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The Nature of Logic

The document discusses the nature and uses of logic. It defines logic as the study of distinguishing correct from incorrect reasoning through examining arguments. Logic aims to distinguish good arguments from bad ones by laying down rules for reasoning. The document outlines different types of logic, focusing on deductive logic which examines valid arguments, and inductive logic which examines probable inferences. It provides examples to illustrate logical concepts and fallacies.

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168 views4 pages

The Nature of Logic

The document discusses the nature and uses of logic. It defines logic as the study of distinguishing correct from incorrect reasoning through examining arguments. Logic aims to distinguish good arguments from bad ones by laying down rules for reasoning. The document outlines different types of logic, focusing on deductive logic which examines valid arguments, and inductive logic which examines probable inferences. It provides examples to illustrate logical concepts and fallacies.

Uploaded by

khoire12
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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1/6/2016

TheNatureofLogic

Arguments

Language

Fallacies

Propositions

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Syllogisms

Translation

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Philosophy103:IntroductiontoLogic
TheNatureofLogic
Abstract:Someoftheusesoflogicareillustrated,anddeductiveargumentsarebriefly
distinguishedfrominductivearguments.

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I.Logicisthestudyofthemethodsandprinciplesusedin
distinguishingcorrectfromincorrectreasoning.
B.Logicdiffersfrompsychologyinbeinganormativeora
prescriptivedisciplineratherthanadescriptivediscipline.
1.I.e.,itprescribeshowoneoughttoreasonit'snotconcerned
withhowoneactuallydoesreason.
2.Logicisconcernedwithlayingdowntherulesforcorrect
reasoning.
3.Consequently,logicseekstodistinguishgoodarguments
frompoorones.
II.HowLogichelpsreasoning:
A."Practicemakesbetter."Someexamplesofhowthiscourse
canhelpreasoningabouttheworldareasfollows.
1.Considerthissyllogism:
AllfollowersofSenatorJonesareinfavorofhighertaxes.
Allcommunistsareinfavorofhighertaxes.
AllfollowersofSenatorJonesarecommunists.
Itwillbecomeeasyforustorecognizethefallacyinthis
argumentasthefallacyoftheundistributedmiddleterm.
2.Considerthisinformalargument:
InspiteofthelargenumberofUFOspottingsthatcanbe
attributedtoweatherconditionsandknownaircraftandother
factors,therearehundredsofsightingsthatcannotbe
accountedfor.Hence,wecansafelyconcludethatUFO'sexit.
Considerthiscounterexample:
Inspiteofthelargenumberofquartersputunderkid's

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pillowswhichcanbeattributedtosneakyparents,brothers,
sisters,andsoforth,therearehundredsofcaseswhichcannot
beaccountedfor.Therefore,thetoothfairyexits.
B.Aswell,thiscoursecanhelpwith"thenegativeapproach"
thatweavoiderrorsbybeingawareofthem,e.g.,beingawareof
commonformalandinformalfallacies.
1.Considerthepassage,"Napoleonbecameagreatemperor
becausehewassoshort."Inthisshortargument,thefallacyof
falsecause(ornoncausaprocausa)occurs.Ifthisargument
weregood,allormostshortpersonswouldbecomegreat
emperors.
2.Considerthepassage,"Peopleindevelopingcountriesgetold
asanearlierage,becausetheaveragelifeexpectancyissoshort
inthosecountries."Duetoinfantmortality,peopledonotget
oldermorequicklythefallacyofdivisionoccurs.
C.Methods,criteria,andtechniques,allaregivenasmethodsof
testingcorrectness.Thesearesomeofthetechniqueswewillbe
learningandusinginthisclass.Thesemethodsareshownhere
merelyforpurposesofillustration..
1.Forexample,wecandrawVennDiagramstoshowthe
fallacyoftheundistributedmiddleterminproblemI,A
discussedabove.

2.OrwecanshowthefallacyinI,Abyappealingtospecific
rules.
AllPisMu.
AllSisMu.
AllSisP.
Thetermsharedbybothpremissesissaidtobeundistributed
becauseitdoesnotrefertoeachandeverypersonsinfavorof
highertaxes.

III.Thereareseveralkindsoflogicwhichexhibitakindoffamily
relation:dialectic,multivaluedlogic,logicofcommands,fuzzy
logic,etc.
IV.Inthiscourse,basically,wewillusejusttwokindsoflogic:
deductiveandinductive.
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A.DeductiveLogic:concernedwithdeterminingwhenan
argumentisvalid(i.e.,dealswithconclusiveinferences).
1.Adeductiveargumentisonewhichclaimsthatitsconclusion
followswithnecessity.
2.Ifthatclaimisnotmet,thentheargumentissaidtobe
invalid.
3.ConsiderthisexamplefromTimemagazineaboutthe
Kennedyassassination:
"Sincetestsprovedthatittookatleast2.3secondstooperate
theboltonOswald'srifle,Oswaldobviouslycouldnothave
firedthreetimeshittingKennedytwiceandConallyoncein
5.6secondorless."
Thefirstloadnednotbecounted.
2.3
2.3

verses

2.3

+2.3

+2.3

6.9sec.

4.6sec.

TheresponsebyFrederickT.Wehr:"SirThisargument,
whichhasappearedinmanypublicationssincethe
assassination,isfaulty,andIamsurprisedthatIhaven'tseen
itrefutedbeforethis.AssumingthattheboltofOswald'srifle
can,infact,beoperatedin2.3seconds,thenOswald
definitelycouldfire3shotsinlessthan5.6seconds,fora
stopwatchwouldbestartedwhenthefirstshotwasfiredthe
secondshotwouldbefiredwhenthestopwatchread2.3
seconds,andthethirdshotwouldbefiredwhenthestop
watchread4.6seconds.Youhaveapparentlyoverlookedthe
factthat,inthetimeittakestofire3shots,itisonly
necessarytooperatethebolttwice."
B.InductiveLogicisconcernedwiththecorrectnessof
inferencesforwhichtheevidenceisnotconclusive(i.e.,probable
inferences).
1.Hence,aninductiveargumentisonewhoseconclusionis
claimedtofollowwithprobability.
2.ConsidertheexamplefromMarkTwain'sNotebook:"at
bottomIdidnotbelieveIhadtouchedthatman.Thelawof
probabilitiesdecreedmeguiltlessofhisblood,forinallmy
smallexperiencewithgunsIhadneverhitanythingIhadtried
tohitandIknewIhaddonemybesttohithim."
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3.Orconsiderextrapolationtechniquesusedinstockmarket
prediction,e.g.,thewedgeformation.
V.Whatlogicisnot:
A.Logicisnotthescienceofthelawsofthoughtinwhichcaseit
wouldbeadescriptivesciencelikepsychology.
1.Sometimespeoplecancometoconclusionsreliablywithout
beingabletoknoworexplainhowtheconclusionwasreached.
E.g.,thesocalledintuitivetypeofpersonality.
2.Oftenpeoplecancometotherightconclusionforthewrong
reasons.Logicisthestudyofthemodesofcorrectreasoningas
showninaninterpersonalmanner.
B.Logicisnotreallythescienceofreasoningeitherbecausethe
logicianisnotinterestedinthepsychologicalprocessesof
reasoning.
1.Thelogicianisinterestedinthestructureofarguments.
2.Peopleinferstatementsandstatementsentailother
statements.
3.Wewanttosaythattheentailmentisthereeventhough
someonedoesnotatthistimeunderstandit.

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