eoeffioieut, A, plotted ngllinRt HCYIlOldA number (measured by Hagen), from Pmmltl·Tictjcns

0..0.2 10.0

0.04

and tho volume rate of flow hoeorncs

Q .= n R2 U = ~ ~f (- ~~ ) .

(5.9)

The laminar flow describ(~(1 by the ubnvn solution occurs in praol.ico ?nl~ l1R long as t,he Roynokls number R = 11 (l/v (rl = pipe dianwl,(1r) has a value whjch If! less t.han t.ho so.;~allcd crit.ieal Reynolcis number, ill spito of I,he fl~et thai, t.he above formulae const.it,ute an exact soh;tion of the Navia·St~)kcs equutions for nrhit.rary values of <1}I/<I:1:, R, nru l It, or lienee, of 17., R, and It. Aeeorcling to experiment,'!

(lid)

... = Rcrit = 2300

l' aiL

87

- - ~ urrrrrr rll

. , 0.2:i5 em dla

.. A' OAO? em d,:?

• 0.591 em m3

200

400 600 100.0 2000

R ~ ii a

J'

Here R denotes the Reynolds number calculated for the pipe dinmoter and mean velocity of flow. The laminar equation for preesuro loss in pipes, eqn. (5.11), if! in excellent agreement with exporrrncnba.l resvlls for the laminar range, as seen from Fig, 5.3 which reproduces cxpcrimcntal points measured by C. 11 :1gPIl r J()]. From this it is possible to infer that tho Jlagen-Poiseuille parabolic velocity distribution represents a solution of the Navier-Stokea equations which is in agreement with experimental results [22]. It is also possible to indicate an exact solution of the Navier-Stokes equations for the case of a pipe with a circular annular crosssection [20]. The problem of laminar and turbulent flow through pipes with cxcent.rio annular crosssections was discussed theoretically in ref. L38] which also contains experimental results.

3. The flow between two concentric rotating cylinders. A Iurt.hcr example which leads to a simple exact, solution of the Navicr-Stokes equations is affordod by thc flow between two concentric rotating cylinders, both of which move at different but steady rotational speeds, We shall denote the inner and outer radii by rl, and r2 rospoctivoly, and similarly, the two angular velocities by wI' and w2' The NavierStokes equations (3.36) for plane polar coordinates reduce to

appmximal.cly, For R > R"" thc flow pal.!.crn ill ()ntirely.d~lTcrent, and becomes turlndeni, We shnl] (liSCIlSIl t.hie t.ype of flow III great-er doba.il III Chap. XX.

Thc relation between tho pressure gradient and the mean velocity of fl~~ is normally Tcprescnted in engineering applicat,ions hy introducing a res~stanrA! we//t.ctent of piTH'- flow, A. Thig ooefficient is defined by setting the prc;"sure gr:tdlent pr~portlOnal t,o UlC dYlHunie head, i. c., 1.0 UlC gqllare of the mean vclo(1lt,y of flow, according to the

e{)lIaf,ioll t

_.11' __ .~ .. ~. u2

(Ix - d 2 .

(!i,10)

I nt,roducing the expression for tlp/dx from cqn. (5,!) we obtain

2d 8"u 32"

A = {Iii. Ji' Quil

and

that, is

64 A =-R

(lUI)

~:~, + __d_ (.!!:.) = 0

dr! dr r

(5.13)

(5.14)

with

I R = {I il d = il_d

" .,

wah 1L denoting the circumferential velocity. The boundary condit.ions nrc u: = 1', WI for l' = 1'1 and u = 1'2 (.1)2 for r = r2, The solution of (5,14) which satisfies these requirements is

I [ 2 2 rl! 1'.' )

u(r)= 2 • r(W2r2 -WITI )--.~. (WZ-W1) .

r. - 1'1 r

(5.12)

t ~~iA qundrabio law which ":",,um e .fI dp/dx ~ ,i' fits _t,u~I)\Ilcnt flow ~ery well. It is retained for laminar flow, although 10 that runge dp/dx ~ u. Thus for laminar flow A oeaees to be a OOllsulnt.

(5.15)

F.quation ([,.13) dotormincs tho radial preRt)lIro distribution rClIllIt,ing from UlC mol.inn.

s. _!_:fl

5 5

Va "4 V'I '(, r t.r ib .. I

Ib- .).: C OCI '1 ( 18 r i u tion 111 t 10 n.nnulus bot.ween t.wocouccntr-ie , rot.uJillg cylimlr-ra us ('H,lell-

luted wit.h the uid of cqns. (i). Ilia, b), .

a) Ca~e I: inner cylinder rotating: outer cylinder at. rest, oJ2 - 0

b) Case II: inner cylindor at rest, (1)1 ~ 0;' outer cylinder rotn.ting rl ,.." r;\(liw~ of Inner r-vllude r. T\I = rndtus of outer ('ylilllh'r

u = _l'_1~

2:nr

It is see.n, thcref~re, t,hat. the case of frict.innless flow ill t.ho neighbourhood of a vort.e~ IlI1e co~stlt.~It.es a solu.t.ioll of UIC Nuv icr-St.okea equations ic], Sec. ivi». In tins eon~exJOn It may I~e instruct.ivo to mention all example of an exact non· sleo,dy solut.ion of the Nn.vier-Stokos equations, namely that which describes the process .of decay. of a vortex through the acf.iou of v iseosit.y. The distr-ibut.ion of t.he ~.all~clltlal velocity component u. wit.h respect to t.ho radial dist.a noo r and time t IS gIven by

88

V. Exact solutions of the Navi(lr·StokeR equations

1\. Parnllel flow

The caso when t.h<, innr-r cylinder is I\t, rcst., wh ilo t.ho outer cylinder rotnt.es, has ROIllC prnot.icul ~ignifieall('e. 111 this inst.a.nce t.h c torque t.ransrnit.t.ed by t.he outer cylim1cr to the fluid bocomcs

11.)

u

U,

(iU6)

where h. i" l.ho height. of lho cylinder. The moment M J wit.h which t.ho fluid acts on 010 inner cylinder has the same magnitude. The arrangement, unrlnr eon~idcrat.ion has boon used oCO\:3ionally for the det.erlllinat.ion of v iscosit.y. The angular velocity of the oxtcrnu l cylinder nnd the moment ad-ing on the inner cylinder are monsured, so that the viscosity can he evaluated with t.ho aid of 8(ln. (ii.16).

\Ve now propose t.o indioalo the vclocit.,y distributions in t.he annulus between the two eylinders for two particular cnscs. In Case I, the inner cylinder rot.arcs with the outer one at rr-st.: in Case II. the inner (,ylinder cloos not. move, but. the out.er one ro tal.os. Both flOWR arc called Couct.te flow. Tknot.ing the ratio of t.he t.wo radii by )t = 1'1/1'2. the widt.h of the annulus by 8 = 1'2 '-1'1. ami the current. rcln tivc radius by :1' = 1'/1'2, Fig. 5..1·, we owl

(I)

(inner rol.ating ; outer af rest},

(5.16a)

and

(11) ,:: = -l-~ ,,2 (: -.:;.) (inner at. rest; out.er mt.ating).

(5.1Gb)

Here, 111 = 1'1 WI if' t.hc poriphorn l vcl()cit.~· of t.he inner cylinder, and 112 = 1'2W2 is t,hat, for t.1I!' outer eylindcr. Figllre 5.4 r(']1r('R('nI8 the two velocity d isf-ribut.ions in terms of the dimcnaionless d ista.nco from t.ho inner cylinder

x' r --- '1

u(r,t) = 2~ r {I - exp (- 1'2/4 11 I)}

It. is not.eworthy thn.t t.he velocity varies strongly wit.h the rat.io )( = I'tlr2 of t.hc two radii ill CaRc 1, whereas for Ca.RC 1.1 it is almost. independent. of it. Whcn x = 1'1/"2 --->- 1, bot.h ('ascs tend 1.0 the linear velocity distribut.ion of Colwtt.e flow, as it. occurred hot.ween t.wo flat plates in t.he case rr-proscnt.cd in Fig. I. I. The equation of Case J [ yields f·he snmo limit for 1'1 = 0, i. e. for It = 0 whr-n no inner cylindcr if' prr-scnt . In t.lus ('!lSC, til!' fluid )'(lInteR inside the outer eylind('1' as a rigid body. ll cnco it. is seen thai Case 1I yields a linear velo('it.y dist ribut.ion foj' thc two sYlllpl.ot.ie CaRl'S" = () ruul x =. 1. 'fhis behavior makes it. e(l."y to undcrstnnd why the velocit.y dist.ribut.ions [nr til!' ot.hcr, int.ermccl int.e values of" differ so litt.le from a st.raight line.

III t.ho particular cnse of n. sil1"le cylinder rotat.inz ill an infinite fluid (r., --->- 00, ,.,! :-.0) eqn. (ii.15) givcR 11 = )'12 (r)~/r, ;;11<1 t.ho t.orque transmit.ted by the fluid to tho cylinclp r he(,omrs M 1 c= 4:T It II 1'12 011' The veloeil.,)' distribuf.ion in the fluid is the sa Il1C as l.hn t. n round 11 Ii Ill' \,01'1·(')( of sf r(,JIj.(th 1'1 2 JT. r ,2 (1'1 ill fridiolllcss f101V, or

Fig. fi.fi. Velocity dist.ribution at varying times in t.he neighbourhood of a vortex filament caused by the action of viscosity 1', = circulation or uro vortex nn.ment nt tl me , = 0 when vlscoelt.y 'H~Kln!t to act.: fl ...... I~/'!. n r

H!l

bl

1.0

u

u;:

0.8

0.6

I --0 and I

0.4

0.2

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1.0

90

V. I~x"ct, solul,iolls of tho NIlvior.HtokeR equntiollR

a. Parallel flow

fll

as derived by (1. W. Oseen [21] and G. Hamel [Ll ]. This velocity distribution is represented graphically in Fig. 5.5 Here ['0 denot~s t.h~ ei~clliation of the V?rt~x filament, at time t = 0, i. e. at the moment when viscoait.y IS Il.sslJnled t.o b?~.1Il Its action. An experiment,al invest.igation of this process wns undertakel.' by .A .. ll1n.me [40]. K. Kirdo [171 made an analytic: study of th? case whcn the velocity dlRt.nbutllm in tho vortex diffors from "'tnt irnpoRcd by potentml theory.

4. The suddenly accelerated plane wall \ Stokes's first prob~em. We no,: proceed to calculate Rome tum-steads] parallel flows. Since the eonvectivc a~cele~~twr~ terms vanish idonticnlly, tho friction Iorcos interact. with 1.110 local aocelorar-ion. I hc simplest flows of t.his c1~R.'l occur when mot.ion is started impulsively from rest.. We shall begin with the case of the flow ncar a flat plate whicl~ is sudd~n.ly .aeeelcrat,ed from rest and moves in it,s own plane with a eOlIRt.:mt velocity (J 0' '1 hIS IS one of tho prehlems which were solved by G. fit.okes in his celebrated memoir on pend.ulurns [35Jt. Sclect.ing t.he x·axis along the wall in tho direction of U 0' we obtain t.ho Rimplificd Nnvior-Sl.okcs equat.ion

t.?e c?mplemenlury e~ror ~unclion, erf~ 1], has been t.abulatod j. The velocity distribu. tion .IS r~presente;I.)~ F)~ .. 5.6, and It, may be noted that t.ho velocity profiles for varyrng Limos are similar ,I.e., they call be reduced to the same curve by changing the ~calo along the axis of ordinates. The complementary error function which appears III eqn. (5.22) has a value of about 0·01 at"TJ = 2'0. Taking into n coounf UHl definition of t.ho t.hidmcR!'l of t.ho hounc!nry laycr, (~, we obtniu

(5.23)

It is seen to be proportional to the square Toot of t.he product, of kinemru.io viReoRi/,y and time.

This problem was generalized by E. Reciter [3J to include mom general rnf.cs of accclcmt.ion ns well as the e~ses involving suction or blowing or the effect. of oornprcssi hility.

(5.19)

Fig. s.n, Velocity distribul.ion above a suddenly accelerated wall

02

OIL o'u

at Vay'

(5.17)

The preSSIlTI1 in t.he whole spaee is constant, and the boundary oondit.ions arc:

t ::;: 0: 11, = 0 for all u :

t > 0:

1(, = lIo

fory=O;

u =0

for y = 00.

}

(5.18)

The diffcrefll.ial equat.ion (5.17) is ident.ioal with the equation of heat conduction which deRcribcs t.he propagat,ion of hoaf in tho space y > 0, when at time t = 0 the wall ?I = 0 js suddenly hcated to a ternpcrat.ure which exceeds that in t~e sllrro~ndings. The partial difforont.inl cquat.ion (iJ.17) can be reduced to an ordinary differential equat,joll by tho subst.it.uf.ion

If we, furt.h cr, assume

(5.20)

o

0.2 o»

0.6 0.8

u

u;

we obt.ain the following ordinary differential equation for I (1]):

u. =~ (lo erf c "TJ '

(5.22)

5. F1?W formali9D in f.oucllc ~olion. The substitution (o.lO) which leads to cqn. (5.21) does r~ot, 10 general, lead 1.0 a solution of tho so-callod he"t conduction equation (!i.17) if more comphc~l~d boundary conditions aro irnposod, Sinoo oqn. (6.17) if! linear, solution» lilr il; "'LlI ~e obtatn~d by. the use of thc 1,ap1,,00 trnnsformation "lid by more direct method .. developed III connoxron WIth the study of the conduction of heat, in solids. Many results obtained, e. g., for the temperature ~arill.tion in an i~fin~te or semi-infinite solid, can be directly transpoaed and uS?d for the 801ut,101I of problems III visooua flow. Thus the preceding problem in which the formation of tho boundary layer ncar a. suddenly accelerated wall has been invCRtigntcd can also be solved for the case when the wall moves in a direction parallel t.o another fl"t wall at, rest and at a. diatanee h from it. This is the problem of flow formation in Couette motion, i. e.,

1"+21]/,=0

(5.21 )

wit.h t.he boundary conditions I = 1 a.t 1] = 0 and I = 0 at; "TJ = 00. The solution is

whore

, crfe '7 = ~ 2 J cxp (~ ,n d17 = I -_ err 1] ~ 1 Vn

"

t Some "ut,horn refer to t,his problem "'~ the 'Rayleigh pro?lom'; there is no !IISLifica;t~on for .. hiM <I"Higll:d.ioll """nIlA" tho prohlrun ,'1'" bo f01l1l,1 fully d'R()IlH,,,,,llllld solvod JII ref. p.,).

t See e. g. Sheppard, "The Proba.bility Integral", British ARBon. Adv. Sci.: Mat,h. Tables vol. vii (1930) and Works Project Administration "Tables of the Probability Function" New

York, 1941. '

92

V. Exact, solut.ions of thc Nnvier-Stokes equat.ions

a. I'arn 11(' I now

'YJ <;X) -]

1t = L erfe rz 1t 'I, -1- 'II - L: erfe [2 (11 -I- I) 'I, - 'I

-(l~ ".,-.,1} tI ~o,o

~ erfe 'I - erfe (2 'II - 'I) + erf" (2 'II -I- 'I) - erfc (4 'I,

.1'" 1" I A distance between UIC two walls. The solution

where 'I, ,~ h./2 V 1,1 dCllot.cs t,he ( 'lIIenA~~" CA. Atill a >r~ximnt.cly similar and romain 80, I\R

is repreRonted in Fig. 5.7 . Thc early P~ol \~;\~~~qtationr!y wall. TllC succeeding veloeity profiles long M til<' boullda~y In,yer has not spre, \ r II t the lincnr distrihut.ion of the steady state. are no longer "RlnHlar' nod tend usynl p 0 lea y 0

(;;.24) .- 'I) + orfc (4 'I, + 'I) - ... -1- ...

layer ncar the wall. The influonco of viscosity reaches the pipe centro only in tho lul.or stag"s of motion, and the velocity profile tends usymptobically to the parabolic distribut.ion for steady now. The corresponding solution for an annular circular crose-sectiou waa given by W. M1Icller [20].

The analogous cnAe when t.ho !'rolsul"Il gmdiollt, iM removed inatuutly \VII" Holvl'd hy \V. Gerbcrs I U I.

Tho aocelornt.ion of It lI"i.l ovor t.ho who lo 1""I(I,h of pipe diHt:IIRAI'.1 lrero IJIIIHt. IH' "lIn'fully dist.inguiRhed from t.Il(l uccclernl.ion of a fluid in the inlet por-tions of !L pipe in sl.".c1y How. The rectangulnr veloeity profile which exists in the entmnce section is gradually t.ransforuied a~ t.he lIuid progresses through the pipe with x incrl.'rtsing, and tends, under the influence of viscosity, to nasume the Hagon-Poiscuillo parabolic disf.ribution. Since hero an/ax ·to 0 tho flow is not one-dimensional, and the velocity depends 011 x, aR well as on the rndius, This prohlmn waa discussed by lI. Schlicht.ing I!JOI, who gave the solution for two-rlimonaional Ilow through a R t. might. channel, and by L. Schiller 1.20], and B. Pnnnis [24] for axially symmet.rk-nl flow (circular pi PI') ; seo also See". ] X i and XI h.

h locit profile vnries with time tending asymptotically to the (~nle7·a)r

the problem of how t e ve oci y I r' th same I1S before, eqn. .l. ,

distribution shown in Fig. 1.1. l:h;- differentia equa ron IS o

hut with modified boundary conditions which now nre :

I :::: 0; u. = o for all y. if () < ?I < It;

t .> 0: 1l ~ fl" for y ~ 0; !I. = () for ?I = b. .

b I I initial condit.ions ca.n I",

Tho solution of eqn. (:'.17) which !latisfies the ounr ary ant

ohLai""d in the form of n series of compleme"tary error Funofions

LO; .iL Vo

_~ ~ . h .. _-- -- ---~

0.8 - L~. 00
r / 0.15
R 0.6 0,.2
0.4 /·O.J
·0,4
0.2 ·0.5
0, ____ l..{__
1 Urn
. 0.2
-0.4 Fig. 5.S. Velocity profile in a circular pipe during acoelerabion, as given by F. Szymanski [37]: l' = v flR2

-0,.6

-O.B

-1

Fig. ;;.7. Flow formation in CoueLl« motion

7. The flow near an oscillaling flat platc; Stokes's second problem. 111 this section we propose to discuss the flow about an infinite flat wall which executes linear harmonic oscillut.ions parallel to itself and which was first treated hy G. Stokes 135J and later by Lord H,ayleigh [25]. Let, x denote tho coordinate parallel to the d irect.ion of mot.ion and y t.he coordinate porpondicular to t.he wall. Owing to the condit.ion (If 110 slip at till' wall. t.hc fluid vPlocil.y at. it must. I", ('qual to t.hn t. of f.l1n wn II. ~lIl'pnKillg l.hu.t. Ud" nu rl.iun i" givnll "y

0.

0.1

0.2

0.3

os

Exad. solut.ious for nnn-stcarly COl1Pf,t.c flow were derived by .J. Str-inhcuer 13:lj f,"' "he caso w lu-n 01H' "f HlO wn.l ls is n.t. rest. ill n st.Pady flow 11.11<1 IS 1h"l1 sudrlrn ly

. I it 'I' I II'· '1 is Ill'l'('SS'U'Y 1.0 solve (''III.

I1ce('.lerat.ed to a. gIven, ('.oIlHLant. V('. (WI ,y. () (0 . us, I,· .. ~" '. . .

(1).17), which is idcut.ical with the onc.d~rnen~ional heat, eonducl.l.f:n ef]l1at,l(:n, by mcn ns of a Fourier scricn. A speoin.l en.se 111 t.h is «lass of 1';01111.1on8 IS t.hnt. when the moving wall is suddenly stopped so that it represent.s the decay of Cnuel,t,e flow.

y=O:

1/.(0,/) = UO COf! 1!t

(5.25)

6 FI . ipe "luling Irosn rest, The aecclemt.ioll of .. Huirl in n, I~ipe is e1.oseiy rclnl.od

to the' pr::'dl::,; ~XlL';lples. Suppose that t.he Iluid ill an, infinit.e1;v long pipe of.c;rc_ular crtos"; . l.i . t rcat for I <"' n At the illRt,allt t = 0 a press"re gradient dp/d.T, whjc 1 IS cons an , ",'" Ion ts a, ,~. " I I . {I f . COIIR and

: t.i he rins to act along it The fluid will begin to move unr l'r t,1(' III uenoo 0 vise ,

:::erl:;~,I)'forc~s . nnd' t.il(: vclocit,~ profile will nppronch nsymptot.icn llv th« pa~:lbolic .distrihllt,~on in lI~gl'n.l'oiRl'nill" [low The solntion of this prohlem which lends 1·0 .n. d,ne"~·I"t.'.:t1 ~ql1n.tlOn invol~il;Y Hp~s;'1 f,;n,'Lio;'8' was giv(,11 hy F. N7,ymanski [:171. The velocity prof ('.'" • raWII 111

I,",u ". H t:;. •• ,. ~:,r"o,,~ ',,"hllt.A. It. iR Ilot.,:worthy t hat, in th" earl'y stage" ~.h" IfV~I'I)t"I~.y 1.1I'ar. t.lue-' '. I' • I . '1 Ito<' ""1 nn rrow

aXIA iA approxillllttdy rOIlRt."nt, ()VN the nul;u" nnd t, m t. VIR(,OR'y lila w" , ·sc . , .

we find I,hat, the fluid veloeity n. (y,t) is t.he solution of oqn. (5.17), together with t.he boundary condition (5.25), which, as already mentioned, if! known from tho thcory of IH'nt conduct.ion. For tho case under conaidornt.iou

(G.26)

If, 18 r-asv 1·0 verify t.hat cIIII. (5.26) is the required solution if

k= lit.

u v

94

V. E"ac~ solutions of t.)", Nnvicr-Stokos oqunt.ions

95

b. Other exact solutions

Puf.t.ing 1] = k!/ = y 0;12--; we have

?t(y,l) = Uo e-~ cos (nt - 17) •

The velocity profile 11 (y,l) t.hua hns the form of a damped harmonic oscillabion , the amplitude of which is U 0 e-Y V;;j2~ , in which a fluid layer at a distnnoo y h~s a ph~sc lag y Y;'_/2 ~ with respect to the motion of the wall. Fig. 5.9 represents ~hlS _mot.Jon for several instants of time. Two fluid layers, a diatanco 2 n/k = 2 n Y2 vln apart, oscillate in phase. 'I'his diatnnoo can be regarded as a kind of wave length or,~he motion: it is sometimca called the depth of penetration of the v~~ous wave. lhc layer which is carried hy the wall has 11 thickness of the order",..___, V vln. I1mI decreasos for decreasing kinematic viscosity and increasing frequenoy+.

6·- ------.,------

~'YV;;

5 --- -- ---- ----

-1.0 -0.8 -0.6 -o.t -0.2 0 0.2 O.t

---0--··----

(ij.26a)

If we now prescribe a constant velocity Vo < 0 at tho wall (suction}, wo notico that cqn, (5.27 c) is satisfied immediately by a How for which" = "0 and that the pressure p beoomes independent of y sinmlt.'lneously. Accordingly, we put - (I/e) (ap/ax) = dU/dl, where U (I) denotes Lho free. Eltrcmn velocity at .. very large disLnnco from the wall. and henee obl.ain tile following dilTcrcllt.ilLI equnt.ion for ,t(y, /):

au OIL

-I "" --

iJt ay

dU dl

(J2U -I- v --~-ay'

(;,.28)

According to J, T. St.uarl. [32J there e"iRI,~ an oxnct solution of eqn. (;'.28) for tho arbitrary ex ternul veloeity

U (I) ~~ If" [11- / (I) ) . (;,.211)

Thia solution iR

where

u(y, I) 00 u" [t:(y) -I- g(y,/»)

(!'i_30)

"".

t:(y) ~ 1- 0

(5.31)

SubRtitut.ing the IllRt three equat.ions into eqn, (5.28), we nrc led 1.0 II. partial differential equation for the unknown function g(il,/) = g('l'/): this h"" the form

iJg vg " a' g

aT - <I a., = / ('1)1" a~

(5.32)

anrl tho hOllllflary conditio"R arc:

'l=O:g=O; 'l=oo:g=/.

The following non-.limcnRional variables havo been introduced in the preceding:

]rig.5.!). Velocity .Iistrihllt.io!l in the ncighbourhood of an OSCIllating wall (Stokes's second problem)

!I( - 1)0)

'1 = --v---;

(5.33)

tv!

'1' = -4;-'

Solutions of (1;.32) have been ohtained by .J. Watson [41.1 who omployed LaI'I .. co tran". format.ions and who reRtrieted hirnoolf to severnl special forms of the function /(1). Generally speaking, the following external /lOWEl, V (I), have been included:

a) d!Llllped and und .. mped oscillations,

h) stop-Iike change from one value of velocity to anot.her, c) linear incrcl\/le from ono value to unothor,

In the special case when the external How is indepcndent. of time, /(1) ~ 0, el)uation (5.32) loads to the simple solubion atn. '1') = O. This caus"" t.he vol')('il.y profile from eqn. (!'i.30) to become i.I" n ti",,1 with tho ""Ylllptol.ic Ruction profile giv.m I'LtAlr ill (lIl". (I''-H).

8. A enera] rlass of non-steady "olulion". A general class of non.stcad.-y solutions. of the Navi"r-~t.otcs equntions which P08S<'.'18 boundary-layer d"'.flLc!~" is ohta~ne<l 111 I,~e specin.l caR~ when t.he vclocity eornpononta nre independent of the longitudinal eoorrlmat.c, x. rile system 0 r-quuf.ions (:l.32), written for plane Ilow, nssumes t.he form

(Iv. au
at -I· I) ily
VI)
at az I.

l' ------

vy'

(5.27a)

b. Othu exact 8olutions

ap (! a!l

(:'.2711)

The preecding examples on one-rlimenaionnl flows were very simple, because tho convective acceleration which renders the equations lion-linear vnnished identically everywhere. We shall now proeecd to examine some exact solutions in whieh these terms are retained, so that non-linear equations will have to he considered. We shall, however, restrict ourselves to steady Ilows,

vII

all ~ o.

(5. 27c)

t The solutiou ill 0'ln. (!'i.2r;a) represents alRo the tompor .. ture distribut.ion in the r-nr th which is causerl by the periodic lluctuutiun of tho temperature on th!' surface, say, from day t.o day or ovor the RCIlRnnR in a y(~nr.

9_ Stagnation in plane flow (Hiemenz Row)_ The firnt simple example of t,his t.ype of flow, represented in Fig. 5.10, is that leading 1.0 a stngrmtion point. in plane,

!Hi

h. Other exact solutions

!l7

v

The boundary conditions for I and Fare obt.ained from u. = V = 0 at. the wall, where !I ='" n, and ]J = Po at. the stagna.tion point, aR well as from 1J, == U = a. x at. a Iar'ge di"t.:llwl' from t.he wall. Thlls

!I ,= u : / = (): 1"== 0; /<' ~= () ;

.11 ' . 00: I'

fl..

10:'111". (1i.:IO) and (5.:17) u.ro tile t.wo diIliT!'nt.ial {'!lIlal-iolis for t.ile flllld.ioll" 1(1/) and V (y) which determine the velocity and pressure distribution. Since F (y) d~es not. appca.r in l.he first equation, it, is possible to begin by determining I(y) and then to prooced to find F (y) Irorn the second cquat.ion , The non-linear diflcrontin.l cquat.ion (!i.:lG) cannot be solved in closed t.erms. In order 1.0 solve it. numerically it is COII-

vcuiont, 10 remove U]() constnnts 11.2 and l' by JlnUing .

Thlls

'I ~= o: y ;

1<';1(. :'.In. fit"l(llntioll ill phil!' flow

wlu-ro t.ho prime now denoteR dillcrcn t.iut.ion wit.h respeet. t.o II. Tho ('<)('f'Ij"icllt" of till' (·qllat.ioll he(:oll1(' all idellt.i('ally cqun l 1.0 u uit.v if we (l1lt,

i. e., t.wo-rl imr-naionn] flow. Till, volooil.y dist.rilmtioll ill frict.ionloss pol.onl.iu l lIow in t.ho neighbourhood or t.hn ~t.(tgnat.ioll "oint, at, J: =, Y = 0 is given by

l' A oc" , ((.2

or

7J=nx;

I'=--ay,

oc = v-:

so t.lra.t

whew a denotes a const.anl.. This is an example of a plane potent.ial flow which arrives from the !I-axis and impinges on a flat wall placed at !I = 0, divid('f; into two streams on t.he wall and leaves in both directions. The viscous flow must adhere to t.he wall, whcrcas the potential flow slides along it. In po!ent,ial flow t.ho press~lre is given hy Bernoulli's equat.iou. H P« denotes the stagnahon pressure, I1I1(j P IS OW pre~Rllre at. an urbit.rary point., we have in pot.ont.inl flow

1)0 -- 1) 0.,-0 ~ (!((12 /1'2) = ~ a n2(.r2 -i-!l).

1] = Vr u.

(5.:l8)

The diflcrcnt.inl equat.ion for ,p(II) now has the' simple form

</;" /- ,p,p" - ,p'21_ I = 0

(!i.:l!l)

with the boundary conditions

For viscous flow, we now make tho nssumpfious

u. = x /'(.11) ;

Ii = -/(!!) ,

(5.:J4 )

The vd(l(:it,_v component pnrullel to t.hn wall 1)('('OIllPR

Po - p = ~ (! (Z 2 [:r2 + F (y) I .

(fUn)

iT- = ! j'(y) = ""(1]).

and

i" - t I" = ((.2 + l' i"

(n.~6)

The solution of the differential equation (5.3B) was first given in a thesis by K. Hiemenz [12] and later improved by I,. Howarth [14J. It is shown in Fig. n.11 (sec also Tahlo Ii. I ). The curve ,p' (1]) begin.,: to inoreaso linearly at 1] ~ 0 and 1'('11(1" asymptotically to unity. At, approximately 1] = 2·4 we have <p' = O·!)!J, i. e. t.ho final value is reached there wit.h an accuracy of I per cent, If we eon sirler t.he correspollding dist.ane« from tho wall, denoted by!! = 0, as t.hn boundary layer, we have

(} = 1)~ V:- = 2·4 v-f·

(5.40)

In this way t.ho cquat.ion of continuity (4.4c) is sat.isfied ident.ionlly, and the two Navior-Stokes cquut.ions of plane flow (4.4a, II) are sufficient, to determine t.ho [unct.ions f(y} and F(y). Suhstituting eqns. (5.34) amI (5.31i) int.o eqn. (4.4a, b) we obtain two ordinary difforent.inl equntions for t and F:

(5.37)

98

V. gxaet, aolut.ions of t.lre Nnvier.Stokes cquntions

b. Otlwr oxnct soluf.iona

Tahle 5.1.

Functions occurring in the solution or plane and axially aymmotrieal flow with stagnation point. Plane case from L. Howarth [14 J; axially syrnmebrioal case from N. Froesaling 1!l1

The non.st,eady now pattern which results UpOII the Superposition of an arbitrary, I,ime·dependent transverse motion of the phne was studied by ,J. Watson 142]. The special case of a hannonic transvcrse motion was solved earlier by M. n. G1allert;

([14] in Chap. XV). .

plane axially symmet.rioa]
r Vi" I .--~ .- I:i=- ~ I ---_-_._--
:=-1": ·1 1~~~UI d2~ q, d2~
q, d~! ~2·C=;, z -dC"
0 0 0 1·2326 0 0 0 1·3120
0·2 0·0233 0-2266 1·0345 0·2 0-0127 0·1755 1-1705
0·4 0·0881 0'4145 0'8463 0·4 0·0487 0·3311 1·0298
0·6 0·1867 0·5663 0·6752 0·6 0-]054 0·4669 0'8910
0'8 0·3124 0·6859 0·5251 0'8 0-1799 0'5833 0·7563
1-0 0'45!J2 0·7779 0·39!10 1·0 0·2695 ocan 0-62!l3
1·2 0·6220 0'8467 0·2938 1·2 0·3717 0·761<1 0·5097
1·4 0·7967 0'8968 0·2110 1-4 0·4841 0·8258 0·4031
1·6 0·9798 0·9323 0·1474 ]·6 0-6046 0·8761 0·3100
1·8 1·1689 0'9(j68 0·1000 1·8 0·7313 0·9142 0·2315
2·0 1·3620 0·9732 0·0658 2·0 0·8627 0·!J422 0·1676
2·2 ]'5{)78 0·9839 0·0420 2·2 0·9974 0·9622 0·1l75
2'4 1·7553 0·9905 0·0260 2·4 1·1346 0·9760 0·0798
2·6 1·9538 0·9946 0·0156 2·6 ],2733 0·9853 0·0523
2'8 2'1530 0'9970 0·0090 2'8 1-4]31 0·9912 0·0331
3·0 2·3526 0'99S4 0·0051 3·0 )'5ri36 0·9949 (l'0202
3·2 2·5523 0·9992 I 0'()()28 3·2 1·6944 0·9972 00120
,
3·4 2·7522 0·9906 I 0·()()14 3·4 1·8356 0·9985 0·0068
3·6 2-9521 0·9998 0·0007 3·6 1·9769 0·9992 0'()()37
3·8 3']521 0·9999 0·0004 3'8 2·1182 0·9996 0·()()20
4·0 3·3521 1·0000 0·0002 4·0 2-2,,96 0·9998 O·()()IO
4·2 3'5521 1·0000 0·0001 4·2 2.4010 0·9999 0·0006
4·4 3·7521 1·0000 0·0000 4·4 2·5423 0·9999 0·0003
4.6 3·9521 1·0000 0·0000 4·6 2·6837 1·0000 0·0001 9 ••. Two.dimen8ional noo-sleady stagnalion Row. The cnse of non-stondy, t,wo-"inton~ioIlILI flow Btu."ed ~y N. !tot~ [281\J const.itutes n gcnemlizotion or tho premtiillg l'illHl. WI' r;oIlRid.,1' Ih" case of two-dimensional Bt;agnntion flow (~opie""'l in Irig. ri.IO and bounded by n wall at 11 ~,O. We 1LRII1Ime U'llt tho velOCity nt " In.rgo """.anro from the Willi if! "il-eel",1 lowanl" 1.1". "'"11, Ilnd that, tho ~all it.sc~( performs n harmoni? motion ill it.s Own p]IlIIO. III the rcsult.ing flow pnt.tern, the voloClty remnma stoady at. 0 largod,st.nnce (y ~oo), wherona ncar tho wall it. ""I]uir"" It nrmstcndy pattern of t.he same kill" as that lIear the oscillat.ing Willi of Fig. 5.n (Slnk.,,,',, R')('OIl" problem). Accordlllg to [28n1, it i8 possihl« to int.egrat.e the 1I0nRtcady NIlvicr-Slok"" c'IIIIlt.i()n (4.4a, b, e) hy lLRRuming

?l(X, y, t) = a x +'('/)1 "g(',) nxl' (i'oIl)

(!iAO,,)

7J(!I) =- (a v)'I' </>('/).

in t.he Sllme way IlR WaR donn in eqn, (li.34). As rar II.Il tho prusauro is c()necl'lled, we »uI,

P=po-('/')ea·x·--evaF(,/).

«(jAOe)

Hem,,, = y(a/v)l/' denotes tho dilllonsionleRll disl,nneo from tho wall from "'In. (".~R), b iR tl", conAtant amplil,udo of tho wall oBeillnting in il", own plnno, nnd til is t.he cirelllar fn'(llwIH'y of I,hi. oscillation.

TIw preoeding all8umptions (5.40a, h, c) nrc int.roduccd into U'" Nnvior-Stokoa equut.ions (4.4a, b, c), and the problem is reduced to solving the following system of equnf.iona.

"' ... ,;</>" -- 4>'2 + 1=0, g" -I- e' </> - g (</>' I- i k) ~ 0, sd ~'= F' _ ,,"".

(;'.40d)

(IiAOf)

Hence again, as before, tho layer which is influenced by viscosity is small at low kinematic viscosities and proportional to y;:- The pressure gradient iJp/iJy becomes proportional to (] a y ~;; and is also very small for small kinematic viscosities.

~erc k = w/a denotes tho dimensionloas rrcqllClHlY of tho wall oReilllltioll. Tho different.in! equnbon" (v40d) and (6.40e) result Irom tho non'Rtea<iy Navicr-RI~)ke8 equnt.ion in t.he x.dircd.ion, eqn. (4.4a), when tho velocity component 1t i8 roprosontod a» t.hc 811m or a RI~ady term, 1'_', and a!, lInsl.eady t.erlll, g, as was dono in eqn. (v.4()n). Tho function ~ ('1) antisfic8 thc houndary conrli-

tlons ,

." (0) = ,,"'(0) = 0 and 4>'(00) = 1.

It is, further, worth noting t.hat tho dimensionless velocity distrilJl~t,ion u/U and the boundary-layer thickness from eqn. (5.4~) arc independent of x, I. e., they do not vary along the wall.

A comparison bet.ween eqns. (1).39) and (ri.40d) ahows that Lhis fundioll iR i<l",".i .. ,,1 will. 1,lu. wclj-known Rol~~ion of tho Rt<,ady-sl.ate problem dim to Hi"mcnz. Tho fun""ioll g(,,) Ral,iRlieR Ow boundary comilt.lonlJ

r

Tho t,ype of flow under consideration docs n~t occur nea~ a plane ~all only, but also in two-dimensional flow (mat. any cylindrical body, provided that It has a b~unt nose ncar t.he stagnation point. J n StICh ensos the soluf.ion is valid for a small neighbourhood of the stagnation point. if the port-ion of the curved surface can be replaced by its t,an~ellt, plano ncar tho st,:~gnat,ion point.

g(O) = 1 and g(oo) ~ o.

It is seen fr,;,m eqns, (ri.40d) and (5.40e) that in t,his case the steady componcnt. is independent of th,? 811~rlmJlO8cd non-steady component. Thc.differenl,inl cq!ml.ion (5.40c) for the lIoll-steady cont.rlbut,on g of tho x-componont of tho velocity can ho onally solved, becnUF.e f.Ilf) funct.ion +<'1), Table v.l, is known. Further details conecrning this IJroblcm can be found ill [28nJ Tho ~~~er may 11.180 consult the papers by M. Glauort, 114) in Chap . xv, and J. Wat.son, (filiI in ChaJl.

100

V. Exnd solutions or the Nnvicr-St.okes cquat.ions

h. Ot.hr-r ('~acf, solution",

101

10. Stagnation in three-dintensional flow. In 11 similar way it is possible to obtain nn exuct aolut.ion of the Nnvicr-Stokca equations for the threo-dimonaional case of flow with st,agnat,ion, i. c., for t.ho n.xisy mmet.ricnl case. A fluid atrcam impinges on a wall at, right, angles to it and flows away radially in all directions. Such 11 case occurs in Ow npighhoHrliood of 11. st.nglHtf.ioll point, of a body of rovolut.inn in :t flow para.llol to i t.s ax is.

The boundary conditions arc

z=O: 11.=(), 1/) .. ~();

For t,he frid.ioni,,;;s caso we can write

11

(/.

(5.41 a)

fJ

(/ ,. ;

2 (J, Z,

(liA:!)

1.6,---,---,-

0.8

1.0

where n is it constant It is se t tl

cont.inuity. Denoting 'once' 1~1;~r: ~. i,~n~'~ '1I1tl.. such 11 solution ~at.isfies l.lir- ('(Iuation of in ideal ilow: '. , . s .,Igna .ron prvssur« j.'y 1'0' we find t Iw pl"('SSlIrc

Po - 7/ ~~·1 (J(lJ2 I· W2) = 1 (J 1l2(r21 4z2) .

In t.h.c case of VilWOIIS flow we aR811111('. I I r

. Ie otlowing form ,. t I It'

veloel(,Y and pressure dist.ributions 0 • Ie so u ,IOIl~ for I.h(,

1/ = r j'(z)

1/0 ,= . 2 I (z) ,

(5.4:1) (5A4)

0.6

Fig. G.l). Vclocil.y distribution of plane and rotat.ionally aymmctrical now at a sl-agnation point

0.2

I t. call be easily verified t.hat It solution of t..11 f) r:' .

(,ontinuity irient,ien.lly whereas th (. e; rm (:).4.1) f<at'IRfiI'H the equation of

, I' r I( " " . c cqua .IOIIS 0 mot,IOII I .. ad 1.0 I.he Iollowino t w()

(quRlons or z) and F (z): . "

i" - 2 f 1"

a2 + v f"' ,

(.'i.4:» (.'iAG)

o

o.'t 0.8 1.2

1.6 2.0 2.4 2.8 3.2

7J~ 'V¥Yi t, ~ yez

2 f l' = ! a2 F' - v f" .

The boundary condit.ions for j(z) and F(z) follow from eqn. (1).4111), and are

:2 = 0: j = f' =c 0, F ~.~ (l ; Z Oeo <Xl: j' C=. fl .

To solve the problem we shall usc cylindrical coordinates r, .p, z , and we shall assume t,hat. tho wall is at, z = 0, the stagnation point is at the origin and that the flow is in the direct.ion of the negative z-axis, 'Vo shall denote the radial and axial components in frictionless flow by U and TV respectively, whereas those in viscous flow will he denoted hy u. 0= lL(r,z), and IV = w(r,z). In accordance with eqn. (3.36) t.he Navicr·StokeH equation for rotat.ional symmetry can he written all

~\s b(~fOl'c, t.h.e ~rst. of the two equat.ions for I a.nd F can be freed of t.lu- eOllst.anl." (12 't Ind I hv a slIllllanty transformat-lOn, which iR ident.ieal with that. ill t.ho I.h 11(' ("l~('

·1118 . "",

f (z) ." V;i~, q,(() .

1L OIL + W~IL = _ ~P + v (0''-' +

Or oz . (! or or' r

~. _ .. ~. + ~u)

Or r oz"

The differential equation for 4>(c) simplifies 10

cp'" -1- 2 c/> q," - rp'2 --I J :-_-; 0

(GAi)

tL 8", + W ~I(I = _ .!. '!i' -+ v (~.:.I!' +1_ ~~ + ~21O)

or az (! az or", T Or oz"

(5.41)

with t.he boundary condit.ions

c = 0: q, C~ ,p' = 0 ;

( = 00: ,p' = 1 .

() nnd (IIi' q,' n, and we have put 1', = 1L and 1', ~= W.

The solution of eqn. (5.47) was first iv bv 1" II '. , .

series The plot of -I.' _ /ll' . g, en .J} ,.omanll II~J III the form of a I)()WI'I"

. . , , ~,._ u. . IS gIven III FIg r; II t tl . I I

the V'I lues I' .p" ., , .' vr , ·oge . WI' Wit I t. U' plane ('as(' n nd

• .. or grvcn m I'a hlo 1i.1 hn vr- IW(,II In kr-n 1'1'0111 It pap!'1' by 1\. FI'O('''''lin~lSJ.

h. Other exact solutions

102

V. Exact solutions or !.ho Naviof·St.okoR "Qllo-Uons

The no-slip condition at the wall gi yes the following boundary conditions:

, d' k A Further oxum pie of an oxuct. solution of t.he

It. Flow nCllr a rotallng ,~. ' ,< 'I a flat disk which rotates

Navicr.Rt,okes eqllations is [u rrriahcd by t.lH~ flow. ~roIllH., ~ . fluid

~hollt. an axis perpcndicular to its pllan!) t~l~ a 11I11~ortb:y\nr~I~~r:~~~I~~i'C~~~~:~ :nd is

ot.hcrwise at, rest, The layer ncar t rc ( IS' IS ?arnC( . 'nsated b

thrown outwards owing to t.he. acti?n o~ cellt.rlfug~l ~~~e:~i's~h~~ ~~cC?;r:rr~ carric~ part.icles which flow ill lUI axial dlf(~ct'I~Jl t.owatfl 5, ~c ~f fully three.dimensional

I . tIl' f (Tally Th II!> t,he case IS soon ,0 )e 0., •

all! ojeo ,e( een ,n ",M' . .'. t,' tI dial direction, r, tho C1reum·

flow, i. c., there exisf veioelt,y c~)Inp(!nen . .s In le.ra we shall denote respectively

rercll tia l direction, ,p, and tho axial (Iirectl~ll, z'r ~1~IC~ow field is shown in Fig. fi.12. II.,· 1/.,11. and 111. All a~onOl~wt,~ie rep~csen~,:;,;o~ ~Ie ~~:e of an infinit.e rot.ating plane. A t. first, t.ho calculat,)()n WIll )e per onnu .0'1 I . U· k r finite dhunel.er J) ~~ 2 R, I t. wi II t.hen be easy to extend the 're~lIlt, t.o 11\(. uc e a IS 0

(III condition that. tho edge offoct IS neglected.

Taking into account rotntionnl symmetr~ as well as Ute. notnf.ion for tho problem we can write down t.he Navier·f;t,okes eqllat.lons (3.36) as.

c!ll v" ou 1 ap I o"u _0_ (~_) - _I- O"u} ,

1l ar _- ~- -I- 10 az = -e- a; + v \ a;.. -I- Or,. oz'

z=O:

1£=0, 1£ = 0,

w=O,

v= rw,

(5.49)

11 = o.

Z =00:

We shall begin by est,imntirrg the thickness, (), of t.he layer of fluid '(~:I.rripd' by t.lre disk 1.23]. It. ill clear that. the thickness of the layer of Iluir] which rototos with the disk owing to friction deoroasca with tho viscosity awl I,hill view is conflrmr-d when compared with the results of tho preceding examples. The onntrifugul Iorce per un)t volume which ae!;,'! on a fluid purf.ielo in the rotat.ing layer at a diRI.:LIH~e r from Ow axis is equal to (! r w2. lIence for a volume of area dr . d.~ and height., (5, t.he ccntrifugal foroo bccomes : (! r w2 ~ IIr d.~. The same element. of fluid is aet.ed UpOIl hy a shearing st.rcss Tw, pointing in the direction in which the fluid is slipping, and forming an angle, say 0, with the circumferent.ial velocity. The radial component of t.he shearing stress must now be equal to the ccntrifugal force, and honeo

T", sin 0 <lr ds = (! r (02 ~ dr d8

a"v}

+ oz· '

or

T", sill 0 = (! r w2 b ,

On the other hand tho circumferential component of tho shearing stress must be proportional to the veloeit.y gradient of tho circumferential volooit.y at thc wall. This condition gives

av III.. ov

It - -I- - -I- III ".- =

ar r az

{Of" a (")

Va,' + Or -;:

(5.48)

Tut cos O,..._, It r wl() .

au + ~. + ~'-"- = 0 '

Or ,. oz

Eliminat.ing T", from these two equations we obtain (J2,...., .. ~ .. tan O.

OJ

If it is assumed that the direction of slip in the flow ncar the wall is independent, of tho radius, the thickness of tho layer earriod by the disk becomes

~,..._, V-f,

which is idontioal with tho result obtninod in the case of tho oscillating wall on p. 114. Further, wo can write for the shearing stress at the wall

TID ,..._, (! r ((12 " ,._, (! r OJ lrv OJ •

The torque, which is equal to the product; of shearing stress at the wull, area and ann becomes

Fig. !i.12.1"low in tho neighbourhood of a disk rotating ill a fluid a.t rest

Velocity componr.nts: u-ratJia.I, ll-drcum(crel'IUal, 10-3:."(1,,1. A layer of nuid I.ft carried by the disk owing to the Action of ViRC01IS forces. The centrifuRa.1 forces in the thin layer giv~ rier. to "ccondary now which iB direct." radially olJl",ml

(5.50)

R denoting tho radius of the disk.

In order to integrate the system of equations (5.48) it is convenient to int.roduco a dimensionless distance from the wall, c """ z/(J, thus putting

(5.51 )

104

V. Exact solutions of the Navior-Stokes equations

b. Other r-xact solutions

.105

Further, t.he following assumptions are made for tho velocity eomponent.s a.nd pres-

sure

It = r OJ F(C); v = r OJ Om; 111 = V I' ~ JI(C)

p = p (z) = (! I' W P(C) •

(5.52)

Tnblo 5.2. Vnl nes of the functions needed for the ~1{,Rcription of the flow of a disk rotating in a Iluid at rCAt. oalculuteri at. the walland at a large dlstlln(".c from the wnll , 118 enloulntcd hy E. 111. Sparrow and .1. L. Gregg [:12]

] nserting these cquat.ions into eqns. (5.48) we obt.ain It system of four sirnultruicous ordinary difTerent,ial equations for the functions F, G, JJ, and P:

v
(J)
C =z - F' (/' II l'
I'
0 O'uIO O·(jlli!l 0 0
00 0 0 0'S8,'5 O':l!IJ2 2F + n: = 0 F2 + F' 1I - G2- F" = 0 2 F 0 + II G' - 0" = 0 P' + II II' - H" = 0 .

\

(5.53)

It. is seen from Fig. 5.13 t.hat the distunoo from the wall over which (,he peripheral velocity is reduced to half the disk velocity is (~O.5 """ {v/w. It is to he noted from t.he solution that when r5 """ Y)!i~j is small, the velocity components 11. and 1) have n.pprcoiu ble values only in a thin layer of t.hickncss Y;);J), The velocity component 11!, normal 1,0 HlC disk is , ai, any rutc, smnll and of t,lw order V I' (J). Tlw inuliuut.iou of the rclnt.ivo stronmlinoa near t.ho wall wit.h respect to t.h e ciroumforcnt.in l direction, if the wall is imagined at rest, and the fluid is taken to rotnto at, a Inrge dislance Irom t.IlC wall, becomes

The boundary condit.ions can be calculated from eqn. (FI.40) and are: 1:.=0: F=O, 0=1, Jl=O, ]>=0 ~=oo: ./t'=0, G=O.

The first solution of the system of eqns. (5.53) by an approximat.e method was given i)y a method of numerie;l integration]. They are plott,:d in Fig. 5.13. The starting values of the solut.ion indicated in Table 5.2 were gIven by E. M. Sparrow and

J. L. Gregg [321·

tan 4>0 = - (~L~=) = _ ~'(O) = 0'5~ = 0'828

(Jv/oz .-0 0'(0) 0,(;16 "

01'

w

Although t.he calculation is, strictly spcaldng, applicable t.o an infinite disk only, we may utilize the same results for a finite disk, provided thai, its radius R is large compared with the thickness (5 of t.he layer carried with the disk. We shall now evaluate t.he turning moment of such a disk. The oont.ribut.ion of an annular disk element of width dr on radius r is cI.lI! = - 2 n r dr r T </J and hence the moment

for a disk wetted on one side becomes Z ,

0.8 -~

0.6

O.It

Fig. 5.1:), Velocit.y dlst.r ihul.iou ncar" disk rotat.ing in It fluid at rcst,

R

.lI1 = - 21l J r2 T'</J dr , o

o

7.0

2.0

3.0 3.5 't.0

t,-z('iJ'

11 ere Tz</J = P (8v/8z)o denotes tho ciroumforont.ial component of th" Sllf'lI1rillB sl.rcss. From cqn. (5.52) we obtain

Tzq, = (! " ),1/2 (()~/2 (1' (0) .

Tn the case under discussion, just as in the c~nmple involv~llg a. st.agr~al,i.on point" tho velocity field is the fin~t, to he evaluated f,rom the equ.at.l?n o~ CO~lt.III\11t,y ami the equat.ion~ of motion parallel to ylC wall. '1'1.10 pressure diat.ribution IS found Rllbscqllcnt.Iy from the equat.ion of motion perpendICular to the wall.

lienee Lhe moment for a disk wetted on hot.h sides hccorues

(5.54)

[l. is customary to in trocluco tho Iollowi ng d imcnsion less moment. coefficicn t"

t :J:i~i~:~hl;,;~n WIlS obtained in the form of" power series ncar C = 0 and an asymptotic !leries for large values of C which were then joined together for moderate values of 1;.

2.M

eM = --~.- .. - .. --. 1 o (0' R'

(5.55)

211G'(0) ,,1(2

C - .. ------

M - - - Rwl/2

Reynolds number based on the radius and tip velocity, R"w

R= -

"

106

V. Exact solutions or the Navior-Stokoa equations

This gives

or, defining a

h. Other exaet solufions

107

Caleulat.ion shows t.hat

Q = 0·881i n R2 V~ ~J = 0·885 n R~ OJ R-I/2 •

(5.57 )

(5.56)

The qunnt.ity of fluid flowing towards UIO disk in the axial rlirection is of equal magnitude. It is, further, worthy of note tlmt the pressure difference over the I:tyer cnrricd by the disk is of the order (! I' W, i. e., ver'y small for small viscosil.ios. The pressure diAI.!·jbu(,ion depends only Oil (,he distanco from tho wnll, lind t.hnr(' i" no nulin.l pressure gradient.

1\ generalised form of the preceding problem has been studied by M. O. Rogers and G. N. Lance [28J who assumed that tho fluid moves with an angular vP)opit.y Q = S (t) at inllnit.y. Wit,h this assllmptioll, the second equation (5,r;:1) lWCOIlH'R modified to

value - 2 n 0' (0) = :1·87, we obtain finally nlHl introducing the numerical

F2 -I- F' IJ - 02 - F" -I- 82 = 0 ,

. . e (1) and compares it with measure-

Fig. 5.14 shows a plot of this equation, eurvabout R = 3 X 105 there is excellent

menta [39]. For Reynolds numbers ~p t~ At higher Reynolds numbers the flow agreement between theory and exp~nmen . . considered in Chap. XXI.

becomes turbulent, anti the rcspec:tlhve ?asel flS tho turbulent flow theory. Oilier

] (3)' F" 5 14 arc 0 t,aIllO( rom , I

Curves (2) am . "' ·lg... G Kern f [16] and W. Schmidt, [31], sho,: tolerab e measl1remenl~q, carried out by . r.P ( thcso solul.ions D. Riabollohmsky [26J,

. I (I t.i I results nor ,0 , ,,'-, , . k I . I

nureomon t, WIt. I .noore ,Ion " . It' 111011t of rot,nting dIS S W lie I

'" . .. I £ lac for t 1C Ilrrulig mo

l27) estahlishcd empmca orrnuu ts Th e formulae showed very good

based on very careful moasurements. es tl

werc .' di ed subsequen y.

t ith th theorct.ical equations uacover ,

agteemen, WI e if .

The quantity of liquid whi~h is pllm~ed out~ards as a result of the centri ugmg

. th one side of a disk of radius R IS

action on e " •

00

Q = 211: R f udz.

z-o

10.0

'~I[lJ=r

o NACA Report Nil. 793

rtocb "umber - - o 0.24 to 0.62 v O. "8 to 1.69 • Kempf o WSchmidt

7.0 100<Cf1 5.0

".0 J.O

0]

Fig. 5.14. Turning moment on a rotating disk ; curve (1) from egn. (!i.!i(»), laminar; curves (2) ami (3) from eqns. (21.30) and (21.33), iurlndeni

and the second boundary eondit,ion for the funot.ion G(~) mus], be l'opla('()(1 hy 0(00) = 8, In this connexion a comparison should be mndo with the caso of rotating flow over It fixed disk given in Sec. XI a. Numerical soluf.ions for rotat.ion ill the same sense (8 > 0) can be found in [26J. Whon the rotations arc in opposite senses (8 < 0), physically mea.ningfnl solutions can be obtained for 8 < - 0·2 only if uni form suet.inn at, right, angles to tho disk is ndmitted .

The problem of a rotating disk ill a housing is discussed in Chap. XXI.

11. is part.ielilarly noteworthy j,hat, the solution for tho rotating disk as well as OIC solutions obtained for UIe flow with stngnat,ion are, in the first place, exact solu(,iolls of t,he Nnvlcr-Seokes equations and, in the second, that t,hey nrc of it fJOundary-layrr type, in t.ho sense discussod in the preceding chapter. In tho limiting case of very small viscosity these solut.ions show that, the influence of viscosit.y extends over a very small layer in the neighbourhood of the solid wall, wlH'rPlls in t.he whole of t.ho remaining rogion t.ho [low is, pract.ioally spc,'lking, identica I wit.l: t.ho corresponding ideal (potcntial) case. TheRe examples show further that

the bounda.ry layer has a thickness of the order V-v. The Olio-dimensional examplcs of flow discussed previously display the same boundary-layer chnrnct.or. In t.his eonnexion the reador mny wish to consult a paper by G. K. 13atchclor [21 which discusses the solution of tho Navicr-St.olws equations for t.he caso of two co-axial, rof.nt.ing disks pla.cod at, n certain distance apart, a!'! well as a paper by K. St.ewart.son l:J4]. An extension of the preceding solut.ion to tho case of uniform suction is duo to .J. T. Stuart ([92J in Chap. XIV) and to E. M. Sparrow find .J. L. Grcgg (8('(' p_ :l in 1.32]). The lat.tor eont.aina also an analYRis of (,he cnso wit.h hOlllogC1W()IIR hlowing. The limiting CIlSO of very vigorous hlowing WItR diRclIssed hy II. K. Ku ikon [1 H j.

12. Flow in convergent O.H) divergent cJlOnncls. A further dass of C){flct solutions of I.he Nflvicr-Stokcs equntions can be obtuined in the following way: Lcl. it be assumed ',hal. the f:t111ily of stmight lines passing through a point in a "Jane COIlRt,il.lIt.c .he st,mnllllinps of a now. Let thc velocity differ from line to line, which means that it, ill asslIll)('d 10 be a rund.ioll of the 1)01ar angle.p. The mys along which tim velocif.y vanishcR can then be, rcgarded :1S • he, soli,' walls or a convergent or a divergent channel. The continuity ('(jlla' ions ('II n ho Ratisficd by assllllling f,hat t.he vclocit.y along every ray is inversely propnrt.ionnl to the <1i"'all.'" [rom t.h" origin, !rPIl('" t.he radia.l vr-locity u. has t.ho form u. ~ ll'(,f.)/r, or, if P iR to he dillH'IIHiollic-RR,

b. Other exact solutions

109

108

V. gxaet snl ut.ions of thc Nnvier-Stok!'s cquu.t.ious

(5.58)

In the paper referred to above, G. Hamel has set himself the problem of calculating all three-dimensional flows whose streamlines are identical with t.hose of a potential flow. The solution consisted of streamlines in the shape of logarithmic spirals_ The case of radial flow considered here. and the case of potential vortex-flow, diMlIsse,1 in ReI'. V:I, const.it.u to particular examples of thill general solution.

The preceding oxumplo of nn exact aolufion nxhihit.R on eo more tho IJOu:rulfl,ry-lu.'l'·" cha ractrr of t.I", 1I0w_ In pnr t.iculn.r , in t,i,,, C!tA" of It eonverg.lIIL channel, "',e exiHt."""" of It thin IllY"" ""nr l.ho wall is confirmed together wit.h t.he fact that the influence of viscosity is conccntralR,i in

it. Further, the calculation confirms that the boundary-layer thicknose increases as V v hero too, The divergent case exhibits an additional phenomenon, that. of bade-flow, and. resull.ing from it, supnrat.iou. This ia all MRent,inl property of nil boundnry-Inycr llowa and we sha(l discuss" it, later in greater detail on the basis of t.he cqun.t.ioua of boundary-layer flow. ItA existence is fully confirmed by ex poriment.

The cases of two-dimensional and axl-symmotrical flow through channels with smn ll anglo" of divergence have been investigated earlier by H_ Blasius [Ii] from first principles, i. c., wit.h the aid of the Navier-Stokes equa.tions. In this connexion it was shown that laminar flow can support only a very amnll preSAtlre increase without tho incidence of scpnrnt.ion. The condition for the avoidance of back-flow at the wall in a divergent til be of radius R(x) was found to be dR/dx < 12/R. (condition for separation), where R = ,7 dl" denotes the Reynolds number referred 1;0 the mean velocity of flow through the channel and to its diameter. In more modern f.irnes M_ Abramowitz [Il extended these calculations for divergent, channels, and ']iscov!'C"d that the point of sepnrat.ion moves downstroam from tho channel entrnnco as t.he Reynolds number is increased and as the angle of divergence is deerensed.

u = "-F(</»-

r

. '. - I v r where lnt.rodu('ing this form into the Nnvicr-Stokce

The pef1phc~al ve.loClt.y V;tnIR I~B ~ e y '6' '1(') ami elin';IHtt.illg pressllrc from t.he "("p",tIOIiA

?qllal Lions wlr~t.t~I'.J\ lit I. polar ~eO(olrh'tla':~ .~~~ e~'I~~}\~i';lg' ~rdinary diffcrcnl.inl equat.ion for F(</»:

111 t, lC r n·IH 'f~ ( tree lOllS, w . .~ , •

2 F }I" -I- 4 V' -I- F'" ~ 0_

I ntegmt.ing once, we arc led to t.he equn.t.iou

J?2 + 4 F 1- 10''' -I- f{ = 0 .

I r I' . rudiou I, u t, t.he wn.lls , I( = _. (I/e) (o7,/vr) (r"I,,2),

'1'1", enllst.anl. 1(, '~noteR t~ rar in l~e""~'.~~:\~';'11 ns F' = 0 rorc/> ~" O. The soh~ti~II oreq,~. (l>.fi8) where we have I' -.0 tor</> ... (i allrd</> r F I pressed explicit-ly as an elliptIC hlllet,lon of1>.

was given by G. Hamel [lll_'The lin" IOn . can )e ex,,· ... . . . . .'

'VI' shall now hriefly sketch the ch'lrader. of I the solfuti~lll reffnlll;HlftyfrOp~~r:!~:C~~:II~g c~\~~

. I' ti Tl a.ph in 1i'lg ') l5 S lOWS a auu y 0 ve oc . ".

details of t.he uorrva 1011 .. ie gra .·'·1 I,' 1'10 111I1ll1)crs plotted on the bnsis of the

1 I I· e t chnnne! for d,fTeren, "CYIIO (., ' . . , . ., .

verge II ,am a , ivorg in " ~·I ]Fl\1'11 . I' I{ I' )lllhnIl8e[1 [I fl] The velocity (lIstrwutlOn

. I lIt" nil I,erforrne\l )y '10. I saps anr ., ", . - I I tt

numerrca ('·a (',\1 ,t 10., .' I I lifTer mn.rkecll v from each other. l n t io a .er

for t.he convergent. and for the dlv?rgcnt c ianne IJ 11IIlt1h~rs in 'a anioerqen; channel tho velocity case,. the.y also din'er ll1.arkedly fOT different Reyno .,: 5000) 're~,ai;'A' nea;·iy cOlIst.o.nt over a large .listnhllt.lon for the IlIglwst Reynolds rrn m ber' (R tl II . Lhus it exhibits III this case a clear

eellt.re-portion and decreases steeply to zero ncar 10 wa A, '

"boundnry-Inycr character".

di t I I tl shape of the velc){'il,y profiles is markedly affe"t.('cl hy the J(.e_)"lIolds

] 11 a inerqo.n , C m nne le.,.,. '. s is more "IIl'Vcd at the centerline t.hnn the pnrn bola

number. Em·.h of these velocity dlst.!nblitloill. 't'l _ II' I valls The velocity dist.ribuUon for the

tl tit . " Row through a c ranne WI I pala e wr .. ' , , f b k • lit , c iarac errzc .. di . I 0. b tl e Inct that it shows t.WO regions 0 aculargest Reynolds number, curve 7, IS Istlll~'~IS ie ,. y ·1 . '," , Id I . itsell at anyone of

flow. Th~ISts tl!~ i:('~~~~\bl;~~i~:l~:n~!Ot~::;sP~~I'(;:'it.~'~~;tltil:~';~:~I :t~n i,~c\',~~cd .~ngle of 10° wtil.h

t\~~s: ~~~"tr:~ r~ iO;18 of hack-flow or a.t an included angle of 6'!)0 but with a slugle, osymm~:~~ reg;';,; of h;"k-f1o~. Such aAYJll,!let.ric velocit.y distrihuLionR are o.ct.llftlly observed, lind the b '

flow signals t.he start of aopnrnt.iou.

_1°

l-(lZ

... -(l.f

13. Concluding remark. This example concludes t.he discussion of exact solution of Lhe Navier-Stokes equations and the next topic will deal with approximate solut.ions. r II the previous descript.ion an exact solution meant a solution of the Navicr-Stokes equations in which all its terms were taken into account, provided t.hat t.hoy did not vanish identically for the problem. In the following chapter we shall concern ourselves with approximate solut.ions of the Navier-Stokos equations, t.h a. t is, with solut.ions which are obtained when small terms are neglectod in the differential equat.ions themselves. As already mentioned in Chap. IV, the two limiting cases of very large and very small viscosity arc of particular im portance. In very slow, or socalled creeping motion, viseous forces n.ro very large compared wit.h inert.in force", and in boundary-layer mot-ion t.hey arc very small. Whereas ill t.hc first. case it, is permissible to omit the inertia terms complctoly, no such aim pliflcat.ion if! ]loRsibh, ill boundary-layer theory, because if t.ho ViSeOUR terms are simply diRregarcic" t.ho physically cflRcnt.ial cond it.ion of 110 slil) nt. t.ho so lir] hounclary (,n,Jlllol, hI' 111<'1 ..

Fig. fi.I{). Vr-locitv ,liR"rihulioll in ,t oonvergent and a' divergent. challnel after G. Hamel [11] n nrl K. Millsn",. aneI K. I'ohlhnuson [19]

InchHlr{l a,\~IP- 2 ex = uf

K. W. Mangler [6 J developed a general theory for the solution of the Navier-Stokes equatiol~s for the case of two-dimensional laminar Row at very high Reynolds numbers, t.hat is for flows In which t.he e!Tect of viscosity is included, and which pORseRs boundnry.Inyer eharncter. In Prnml t ls boundary-layer theory (sec also Chap. VII for details) the contour of t.he solid body in lhe strenm is prescribed ami the effeef of visoosity is accounted for only in the t.hin layer adjoining the wall. By contrast, the new procedure is an indirect one. Instead of the contour of the real body, the theory prescribes an appropriate form for the so-celled displacement. contour which surrounds the body. The displacement contour makes an allowance Ior the displacement. effect. exer t ed 011 the external flow and on the wake. This permits us to determine the external, frictionless flow about the displacement oontour ; the next step consists in the computation of the flow field in the frictional layer wil.h the aid of an asymptotic treatment of t.he Navier-Stokea equations for very large Reynolds numbers which yields, finally, the real shape of thc body. The remarkable fcat.~lre of this new procedure consists in the fact that. the boundnry-Inyor on.lr.uln.tion cnn he "fll'n('d beyond t.he point. of sepnration. This is in contrast, with PraJ1(W'R boundnry-lnycr theory which

Re ynolds number R = tlo r] v

Convergent chnnnr-l Divergent, eha unel

Cllrv('. 1: R = 5000 CUT\'e 5: R = 684

(!tIr'H~2: R = 1342 Curve6:R = 1342 Curve 7: R = 5000

Curve 3: R = (i~4 (tur ve .. rr-Fers to a chnnnel wit.h pnrnllcl watl« (Poi!;('ui i1C".!\ paroholi('; vC'io('it~· d i~1 rl huf.lon ,

ct, t-i~, ~"')

110

Y. Exact solul.ions of tit" Nn v icr-St.okes oquut.ions

111

call be nppllod at. mOR(; as Inr M 1.1." point. of separn.tion only. Fu rt.hermore , the I!!'W th.cor?, RIICooeds in Rome cnRC" eV{'11 wil.h the ovaluat.iou of t.he complex now pntterns which exist. 111 the region of hack-flow behind the point. of so pnrnt.ion as well ns t.hfll. in the r",~ion of re-att.achment.

The lrrief montio» of an altcrnat.iv« 1.lwory 1.0 t.lmt. given by Prnndf.l must suffice hero. The bouurln.rv-Invr-r t.hcor-v ,·xll!lllnde.1 in tile I'm""i,,d"r 0[' IhiR book iR hnsed on Prunrlt.ls line of

t.hought.·· .

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[241 I'lInni~, B.: Zur Berechnullg .der IAmil~nrcn Eillln.ufRtriilt1l1llg im Rohr. Diss. G6t.t,ingclI 1!l47. [2!iJ Rnyleigh , Lord: On t.he mot.ion of solid h",iies f.hrough viscous liquid. Phil. M.tg. 21, Il!n-- 711 (I!)J I); Ills.) Sci. Papers V I, 2!1.

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[2R] Rogers, M. n., ~ml Lance. 0: N.: • 'he rot.at.ionllily ".ynil not.ric (low of n viscous, lluid ill t.h" presence of n.n infinite rotating disk .. JFM 7, (j17--(j31 (1!J1l0),

[2RnJ Itot,t, N.: Unstcndy v iscon« tlow in the vi<'inil,y of 11. Rtllgllnt.iOIl point. Q.llltrt .. "1'1'1. Mllth, 13, 444 --4!J I (10M/fiG).

[20J Schiller. L.: Untersuchungen ilber larnillnre und turbulento St.riirnllng. VDf _ Ii'orsdlllngsheft 248 (1922).

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49, 333-341 (1053). . ..' r. 11. ooo,

[35J Stokes, G ', G.: On the effect of tho internal friction of fluids on the motion of pendulums, Camhr. PluJ. Trans, !X, 8 (181i1); Math, and Phy!!. Papers, Cambridge, 111,1-141 (1001)

[3(j] St.116rt •. J. T.: A solutiou of' the Navier-Stokos and energy equations illustrating tl .

of skin friction and te t f . fi' I io responao

. mpera uro 0 all III 1I11t.e p ate thermometer to fluctuations in the

stream vel.oClty. Proc. Roy. Soc. London A 231, 116-130 (1955).

[37] Szymanskt, F.: Quelques solutions exactes des equations de I'hydrodyna,niquo de tI . I visqueux dans Ie cas d 'un tube cy'lindr'ique. J. de math, puros 01. apilliquc(,-B Series 9"~ Ie !,7 (1032); sec also Pr?c. Intern. ??ngr. APjl1. ~eeh. Stoek!lolrn 1,240 (J930). " [38J Tao. L.N .•.. and DO~~Han. W.F,.: ]hro~gh-fow In concentric and exoentrlo nnnuli of fine (~~~)~lce WIth and WIthout relat,lve motion of tho boundnr ios, Trans, ASME 77, 12!11--1301

[3!lJ Theodo:sen. Th .• an~1 Regier. A,: Experiment.s on drag of revolving discs cylinders and

~~realllhne rods nt.hl~h spee.ds, .NACA Rep, 793 (1944). "

[40J I'irnme, A.: Ober d,? (Jeschwmdlg~ei",!vcrteilllllg ill Wirhern_ Tng.-Arch, 2,5, 20!i -225 (1957). [41] W .. tson, J.: A solutIOn. of the Navier-Stokos equo.tiOlls iIIuRtmting the responso of .. lnminnr boundary layer to 0. given challgo III the cxternul stream velocity Ounrt, J M ,I A I Mat.h. 11. :102-325 (1958). . t " oe I. PI'·

[42J Watson. J.: Tho t,wo-dimonsiono.l,lnmillo.r flow ncar tho Atn.gnation point of n. cylinder which

has an nrlJltmry tranRvorse 1ll01,IOIl, Quur], J. Mooh. Appl, MaUl, 12. 17/)--,1110 (Ino!)).

[I J Abramowitz, M.: 011 hnckflow of It ViR{,(IIlR tluid ill n diverging chnnnol. ,J, M n th. I'h'yB. 28, 1- .. 21 (1!14!1).

[2] Batchelor, O.K.: Note on It clnss of soluf.ions of t.he Navir-r-St.okos equn.I.ioua reprc,"cnt.illg ,,!.endy uon-rot at.ionutly aymmet.ric now. (~,uMt" J, ]1-],,<:11. Appl, Math. 4.2\1-·41 (1\IGI). [3J Becker, K: Eine einfnchc Vcrnllgemeiucrung riel' Rnyloigh-Grenzaehieht., ZAMP 11. 146 _. 152 (I!lOO).

[4] Borker, R.: Integrat.ion des "quntiolls <ill 1I10UVOIII')J1t d'ull nlliric visquoux incompresaible.

Contribution to: Hnndbueh del' Physik (1:;, «,lUggc, ed.) V 111/2, 1-:~84, Berlin. I!)():I.

ro] Blasius, H. : Ln mi nnro St.riinlllllg in Kn.nii.len wechselnrler Broitc, Z. Mnth. 11. Physik 58, 225 (lOW),

[IlJ Cat.herall, n., and Munglor, K. W.: The illtpgmtion oft.ho t.wo-dimenaiona.l lntu iunr boundarylayer equubions pasl, the point, of vnnishing skin Iriet.ion. ,J FM 26. )(j:1-182 (I!)(j()).

17] Cochran, W. G,: The flow due to a rotnUng disk, Proc, Cnmbr. Phil. Ho(' .• 10. 361i - :175 (lfl34). [7n.[ Florcnt., P. and Peube, ,T. L.: 1:;"olllelll"lIt lnruinniro "'UII Iiuirlo visquoux inco mprossiblo ent.re deux c1i,,'l""" poreux .• J. M('"nni'jlle 14, 4:lri·-·4fi!l (1!175).

[8] Fri>Rsling, N.: Verdunst.ung, Wiirmeiibertrn.gtlllg und Oes(,hwindigkeit.vort.eilllng hoi z weidimenaionalcr \IIHI rote.tionseym mouiaehcr lnminnrer Greuz.schiohtst.romung. Lunds, Univ. Arsskr. N. It. Afd. 2 •• M. No.4 (1!l40).

[!J] Corbcr ... W.: Zur inatnt.iouhren, lnminn.ron Stromung oiner inkornpressiblen 7.iilwn Flusaigkeit in krei87.ylindrisclmn Rohron. Z, o.ngew, Physik 3, 2(j7-271 (1!1!iI).

[HI] Hagen, G.: Obcr die Bcwegung des WaRllc ra in engon zylindrischen Rohren, Pogg, Ann. 46, 42:!-442 (183n).

[II] Hamel, G.: Hpirnlfiirmige Bewegung ziihor FliiA"igkciten. .Inhrosbor. IH. Mnt.homntikerVercinigung 2.5, 34- no (l!ll()).

[12J Hierneuz, K.' Dic OrellzRchicht. n·1I oinem in don gl"ichf;irmigen 1'liiRsigkcilRsl.rom eingetauchton gerndcn Krolexylindor. TheRiR (Jiittingell 11111. Dingl. Poly!,,.,,h .• I.,126,:121 (11111). [13] Homann, 1'.: Der EinlluRII grosser Ziihigkoit. boi tier Str6mung IIIl1 den. Zylindcr lind 11111 die Kugel. ZAMM Hi, 153-W4 (19:36); Forschg, Iug.vWes. 7, 1-~10 (1!J.lfi).

[14] Howarth, L.: On the calcula.tion of t.he stcudy flow in the boundnry layer near t.ho surfuce of a cylinder in a stream. AI.tC H,J\f IG32 (I!13fi).

[I!i) von f({trI11{U1, Th.: Ubor lnminnro unrl turhulonto Reibung. ZAMM I, 2::1:!-2!i2 (1!J21); NACA'I'M 1O!l2 (1!l41l); seo n180: Coil. Works II. 70-07,

[I Il] Kempf, G.: Ober Reibuugswitlorstnnd rotiercndor Scheibon. Vorl,riige 1t1l r dr-m Cehiet der ]I vdro- IIl1d Aorodynn.mik, Innshruck Con gr. 1922; Berlin, 1\121., l(i8.

(17) ]{irdc, K.: Untorsuchungcn tiber dio zoit.lioho Weltcrentwlcklung cines Wirbel« mit vorgogehener Anfangsverl.eilung. In!\.-Ardl .• 11, :l8!i· 404 (I!11l2).

ll8aJ Mellor, G. L., Chapple, P. i and Stokes, V. K.: On the flow between a rot.Ating and a

stationary disk .• J1<'1I-I 31. 95-112 (10(j8). . . .,

[181 Kuiken, H.IC: The e!lect of normnl blowing on tho Row Ileal' n rota.t.mg disk of infinite oxtont., ,J 1"111 47, 78!1--7!J8 (1\171),

[I!l] MillsapR, K.; and Pohlhauscn, K.: Thermal diatrihution in .Ieffrey- Hamel flows between

nOllllltrallel plnne wal"'!. ,'AS 20, 187·· Hili (1!J!i3).. . .

[20] Miiller, W.: ZlIm Problcm der Anlo.ufstri\rllllllg eirmr 1<'liiRRigk"it illl gcrndcn Hohr lillI, KrClR-

ring- IIlId KrniRqllorRehnit.t. ZAM M lfi, ~27 -238 (L!l:l!i). " , .

[21] ORO"", C. W.: Ark. f. MIlt.h. Ast,roll. och. '<ys. 7 (J!II I); II'ydrolllP-chnllll<. J.clpzlll' 1!)27, p. 82. 12:!] l'oiR"uill<,. ,I.: .Ikdl('rche~ (1xphilll('lIldl<'K Rill' 10 1Il0llVClllcnL (kg liqlliriCR dans le8 InhcB Ilc tri'R petil.q di"III('olr('~. COlnpl.C'~ Hendtls I I, !lIi I ... !l(j7 n.1I(1 llI4 L - 1()4R (1840); 12, 112 (184 I); ill 1II0re dctnil: MCllloircs dCR Savnnl.~ Et .... tngerR 9 (184(j).

h. Parallel flow past a sphere

113

This system of ~qllatiolls must l_>e supplemented with the same boundary coudit.ions as the .full Navler-St,ok.es eqllatlOn~, n.amely those expressing UIC absence of slip in the fhli(~ at the walls, 1. c. the vanlshlllg of Uw normal and tangential com ponont.s of velocit.y :

An irn portant (:h~.ract,e)'ist,ic of ercep!ng r~otion can bc obtained at once from oqll. (6.1): ,:"hen ~he dlverfenee of ~)oth sides ~8 formed ami when it. is noticed t.hat. t-he ~'per'ltj()l.IS div and \1 on the fight-hand siclo may he performod ill the rcvr-rs« orrlr-r. I hUR, wit.h cqn. (6.2) we have •

div grad ]I 0= \72 P =c 0 .

CHAPTER VI

at. walls.

Very slow motion

a. The 11iITerential equations for the cage of very slow motion

((Ui)

(Ii.H)

The press.ure field in ?rceping motion snt.isfics the potential cquat.ion and t.he pressure p(x,?/,z) IS a potcnt.ial function.

Th~ equati~ns for tw~-dimen8ion(ll crceping mot.ion become pnrt.iculn.rlv simple in form wit.h the H1trodl~ctlO~ of the stream function 'P defined by 1£ = fllp/D!! fwd ~) = .-.[lIp/Ax. As explalll?d IJI Chap. lV,. and as scen from ccIns. (n.:l). when pressure 111 dlllllllal.od lrnm t.lH1 (m~1. l.wo C(pml,IOIlf1, I,hn sl.roum Iunel.ion JIIU~t, satisfy i.l1I~ equaLiOIl

In l.hi!'l ('hll1'I,('1' WP propm.c I,n diH(,II"" somo n ppro x imut.e solut.ious or l.hc Nav icrrll,III"'tl '''I'lId,III",,\\'ld,,'' ".1'" VIIlId I" 1.1 .. , Iltlllt.lng I'H~11 when I.IIP ViS(:OllH forces arc considerably greater than the inertia forces. Since the inert.ia forces arc proportional to the square of the velocity whereas the viscous forces nrc only proportional to its first power, it is easy to appreciate that a flow for which viscous forces arc dominant, is obtained when the velocity is very small, or, speaking more gonorully, when tho Reynolds number is very small. When t.ho inerbia terms are simply omit.ted from t.he equations of motion the resulting solutions are valid approximately for R ~ 1. This fact can also be deduced from the dimensionless form of the Navier-Stokes equations, eqns. (4.2), where the inertia terms are seen to be multiplied by a factor R = e V l/ti compared with the viscous terms. In this connexion we may remark that in each particular case it is necessary to examine in detail the quantities with which this Reynolds number is to be formed. However, apart from some special cases, mot.ions at, very low Reynolds numbers, sometimes also called creeping motion8, do not occur too often in practical applioations].

It is seen from eqns. (3.34) that whcn the inert.ia terms arc neglected t.he incompresaihlo Navier-Stokoa equa.t.ions assume the form

The stream function of plane creeping mot.ion IS t.hus a bipot.ent.inl (biharmonic) function.

In ~hc rem~il)ing sections of t.his ohnpt.or wc propose to discuss three examples of e~eep~llg mot.ion : l . Parallel flow past a sphere; 2. The hydl'Odynarnic t.heory of

lubricat.ion ; 3. The Hale-Shaw flow. .

'~'he o~dest, known solution for a creeping mot.ion was given by G. G. Stokes who IrIvcsl'lgated t.hc case of parallel flow pnst a sphere [17]. We RhaH IIOW dc><cribe the result of his cnlculations without going into t.ho mrti,hemat,ieal det.a.ils or t.IlP theory. We shall base our dcscripl.inn 011 t.hnt. given hy L. Prruult.l 112]. The solut.ion of "'1I1H. (n.:I) alld (HA) for I.ho ('Il.Htl or II. "phem of' l'Il.diUH N, Lh" ("'ilL!'!' of ",hid. "'" iIH:ilies. with the origin, and .which is placed in It parallel st.ronm of uniform velocity () 00, Fig. 6.1, along the z-axis Call be represented by t.he following "qua tinns for t.Iw presslln~ and vclocit.y components:

u == U 00 [! _~~2_ (~; - I) - ! ~- (3 + fn + I]

U ..!_ Rxy (R2 _ I)

v = 00 4 ,.9 ,2

W = ti; ..!_ !!_:_~ (R2 _ I)

4 ,.3 ,.'

3 /1 UooRx P - »-: = -2' ---;:.--

L. Parallel flow past a sphere

grad P = /1 \12 II' •

(6.1) (6.2)

div II' = 0 ,

or, III ext-ended form

(6.3)

(6.4)

t In t.ho onso of n "{'here fnlling in air (" ~o IGO X 10· ft"/Reel we obtain c. g. R = V d/v = 1, when UIC diameter d = 0·04 in (= O'OO3a:1 ft.) and the velocity V = 0·048 ft/see.

(6.7)

114

VI. Very slow motion

b. Parallel flow past a sphere

Il5

where r2 = x2 + y2 + z2 has been introduced for tho sake of brevity. It. is ~asy t.o verify t.hnb these expressions sat.isfy eqns, (6.3) and (6.4) and that tho velocity vaniahes at all poinbs on the surface of t.ho sphere. The presl'lure on t.he surface becomes

(6.730)

A comparison between Stokes's equation and experiment was given ill Fig. 1.5 from which it is BMIl that. is applies only to cases when R < I. The pnt.tern of streamlines in front of and behind the sphere must be the same, as by reversing t.he direction of free flow, i. e., by changing the sign of velocity components in eqns. (6.3) and (6.4) t.hc systorn is transformed into itself. TIlC st.rca.mlinos in viscous flow past, a sphere are shown in Fig. £i.2. They wcro drawn as thcy would appear to an observer in front of whom the sphere is draggcd with a constant velocity Uno. The sket.eh contains also vclocit.y profiles at several orosa-soot.ions. It is seen t.hn t the sphere drags with it. a very wide layer of fluid which ext.ends o vor about, one diallleler on hot.h !'irleR. At, very high Reynolds numbers this boundary lnyur becomes very thin.

The maximum and minimum of preswre occurs at points PI and P2' respectively, their values being

(6.71»

The pressure distribution along a meridian of t.he sph~rc ~s w;-lIa8 along the axis

f I issno x is shown in Fig. 6.1. TIIP shearing-stress disl.ribut.ion over the sphere

o a isc ", ., . , I I . t

can also be calculated from the above formulae. J1, iR found .that t io S ica.rmg s .ress

has its largest value at point A where T = t p, U oo/ll nnd IS eq~lI1.1 .to t,.he pressure rise at PI or pr(,RSllre docronso at, 1'2' Tntcgmting t.ho ~rcssure distribut.ion and the shearing st.ress over t.he surface of the sphere we obt.ain the t.ot.al drag

D = on It n Ueo•

(6.8)

-15

'·'ig. fl. I. PreSRIlr<1 rliHt.rihllt.ion around a sphor« in purullel uniform flow

Fig. 0.2. Stren.mlines and v!'locit,y diat.ri. but.ion ill ~t.()k('s aoluf.inn [or a spltem in parallel flow

Fig. fl.:!. St.rcalllliU"R in I.ho flow puat. a sphere Iroru OR(," II '" solut.ion

x R

This if< t.he very well known Stokes equation. for t.he drag of n sphere. It can b!~ sl~o.wn t.hat. one t.hinl·of I.he (trag is duo to t.ho pressure distribution and l·hal, t.ho romnuung t.wo t.hirds are duo t.o tho cxial.enco of shear. [t, is furl.hor remn.rk:tb'e ~,hat. t.ho drag is proport.ioun] 10 tho first power of velocity. If. a drag cocfflciout IS fOfl~led by referring t.h« drag 1.0 t.he dynamic head ~ (! ,:002tand t.he frontal area, as IS dono in the cnS(' of high('r ROYl1oldH nurnbcrs. or If we put.

O"CCII'S improvemcnt . All ill1pr()V(~ITH~III, of I-il.olwH'H solut.io» WIl.H given "y C. W. Oseen [1IJ, who took the inert.in terms inUIC Navier-Sf,okes equntions part.ly into account. Jlc assumed that, t.he velocity component" call be l"eprcR()llkd aR t.ho sum of a «nnst.n.nt and a. perlurilnt.ioll Lcrm. TIl\ls

u = Uoo + 1£' ;

v = v';

tv = 10' ,

(6.1l)

(6.9)

when, 11.', I"~ and w' are t.ho perl,urhn.t,ion terms, and as RII('h, small with I'CRpecf. t.o I.he free stream velocity Uoo. H is to be noted, however, that. t.his is not. true in t.ho immediat« neighbourhood of the sphere. \Vit.h t.ho assumption (£i. I I ) Ilw inort.ia t.orms ill the Navier-Stokcs eqns. (3.:12) arc decomposed ill two grollps, e. g.

24 Cn = -R-

u.:«

R = "-'-. v

(6.10)

U O_"'

00 AX '

ov'

UooiJx" ..

and

,ou' U ax'

,ov'

1L a;' ...

116

VI. Very slow motion

c. The hydrodynnmi« Lhcory of hlhricnl.ion

117

U av' t- ap 2 '

e 00-- -=11- \.] V

ox oy

arc very large ill a transverse direction with respect. to the 1I10t.i01l so thai, t.he problem is one in twn dimensions ]. In order to obtain a steady-st.ate problem let, us assume that, t.he block is at rest, and thn.t the plane guide is forced to move with a const.ant. velocity U wit.h rcspcot t.o it. The x-axis is IISSllIIle(1 in t.ho dircot.iou or mot.ion, 1111.1 the !I-axis is at, righI, angh~R 1,0 t.ho plane of Ute guide. 'I'h« height, h.(J;) of 1.1](, wl'dgp hPl.ween t.h" hlod< n nrl til(' I!:"jdc iK IIK"'"I1(,.) t,o I", very ,,"mll "01111"""'" witlr t.I". kngth l of the hlock.

'I'ho second group is uoglocted as it, is smnll of the second ordcr compared with the first group. Thus we obtain tho following equations of motion from the Nav iorStokes equat.ions :

U au' + op 2 '

e 00 '3-; ax = 11- \.] u

(6.12)

2.0 PPo

=,

.'!_~~ + ov' + 8w' = 0 .

ax 8y oz

'I'h« hounrln.ry condit.ionR are the same as for t.ho Nav ir-r-St.okcs cquntions hut. t.he Osoon cqua.tions arc linear as was the caso with tho Stokes equnt.ions.

The pnt.t.orn of st.rca.m lincs is 110W 110 longer t.lio same in front. of and behind t.hc sphere. This can be recognized if reference is made to eqns, (fi.12), because if we dWllge t.ho sign of t.ho volocit.ics and of t.ho pressure, (.IJe eqIHlt.i(1I1S do not, transIorm into t.hcmaclvos, whereas t,he Stokes equal.ions (6.:1) did. The st.rcam lines of t.he Osccn cquaf.ions are plot.ted in Fig. 6.:J, and the observer is again assumed 10 he a,t, rest wit.h respect. to t.he flow at a large distance from the sphere; it, is imagined t.hnt, Ole sphere is dragged with a constant, velocity lloo. The flow in front, of t.ho sphr-r« is very similar to t.hat, given by Stokes, but, behind the sphere the at.reamlines am closer t,oget,hcr whieh means that t.he velocity is larger t.han in the former case. Furthermore, behind the sphere some particles follow it,s mot.ion as is, in fad" ohsr-rvnr] cxpr-rimout.ally at, largo Reynolds numbers.

The improvod expression for t.he (h-ag coofficient, now beoomes

Fig. 0.4. Luhrication in a bearing: a) Flow in wedge bot.woon slido block allli plane guide

~II r fa('('; h) Pressure dist.ribution over block. llt~~~~~!~~~~~D~::,J

all. = I·rn @l.

24 ( 3)

. 1 1- -- R .

R ., 16 '

(6.13)

This mot.ion is a more gelleral example of that. oonaidcred in Sect-iotl V I, i. c. of t.he motion between two parallel flat walls with a pressure gradient. The esscnt.in.l difference consist.s in tho fact that here the two walls arc inclined at, an angle t.o each other. For this reason the eonvect.ive acceleration ?t ou/ox is ev idont.lv different. from zero. An est.imat.ion of the viscous and inert.ia forces shows immedint.oly t.hat" in spite of that, in all cases of practical importance, the viscous forces arc predominant .. The largest v iseous term in the cquat.ion of mot.ion for t.h o .r-diroct.iou is equal to fl ()2U/oy2. LIenee we call make the following est.imntc :

~;!::il~8 f~E:e = ~ ~2~~0 = ;; g,i~ = e ,fl - (~ r

Experim"lll:d resu ll.s show, Fig. 1.1i, curve (2), t linf O,,('en's cqun t.ion is applicable lip 1.0 R == Ii npprnximatclv.

The inertia forces CUll be neglected with respect to t.hc viscous Iorcos if t.ho reduced Reynolds number

c, The hydrodynamic Iheory of lubrication

Ul (h)'

R*=~···- ~l

v I '

(6.14)

The phenomena whieh t.ako place ill oil lubricated bearings alr(m) anot.h .'1' example of (low in which viscous forces are prodorninnnt.. From the pract.ieal point of view t.hoso phcnomonn arc very import.ant. At, high velocities t.ho cloara nco het.wt'cn t.wo machine olornonte which arc ill relative mol.ion (e. g. journal ami lJ('aring) is fllled by an oil stream in which ext:remely large presRIHe differences may Iw created. As it consequence, t.ho revolving journal is lifted somewhn t by t.he oil film n.nr] mot.a.ll ic cont.n.ot. bot.ween t.he moving parts is prcvont.od. The cSf<ent.ial Iont.nros of this t.ype of mot.ion can be understood on UI!' exam pic of a. slide block or slipper moving Oil a, plan« guide surface, Fig. 6.4, it. heing importn.nt t hn t. HICY IH" illdi,H'.) at. a smnll Illlgl,', (5, l.o (,Iwh ot.lu-r. Y\'pshllll a"RIlIlW thn t. IIw slidillgRllrfllePR

Of, by way of numerical example:

U = 40 ft/see; l = 4 in = 0·~33 ft

I' 0=00 4 X 10-4 ft,2/sec; It. = 0·008 in .

This leads to a value of the Reynolds number referred t.o the length of the block of U Llv ~~ 25,000, whereas the reduced Reynolds number R* = 0·1.

t The two-dimcnsionnl theory was first formulntod by O. Reynolds. ,I l'hil. Trails. Hoy.

Soc. (IRl36), 1'1.. J, Ace also Ontwalda Klasaikcr No. 21R, p. :l!l.

llS

VI. V<1rY slow motion

c. Tho hydroclvnn.mio "heory of lubr icntion

I I!I

The diffcrcnf.ial oqunt.ions of croeping motion, eqns. (6.3), can be further simplified for I.he case under consideration. The equation for the y.direeLion call be omitted altogether bccnuso UlC component. v is very small with respect to u, Further, in the cqual.iou for t.he z-diroct.ion a2U./U3:2 call be neglected wit.h respect. to iJ2n/oy2, because t.ho former is smaller t.ha.n the latter by a factor of the order (h/l)2. 'I'ho pressure dist.ribution must sal.i~fy t.ho condition that IJ = llo at both ends of the slipper. Compared wit-h t.ho case' of flow botwcou pnrnllol sliding walls, the pressure gradienl, in t.ho d ircct.ion of mot.ion, op/ax, is no longer constant, but. the very small pressure gmdienl. in t.ho !/.direet.ioll can he npglce1.cd. With t.hoso xim pliflcnf.ions tho diffcrcnt.inl r-qunt.iona (6.:l) reduce 1,0

Thus t.he mass flow is known wI1Cn t.JIC shape of the wedge is given as t.ho funr-l.ion h (:e). Eqn. (0. HI) gives the pressure gradient, ami eqn. (6.20) give8 tho pressll],(~ diRI.rihut.ioll OV('f I hc slipper.

The qunnl.itios

"

Ii. (x) = ! d:t:/h2 alld

o

z

bz(:r) = ! ,b:/Ir", o

«(;.22)

which nppcar in P.fJll. (6.20) doponrl only 011 t.ho goomot.rical shape of 0111 gap hPl.weGIl t.hc slider and t.ho plane. 'I'hrvir rn.t.io

dp cPu

di =t- ayi '

(6.l5)

(6.23)

and t.he cquut.ion of eontinuit.y in diiTerp.ntial form can be replaced by the condition that the volume of flow in every section must be constant:

h(~)

Q = ! u ely = canst. o

(6.16)

which 1mB t.lio dimension of It lengl,h plnys nn importnnt pnrb III t.he t.heOl·y of lubr ieafion ; it.s value for the whole channel,

I I

II = G (l) = (! dx/h2)/(! dxW) ,

o 0

(6.24)

The houmln.ry cond it.ions arc:

is sometimes called the characteristic thickness, \Vit.h it.s n.irl , !.II" equnt.ion of (:011· tinuity (6.21) can be contracted to

y =0: y = h:

u= U:

P = Po

(6.17)

fJ=1UJI,

(0,25)

x = 1: p = Po'

from which its physical intorpretnt.ion is evident. The prcssure can now bo wriltcn

The solution of eqn. (6.15) which snt.isflca the boundary conditions (6.17) is similar to e>fjn. (5,/i), namely

u = U (1 -~.) - '~E'X (1 -I) (13.18)

p(x) = Po + 6/1 U hI (xl - 12/.1 Q b2(x) ,

(6.26)

and the pressure gradient. becomes

p' = G /1 V (I _ !L)

". h '

(6.27)

where 71' = dp/dx denotes (.]1('. prcss1lrn gradient., which must. he determinc!.' }n such a way fiR 1.0 sat.isfy the oont.inuit.y equnl.ion (n.16), and t.ho boundary eon(itllolls for preRs·lIrc. IIIRPrting (6.18) int.o (6.16) we IIrRt. obtnin

Q = r~~ _._ ~~~ ,

or, Rolving for ]I':

P' - 12/1 (_LT. -- 9)

- 2h2 h'

(6.19)

which shows t.hn.t t.he PfP.fl811rC haA n maximum or fI nnuunum at a placo whnro tho channel t.hicknoss is equal to it.s oluun oterist.ie vn.luo, h. = 11.

Often it is desirable to maintain a positive excess of pressure p - Po, a.nd thc preceding oqunt.ion can be used to derive tho condition for it., ARslIlJling I,h:tt p - Po = 0 at. x = 0 ami Umt, t.ho t.hioknoss II is placed at x == x/(, WP. IJIlISt. have

h(x) > II for 0 < x < XIf, implying 1/ > () h(x) < II for Xu < x < I, implying p' < o.

(6,28)

1T<'1l('p h." inlpgration

%

J dx J dx

p(:r) ,= 110 ~+- 6/1 U;;o --. 12/1 Q h'

() 0

(6,20)

These con dit.ions Ie>acl Lo n weclgn.lil«() Ahal'" which is r:mlv(.rg"nl. ill t.hr- dirr:"I.ion of flow and which admits local both positive ami lIegat.ive graoli(,t11~ dh/d.t;. Sil"'" 11 depends on tho shapo of t.ho whole channel, t.ho direction of tho pn,RRun. gradi,,"t at a section cannot, be del.crmined from dh/c1x at the sect.ion alone unlike in pot.cut.in l flow.

J nscrtinz t.ho oond it.ion ]I ~~ 1}n n.t. J: ,- , we obt.nin t.ho value

I

Q=! u J

o

(6.21)

In Ute cnsc of n wedge with flat faces for which h(:r) = (5 ((1--- :r), ","pre (~ and (5 are constnnt.s, see Fig. 6,4, we obtain finnlly

11(11-/)

Q = U!5 ---.-

211-1 '

120

VI. Very slow motion

c. The hydrodymuuic theor.v or l u ln-ir-u.t ion

121

H _ 2h.hl_ - h, +h,'

(6.30)

I r we compare this res II It. with t.ha t for creeping motion pnst. a sphere ill cqn. (0.7 h), we not.ice that in the case of tho slipper the prcsauro diO'cI'CllCC is great"r b'y a fad-or (l/h",)2. Since l/h", is of the order of liDO t.o 1000 (I = 4, 11m ~~ 0·004 to (I'()OR iII). the prevailing pressures arc seen to assume vcry large vn.luos]. The occutrenco 0(' such high pressures in slow viscous motion is It peculiar proper-ty of t.Iw t,y!,!' 0(' flow eneollllt."I·cd ill 11Ihri{,al.ioll. AI, tho sn.mo t.inu: il. is J'(,cogtliz"d thut. 1.11<, atl~~I,' ('''rIlI"d betwoon the two solid surfaces is an esscnt.in.l feature 0(' the flow.

The pressllre and velocity distrlbut.ion, and the shape of' st.rcamlincs for the casrof a plane RliplH'r arc given in Fig. 6.4. It will be nol.iccd that hack-flow OC{'.lIn: ill I.hp region of pressure rise ncar the wall at. rest, just, as was tho case wil.h t.he cha.nuol in Fig. 1i.2, when t.ho pressure inoreasod ill the diroct.ion of wall motion. tV. Froossel (5) oalculntcd the pressure distribution and thrust. supported by a slipper of finite width as well as by a spherical slipper and confirmed these cnlcula.tions by cx porimonl..

In many cases when the width of the slipper is finite, tho assumpt.iou made earlier that. the flow is olle-dimensional is insufficient, and t.he cxistonco of a componcnl. 10 in the z·diredion rnust be tnkon into nooount ; here z is perpendicular 1.0 the plane of the sketch ill Fig. 6.4. The equnt.ion preecding e<]ll. (n. H) must. now r,,, sllpplement.ed by

and for the pressure distribution

z(l-z) p(x) = Po + 6/lUhi(2a_l) ,

(6.29)

The relations become somewhat simpler if tho shape of the channel is described by tho gap widths ht and h2 at inlet and exit, respcot.ively, see Fig. 6.4. Thc churuct.erist.ic width now becomes equal to the harmonic mean

and the condition for posit.ive pressure excess, eqn. (6.28), now requires t.haf the channel should be convergent. In this notation, the pressure distribution is given.by

1 (hI - h)(h - hz)

p(x) = Po + 6 ft U 7l2-=7Iz . h" (6.31)

1 ,

and the result.ant of the pressure forces can be computed by int.egration, when we obtain

I .

p - f p dx = _~!!!_l~ _- [In k - ~~k--=--I__)_l

- (k_I)2h.2 k+l'

o

(6.32)

"

o. = J wdy =

o

h IV 11' Dp

- 12/1 . [,z '

(n.:~6)

with k = hdh2' The resultant. of the shearing stresses can be calculated in a similar

I

F = - J Il(~~) dx = --_l'!!_~-l4In k - _(l_~=-l-~l·

dy 0 (k -- I) h. k + 1 .

o

(6.33)

and the equation of continuity becomes

h h

_e J u ely -I- e .r w dy = 0

ex 0%

o 0

(6.37)

manner:

It is Interesting to note (9) that the resultant pressure force possesses a maximum for k = 2·2 approximately, when its value is

/1. U l2 P mnx R:! 0, 16 -70. •

or

(6.38)

which is known as Rr!lnold8"~ equnt.ion of lubricat.ion. He-ro II' denotes t.he component. of t.he velocity of thc boundary in the z-dircot.ion aI, It given x.

In the case of a journal and bearing thoro must bo ceeenl.rieil,y bet.ween t.hr-rn ill Imler (.0 crcal.o a wcdge of variublo height, which is osscut.inl if n thrust. iH to 1)(' created. The relevant, theory, based Oil the preecding principles, as well as all oxact. two-dimensional theory, was developed in great. detail by A. Sommerfeld [16], L. Guembel[6] and G. Vogelpohl [20, 21J. Figure 6.5 shows the pressure distribution in the narrow gap between journal and bearing; it, possesses a very pronounced maximum near to the narrowest, section of the lubrication wedge. Hence, a significant contribution to the load-bearing capacity is made by that portion ot the gap which is convergent in the direct-ion of rotation of the journal. The resultant of the pressure forces in this distribution balances the load on I.he bearing. It has also been

and whcn

The coefficient. of friction F/ P is proport.ional to hz/l and can be made very small.

The coordinates of the centre of pressure, XC, can be shown to be equal to

Xc = il h;~~\- - -(k2 ~\Tl~;: ~~~f~-i)2-1· (6.34)

For small angles of inelinat.ion between block and .blide (k R:! 1), the pressure distrihut-ion from cqn. (6.29) is nearly parabolic, the charaeterist.ic thiekness and centro of pressure being vcry nearly at X = ! l. Putting hm = h(~ I) we can find t.hat the pressure difference becomes

[2

r; = l' U(2 ;;--l} -;;-;;'2' '

(6.35)

t Numerical example: U = 10 m/sec; I' = 0·04 Itg/rn sec; 1= 0·1 m; a = 21 = 0·2 m;

hm = 0·2 mm. Helice I' U((2 a-l) = 1·3:1 Njm2; pm = 1·33 X 5002 = 0·3:1 MPIt (= :1';'1 bnr},

122

VI. Very slow motion

d. The Hole-Shnw flow

123

extended to include the case of bearings with finite width [I, 9], when it. was found that Hie decrease in thrust supported by 811Ch a bearing is very considerable due to the sidewise decrease in the pressure. Most, theoretical calculations have been canducted under t.he assumption of constanb viscosity. In reality heat, is evolved t.hrongh friction and the temperature of t.he lubricating oil is increased. Since the viscosity of oil decreases rapid Iy with increasing temperature (Table 1.2), the thrust also decrcaacs great.ly. In morc reocnt. t.imcs I". Nahrne [IOJ extender! t.ho hydrodynamic theory of lubrication to include t.he effect of the variation of viscosity with temperature (ct. Chap. XII).

Here R, and Uf denote, respectively, the rndius and the peripheral velocity of the concentric journal (e = 0) and d is the width of the gap.

After the onset of instability, the fl~w in the gap develops regularly spaced, eellulnr vortices which alternately rotate in opposite directions. The axes of these vortices coincide with the circumferential d.ireetion, as shown schemat.ically in leigA. 17.32 nnd in the photograph of Fig. 17.33 '. ~n It certam range of Taylor numbers, the flow in the Taylor vort.ices remains laminar. 1ran~lt~on t.o tu~~ule~t, flow occurs .at values of tho Taylor number which considornhly excecd the 11Il1I!, of stability. Tho three regtmes of flow (us will he repented in Sec. XVII f alld in I<'ig. 17.34) are characterized as follows:

Fig. fiJi. I'WRRIII'C dist.ribut.ion on t.ho I'IlIrf".·" of n. journal which rot.at.eR ,wccnt.ricltlly in a hearillg (schemuti«)

f .."" (H~(·culrldt_~· or journal In hf'Arill~

T < 41·3 41·3 < T < 400 T > 400

laminar Couot.to flow;

lnrninnr flow wit.h cellular Taylor vort.icos ; t.urbu lcnt flow.

'Vhcn t.he flO\~ b~comes unstable, .the torque acting on t.he rotating cylinder illcreaReA Rt.ecply, because the kinetic energy stored III thE' secondary flow 1111181. be componsatod by work.

~he 8am~ flOI~ phenomel~lt, generally speaking, occur when the bearing is loaded and tho gap width var-ies eircumferentinlly, but t.he details of t.he flow become more complex. Af.tempts h~v~ boon made to caloulnto the turbulent. flow in a gap of It beuring with th" aid of Pnuult.l's rruxmg length [Chap. XIX. eqn. (19.7)J. The set of t.hese problems has al,t.rltct.ed (t wide circle of inv('stigators. such as D. F. Wilcock [19). V. N. Constan tineaou [2. :1, 4). E. A. Saihcl and N. A. Macken r 14. In] have writ.ton two gencmlnccollnt"l that contn.in numerous litornt.ure references;

d. The Hele-Shnw Row

Wit.h large velocities and high tr-mpornt.urcs (low visoosit.y). t.ho reduced Reynolds nurnhor R'" from oqn. (1i.14) onu assurno VA 1111'S near or ex eood ing unity. This menns t.Imt inort.in forces become oompa rnblo wil.h viscous forces 1111(1 t.he vn.lid il.y of t.he theory may be questioned. [L is possible Lo improve t.ho theory, and to oxtcud it t.o hig]lCr Reynolds numbers, by a step-by-stop procoduro. The lIegl(,e(,ed inertia terms (,an be oalcn latcd from t.ho first, approximation and int.roduccd as o xtornnl forces so that a second upproximnl.ion is obtnined. Thi» procedure corresponds t,o 01'1('1'11'1'1 improved solution for t.ho rlow past, a sphere. Such caloulnt.ions have been performed by "V. Kahler!' 181, who found t1IlLL t.ho inort.ia corroct.ions in I.ho case of a plane slipper or circular hearillg do not exceed I ° per cent. of t.he solut.ion undr-r considcrnt.ion for values or lip to R* = Ii, npproximutoly. A comparison bot.wocn theorot.ical and experimental rcsu lta is oont.ninod ill It book hy Cl. Vogelpohl [22J, and in

an earlier paper [21]. .

Another remurka.hlo solution of t.ho t.hree-dimellsional oqunt.ions of orooping mot.ion, eqns. (0.3) and (6.4). can be obtninod for the ease of How hot.ween I.wo parallel f1:ot. ~al~s separated by a small dist,ancc 2h. If a cylindrical body of arbitrary erose-section IS inserted between the two plates at J'ighl, angles so t.hat, it complctely fills the space between them, the resulting pattern of sl.ronmliues is identical wit.h that, in potential Row about the snme shltpo, H. S. Hcle-Shnw [7} IIsed t.ld" method 1,0 obtain experimental p:tHorns of streamlines in potential (I(;w about. :trbitmry bodies. It is easy to provo that the solution for creeping motion from C<JIIS. «(i.~) and (6.4) possesHcs the same st.ronrnlinoa ns tho corresponding pntent.ial flow.

"Ve select a system of coordinates wit.h its origin in l.ho centro between t.ho t.wo plates, nnd make the x, y-plane parallel (,0 the plutos, t.ho z-n xis being porpcndioulnr t.o thorn. The body is assumod to he placed ill a stream of vclocit.v U c-: parallel to the x-axis. At a large dist.anco from tho hody the vclocil.y distribllt.iOlI is purubolio, ILS ill t.ho rnot.iolJin a rcd.a.nglliar channel which wus considered in fled ion V.I. I Ir-nce

T .. rb .. Ienee. The mmlcrn t.endcncy t.o incrcnso Ih" loads and hence a lso U,,' pr-ripherul vc-lorit.ics of I"'arilll(s hilS 1,,<1 1,0 a sit.uut.ion ill wh ich t.ho inert.in forces thnl. nowadays occur in Ih" IlIhricnLing film begin to play n n import.ant pnrt ill t.ho 1'1'0"('88. Under ccrt a in condit ions, this e:tllseR Ihe lnminn r COllCt.t.C flow t.o bncomc unstuhl«, {'nrllcndA t.o turbulence.

As cnrl v OR 1\12:l. G. L Tuylor [181 investigntcd t.ho case of II beoring in which t.ho journnl rol'lIl.eR conccllt,rienlly in the hushing so t.hnt. I he luhricn ting gnp is one of constant thiok noss. The inRt.ahility III1r1 the trnnsit.ion to t.urhulcuco i" govcl'llcd hy the dimr-nsionlose Taylor number

T- (T,d V I~'

x =00: 1l = V= (I_Z2) V = 0, w=O,
Ii' ,
A solut.ion of eqllfl. (Ii.!'!) and ((H) call I.e writ.t.eu a,:-;:
U = 11'0 (x, y) (I - k:) v = !Jo(x, y) (I -- z· )
, Ii' ; w 0 (G.3!l)

(fUll)

where u.o(x,y), vo(x,y) and Pu(x,y) denote t.he velocity ILIU! preSSllre dist.ribut.ion

124

VI. Very slow motion

References

121)

of the t.wo.dimcnsional potent.ial flow past. UJe given body. Thus 1/,0' "e and Po satisfy the equat.ions

0110 Ot'o

11,0 ox + 110 oy

I opo

--ea;-

1 opo

- Ii-ait

(6,40a, h, c)

to largcr ~eynolds numbers by ~uccessive approximation, as mentioned previously. However, In all cases the caloulat.ions become so complicated that it is not pracLicable to carry out more than one step in the approximation. For this reason it is not possiblo to reach tho region of moderato Reynolds numbers from this direct.inn. To all intents and purposes the region of moderato Reynolds nurnbora in which th" inort.i» n nr] Vi14eOIiH Ioreoa urn of com pnrn.hlo lIln.gllii,udo t.hroughon]. t.ho li"I" of flow has not been extensively investigated by analytio means.

_ft is, therefore, the more useful to have the possibility of integrating the ~avlCr-Stokes equation for the other limiting case of very large Reynolds numbers. , I. hus we arc led to the boundary-layer theory which will form the subject of the following chapters.

O~IQ + ~vo = 0 _

ox iJy

First, we not.icc at, once from the solut.ion (6.30) that the equat-ion of eont.inuiby and t.he equation or motion ill the zdirection are snt.isfied. The fact. t.hat the equations of mot.ion in the z- and y-directionR are also satisfied follows from the potent.ial character of 110 and 1)(1' The functions 11.0 and 110 satisfy the condition of irrotationality

8uo/8y - 8voW'" = 0 ,

so that the potential equations \]2 no = 0 and \]2 "o = 0, where \]2 = 82/oX2 + iJ2/Ay2, are aat.isfied.

The first t.wo equations (6.3) reduce (.0 Ap/Ax = l~ (j2n/oz2 and 8p/oy = 1102v/8z2; t.hey nrc, however, snt.isficd, I1R seen from eqns. (6.30). Thus oqns. (6.30) represent a solut.ion of t.ho equations for creeping mot.ion. On thc other hand the flow represented hy eqns. (6.3\)) has the same streamlines as potential flow about the body, and the st:reamlines for all parallel layers z = oonst are congruent. The condit.ion of no slip at, the plates z = ± h. is seen to be snt.isfied by eqn. (6.31)), but the condition of no slip at the surface of the body is not sat.isfied.

The rnt.io of inertia to viscous forces in Hcle-Shaw mot.ion, just as in the case of Ow motion of luhrieating oil, is given h'y t.he reduced Reynolds number

Fig. n.o. IIclo-Shaw flow 1'''"1. circular cylinder Ilt R* = ~, nftor Hiegel" [I:IJ

References

U L (h)'

R* = -- ':' - L ~ I ,

[I] Bauer, K.: Einfluss der endlichen Breite des Gleitlagers auf Trngfiihigkeit und Heibung.

Forschg, lng.-Wes. 14, 48-G2 (1943).

[2] Constantinescu, V. N.: Analysis of benrings operating in turbulent regime. Trnns .• \81\1 E, Series D, J. Basic gng. 84, 139-151 (I!JH2).

[3J Constantinescu, V.N.: On the influence of inertia forces in turbulent and laminar selfacting films. Trans. ASME, Series F, J. Lubrication Technology [/2, 47:1--481 (1970).

(4J Constantinescu, V. N.: On gaR lubrication in turbulent regime. Trans. ASME, Series D, J. Basic Eng. 86, 475-482 (1964).

[Ii] Frossel, W_: Reibungswiderstnnd und Trngkmft cines Gleitschuhcs endlichcr Brr-ite. FOI'AChg.

Ing.-Wes_ 13, 65--75 (1942)_

[6) GUmbel, L., and J~vcrlillg, E.: Reibung und Schmierung im Muechinenbau, Berlin, 1925. [7) Hole-Shaw, H.S.: Investigation of the nature of surface resistance of wntor and of stream motion under certain experimental conditions. Trana. lnst, Nav. Arch. Xl, 21i (IHHH); Reo nlso Nature 5!1, :H (J89H) nnd Proe. Hoy. InRI. 16, 4!) (I8!)!))_

[8J Kahlert, W., Ocr Einfluss der 'I'ragheitskrafte bei der hydrodyuamlechen Schmierm itteltheorie. DiRS. Braunschweig 1947; Ing.-Areh. 16, :121-342 (1948).

[9) Michell, A. a.M-: Z. Math. 11. Phys. 52, S. 123 (llJ05); see also Ostwald's Klnsaiker No. 218. (10] Nahme, F.: Beitrage zur hydrodynamischen Theorie der Lagorreibung. Ing.-Arch. 11, 1!1l-- 209 (l\)40).

[II) Oseen, C_ W.: Uber die Stokos'sche Formel und iiber cine verwandte Aufgabe in del' Hydrodynamik. Ark. C_ Math. Astron. och Fys. 6, No, 29 (IOlO)_

(12) Prnndtl, 1,_: The mechanics of viscous fluids. 1 n W. F. Durand: Aerodynnmio Theory Ill, 34-208 (1935)_

[13) R.iegels, F.: Zur Kritik des Helc-Shaw.Vorsuchos. Disa. Gottingen l!J38; ZAMM 18, 9:'-106 ( l!I38).

[14) Saibel, E.A., and Macken, N.A.: The fluid mechanics of lubricntion. Annual Review of Fluid Mech. (M_ Van Dyke, ed.) .5, 185-212 (1973).

[15) Saibel, E_A., and Macken, N. A.: Non-laminar behavior in hearings. Criticu! review of the literature. TrailS. AHME, Sorioa F, ,1. Lubrication Technology !lG, 174---181 (1!174).

where L denot.es a eharad.erisHe linear dimension of tho body in t.he :1:, ?I-plalH'. If R* exceeds unity t.hc inertia terms become considerable and t.he motion devja(.e~ from the simple solut.ion (6.31))_

The solution given by eqn. (6.~9) can be improved in t.ho same manner as Stokes's solution [or a sphoro or t.he solut.ion for very slow flow. The j nert.ia t.e:ms arc calelllnt.erl from t.hc first npproximnt.ion and int.roduced into the eqllatlO~s as ext.ermd forces, and all improved solution results. This was carried out by F. Riegels [l3J for the ease of Hele-Shaw flow past, a circular cylinder.

For R* > 1 the st.ren.mlines in the various layers pnrallol to the walls cease 10 he congruent .. The slow purl.iclos ncar 01:- tro plates arc deflect.cd more by Ule presence of t.ho body than t.hc faster parficlcs near the cen~.re_ This causes tho st.ronmlincs to appear ROII1Cwhat. blurred and the phenomenon IR 1II0re pronounced at, t.ho rear of t.ho body thnn in front of it" F.ig.6.6.

Solutions in tho case of creeping motion are inherently restricted to very small Reynolds numbers. ] n principle it is possible to extend the fielrl of application

126

VI. Very slow motion

. Hlrni."hen Theorio der SchmicrmiUclrcibulI~. Z ., Math .. u.

[HI] 80111I1]('.rfel". ,\ .. Zur hydrodYI . {I '1 N 21R P lOR and: ZurThcorlcdCl SChllllcr-

Phyaik MI, 117 (I \)04); also ()8twal(~ g~8I\R~:t:;r . ~'18o Ostwalch Klassiker No. 218. p. 181. mittdrcibung. Z. Tochn. Phy~. 2 •. ) I r ·.t· ). f IInids Oil the motion of pendulums. Trans.

[17.1 Stokes (l n.: On the elfect, of int.erna 11(. .ron 0 1·1 J' Til rzr;

• "1'1 R 9 I' ·t I [ 8~ 10(1 (181\1) or Co . apers , .).1. • 1'1'1

Cnmbr . I'll . , nco ., ,\I, '. I" It' I between two rotatlng "yhndel's. 11.

[18] Taylor. <1.1.: Stability of It VISCOUS iquir con muor " .

Tr~ns. A 223, 28\1-2\13 (I!J2~). . . I in S. Trnns. ASME '72. 82!i (1!IiiO).

[J!I] Wilcock, D.F.: l:ll~~)\"cnc(' JlI hlgl~-sre!'t,t~;n~rl':~~:lII~. VD[_Forschungsheft 386 (l!J37). [20] Vogelpohl, G.: l~eltr:.ge zl~r KCI~nt.nts (!'r I" ClC~~tl'. .rrcibllng lind uutore ItcihulIgsgrellzc. [21] Vogelpohl, G.: Ahnhchkcltshczlehungcn f (,I' • CI .• gc '

Z. V])1 st, 37() (I04!!). . I ('I 'tl . BCI'('chnungsver[",hrNl fiir Konstrllkt.ion und

[22) Vogelpohl, 0.: BetrrebsRlc iere • el . ngel.. .

Hetrieh. Vol. T, Springer- Verlag. 2nd. cd., Ber lin, 1067.

Part B. Laminar boundary layers

CHAPTER VII

Boundary-layer equations for two-dimensional incornpr essihle flow; boundary layer 011 a plate

a, J)crhnlion or houudury-Iuyer "'I"lItioIlR For lwo-,Ii",e""inrrnl now

\V" now p",,,,c!'d to examine t.ho second lim it.ing CIlS!', namely !.I,al, of vNy small viscosil.y 01' very large Roynolds number. An importn.nt cont.r ibut.ion to t.ho soicnco of fluid mot.ion was made by L. Praudt.l [21] in 1904 when he elariflml t,hn e:-;H,~nt.i,d influence of viacosit.y in flow» a.t high lkYl10lds llI11nb(~I'R and showed how t.ho Nn vicrSt.okcs equalions couhl be simplified 1.0 yield a ppro ximnt.c solut.ions for I It is on.so. We shall explain those simplifioations wil.h t.he aid of an argument. which presprvcs the physical pict.uro of I,he phenomenon, and it, will be recalled t,hat ill thc hulk of t.he fluid inort.in forces prcdominuto Ow influ(,l1"e or Vi"<'OIlR for!'!'!' being v n nishil1gly small.

v __ ·

Fig. 7.1. BOlln,lnry-laYI'r llnw along a wn.ll

For t.ho sa.ko of simplicil.y we shall (~om,id<,r t,\\'o-dilll('llRioll:l I flow "I' a llu id with vr'ry smn.ll vif1cosily ubou! It (',Ylilldri('al bndy of slellder erosx-aocf.iou , Fig. 7.1. With the exception of t.ho immodint.o llPigltbourhood of t,he surfuoo, (.)1" velo('if.ir~H arc of tho order of the frce-st.rcnm volocit.y, V, and t.ho pat.tern of st.rr-am lincs alld t.ho velocity diRt.ribut.ioll deviate only Rlight.ly from those ill Iriet.ionlr-ss (potont.in.l) flow. However, del,nilcd illvI'Rt,iga.t.iolls rC"PRl I,!\ltt, unlike ill pot.ellt,inl flow, t·h(~ fluid docs not. slide over (,IJ('. wall, hut, ndhoros t·f) it. The t.rnusit.ion from zero vr-lor-it.y ai, 1-11(' wall to l.ho full IlIllgllit,lIcle nt. some diHt,IlIH'P 1'1'0111 it, t.nlwfI plucc ill It VPI',I' t.lun

128 VII. Houndnry-lnyer equations for two-dimenaional flow; boundary layer on n plate

a. Derivat.ion of bOlll1dnry-I"YIlr equations for 1I0w "long n flat plate

129

laycr, t.ho ao-ca.llod boundary layer. In this manner there are two regions to consider, even if the division between them is not very sharp:

d ircol.ion x:

(7.2)

J. A very thin layer ill the immediate neighbourhood of the body in whieh t.ho velocit.v gradient. normal to t.he wall, (Ju/cy, is very large (b(l1lnda.r!1 layer). In I.his rq.(ioll the very small viscosil.y /1 of l.ho fluid oxort.s all csscrif.in.l influcnr-« in so fa.r !lR the ~hearing RI,ress T ,-~ Il(()U./iJy) may IIHSIIIII() largo valuos.

2. III t.ho romn.ining region no such large velocity gra.<iientH occur and t.ho influence of viR(~o~it..Y if! unim port.a.nt. In t.his n~gion t.ho flow is Irict.ionlesa and potential.

02 I

din'!'l.ioll Y:

DJ> I_

vy R

(D'V

OX·

~.
I ~~v,) (7,:1)
I
" o 1

The houru in ry condit-ions nro : ah~.;pllce of slip I)(>[.we('n (,h(~ fluid and (.h{, wall,

i. e. It ec" 11 = 0 lor !J ,~O, and u= (j for !I "~:. 00 .

. 'Vit.h I,he assllllll~[,iollf; made pn:viouRly HI(' dimensionless boundn ry -Inyor !.Il1cl(f~ess, (5/L, for which we shnll retain Ow symbol ,~, is very smnll with resped

(.0 lII11l,y, ((5 ~ I). .

'Ve shnll flOW ost.imnt.o t.ho order of flmgnitlld" of ca.eh term in order I.o I", alii" (.~~ dro!) RlIlal.1 terms and I.h us to achieve [,he desired Silllplifieat.iOIl of t.ho eqllal,ioll". ~,,~ce ~)1(/j)x IS of the order I, we see from Ute oqun.t.ion of ('ollt.inuil.y (.ha(. equalh' (.v/ii!! IR. of (:he order .I, and hence, since at the wall v ,= 0, t.hat. in t.ho hounda.r\' I:?n~' ~ !>l of t.h o orclor ,t Thus o1J/o:r and f)2V/oX2 are alRo of t.ho order ,5. I"urt.llf:r () u/();r IS n.f U~e .onler I. (The orders of magnitude arc shown in cqns. (7.1) t.o (7.:1) under the individunl t.crrns.]

\Ve shall, fllrthe~, assume that the non-steady acceleration au/at is of tho same order as the c~nvectJve term 11. 011./o:r which means t.ha t very sudden accelerations, IIl1eh, as occur III very lar~c pressure waves, are excluded. In accordance with 01'" prevlOu.s arg.",nent. some of tile. viscous terms must be of tho same order or magnitude as. t.ho inert.in terms, n t least JIl t.he immediate neigh bourhood of the wall, and ill spite. of tho smallness of the factor l/R. Hence some of t.ho second dcrivntive~ of' vclocil.y '.llllst become very Ia.rge near the wall. In accordnnoo with what was said h~fore t.his can onl.~ apply to (}2u./oy2 and ()2v/oy2. Since t.ho component or volocit.v parullol 1,0 the wull mcronsos from zero at. t.ho wall (.0 t.ho value I in t.he- rn~esl.realll a('ross 0", layer or l.hicknes« o, we have

In general it is poasible to st.atc t.ha.t, the thickness of the boundary layer incrcnscs wil.h viscosiby, or, more generally, that, it decreases as the Reynolds number increases. It. was seen from several exact solutions of t.he Navier-Stokea oquntions presented in Clm.p. V that, t.ho boundary-layer thickness is proportional to the square 1'001, of k incmul.ic wieeosit.y :

\\'Ilen makillg t.he simplificnt.ions (.0 he int.roduced into the Navier-Stokcs cquat.ions it, is assumed t.hat. t.his thickness is very small eom pnrod with a st.ill unspecified linear d imension , L, of the body:

In t.his way t.he solutions obtained from t.he boundary-layer equations arc asympt.ot.io and ;tppl.v t.o very large Reynolds numbers.

We shall now proceed to discuss the simplification of the Navier-Stokes equat,ions, and in order to achieve it, we shall make an estimate of the order of lIlagnit.lHle of each term. In the t.wodimensiona.l problem shown in Fig. 7_1 we shn.ll hegin hy assuming the wall to be flat and coinciding with the z-diroct.ion, t.he ?I-axiR being pcrpcndieular to it r , We now rewrite the Navicr-Stokcs equations in dimonsinnlcss form by rdnning all vclooit.ios to UlC Freo-at.ream v clocit.y, V, and by rcrelTing all linear d imonaions \.0 a chuructcriat.ic length, L, of t.ho body, which is so select.ed as t.o ensure that the dimensionless dcrivat.ive, ou/()x, does not exceed unit.y in th« rcginll under considcrat.ion. The preRsure is made dimensionless with (! J12, ami t.ime i" referred to [,I V. Further. the expression

R=VLe VL

I' v

OU I By""" "

and

douotos t.ho Reynold» number which is assumed very large. Under these aSSUI~lPt.ions. and rol.aining t.he same symbols for the dimensionless quantihios as for their dimensiona.l eOllnl.erpartR, we have from Ole Nnvior-Stokcs oqunt.ions for plano flow. eqns. (:~.~2) or (4.4):

whereas ('iv/O!! ~ (5/0 ~ 1 and (j2V/iJy2 "" I/b. If these values arc inserted iul.o eqns. (7.2) and (7.3), II. follows from t,he first equation of motion that l.ho viscous forces in t.he b?,,,,dary layer can become of t.ho flame order of magnitude as t.he inert.in fnrees only II t.he Reynolds number is of UlC Of(ierl/()2:

! _ '2 R ._ U •

(7.4)

eont inuit.v :

~+~~=o,

i)x oy

1 I

(7.1)

The first, e'lIJat.i,~n, that. of continuity, remains unaltered for very large Roy",~ldfi Ilumbers.!he seeo~lll cquatJOI~ can 1l0'~ be simplified by nogloct.ing i)21l/o:r2 with resp;-et t.o 0 ll/oy~, From the th ird equation we may infer that fJIJ/i1y is of t.he onl.er 15. 1h.e pressllr~ mcreaso across t.he boundary layer which would he obtained hy mt.cgmtmg t.he third equation, is of t.he order ,52. i. P. very smnll. Thu» (.he )11'('''''"1'('

130 VII. Boundnry-layor cquntions for two-dimcnsional flow; houndnry layer on a plate

h. The separation of It boundary lnyor

131

in a direction normal to t.he boundary layer is pract.ioally constant.: it may he assumed equal to that at the outer t'dge of the boundary layer where its value is determined by tho Fricfionlesa flow. The pressure is said to be "impressed" on the boundary layer by the outer flow. It may, therefore, be regarded as It known function as far Its boundary-layer flow is concerned, and it depends only on the coordinate :1:, and on time t.

At the outer edge of the boundary layer the parallel component 11. becomes equnl to that, in the outer flow, U (x,t), Since there is no large velocity gradient here, the viscous Ir-rrn s in e'ln. (7.2) vanish for large vn.luos of R, and consequent.ly, for the outer flow we obtain

I n the case of .qteaily {low the above system of equations simplifies to

~tt +- o~ ax oy

au Bu

u-+-1J-

ox By

(7.10)

(7.11 )

wit.h the boundary condit.ions

!I ,= 0: 11.,.-,- 0, 1) -_. () ;

lJ (:r) .

(7.12J

au au I ~

a,- +- U ax = - eo:z; ,

where again the symbols denote dimensional quantities.

In the case of st.endy flow t.he equation is simplified still further III that the pressure depends only on x. We shall emphasize this circumatnnco by writ.ing the derivative as dpfdx, so that

(7.5)

It. is necesRary !,n rre~eribe, in addit.ioll, n velocity profile at. the inil.inl sootio n , ::' = :ro' say, by InciJ_cat.mg t.he function u.(xo.y). The problem is thus SPCII t.o 1'(',iI)('(' itself t,? the en:leulat.lon of the further change of a given volocit.v profile wit.h a givf'1I potential motion.

. . Tho mathemat!c~1 simplification achieved on the preceding pn.w~s is cOIlRicierahlc:

It, IS t.ruo t.hat., as dist.inct, from the ease of creeping mot.ion, tho non-linon.r ohn rn.etr-r (~f .t.he Nnvier-St.oI<cs equatiOl~ has ~cell preserved, hut. of t.ho t.hrco origina] "qllat.ioIlR for 11, 1), and ]I of the Lwo-dimcnsionnl 1I01V problem, ono, the cquut.ion or mnl.ion normal to the wall, has been dropped completely. Thus the number of unknowns has been rcd ucod hy one. There remains a system of t.IVO RilTllIJt.n.ncouR ("pmt.ions lor !,lie (.WO unknowns u. and v. The pressure ceased t.o h,· 1111 1I11kllOWll ('1I11e1 ion a~]d ca,n now be evaluated from the pot.cnt.ial flow solution for t.ho body wit.h the aid of ~he Bernoulli cquat.ion. Furt.hcr, one viscous t-erm in t.hc rel1l,tining cquation 01 motion has also been dropped.

Finally, wr- shall note t.hn.t. the ost.imnt.ion or t.ho hOllnd'lI'y-layf'1' thickll,'"'' III "'III. (7.4) showed t.hn t

U dU = _l__ (I~ .

rlz f! dz

This may also be wril.ton m the usual form of Bernoulli's equation 1) -I-- ~. f! (12 = consf .

(7.5a)

(7.6)

The boundnry eondit.ions for t.Iw cxt.crnnl flow are nearly the same as for Irict.ionlcss flow. The houudnry-Inynr t.hickncss is very small nlHl tho transverse velocity component. v is very small at. thc edge of the boundary layer (vi V "-' N L). Th I1S potont.ial non-viscous flow about. UIC body under consideration in which the perpendicular velocity component is vanishingly small ncar t.he wall offers a very good approximat.ion 1.0 t.ho act.unl external flow. The pressure gradient in t.he x-direct.ion in the boundary layer can he obtained by simply applying tho Bernoulli cquat.ion (7.fia) 10 the st.ronmline at t.lio wall ill t.ho known pot.cnt.iul flow.

SUlllllling up, we nre now ill a posit.ion to write clown t.ho siml'lifi,'d NnvicrStolws equations, known :tH Priuulll'» fmunr/rU'!I-/"Hfl' equation«. 'Ve ret.urn ng:tin t.o dimcnsional quuut.it.ies, and obtain:

(7.13)

Bu. Bv (7.7)
e-; +-=0,
01/
.~" ?" ,""" I ,~p i"'11
I~ II , r ~ ax -f- " ---, (i.S)
ill i5x -r ;jy e iJy'
with I.he houm la rv ('ondit.ioIlR
?I ,= () '1/ P r- () !I -- 0<" 11 /l (~:.I) . (7.0) The ':Id t!lnt (~,__, ~/~, inferred from l.ho {1xnct solllt..i(>I1'" of t.h!' Nn v ir-r-St.ol«-« {1'\llatIOJlS, IS t.horehy confirmed. The numerienl coofflcicnt., "t.illlllis"ing ill NIII. (7.1:1). w~1I t.uru ouf to be cqunl (,0 fi Ior the case of 11 flat, plate at, zero iIlCid('I]('('. \\,1]('11 I, will mean t.ho d istnnce from its leading edge.

. The I?reeeding c1erivations were relat.ed to a flat. pl"t .. , hilt. t.h"l'e i" I]() difli<:lIlty III pxt,l1lldlll.g t.hcm 1.0 t.ho case of a curved wall L20]. \VI1('11 this ii-l dOli,'. it, j" 1'01111;1 t.hnt equat.lons (7.10) to (7.)2) oont.inue to be applicable 011 condit.iou t.IJ:lt. tho curvnt.urn (Ioes not. change nbrupt.ly ns would he t.ho cn.sr- wit.h sharp cdW's.

'I'lw present. argument, assumed at, the OULRef. t.Imt. t.Iw Vi"'COHit.\' nlr,·(·t.H th" flow rsscnt.inlly only in It very thin Ia.yer. It. should be T'!'conkcl. l;o\VevC'l'. t.h" L ;~t.telllpt.s hav.c bce.11 made to derive I,IIC bOllndnry-l:tycr cquat.ions from the NaviPI'Stokes cqun.t.ions III a purely mnbhcm n.t.ir-n] way, t.hat. is without. tilp adoption of

physically plnusihlo concepts [24J. .

The potnnt.in.l Ilow 7'(.r.l) is to 1)(' (,()Ilsidprerl IUIO\\'II: it, d,'I·Pl'Illinps Ow pn'sslIfO .tiRtrihut ion with the n iel of' ("PI. (7.!i). III addit ion , a HlIitahlP hOllllclary-laypr flow I1Il1st h" I'rpsC'rill!'c1 o vr-r t.l1I' whol,·.1",.'1 J'<'gion unrlcr "ollf'id('ratioll 1'01' UJ(' instunt. r,·- O.

h, The separation of a IJolllulnry Inyl'f

. It. is. ak('~dy p~ssiblc ~o dr~w SO~1C important. comlusions from thr- I']'('<,ecling dr-liberal.inns, J. e. wit.hnut. first, (hSCUsslllg Ole qur-st.ion or tlu' nu-t hods or illlpgl'fltioll.

I :l2 \i r I. Boundary-layer eqWttioliR for til o-rlimensinnal flow; boundary layer on a plate

c. A remark on t.he integrat.ion or the boundary-layer equat.ions

133

The first, im port.nn t. 'j1H'st,ion to answer is 1.0 dderllline t.ho oirou msbn nr-os l1I~der which some or the rnt.arrlr-d fluid in t.hc hounrlnry layer can he t.rnnsportrvl into the main st.n-n III OJ', ill ot.hor words, to fin'.l whell~p_a:?:~Ii!J!!_oLl,heJ.low_fX!lm_the wul] Illay O('CII1'. \Vhen a region wil.h an :;dverso pressure gradient. c~ist" along ~he ;1'1111, the rot.nrrlod fluid part.iclcs cannot" ill gcneral, pcnctra.tc too fn.r into U)(~ rcgron of incronsod premillre owing l.o t.hcir small killet,i~ elle~g_y. Thus t.hc h~)lIndn"y In.y~'r is ddled,cd sid(,ways [rom t.he wn ll, separates from It, and moves into t.he mnm xl.rr-um , Fig. 7.'2. III gr:Jlf'ml the fluid part.iclca behind t.ho point, of aeparnt.ion follow the: pressure grncli{,lIt, and move in a c1in'cLioll oppm-lit,,, t.o Lh(, o x t.ornul stream.

equations. From eqn. (7.11) wit.h the boundary condit.ions u. = 11 = 0 we have at ?J=O

(7.Hi)

and, lurt.hor, after dilfuron t.iation with rospcct t.o y:

(CPu)

-. =0.

8" )1-0

(7.16)

a)

In the immediate neighbourhood of the wall the curvature of t.he velocit.y profile depends only on the pressure gradient, and t.he curvature of the velocity profile at the wall changes its sign with tho pressure gradient, For flow with decreasing pressure (accelerated flow, dp/di < 0) wo have from oqn_ (7_15) that (82u/ay2)wall < () and, therefore, aZu/8y2 < 0 over the whole width of the boundary layer, Fig. 7,:1. In the region of pressure increase (decelerated flow, dp/dx > 0) we find (o2u/8y2) > O. Since, however, in any ease a2u,/oy2 < 0 at a large distance from Ute wall, Lhr-ro must exist a point for which 82u/oyZ = O. Th is is a point, of inflexion]' of t.he velocity profile in l.ho bouudn rv layer, Fig. 7.4.

• x

Fig. 7.2. Separation of tho boundary layer. n,) Flow pnst It hody with sepnra.tion (S = point or sopnrat.ion}. b) Shape or sf.romnlinoa near point of separntion. e) Velocit.y distribution ncar t.ho point of separation (Pl =, point of inflexion]

y

y

y

~ .... f~."l .,"

CLu t - ay __ 1_ "yl

(~u) >0.

ily 0 J

(~) = 0 i (_iJu l < 0

iJy 0 ! i'rI.

c)

Th« poiu! of H('parat iou i,; ,kfined as t,he limit het.weon forwanl and reverse lIow in UH' lnyor ill t,lw immodiul.o neighbourhood of t.he wall, 01'

I point, of scpurn.t.ion : (8~u) _ = 0 _ ) (7.14) t

I Y ~-o

III order t.o answer Lho question of whether and where separat.ioll_~_e<:!I!,;,_it is nccessnrv , in genenU; firsf to Integrate the boundary-layer equations. Gcnemlly spcal<ing, til(' boundary-layer cquutions are only valid as far as tho point of separation. !I. short, dist.a.ncc downstream from tho point. of separation the boundary-layer beCOIll!''; so thick !.Imt, t,he ns-nunpt.ions which were 11111c1e in t,Il(' r leri vut.ion of tJw horuu lary-Io,yer equations no longer apply. In t,he c~se of bodies wit.h blunt sl,erns.~,h.n sepuru.ted houndary layer displnoos tho potont.inl flow from the body by an appreelahlo distance and t,I1O prcRsnre dist.ribut.ion impressed 011 the boundary layer IIlllll~ be dPl.crmined hy experiment" bccauso the oxtcrna.l flow depends 011 the phenomena eonnoot.ed with sepurat.ion.

The fad. f.hat. sepnrat.ion in steady flow occurs 0rly in decelerated flow (dp/elY > 0) Call he ('asily inferred from a. considernt.ion of the relat.ion between the pressure gnuli('lIt, d7)/;l:r find t.ho velocity distribution 7/, (y) wit.h t.ho aid of the boundary-layer

}'ig. 7.3. Velocity disf.ribut.ion in I). boundary layer with pressure deorease

Fig. 7.4. Velocity distribution ill a boundary layer with preRsure increase; PI = point, of inflexion

It follows t.hat. in the region of retarded potcnt.ia.l flow t.ho velocity profile ill the boundary layer always displays it point of inflexion. Since the vclocif.y profile at, t.ho point, of separn tion and with a zero t,lmgent; must have IL point. or inllr-x iou , it, Iollows t.hat. RCl'arat,ioll c-n.n Ollly oocu r when t.ho pot.ent,inl lIow i,.. n,t,arcl",1,

e. A remark on the integration of the boundary-layer equntions

In order to integrate t.ho boundary-layer equutions, whet.her in the non-etcady case, "'In". (7.7) and (7.8), or in the steady case, cqns. (7.10) and (7.11), it is often convenient 10 introduee a stream function 'I'(x, y, I) defined by

,-

t The velocity profile 0.(. the point, of aepnrnt.ion is seen to have a porpendioulnr tangent at the wa ll , 'I'ho velocity profiles downstream from the point, of separation will show regions of reversed !low near t.he wall,Fig. 7.2c_

8",

V= ---

8x '

(7.17)

t The exietonce or 11 point or inflexion in the velocity profile in the boundary layer i. importunt for it ... stnbilit.y (traneit.ion [rom laminar to turbulent flow), ACC Chap. XVI.

1:J4 VI I. Bnunrlary.lnyer equnl.ions for two-dimonsiona.l now; boundary layer on a plnt.e

e. The boundary layer along a nat plato

135

0'", 0V' 02", 0V' (l',p 1 ~1! + v 0-'",

8y ai + 8y ax ay - ax ay' = - Q ax ay3 •

(7.18)

~.o kn~w. the veloeit,y gradi~mt, at, th? wail,. which can be achieved only through tho IIItegr,tt.u)JI of _t!lC difforontinl eqnat.lons of t.he boundary layer. If scparnf.ion occurs l~cfol'C the tml,lmg edge, .eqn, (7.20) iH valid only ns far as t.ho point of scpnrat.ion. 1~II,rl.hcrmo:e, If t.ho 1:1.Il1l11nr bOlllld~ry layer l.r~~lSrorms into a turbulent, one, CfJll. (1.20) ,applies only a~ f~r as the point of trausition. Behind the point of Lrn.nsi t.ion II]('w '" t.urlJlJlen(; fnetlOlJ, t.o bo diHeIJH~(~d in Chap. XXII.

. I r .separation exi~ts,. tho pressure. dietribution differs considerably from t.hn t .'1,1 UIO ideal case of fnetJOnless, potonl.ial now and pressure, or form drag, results, I hus ~,he hou~J(lary-layer t.heory explains the fact that" in addit,ion I.o skin f'1'idioll" l.lu-ro IS also form drag, bllt i{,s magllit.udn cannot. he ealclIlated wit.h t.he aid or t.h« ~)()lIr.J(lar.Y-layer t.heory in a simple manner. A rough est,imatc will, howover, be given III Chap. XXV.

AO t.hat, thc oquat.ion of oontinuity iR t.hl'rchy sat.isfiorl. Introdur-iug t.his assumption into eqn. (7_7) we have

which is a pnrt.ial diflcrent.in l equnt.ion of t.ho t.h irrl order for t.ho st.ron m Iunot.ion. The boundary conditiona roqu irn t.he a),R(""'O of Hlip at the Willi, or V'l,/ay = i),/,/D:r c= f) Ill. l.ho wnl l , Vllrth"... tho init.ia.l condition at t = 0 proscribce the velocity distribution 1J, = (!1I'/()Y OVer the whole region, H t,his equation for the st.ream function is compared with t.he complet.e Nnv ier-Stokes equations (4-.10), it, is seen that t.Iw boundn.ry-Iayer asaumpt.ioue have reduced the order of t.hc cqunt.ion from Iour to three.

.1_ Skin friction

\Vhen l.ho boundury-Iaver cqunt.ious arc int.egral,ed, t.hc velocil.y disl.ribut.ion ean he deducod, and t.hc poxit.ion of the point, of soparnt.ion can be determined. This. in turn, permits \IS to ea.loulat.e the Vif;COIIS drag (skin Irict.ion) Mound t.ho surface hy a simple process of int.egra.t.ing the shearing SI.'·('flR at. t.hn wn II over t.ho surfuco or t.ho hody. The fllwaring st.rcss ai, the wa.1I is

e, Tire boundary layer nlong a flnt plate

(OIL)

To =t- s: -

uy 11-0

~n t.he ~ue(~eedir~g chaptor we shn.ll deduce a numher of geneml propcrt.ies or l.ho difforentiul oquatious of t.ho boundar'y layer. I Jowever, boforo doing t.hnt, it seems O!.'IHlrt.lIlJe to (:ollsi(~o,r no.w a specific example and so 1.0 gain greater lumilinrit.y with ~he e~lIat~onR.1 he SImplest, example of tho a pplicat.ion of the boundary-ln.ym' e(Jlm~'lons IS allonl?" hy MIll flow along a very thin flat plato. IIist,orically t.hiR was I he Iirat, example IlIus(,rnl.ing the 1tl'I'IicaUoII of I'mlldt.l',. b()lIl1d1tr.Y-la.Y;~r 1.I1I~()r'y;

The viscous (trag fOI' t.ho cnso of l.wo-dirucnsionn.l flow h('COIlH'R I

Dr = b ! TO cos'" ds , .-0

(7.l!l)

where II denotes t.he height. of t.ho cylindrical body; rp ill the angle hot.ween the f.;lIIgent, to t.ho surface and tho [roe-st.roam velocitv [loo, and s is the eoord inate meaRllred along t.he surface, Fig. 7.5. The proecsR of inl,egra1.ioll is to he performed

Fig. 7.1i. Tho boundary layer "long n. Il"t, plato nt zero inci(lnncc

-x

Fig. 7.!i. 11l11,qtrnt.ing t,ho cnlculu.t.ion of sk in friction

it. w.as discussed by H. Blasius [2] in his doctor's t.hcsis at. Goct.t,ingen. Le~ t.ho !cndl.ng edge of t.he plate be at, x = 0, the plate being parallel to t,he z-n x is and mfll11tely long downstream, Fig. 7,6. We shull consider steady flow with It frec~t.reltm velo~it,y, !TO'H whi?h is parallel to the z-u.xis. The velocity of potont.inl flow IS constant III tillS case, and, therefore, d1iJdx:=C'" 0. The boundary-layer cqnat.ions (7.10) to (7.12) become

over tho whole surface. from t.IIC lit,agnation point. at, I,IJ(~ leading edge to t.IIC I,railing edge, nssumiug t.hat, there is no scpn.rnt.ion. Since eo" ",.Is ,,= d r, whore x is measured pn.rn.llcl t.o 1.11(' frl'e-s(.rI'II.m vclocit.y. we call also' writ.o

I "

DI = b It! (~~) v-o dx ,

%-0

a.~ _ av -0 ax -f ay - ,

(7.21 )

au a,i 0'1L

u -- + v _- = 11 --

ax ay oy2 ,

(7.22)

(7.20)

u =0:

lL=V=O;

y =00:

u. = Uco •

(7.23)

and the illt.egra.t.ion, n.s before, is (,0 he oxt.cru lcd over t.Iw whole wet.t.ed surface from t.I](~ leading t.o tho t.ra.iling edge. I n order t.o cnleulat« tho skin Friction it; is necessary

Since t.lie systom under consideration IWR no proforro. I lengt.h iI, is ronsonahh, t.o s~prose that the vcloeit?' profiles at varying diR(.;tIlces Irom the leading edge are similnr to each other, which means that, the velo!,i ty curves 1t (y) for varying II i:-;I,IlIl-

136 VII. Boundnry-layer equations for two-dimensional flow;houndary layer on a plate

e. The boundary layer along a 11M, plnf.e

137

,/Uoo 1'/ = y V ;~.

(7.24)

In this example both partial differential equations (7.21) and (7,22) have been transformed into an ord£nary different.ial equation for UlC stream function by the sirnilnrity transformation, eqns. (7.24) and (7.25). The resulting differontial equation is non-Iinonr and of the third order. The three boundary oondltiona (7.2!l) are, thcroforo, suffieicnt to determine the solution completely.

Tho nnalyt.ie cvuluut.ion of the soluf.ion of t.ho <lifTef"lItilll equul.ion (7.2H) i!'1 quite tedious. H. Blasius obtained this solution in the form of a series expansion around 1] = 0 and an asymptotic expansion for 1] very large, the two forms being matched at a suitable value of 1]. The resulting procedure was described in detail, by L. Prandtl[22]. Subsequent to that, L. Bairstow [IJ and S. Goldstein [1:3J solved the sarne equation but with the aid of a slightly modified procedure. Somewhat earlier, C. Toepfer [27] solved the Blasius equation (7.28) numerically hy the npplicnt.ion of UIC method of Runge and Kut.ta. Tho same equation was solved again, this time with an increased accuracy, by L. Howarth [16]; the numerical values of I, I' and I" quoted in Table 7.1 have been taken from his paper. In this connexion, the reader may also consult It new method of integration devised hy D. Meksyn [19).

The variation of t.he longitudinal component n/lloo = /' (1]) is seen plotted in Fig. 7.7_ Comparing it with the profile ncar a stagnation point, Fig. 5.10, we see that t.ho vclocit.y profile on II. flat plnt.o pmlse8ses a very small ourvat.uro at UlC wall and t.urns rn.Lhor n.brupt.ly Iurt.her from it ill order to reach tho asymptutie value. At. t.he wall itself the curve has a point of inflexion, since for !I = 0 : 821(./8!!2 = O.

ces x can be made identical by selecting suitable scale factors for u and yt. The scale factors for u and y appear quite naturally as the free-stream velocity, Uoo and the boundary-layer thickness, d (x), respectively. It will be noted that the latter increases with the current distance x. Hence the principle of similarity of velocity profiles in the boundary layer can be written as u/Uoo = r/>(ylo), where t.he function r/> must he the same at all distances x from the leading edge.

We can now estimate the thickncss of the boundary layer. From the exact solutions of the Navier-Stokes equations considered previously (Chap. V) it was found, e. g. in the case of a suddenly accelerated plate, that (~r-o.> y~t, where t denoted the time from the start of the motion. In relation to the problem under consideration we may substitute for t the time which a fluid particle consumes while travelling from the leading edge to the point x. For a parbiclo outside the boundary

layer t,his is L = xIU""", so that we may put r5 ,._, Y v xIU""". We now introduce the new dimensionless coordinate 1) ~ y/o so that

The equation of continuity, as already discussod in Sec. VIId, can be integrated hy int.roducing a stream function 'II'(X,!/). We put

(7.25)

where I('Y)) denotes the dimensionless stream function. Thus the velocity cornponcnts become:

u =~'I' =~'I!. ~'1 = U i' (7J)

oy O'1oy 00 ,

(7.26)

1.o1-r-rl-; .-

!1.~f'(1) ---t-+--Vk-"'--- ----

v; 0.8 _1 __ ,=; ~ .. _/ _

~~,fi~ ~V -- - - - --1- 0.6 - - - -l"Y - -_. -·--1·_··----

::VJll-: - -,-~

{= =lI[L~ =:_:_~~_..::. ~=..::.

1 234 567

T)yf3i

0.8 .: _:__:_ -l':":'L;.r-T'"'T,

y- lfQ;;8_ ,_.- - VI--- -l

u~V-v- ~

a~ -----7 -

r- ---/ -_.- - -

o v""""'- ---- ~

1 7 3

(7.27)

the prime denoting differentiation with respect to ''I. Similarly, the transverse velocity component is

Writing down tho further terms of eqn. (7.22), and insert.ing, we have

- f!_~' 1] t t" + U~· ('Y) I' -I) t" = v U<XJ~ 1''' .

2", 2x xv

I. 5

7]~yV~;

6

After simplification, the following ordinary differential equation is obtained:

f t" + 2 l" = 0 (Blasius's equation). (7.28)

Fig. 7.7. Velocity distribution in the boundary layer along a flat plate, after Blasius [2]

Fig.7.S. The transverse velocity component in the boundary layer along a flat plato

As seen from eqns. (7.23), as well as (7.26) and (7,.27), the boundary conditions are:

17=0: 1=0, /,=0;

1]=00: /,=1.

(7.29)

The transvcrao component of the velocity ill the boundary layer, given byeqn. (7.27), is represented in Fig. 7.8. It is worth llot,ing here that at the outer edge of the boundary layer, i. e. for 'I} -+ 00 this component differs from zero; we have

Voo = 0·8604 U 00 11 x ;;~~

t The problem of affinity or lIimilaritll of velocity profiles will be considered from a more general point of view in Chap. VIII. The more exact theory shows that the region immediately behind tho leading edge muat bo excluded; ROO p. 141.

138 VII. Boundary-layer oqunfions for two-dimensional now; boundary layer on a plate

Skin friction: The skin friction can be easily determined from the prcceding dntn.

From cqn. (7,19) we obtain for one side of the plate I

D =b f .0 d z ,

.,=0

(7.:l0)

e. The boundary layer along !\ nnt, pluto Ian
Tu.ble 7.1. The function f(rJ) for tho boundary layer along a flat plate at zero incidence, after
J,. Howarth [16]
'7 = Y-yf!~ f /'= ~ r
.. z Uoo
0 0 0 0,33206
0·2 0·00664 0·06641 0·33199
0·4 0·02656 0·13277 0·33147
0·6 0·05974 0,198114 O-:J:lOOR
0·8 0')0611 0·26471 0·32739
1·0 0·16557 0·32979 0·32301
1·2 0·23795 0·30378 0·31659
1-4 0·32298 0·45627 0·30787
1·6 0,42032 0·51676 0·29667
1·8 0·52952 0·57477 0'28293
2·0 0·65003 0·62977 0·26675
2'2 0·78120 0·68132 0·24835
2-4 0·92230 0·72899 0'22809
2·6 1·07252 0·77246 0·20646
2·8 1·23099 0'81152 0·1840)
3·0 1·30682 0'84GO!; 0·16136
3·2 1·56911 0·87609 0'13913
3·4 1'74696 0·90177 0'1l788
3'6 1·92954 0·92333 0·09809
38 2·11605 0·94112 0·08013
40 2·30576 0'9!;552 0·06424
4·2 2·49806 0·96696 0·05052
4·4 2·69238 0·97587 0·03897
4,6 2'88826 0,98260 0·02948
4·8 3·08534 0·98779 0·02187
5·0 3'28329 0,99)55 0·0159)
0·2 :..,l8189 0·99425 0·01134
0·4 368094 0·99616 0·00793
5·6 3,88031 0·09748 0'00543
5·8 4·07990 0·00838 0·00365
6·0 4·27964 0·99898 0·00240
6·2 447948 099937 0·00155
6·4 4·67038 0·99961 0'00098
6·6 4'87931 0,01)977 O'OOO(lJ
6·8 0·07028 0·01l!lR7 0·OOO:l7
7,0 Ii 27026 0'IHl!1!l2 0'()OO22
7·2 0·47925 0·90006 0·00013
7·4 5·67024 0'01l1l!l8 O'()OO!)?
7·6 !j·87924 0'!)901l!l O'0()OO4
7·8 6·07923 j·OOOOO 0'(JOO02
80 fi27!l2:l 100()00 000001
8·2 6·47923 1'00000 000001
84 6·67923 1'00000 0,00000
8'6 (1,87023 ),00000 0·00000
8·8 7·0702:1 1-00000 (j·OOOOO This means that at the outer edge there is a flow outward which is due to the fact that the increasing boundary-layer thickness causes the fluid to be displaced from the wall as it flows along it. There is no boundary-layer sepnration in tho present case, as the pressure gradient is equal to zero.

J. St.cinheucr [25J published a systcmat.io review of the solut-ions t.o Blnsiua'a cqunt.ion. In part.ioula.r , he provided a diaoussion of t.hc clmrnctor of t.he solutions ill the intograt.ion range where 1] < 0 in Ute prCRence of a variety of boundary conditions. It turns out, t.haf there exist, three sets of solutions which differ from each other by their asympt.ol.ic bohnvior at, 1] ...... -00. Apart from t.ho laminar boundary layer on a flat plat.e, the solutions which can he given a physically meaningful interprotnt.ion include laminnr flow between two parallel streams of which the two-dimensional half-jet, is a special case (sec Sec. IX].), laminar flow with suction or blowing at, right angles (sec Sec. XIV b), as well as the laminar boundary layer formed over a wall moving parallel to the stream in the same or in the opposite direction.

where b is t.ho width ann. l is the length of the plato. Now th,., locn l shearing stress at the wall is given by

(au) -yv;;, " Vv~

TU(X)=f1. a- =f1.Uoo --/(O)=ocpUoo--,

Y 11-0 vx vx

(7.31)

wit.h /" (0) -,,-, ex. = 0'332 from Table 7, I. Hence the dimensionless shcaring strees bcoomos :

(7.32)

Couscqucnt.ly, from C'lll. (7.30), Ole sk in frictioll of one Ride becomes I

J) = «» b U='l/~;;' J V~ = 2 IX. b o.: l/~-!? lU~-,

z=o

n.n.I [or a pln 1,1' wr-f.tr-d Oil hot.h siclos :

2 n =4ab U= {p (J iti; ~~ 1·32Rb yu,,,31l (! T.

I

11. is romnrka.hlo thaI. the sk iu fri(d.iotl is 1'1'01;ort,ional 1.0 the power ~ of velocity whereas in eroeping mot.ion there was proport.ionnlity to the first. power of velocity. Further, t.ho drag increasos wil.h l.ho square root, of t.ho lcngt.h of t-he plate. This r-a.n 1)1> int.!'I'JH·(>t,C«( as Rhowing t.hn.t t.lw downst.reum port.ions of the phtc contrihute proport.ionnt.elv I('RR 1,0 t.ho totnl drag than t.ho portions non.r t.ho lr .. ading cdge,

140 VIr. Boundnry-Iayor equations for two-dimeusionnl flow ; boundary layer 011 n plate

e. The boundary layer along n Oat. pinto

141

because they lie in the region where the boundary layer is thicker and where, consequently, t.he shearing st-ress at. the wall is smaller. Introducing, as usual, a (limensionless dmg coefficient by the definition

2D

cf = J"i1A V:.;! '

where 1]1 denotes a point outside the boundary layer. Using the value 1(1]) from Table 7.1 we obtain 1'/1 -f(1lI) = 1·7208 and hence

01 = 1·7208 -v~~ (displaccmcnt thickness). (7.37)

(7.34)

The distnnco y = 01 is shown in l~jg. 7.7. This is the distance by which UlC at.renmlines of the external potential How are displaced owing to the effect of friction near the wall. The boundary-layer thickness, 0, given in eqn. (7.35), over which the potential velocity is a.tta.ined to within I per cent. is, in round figures, t.hreo t.imes larger than the displacement thickness.

'We may at this point evaluate the momenl1tm thickness O2 which w.ill be used later. The loss of momentum in the boundary layer, as compared with potential How,

00

is given by (! f u(l'Joo - u) dy, so that a new thickness can be defined by o

where A = 2 b l denotes t.he wetted surface area, we obtain from eqn. (7.33) thc

formula :

Here R, = Uoo ll» denof.es the Reynolds number formed with the length of the plate and tho froo-st.ronm velocity. This law of friction on a plate first, deduced by H. Blasius , is valid only in the region of laminar flow, i. e. for R, = U 00 llv < 5 X 10" to 106. It iR represented in Fig. 21.2 as curve (I). In the J'<'gion of t.ur uulont. mot.ion , R, > IOG, the drag becomes considerably grea.ter thnn timt given in e'1l1. (7.:~4).

o U002 (j2 = e f u (Uoo - u) dy , ,-0

Boundary-layer thickness: It; is impossible to indicate a houndarv-Iavcr I.h ickncss ill an unambiguous way, because the influence of viscosity in the boundary layer decreases usymptot.ioa.lly outwards, The parallel component" It, tends asymptotically to the value "= of t.ho potential flow (Lho function /'(17) tends asymptotically to I). If it is desired to define the boundary-Inyor thickness as that distance for which 1L = O·!)!) U 00, t.hon , as seen from Tablo 7.1, 11 ~ 5·0. lIenee tho boundury-Iayer thickness, as defined here, becomes

or

/J2 = J ;00 (I - ;,J dy.

,-0

(7.38)

Numerical evaluation for the plate at zero incidence gives:

-v;-~

/J = 5·0 Uoo'

(7.35)

(j2 = ~ J r (l-f') d1),

'1-0

A physically meaningful measure fOI' the bonndary layer t.hicknoss is t.ho dis placemeul thickness (\, which was already Introduced in eqn. (2.6), Fig. 2.3. Tho dis· placement; thickness is that distanoo by which the external potential field of flow is displaced outwarda as a consequence of the decrease in velocity in the boundary

00

layer. The decrease in volume flow due to the influence of friction is f (flex, -It) ely, 1I~O

or

O2 =0·664 V ;.: (momentum thickness).

(7.39)

co

«51 = I (I - V;;,) dy .

v-o

It is necessary to remark here that near the leading edge of the plate UIO boundnry-layor theory eoaaea to apply, since thcre the assumption I f)21L/fJx21 ~ I (PyFJy2 I is not satisfied. The boundary-layer theory applies only from a certain value of the Reynolds number R = Uoo x]» onwards. The relationship near tho loading edge can only be found from the full Navier-Stokes equations because it involves a singularity at the leading edge itself. An attempt to carry out such a calculation was made by G. F. Carrier and C. C. Lin [5] as well as by B. A. Boley and M. 13. Friedman [3].

so t.ha.t for (~I we have the definition

Uoob1 = f (Uoo - u) dy,

11=0

or

(7.36)

Experimental investigations: MeasurementR to test the theory given on tho preceding pages were carried out first by J. M. Burgers [4] and B. G. van dor Hegge Zijnen [15], and subsequently by M. Hansen [14]. Particularly careful and comprehensive measurements were reported later by J. Nikuradse [20]. It was found that the formation of the boundary layer is greatly influenced by the shape of the leading edge 1\8 well as by the very small pressure gradient which may exist in tho

WjUl -uo; from eqn. (7.26) we obtain

142 VII. Bouudury-lnyor CfJ"at.iOIlR for twn-dimonsionul tlow ; hOIlIHIM'y lay",' on n pinto

e. ;I'he boundary lnyor nlong It flat. pinto

143

ext.ernul flow .• J. Nikurndso introduced careful corrocl.ions for t.lieso possible olfccts, when he carried out. his measurements on a plnto in a st.ream of air. The velocity distribution in t.he laminar boundary lnycr hns been plotted from Nikurndsc's measurcmcnt.s ill I"ig. 7.n for several d istnucos [rom t.ho I,,;uling edge. The similurit.y

1.0

1.0

2.0

d iscussod in Chap. X vr, have dcmonsbrntod t.hat t.he vnlue of this 'crit.ical' Reynolds Illllll her can become considerably larger in an air stream which is made very free from dis(.lIrballe(,. Til (,Iris way it is posRihle to rr-ach valur-s of lip (.0 about. (T,,, .r/J' .". :1 X lOr..

0.00.5

---~----

, , , ,

•

0.082

,

.'----_. --.-- ---.- --_-'-

,

, ,

Fi~. 7.10. Lor-al coefficiont. or akin friction on a flat. ,)Iat,n nt znro inoidenco in incornpressiblo flow, determi""d from direct, uieuauro"'''III. of shearing stress by Liepmann and Dhawan l6. HI]

0.001

0.0005

o

Indirect skin friction measurement from ve/oC'ily profile

Oired skin friction ml1ilSurt:menl, " - 28,li em , x -ss cm

,

~.c. .. __ .. _., __ ~ __ ........... _ .. --~ .. --

R- U'f~ .. _ ... --- - ~ + 1.08xlO5 ~ 1.82"'05

. . 0 J.64>:105

• 5."6x 105 c 7.7.8><105

_-_ =J~~J~ - J~~ ~- ~--

: 7J-yVfja;

.. ~ __ _ __ 1~' :--+---'1-----1

3.0 '10 5.0 5.64 6c 0 7. 0

o.ooOJ -

0.0002

Theory : lnmlnnr from equ, (7,:1:l)i turbulr-n], from cqn. (21.12)

0.0001 I .. -l.. .. I,j IILlt ... l- Ll
10' 2 J 4 5 () 8 105 2 J 4 5 Ii 8 106
Rx =11«))(
v The laminar law of friction on It flat. plate was also subjected to careful e xperimental verification. The local shearing stress at the wall can be determined indircct.ly from the slope of the velocity profile at the wall together with eqn. (7.31). In recent. t.imos H. W. Liepmann and S. Dhawan [181 measured the shearing stress dircet.ly from tho foreo noting on a small port.ion of tho plate which was arranged l<() that, it could move slightly with respect to the main plate. The results of their very careful measurements arc seen reproduced in Fig. 7.10, which shows a plot of t.he local coefficient of skin friction (/ = To/~ (! lJoo2, against. thc Reynolds number R, = [Joe x]v, In t.he range of R, = 2 X 105 to 6 X 105 both laminar and t.urbulenf flows are possible. It can be seen that direct and indirect, measurements IlI'C in oxecllont. agl'(~mncnt. wit.l: each other. Monsurernont« in t.ho laminar range give a st.riking eoullruuu.ion of HI'Lfliw,,'s oqn. (7.:12) from which ./ ,~, O·O(l,t/VRx' III the t.urbulenf range thoro is nlao good ngrocmcnt with PfI1l1dU'A thoorot.ica.l Iorm uln which will he deduced in Chap, XXT, eqn. (21,12).

The complete agreement between t.heorctical and experimental rCRIJ!t.H which cxista for the velocity distribution and t.he shearing stross ill a laminar h0l11HIo.I'Y layer on a flat, plate at zero incidence that, haR been brought. into evidence in Figs. 7.H and 7.10 for the f3.nge Rx > 105 unequivocally dcmonatra.tca the validity of the bnuudnry-Inyer npproximations from the physical point, of view. Til spit« of this,

Fig. 7.9. Vclocii.y di"f,ribllf,ion in t.ho lnminar boundary layer on a {lub plate at, 7.NO inoirlence, M measured hy Nikuradse [20]

of Lhe velocity profiles at various distances x lrom t.ho loading edge prc.dided by the theory is confirmed by these measurements. The shape 01 the vcloclty profile agrecs eq;lIllly well with t.haf onlculn.t.od wil.h t.he n.irl of t.ho theory. The rclat.ion

between t.ho dimensionless boundarv-lu.ycr t.hickness a iU"",/J' x and the H,eYllolds number formed wit.h tho cnrront lengt.h, x, was already plot.ted in I"ig. 2.19. Th is dimonsioulcss thickness rr-mnins const.aub as long as I,ho boundary Inver iOl luminal', n nrl its numer icn.l vn.luo is ncn.rly I.ha(, given in Cqll. (7.:l!i). At lar~" lteYllor.IH numbers /loa x/v t.ho houndnry layer C!':1.seR to be lnminar awl transit.ion 1.0 t.urbulont motion takes place. This fact, can he f!'cognizc(,' in Fig. 2. UI hy noticing t.ho marked increase in t.ho t.hieknefls of t.ho boundary la.yer nR tho dist.anoo from tho h,;td ing edge if! increased. According t.o UlO monaurornonta performed by B. C. van dr-r H!'gge Zijnen and M. Hansen transit.ion from laminar to turbulent flow tal{()s place at .. lid, x/v = 300,000. This corresponds to a. vn.luo of tho Reynolds nurnbnr referred 1,0 the displacement t.h ickness , ",,,, ,51/11 = !)1m. More r cccnb moasuromonta, t.o he

144 VII. Boundary layer equations for two-dimensional Row; boundary layer on a plate

f. Boundary layer of higher order

145

f. Boundary layer of higher order]

The boundary-layer equations have been obtained in Sec. VI I It of t.his chapter by a process of estimating orders of magnitude of individual terms in the complete equations of motion. The boundary-layer equations can, however, also be derived with the aid of a more general theory. In order to obtnin asymptotic expansions of the solutions of the Na vier-Stokes equations for large Reynolds numbers, it is possible to establish a perturbation scheme in which

V, (x, y). 1', (x. y), for the second-order solution rJ2 (x, y), V. (x, rA, 1'2(X, y), etc. Up to solutions of t.he socoud order, terms proport.ional to e2, Ulnt. is t.he Irlet.ionnl terms ill th" Navier-Stokes equnt.ions, remain unaccounted for. Thus, solutions of Ii rst. and second order correspond to inv iseid flows or even to pot.ent.inl flows whon only !ielrls wit.h It uniform oncoming voloci t.y 11m "I;ol(li("11.

The solutions of [irsi order satisfy the boundary conditions

cert.ain mathematicians have expended milch effort to create It "mathematical proof" for t.ho validity of these aimplifloa+ions ; in this connexion consult the work of H. Schmidt, and K. Schroeder [24].

y = 0:

Vdx, 0) ~._._ 01. } Ui + Vi

(7.4:1)

y ""* 00:

Tho solut.ion of the potont.ial-Ilow equa.tiona [f1(X, y), V.(x, y) givea the volocit.y [1,(:1',0) at. t.he Willi, and Bernoulli'a e'1"ltl.iol1 leads to the wn] l P'-CSSIII'II

VU.,v R~

is chosen !I.R the perturbation parameter. This leads to a so-called singular perturbation scheme and results in the separation of the required asymptotic expansion of the solution into an outer expansion (external flow) and all inner expansion (boundary-layer Row). With t.he aid of the method of matched aaymptot.io expansions it thus becomes possible to derive an asymptotic expansion of the complete solution.

The first term of 811Ch an nsymptotio expansion is precisely the sol ut.ion of the boundarylayer equations. Moreover, the continuation of t.he pert.urbut.ion onlculat.ion allows us to compute Iurt.her terms of the expansion and so to extend the clnasioal theory of boundary layers duo to Prandtl. We thus create a boundary-layor theory of higher order. The second terms of the expansion are of particular practical importance because we can look upon them as corrections to the classical theory which represent boundary-layer effects of second order.

Extensive presentations of boundary-layer theory of higher order were published by M. Van Dyke [IlJ, K. Gersten [IOJ, and K. Gersten and J. F. Gross [12J. In addition, reference [8] contains a deta.iled cxposition of t.he method of matched asymptotic expansions. The basic ideas of this method can be traced to L. Prandtl; they have been made plausible with reference to a simple mathematical example in Sec. IVf.

In what follows. wegive a brief description of tlla theory of asymptotic solul.ions for large Reynolds numbers as it applies to a two-dimensional, incompressible Row. The main purpose of this argument is to find an extension of Prandt.l's boundary-layer theory and to derive the boundary-Iayer equations of higher order. Details of the derivntlons can be found in the treatise of M. Van Dyke [7].

Thc starting point is constituted by the Navier-Stokes equations written with reference to a curvilinear, rectangular system pf coordinates in Sec. Hl g, Fig. 3.9. All lengths are measured in units of a convenient length Ro, for example the radius of curvature at the stagnation point. Velocities arc referred to U., and the overpressures are referred to e U!. The geometrical shape is described by tile local radius of curvn turo, fl(x), anrl the dimensionless curvature of the

1

E = VR =

Pt{x. 0) = ~ _ ~ Vi (x, 0).

(7.44)

(7.40)

The solutlons of second order satisfy the boundary conditions

11=0:

I d 1

V2(x,O)=-; dx[Ut{x,O) ,5.(x)J

u~ + v~ = 0,

(7.1!l)

Y ->- oo ;

whore 15. (3:) denotes tho displllccment th ickuoas defined in all unnlogoua way itA tltat, ill "'I". (7.:l(l); ace also eqn, (7.51).

The solubion of the pot.enl.ial equnt.ion leads I1gain 10 the distriblltion 01 t.he pnrn.llel vclocit.y components at the WI1I1, U2(x, 0), and to the pressure

(7.4(;)

The resulting solutions do not, generally speaking, satisfy the no-slip condition at t.he Willi and for this reason they are not valid near it; they are given the name "outer solutions" or "outer asymptot.io expansions".

Inner expansionsr In order to obtain solutions valid ncar the wall, it is necessary to apply a special procedure. Instead of the diatance, y. from the wall, we introduce a new, stretched coordinate

N = y/f.

(7.47)

This so-culled inner variable was 80 selected as to prevent the disappearance of some of the viscous terms in the equations of first order in the coordinate system z, N.

For the solutions near thc wal l (in the boundnry layer}, we "gain ItARUllIe osymptot.ic expnnaions, viz.

K(x) = flo/il(x).

(7.41)

?t(X,y,f) = tt.(x,N) -I- eU2(x.N)+ .... J vex, y, ,) = e v, (x, N) _11:2 1)2 (x, N) -I •.. , p(x, y, e) = pdx, N) + e p2(X, N) + ....

Substitution into the system of equations (:J.38) and ordering according to powers of E, yields the following systems of equations.

(7Ail)

aurfnce is

Outer expansions: In order to solve the system of equations (3.38), we assume the following asymptotic expansions:

u(x, y. e) _= U1(x, y) +" U2(X,' y) + j

v(x, y, f) = Vdx, y) + " Vz(x, y) +

per, y. E) _ PI(X, 1/) + e P2(x, y) + ....

These forms are substituted into eqns. (3.38) and the terms Me ordered by the powers of e. In this manner, we ohtn in a sequence of syst.ems of equations for the first-order solution UI (T, y).

B01l1ulary-layer equations of/ir,.! order:

t [owe this sncf.ion t.o Professor K. Gersten.

o __ oPI _ es :

(7.49)

(7.42)

146 VII. Boundary lnvor nqun t.ions for two-dimensional (low; bouudarv lnyor on a plate

f. Boundary layer of higher order

147

with the boundnry r-oudit lous

The distribution of the local shearing ,MeM to second order is

N -, 00:

11.1 = 0, VI = 0, } 11.1 = Ud:r,O).

(7.50)

1. To (x) ( OUI ) ( OU2 )

- c, = -_ = f -- + [2 __ + 0 «(.3) •

2 (!U~ oN N-O oN N-O

(7.55)

N =0:

These. nrc exact lv Prnrnlt ls boundary-layer ('qu"tion", cqns. (7.10) n nc] (7.11) t.rnusformcrl to ooord inate« x, N.·11l addition n, (~:) = I', (",0).

The solution '" (x, N) allows 1111 10 compute t.he displnccment. t.hicknoss '\1 d"fillf'd as

00

f ( UI(';, N»)

'~I = ,. I -- --.------ <IN. (,' I (:1', II)

()

(?ti) )

The boundary layer of second order also reaots on the outer flow. The paper by K. Gerst.en [II] oonbains a calculation of l.he displacement, t.hicknesA 10 second order,

Example. F1al plale 01 zero incidence. Til t.he CItBO of a n impermeable tlat plate Itt. zero incidonee, t.he displacement thickness ')1 is calculated with the aid of eqn, (7.37). According to cqn. (7.41i), the bounrlary condition for the outer flow ill

(7.!j(»

Thl' f'<)llnlion~ of first order. eqns. (7.4\1), do not ."o"I"in t.1l" H.·ynol<ls 1I111l1bcr eXl'liritl:y. ~I follow. t hnt !II (:r,,v) lind vI(:r, N) muat 01"0 he independent of t.hn HeYl10ldA number. I'his pro\'{'. Ihat I he loont ion of t I". point of lnminnr Rep"rot.ion is independent of the Reynolds nu mber,

HOIlIlr/nry-1n!l" equnt ion» 0/ ,,'emul orr/or:

whero lhe length of t.ho pluto has hoou chosen nR 1\ rofcronco. TIt!' solut.ion o] I I". f,\\'(1-diltll'IlAionlll potent.inl equnf.ion auhjcct to tili" boundnry condition yields

eV2 , ( r ou.t )

I - = It A -- -- VI

eN ox '

I, ( 0·8601 1 /~-;;

2", y) = --,-.-V ~'

(7.57)

opz

oN = K!lt,

U () 0'86041 /;-~

2 :r,Y =---r-V-2-

(7.52)

where

K (N c·u~ _ CUI CJlI·.1 oN

(7.1i8)

wilh til!' honndary condit ions

: -, :::: ~.,:.; ... ,,~ K<'" .r, n) N.j

n« = l'd:r,O) + K [11 (:r, 0) N.

Tit" outer boumlnrv r-on dit.lons (i. c. for N -~ 00) of the inner solu t.ions IIA well as the inner houndnry ('olulilinn" of lile outer solut.ione (c. g. ('<)n. (7.45) for I'dx, 0») follow from the matching of t.ho inner and nutor solut.ions ; set> also 17].

The svst em of cqun tions (7 . .'i2), (7.5:1) for tho acconrl-ordr-r boundary 1"),<'1' too doca 1101. contn.iu !.II.; HeYlioldlll1llllll}(,,, oxplinit lv, 1I0\\,('v(',,, it contu ina solut ione of Iirst. 01'111'1' nTHI iA moro «xteueive t.hnl1 t.he firAt.·order Ryst".m: hilt it (,OII"iAts of liur-nr d ilfcrcufinl (''1ll1dioI1A. FOI' Ihi" r(1I\A011, it, iR poseihlc, in t.u rn , f<l scparn.te the whole solution into It sum of part.inl solutions. !thas bp".onte ('lIstOIlIItI'Y 10 spl it. t.he solution into Il curvature t.erm nnrl into It liiApla('eme.nt t·erm, hili WI' shnl l not. l'"rAII) t.hi, disoussion any Iurt.her here.

Duo to t.he fad t.hnt. Lhe ourvnt.ure of t.he wnll ill accounted for in the second-order theory, (1)('1'1' "1'1'('"1'" a p"'"""rc gradient. in lho d iror-t.ion nonnni to Ilw wall. For this reason, the pn.sstlrc nl· I he wul l "ncom!>R different from I.hnt. which iR imprr-sscd 011 the boundary lnjr-r hy t.he outr-r flow. Int<'grntillf.( ltel'OA" t.Iw boundary lnyer, we obtn in t.ho pressure oor-ffleient at. the wnll in t.he

(7.m)

The assooiated strenmlines are pnrabolno whose foci nre at t.he origin and whose vort.ices lie on the z-axia. It follows that in this partlculnr CItRe tho velocity U2(x,O) at t.he wall vaniehes, and the solut.ion of the syatern of equations (7.52) and (7.53) is the triv inl solution. We conclude, therefore, that in the case of the tlllt plate the second-order correction to skin Iriction vanishes. Nevertheless, we must not draw the conolusion that the second-order drag coefficient also vanishes. This is due to the fact that the sooond-ordor extornal Ilow described by eqn. (7.57) contributcs a momentum term. This can be idcntified by calculating the integral of momentum over the whole plate when it will be discovered that this oontribution is equivalent to an increase in drag. Sl1ch on leulat.lona have been carried out by J. l mui [ 17) who found t.h a.t t.ho drng coefficient. of a flat. plnte is given by

1·328 2-:~26

c, = ---+---

ff. R,'

(7.59)

I -2 ",,,,. = 1'(", I], F) ,.!,.

1

(7.M)

whore 2·:126 = n X (O·S(\().j)2. '1'1", oorreotion (the sor-oud t erm) in "'I'" (7.0\) ItIllOlll1tR to 5·.'i% at. 11, ~,., III". d(l('I' o nsin!( t,1) U'2% I\t. R, = 10", comparr-d to Ih,' first. 11'1'111.

The fnet. t.hat t.ll(> second t,('I'1lI in eqn. (7.5!l) .IOCR not. roprosont s[cin Iriction is oxplnined hy the cbservntion that the singular character of the Howat the leading edge iuduccs It prfFRU"C d""g. Presumably, at the leading edge there arist>s an infi ni+e o\,!'rjlITSRUI'C whic-h oonl.ributee 1\ finite force in spite of the vanishingly small plate thickuess. III this eonnexion a comparison with the esse of the parabola of Sec. IXj should be made.

Strict.ly "1'(,l1l<il1p;, U", pl'<"""lil1p; 11I1I1IYAi" of flow pltAI, n. 1111t. pltll(1 iA rrAlri('le<l 10 II H(·llIi· iufinil o pln t. o. In f.it" ('IlAn of It fillit.o 11"'gl.h, tlu- Alwl1rillg Rft'l'~A 1""'()III('R lIlo,lifit·d lit. II "I'rfnin distance upst.ream of the trailing edge. However, Pra.ndl.ls boundnry-Iayer cqunt.ious, being pnrnbolic, cannot. account for this "Lrailing-cdge ellcct,".

According to K. Stewe.rtson [25a], it is possible to master such trnillng-cdge ('1T .. ct s, or, generally speaking, t.he effcots which arc expressed na eingularitic« (c. g. lending ('dgl', trailing edge, ar-pnrnt.iou) hyl'rnndt.l's oqunt.ions, through n genel'l1lization of Prnnrlt l's NlIl('('pl of II", houndnry ln.yer. This is done by t.he introducl.ion of t.ho idon of "ruulfist ructurcd" boundary layers or the "triple-deck" concept.

For 1.11(> case of 8 flo.l. plnt.e, ngn.in, K. Stewnrf son (2iin] and A. V. 1\I('""it .. 1' [IRh] find thai the skin-Iriot.ion cooffloient is given by

form

-o

= !'1(:r,O) I pIT'2(T,O) I tc J[P1(:r,O) --"~(;r,NlI(IN}IO(f2).

II

Tho pressure ai, tho Willi exceeds till' impressed prr-ssurr- when tho wall is convex (K > 0).

148 VII. Boundary layer oquabions for two-dimenRional flow; boundary layer on a plate

20 40 60 100 200 tOO 600 iooo
-R,
1-:128 2·608
Cf=-=- I-
VR, (R,FI8 References

149

Fig. 7.11. Skin-friction coefficient. of a flat. plate of finite length at zero incidence

(I) The()ry uf'ter II. Hlnslus, eqn.(7.34) (2) Theory attor A. r·'. MCMltrr 118h),

"1". (7.00)

... Theory arter f)cllniR (solut.ion of Navler- Stokf's equatioJ1!'!)

o Experirnr:nts 8rtl~r 7:. .• JllIIOllT [30J

[10J Gersten, K.: Orenzeohlchteffekte hoheror Ordnung. Anniversary volume commemorating Professor H. Schlichting's 65th anniversary (Sept. 30, 1972). Rep. 72/5 Inst. f. Stromungsmech. Techn. Univ. at Braunschweig, 29--53 (1972).

[11] Gersten, K.: Die Verdritngungsdicko boi Gronzschichten hiihoror Ordnung. Zi\MM .51, !G5-171 (1974).

[12] Gersten, K., and Gross, .1. F.: Higher-order boundary lnyor t.hoory. Fluid Dynnmios 'Tra na-

!lel.iOIlA (11l7fi). -

[I :IJ Goldstein, s.: Coneeming Rome solubions of tho boundary layer equations in hydrodynamics.

Proe. Cambro Phil. Soc. 26, 1-30 (1930); see also: Modern developments in fluid dynamics, Vol. T, 135, Oxford, 1938.

[14J Hansen, M.: Die Geschwindigkeitsverteilung in der Grenzschieht an einer oingetnuchton, Platte. ZAMM 8, 185-199 (1928); NACA 'I'M 585 (1930).

[15] Van der Hegge-Zijnen, B. G.: Measurements of the velocity distribution in t.he boundary layer along a plane surface. Thesis, Delft 1924.

[10] Howarth, L.: 011 the solution of the laminar boundary 'Inyor equntions. Proc. Hoy. Soc.

London A J(j4, 647--679 (11138). .

[17J Imai, J.: Second approxl mntion to tho laminar boundary layer flow over a flat, plate .• IAS 24, 165-15B (1057).

[18J Llepman, H. W., and Dhawun, S.: Direct measuremente of local skin friet.ion in low-speed and high-speed lIow. I'roc. First US Nat. Congr. Appl. Mech. 869 (1951).

[18a] Melnik, RK, and Chow, R.: Asymptotic theory of two-dimenaionnl trailing edge Ilows.

Grumman Research Department Rep. RE-610 (I!J71i).

[18hJ Mossiter, A.F.: Boundary layer IInw ncar the !.railing c(lge of a nat plate. SIAM J. Ap1'l.

Math. 18, 241-257 (l1l70).

[IIIJ Meksyn, D.: New methods in laminar boundary layer t.hcory. London, 1961.

[20J Nikuradac, ,J.: Lnminnro ReibungRRchichlcn an dor liingRtlngcRtriimten Plnt.to. Monogml'h.

Zentrale f. wiss, Hcrichtswcsen, Berlin, 1!J42.

[21J Prandtl, L.: Ober FliiBsigkeitsbewegling bei sehr kleincr Reibung. Proc. Third Intern. Math.

Con gr. Heidelberg 11)04. Reprinted in: Vier Ahhandlungcn zur Hydro- und Aerodynnmik. Got.tingen, 1027; NACA 'I'M 452 (1928); soo also: Coil. Works 11,575-584 (1901).

[22J Prandtl, L: The mechanics of viscous fluids. In W.:F. Durand: Aerodynamic Theory Ill, 34-208 (1936).

[23] Rotta, J.C.: Grenzschiohttheorie zweiter Ordnung fiir chene und uohsensymmetrische Hypersohallatromung. ZFW 15, 329-334 (1967)_

(24) Schmidt, H., and Schrodor , K.: Laminnre Grenzechichten. Ein kritischer Litoraturbericht.

Part I: Grundlagen dor Grenzschichttheorie. Luftfahrtforschung 19, 65-97 (1942).

[25J Steinheuer, .J.: Die Losungen der Blnsiuaachen Grenzschicht<lifferent.ialgleiclnmg. Proc, Wiss. Ges. Braunschweig XX, 96-125 (1968).

[25aJ Stcwartson, K.: Multistructured boundary layers on flat plates and related bodies. Adv.

Appl. Meeh. 14, 146-2:1n. Academic Press, New York, 11174.

[2H] Tollmien, W.: Orellzschichtthcoric. Hnndbuch dor Ex per. .Physik I V, I'art I, 241- 287 (1931).

[27] Topfer', C.: Bomorkungen ZII rlom ,\lIf"l1l.7. von II. BlIl.AiuR: (1"'1I7.8"lIi"hI<1II ill FlilR8iglw;I"n mit kleiner Hoibung. z. MIt!.h. Phys. (U), :UI7-:lIlH (11112).

[211J ~Vey), II.: Concernlng the dlfforontinl cquat.ioua of some boundary layer problems. Proc, Nat- Acarl, Sci. Washington 27, 1>78-583 (1941).

(29) Wcyl, H.: On the differential equations of the simplest boundary layer problems. Ann.

Math_ 4.1, 381 -407 (11)42).

[:10.) .Ianour, Z.: Resistanoe of a flat plate at low Reynolds numbers. NACA TM 13Hi (1961).

(7.00)

Here, tho trailing edge has been accounted for, hub nob the displacement effect.

Tho diugrnm in I~ig. 7.11, reproduced from the work of It. K Melnik and It; Chow [18a], shows t.hat tho values of Cf computed wit.h tho aid of eqn. (7.60) agree very well wlt.h the results obtained from the complete Navlor-Stokes equations as ~ell.as with those of. measurements down to RI = 10. At R, = 40 eqn. (7.00) leads to c, = 0-:1l6 which IS less than 2% III excess of the exact va luo c, = 0·311.

Section IXj will return to the discussion of exact. solubiona of boundary-layer equations of second order.

References

[1) Bairstow, I •. : Skin friction. J. Itoy. Aero. Soc. 19, 3 (1925).

(2] Blnsius, H.: Grenzschichten in Fltlsslgkclten mit kleiner Roibung. Z. Math. Phys. ,,6, 1-!J7 (I!lO!!). Engl. trnnsl. in NACA TM 1256.

[3) Boley, RA., and Friedman, M.B.: On the viscous flow around the leading edge of a flat

plate. JASS 26,453-454 (1969).

[4) Hurgcrs, J.M.: The motion of a fluid in the boundary layer along a plane smooth surface.

Proc, First Intern. Congr. of Appl. Mech., Delft 1924 (C.B. Biezeno and J. M. Burgers, ed.)

Delft, 1926, pp. 113--128. .

[Ii) Carrier, G.F., and Lin, C.C-: On the nature of the boundary layer near t.he leadmg edge of a Ilut plate. Quart. Appl, Math. VI, (j3-68 (11)48)_

[H) Dhawan , S.: Direct meaaurements of skin friction. ~ACA Rep. 1121 (1953)_ .

[7J Van Dyke, M.: Higher approximations in boundary layer theory. Part. I: General ana.lysis.

J FM 14, WI-I77 (1962). Part 2: Application to leading edges. JFM 14, 481-401) (I !l(2). Part 3: Parabola in uniform stream. JFM 19, 145-1511 (1964).

[8J Van Dyke, M.: Perturbation methods in fluid mochanics. Academic Pross, New York, 11164. [91 Vnn I)ykc. M.: Higher-order boundary layer theory. Annual Review of Fluid Meeh. I, 2(i!i 202 (1!)(iIl).

a. Dependence of the charnctoriatics of a boundary Inyer on the Reynolds 1111111 bor l!i I

dimensionless quantities were used; all velocities were referred to the free-stream velocit.y flo<" all lengths having been reduced with UlC aid of a characteristic length of t.ho body, D. 1)cnot,ing all rl irnensionless mngnitudes hy a prime, thus lI,fU,,) =u', ... ,x/ L = x', ... , we obtain the following equations for the steady, twn.dimensionn l case:

CHArTEI{ VIII

,OU' , 011,' r dV' 1 B21L'

U ax; + v ay; = Ui:ix' +jf 8i/'j ,

au' OV'

ax' + all = 0,

(8.1 )

(;encral properties of the boundary-layer equations

(H.2) ,

y' = 0: 1£' = v' = 0; y' = 00

u' = U' (x') ;

Before passing to t.he oalculat.ion of Iurt her examples of bou~ldary-laycr flow in t.ho next, chn.ptcr, wc propose fir"t. to discuss some general proJ?C1·tlcs of the boundary-layer eqllntiow'l. In doing so wc shall confine our at.t,entlOn to steady. t.worli rnensiolUtl, and incom prt-ssiblc bnu nrln rv layer".

Although Ow houudnry-Inycr equat.iollR have been simplified to a great ext.cnt, as enmplLJ'!'(1 wil.h t.ho Navier·8t.okcs oquat.ions. t.hoy arc still RO cli Ifiou It. from t.hc mnt.hr-mn.t.icnl point of view t.hnt, not. very many general stnt.omonts about them can be made. To bC1gin with, it· is important. to notice that the Nnvier-Stokes (1fJuat,ionH n.ro or HI!' !'lIipl,ie typo wit.h respect, t.o the ·eoorrlinat.c;s, whereas. Pm!l{I~.rs houndury-lnyer cqun.t.ious are p:Lraholic. It, is !t consequence or l.ho :mnpllfyltlg IlSSlJm pt.ions in houndary-lnyer t.hcory that t.he pressure call be assurncd constant in a direction at right !tngles to the boundn.ry layer, whereas along the wa~1 the pressure can he regarded as being "impressed" by the external flow so that It becomes n. givell fund,inn. The reslllt,ing .omission of tho .efJlmtion of ,.not,ion perpe~lc1iollbr to t.hc direction of' flow cnn he IIIterpreted physically by st.al.ing that a Iluirl part.ide in til!' boundary layer has zero mass, and suffers no frictional drag, as far as it.s mot.ion in t.he t.ransvorsc direction is concerned. It, is, therefore, clear t.hat, wit.h such Iundumcntul changes inbroduocd into tho cqllat.ions of motion we must nnt.icipatc that. t.hcir solutions will exhibit certain mathematical singularities, and thn t, agrn·mcllt. bet. ween observed and calculutcd phenomena. cannot always

be eXl'ed.ed.

see also cqs. (7.10) to (7.12). Here R denotes the Reynolds number formed wit.h tho aid or thc referencc qunnt.itics

R = !!_rx>_!j .

v

and

It is seen from cqns. (8.1) and (8.2) that UIC boundary-layer solut.ion depends on one parameter, the Reynolds number R, if the shape of the body, and, hence, f.ho potential motion U' (x') are given. By the use of a further transformation it is possible to olimina.to tho Reynolds number also from eqns. (8.1) ami (8.2). If we put.

o" = v' {If = ,';.;; -v~::~ (8.3H

y" = y' {If = 1 -v~';.~ , (8A)t

eqns. (8.1) and (8.2) transform into:

U' i1~~ + o" ~~'. __ ,dV' a2 U'

aX' oy" Ud~' + fjiTi ,

(8.5)

Ou' av"

~ox' + By" = 0

(8.6)

t C/. RtwFI. VHf n'HI IXi·

wit.h the boundary conditions: 1t' = 0 and v" = 0 at 1/" = 0 and u' = U' at ,/. =00. These equntions do not now contain the Reynolfis number, so that the solut.ions of this system, i. e. the functions u' (x', y") and u" (x', y"), are also independent of the Reynolds number. A variation in the Reynolds number causes an affine transformation of the boundary layer during which tho ordinnto and the velocity in tho transverse direetion arc multiplied by R-I/2. In other words, for a given body tho dimonaionloss velocity componont.s u] U co and (v/ U "") . (lJ 00 LII')I/2 I),rn fllll~'t.ioIlR of the dimensionless coordinates x/L and (lI/L) . ([Joe 11/1')'/2; the functions, moreover, do not depend on the Reynolds number any longer.

The practical importance of this principle 01 ,~imilarity with res-pert 10 Ilryno/ft8 number consists in the fact that for a givell body shape it suffices to find the solution to the boundary-layer problem only once in terms of the above dimensionless variables.

a. Dcperulcllcc of the c1rnrnetcristicB of a bnundnry layer 011 the Hcynolds nurnher ]

The nssumpt.ions which were made in the dorivnt.ion or the boundary-layer cqunt.ions are sutiefied with an increasing degree of accuracy as the Reynolds number increases. Thu» boundnry-lnyor theory call be rcganled as 1\ process of asymptotic [ntcqration. of t.ho NfI,vier-St.olws e(plIl-t.ions at vel'y large ReYllol!is numhors". This Rt,akment. lr-nrls WI IlOW to a disoussion of the relationship between the Reynolds number ami Uw charnctorist.ics of a boundary layer on our individual body under {'.onsiclcrat.ion. It, will 1m recalled that. in tho dcri vat-ion of tho boundary-layer equations

* Tho argulllC'llt. eontuincd in this secf.ion was nlrondy discussed in Sec. Vl Ifvon highororder nI'I'I'OXi.lI1lt.inIlR. '1'1", 1tIllI'Iilic"lt.ioll is giv('11 here for t,11<' snk« of hdt.N IlllriC'rRtnllrlillg.

t Thi« t.rnnsfortnn.t.ion iA iclC'llt.ien.1 wit.h UlItt impliod ill ~'IIlA. (7.17) nnd (7.1R).

152

VIII. General properbies of the boundary-layer equations

h. 'Similar' solutions of the bounda.ry-Iayer equnf.ions

15~

Such a solution is valid for any Reynolds number, provided '.hat the boundary layer is laminar. In parbiculnr, it follows further that the position of the point of separation is independent of the Reynolds number- The angle which is formed between the streamline through the point of separation and the body, Fig. 7.2, simply decreases in the ratio l/RIIZ as the Reynolds number increases.

Moreover, the fad that, scparaf.ion docs take place is preserved when tho proemm of passing to t.he limit R -4- 00 is carried out. Thus, in the case of body shapes which exhibit separation, the boundary-layer theory presents a totally different picture of the flow pattern than the frictionless potential theory, even in the Limit of R -4- 00. This_ argument confirms the conclusion which was already emphatically stressed in Chap. IV, namely that the process of passing to the limit of frictionless flow must not be performed in t.ho dilTerential equations themselves; it may only be undertaken in the integral solution. if physically meaningful results are to be obtained.

It will be reca~led that with the similarity trans/ormation 7] = y {u 00/; ~, eqn. (7.24).' we oht~l1led an ordinary dilTerential equation, eqn. (7.28), for tho st.roam function /( 1]), instead of the original partial dilTercntial equations.

. We shal.'. n?w ,conee:n our~elves with the types of potential flows for "":h IIJh RII~h ,Rlmll~r 8011l1.1OI1R CXIRt. ThiH problem wus diH(:IJHH(~d ill groat. d('I,ail r.rH!. "y. H. (,()ldH(,(~1II 1<1 J, nnd lut.or by. W - Mangler to J. i Tho point. 0(' departure il:! to consider the ~oundary-Iayer equations for plane steady flow, eqns. (7.10) and (7.11) together With eqn. (7.5a), which can be written as

au Ov

-+-=0

0% oy

au au dU o'u

u,,+v-·_=U-+v--

as: oy dx 8y' '

t r

(8.8)

b. 'Similar' solutions of the boundary-layer equations

the boundary conditions being 11. =-~ 1) = 0 for 1/ = () and 1L = U for !I ,_= oo, The cquat.ion of conf.inuif.y IS intcgrntod by t.ho iut.roduot.ion of thn sbronrn fUIld-ion "I{J (x, y) with

A second, and very im porta nt, question arising out of the solution of boundarylayer equations, is the investigation of the conditions under which two solutions are 'similar". We shall define here 'similar' solutions as those for which the component u of the velocity has the property that two velocity profiles u(x, y) located at different coordinates x differ only by a scale factor in u and y. Therefore, in the case of such 'similar' solutions the velocity profiles u(x, y)at all values of x can he made congruent if they are plotted in coordinates which have been made dimensionless with reference to the scale factors. Such velocity profiles will also sometimes be called affine. The local potential velocity U (x) at section x is an obvious scale factor for u, because the dimensionless u(x) varies with y from zero to unity at all sections. The scale factor for y denoted by g(x), must be made proportional to the local boundary-layer thickness. The requirement of 'similarity' is seen to reduce itself to the requirement that for two arbitrary sections, XI and x2• the components tL(X, y) must. satisfy t.he following equation

'~{x,,[y/g(xllJ} u {xs' [y/g(xs)]}

U(xl) U (xs)

a." v =-8;';'

Thus the equation of motion becomes

(fUI)

(8.7)

with t.he boundary condi!,ions otp/iJx = 0 and iJV'/oy = 0 for y = 0, and otp/oy = Il for 11. = 00_ In order to dISCUSS the question of 'similarity', dimensionless quantities are mt~odueed, as was done in Sec. VIIIa. All lengths are reduced with the aid of a euitable reference length, L, and all velocities are madc dimensionless with reference to a suitable velocity, UO<)' As a result the Reynolds number

R = UooL "

The boundary layer along a flat plate at zero incidence considered in the preceding chapter possessed this property of 'airnilarity'. The free-stream velocity Uoo was

the scale factor for u, and the scale factor foi y was equal to the quantity (J = y--;;x/ U 00 which was proport.ional to the boundary-layer thickness. All velocity profiles became

identical in a plot of ulll «; against y/y = y y U;:;j~-;; = 7], l~ig. 7_7. Similarly, t.he cases of two- and t.hroe-dimcnsione.l stagnation flow, Chap. V, afforded examples of solutions which proved to be 'similar' in the present sense.

The quest, for 'similar' solutions is part.iculnrly impor-tant with respect to t.he mal homnt.ionl charnct.or of the solution. In cases when 'similar' solutions exist il. is possible, II~ we shnll st'e in more detail later, to reduce the system of partial different.iul equnt.ions to one involving ordinary dilTerential equations, which, evident.ly, constitutes a considerablc mathematical simplification of the problem. The houmlnry layer along a flat pinto can serve as a.n example in this respect also.

appears in the equation. Simultaneously the ll-coordinat.e is referred 1.0 the dimensionless scale factor y(x), so that we put

(8.1O)t

1" The transformation

I

1]* =~lll (1 + 2 A 'I),

prop?sed by .F '. Schu]t,z-.Grunow [6a, 1511.], makes it possible to reduce several problems involvmg self-similar solubions to that of the flat plate at zero incidence. If A = 6/2 R is chosen as the curvatll~e parameter, the tran.Bformatiolls can he applied to flows along longitudinally curved wal~8 WIth blunt or ?ha~ leading edges a.s well as with blowing or suet.ion (Chapt. XIV). The preceding trunsformat.ion IS exact to second order in curvat.ure which means that nil terms 01 the order A have been included.

J54

VIII. General properties of the boundary-layer equations

b. 'Similar' solution of the boundary-layer equations

U;5

The factor VR- for the ordinate already appeared in eqll. (8.4). The stream function ill made dimensionless hy t.ho subst.it.ution

'P(%, y) y'T / (;.1]) = tU(x)g(z),'

(8.11)

This nqunt.ion wns fir'st given by V. M. Falkner and S. W. Skan [2]. and its solutions were later studied ill detail by D. R. Hnrf,ree [6J. We shall revert to this point. in l.he suoceeding chapter.

It, remains now to determine from mJll. (8.14) the eondit.ions for 11 (x) Ilnd g(x). From (8.14) we obtn in first

2 oc - {3 = _I,. ~I (g2 V) UOO dz

Conscquent.ly , t.he vclocil.y components become

O'P 8J ,

u = ..... = V ~- = V / •

oy OTj

,/ -- ,r- . 01{1 d (oJ g")

- r R v = r R ... = L /- ( V g) + V g - - - L .. 1] f ,

ax d% 8; 9

(8.12)

and hence, if 2 oc - P + 0,

U %

U gZ = (2oc-{3)

00 L

(8.17)

where the prime ill I' dCIIOt.e8 rliflcrcnt.iation with respect, to '/' and with respcnt. to x in g'. It. is now seen dircctly from cqll. (8.12) t.hat the velocity profiles 1t(X, y) fire similar in t.ho previously defined sense, when HIe stream Iunct.iou / deplHlds only Oil !.lIP one vnrinble 'I. eqn. (S.10), RO that. the rlcpcurlcneo of f on ~ i!1 cnncclled. In thia (: n,,9C , moreover, the pnrtial differential equation for the stream Iunct.ion, eqn. (RU), must reduce itself to an ordinary differential equation for 1('1)' If we now proceed to investigate the conditions under whieh this reduction. of eqn. (8.H) takes placc, we shall obtnin t.ho condition which must be sat.isfied by thc potont.ial flow (J (x) for such 'similar' solutions to exist.

If we introduce now the dimensionless variables from cqns. (8.10) and (8.11) into eqn. (8.9), we obt.a.in Lho following difforent.ia.l equation for /(;.1]):

Furt.l1l'r from (8.14) we have

rx. - {1 === - L g g' U U""

(rx.-{3) 'L = . L g2 v,g' = fJ s'

U U"" g g

so t.hat \I pon in tograt.iou

( U )("-(1) JJ

U' =Kg,

00

(8.18)

rtf -I- oc , r -t- {3 (1 - /,2) = (L g2 (/' ~; -- r ;f)

(8.13)

where ]( is a constant. The elimination of y from cqns. (8.17) ami (8.18) yields t.he velocity distribution or the potential flow

2 JJ

U 2~_:_7i [ x ']2~_:_"

.. - = K (2oc -(3) -

Uoo L

(S.W)

where oc a lid fI n re contradi(lnR for thr- following funct.ions of x:

and

L" d

oc = U~dx (Vg);

(8.14)

g = If(2:=IJ)f (tYJ -~. -

(8.20)

and where (I' ~c dl1/d:r. The boumlurv eoridit.ions for I'l(n. (8.1:l) an' f /' ,"' 0 for 1] ." () and /' ,.., I for 'l ,',- oo .

'Hilllilar' solut-ions r- x isl, only when / and /' do nol. d"I)()IHI on t, i. c. whnn Lit .. right.-hand Hid .. of C(lil. (8.1 :J) vn.nishos. SiIllIlH.a.ncolIsly the cooffleionts I"l :t11l1 P on t.he left-hand side of cqn. (8.1:1) m list. Ill' independent or x, i. o., t.hcy must. be eonst,ant.. This lnt.t.or oour lit.ion, combinod with e(ln. (8.14), furnishes t.wo p~llrat.i()w-l 1'01' tlw pot.ont.iul v('I()(~it . .\' (r (:1:) n.nd the sculo fad-or 9 (2:) for tho ordinate, so t.hn L t.hoy ('1111 Iw (·\·ahmkd. l loneo, if similar SOIIlI.ioIl8 of boundary-luyor !low n.re 1.0 e x isl , t.lu- st.rcnm fund-ion 1(1]) must. Hat.isfy t.lle following ordinary <lilli·rent.illl

() and

It. will Ill' recalled that, the case 2 IX - P c= 0 has hcpn excluded.

AR seen from eqn. (8.14) t.he result, is independent, of any common factor of IX nIH! fI, liS it 1'1lI] be included in g. Therefore ns long as oc * 0 it is permissible to put IX === +. I without. loss of generality. Jt is, furthermore, convenient, to int.roduco a. new consf.unt rn t.o replace f3 by puU,ing

(J

111 "'.~ 2=fi ' (8.~1)

r-quut.ion :

as in t.his way I.he physiea.! 1l1ll:tlling of th(: soluf.io n will hccorno clourcr. l lcnc«

i" I oc If" I P( I "2) . ()

(8.11)

wit h till' boundary cond iti"""

1}

n

/ c·= () ,

/'

'/ -r: oo

(R.16)

so thut., with IX = I, the volocitv rlist.ri hut.ion of tho pol.cut.ial flow and t.lH: seal" luct.o r fl for t.ho ordinate become •

156

V II r. General properties of the boundary-layer equations

<I. Transformation of the boundary-layer equations into the heat-conduction equation 157

(8.22)

The case a = 0: The case IX = 0 which has, so far, been left out of account, leads, aa is easily inferred from eqn. (8.19), to potential flows U(x) whieh arc proportional to I/x for all values of p. Depending on the sign of U this is the case of a two-dimensional sink or source, and can also be interpreted as flow in a divergent or convergent ch anne I with flat walls. This type of flow will also be considered in greater detail in Chap. IX.

The second case excluded earlier, namely that when 2 IX - P = 0, leads to 'similar' solutions with U (x) proportional to eP"', where p is a positive or negative constant .. We shall, however, refrain from discussing this case. .

The problem of tho existence of similar solutions involving non-steady boundary layers was discussed hy II. Schuh (11}]; the same problem in relation to compressible boundary layers will he diseussed in Sec. XlIld.

(8.23)

and t.he transforma.tion equation (8.10) for the ordinate is

(8.24)

It is thus concluded that. similar solutions of the boundary-layer cquul.ions are obtained when t.he velocity distribut.ion of the potcnt.ial flow is proportional to a power of the length of are, measured along .. he wall from the stagnation point. Such potential flows occur, in fact, in the neighbourhood of the stagnation point of a wedge whose included angle is equal to :n; p, as shown in Fig, 8. J. It is easy to verify with the aid of potential t.heory that we have here

d. Trans£ormation o£ the boundary-layer e'luations into the heat-conduction equation

U(x) =Cxm,

(8.25)

It. von Mises [10] published in 1927 a. remarkable transformation of the boundary-layer equations. This transformation exhibits the mathematical oharnctcr of the equations even more clearly thnn the original form. Instead of the Cartcsiun coordinates x and y, von Mises introduced the stream function 11', together with the length coordinate x as independent variables. Substitut,ing

where C is a constant. The relnt.ionship between t.he wedge angle [actor p and t.he exponent. m is exactly that given in cqn. (8.21).

l?ig. 8.1. Flow l'asL a wedge. In the neigh hourhood of the leading edge the potential vcloeity distribution is U(x) = C x»

~

--~-- JfIJ

~

u=iJv!, oy

v=_·i>J'. ox

into eqns. (7.10) and (7.11), as well as introducing the new coordinates ~ = x and "7 = 1J1 instead of x and y, we obtain

Ou Ou oe OU 0'1 Ou OU

ax = oe ax + 0'1 ax = a~ - v ay, ,

~ = Ou ~~ + ~~ ~~ =0 + u ~~ .

oy oe oy 0'1 oy iJv!

Particular eases for It ~,' 1: (a) For fJ =co I we ha vc m = I, ami eqn. (8.22) becomes U (x) = a x. This is the case of two-dimensionalst(l{Ination flow, which was considered in Sec. Vh 9, and which led to an exact, solnt.ion of the Navier.Sl.oko» oqunf.ions. Wit,h ex ,~ I, and p rr- I, the diffcront.inl equation (8.15) transforms into eqn. (5.:m) which was already considered earlier. The transformn.tiori equation for the ordinate, cqn. (8.24), becomos idonticnl with the already familiar equation (5.38), if we put, l l ]« = a.

(b) For fJ ~= () we have m = 0, hence U (x) is oonstanb and equal to U 00' This is t.he easo of a/h-tllJ/nlc at zero incidence .... It follows fro,In eqn. (8.24)that n =Y lrU:"/2 v x:

This value differs only hya factor V' 2 from that introduced in cqn. (7.24). Correspondingly tho differential equation /''' + II" = () which follows from eqn. (8.15) differs by a fael.or 2 in the second term from !'<In. (7.28) which was solved earlier. The two equnf.ions hecome ident.ieal when t.ransformed to identical definitions of 'Yj.

Solut.ion for different values of 111- will bo considered later in Chap. IX.

Hence, from cqn. (7.10), it follows that

"~i +i ~: = v u :., (" ~~) .

Introducing, further, the 'total head'

9 = p -I- 1 g u~,

(8.26)

where the small qnantity ~ (! v2 can be neglected, we obt.ain, reverting to the syrn hoi x for~:

ilg o'g

- = v u ---_

0% 0.,2

(8.27)

We may also put

11 2·--·-------·--·--

u = - [g-p(x)]. (1

158

VIII. General propcrfies of t,he boundary-layer equabions

c. The momentum and ;,nergy-int.('grnl cqunl.ions for Ihe boundary h'yeT

15f)

Equatdon (8,27) is a differential equal.ion for t.ho t.oLrtl pressure [J (x, 11'), and its boundary eondit.ions arc

[J = p(x) for lJl = 0 and [J = P (x) + ~ (! U2 = const for lJI = 00 .

In order t.o roprosont. HlC now in l.hc physical plane ~', y, it, is ncenss:lI''y 10 t.mnsforrn from I/, t.o ?I wil.h t.ho aid of tho cqun.tinn

y= f d: = V~.r ~~~:(;) .

1"-0

oondit.ions, together with ocrt.nin compat.ihility condit.iona. In I,he remaining region of fluir] in the boundary layer only It mean over the cliffcrontinl cquat.ion is Ratisfied, t he mean being taken over the whole thickness of the boundary layer. Such a mean value is obtained from the momentum equation which is, in turn, derived Iro m the equation of mot.ion by int.egrnt.ion over the boundary-hyer t.hick noss. Sine" t.h is (''1" .. .t.ion will be oft.('n uflcd in Ow uppro x irunt.« mct.hod«, 1.0 lin diHCW4scd lal . .,,., we shall deduce it now, writing it down in its modern form. The equat.ion is known a" Ow momentum-inieqral equation of boundary-layer theory, or as VOIl Kllrlmln'l< integral equn.tion (7).

\Ve shall restrict ourselves to t.ho case of steady, t.wo-d imousiounl, and incomprossiblo flow, i. e., we shall refer to eqns, (7.10) to (7.12). UpOIl intogrnt.ing t.he equa t.ion of motion (7.10) -vi+h respect to y, from !I = 0 (wall) t.o !I =~ It, where tho layer 11 = h is everywhere outside the boundary layer, we obtain:

h

f (u ~~ + v ~~ - U ~f!) dy = _ 1'0.

8x iJy .Ix (!

y-o

(1'.20)

Eqllation (8.27) is related to t,he heat-conduction cquntion. The differcnt.ial cquat.ion for the one-dimensional ease, e. g. for a bar, is given by

aT aOT

at = aaXi" ' (8.28)

where '1' denotes the temperature, t denotes t.ho time, and a iR tho t.hermn.l d iffusiv it.y, sec Chap. XII. However, the transformed boundary-layer equation, unlike cqn. (8.28), is non-linear, because tho thermal diffusivity is replaced by V 'It, which depends on t.ho independent variable x, ns well as on the dependent, variable g.

At t.ho wall, VI = 0, 7t = 0, g = P» eqn. (8.27) exhibits an unplcasantsingulat-ity.

The left-hand ship. becomes og/ox = dl'/dx =t= O. On the right-hand side we have u. = 0, and, therefore, 820/011'2 = 00. This circumstance is disturbing when numerical methods arc used, and is int.irnatcly counoct.od with the singular behaviour of the velocity profile ncar the wall. A detailed discussion of eqn. (8.27) was given by L. Prandt.l [II], who had deduced the t.rnnsformat.ion a long time before the paper by It. von Mises nppeared, wibhout., however. publishing it.], c], [1, 12, 16).

IT. J. Luokorb [RJ applied cqn. (8.27) to the example of the boundary layer on a nat plate in order to test, its procf.ioabiiity. L. Rosenhead and H. Simpson [l3J gfl,ve a orificnl discussion of tho preceding publicat.ion.

The ahcnring st.ress at the wall, To. hns been subst.it.utod for fC(ou/()Y)o, so tlmt eqn. (8.20) is seen to be valid both for laminar and turbulent flows, on condition that, in the latter case u and 1! denote the time averages of the reapoctivo ve locit.y

II components. The normal velocity component, 11, can be replaced hy v = - ! (()u/ox)fly.

o

as seen from the equat.ion of continuity, and, consequently, we have

h II

J (u ~u - ~ J ~1L dy - Udf!) dy = _ To

ax 8y 8x dx e

y-" 0

I nl,('gmting by parts, we obtain for the second term

e. The momentum and energy-integral equation" for the boundary layer

JA (au JII 8U) Jh au fh 8u

-- - dy dy = U -~ dy - It -- dy

8y iJx iJx ax I

11-0 0 0 0

so that

A complete calculation of the boundary layer for a given body with t.he aid of the differential equat.ions is, in many cases, as will bo seen in more detail in the next chapter, so cumbersome and t.ime-consuming that it can only be carried out wit.h t.he aid of an electronic computer (sec also Sec. IX i). It is, therefore, desimble to POf:SCSS at lenst, approximate methods of solution, to he applied ill cases when an exact solut.ion of the boundary-layer cqunt.ions cannot be obtained with a reasonable amount, of work, oven if their accuracy is only limited. Such approximate met.hods can be devised if we do not, insist on satiflfying t.he differential equations for every fluid part.iclo. Instead, the boundary. layer eqnntion is sat.isfied in a stratum near the wall and nen r the region of transition to the external flow by satisfying the boundary

h

J (iJU OIL dU)

2u ax - U ax - U -d; dy =

o

h h

f ;x[U(U-U)]dYI-~~f(U--U)dY~= ~

o 0

(S.2!1a)

t S()(' Ioot.not.o on 1'.79 of ref. 1111 and t,l", lot.tor of L. Prandtl to 7.AMJIl 8, 249 (1928),

. "!f

Since in both int,egrals tho integrand vanishes outside the boundary layer, it, is permissible to put h -+ 00 .

We now introduce the displacement thickness, c'i1, and the momentum t.hickncss, 152, whieh have already been used in Chap. VII. They are defined hy

160

VIII. General properfies or the boundary-layer equations

d. The momentum and energy-Intogrnl equations for the boundary layer

161

00

62 U2 = f u(U-u) dy

,,~o

(momentum thickness) .

(8.31)

side r~presents the loss in mechanical energy (kinetic and pressure energy) taking place In the boundary layer as compared with the potential flow. Hence the term

l o / u (U2 - u2) dy reprceonts the flux of dissipated energy, and the Icrt.-Imnd side rep~ese~ts the rate of change of the flux of dissipated energy per unit I.mgl.ll in til(' z-di rection.

If, in additio~ to the di~placement, and momentum thiekncss from eqns. (8.30) and ~8:31) "espeet.tvely, we mtroduce the dissipation-energy thickness, 6 , from the

dofinif.ion 3

and

<l} U = f (U-u) dy

y~O

(displacement thickness) ,

(8.30)

It will be noted that in the first term of the eqn. (8.2911.), differentiation with respect to x, and integration with respect to y, may be interchanged as the upper limit h is independent of x. Hence

TO = _~ (U2c5 ) + <l U dU e dz 2 ldx

(8.32)

U3 <53 = f u(UZ_u2) dy

o

(energy thickness},

(iU4)

we can rewrite the energy-integral equation (8.:1:J) in the following simplified form:

This is the nwmentum-integral equation lor tun-dimensional, inrompre88ible boundary la!lers. As long as no statement is made concerning TO' eqn_ (8.32) applies to laminar and turbulent boundary layers alike. This form of the momentum integral equation was first given by H. Grusohwitz [5]. It finds its application in the approximate theories for laminar and turbulent boundary layers (Chaps. X, XI and XXII).

Using a similar approach, K. Wieghardt [17J deduced an eneruy-intr.gral equation for laminar boundary layers. This equation is obtained by multiplying the equation of mot.ion hy u and then integrating from y = 0 to Y = h > "(x). Substituting, again, v from the equation of continuity we obtain

d 3 J(ou)2

.Jx- (U' cS3) = 2 Vay dy

o

(H.:J5)

f" [au au (fY au) dU ] fA o'u

e u2 ox - U oy ox dy - u U dx dy = I' u oyS dy .

000

which represents the energy-integral equation for two-dimensional laminar bound,ary

layer8 in incom.pre.",ible floio t. '

In order to visualize the displacement thickness, the momentum thickness a~d the energ~-dissiI)ation thickness, it is convenient to calculate them for th~ Simple case of linear velocity distribution, as shown in Fig. 8.2. In this case we find:

displacement thickness c5} = l 15

momentum thickness 152 = i J

energy thickness 63 = 1 15.

The second term can be transformed by integrating by parts:

h r h

f ru on ( J au dY) 1 dy =!J (U2 - u2) ~ dy

oy oz 2 oz '

o - 0 0

whereas by combining the first with the third tcrm we have

h "

J [UI au - u U .~I!] dy = .!..J U!.. (ul ~ U2) dy .

ox dx 2 oz

o 0

The extension, of the. prcce~g approximate method to axially symmetrical boundary layers will be discussed In Chap. XI. Approximate moth ods for thermal boundary layers are treated in See. XIIg; those for compressible and non-steady boundary layers will be given ill Sec. XllId and Chap. XV, respectively.

Finally, upon integrating the right-hand side by parts, we obtain

Fig. 8.2. Boundary layer with linear velocity distribution

d - boumlary-Iayor thickness d. - displacement thickness its - moment-urn thickness

d. - r.nergy thickness

00 00

.!.. e!_ J U(U2-U2) dy d, I-'J(~)2 dy _ (8.33)

2 dx ,ay

o 0

The uppcr limit, of Integration could here, too, be replaced by y = CXJ, because the integrands become equal to zero outside the boundary layer. The quantity I-' (8u{&!J)2 ropresents, the energy, per unit volume and time, which is transformed into heat by friction [disaipation, cl. Chap. XII). The term te(UZ-u2) on the left-hand

t In the ease or turbulent flows, the energy-integral equation assumes the form

;., {U3(~.)=2 7 ~ ~dy.

o

162

VIII. General properties of the boundary-layer equations

References

[1] 11ct.?;, A.: Zur Boroohnung des Dbcrgallges lnminarer Orenzechiohtcn in die AURRenstr(illlung.

Fifty years of boundnry-lnyer research (W. 'follmicn and H. Gortler, ed.), Bmunschwcig, 196r., 63-70.

[2] Falkner, V. M., and Skan, S. W.: Some approximate solubions of the boundary layer eqnn.tiona, Phil. Mag. 12, 865-81J6 (1031); AltC RM. 1314 (lKIO).

[3] Gcia, Th.: Almliehc Grenxschichten an Rot.atioll~k(irpern. Fifty years of boundary layer research (W. Tollmien and H. O('l"tlor, od.), Braunschweig. HI5fi, 294-303.

[4] Goldstein, S.: A note on tho boundary layer equations. Proc. Cambro Phil. Soc. 35, 338-340 (1939).

[5] (Iruschwit», K: Die turhulente Reibungasohiohb in chenor Rt,riinlUug bei Druokuhfnll und Drucknnetieg. It'g.·Arch. 2, 321-346 (l1l:U).

[6] Hnrtree, D.R.: On an equation occurring in Falkner and Skau's approximate treatment of the equations of the boundary In.yer. Proo. Cnmbr. Phil. Soc. 3.3. ] 'art, II. 22:1- 23!.l (I 0:17). [fin] Holt, M.: Basic developmenta in tluid dynamics. Contribution of F', Schultz Grunow and W. Breuer, 377-436, New York, 1965.

[7] von Karman, Th.: Ober laminare und turbulente Reibung. ZAMM 1, 233--253 (1021).

Engl. trnnsl.in NACA 1'M 10!)2; soe also Coil. Works II, 70--·97, London 1Il5(1.

[8] Luckert., H. J.: Uber die] ntegrntiou dcr Dillcront.ialgleichung eincr G1cit,~chicht in zither l"liiRsigkcit. Diss. Berlin l!13:I, reprinted in: Schriften dCA Mn.th. Seminura, I II "t,. f. angcw. Math. der Univ. Berlin 1, 245 (I H:l:I).

[9] Mungler, W.: Die "iihnlichen" Losungen der I'randf.lachen Grenz8chichtgleichungen. ZAMM 23, 241-251 (1943).

[10] von MiSCH, It.: Bcmerkungen zur Hydrodyna.mik. ZAMM 7, 425-4:11 (1!l27).

[II] Prandl.l, L.: ZlIr Herechnung der Grenzacluchten. ZAMM 18, 77~82 (1!l38); see also Coil.

Works II, (1(13-672, ,I. Hoy. Aero. Soc. 45, 35-40 (1941), and NACA 'I'M !l59 (1!)40). [12] JUegels, 1~ .. and Zaat, J.: ZUIil Obergn.ng von Oreuzschicht.en in die ungestorto Str omung.

Nachr. Aksd. Wiss. Gottingen, Math. Phys, Klasse, 42-45 (11)47).

[13] Rosenhend, L., and Simpson, J.n.: Note on the velocity distribution in the wake behind a flnt, pluto placed along the st.ream. l'roe. Cambr, Phil. Soc . .32, 285-·2UI (11)30).

[14J Schroder, K.: Verwendung dor Diflcrenzenreohnung zur Berechnung der ln.minaren Grenzachicht., Math. Naehr. 4, 439-4,!i7 (19fil).

[I fi] Schuh, H.: Uber die "ahnliohon" Losungen der insta.tioniiren laminaren Grenzschicht· gloichung in inkompresaiblor St.romung, Fifty years of boundary-Inycr research (W. Tollmien and H. Oortlcr, ed.), Brnunschwoig. 1 nr.5 , 147 -152.

[15a] Schultz·{irunow, F., and Hcnselcr, II.: i\hnliche Gren7.Rchicht.HiRnngcll zweitor Ordnung fiir Strontungs- und Temporaturgronzaohichten nn longitudinal gekrummtsn Wanden mit CrenzRehid,tbecinlluRsung. Wiirme- und Stofflihertragung 1, 214--219 (W(18).

[Ifl] Tollmien, W.: Ubor d(1.8 Verhalton ciner Strornung liings einer Wand alii iiusseren Rand ihror HcihulIgssehieht. netz Annivnrsury VOIUlIIC, 218-224 (1945).

[171 Wieghanlt, K.: Obor oinon gnergieRal.7. zur Borooluumg lnminnrer Grnllz"chieht.(H1. Ing ..

An.h. W, 2:11- 242 (11148).

CIIAPTER IX

Exact solutions of the steady-state boulJdarylayer equntions in two-dirncl1Aionol motion

, 'I:Jlo present d~a.ptcr. will deal :vit.h SOIllC cxnct. solul.ious of tho boundar'y-Iayer cquut.ions. A solut.ior; will. he consHjered exact when it ill a eomploto solut-,ioll' of t.he hOllnda?Ia..Yer equations, irrellpeet.ive of whether it is ohtained an:dyt,ieally or b.~ f1(1Il1:-rreal ~ncUlOdfl .. 011 the other hand, Chap. X will deal with a.Plll'(~xilllat·e ROI:lt,lons, I. c. with Sohlt.l()n~ which arc o~t,ailled from integral rclat.ions, such n.s Uu, mornent.nm nll~1 cncrg.v-rntegml equations described ill the preceding dlflpt{'r rnt.hor t.hnn from differential equations '

There. arc in existence only eompnnlt,ivel'y few exact, ana.l.Yt,ieal solut.ions, and we "I~all dISCUSS them first. Generally speaking, t.he pro(.css of obt.aining ana.lyt,ical ~<:h~hon~ of the boundary-layer equations encounters considerable maUlCm~t,ieal (hfhel~llles. as already illustrated with t.!w example of a Iln.t plate. The difforcntie.l ('qnll t.lons are nou-Iinoar in. most ea.s~s so t.hnt., again generally speaking, t,lH'y can be s(~lved o?ly by power-series expansions or by numerical met.hods. Even for the physicully ~trnplest ease of t.he boundary layer on a fln.t plate at zero incidence wit.h H1eomprcssl ble flow no closed-form ann.ly t.io solution has been discovered so far.

. In t.ho case of t,\Vo-<limcnsional mot.ion , t.h« hOllndary-layer eqllatiOJIf' and

t lu-ir boundnrv condiliolls are given b'y "I]IIS. (7.10) l.o (7.12): .

au 8v

-+·--=0

ax 8y ,

(n.l)

8IL 8u

tt ax + t! ay

y=O: u=o, v=O;

u ~u -I- I' 821'

dx ay"

y =00: 1t = U(x).

(11.2)

(U.3)

In addit.ion, a velocit.v profile u(O, y) must. be given at· an init,iallowd,ion, sav, at:1" -,,0. . In llI.fmt, CaRPI'! it. is convenient, f.() illtegmt.n 1.111, ('(lIli1t,iOII or "onl.illl:ily I,y Ill<' IIItrodllet 1011 of It ",{.realll Iunet.ion 11'(:r:, !f), HO t,hnt

u =?'I'. oy ,

a'll v =-8x'

Cons('qupnU.v t.ho st,relIlIl fllndioll m us], 'mt.i~(:\' the following cquntion I~('e a lsn cqn. (7.18)]:

8'1' 0''1' Bv ax oy

(!"1.4)

164

IX. Exact solutions of the steady-state boundary-layer equations

a. Flow past, " wedge

165

with UIO boundary condit.ions (!tp/i!!! = 0 and (!II'/()X =~ 0 ab t.ho wall, y = 0, and ()'I'/oy = U (x) at !I = (X) •

the velocity profiles have no point of inflexion, whereas in the case of decelerafod flow (m < 0, fI < 0) they exhibit a point of inflexion. Sepnra.tion occurs for fI = - 0'199, i. e. for m = - 0·091. This result shows (,hat the laminar boundary layer is able t.o support only a very small deceleration without separation oceuring.

1<' Stowartson [64] gave a clot.nilod allalysis of the manifold of solu "ioll" of e'ln. (!I.R). A(!(!onlillg t.o l.I.i" allltiYHiH, ill !.hn mllgo of ilierenHillg I,,'oAHUI'(\S ( O.I!") <: < fI < 0) there exists a further solution, that is, in addition to the one discovered by Hart.rci . The additional solution leads to a velocity profile with back. flow ic], Chap. Xf).

The potential llow given by U(x) = 1tl xm exists in the neighbourhood of tho stagnation point on a wedge, Fig. 8.1, whose included angle fI, is given by eqn. (9.7). Two-dimensional stagnation flow, as well as the boundary layer on a. 1Ia.1. plate at zero incidence, constitute particular cases of the present solutions, tho fanner for fI = I and Tn = I, the latter for fJ = 0 and m = O.

a. Flow paBt a wedge

The 'similar' solutions discussed in Chap. VIII eOlll'lt.i(.ut.e, a part.ieula.rly.simple class of solutions u (x, y) which have the property that the velocity profiles ~t dtffere:lt di t . s x can he made congruent wif.h suitable seale factors for 1t and y_ 'lhe s~ste .<

IS anee, , ' d 9 2) . lIto one ordinary

of part.inl differential equations (9.1) an (". IS now roc lI?e(. .. • .

1·"" I' 1 q ation It was proved in Chap. VIII t,hat such similar solutions eXls. t ( meren ,1:1 e 11. . . • •• f tl I II

when bhe velocity of tho potential flow .IS pro'port~onal to a power 0 to eng. I

coordinat.e, x, measured from the stagnation point, r. e. for

U(x) =ut x"'.

From cqn. (8.24) it. follows that the tmllsfo~mat,.ioll of the independent variable y, which londa 1.0 an ordinary difTerential equnt.ion, IS:

I

Fig. g.!. Vclocit,y diatr ibution in the laminar boundary layer in the flow past a wedge given by U(x) = 11, xm. The ex ponen t '" and the wedge angle (1 (I!'ig. 8.1) are connected through cqn. (n.7)

1.0
11 = f'(TJ)
ti
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2 1

3

T}~Vm;1'vPxY

(9.5)

The equation of conbinuity is integrated by the introduction of a stream function, for which we put

",+1

'p(x,y) = 11 m ~I- ; V-;~ x 2

II) and (8.23). '.I.'hIIS the velocity components become as SOCII [rom oqns. (8.

U = u1 x'" /'(1/) = U /'(1/),

(9.6)

lnt.roducing t.hoso va luos inl.o the equation of mot.ion (9.1), dividing hy 111. III 3;2nt.-1, and put.t.ing, as in eqn. (8.21),

f3 m=2=7i'

(9.7)

The ease fI =~ ~, m =~:I is worl.hy or at.t.ollt.ioll. In (,his caso (.he dillcrenl.i:d equation for /(17) becomes: l'" '1-/ l" I- ~(1-f'2) = 0; it t,mllRforml'l into f,)u, differential nljuat,ion of rot al.i 011 ally symrnot. r ica] flow with stnguo.t.iou point" o<)n. (5.47),

i. C., <$'" + 2<$<$" + 1 _<$'2 = 0 for <$(1;), if we put 17 = C V2 and dl/dll = d<$/dC. This means that the ealeulation of the bounda.ry layer in the rotationally symmetrical case can be reduced to the calculation of two-dimensional flow past a wedge whose included angle is rc p = n/2.

The relationship between the two-dimensional and rotationally Symmetrical boundary layers will be further discuesed, in a more geneml form, in Chap. XL

If the similarity variable 1'/ defined in eqn. (9.5) were replaced by the independent variable 1j = y V U (x)/v x, the differential equation for the function I' (1]) = u] (J would change its form to

I . II r II . g differential equat.ion for /(1/):

we 0 It,alll ,IC ,0 OWIll II'

t'" + I/"+ fI(1 _/,2) = 0 .

(9.8)

conditions are

It. will be recalled t.hat, it, was already given as C()lI. (8.15), and that, it.s boundary I

1] ~ 0 :

f = n ,

1'-= 0 ;

17 = ex> :

f' = I .

Eqnatioll (IU\) was first deduced by V. M. Falkner and S. W. Skan, and~~," sol~t;~;;s WPH' lat cr invr-stignt cd in detail by D. H.. Hart.ree (sec References to ,1Ilp_ .... ). TIH' solut.ion is roprosont erl ill Fig. fl.\, In the case of accolernted flow (m >O.{1 ,/ ( )

/'" + --~ : I f t" -I- m (1 - /,2) = 0 .

(! •. 8a)

166

IX. Ex .. ~t solutiona of the Rt .. rtclY·R1.nt.e bouudn.ry-lnyr-r cqunt.ions

h. Flow in 11 convcrg('nt chunnol

167

This oquut.ion trnnsforma into that for It nat plate, eqn. (7.28), in t.he special case when m = O. The solutions of the Fnlkner-Skan equation (9.8) have been discussed in detail in [61 J.

we obtain the velocity oompononts,

" = u i' ; v = ._ V" 111 -~ f' . x

(9.11 )

According to J. SI.einheller [63]. an interesting extension of the solu t.inn of the Fa lkncr-Sknn equation (9.8) which is valid for retarded flows (fJ < 0) in cases when velocity distributions possessing a velocity excess (f' (,,) > 1) with a maximum near the wall arc admitted. In Ritch cuses, the limit /'('/) = 1 for '} -~ 00 is attained asymptotically "from above" rather t.ha n "from helow", ns was t.ho case so far. Such solutions can he interpreted physically a.s corresponrling to a laminar wall-jet produced in an external stream with It positive pressure grndient., rlp/d~; > O. Reference [63] domonsd.rntos I,hat U", limiting CORe of tilP.Re solut.ions, obtainod when t.he maximum velocity excess tends to infinity, tranaforrna into t.lH'. well-known sclf-similnr aolut.ion of n pure wall-jet in UlC absence of an extornnl velocity ~. a ('11110 troatcd by 1\1. B. (;IItll(\rt (Ace l40] in Chap. XI)--when we put. fJ = -2.

A pnrtlculnriy detailed monogrnph on CXIWt" self-similnr solutions for laminar houndnry luyers in two-climenaional and rotat.ionnf ly symmetric arrangement.s, inclusive of the associated thermal boundary lnyors (Rec Chap, XTI).WUR publlshed hy C. F. Dewey and ,J. F. GroSA [14]. Their ooneklerutionainclude the effects of compressibility (Rce Cllll,p. XIII) wit-h ami without, hen.t transfer, relate to varying values of the Prnndtl number, and include some cases of suction and blowing,

K. K. Chen and P. A. Libby [91 carried ou t an extensive investigation of bou nrln.ry layers which arc eharncterlzed by smnll departures from the self-similur wedge-flow boundary layers of t.ho Fnlknor-Skan type. F,vidently, auoh bounrlnry IIlYCI'A are no longer Relf-Aimiln.r.

Substil,ut.ing into eqn, (!J.2) WI) obt.ain t.ho ,It·lr~t,~,tlt.t'lll ..

funot.ion " " equal.ton for Lhf'. st.rr-nm

1'" - 1'2 + 1 = 0 .

(9.12)

The I~~:l<ht.'y el~tldit,ioll,l:I. r:)II~lw fnull '"!": (IUJ) nnd Ill".': f' () at. '/ O. nlld t' I and! - O.lll. :7 -= 00, Jilts IS also It pnrt.icular cnso 01 (,ho class of 'aimilnr solut.iom; e?lls1(Jcrc~11Il Chap. V1I L J<:qulttion (9.12) is obtained from tho more getlel'al dilkrclIt.ial equat.ion (8.15) for tho CII.SO of 'similar' boundary layers if we put N = 0 I fI--..J I Tl I ' L ~ , IlII( - - T . re examp e under ?onsidorat,ion is one of UlC rare cases when tho solut.ion of

the boundary-layer equation can be obtained analytically in closed form.

l"irst" upon mult.iplying eqn. (9.12) by f" and int.egrating once, we ha.ve

/,,2 _ i (/' _ 1)2 (f' + 2) = a ,

where <l is a const.a.nt of integrat.ion. Its value ,'0,. zero, /'

,~ I. as = I n nr] /" -.- 0 for

r;'-~ 00 . Thus

h. Flow in n convergent channel

The ease of potent.in l flow given hy t.he cquat.ion U(x) =-~

x

or

(!J.9)

r

'7 = Vi J VU;~~{;-(J'+2j'

o

where the additive constant. of intcgrnt.ion is seen to be equal to zero in the boundary coridit.ion /' = I at, '7 = 00. The integral can bo oxprcssod form as follows:

view of i It eI (J~'C'd

is related to 110ws past a wedge, and also leads to 'similar' solutions. Wit.h ?iJ > 0 it ropresont.s two-dirnenaionnl mot.ion in II. convergent channel with flat. walls (sink).

The volume of flow for a full opening anglo 2n and for a strat.um of unit height is Q = 2 n 1(,1 (I~ig. 9.2). Introducing the similarity transformation

(9.10)

or, solving for /'

.r: { ]I 2 + l' /'21

'7 = I' 2 tanh-l --V 3 - - tanh -I 1 '3- J '

c= ujU:

/' _ u _ 3. I 2 ( '1 )

-1; - Lanh V'2 -1- 1·146 - 2.

(9.13)

as well as the stream Iunct.ion

Here we have suhstit.utcd l.anh-.1 y{ = }·146. Tntrodueing the polar Il.l1gle 0, ul», as well as Q = 2 n r U (1' = radial distance from the sink}, we can replo()e 1/ fro II 1 CfJll. (!I.IO) by

J] = 0 y'fJ} = ~- V~; ,

(0.14)

-x

Fig. !l.2. Flow in a ('onverg"nt channel

Tho ve~ocit..Y distribution given by cfJTI. (9.1:1) is represented ill Fig. n.:l. 1\ f, 1/ = :1 approximately, the boundary layer merges with tho potential flow. Hencc t.h~ honnda~y-Jn'y"r l.hi!'imcRs becomes (~ = :1 x lr;ri_Ti~ ; it c1l'crPlts('s, as ill ot.lror e xa.m pk-s as I/VR. '

168

IX. Exact, solut.ions of the ska<iy.st,ate boundary-layor equations

u

U

O.B

Fig. !UI. Velocity dist.ribution in the laminar boundary Iayer of tho now in It convergent charmel

c. Flow past a cylinder; symmet,rielll ease ( BJo.siuA Reries)

num l~(lr of terms is required; in fact, their num her is R I. r •

pract.wn.ble to trthulat.e them all '(1, 11,·0 .1rge that It, coaacs to be

. " WI ,I 11 rensona) I' amount of I . I I '1'1

IS caused hy the nit'clIInRI'l11e(' th t' II f'I' ,11ImCrJca wor L ,IiH

f ' ." ", alii, 1() case (l s onder body t· .

case 0 nil ellipse lilaCI'd ill a stl'en 1 . II I I' . . -scctions, C. g. III thc

, ' ,., •• 11 pala c 0 IIR mn.jor a' . 1,1

ncrofoil, t.11C potential vplO('ity ncar tl I", '. " ,XIR, or' in IC case of all

tl I I, '" io Ii -agnation point, ill II 'II I I .

,Ie cal Illg edge illCfeltflCS RI, ., I I f ,(. I I . ,IC tlClg I Jour H)()( 01

I 1 I . ('(,]>.y a, IrH, ,trH Lhon VarH'H vm'Y HI I '

( ern ) e dlHI,ance dowllslream Aft' fl' ". ow y over :1 I:OIIHI·

by Ii powcr 'leries with ~ ;,'na'll n'lumnle IOnf °t t liS t.ype cannot be well represcnted

..., , ier 0 erms,"] n it f (I' ,. . .

method is ol great fundamcntal i t 'I' . S~I .e 0 ,IlS Imlt,ahon Blasius's

" ffi ' mpor alice ICcaURC III C'ISCR wlr "

IS 1!J811 icient to reach til!' point of so ti 't " I' ". " en I"S convergence

I . ,", . .para Ion 1 can ic used to I, I t I'

a nr wit.l: great accuraoy lire initial t.i Il.l ca ell a e ana ytJeally

. ' . " "POl' 1011 0 (, io boulldary hy tl ..

POlllt" The ealelliation can I hen I I' I' • aver Ileal' .no stagnat.101l

. I' • " io con ,IIIl1C( WIth t.he aid of ··t II .

mtcgrat.inn method such as for exam} I tl J.'. a Hili a) () numerical

, " urnn o, .ne one described III Sec. IXi.

We shall now very briefly describ tl d

Int-ion of a boundary layer wit.h th' fl. c) fie PBrolce. ure t.~at is followed ,for t,he calcu-

, , e a« 0 a aSlUR serres A I I 'I I

can be found in thc earlier editions of this book [57 In'' ,.morc uo ,al ~'( account,

for the circular cylinder are given more fully. It. owcvcr, the tluUlel'Jealn'sllJt.s

We consider the 8yrnmelric case and assume t.haf tile I"!' I

the form of t.he series 1)0 en .ra flow if; given in

161)

0.6

The preceding solution was first obtained by K. Pohlhausen (50]. It will be recalled from Sec. Vb 12 on p. 107 that the flow through a divergent channel discussed hy G. Hamel constitutes an exact solution of the Navier-Stokes equations. The diagram ill Fig. 5.15 contained Rome numerical results pertaining to this solution. In this connexion, a paper by B. L. Reeves and C . .J. Kippcnhnn [1)2] may usefully be consulted.

c. Flow past a cylinder; symmetrical case (Blasius series)

U(:I:) = 1tl a: + U3 ;t'3 "1- 115 a·5 _1_

, '. ... . (!I.15)

rhe coefficients u u d d I

sidcI'ed known. T~~ e~~ti,;ui~pen OI~ y (~n (,Ir~ shape of the. body and arc to be COI1- function 1/) (x y) i ·---1 __ y~qU1l:tIO!1 IS aat.isficd by the IlItl'Oduetion of It stream-

.. ;'; Y;' .: n anaogy WIth eqn. (9.15) it, is plauaible also to a " .

serrcs 111 .T, It.S coefficient,s being treated as functions of 1 '1'1 '1',.' f dlopt a p,0wcr form of the power series is ov db' ' .'/, io C 10Ice 0 j, IC par ticular tained in it inde ,endent of t~e erne . y the desire to rende: t.hc functions of JI eonflow, In this ma~ner the funeti~~effi~lell~R 1.tl, 113, u~, ... which describe the potential and for all. ' .mns ° y ecomo universal and can be calculated once

The class of 'similar' solut.ions of the boundary-layer cquat.ions considered RO far is comparatively narrow. Apn.rt from the examples of the flat plate, stagnation flow, flow past a wedge, and flow in a convergent channel which have already been described, few add it.ionnl solut.ions can he obtained. We shall now consider t,he general case of the boundary layer on a cylindrical body placed in a stream which is perpell' dicular to its axis. The method of solut.ion was first given by H. Blasius [4]; it was developed further by K. Hiemenz [::I9J and L. Howarth [40). It is necessary to distinguish here t.wo cases depending on whether the cylinder is symmetrical about an axis which is parallel to the stream at a large distance from the body or not. '-'Te shall refer to these two eases as to the symmetrical and asymmetrical case, respcct.ivoly.

r n either case the velocit.y of the potent,ipLflow i~ assumed to ha ve .11JeJ~~m of a power .series in x, where x denotes the diRtane.o. from t.he, sl,agrmt.ion_poillt, measured alollg tho contour. The volocif.y profile in t,]1C boundary layer is ulso represented as a Rlmiinr power series in x, whcre the coefficients arc assumed to he Iunct.ions of the coordinate y, measured at right angles to the wall (Blasiue series). IL Howarth succeeded in finding a substitution for the velocity profile which confers universal validity on the y.dependent, coefficients. In other words, by a suitable assumption regarding thc power series, its coefficients have been made independent of tho part.iculars of the cylindrical body, so thnt. the resulting functions could be evaluated and presented in the form of t.ahlcs. Thus the calculation of the boundary layer for a given shape becomes very simple if IIRC is made of tho tables, provided t,hitt, the tabulation extends over a sufficiently large number of terms of tho series.

The 1Isefulness of Bln,Rills's mnthod is, however, severely restricted by thc fact, thn.t. prccisr-ly ill UIC most import.ant case of vcry slender body-shapes, a large

The distance from t.he wall is made dimensionlcss by assuming]

V-

1(1 r;=!1 -.

I'

(n. W)

Thia leadfl t.o t.he form

(9.) 7)

for t,he stream.function with the aid f whi I it

the approprinte series for the I it. w lie 1 I now becomes possible to determin«

R . . " ve ocr y components 11 = otploy an 1 ~ -0 If)

~ UhSt.rtllt.lIIg t,heRe exprcssuona into the e ti f' ( v - tp (x.

, ,qua Ion 0 mot.irm (9,2) we compare cocffi.

t This form is obtainod from the Blasius e n (724) I' . ..

Itl X for Uoo• This brings wit.h I'f II I' ql" 'Y snlmflflltmg III It, the first, term (H.lr.) i " . ." ", .ue (Isa( vantage thnt'( d t I ' ... lIlerease III the llOlIn(!arv.layer th icknos . tl I" I, OC8. no lila {C an nllownnco for f he

o ' , , ,.8 III Ie (ownstrenll1 d,rection.

170

IX. Exact solut.ions of th<1 atoady-stato boundary-layer equations

c. Flow past a cylinder: syrnmet.ricnl case (the J31Mius series)

171

oients and thus obt.n.in a syatcm of ordinary differential equat.ions for the functions It, /3, .... The first two equations turn out to be

I? _- t, 1'; = I + I~" } 4/l/~ - a Ii' 13 - 11/;' = J .]. I;"·

1,5

Fig. 9.5. Velocity distribution in the boundary layer on 1\ circular cylinder

• - angle mensured rrom stagnation pnl nt

(!l.J 8)

In t.hCRC, dlllurcnt.inl.ion wil.h rcspccl. (,0 rl is <1(,110(,('<1 by primo«. 'I'ho !vIH()(~iILt."d boundary oondit.ions are

f/ = 0:

/1=/1=0; 13=./;=0)

I~ = 1; /; = ! .

(n.1 n)

All differential C(plltt-iOIlA for the funcl.ionnl coefficients arc of the third order, and only the first one, t.hat. for h, is non-linear; it, is identical with the equation for twodimensional stagnat,ion now, eqn. (5,:l!)), disoussod in Chap. V. All remaining equations arc linear and their cocfficient.s arc expressed in tcrma of the functions associated with the preceding terms, The funct.ions " and '3 have been calculated already by K, Hicmenz [3IlJ, and their first, clori vut.ivcs arc ropresontcd graphically in Fig. 9,4, The Iunot.ion I; for t.he velocity dist.rihut.ion WlLR reproduced earlicr ill Fig, ruo awl Tahle 5,( (when it, was denoted by f'), The higher-order functions can be found in the earlier eel it.ions [57 a].

O.S

Fig,9.4. The funct.ions I,' and I,' which appear ill t.h" Bla,Rill!! power aeries.

0,5 1.0

1.5 2.0 2.S 3.0

7J~Yl/F

The velocity profiles for different, values of f are seen plotted in Fig. 9.5 which is based on n series for t,he velocity, 1/" carried as far as the term ill xII. The velocity profiles for cp > 90° possess It point of inflexion because they lie in the region of increasing pressure.

Example s Circular cylinder. We sha!l now apply the method out.lined ill the preceding paragraphs to the case of a circular cylinder. r n order to be definite, we base the ealoulat.ion on t.he pressure clist.ribution obtained [rom potential theory, alt.hough ill UIC litcrat.ure tho problem was frequently solved with t.he aid of all r-xpcr+mcnt.n.lly rh'knni,wd prefll'Ure dist.rihution. The idenl vclocit.y dist.rihut.ion ill non-viscous, irrot.n.t.ioual flow past. n ciroulnr cylimlpr of rnrliua Rand frpc-st,ream vdonit.y U"" parallel (,0 t.hc .r-n.x ia is giv('J1 by

The distribution of shearing stress TO = II (Du/8y)o is plotted in Fig. 1l.6, The position of t.he point. of separation results from the condition that, TO = 0, and is given by

1> s = 108.80

(/", 111 .= 2 .--.~ II

Fig. !I.n. Variation of shearing stress I\t the WILli over t.he circumference of a circular cylinder for n laminar boundary layer

u(;r) = 2 rJ", sill ;1'/ H =! 2 Uoo Sill 1> ,

(!J.20)

wil('I'I'rf> is I.he angle 1l1('aSIlI'('" from (hI' f't.ngnalillll point" Expnnrling sin :1:/ R int.o IL ~('ri('R and cOlllparing it, wit.h Ural. ill (''Ill. (\),1 il), WI' lind thn.t

172

] X. Exact solutions of the sl,cady-state boundary-layer equations

d. Boundary layer for the potential flow given by U(x) = Uo - ax"

dU (a2U)

U-=~v -.-. .

dx a!l2,,~1l

(0.21)

were made the basis of his houndary-layer calculotions. ,His measurements showed soparat.ion at.ps = 81°, whereas the calculation indieatedl.ps = 82°. Later O. Flnchehart published extensive expcrimont.al rlal;a on tho prc:-dure dist.ribut.iou, Fig. 1.10, which point to a lnrgoinfluenoo of t.hn Reynolds number. 'For vuluos of t.he Reynolds number belon: the critical t,(1C pressure minimum (locum 1l.ln"uly ncar 1> - 70°. ".lId Ibn pr{'R::;Urn ifl nearly eOIIHLn,llt, ov er UI{I whole dOWIIHtro:\,1I1 pOltion of t.!,,, c_yli,"I{,,'. For Reynolds numbers above the critical t.he pressure minimum shifts to <p "'~ 00° approximate Iy, in agreement with the potential-flow theory and, 011 the whole, the pressure dist.ribn tion departs less from that given by the potential theory than in the • previous case. Bot.woen these values, i. e. ncar a critical Reynolds Il1Im bel' of approximately U 00 ])/'1' = 3 X 105, the drag coofficiont of tho eircnlar cylinder decl'{'aRes abruptly (Fig. 1,4,), and this phenomenon indicatca (,hat, t.ho boundary byer has become turbulent (sec Sec. XVUIf).

The laminar boundary layer on a circular cylinder was also invesl,igakd by A. Thorn [67], at a Reynolds number Uoo D]» = 28,000 and by A. Fnge [161 ill the range u.: Dlv = 1·0 to 3·3 X 105• A paper uy L. Schiller and W. Lin!{(~ [54J contains some considerations concerning pressure drag and skin friction ill !.II() region of Reynolds numbers below the orit.icnl. In the range of Reynolds 11I1IIIb(~rs from about 60 to about 5000 there exists bchind the cylinder a vortex street which shows a regular, periodic structure (Figs. 2.7 and 2.8). The frequency at which vortices arc shed in this so-called von Karmrln vortex street has been investigated by II. Blenk, D. Fuchs and H. Liebers, and, more recently by A. Roshko (see Chap. II).

Ift.l ' ics were t,cr-minated at x9, t.he point, of sopnration would turn Ol.l~ to

, ie power ser ., ' b '1 ith rical

l t J, __ I()!)'(]O 13ett.cr accuracy can nowadays he 0 tn.iner WI, nurne

ie a, 'r8--- ')'.'

mot.hods, seo SecR. IXi and Xc3.

f tt '. ICI' lat ion hnsod on 11 I,ower Aeries call he test.ed for speed

The accuracy () ,III' ca '. . .., Li . I

. ·f t.l it.t 1 )()l'tiol1 of the serres by invoking tho cotu titans 0

of convergence 0 ,Ie orm "C( • . •

ti 'l'tl'! nt tho wnll According t.o o{ln. (7.Hi), we must. have

"om.po. 1 111. ..' ,<, .,. ,

Fig. 9.7. Verification of tho first compatibility eondit.ion from eqn. (9.2l) for t.he laminar boundary layer on a circular cylinder from Fig. 9.ri. Tho first compatibility condition is satisfied approximately as far as Borne point beyond separation

d. Boundary layer for tbe potential Bow given by U(;r) = Uo - ax"

• f\ 7 . tl c curvature of the velocity profiles mcaaurcd at. the wall with

Figure" com pal es ,1 • , • 1 f I' t ':1'

~ . . I . t d by UdU/d-r. The agreement, 18 gOO( or a (IR ance .'

It" exact va lie repl eBcn .e .. £1' .:

I· md tl .' t of sCI)nral"lon Wc mav therefore, conclude that the fLSIUS SCI lOR

IOY01l( ,Ie pom .. <, , • , J , • .. • • '. I' ]'

t . I' t the term xll satisfics the compat.ibili ty conclitlUn on a errcu at ey Ill-

crmma. ,rng a, , . . , . f t.i It I rot however

I· t .: t -hich lies beyond t.]1C point. () I'cpara .ion. noes I ". . ,

( or up .o a pom ' " . . t tl ,I -it lrofile wit.h good

'1 I' 111\\' thai the t.runcn.tcd RCI'W8 rcprcscn s . io \ P ocuy I .

IIp('el'~arr'y () { '. " , .

JH·~un"ey. .

'I] t.ioncdv i tile case of more slender body-shapos conSIderably

As a reru y men .roner ,)11 ' • "" ..•• • I I -it.v

re terms of' the Bla.sius series are required, If It IS desired to obtain t.he ve ~('I ,)

n:~fiie~ as far as' t.h e poin t of Repam tion. Ho.wevflr '. the ,cvaluat,ion of fll rt.h er fun et.lo~~I~~ ~{)effieients is hindered hy eonsider.able (hffi?ulhes. These ar~ ~~~e n(l~i~n~y u~~ions

hct that for every addit,ionfLl torm III t.he senes the number 0 (I er~n." q 1 t

t~) '116 ~oived in~rcnRes, but also, and even more forcibly, the dif~cu t.ios ~re { uC. ,0 'he ~e'ed to ovaluutc the functions for the lower power terms WIth .ever 1I1erea~ll1g ~ccur~ey, if I,IIC functions for the higher power t.orms are to be suffiClent.Jy aeeUl~t.e.

L. i] owar th [40J r-xt.cndcd the prcRent, mo~hod to include t~1C as.Ymmct.;~~~~

en R!' hut t.ho t.abulat,ion of t.he functional coeffiCIents ~a.s not carried be~ond ft tI '. ' . , 2 N]~ r 12il] carned out an exbension () , us eOITespond ing to t.ho powcr x. . .. roess I ng ": " . . . I l' Cha X I

rnd,hod to 1.he rot.at,iollally RymnH'trical case which will be consic crc( III ~ ,p. ~ ,

1\IC;JSllrrlllCnl.i:1 of t.ho pre:';RuJ'e dist.ribution a\olllH~ a drCl~lar. :ylinder ,;;~;.~

report,ed hy K. Tl ir-mr-nz in his t.hcsis presenf.cd t.o (,oet.t.llIgcn University [:l91· J

A further family of solutions of the boundary-layer equations was found by L. Howarth [411 and I. 'I'ani [06]. These solutions relate to tho potential !low given by

U(x) = Uo-axn (n=I,2,3 ... ),

(0.22)

which, evidently, constitutes a generalized form of the flow along a flat plate (see See. VUe), and becomes identical with it when we put a = O. In the ~imple6t case with n = I, which was treated by L. Howarth, the flow can be interpreted n.~ that which oecurs in II. channel which consists of 1\ portion with parallel walls (velocity V 0) followed by either a convergent (a < 0) or a divergent (a > 0) section+. This is another example of a, boundary layer for which the velocity profiles are not similar. L. Howarth introduced tho new independent variable

(1).2;1)

which is identical with that used in the flat plate solution at zero incidence. He assumed further

* ax

x = --.-~--

Uo

(x' < 0, accelerated flow; x* > 0, decelerated flow). It. is nOW possible to stipulate n power series

t Whl'\n equation (9,22) is written in the form U(1:) = Uo(l-x/L) for n = I, it can also be interpreted as representing tho potential flow along a nat wall which stn.rt,q at x = 0 and which nhuta 011 to another infinite wall at right angles to it aI, x = L. It is of t.he same typo as the case of decelerated stagnation flow shown in Fig. 2.17, the st.ngnat,ion point being at x =, L.

174

IX. Exaet aolutlons of the At.eadY-Rt,atc boundary-layer equnbions

e. Flow in the wake of Ilnt plate at zero incidence

]75

in x* for t,he strenm function in n manner aimilnr to the ense of the cylinder, Sec. TXc, the eoefficienl.s being functions of y:

lIenee the velocity of /low becomes

u = ~Uo{fo'('1) - (8 x*) 1/('1) + (8 x*)! 1,'('1) - + ... }.

(!l.2!»)

and c1ccolmllted /low Me seon plotted in Fig. 11.8. [f. should be noted t.lmt. all profiles in decelern.t.ed flow have a point, of inflexion. D. H.. Hartrce PS] repeated thoao calclliations and obtained good agreement, wii.h L. Howarth. The case for a.fUo = 0·125 was caleulnted more accurately hy D. C. F. Leigh [441 who used an olect.ronio digit.al computer for the purpose and who paid special attention to the region of separation. The value of t.he form factor Itt the point of separat.ion itself was found to he 3:· = O· L 19R.

The method employed by L. Howarth was extended by I. Tnni r00] In include I,lli' eaR"~ corrospondiug to n ~ I (with a > 0). However. I. Tnni did not publish allY tables of the [unol.ional coefficients but confined himself to reporting tho filial result, for n = 2, " and 8. r 11 his cnsc, 1.00. t.l1Il poor convergcnce of t.he Aeries did not permit him 1.0 determine the point of acparut.ion with Ruflld"nt. accllrnc_y and ho found himsolf ('olllpellcd to IIHO L. Howarth'» nnlll<"'i",,1 (~0l1f,illllllt,i(}11 RdwnH\.

(0.24)

Introducing thoso vnlues into tho equations of motion (9.2) and comparing cocffloients we obtain a Rystem of ordinary diflerontinl equnt.ions for t.hc funotious 1,,( tl), 1.< 'I) •.... The first threo of U,eRO u re :

10'" -I- 10 10" = 0 ,

I.'" -~- /0/1" - 2 10' tl' -f- :1/1/' It = - I ,

I.'" + 10 I." - 4 10' I,' + 5 10" I. = - t + 2/'" - 3/. I." ,

e. Flow in tbe wake of flat plate at zero incidenee

with the boundary conditions

'1 = 0: 10 = 10' = 0: It = I.' = 0; I. = I.' = 0 ;

'1=00: 10'=2; J.'=t; 1;=0.

The applicat.ion of the boundary-layer equations is 1I0t restricted to regions near It aolirl wall. They can also he applied when a stratum in which the jnfluencc of frict.ion is dominating exists in the interior of a fluid. Such a case occurs, among others, when two layers of fluid with different velocities mcet, for instance, in tho wake behind a body. or when a fluid is discharged through an orifice. We shall consider three examples of this type in the present and in the succeeding sections, and we shall return to them when considering turbulent flow.

As our first example we shall discuss the case of flow in the wake of It Ilnt plate at. zero incidence, Fig. 9.9. Behind the trailing edge the two velocity profiles coalesce into one profile in the wake. Us width increases with increasing distance, and its mean velocity decreases. The magnitudc of the depression in the velocity curve is directly connected with the dra.g on t.he body. On the whole, however, as wo shall see later, the velocity profile in the wake, at a large distance from the body, is independent of the shape of the body, except for a scale factor. On the other hand the velocity profile very close to the body is. evidently, determined by the boundary layer on the body, and its shape depends Oil whether or not the flow has separated,

The momentum equation can be used to calculate the drag from the velocity profllo in the wake. For this purpose we draw a rectangular cont.rol surfaoo AAI 13113,

Only the first oquntion is non-linear, and it, i" ident.ical wit.h tha.t for a flat plate Ilt zero inoiden~e:. All romnining equations are linear and contain oul.y the fu~ction 10 in th~ '.lOmogcll,:ollB portion, whereas the non-homogeneous terms are form ed wit.h t.h" n.id of the rernmnmg functions I •. L. Howarf.h solved tho first, seven differential oqun.tions (lip to and including I.), and cal-

culated tables for them.

The "Nics (9.25) converges well wit.h those values of /,. in tho rRngo - 0·' :<:= x· :<:= -]: 0·1.

In the ease of decelerated flow (x* > 0) U,C point, of separation is at, x· = 0·12 approximntely, but for the sligh+ly extended range of values UtC _9.0nvergenee of the series (9.25) is no longer nssuredv Ln order to reach t.he point of soparnt.ion, I,. Howarth used a numerical procedure for the eonf.inuut.ion of t.he solut.ion. Velocity profiles for severnl values of x· for hoth accelerated

1.0

0.2

o»

06

0..8

1.0

1.2

I.~

1.6

1.8

2.0 2.2 Z.rf

7]=~Yfi

u

o

0.8

0.6

0.4

Irig. !l.R \"C'lo('i1.y riislrihu! ion ill Ih,' l.uuiunr bound.u-y I,,~'('f for' I.h(, ],olcnl.i,,1 [low giv(,11 by

U('!') /T" -. a:r. "f"'r 11,,\\:"1'11. 141J

Fig. 9.9. 1\ ppliont.ion of the momenturn equation in tho calculation of the drag on a /lat plate at zero incidence from the velocity profile in the wake

0..2

a

: The independent vnrinhle 'I ill I.h" nbovo r-qun.t.ions differs from that in Chap. VII hy a factor !.

176

IX. )~)(act solutions of the steady-state boundnry-lnyer equations

c. Flow ill the waite of nat. plato at zero incidnnee

177

Cross-section

Rate of now

Momentum in direction x

as shown in Fig. 9.9. The boundary AIBI, pnrnllol to the plate, is placed at such a distance from the body that it lies everywhere in the region of undisturbed velocity, U 00' Furthermore, tho pressure is coustant over the whole of t.he control surface, so t.haf presflure forces do not contribute to the momentum. When calculating t.he flux of momentum across the control surface it. is necessary to remember that, owing to oont.inuity, fluid must leave t.hrough tho boundary Al BI; tho quanf.ity of fluid leaving t.hrough Al HI is equal t.o t.JHJ difference between tim!. entering t.hrough A 1 A and leaving t.hrougl. BI ]3. The boundary AB contributes no term to tho momentum in tho z-direction because, owing to symmetry, the transverse velocity vanishes along it. The momentum balance is given in tabular form on the next page, and in it the convention is followed t.Imt in flowing masscs are considered positive, and outgoing masses arc taken to be negative. The width of the plate is denoted by b. The tot,al flux of momentum is equal to the drag D on a flat plate wetted 011 one side. Thus we have

A B

o

o

is small compared wit.h Uro, so t.ilflt, qundrn.t.ic nnd higher t.enrm in 111 may he 1I(·gll'dcd. The prococluro mnkes usc of a met.hod of cont.inuiug n known solution. 'rite on.leulat.ion stnrts with Hie profile at the trailing edge, cnlculatcd wit.h tho aid of Blasius's method, and we shall refrain from furt.her discussing it here. The nsymptot.ic expansion in t.he upstream direction was calculated by W. Tollmicn 161l1. Since it. is typical for problems of flow in the wake, and since we shall mnke use of it in the more importnnt turbulent case, we propose to devote some timo to an account. of it.

As the pressure term is equnl to zero, t.hc boundary.layer cquat.ion (!l.2) combined with eqn. (!l.29) gives

h

b .r U"" ,111

o

h

-b ! udy o

h

-b !(Uoo-u)dy

o

l: Rate of flow = 0

B B,

l: = Control surface

D =b(! J u(Uoo-u)dy.

l'-O

(9.26)

Integration lllay be performed from y = 0 to Y = 00 instead of to y = h, because for 11 > h the integralHl in eqn. (0.26) vanishes. Hence the drag on a plate wetted 011 both sides becomes

+""

2 D = b e f u(U",,-u) rly.

(9.27)

This oquation applies to any symmet.rical cylindrical body and not only to a flat plate. It is t.o be remembered that in the more general case the integral over the profile in the wake must be taken at a sufficiently distant sect.ion, and one across which tho stnt.ic pressure has its undisturbed value. Since ncar a plate there are 110 pressure differences either in t.he longitudinal or ill the transverse direction, cqn. (\1.27) applies to any disbance behind the plate. Furt.herrnore, eqn. (9.27) may be applIeIl t.o any sect.ion x of t.he houndary layer, when it gives the drag on the portion of tho plate bctween the leading edge and that section. The physical meaning of the integral in cqn. (!l.26) or (9.27) is that it rcpresents the loss of momentum due to friction. It is identical with the integral in eqn. (8.31) which defined the momentum thickness O2, so that eqn. (9.26) can he given the alternative form

h

e" ! If",' ,I!!

II

h

- e b J u' dy o

h

- (! b J Uoo (uoo - It) dy

o

l: Momcntum flux = Drag

(0.30)

where t.he quadratic terms in III and VI have hocn omit.tod . The houndnry condit.ions arc:

au

y = 0: fJi = 0 ; y = 00: 111 = 0 .

The partial dillcreut.ial oqunt.ion call, here 1.00, he transformed into all ordinarv differcnt.ial equation by a suitable trn.nsformn.t.ion. Similarly 10 t.hc nssumpbion (7.2.i) in Blnsiua's met.hod for t.he lln.L plate we put.

where l is t.ho lengt.h of the plato, l~ig. !l.9.

The power _. ~ for 3.: ill eqll. (9.31) is just.ifiod 011 the ground that, thc momentum intcgral which giveR tho r1rag on t.ho plat.e in ef]n. (!l.27) must. bo indopendr-nt. of:r.

(9.28)

fJ = Yl/~~ ,

'x

We shall 1I0W proceed to calculate t.he velocity profile in the wake, in particular, nt-. a large distance x behind tho tra.iling edge of the flat plate. The calculation must be performed in t.WO stops: 1. Through an expansion in the downstream d.ireetion from t.ho Ipft(lillg to t.ho t.miliug edge, i. c. hy n calculnbion which involves t.ho continuat.ion of the Hla.qill,q profile 011 the pluto near rt.ho trailing edge, and 2. Through an expansion in tho upstream direction. The latter' is a, kind of asymptotic integration for a large distance behind till:' plate and is valid irrespective of the shape of the body. it. will be ncccssa ry here t.o make the nssumption t.hat t.he vclocit.v difference in t.hr- wake

and, III addit.ion, we assume t.haf 1£1 is of the form

111 (:r,y) = Uro - - u(x,y)

(fl.2fl)

(H.:lI )

178

IX. Exact solutions of the etendy-stnt.e boundary-layer equnt.ions

f. The two-dimousionnl lnminnr jet.

17!l

Hence, ornit.ting quadrnJic terms in 7t), the drag 011 a· plate wet-ted on both sides, as given in eqn. (9.27), is transformed to

difference in the wake of a flat plate at zero incidence becomes

+00

2 D = be tr; f ul dy.

)1--00

'I'll: velocity distribution given hy t,his asymptotic equation is re prf'flCn ted ill I"ig. !1.IO. ft Ifl remarkable that the velocity dlst.ribut.lon is identical with (huss's error-dist.rib~ltion function. As assumed at the beginning, eqn. (9.35) is valid only at gl'ent, distances from the plate. W. Tollmicn verified that. it mny be used at about x > 3 I.

Fig. !l.11 oont.nins a plot from which t.ho wholo volooit.y (jdd enn b!, infelTed. •

. 'rho I10w ill the wake of a plate as well as in tlmt behind allY other body is, JIl most cases, turbulent. Even i~l the case of small Reynolds nurnbora, say R, < 10(\ when the b?undary layer romnms laminar as far as tho trailing edge, the flow in t.he wake still becomes turbulent, because the velocity profiles in the wake, all of which possess n point of inflexion, arc oxtremoly unstable. In other words, even with comparatively small Reynolds numbers the wake becomes turbulent. Turbulent wakes will be discussed in Chap. XXIV.

Substitut.ing eqn. (9.31) we ohtnin

+00

2 D = b (! U002 C v;~ J g(1]) d1J.

-00

(9.32)

Introducing, further, UlC assumption (9.:H) into (9.30), and dividing t.hrough by C U002• (xjl)·-1{2 X~l, we obtain the following difforent.ial equation for g('l):

g"l- ! 1/ g' -I ~ g = 0

(9.33)

wit,1! UIC houndnry condit.ions

g' = 0 at 1/ = 0

and g = 0 at 17 = 00 .

Integrnf.ing once, we hnvo

g'! l '/ a ~ 0 ,

f. The two-dimensional laminar jet

where t.he constant, of integration vanishes on account of tire boundary condition at .,., = O. Repented integration gives the solution

The efflux of a jet from an orifice arTords a further example of motion in tho absence of solid boundaries to which it is possible to apply the boundary-layer theory. We propose to discuss the two-dimoneionul problem so that we shall assume

g = exp ( - { 1)2) .

(9.34)

Here t.he constant of int.egrat.ion a,ppcars in the form of a coefficient and can be made equal to unity without, loss of generalit.y, as the velocity distribut.ion function u-! from eqn. (9.31) still contains a free coefficient C. This constant C is determined from the condition t.hat tho drag calculated from the 1088 of momentum, eqn. (9.:32), must, be equal to i.ha.t on thfl plate, flqn. (7.3:1).

First. we not ice t.hat.

_I~OO +00

f g(1J) <I.,., = f exp (- rl) dl) = 2 Vn,

-00 -00

so Ulat, from cqn. (!UI2) wc have

• ~ -3 -2 -1

1

o

Fig. 9.10. Asymptotic velocity disbribul.ion in tho laminar wake behind a flat plate, from eqn. (9.3:')

On t.ho nthor hand, from eqn. (7.3:1) we can w,~it.c down the skin Iriet.ion on n. plate

wetted on both Rifles in t.he form; I

.Fig.9.11. Velocity dist.ribution in the la- ~ minar wake behind a flat plate at zero incidenco

TI 1'111'(; 2 C ,I Jl .~ I ':l28 and n , .. - (Hi(H/II Jl , and t.ho final solut ion for l.ho volocit.y

0.5

ty~

2.0 2.5 J.O

1.0

7.5

0.7

0.6

0.5

0.4

u.S'>

_-- =~ ---- ;~-~ ~!-

_l!_~_ ~--l~"; _!_~ ;_

-----. _--- - - - - -

0.3

0.2

0.1

o