ANSWER GUIDE

Fiber Optic Lab Manual

Fifth Edition

1102.eps

INDUSTRIAL F IBER OPTICS

Copyright 2004
By Industrial Fiber Optics

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a

retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means without express
written permission from Industrial Fiber Optics.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

ACTIVITIES
COMPONENT IDENTIFICATION .....................................................

MAKING A LIGHT GUIDE.................................................................

FIBER O PTIC C ABLE TRANSMISSION .................................................

CONNECTORS AND SPLICES ............................................................

INDEX M ATCHING ......................................................................... 11

FIBER TERMINATIONS .................................................................... 14
SPEED OF OPTO -ELECTRONIC DEVICES ............................................. 17
FIBER O PTIC TRANSMITTERS ........................................................... 20
RECEIVER AMPLIFIER DESIGN .......................................................... 24

-i-

- ii -

A CTIVITY I: COMPONENT IDENTIFICATION

In this activity students will identify and inventory all items in the Lab Kit . This will
introduce them to the nomenclature used in this manual and help them in the following
activities when a particular item is called for. In the unlikely event that any kit components
are found to be missing or damaged, please refer to the " Missing Parts Claims" section on
page 51 of the main manual.

- 1-

A CTIVITY II: MAKING A LIGHT G UIDE

Table 2.1 Empirical data for 10 cm (4-inch) light guide
with air core.
LEDs
Red

LED OFF

LED ON

0*

.02 mA

Table 2.2 Empirical data for 10 cm light guide with water

core.
Source
Red

LED OFF

LED ON

0*

.61 mA

Table 2.3 Empirical data for 10 cm light guide with90-degree bend.

Source
Red
*

LED OFF

LED ON

0*

.46 mA

This current should measure very close to zero, or less then 1 A .If the current is not this low, dim the room
lights or cover the light guide and associated electronics with a dark cloth to obtain best results.

Analysis & Questions

What is the amount of light in milliwatts (mW) which falls on the phototransistor when using the
red LED with the 10 cm light guide and water core [assuming the responsivity of the phototransistor is
50 milliamperes/milliwatt (mA/mW)]? What is it with no water in the core?
.070 mA
50 mA / mW
= 1.4 W
=

phototransistor illumination with water core = .61 mA/ (50 mA/mW) = 12.2 W
phototransistor illumination with no water in core = .02 mA/(50mA/mW) = 0.4 W

- 2-

Does the light guide couple more or less light onto the phototransistor with water in the core? Why?
More light .The water has a higher refractive index than air, so less light is lost at the
boundary with the vinyl tubing. As a result more light travels down the light guide from the
LED to the phototransistor.

Did the 90-degree bend significantly change the amount of light hitting the phototransistor? Why or Why
not?

The 90-degree bend did reduce the amount of light hitting the phototransistor. The bend
caused some of the light rays traveling down the light guide to fall inside the critical angle for
total internal reflection. These rays escaped the light guide, reducing the amount of light
falling on the phototransistor .

Calculate the critical angle of the light guide when water is used as the core. Assume the refractive
index of water is 1.33.
1
1.33
= 48.8

c = sin 1

- 3-

Do you know of any other liquids that may trap more light inside the vinyl tubing than the water used
in this experiment?
To trap more light inside the vinyl light guide one should choose a liquid with a higher
refractive index than that of water. The higher the refractive index, the better the liquid will
trap light (without considering the effects of attenuation). To find more information about
liquids with a high refractive index, one of the best areas to look is the reference section of a
library. A common book found in this section is the " Handbook of Physics and Chemistry."
Examples of liquids with a refractive index greater than 1.33 include Pentachloroethane
(n=1.501), Xylidine (n=1.557) and Quinoline (n=1.622).

R2"
Air or cladding

Air or cladding

c1

c2

c2
R1'

R1

R2

Light guide center

1023

HOMEWORK PROJECT
Following are some typical fiber core/cladding outer diameters:
Single mode glass fiber:
9/125 m or 8/125 m
Multimode glass fiber:
50/125 m
62.5/125 m
100/140 m
Multimode plastic:
230/250 m
480/500 m
730/750 m
980/1000 m (fiber used in the kit)
1980/2000 m

- 4-

c2

Light guide center

ACTIVITY III: FIBER O PTIC CABLE TRANSMISSION

Table 3.1 Measured phototransistor current with 3- and
1-meter lengths of 1000 m core plastic fiber.

i3 meter

LED

i1 meter

Red

8.2 mA

10.2 mA

Green

.117 mA

.143 mA

Infrared

.416 mA

3.53 mA

Analysis & Questions

Complete Table 3.2 to calculate the fiber attenuation coefficients for each of the LEDs from the data
recorded in Table 3.1 .
Table 3.2 Table for calculating attenuation coefficients.
LED

i( 3 meter )
i(1 meter )

ln

i( 3 meter )
i(1 meter )

meter )
ln i((13meter
)

Red

.803

-.219

.112

Green

.818

-.201

.101

Infrared

.118

-2.137

1.069

Are the attenuation coefficient values the same for the different LEDs? Why or why not?
No. The optical fiber has an acrylic core in which light transmission varies for different
wavelengths. The attenuation coefficients that students will calculate from their empirical
data should show the coefficients for the red and the green LEDs to be very close to each
other. The attenuation coefficient for the infrared LED should be much higher than the
coefficient for the red or green LEDs.

- 5-

Calculate the launch power for each LED using Table 3.3 . (Substitute the phototransistor current for
power in this equation because the phototransistor current is linearly proportional to the optical power.)
Table 3.3 Calculation of launch power (equivalent current)
for each LED.
LED

P1 meter

e (1)

Po = P1 meter e (1)

Red

10.2 mA

.112

1.119

11.41 mA

Green

.143 mA

.101

1.106

.158 mA

Infrared

3.53 mA

1.069

2.913

10.28 mA

Calculate the phototransistor current produced by the light from the three LEDs traveling down a 5meter plastic optical fiber. Use Table 3.4 as a guide. (Obtain a from Table 3.2 and Po from Table 3.3.)
Table 3.4 Calculation of phototransistor current for a 5-meter fiber length.
LED

Po

e ( 5)

P5 meter = Po e ( 5)

Red

11.41 mA

.112

.571

6.515 mA

Green

.158 mA

.101

.604

0.095 mA

10.28 mA

1.069

.0048

0.049 mA

Infrared

Calculate the phototransistor current produced by the light from the three LEDs having traveled
down a 10-meter plastic optical fiber. Use Table 3.5 as a guide. (Obtain a from Table 3.2 and Po from Table
3.3.)
Table 3.5 Calculation of phototransistor current for a 10-meter fiber length.
LED

Po

e (10 )

P10 meter = P0 e (10 )

Red

11.41 mA

.112

10

.326

3.720 mA

Green

.158 mA

.101

10

.364

.058 mA

10.28 mA

1.069

10

0.000023

Infrared

- 6-

.00024 mA

Plot measured phototransistor currents for the 1-meter and 3-meter lengths, and the calculated
phototransistor currents for the 5- and 10-meter fiber lengths for all three LEDs in Figure 3.2.

Phototransistor Current
Distance

Versus

100

mA

10
Red

1
0

0.1

10

Green
Infrared

0.01
0.001
Meters

Fi gu re 3.2 P hototr an sistor c ur ren t c rea ted a t th e en d of var iou s fi ber len gth s for th ree
di fferen t LE D ll ig ht sour ces.
Although this question did not ask students to include the LED launch power (Po) on
the chart, it is included on the one above. The purpose of the graph was to illustrate that the
infrared LED initially produced the most phototransistor current and the green LED the
lowest. Then for any distance greater than 5 meters the red LED produced the most
phototransistor current.
The most commonly used wavelength for long distance transmission in plastic fiber is
the 650/660 nm window. This wavelength band offers the lowest material attenuation and
readily available LEDs with good optical output power. The graph above verifies that the
650/660 nm wavelength band is the best choice to maximize the working distance with
plastic fiber for the three light sources tested.

HOMEWORK PROJECT
The color red has a wavelength from 630 to 670 nm and the color green from 490 to
540 nm.

- 7-

A CTIVITY IV: CONNECTORS AND SPLICES

Table 4.1 Measured phototransistor current with 2meter and 1-meter fibers joined with a simplex
receptacle.
LED

Position

Red

isimplex
3.5 mA

Infrared

#1

0.22 mA

#2

0.20 mA

#3

0.17 mA

#4

0.19 mA

Table 4.2 Measured phototransistor current

with 2-meter and 1-meter optical fibers
spliced together.
LED

isplice

Red

3.9 mA

Infrared

0.25 mA

Analysis & Questions

Is the fiber's transmission more or less after the fiber connector is installed in the 3-meter fiber?
Why?
A fibers transmission of light is less after a connector has been installed.
Interconnection losses include those caused by:

Fresnel reflections.

Fiber ends not perfectly polished or cleaved.

An air gap between the fibers causing the light rays to diverge more than they would
have if they had been inside the fiber core.

Lateral and angular misalignment of fiber axis allowing light to leak out from the fiber
joint.

- 8-

What happens to the measured phototransis tor current when the simplex assembly and 1-meter fiber
are rotated to different positions within the simplex receptacle? Describe below the physical conditions
that are occurring and why. (Drawing a picture might be helpful.)
The phototransistor current changes. As the simplex assembly and fiber are rotated in
90 steps, changes occur in the lateral and angular alignment which cause variations in the
amount of light coupled from one fiber to another. These physical variations cause changes
in the amount of coupled light which travels down the optical fiber and is absorbed by the
phototransistor.
Table 4.3 Comparison of transmission characteristics of a continuous 3meter fiber optic cable to those of a 3-meter fiber length with fiber optic
connector installed.
LED

iActivity

Rotation

Red
Infrared

III

8.2 mA

isimplex

%
Transmission

3.5 mA

42.6

#1

.416 mA

0.22 mA

52.9

#2

.416 mA

0.20 mA

48.0

#3

.416 mA

0.17 mA

40.9

#4

.416 mA

0.19 mA

45.7

Table 4.4 Comparison of the transmission characteristics of a

continuous 3-meter fiber optic cable and those of a length with a
splice in it.

isplice

%
Transmission

8.2 mA

3.9 mA

47.6

.416 mA

0.25 mA

60.1

LED

iActivity

Red
Infrared

III

Is the transmission greater for the 3-meter fiber with the splice installed or with the simplex
receptacle? Is this what you expected? Why or why not?
The transmission is greater, or there is less loss, for a splice. Yes. Because the physical
tolerances are smaller for the splice, which tends to align fibers more accurately and allows
light to be better coupled from one fiber to another.

- 9-

In your own words, state at least two advantages and disadvantages of fiber connectors versus fiber
splices. List at least two for each.
The advantages and disadvantages of fiber splices and connectors can be described in
many ways. Below is a comparison of main features of splices and connectors from which
you can interpret students' answers.
Connectors

Splices

Non-permanent

Permanent

Factory installable on fiber cables

Easier to obtain low loss in field

Easy reconfiguration

Lower attenuation

Simple to use

Spliced fibers can fit inside conduit

Field installable

Less expensive per interconnect

Stronger junction
Some are hermetically sealed

HOMEWORK PROJECT
We suggest that you review students' company selections so that their information
requests arrive in time to complete A CTIVITY IX, and so you can ensure the selections they
have made are within the scope of your class.

- 10 -

A CTIVITY V: INDEX M ATCHING

Table 5.1 Measurements of photo-transistor
current when 2-meter and 1-meter fibers are
spliced together with and without indexmatching.
LED

isplice

iindex matched

Red

3.9 mA

6.0 mA

Infrared

0.25 mA

0.36 mA

Analysis & Questions

Table 5.2 Comparison of the transmission characteristics
of a fiber splice with and without index-matching.
LED

isplice

iindex matched

% Improvement

Red

3.9 mA

6.0 mA

53.8

Infrared

0.25 mA

0.36 mA

44.0

Explain the change in transmission indicated by Column 4 in Table 5.2 .

Glycerin improved the transmission because its index of refraction was very close to
that of the fiber core. This reduced the Fresnel reflections, compensated for less-than-perfect
fiber ends, and reduced light spreading at the splice. The glycerin in this activity acted as a
refractive index-matching compound to demonstrate the procedure commonly called "indexmatching" in the fiber optics industry. The students' most common answer should be "to
reduce Fresnel reflections."
Explain in your own words what "index-matching" means.
An index match compound is liquid or gel with a refractive index close to that of fiber
core materials. It eliminates the fiber core/air boundary conditions in splicing and is
occasionally used in connectors. Its main purpose is to reduce Fresnel reflections (although
it sometimes reduces other losses as well).

- 11 -

Index-matching is sometimes used as a verb and refers to the procedure of using an

index-matching compound to minimize the loss between the junction of two fibers.
Calculate the magnitude of a Fresnel reflection using the equation at the introduction to this activity.
Assume the refractive index of Medium #1, the fiber core, to be 1.49 and Medium #2, air, to be 1.0.
The ratio of the reflected power to the incident power is:

R = 2 1
2 + 1

1 1.49
=
1 + 1.49
= 3.87%

By the boundary conditions shown in Figure 5.2 how many Fresnel reflections are there for an
optical ray passing from one fiber into the other? Calculate the increase in fiber transmission if a perfectly
index-matched gel filled the gap between the fibers.
There are two Fresnel reflections. The first occurs when light passes from the first fiber
core into the air gap; the second occurs when light passes from the air gap into the second
fiber core.
In glass fiber where tolerances of the components are much smaller and fiber ends are
truly polished or cleaved, a much smaller increase in transmission occurs when indexmatching a fiber junction (than was observed in this activity). This is not to say that indexmatching is not important in glass fiber.
Calculating the increase in fiber transmission due to Fresnel reflections will not show
all of the improvements measured in this activity because the gel fills in small imperfections
in the plastic fiber core, which reduces losses even further.
Often people calculate the increase in transmission simply by multiplying two times
the loss, which would be an increase of 7.74%. Although this is approximately right for small
losses, the more accurate method of determining the increase in transmission is:
1
=1
(1 R) N

where N is the number of boundaries and

R is the loss due to Fresnel reflections
The increase in this case would be 8.21%.

- 12 -

HOMEWORK PROJECT
Fresnel reflection equations have several forms. In reality there are only two
fundamental equations. One for each state of optical polarization. These equations are listed
below.

sin ( ' )
Rs =

'
sin ( + )
tan ( ' )
Rp =
'
tan ( + )
Rp is the ratio of

reflected light to incident light for s polarization plane

Rs is the ratio of reflected light to incident light for p polarization plane

is angle of incidence
' is angle of reflection
If one can assume that the light rays' polarization is uniformly distributed, then a single
equation can be used:
=

2
'
tan 2 ( ' )
1 sin ( )
+

2
'
2 sin ( + )
tan 2 ( + ' )

is angle of incidence
' is angle of reflection

This Fresnel equation can be further reduced if we assume all light rays are normal to
the surface. (This is the equation which we used in this lab manual.)
=

( N' N ) 2
( N' + N ) 2

N' is incident light ray' s material refractive index

N is refracted light ray' s material refractive index

In practical applications, many fiber optic light rays are not normal, so the simplest
equation which we used here underestimates the loss due to Fresnel reflections.
Unfortunately there is not a much better way without defining an equation for the
distribution of optical rays and doing some rather tedious Calculus integrals (which might
require a computer program to approximate, in any event). It has generally been accepted
that the simple equations are accurate enough for most fiber optics work.

- 13 -

A CTIVITY VI: FIBER T ERMINATIONS

Table 6.1 Transmission data measured for a
1-meter optical fiber with three different end
preparations.
Fiber Termination

Phototransistor
Current

Wire cutter

2.1 mA

Sharp knife

3.6 mA

Polished

4.4 mA

Analysis & Questions

In the space below draw pictures to show the differences between the fiber end polished with 600
grit paper and the end polished with the 3 m polishing film.

3 m film

600 grit

1024

Table 6.2 Calculations for determining losses due to fiber end

preparation.
Fiber
Termination

Phototransistor
Current

Column #3

Wire cutter

3.92 mA

0.459

54.1

Sharp knife

7.25 mA

0.849

15.1

Polished

8.54 mA

- 14 -

Losses %

Are the increased losses with poorer fiber termination what you expected? Why or why not?
Yes. This activity illustrates through measurements that the flatter and smoother the
fiber end or tip, the higher the transmission. The data in Table 6.2 show that fiber ends with
poor ends or finishes have more losses.
Describe how the surface texture caused low phototransistor current with poorer terminations in this
activity. Relate your answer to critical angle and fiber end termination. Drawing an illustration may be
helpful.
The surface texture at the fiber ends directly determines losses when light exits a fiber.
The rougher surface texture will cause the light to scatter more, as was shown in Figure 6.1
of the main manual. More scatter has an effect similar to increasing the numerical aperture
inside the fiber. Fibers with large numerical apertures require photodetectors with very large
active areas to absorb all of the rapidly diverging light rays. In this experiment, when light
rays are diverging at a greater rate than is the case with normal operation, some of the rays
are not absorbed by the photodetector or, as in this experiment, the phototransistor.
Describe how poor fiber termination on both ends, along with light exiting and entering, causes
reduced optical power at the photodetector.
Poor fiber terminations cause scatter in the incident angle for light rays entering an
optical fiber. This scattering is generally uniform and will produce more light rays that are
not within the acceptance angle of the fiber core and cladding. These rays, or optical energy,
are lost and will not travel down the optical fiber to the photodetector.
Poor termination at the photodetector fiber end was described in previous questions.
This question is a rewording of a previous question as related to both fiber ends to make the
students really think and fully understand what is happening at the optical fiber ends
For very short fiber lengths where design margins are good, poor fiber termination is
not an issue, but for long-distance telecommunications projects, every bit of optical power
must be conserved and utilized. Excess loss anywhere along a fiber system causes system
degradation. An example of system degradation might be a very noisy telephone line. For
some reason, that line is less than ideal or was poorly designed and has poor signal-to-noise
ratio.

- 15 -

HOMEWORK PROJECT
There are many different fiber optic connectors and splice manufacturers. If a student
comes up with a company that manufactures fiber optic fusion splicers, we feel that answer
counts. The real purpose of the project is to teach students how to find resources. Sources
for fiber optic connector and splice companies include:
AT & T Microelectronics
3M, Private Network Products
Amphenol Corporation
Augut Communications Group
Ensign-Bickford Optics Company
Hewlett-Packard
Methode Electronics
Norland Products
OZ Optics, Ltd.
Rifocs Corporation
Seastar Instruments Ltd., Optics Division
Thomas & Betts Corp., Electronics Division

- 16 -

ACTIVITY VII: SPEED OF O PTO-ELECTRONIC DEVICES

Table 7.1 Measured values of photodetector rise and fall times,
with an infrared LED as the optical source.
Detector

Rise time

Fall time

Phototransistor

3.4 s

2.6 s

Photodarlington

20.0 s

4.0 s

Photodiode

1.5 s

1.5 s

Table 7.2 Measured values of rise and fall times of four

optical sources using the photodiode as the optical detector.
LED

Rise time

Fall time

Infrared

1.5 s

1.5 s

Red

1.7 s

1.7 s

Green

4.0 s

2.0 s

Pinlight

20.0 ms

15.0 s

Analysis & Questions

Which of the photodetectors tested in Table 7.1 had the fastest rise and fall times?
The photodiode, although its speed is much quicker than can be measured in the
circuit shown. The 10 k resistor allows enough magnitude for oscilloscope display of the
signal, but limits the photodiode speed because of breadboard and oscilloscope probe
capacitance.
Are there any detectors tested in Table 7.1 in which the rise and fall times are significantly different?
If so, which ones?
Yes. The data in Table 7.1 show a much slower rise time than fall time for the
photodarlington. In reality the rise time measured at the collector of the photodarlington is
actually the turn-off time for the photodarlington; and the fall time measured at the collector
is the turn-on time of the device. This slower turn-off time versus turn-on time is typical of
all photodarlingtons.

- 17 -

Table 7.3 Calculation of detector upper frequency 3 dB

bandwidth using an infrared LED as the optical source.
Detector

Rise time

Fall time

f3dB

Phototransistor

3.4 s

2.6 s

103.0 kHz

Photodarlington

20.0 s

4.0 s

17.5 kHz

Photodiode

1.5 s

1.5 s

233.3 kHz

Which photodetector has the largest bandwidth?

The photodiode.
Table 7.4 Calculations of light source upper frequency 3 dB
bandwidth using a photodiode as the optical detector.
LED

Rise time

Fall time

f3dB

Infrared

1.5 s

1.5 s

233.3 kHz

Red

1.7 s

1.7 s

205.9 kHz

Green

4 s

2 s

87.5 kHz

Pinlight

20.0 ms

15 ms

17.5 Hz

Which LED is the fastest in Table 7.4 ? Is this what you expected? Why?
The infrared LED. Yes. Data sheets for LEDs affirm that infrared types are normally
faster than visible ones. Intuitively one might deduce this because, generally speaking, most
product specifications supplied by manufacturers are targeted at performance characteristics
which buyers/users are most interested in. With infrared LEDs, which are used for
communications, we would intuitively expect a higher bandwidth than with visible LEDs. In
the case of visible LEDs which are designed for producing the most amount of visible light, it
would be an anomaly to find one with fast rise and fall times. Engineers may actually give up
speed or bandwidth during the design of a visible device to maximize the visible light output.
Why are incandescent bulbs not used as fiber optics light sources? (Use the data in this activity to
formulate your answer.)
From the data it can be seen that incandescent bulbs are very slow and operate only at
very low frequencies. Incandescent bulbs are so slow because current flowing into the bulb
heats the bulb filament to a temperature sufficiently high to produce radiation in the visible
range. Electrical current into the bulb's filament does not directly produce electrons, unlike

- 18 -

LEDs' response to current. Incandescent bulbs are also not suited for fiber optics because
they have short lifetimes and poor linearity.
Using information as required from Activity III , determine if a particular LED emits the greatest
amount of optical power, has the best optical fiber transmission and the fastest rise/fall times. Which one?
If one doesn't meet all the criteria, pick the best LED in each category and list it below.
There is no one best LED. Students will need to put on their thinking caps. The answer
depends on what performance characteristic the student feels is most important (and which
they may include as part of their answer). The infrared LED clearly produces the most
phototransistor current as seen in Table 3.1 , and has the fastest rise and fall times. However,
the infrared light also has the highest attenuation coefficient of all the LEDs tested (poorest
transmission). The red LEDs do not have as high starting optical power, but do have a much
lower attenuation coefficient. For applications using long fiber lengths, they may the best
choice. The green LED, although an interesting color, offers no advantage in output power,
fiber transmission or speed.

HOMEWORK PROJECT
Answers to this question may vary widely. Variables that can affect the student's
answers include manufacturer, package type, size, and some devices are optimized for a
particular configuration. Ranges that we have found are listed below. You may choose to
have students list their sources of information as part of the project.

Device

Rise time

Fall time

Photodiode

1 ns to 3 s

1 ns to 3 s

Phototransistor

2 to 30 s

2 to 30 s

Photodarlington

40 s to 1.5 ms

40 s to 1.5 ms

Infrared LED

1 ns to 1 s

2 ns to 1 s

Red LED

120 ns to 300 ns

50 ns to 300 ns

Green LED

450 ns

200 ns

- 19 -

A CTIVITY VIII: FIBER O PTIC TRANSMITTERS

Table 8.1 Measured data taken
from the circuit shown in Figure
8.3 .
Measurement

Data

V ce (LED on)

158 mV

V LED

1.96 V

V ce (LED off)

5 V*

Rise time

240 ns

Fall time

50 ns

Period 3 dB

670 ns

* Voltage at the collector of this transistor

should theoretically be 5 volts. In reality, when
a multimeter is installed to read this voltage, a
small amount of current flows through the
LED. The current is not enough that the LED
produces light, but it does cause a small voltage
drop. Therefore, measurements between 3.5
and 5 volts will be typical for this entry.

Table 8.2 Measured data on the LED

drive circuit shown in Figure 8.4.
Measurement

Data

V ce

219 mV

Vf

1.97 V

Rise time

120 ns

Fall time

100 ns

Period 3 dB

500 ns

Table 8.3 Measured data for the highspeed LED drive circuit shown in Figure
8.5 .
Measurement

Data

V c (LED on)

3.36 V

V c (LED off)

1.56 V

Rise time

20 ns*

Fall time

4 ns*

Period 3dB

50 ns*

* 40 MHz oscilloscope may not be able to

measure these fast transition times, but that is
revealed as the circuit capability when using a
350 MHz oscilloscope as a measuring
instrument.

- 20 -

Table 8.4 Measured data for the analog

LED drive circuit shown in Figure 8.6.
Measurement

Data

Ic

7.9 mA

V c (.5-volt input)

3 V p-p

V c (distorted)

7.8 Vp-p

V i (distorted)

1.4 Vp-p

Period 3 dB

128 ns

Analysis & Questions

Does the measured voltage across the collector of 2N3904 transistor in Figure 8.3 for the LED "on"
and "off" compare favorably to what you expected? Why or why not?
Yes. When the transistor is in saturation, V ce should be very close to the .2 volts that
most textbooks use. The collector voltage with the LED "off" does not measure +5 volts
because the multimeter draws a small current through the LED, causing a voltage drop.
With the LED "on" in Figure 8.3 calculate the "on" current using the measured data in this activity
for Vce (sat) and V f.
5 1.96 .158
150
Ic = 19 mA
Ic =

Using the measured rise time from Table 8.1 , calculate the 3 dB bandwidth for the circuit shown in
Figure 8.3.
.35
240 10 9
= 1.45 MHz

f3dB =
f3dB

How does the calculated bandwidth compare to the measured bandwidth?

The measured bandwidth can be calculated from the following equation. (It is assumed
that students will have knowledge of this general equation from their electronics
experience.)
1
670 ns
= 1.49 MHz

MEASURED f3dB =

- 21 -

The calculated 3 dB bandwidth from the rise time was determined to be 1.45 MHz and
measure was 1.49 MHz. It would not be uncommon for the students' measured 3 dB
bandwidth and calculated bandwidth from risetime to be 10% apart from each other.
Calculate the average current used by the LED driver in Figure 8.3, assuming it is being driven at a
50 percent duty cycle.

Iavg = I PEAK Duty cycle + I MIN (1 Duty cycle)

Iavg = 19.2 mA .5 + 0 .5
Iavg = 9.6 mA
Using the measured value for Vf , calculate the current through the LED in Figure 8.4.

5 1.97
150
Ic = 20.2 mA
Ic =

Calculate the current through 2N3904 in Figure 8.4 when it is on and the LED is off.
5 .219
150
Ic = 31.9 mA
Ic =

What is the average current though the circuit shown in Figure 8.4, assuming that it is being driven
at a 50 % duty cycle?
31.9 mA + 20.2 mA
2
= 26.1 mA

Iavg =
Iavg

Comparing the peak current and average current for the circuits in Figures 8.3 and 8.4 , which
would cause the greatest power supply ripple? By how much?
To compare power supply ripple we shall use the ratio of the peak current divided by
the average current. Shown below is the ripple factor for the circuits in Figure 8.3 and 8.4 .
rfFigure

8.3

19 mA
9.6 mA
=2
=

rfFigure

8.4

31.9 mA
25.6 mA

= 1.25

The circuit in Figure 8.3 has a much higher power supply ripple, as can be seen by the
equation which shows the Ipeak to Iaverage ratio to be 2, as compared to the same ratio for
Figure 8.4, which is 1.25.

- 22 -

What is the difference between the circuits in Figure 8.3 and 8.4 ? (HINT: Consider inverted and
non-inverted functions.)
In Figure 8.3, the LED operation follows the drive signal state, i.e., driver signal high =
LED on; drive signal low = LED off. In Figure 8.4 the LED operation is inverted from the drive
signal state. Also, the circuit of Figure 8.3 draws supply current only when the drive signal is
high. The circuit of Figure 8.4 always draws current, either through the LED or transistor.
Assuming hfe is 100 for the PN2222, calculate the DC LED current drawn for the circuit shown in
Figure 8.6 with no input signal.

Ic =

( 560

10 V ) .7 V

560
+ 4700
( 560 4700 )

47 +

( 560 + 4700 )

100

= 7.0 mA
What is the maximum linear voltage swing of the circuit shown in Figure 8.6? (HINT: Determine
the answer from empirical data.)
The value of the output voltage just below where signal distortion occurs, or slightly
less than 7.8 volts peak-to-peak.
What is the 3 dB bandwidth of the circuit shown in Figure 8.6?
Measured f3dB =

1
Period3dB

1
128 ns
= 7.81 MHz
=

HOMEWORK PROJECT
+ 8 volts

.1 f

Pulse
Gen.

1, 3, 5, 9, 11, 13

56

As is typical with
design problems there is
often more than one
solution. Here is one
possible solution, shown
with different transistor part
numbers suitable for this
circuit.

14
MC14069
7

2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12

470

2N700
VN10LM
VN2222L
VN0610L

1025

- 23 -

ACTIVITY IX: RECEIVER AMPLIFIER DESIGN

Table 9.1 Measured data for various termination resistors, Rx, in
the circuit shown in Figure 9.2.
Rx

Vp-p

tr

tf

100 k

5.0 V

5.4 s

7.0 s

47 k

3.2 V

4.5 s

3.6 s

10 k

0.69 V

1.8 s

1.3 s

10 k ||.001 f

0.65 V

23 s

21 s

Table 9.2 Measured data for various termination resistors, Rf , in

the circuit shown in Figure 9.4.
Rf

Vp-p

tr

tf

100 k

4.5 V

7.2 s

7.4 s

47 k

3.1 V

4.2 s

5.0 s

10 k

0.66 V

1.6 s

1.1 s

10 k ||.001 f

0.66 V

1.5 s

1.1 s

Table 9.3 Measured data for various termination resistors, Rf , in

the circuit shown in Figure 9.5.
Rf

Vp-p

tr

tf

100 k

2.5 V

1.6 s

1.1 s

47 k

1.9 V

1.3 s

1.5 s

10 k

0.6 V

1.0 s

1.2 s

10 k ||.001 f

0.6 V

1.0 s

1.2 s

- 24 -

Table 9.4 Measured data for various termination points in the

circuit shown in Figure 9.6 (a).
Vp-p

tr

tf

V emitter

4.8 V

4.0 s

7.0 s

V 4069

5.0 V

0.5 s

0.4 s

Location

Table 9.5 Measured data for various termination resistors, Rf , in

the circuit shown in Figure 9.6 (a).
Resistance

Value

Phototransistor

213

Photodarlington

22

Analysis & Questions

What happens to the rise and fall times at the receiver as the resistor value is reduced in Figure 9.2?
What happens to the peak-to-peak voltage?
The rise and fall times decrease as the resistor value is reduced, which increases the
bandwidth. The peak-to-peak voltage, however, is also lowered.
What happens to the rise and fall times across the termination resistor (R X) when capacitance is
added in the circuit shown in Figure 9.2?
The rise and fall times increase when capacitance is added, decreasing the bandwidth.
What are the advantages and disadvantages of the receiver circuit shown in Figure 9.4 compared to
the circuit shown in Figure 9.2?
The circuit in Figure 9.4 reduces the effect of load resistance and capacitance on the
voltage developed across the transimpedance resistor Rf . As a result, the gain and bandwidth
are significantly improved over the circuit in Figure 9.2. A disadvantage of Figure 9.4 is added
complexity in the circuit and power supply.
How does the addition of load capacitance affect the rise and fall times in the circuit shown in Figure
9.4 as compared to Figure 9.2? Why?
Load capacitance has less effect on Figure 9.4 because the amplifier has a lower output
impedance which isolates R f from the load. This permits the load capacitance to be charged
and discharged more quickly, increasing the bandwidth.
- 25 -

Calculate the bandwidth of the receiver shown in Figure 9.4 with the 10 k gain resistor installed
using the equation:
.35
1.6 10 6
= 219 kHz

f3dB =

Calculate the bandwidth of the bipolar transistor receiver in Figure 9.5 using the 10 k feedback
resistor installed.
.35
1.0 10 6
= 350 kHz

f3dB =

How much more gain does the photodarlington have than the phototransistor in the circuit in Figure
9.6 (a) ? (Hint: Use the ratio of the resistors that were in parallel with the 390 resistor which remove
periodic signal at the output of 4069.)
With a given optical input, the photodarlington requires a smaller load resistance than
the phototransistor to develop the same output voltage. The relative gain can be found by
determining the ratio of the resistors that results in the same signal level for each device:

GRe l . =

Rl ( phototransistor )
Rl ( photodarlington )

213
22
= 9.7
=

The photodarlington in this activity had a gain 9.7 times greater than the
phototransistor.

HOMEWORK PROJECT
Students' written paragraphs must be interpreted by the instructor. A quick overview
of many fiber optic companies is found in the Photonics Corporate Guide, Volume I and the
Fiberoptic Product News Technology Reference. You may find it useful to purchase these
publications. To order, see page 53 of the main manual for more information.

- 26 -

IF-LM-A