Analysis of the Philippine Chicken Industry:

Commercial versus Backyard Sectors

Hui-Shung (Christie) Chang
University of New England, Australia
E-mail: [email protected]

Abstract

The chicken industry in the Philippines has diverse components. The commercial sector is
characterized by large-scale, industrialized production systems of broilers and layers of exotic hybrids.
On the other hand, the backyard sector is made up of many smallholders who keep a few native
or crossbred chickens mainly for their own consumption. The backyard sector is worth a separate
investigation because it differs from the commercial sector in terms of production and marketing issues
and has, so far, received less attention from researchers and policymakers.
This paper identifies key issues and provides policy implications for both sectors. In the main,
the commercial sector faces serious threats from global competition and its future depends largely
on access to cheap inputs and improvements in production and marketing efficiency. Although not
yet threatened by trade liberalization, the backyard sector suffers from low productivity and high
mortality rates because of lack of technical know-how and access to key inputs. Its future depends on
identifying and removing constraints to subsistence backyard production.

INTRODUCTION and ducks) has been protected from foreign

competition through tariffs and other non-tariff
Research on meat production worldwide measures. However, the forging of trade agreements
indicates that poultry is the fastest growing livestock in both global (e.g., World Trade Organization)
sector, especially in the developing countries and regional forums (e.g., Asia-Pacific Economic
(Delgado et al. 1999; Taha 2003; Landes et al. 2004; Cooperation and ASEAN Free Trade Area) since
Conroy 2004). The Philippines is no exception the mid-1990s has resulted in the lowering of tariffs
(Costales et al. 2003). The outlook for the Philippine and the removal of quantitative restrictions on
chicken industry appears optimistic because the agricultural products. Imports of poultry products
demand for chicken products is expected to increase, (mainly frozen chicken leg quarters and offal) have
along with population and income growth (DA and increased substantially. It is envisaged that as trade
NAFC 2002a, b). Productivity improvements and barriers are reduced further, the Philippine poultry
developments in marketing infrastructure, such as industry will face increasing competition from
the expansion of food processing, the modernization overseas. The continuing survival and growth of
of the retail sector (e.g., growth in supermarkets the Philippine poultry industry therefore depends on
and hypermarkets), and increasing refrigeration its ability to compete in the global market, which,
ownership, are additional drivers for future demand in turn, depends largely on the efficiency of its
growth (Livestock Development Council 2002; DA production and marketing systems.
and NAFC 2002a, b). However, there are increasing A number of studies have looked at the
concerns about the threats from imports due to the impact of trade liberalization on the commercial
more liberalized trade policies (Gonzales 1995; poultry sector in the Philippines. In most cases the
Mangabat 1998; Mateo 2001; Arboleda 2001). Philippine commercial poultry sector was found to
As in most countries, and for many years, the be high-cost producers and hence uncompetitive
Philippine poultry industry (including chickens in a more liberalized trade environment (e.g.

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 42 Asian Journal of Agriculture and Development, Vol. 4, No. 1

SEARCA 1999; SIKAP/STRIVE 2001; DA and MEAT PRODUCTION

NAFC 2002a, b; Delgado et al. 2003; Costales AND CONSUMPTION
et al. 2003). However, to date, little attention has
been given to the backyard poultry sector and little Over the period 1991–2004, all major meat
is known about how it will be affected by trade products in the Philippines exhibited output growth
liberalization. (see bottom of Table 1). Specifically, chicken meat
The backyard poultry sector, which is defined showed the highest growth rate at 6.18% per annum,
by the Bureau of Agricultural Statistics (BAS followed by pork (3.49%) and beef (3.39%).2
1987) as having less than 100 birds per household, Chicken meat is the second most popular
deserves more attention because it comprises the meat in the Philippines, following pork. It can
majority of the poultry inventory in the Philippines. be seen from Table 2 that in 2004 the annual per
For example, the backyard production of native capita pork consumption was 13.67 kg, followed
chickens accounted for about 54% of the total by chicken meat (8.26 kg), and beef (2.21 kg). Per
chicken inventory in 2005 (BAS 2006a), while capita consumption for chicken meat, pork, and beef
backyard duck production accounted for about over the period 1991–2004 grew by 4.33%, 1.54%,
two-thirds of total duck inventory (BAS 2006b). and 2.67%, respectively. The demand for chicken
It is also worth a separate investigation because it meat is increasing faster than that of other meats,
differs from the commercial sector not only in terms as observed elsewhere in the world, because of its
of the scale of operation but, more importantly, many advantages; namely, its lower price, lower
the respective production and marketing issues. fat content, and the more convenient and versatile
Therefore, a clear distinction is made between the methods of meal preparation, compared to other
commercial and backyard operations in this paper, meats (Landes et al. 2004).
with a focus on future developments in the chicken However, per capita chicken meat consumption
meat industry.1 in the Philippines is low relative to that of
The objectives of the paper are to identify neighboring Asian countries. For example, the
the issues and opportunities facing the Philippine annual per capita chicken meat consumption in
chicken meat industry and to suggest policy 2004 was 13.52 kg and 37.59 kg in Thailand and
responses for both the commercial and backyard Malaysia, respectively, compared to 8.20 kg in the
sectors. The analysis is based on a survey of the Philippines (Abuel-Ang 2005). High retail prices,
literature; secondary data; informal discussions relative to household incomes, were cited as the
with farmers, researchers and policymakers; and main reason behind the relatively low demand (DA
lastly, the author’s personal observations from and NAFC 2002a, b).
field trips. The paper is organized as follows. First, Basic demand theory suggests that the demand
an overview of the production and consumption for a product depends on its own price, the
of major meat products is provided. Second, the prices of substitutes and complements, income,
commercial and backyard sectors are defined in demographics and consumer preference, as well
the Philippine context. Problems and opportunities as occasional shocks to the system such as FMD
facing the commercial and backyard sectors of the (foot-and-mouth disease) and bird flu outbreaks.
chicken industry are then identified, followed by A number of meat demand studies have found that
policy recommendations and concluding remarks. the demand for chicken meat has been increasing
because it has become cheaper relative to other

1
The distinction between the backyard and the smallholder
sector is important here. While backyard production is
defined by BAS (1987) as having less than 100 birds, the
smallholder sector has not been officially defined. Often,
the latter refers to relatively small commercial farms. For
example, Costales et al. (2003) define smallholders as 2
Annual compound growth rate, r, is calculated based
having less than 10,000 head while SEARCA (1999) and on the formula: r =[ (y/x)**(1/n) ] – 1, where x and y are
SIKAP/STRIVE Foundation ( 2001) define small farms the first and the last observations during the observation
as having less than 1000 birds. All of these are applied to period, respectively, and n is the number of years being
commercial broiler farms based on exotic hybrids. considered.

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 Hui-Shung (Christie) Chang 43

Table 1. Volumes of meat production by product type (in tons), 1991–2004

Year Chicken Pork Beef

1991 286,874 845,213 112,407

1992 356,398 845,250 115,595
1993 364,481 880,945 125,894
1994 376,607 921,761 135,506
1995 399,651 969,862 147,463
1996 455,097 1,036,517 NA
1997 496,686 1,085,544 NA
1998 491,227 1,123,773 182,723
1999 496,429 1,171,759 189,934
2000 533,118 1,212,536 190,159
2001 587,067 1,265,888 182,887
2002 627,105 1,332,347 182,814
2003 635,132 1,384,575 180,967
2004 663,759 1,365,606 179,229

Annual growth rate 6.18% 3.49% 3.39%

Source: BAS, 2005.

Table 2. Per capita consumption of meat products (in kg), Philippines, 1991–2004

Year Chicken Pork Beef

1991 4.56 11.03 1.53

1992 5.55 10.79 1.60
1993 5.57 11.04 1.74
1994 5.49 11.02 1.90
1995 5.85 11.65 2.03
1996 6.51 12.21 NA
1997 6.96 12.54 NA
1998 6.75 12.69 2.32
1999 7.03 13.10 2.43
2000 7.20 13.35 2.46
2001 7.68 13.51 2.17
2002 8.04 13.85 2.16
2003 8.00 14.12 2.12
2004 8.26 13.67 2.21

Annual growth rate 4.33% 1.54% 2.67%

Source: BAS, 2005.

meats (Taha 2003; Landes et al. 2004; Conroy 1993; Chavas 1983). More recently, food safety,
2004; Fabiosa et al. 2004). Some suggest that it is a environmental and animal welfare concerns have
result of income growth and urbanization (e.g. DA also become important considerations in meat
and NAFC 2002a; Costales et al. 2003; Delgado consumption (Dahlgran and Fairchild 1987; Flake
et al. 2003). and Patterson 1999; Burton and Young 1999;
Others have argued that the increased demand Piggott and Marsh 2004; Aho 2004). To learn more
for chicken is a result of a growing consumer about whether and why the demand for meats has
preference for chicken (Chalfant and Alston 1998; changed over time in the Philippines would require
Gao and Shonkwiler 1993; Eales and Unnevehr a demand systems analysis to determine consumer

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 44 Asian Journal of Agriculture and Development, Vol. 4, No. 1

Figure 1. Retail meat prices in Metro Manila, 1978 - 2003

180

160
Beef
140

120
Pesos/kg

100
Peso/kg

Pork
80
Chicken
60

40

20

0
1978
1979
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
YearYear

Fig. 1. Retail prices in Metro Manila, 1978–2003

responses to changes in prices and income, as well COMMERCIAL VERSUS

as changing demographics and eating habits, as BACKYARD PRODUCTION
suggested in Deaton and Muellbauer (1980).
Nevertheless, based on experiences overseas, The poultry inventory in the Philippines is
as referenced above, it is reasonable to make the classified into “commercial” and “backyard”. A
following predictions for the Philippines. First of poultry farm is classified as “commercial” if it has
all, the demand for chicken, pork, and beef will more than 100 birds (BAS 1987). Otherwise, it is
increase as income grows, but with chicken meat classified as “backyard”. Based on this definition,
experiencing faster growth (Taha 2003). Secondly, backyard production of (native) chickens accounted
the demand for chicken meat may increase for more than 50% of the total chicken inventory in
significantly in the near future at the expense of the Philippines in 2005 (BAS 2006a).
pork as chicken price becomes cheaper relative to This definition of the backyard sector is similar
pork. The retail prices of the three most popular to the description of “Sector 4” in the classification
meats in the Philippines, namely, pork, chicken, drawn up by the Food and Agriculture Organization
and beef, in the past two decades (1978–2002) are (FAO). FAO (2004) categorizes poultry farms into
shown in Figure 1.3 It is evident that beef is the most four sectors based on their ability to institute bio-
expensive, followed by pork and chicken. Thirdly, security measures against the infestation and spread
some of the increases in meat demand may be filled of diseases, particularly the avian influenza (AI).
by imports that are cheaper to produce overseas. The four sectors are: Sector 1 – Industrial integrated
This is particularly true for beef for which the production system; Sector 2 – Commercial poultry
Philippines does not have a comparative advantage production system; Sector 3 – Semi-commercial
in production and border protection is relatively poultry production system; and Sector 4 – Village
weak. In 2004, 21% of total beef supply came from or backyard production.
imports (BAS 2005).

3
Note that beef prices are not available prior to 1987.

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 Hui-Shung (Christie) Chang 45

Classified under Sector 4 are backyard farmers of Broiler Integrators. On the other hand, the
who keep, on average, between 10 and 20 birds small- and medium-scale commercial broiler and
and typically less than 50 birds. It is the most independent poultry producers, particularly from
dominant category in terms of number of farmers Rizal, Bulacan, Cavite, Laguna, Pampanga, and
and the share of total production especially in Tarlac have grouped themselves into the United
the developing countries (Agrifood Consulting Broilers’ Association (DA-AMAS 2001).
International 2006). For example, more than 70% In addition to the classification based on
of Vietnamese households and 95% of poultry the size of the operation, the Philippine chicken
farms fall into this category. Backyard poultry inventory is classified into “native”, “broiler” and
is often referred to as family poultry (Branckaert “layer”, based on breeds and purposes. Layers and
and Gueye 1999; Conroy 2004) or (scavenging) broilers are imported hybrids with foreign strains.
village chickens in the case of chicken (Alders and Native chickens, on the other hand, refer to the
Spradbrow 2001; Lambio 2005). The common, and local breeds as well as the so-called “improved
most significant, feature of backyard poultry is the breeds” that are crosses of local chickens with
low-input, low-output production system which foreign strains. Prior to 1998, layer and broiler
is based almost entirely on native birds and local chickens were lumped together in BAS statistics
breeds (FAO 2000). Chickens raised under this as “commercial” chickens, while native chickens
system are generally utilized for home consumption were referred to as the “backyard” variety. Because
and, when necessary, as source of additional income of the loose definition and the diversity of the
(Conroy et al. 2005; Lambio 2005). poultry production systems, it is conceivable that
By comparison, the commercial sector is some “commercial” chickens are actually raised in
characterized by large-scale and integrated backyards, while some native chicken farms have
production and marketing systems (SEARCA 1999; more than 100 birds. It appears that the current
SIKAP/STRIVE Foundation 2001; Costales et al. classification systems may need to be revised to
2003), as described in FAO Sectors 1 and 2. Based reflect more clearly the key characteristics of the
on current definitions (SEARCA 1999; SIKAP/ production systems.
STRIVE Foundation 2001), the Philippine broiler Chicken inventories by type during 1991–2005
sector is characterized by: are shown in Figure 2. It can be seen that while the
number of layers has increased steadily over the
• modern foreign breeds from the Western period, the stocks of native chickens and broilers
countries; have shown a great deal of variations. Nevertheless,
• the use of vaccines and drugs to control diseases the growth rates over the period were 3.37%, 5.77%
and promote growth; and 3.22% for broiler, layer, and native chickens,
• the use of advanced technology to raise respectively.
chickens on a large scale; and In 2005, the inventory consisted of 54% native
• a vertically integrated production system based chickens, 30% broilers, and 16% layer chickens.
largely on contract farming. Therefore, the commercial sector (broilers and
layers) and the backyard sector (native chickens) had
The Philippine broiler industry is controlled almost equal shares in terms of number of chickens.
by four major integrators, namely, Swift Foods, However, the output shares from the commercial
San Miguel Foods, Tysons Agro-Ventures, and sector are disproportionately higher. In 2005, the
Universal Robina Corporation. Together, they share of commercial broilers in total chicken meat
account for 65% of the total broiler supply in the production in the Philippines was estimated at
country (Abuel-Ang 2005). These integrators 67%, with native chickens accounting for only 13%
are involved in the production and marketing of (Abuel-Ang 2005). Similarly, commercial layers
broiler chickens, the importation of grandparent accounted for 74% of the total table egg production
and parent stock, and the manufacturing and while native/improved chickens accounted for the
sales of commercially mixed feeds and breeder remaining 26% (BAS 2006a). The fact that native
stocks to independent raisers. The integrators chickens are used both for meat and egg production
are organized into the Philippine Association should be taken into consideration when assessing

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 46 Asian Journal of Agriculture and Development, Vol. 4, No. 1

Figure 2. Population of chicken by type, 1991- 2005

90,000

80,000

70,000
Native Chicken
60,000
‘000 head
'000 head

50,000

40,000
Broiler
30,000

20,000
Layer
10,000

0
19 9

19 9

19 9

19 9

19 9

19 9

19 9

19 9

19 9

20 0

20 0

20 0

20 0

20 0

20 0
1

5
YearYear

Fig. 2. Population of chicken by type, 1991–2005

this sector’s productivity and contribution to the (BAS 2006a).

poultry economy.
Commercial broiler farms in the Philippines ISSUES IN THE COMMERCIAL SECTOR
are geographically concentrated. In 2005, Central
Luzon (33.2%) and Calabarzon (28.2%) accounted The Philippine broiler sector has shown
for 61.4% of total broiler stocks in the country (BAS continuing growth since the introduction of modern
2006a). These two regions also accounted for more technologies in the 1960s and the demand outlook
than 50% of total layer stocks in the Philippines. appears positive for the Philippine chicken meat
The domination by a few leading producing regions industry, given its current low level of per capita
reflects the comparative advantage they all share consumption and anticipated income and population
in terms of access to major inputs and markets growth. However, there are major issues facing the
(Costales et al. 2003). Although such a high degree commercial sector, including market instability,
of geographical concentration has its advantage in high input costs, inefficient marketing systems,
the marketing and sourcing of inputs, it presents and threats of imports. In addition, like many
significant challenges to on-farm disease control other commercial chicken sectors in the world, the
and waste management. A disease outbreak, such Philippine broiler sector faces increasing consumer
as the bird flu which has plagued a number of demand for food safety and product quality, and
poultry-producing countries worldwide in recent public concerns over animal welfare and the
years,4 can be disastrous, given its potential to wipe environmental impact associated with industrialized
out the entire industry in a very short time. poultry production.
Native chicken production, on the other hand,
is more widespread, but most prominent in Western Market Instability
Visayas (14.1%), Central Visayas (9.4%), Cagayan
Valley (7.9%), Southern Mindanao (7.9%), and It can be seen in Figure 2 that fluctuations in
Ilocos Region (7.5%). Together they accounted broiler stocks are quite substantial from year to year.
for 47% of total native chicken inventory in 2005 Although this issue is relatively complex to sort out,

4
Unlike its neighbors, the Philippines has not been affected by the recent bird flu outbreaks.

chang_final.indd 46 8/24/2007 10:05:02 AM

 Hui-Shung (Christie) Chang 47

SEARCA (1999) has offered some explanations. Moreover, the input markets are subject to
It was suggested that fluctuations in supply are a government intervention. Take corn, for example.
result of relatively short broiler production cycles Although corn is the Philippines’s third largest
and the lack of planning on the part of the industry crop, following rice and coconut, the sector is
as a whole. While the short production cycles inefficient and corn is expensive because of the
enable the broiler sector to respond more quickly to existing price support and import licensing policies
changing market conditions, it can also exacerbate (Mendoza and Rosegrant 1995). Since the early
the imbalance of demand and supply, especially 1970s, the National Food Authority (NFA) has
when the market is misjudged. For example, manipulated the local supply of corn by the direct
in 1995, two million breeder chicks (including procurement and disbursement of buffer stock. It
grandparent and parent stocks) were imported in likewise controls the importation of corn through
response to the FMD outbreaks in 1994 and 1995 import licenses. Under the import-licensing scheme,
(SIKAP/STRIVE Foundation 2001). However, the the NFA determines the volume and the timing
anticipated demand increase did not materialize. of corn importation. Imports are then allocated
Over-expansion had resulted in over-production among qualified, licensed local corn processors and
in 1996 and 1997, thus bringing about low prices, livestock and poultry raisers. In many instances,
to the detriment of the less efficient, and often less importers have complained about the misuse of
capitalized, operations which suffered financial authority by the NFA, which, they claimed, resulted
losses. in limited corn imports and higher prices (Pabuayon
Again, in 2000, 1.7 million breeder stocks were 1985). Nominal rates of protection for corn in the
imported (Livestock Development Council 2002). early 1990s were as high as 40–50% (Rosegrant
In more recent years, the number of breeder stocks et al. 1992). Corn supply is, therefore, seen as a
imported, in terms of thousand head, totaled 1,908 major issue for the commercial poultry industry
in 2002, 1,101 in 2003, 487 in 2004, and 561 in because of its impact on feed costs and, hence, on
2005 (BAS 2006a). The end result is the boom- cost competitiveness (Mojica-Sevilla 2005). Habito
and-bust cycle, characterized by fluctuating outputs (2002) went as far as to conclude that achieving
and prices. It appears that market stability can be international competitiveness in poultry production
improved through better industry planning based was inextricably linked to achieving international
on more reliable and timely market forecasts, and competitiveness in corn production.
closer cooperation in information sharing among Cost competitiveness is especially important for
industry participants, and between the industry and intensive broiler production because most producers
the government. use basically the same technology and there is
little room for product differentiation. As a result,
High Input Costs production cost becomes the basis for determining
competitiveness and profitability. The reliance on
Although modern technology has increased imported inputs means that a strong Philippine peso
productivity significantly compared with more and access to cheap inputs are crucial for improving
traditional production methods, it has, however, global competitiveness, particularly when the
made the industry heavily dependent on imported world’s major broiler producers and exporters such
inputs, including breeder stock, veterinary supplies, as the United States, Brazil, and Thailand all have
equipment, and feedstuffs. Feed costs and Day-Old- ready access to feeds and breeder stock.
Chicks (DOCs) make up 68% and 25% of the total
cost of intensive broiler production, respectively Inefficient Production
(Gonzales 1995). Therefore, lowering input costs
has been singled out as the most important factor According to industry sources, the integrators
for improving global competitiveness (Arboleda have attained only 70% of the international
2001; Mateo 2001; DA and NAFC 2002a, b). High efficiency standards and there is a need to adopt the
input costs have been exacerbated by the continuing latest technology in poultry raising, particularly in
devaluation of the Philippine peso in recent years, the areas of environmental control and automation
which had made imported goods more expensive. in feeding, drinking, and other management

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 48 Asian Journal of Agriculture and Development, Vol. 4, No. 1

practices (DA-AMAS 2001). In Table 3, the on- through the wet markets either as live birds or
farm performance of the Philippine broiler industry freshly slaughtered because of consumer preference
is assessed against those of the United States, China, for fresh meat (Abuel-Ang 2005). The three major
Thailand, and Brazil, all of which are major broiler market segments that are serviced by the integrators
producers in the world market. As can be seen, are: wet markets (50%), HRI (hotels, restaurants
the Philippine broiler industry is on a par with the and institutions) (40%), and supermarkets (10%)
world’s best practices in terms of livability, but (DA and NAFC 2002a). By contrast, the small-
is slightly below par in terms of feed conversion and medium-scale independent broiler producers
ratio (FCR). Production inefficiency, along with the sell to the live chicken traders or viajeros/traders
reliance on high-cost imported inputs, has resulted who then sell the chickens, either live or dressed,
in a higher production cost of live birds, which is to retailers in the wet markets and restaurants (DA-
42% higher than in the United States and Brazil. AMAS 2001).
Another reason for the higher production cost is The diversity of, and the involvement of
consumer preference for smaller carcasses (around many small traders and retailers in, the marketing
1.0–1.2 kg dressed weight for a whole chicken, channels mean that the broiler marketing system
compared to 1.5 kg in other countries) (DA and does not benefit fully from the economies of
NAFC 2002a). The demand for smaller carcasses scale that exist in the industrialized production
means that broiler growth is not allowed to reach its system. However, the current marketing system
peak feed efficiency (normally at around 1.9 kg live is likely to change in the foreseeable future for
weight), resulting in a small average weight per bird two reasons. Firstly, the marketing of live birds
and hence higher cost per kilogram of meat. has a few disadvantages, namely: 1) it increases
As shown in Table 3, dressed birds at the the risk of the spread of diseases; 2) it increases
wholesale/retail level in the country are 55% more the probability of bruising on the carcass, weight
expensive than in the United States, Brazil, and loss, and death during shipping and handling; 3) it
Thailand. The higher wholesale and retail prices increases food safety risks because of the lack of
are due to the inefficiency existing in the marketing hygienic facilities and practices in wet markets; and
chain, especially processing and distribution (for 4) it increases costs because of fragmented, small-
details, see DA and NAFC 2002a, b). scale operations. Secondly, despite the preference
for fresh meats and shopping at wet markets, the
Inefficient Marketing Systems trend over time has been for consumers, especially
city dwellers, to shop at supermarkets and store
Despite the highly concentrated and vertically perishable commodities such as poultry meat in
integrated production structure of the commercial refrigerators (Taha 2003).
broiler sector, about 70% of broilers are sold

Table 3. Cross-country comparisons of broiler production

Country On-farm productivity Production cost

(in Philippine pesos/kg)

Livability (%) FCR Live weight Dressed weight

Philippines 95 1.90 34 51
USA 95 1.85 24 33
China 93 2.00 -- --
Thailand 95 1.85 26 33
Brazil 95 1.85 24 33

Source: PABI (cited in SIKAP/STRIVE Foundation, 2001).

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 Hui-Shung (Christie) Chang 49

Public Concern over Industrialized because of primitive production systems and

Livestock Production Systems management practices (e.g., Devendra 1993; FAO
2000; Alders and Spradbrow 2001; Conroy 2004).
Technological advances in broiler production In addition, the quality and supply of outputs
have contributed greatly to the popularity of from the backyard sector are inconsistent due to
broiler meat worldwide. However, there has heterogeneity in genotype and production system.
been a steady rise in government regulations on, Access to market is another important issue facing
and consumer dissatisfaction with, industrialized the backyard sector. These are the same issues
poultry production systems (McMullin 2003). Of facing the Philippine backyard sector (Lambio et
particular concern are: al. 2003; de Castro et al. 2003; Lambio et al. 2004;
Lambio 2005).
• the use of antimicrobial growth promoters, Rural households in the Philippines, like their
animal protein and genetically modified counterparts in other developing countries, often
materials in feeds; keep a small number of chickens in their backyards
• the impact on the environment; (5–10 hens and 1–2 roosters with varying number
• animal welfare; and of growers) on free-range system (scavenging) as a
• disease control. means to supplement their household incomes and
nutritional needs (Lambio 2005). Based on farm
Obviously, meeting these additional surveys in Batangas and Iloilo, Lambio (2005)
requirements from the consumer and the government reported that the average flock size was 18 head for
will have significant implications for the future cost Batangas (ranging from 3 to 57 head) and 24 head for
of production and market competition (Ellendorff Iloilo (ranging from 4 to 130 head). In addition, he
2003). found that for the majority of farmers interviewed,
The Philippine broiler sector was found to be native chickens were raised for their meat, eggs (but
internationally uncompetitive because of higher much less so than meat) and manure; as gifts for
input costs, below-par on-farm productivity, and visitors; and to provide additional income. Often,
an inefficient marketing system (DA and NAFC they only sell their produce when there is a need for
2002a, b; SEARCA 1999; SIKAP/STRIVE cash. This result is consistent with what is reported
Foundation 2001). Therefore, threats from foreign for India by Conroy et al. (2005). Therefore, the
competition had surfaced as a major concern reason for keeping native chickens is more for
when the Philippines became a member of the subsistence than for commercial purposes.
WTO in the mid-1990s. In 2005, chicken meat Also, family poultry was found to be only a
imports reached 26,000 tons, valued at US$14.5 small component of a highly diversified, multi-
million FOB (freight-on-board) (BAS 2006a), sectoral agro-ecosystem (Lambio 2005). That is,
which is a significant jump from around 200 tons native chickens are often raised alongside ducks,
per year between 1993 and 1996 at the start of goats, pigs, carabaos, and other livestock, while
trade liberalization. Improving both production farm income is supplemented by income from
and marketing efficiency are necessary to become handicrafts, trade, wage labor, and remittances.
more competitive internationally. These will require Finally, native chicken eggs and meat are preferred
coordinated efforts from both the private and public by consumers and command a price premium
sectors. (often three to four times) over their commercial
counterparts because of their distinct flavor, taste
Issues in the Backyard Sector and texture (Lambio 2005). These findings suggest
that the issues facing the backyard sector, as
Generally, the backyard chicken sector is elaborated on below, are significantly different from
less productive. That is, native chickens have those in the commercial sector, and thus require
slower growth rates, lower laying rates, and different strategies to resolve them.
higher mortality rates than their broiler counterpart

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 50 Asian Journal of Agriculture and Development, Vol. 4, No. 1

Low Productivity discussed earlier, the commercial poultry sector

is supported basically by the same technology
Backyard poultry production utilizes very little (including breeds and management practices) that is
resources; as a result, output and productivity are available worldwide with a sole focus on production
generally low. The poultry are often raised under efficiency. The backyard production systems, on
primitive conditions, without any housing, and the other hand, vary greatly from region to region
survive by scavenging for naturally occurring depending to a large extent on local conditions
feeds (grasses, insects, worms, and other edible and grower preference. This diversity means that
plants and animals), fallen grains, and household there are many different breeds, utilizing a variety
refuse (Lambio 2005). There is also no systematic of feed sources, and management practices. This
breeding or management. Therefore, the backyard diversity inevitably results in variable product
sector tends to suffer from disease, insufficient quality and inconsistent supply. Both of these are
feeding, lack of housing, and no selective breeding serious issues for contemporary marketing in terms
(Dwinger et al. 2001; Minga et al. 2001; Conroy of meeting market demand for consistency in supply
2004; Lambio et al. 2004). It has been observed that and product quality.
native chickens raised under scavenging system Currently, native chickens are sold mostly at
normally produce on average 10 to 15 eggs about the farm gate (when approached by traders) and
three to four times a year and weigh between one in the local markets (either by farmers themselves
to one and a half kilograms at about 18 weeks of or through assembler-wholesaler and retailers)
age (Lambio et al. 2004). In contrast, commercial (de Castro et al. 2003). However, the rapid rise of
layers can lay about 280 eggs a year consistently supermarkets in developing countries, including
and commercial broilers reach 1.9 kilograms the Philippines, is likely to become a serious threat
consistently at six weeks of age. to the backyard sector in terms of market access
Another reason for the low productivity is that (Reardon et al. 2004). Other marketing issues
advances in technology do not benefit backyard facing the backyard poultry producers are: access
raisers, most of whom lack access to important to market and market information, high transaction
inputs, such as commercial feeds, high quality costs, and poor bargaining position (Costales et
stock, credit, and extension services (Lambio et al. al. 2003). All of these make them susceptible to
2003; Chang et al. 2006; Conroy et al. 2005). On exploitation by unscrupulous traders.
the other hand, studies on rural poultry development
have found that rural households are often not Threats from the Commercial Sector
interested in extension service or new technology
for several reasons. Firstly, there is little incentive Backyard poultry production has come
for them to actively seek improvement because under more intense scrutiny due to the recent
there is little to gain from a very small production avian influenza (AI) outbreaks (Rushton et al.
base. Secondly, they may not have the resources 2005). The sector was suspected of serving as a
to invest in any improvement even if they want to reservoir for disease spread. To prevent future
because of the lack of access to credit. Illiteracy and disease outbreaks, increased restrictions are likely
low education are additional barriers to adoption to be imposed on informal smallholder poultry
(de Castro et al. 2002). Although the issue of not production (Aho 2004). In the foreseeable future,
adopting new technology can be quite complex, it is likely that backyard poultry production will be
the lack of resources to act upon the advice is either actively discouraged or phased out in some
often cited as a main reason for not adopting new areas or relegated to the poorest and most isolated
technology. areas. If implemented, these policies will result
in the displacement of smallholder production
Inconsistent Quality and Supply and quicken the structural change in the poultry
industry. Any policy changes should carefully take
The most significant difference between the into account the economic and social impact on
backyard and the commercial poultry sectors smallholder producers and their livelihood.
may be the diversity of the backyard sector. As

chang_final.indd 50 8/24/2007 10:05:03 AM

 Hui-Shung (Christie) Chang 51

Generally, native breeds have relatively In addition, there appears to be a need for the
low productivity in terms of weight gain, size, industry to become fully vertically integrated to
body weight, and maturation time. However, benefit more from the economies of scale and scope.
the backyard sector does have some marketing This will involve integrating backward to producing
advantages. Firstly, backyard production has low its own breeder stock and integrating forward into
input requirements, which keep cost down. The slow further processing and distribution. Innovative
growth rate, although a drawback, has the benefit processing and marketing are crucial in order to
of producing a carcass that has a unique flavor, change consumers’ preference for small and fresh
texture and taste — qualities that are sought after carcasses and to lure them away from the live trade
by a significant segment of the market (Fujimura and wet markets. In addition, the Philippine poultry
et al. 1994; Gueye et al. 1997; World Poultry 2004; industry is fortunate not to be affected by the recent
Lambio 2005). This is particularly true in Asia and AI outbreaks. The AI-free status has obviously
Africa where native chickens command premium provided a marketing advantage in the short term
prices and are often in short supply (Kitalyi 1996; by opening up some export markets. However,
Alders and Spradbrow 2001; Taha 2003; Landes et to maintain this marketing edge, the industry
al. 2004; Lambio 2005). must commit to tighten bio-security measures
Secondly, because most backyard poultry and to improve cost competitiveness. Finally, it
production uses little or no veterinary medicines or must address the potential conflict between the
other substances, its output is much more “natural” commercial and backyard sectors particularly in
than the products from the industrialized production terms of disease control (Aho 2004).
systems. Natural products, such as free-range and For the backyard sector, the key issue is to
organic chickens, have gained recognition and improve productivity. There are two policy options
support from consumers worldwide in recent years for productivity improvements for backyard
(World Poultry 2004). Therefore, the backyard poultry (Arboleda et al. 1985). One is based on
sector does not appear to be threatened by trade the importation of breeder stock from overseas.
liberalization, as does the commercial broiler sector. This particular strategy had been tried before,
This is because its production is mainly for own both in the Philippines and overseas, but failed
consumption and there is not enough marketable (Kitalyi 1996). The reasons for the failure are: first,
surplus to satisfy demand, as evident in the premium the imported stocks are inappropriate either for
prices native chickens command over broilers. backyard smallholder production or for Philippine
conditions; second, they are input-intensive and
Policy Implications possibly import-dependent; and third, they are
too expensive for resource-poor smallholders
Based on an overview of the world broiler (Department of Agriculture 2001).
industry, Chang (2005) showed that the world The other option is to select and upgrade
broiler market is highly competitive, with an existing native breeds. This strategy has gained
increasing number of efficient producers fighting more support from the Philippine government and
for market share. Major broiler exporters, such the academe in recent years, mainly because it is
as the United States, Brazil, and Thailand, less expensive and more suitable for local conditions
succeed in the international market by competitive (Department of Agriculture 2001). It also allows
pricing, aggressive marketing, and new product better utilization of local resources and conservation
development. Their successes are based on well- of local germplasm. Conroy (2004) also found that
managed and coordinated supply chains that improving the traditional scavenging system based
meet changing consumer demand and increasing on native breeds was a better policy option than
government regulations. To combat the threat of promoting an intermediate, semi-intensive system
imports from the big players, the Philippine broiler based on exotic breeds. The former has resulted in
industry must address the issues identified in this significant improvements in productivity and in
paper. This will require the industry to improve on- production and household incomes. For the local
farm productivity by adopting the latest technology breed-based strategy to work in the Philippines,
and better management practices. more research is needed to identify those breeds

chang_final.indd 51 8/24/2007 10:05:03 AM

 52 Asian Journal of Agriculture and Development, Vol. 4, No. 1

that have the potential for productivity gain and Conclusions

to assess the availability and cost of local feed
supplements on output. More research is also The Philippine poultry industry is very diverse.
needed to understand the skill base of backyard It comprises broiler chickens, layer chickens, native
poultry producers and to identify the target groups chickens, and ducks. The production of broiler
for extension and technical assistance. and layer chickens is characterized by large-scale,
It has been suggested that improving backyard intensive, commercial production systems with
smallholder production takes time and is best modern technology and imported hybrids. Native
achieved by a four-stage approach (Kitalyi 1998). chicken production, on the other hand, is usually a
Stage I involves reducing mortality by improving backyard activity undertaken by rural households
hygiene, shelter, and disease control for backyard using minimal inputs. It appears that the Philippine
poultry. At Stage II, the focus is to improve feeding chicken meat industry, including broiler and
and nutrition by identifying locally available feed native chickens, stands to benefit from an increase
sources for supplementary feeding. Stage III aims in demand because of the anticipated growth in
at improving productivity through the selection of population and household incomes. However, it
high-yielding traits and disease resistance that suit faces a number of challenges.
local conditions. When significant improvements For the commercial broiler sector, its main
are achieved in mortality and productivity, the concern would be the threat from global competition
next step at Stage IV is to consider upgrading because it is a high-cost producer by world standards
backyard production to a commercial scale. This and it is no longer protected by trade barriers.
four-stage approach seems very appropriate The future of the commercial sector will depend
for developing the Philippine backyard poultry largely on the availability of cheap feed sources
sector because it is consistent with the policy and improvements in production and marketing
objective of first improving the livelihood and efficiency. It appears that in the longer term much
food security of smallholders before proceeding improvement can be made by becoming fully
to commercialize the backyard sector and link vertically integrated. This will involve investments
smallholders to the market.5 That is, although in breeding and genetic improvements to produce
commercializing native chicken production and its own breeder stock and integrating forward into
linking backyard smallholders to markets have the further processing and distribution.
potential to significantly improve their incomes, The backyard sector, on the other hand, is
it should not be the main aim at present. Rather, not directly affected by trade liberalization at the
the policy objective at present should focus on moment because most of its production is for home
improving the livelihood and food security of the consumption by rural households and there are
rural households by removing the constraints to not enough market surpluses to meet the demand
subsistence backyard production. Finally, since for native chicken. However, the backyard sector
smallholder backyard poultry production is often faces serious issues of low productivity and high
only a small part of a much diversified farming mortality rates because of the lack of technical
operation, any program aiming to improve the know-how and access to key inputs. The key
performance of backyard poultry production must recommendation here is to undertake more research
also consider the impact on other components of the that would identify not only the constraints to
farm. Therefore, a whole farm approach, taking into subsistence backyard production but also the means
account complementarity and competition between for effective extension and technical assistance.
different farm activities, is necessary to achieve
more effective policy outcomes.

5
Although backyard chicken production has gradually been displaced by commercial exotic breeds and modern technology
the world over, native chicken production has been successfully commercialized with improved genetics and management
in countries like Taiwan, Thailand, and China. Thailand is said to be gearing up to export native chickens in the foreseeable
future.

chang_final.indd 52 8/24/2007 10:05:03 AM

 Hui-Shung (Christie) Chang 53

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