Cell structure

The basic unit of life, the cell, can be seen clearly only with the aid of
microscopes.
The light microscope uses light as a source of radiation, whereas the electron
microscope uses electrons.
The electron microscope has greater resolution (allows more detail to be
seen) than the light microscope, because electrons have a shorter
wavelength than light.
With a light microscope, cells may be measured using an eyepiece graticule
and a stage micrometer.
Using the formula A= I/M, the actual size of an object (A) or its
magnification (M) can be found if its observed (image) size (I) is measured
and A or M, as appropriate, is known.
All cells are surrounded by a partially permeable cell surface membrane that
controls exchange between the cell and its environment.
All cells contain genetic material in the form of DNA, and ribosomes for
protein synthesis.
The simplest cells are prokaryotic cells, which are thought to have evolved
before, and given rise to the much more complex and much larger
eukaryotic cells.
Prokaryotic cells lack a true nucleus and have smaller ribosomes than
eukaryotic cells. They also lack membrane-bound organelles. Their DNA is
circular and lies naked in the cytoplasm.

By: Dr.Mufaddal

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 All eukaryotic cells possess a nucleus containing one or more nucleoli and
DNA. The DNA is linear and bound to proteins to form chromatin.
The cytoplasm contains many membrane-bound organelles providing separate
compartments for specialized activities (division of labor). Organelles include
endoplasmic reticulum (ER), 80S ribosomes, mitochondria, Golgi apparatus and
lysosomes. Animal cells also contain centrioles. Plant cells also contain
chloroplasts, often have a large, permanent, central vacuole and have a cell wall
containing cellulose. In eukaryotes, cells may be further organized into tissues,
organs and systems.

MCQs:
1 Which type of membrane would be present in the largest quantity in a
prokaryotic cell?
A
B
C
D

cell surface membrane

mitochondrial cristae
nuclear envelope
smooth endoplasmic reticulum

2 Which type of cell would contain the greatest relative numbers of

mitochondria?
A
B
C
D

bacterial cell
mesophyll cell
muscle cell
parenchyma cell

3 In a cell that is specialized for secreting protein, which of the

following would be present in relatively large amounts?
A
B
C
D

cell surface membrane

Golgi vesicles
lysosomes
smooth endoplasmic reticulum

4 Which structure could be described as a microtubule-organizing

center?
A
B
C
D

centriole
Golgi apparatus
nucleus
spindle

By: Dr.Mufaddal

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5 What are microtubules made of?

A
B
C
D

cellulose
DNA
lipid
protein

6 Which structure could be found in a plant cell but not in a prokaryotic

cell?
A
B
C
D

20 nm ribosomes
cell surface membrane
circular DNA
thylakoid

7 Which organelle makes lysosomes?

A Golgi apparatus
B nucleus
C ribosome
D smooth endoplasmic reticulum
8 A protein that is to be secreted from a cell would pass through a
sequence of cell organelles in the following order:
A
B
C
D

Golgi apparatus rough endoplasmic reticulum secretory vesicle

Golgi apparatus secretory vesicle rough endoplasmic reticulum
rough endoplasmic reticulum Golgi apparatus secretory vesicle
secretory vesicle Golgi apparatus rough endoplasmic reticulum

9 A scientist calibrating an eyepiece graticule would notice what change

when switching from a low-power lens to a high-power lens?
A
B
C
D

The eyepiece units would appear closer together.

The eyepiece units would appear further apart.
The stage micrometer units would appear closer together.
The stage micrometer units would appear further apart.

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10 What explains the fact that an increase in the voltage used in a

transmission electron microscope results in an increase in the
resolution obtained?
A
B
C
D

The electromagnetic lenses function more efficiently.

Increasing the voltage increases the magnification.
The electron beam can penetrate the specimen more easily.
The wavelength of the electrons is shortened.

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Plan diagrams of tissue and organ, prokaryotic and

eukaryotic cells

An organ usually contains many different types of cells. These are arranged in
a particular pattern characteristic of the organ, with cells of a similar type found
together, forming distinctive tissues. A plan diagram shows the distribution
of tissues in an organ, not individual cells.

A cross section of leaf, stem and root.

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Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes

There are only 2 basic types of cells, primitive prokaryotes and the more
complex eukaryotes.
Prokaryotic cells (Pro=before, karyon = nucleus) are evolutionarily
ancient. They were here first and for billions of years were the only form of
life. Today most life is prokaryotic, and these cells are supremely successful.
All bacteria and bacteria-like Archaea are prokaryotic organisms.
Eukaryotes (Eu=true, karyon= nucleus) can be single celled or multicellular organisms. Eukaryotic cells are more complex, having evolved from a
prokaryote-like predecessor. Most of the living things that we are typically
familiar with are composed of eukaryotic cells: animals, plants, fungi and
protists.
Prokaryotic cells:
much smaller

no membrane-bound nucleuses other membrane-bound organelles. The only

membrane is the plasma membrane.

the genetic material is naked within the cytoplasm

ribosomes are the only type of organelle

Eukaryotic cells
The main structure:
a double membrane-bound nucleus separates the genetic material from the
rest of the cell.
an endomembrane system composed of different membrane-bound
organelles that transport materials around the cell: the rough and smooth
endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus and vesicles.
energy producing organelles: mitochondria and chloroplasts, involved in
metabolism and energy conversion.
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Comparison of prokaryotic, animal and plant cells

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Viruses
Viruses are non-cellular organisms, which made up of genetic material and
protein that can invade living cells. These microorganisms belong to the family
of viridae and Genus of virus.
A virus is non-cellular organisms made up of genetic material and protein that
can invade living cells. They are considered both a living and non-living things.
In the year 1897, a scientist named Beijerinck discovered and coined the term
virus. The term virus is derived from Latin word-virus means poison. Later in
the year 1935, a scientist named Wendell Stanley discovered that these viruses
are composed of nucleic acids, protein and lips. The study of viruses is called as
virology.
Viruses are very small and they measured in nanometers. They can only be
seen with an electron microscope. They are composed of a core of DNA or RNA
surrounded by a protein coat they can only reproduce by infecting living cells.
Their size ranges from 20 nanometers to 250 nanometers.

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Cell structure and function

Describe and interpret drawings and photographs of

typical animal and plant cells. Note that plant cells are always surrounded by a
cell wall made of cellulose, never found around animal cells.
Typical animal and plant cells as seen using an electron microscope:

1. Functions of membrane systems and organelles:

The plasma membrane (cell surface membrane) controls what enters
and leaves the cell.
Many membranes within the cell help to make different compartments for
different chemical reactions to take place.

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 The nucleus is surrounded by nuclear envelope (pair of membranes).

The nucleus contains chromosomes, with very long molecule of DNA (DNA
determines the sequences of amino acids to form protein molecules).
A darker area in the nucleus (no membrane) is called nucleolus: here new
ribosomes are made, following a code on part of the DNA.

Ribosomes (made of RNA & protein) are found free in the cytoplasm +

attached to rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER).

The RER is network of membranes in the cytoplasm. The membranes

enclose small spaces called cisternae.

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1. Ribosomes on the RER produce proteins by linking amino acids. The

growing chains of amino acids move into the cisternae.
2. The cisternae break off to form little vesicles that travel to the Golgi
apparatus.
3. Golgi apparatus modifies the proteins (by adding carbohydrate
groups...).
4. Vesicles containing modified proteins break away from Golgi apparatus
and move to the cell surface membrane---> secreted from the cell
by exocytosis, releasing proteins.

The transport of vesicles.

Smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER)
- less extensive (than RER)
- no ribosomes attached
- cisternae more flattened
- involved in the synthesis of steroid hormones and the breakdown of
toxins.

Mitochondria
- have an envelope: outer membrane + inner membrane (folded to
form cristae).
- here aerobic respiration takes place ---> ATP.
the first stage(Krebs cycle) - in the matrix;
the final stage (oxidative phosphorylation) - on cristae's membranes.

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Mitochondria.

Lysosomes
- little packages of hydrolytic (digestive) enzymes with membrane
- form by breaking off from Golgi apparatus

- to digest food taken into the cell

- to digest bacteria/other cells taken into the cell by phagocytosis
- to break down unwanted/damaged organelles within the cell.

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Centrioles
- found only in animal cells, not plant cells
- 2 centrioles lie at right angles to each other
- made of microtubules, arranged in a circular pattern

- Microtubules form the spindle during cell division in animal cells.

Chloroplasts
- found only in some plant cells
- surrounded by an envelope of 2 membranes
- the background material (stroma) contains many paired membranes
(thylakolds).
- thylakolds form stacks called grana (contain chlorophyll---> absorbs energy
from sunlight).
- may contain starch grains (from sugars produced in photosynthesis).

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In photosynthesis:

- first reactions (light dependent reactions and photophosphorylation) take

place on the membranes.
- the final stages (Calvin cycle) take place in the stroma.

Longitudinal section through a chloroplast.

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Microscopy
Most cells are very small, and their structures can only be seen by using
a microscope.
1. Light microscopes:

light rays pass through the specimen on a slide

focused by an objective lens and an eyepiece lens.

---> magnified image of the specimen on the retina of

your eye/screen/camera.

2. Electron microscopes:

uses beams of electrons

specimen very thin, placed in a vacuum to allow electrons to pass
through it.
electrons are focused onto a screen/photographic film --->magnified
image of the specimen.

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3. Magnification and Resolution

Amount of magnification depends on the resolution of the microscope

(ability to distinguish 2 objects as separate).
The smaller the objects that can be distinguished --> the higher the
resolution.
Wavelength: beam of electrons <<< light
Resolution: electron microscope >>> light microscope
with electron microscope, we can see much more fine detail of a cell.
Units: millimeter, micrometer, nanometer

4. Magnification calculations:
Work out the real size of an object knowing the magnification:
a. This drawing of a mitochondrion has been magnified 100 000 times.

Use ruler to measure its length in mm (50 mm).

Convert this measurement to m by multiplying by 1 000.
50 x 1 000 = 50 000 g

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 Substitute into the equation:

b. This is a the drawing of a chloroplast:
- The magnification for this drawing:

- The length of the chloroplast:

Measure the length of the image in mm (80 mm) and convert to m ---> 80
000 m.
Calculate its real length:

5. Measuring cells using a graticule:

Eyepiece graticule is a little scale bar placed in the eyepiece of light
microscope.
The graticule is marked off in 'graticule units'.
Turn the eyepiece so that the graticule scale lies over the object: the width
of one cell is 23 graticule units.

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Calibration: the conversion of graticule units into real units (mm, m).
Use a special slide called a stage micrometer that is marked off in a tiny
scale. The smallest markings are often 0.01 mm (10 g) apart.
Take the specimen off the stage or the microscope and replace it with the
stage micrometer. Use the same objective lens.
Line up the micrometer scale and the eyepiece graticule scale (by turning
the eyepiece and moving the micrometer on the stage). Make sure that 2
large markings on each scale are lined up.

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 The 50 mark (stage micrometer) is lined up with the 1.0 mark (eyepiece
graticule).
Work towards the right until you see another two lines lined up.
The 68 mark (stage micrometer) is lined up with the 9.0 mark (eyepiece
graticule). So you can say that:
80 small eyepiece graticule markings = 18 stage micrometer markings
= 18 x 0.01 mm
= 0.18 mm
= 180 m
So 1 small eyepiece graticule marking = 180: 80
= 2.25 m
The plant cell was 23 eyepiece graticule units long --> its real width is:
23 x 2.25 = 51.75 m

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Answers to MCQs
1 A
2 C
3 B
4 A
5 D
6 D
7 A
8 C
9 D
10 D
By: Dr.Mufaddal

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